Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe : A European and International Orientation in Schools Policies, Theories and Research [1 ed.] 9781617354861, 9781617354847

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Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe A European and International Orientation in Schools: Policies, Theories, and Research

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Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe A European and International Orientation in Schools: Policies, Theories, and Research

Edited by

Henk Oonk Ralf Maslowski Greetje van der Werf In cooperation with GION–Institute for Educational Research Faculty of Behavioural and Social Sciences, University of Groningen, The Netherlands

INFORMATION AGE PUBLISHING, INC. Charlotte, NC • www.infoagepub.com

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Internationalisation in secondary education in Europe : a European and international orientation in schools, policies, theories, and research / edited by Henk Oonk, Ralf Maslowski, Greetje van der Werf.    p. cm.   “In cooperation with GION, Institute for Educational Research, Faculty of Behavioural and Social Sciences, University of Groningen, the Netherlands.” Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-61735-484-7 (pbk.) -- ISBN 978-1-61735-485-4 (hardcover) -ISBN 978-1-61735-486-1 (e-book) 1. Education, Secondary--Curricula--European Union countries--Cross-cultural studies. 2. Education and globalization--European Union countries--Cross-cultural studies. 3. Educational change--European Union countries--Cross-cultural studies. 4. European cooperation--Cross-cultural studies. I. Oonk, Gerrit Hendrik, 1941- II. Maslowski, Ralf. III. Roth-van der Werf, G. J. M. IV. Gronings Instituut voor Onderzoek van Onderwijs, Opvoeding en Ontwikkeling. LB1629.5.E9I58 2011 378.91242’2--dc23                               2011020335

Copyright © 2011 Information Age Publishing Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America

Contents Acknowledgments................................................................................. ix Preface.................................................................................................... xi

1 Internationalisation in Secondary Education: An Introduction........ 1 Henk Oonk and Ralf Maslowski

Pa rt A Internationalisation policy  19 2 European Union Policy........................................................................ 21 Henk Oonk 3 The Case of England: Internationalisation Policy in England (with Additional Notes for Wales and Scotland)............................... 33 Ray Kirtley 4 The Case of France.............................................................................. 47 Yves Olivier 5 The Case of Germany: Internationalisation and Foreign Language Teaching in North Rhine-Westphalia............................... 65 Michael Rogge 6 The Case of Lithuania......................................................................... 81 Brigita Janiunaite 7 The Case of the Netherlands............................................................... 97 Henk Oonk 8 The Case of Poland: Policies of Internationalisation in Polish Education at the Turn of the 20th and 21st Centuries.................... 109 Grażyna Czetwertyńska

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9 Internationalisation Policies: A European Network........................ 123 Kirsten Stamm 10 Internationalisation Policies in Europe: An Analysis...................... 137 Henk Oonk, Ralf Maslowski and Greetje van der Werf

Pa rt B Theoretical Aspects  161 11 Common European Values................................................................ 163 Jacek Hołówka 12 Theoretical Aspects of European and International Orientation......................................................................................... 189 Henk Oonk 13 The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages and the Common Framework for Europe Competence.................. 213 Frank Heyworth 14 Teaching and Learning in Schools in Europe................................. 227 Greetje van der Werf 15 Assessment of EIO.............................................................................. 245 Grażyna Czetwertyńska 16 The Theoretical Basis of a European and International Orientation in Education: Conclusions and Recommendations.... 257 Greetje van der Werf and Henk Oonk

Pa rt C Results of Research  269 17 Implementation and Effects of European and International Orientation at secondary schools in The Netherlands.................... 271 Ralf Maslowski, Harm Naayer, Henk Oonk, and Greetje van der Werf 18 Elos Development and Integration in a Network of United Kingdom (UK) Schools..................................................................... 295 Mary Rose

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19 European Political Consciousness in German Schools: A Framework for Qualitative Research............................................. 307 Markus W. Behne and Dirk Lange 20 Implementation of the European Dimension in Education in Lithuanian Schools........................................................................ 321 Brigita Janiunaite 21 European and International Education in Polish Schools: Examples from the Research on the Social Campaign “School with Class”............................................................................. 337 Grażyna Czetwertyńska 22 Opportunities for Successful Educational Policy............................. 355 Jaap Dronkers 23 Implementation and Effects of EIO Across Countries: Current Knowledge Base and Directions for Future Research..................... 369 Ralf Maslowski, Greetje van der Werf, and Henk Oonk 24 Concluding Observations.................................................................. 391 Henk Oonk, Ralf Maslowski, and Greetje van der Werf About the Contributors...................................................................... 403

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Acknowledgments Some acknowledgments are in place. First, we are grateful to the many schools in the member states, which were prepared to share their experiences with partner schools and co-ordinating institutions. We thank the coauthors for their time and energy in describing and analysing the policies, conducting research, and contributing to the theoretical building blocks. In addition, this publication would not have been possible without the financial and practical support of the European Platform for Dutch Education, the European Commission, and the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science. We are very grateful for their contributions. Finally, we want to thank the Groningen Institute for Educational Research (GION), not only for its support in the academic field but also for its broad assistence in many other areas: Sonja Abels for the lay-out of the manuscript, Conny Lenderink for checking and completing the references, Jessica Bakker for the English translation of several chapters, Geraldine Zieleman for the public relations. Finally, we would like to thank Mary Rose of the International Learning and Research Centre (ILRC) in the UK for the English correction of the whole manuscript. Henk Oonk Ralf Maslowski Greetje van der Werf Editors

Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, page ix Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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Preface The growing co-operation in Europe over the past sixty years has inspired many schools to develop a European and international orientation within their national educational practice. In this process, schools are stimulated and supported by programmes of the European Union and the member states. In this way, a multi-coloured palette of initiatives and activities has developed which are executed with a great deal of enthusiasm by both pupils and teachers. The relation between Europe and education evokes a considerable number of questions concerning content on the one hand—which aspects of Europe and European co-operation should be given a place in education, and questions of a pedagogic/theoretical nature on the other hand—how are these aspects treated within the school. These questions, concerning both “the subjects to be taught” and “how they should be taught,” are central in this publication. In this work authors from different European countries give an outline of how internationalisation in general and the European and international orientation in particular have evolved in secondary education in their countries during the past two decades. Attention is paid to the way in which schools are trying to give shape to the European dimension, the success of these activities, but also to the obstacles with which they are confronted. The different aspects and dilemmas surrounding the policy, theory, and the consequent effects are illustrated and analysed. Although this publication is focussed on the broad field of internationalisation in secondary education, the European developments and their consequences for education form the red thread of this compilation of essays. Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages xi–xii Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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Since the scholars selected for this book come from a broad variety of fields, the topic of internationalisation is dealt with from many different perspectives and disciplines. The authors are from both large and small as well as from ‘old’ and new member states. This diversity and the specifically national approach to the implementation of Europe in education, as adopted by each of the countries, gives a clear impression of the differences and similarities among them. Subsequently, this book explores a number of pathways for achieving a common framework for European and international orientation on schools. The collection of contributions to this book is an attempt to illustrate the state-of-the-art of internationalisation in a number of European countries. It could serve as a point of departure for the way in which the European and international orientation of the curriculum could be given shape in the near future. In this way, the book is an instrument to be used by policy makers in determining their directions, by school boards and teachers whose ultimate task it is to give shape to the European and international orientation in practice, by school supervisors and education theorists who support these processes through giving advice and conducting research, and by students who in view of their future activities are interested in the developments focussed on Europe and schools. Henk Oonk Ralf Maslowski Greetje van der Werf Editors

Chapter 1

Internationalisation in Secondary Education An Introduction Henk Oonk and Ralf Maslowski

Since the beginning of European integration in the second half of the last century, the influence of this remarkable event in the history of our continent has become visible in a large number of areas. Almost on a daily basis, countries, companies, institutions, and citizens are confronted with the consequences of European co-operation, or are involved in discussions about the Union’s further developments. Some claim that the founder of European integration, Jean Monnet, had in retrospect wished that he had started this process with education rather than with coal and steel. This is, of course, a misconception because Monnet—as a realist—understood quite well that the only way to end the disagreements within Europe, which had lasted for centuries, was to create a tight economic basis from which further steps would be taken, rather than the reverse. Naturally, these sequential steps in European development have remained a subject of debate, causing controversies that are closely related to the predominant characteristic of Europe—namely, its variety of cultures Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 1–18 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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and the related languages. In his foreword of Europe: History of its Inhabitants by the French historian Duroselle, which was published in 1990 in eight languages, Von der Dunk typifies this phenomenon as follows: For here lies the core problem: that which has made Europe what it is, has simultaneously led to the denial of its unity, namely its multiplicity, its colourful variety and contradictions. There are no European Europeans. There are only Dutch, French, German, and Italian Europeans. As for all the consensus about the final destination of the journey, its travellers are all very diversely equipped. Yes, this collective journey specifically brings out the variety of colours and designs of the national costumes. (Duroselle, 1990, pp. 10–11)

In view of this European diversity, it is understandable that the member states only succeeded in reaching agreement about the formulations concerning Europe and education in the Maastricht Treaty in the early 1990s (Treaty on European Union, 1992, article 149), 40 years after the Schuman Declaration of May 9, 1950. Although in the second half of the 1980s programs were already introduced to stimulate vocational education and the exchange of students (Erasmus) and to reinforce foreign languages (Lingua), it was education article 149 that made it possible to reach other educational sectors as well; among these was secondary education through the Socrates program. Since 2007, these programs have become part of the designated Lifelong Learning Program. Since the early 1990s, the EU has developed a wide range of activities in the field of education together with the member states. Tens of thousands of pupils and teachers have been introduced to one another in all kinds of partnerships and projects, while the teaching of foreign languages has been given a strong impetus. In addition, a considerable number of students in the member states have made a motivated choice with regard to a European and internationally oriented education program. In spite of these positive developments and the fact that in several countries initiatives have been taken to give the European dimension a place in society, many schools and supporting institutions are still struggling with the implementation of the theme “European and International Orientation” (abbr.: EIO). The aim of this study is to contribute to the implementation of EIO in order to promote the improvement of students’ Europe competences. The central challenge identified for this study is the following: What should be the content of a European and International Orientation in secondary education in Europe, and what are the implications for curriculum design? The most important research questions ensuing from this identified challenge are:

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A. What are the characteristics of internationalisation policy at national and European levels, and which educational concepts have developed as a result? B. Which knowledge elements, skills, and views with respect to the European integration process and other international developments should be given a place in the curriculum? In which way could the Europe competence concept be given shape by integrating the European and International Orientation and the acquisition of foreign language skills into a Framework? C. Which instruction forms are suitable for introducing the European and International Orientation into teaching practices, and which forms of evaluation are useful? D. What is the meaning and what are the effects of internationalisation within schools for secondary education in Europe? In the following paragraphs, we will touch upon a number of aspects of these research questions. After that, the different chapters will provide a detailed elaboration of the various elements of the challenge identified and the related research questions. sOME CONCEPTS Some frequently used concepts are explained briefly below. Education In, About, and For Europe The attention paid to Europe by education can give rise to confusion, and therefore it is wise to make a distinction between the focal areas “Education in Europe,” “Education about Europe,” and “Education for Europe.” “Education in Europe” belongs to the comparative science of education, a field which has existed for a long time. When referring to “Education about Europe,” a comparison can be made with what in this publication we call “EIO”: the European and International Orientation of schools and subject contents. “Education for Europe” can in an extreme sense be considered as propaganda, which is by no means the intention of EIO. Nevertheless, it has to be acknowledged that many views hold aspects of all three areas, which means that these concepts cannot be clearly separated. One author may believe he/she is referring to “Education about Europe,” while another may use the term “Education for Europe.”

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Internationalisation The notion of internationalisation is a combination of the words “inter” and “nations.” It thereby relates to the cooperation between countries in many areas, in which the countries’ individual economic, social, and cultural systems are maintained. In the framework of this publication, we have concentrated on education, especially secondary education, knowing that higher education has a longer history in this respect, and that also in the vocational sector a considerable number of activities are being developed. Internationalisation is a bulk concept: It is important to distinguish, however, whether we are speaking of the international aspects of an educational sector—secondary education—or those of a history course, or of the international developments of a Ministry of Education. In order to distinguish between the various elements, this study discusses an internationalisation model that pays attention to aspects such as European and international developments, internationalisation policies at different levels (ministry, region, etc.), implementation within the school, short- and long-term effects, evaluation, and research. As stated in part A, the countries in Europe use the term “internationalisation” in their policy documents. This term indicates that they themselves are responsible for education, in addition to participation in the framework of the educational co-operation within the EU. Sometimes the term globalisation is used; this notion has strong economic and financial connotations. According to Standaert, the term “globalisation” appears for the first time in the Webster’s Dictionary in 1961, and has been considered as the early recognition of the worldwide relations between events and conditions (Standaert, 2008). The opinions about the impact of globalisation are strongly divided; in any case, currently countries, companies, and citizens perceive the so-called credit crisis as one of the gravest consequences of this phenomenon. European and International Orientation—EIO Within the wider concept of “internationalisation,” the EIO element forms an important part; it is the translation of policy into practice. With respect to the content part of this concept, a balance has been sought between the focus on Europe and the world, on the one hand, and between knowledge and activities (skills), on the other. The methodical part has been elaborated in the form of the EIO curriculum scheme, which has a clear connection with the regular curriculum. EIO is defined as European and international orientation of all educational activities intended to provide specific knowledge, understanding,

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and skills in the field of European and international developments. Covering EIO can also be seen as a contribution to European citizenship. In other words, if they are to function properly as citizens within the European Union, pupils should be knowledgeable about the process of European unification, the institutions, and the activities. Characteristics of the Internationalisation Policy and Some Educational Concepts When analyzing the policies of different countries, one can first ask oneself which objectives are pursued and which methods are used to realize them. Other questions coming to mind are: Are there differences between the internationalisation policies of large and small member states and between those of old and new member states? What is the relationship between the focus on European developments, on the one hand, and on other international developments, on the other hand? Are these policies supported through financial means for schools and by intermediary institutions which help schools with the conceptual ideas and their execution? To what extent is the European Union’s internationalisation policy visible in national policies? Are there important developments in the European educational landscape that provide us with insight into the interests and motivations of parents, pupils, and schools in aspects of the European and international orientation (EIO) in our present time, and which offer points of departure for the policies? First, we will concentrate on Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), an educational concept that has been successful in almost all European countries. Following this, we will continue with some observations about the International Baccalaureate, and we will end this chapter by listing a number of other alternatives. Educational Concept: Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) CLIL education had gained considerable momentum and has attracted a growing number of pupils. CLIL can be defined as a dual-focused educational approach in which an additional language is used for the learning and teaching of both context and language (Marsh, Maljers, & Wolff, 2006). The strong demand for this type of education is indicative of the European views of citizens, which is why it is interesting to investigate the situations in a number of small and large countries; to this end, Windows on CLIL (Maljers, Marsh, & Wolf, 2007) has been used, which provides a

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collection of descriptions of countries. Although in the 1950s CLIL initiatives emerged occasionally, the growth of this concept started in the late 1980s and early 1990s, partly as a consequence of the start of the EU Educational program Socrates. The presence of international schools, which could prepare pupils with a foreign background for the International Baccalaureate, encouraged several countries to also offer regular “national” pupils forms of CLIL. The idea to make the fruitful elements of this type of “élite” education available to more children has certainly played a role in CLIL’s introduction. The CLIL approach differs from country to country. In some cases it contains only a few lessons; in other situations a complete program is offered in the English language. The primary objective is the pupil’s improvement of the intended foreign language, but subsequently the combination with internationalisation is also clearly relevant, as well as strengthening the European dimension and carrying out EIO-activities. This is an obvious connection, in this way the target language can be used in the target country, while the pupils can also follow the EU-education programs and the European-oriented national programs. The English language is by far the favourite, ranging from extremes in The Netherlands (99%) to a broader offer of languages in Germany/Nordrhein-Westfalen (large majority English, but also French, Italian, Greek, and Dutch) and in France (German). CLIL-education is particularly popular in the higher segment of secondary education, but also seems attractive in some segments of vocational education. There are hardly any comparable statistical data available, but based on occasional country figures it could be assumed that CLIL is offered in an average 10% of secondary schools. In 1989 the Dutch sociologist, Ultee, formulated the hypothesis that economic unity in Europe will lead to larger social distances and a permanent cultural diversity (Ultee, 1989). First, a group of officials will emerge at the European level, positioned above the layer of national officials, and second, the business sector will witness the development of a new upper stratum which fulfils the higher functions within the European enterprises. So what does this mean for education? Parents, pupils, and schools have responded to these developments, recognizing the growing importance of the English language for an international career or university study abroad. In the early 1990s, the sociologist Dronkers predicted the growth of education in the English language in The Netherlands against the background of Ultee’s hypothesis: “We are concerned here with a new differentiation within the top social stratum of the Netherlands: it is not the class of the parents, but the degree of cosmopolitanism which is the decisive factor in choosing English-language education” (Dronkers, 1993, p. 298). Weenink (2005) concludes in his PhD thesis research that parents choose between the classic-oriented grammar school,

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on the one hand, and bilingual (CLIL) education, which is aimed at the English language and internationalisation, on the other. Educational Concept: International Baccalaureate Many foreign parents working for international companies and institutions prefer to send their children to international schools, which in the EU area offer their curricula in the English language and prepare their pupils for the International Baccalaureate (IB). While in the case of CLIL, national pupils who receive bilingual language are central, the international schools focus on pupils of different nationalities who are jointly following an educational program. The International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma program is a two-year curriculum, primarily aimed at students aged 16 to 19. It leads to a qualification that is widely recognized by the world’s leading universities. The curriculum consists of six subject groups together with a core subject made up of three separate parts. These three core requirements are: extended essay, theory of knowledge and creativity, and action and service. There is both an internal and an external assessment. In addition, two more curricula are offered: a Middle Years Program for students from the age of 11 to 16, and a Primary Years Program for students aged 3–12 years. The International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO) has authorized some 1,300 schools in 110 countries. It is an independent institution, operating separately from national governments. Its headquarters is in Geneva. The international schools provided by the different EU member states are meant for pupils of parents who are internationally mobile; for example, in The Netherlands there are 10 international schools. Here, the pupil population is largely foreign; however, Dutch pupils whose parents will shortly move abroad or who have just returned are also admitted to these schools. Other countries use similar criteria. Educational Concept: European School To complete the European/international picture, there are a number of European schools in the EU primarily aimed at providing education to children of parents who work for an EU institution. In Luxembourg, the first European school was opened in October 1953. Until 2004, only children of EU officials or staff of directly related institutions could go to this type of school; since 2004, the admission policy has become more flexible. There are European schools in The Netherlands (Bergen), Belgium (Brussels I, II, III, and IV and Mol), Luxembourg (I and II), Germany

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(Frankfurt, Karlsruhe, and München), Italy (Varese), England (Culham), and Spain (Alicante). In 2007, more than 20,000 pupils attended the 14 European schools, while 98% of the 1,359 candidates who entered the European Baccalaureate passed in that year. The seven years of secondary education are organized as follows: during the first three years, pupils follow a common course, known as the observation cycle. Most subjects are taught in the mother tongue, although in the second year all pupils are required to start a second foreign language, and in the third year they begin to study history and geography in their “working language” (L2). Latin is offered as an option in the third year. In years 4 and 5, a compulsory course in integrated science is subdivided into physics, chemistry, and biology, and pupils can choose between the advanced or the regular course in mathematics. Other options include economics, a third foreign language, and ancient Greek. Years 6 and 7 form a block preparing pupils for the European Baccalaureate (www.eursc.eu). There are three European School types. Type 1 consists of schools which only admit children of EU officials; Type 2 also accommodates children of staff members of embassies and international companies, while Type 3 is a pilot to make the European school accessible to regular pupils. Characteristics of the curriculum of the European school include: a focus on individual identity, which is considered as the basis for development towards European citizenship; both foreign languages and a focus on the European cultural heritage are important. All these themes are approached differently by the IB. Some Other European Educational Concepts Next to the three educational concepts mentioned above, there are also other initiatives aimed at offering an educational form that interacts with the European developments. First, we can refer to the German-French Abi Bac. This alternative is prepared in the final two to three years of grammar school. At the German schools, the core emphasis lies on the French language with two business subjects and French as the main language. The French schools follow the same principle with German as the main language. A school that participates in this initiative always has a partner school in the other country. In the academic year of 2008–2009, 45 German grammar schools and 56 French Lycées offered the Abi Bac. In several German “Länder,” there are “Europaschulen” with the aim of transferring knowledge about Europe, teaching foreign languages, and stimulating intercultural competencies. Standards have been developed as the basis for a certificate. For example, schools in Nordrhein-Westfalen have to offer a solid range of foreign languages as well as bilingual education or modules, organize international projects and partnerships, teach

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European knowledge and skills, and be prepared to evaluate these activities regularly. Germany has several hundred Europaschulen. In The Netherlands, the Elos-concept was developed in 2004: Europe as a learning environment in schools; this concept has many similarities with the German Europaschulen-concept. Elos also focuses on knowledge, skills, and views regarding European integration and other international developments. Strengthening foreign language teaching and exchanges as well as partnerships form part of its core elements. There are approximately 200 Elos schools in 15 European countries. The CertiLingua Project has been an initiative led by the Ministers of Education of Nordrhein-Westfalen and The Netherlands. This started in the middle of 2005. Based on CertiLingua, the different European countries have created an additional European certificate for multilingualism and European and International Orientation (EIO). In order to obtain this label of excellence pupils have to: • master at least two foreign languages, at a minimum level of B2 of the CEF • have used at least one of these languages as a working language (in bilingual education or bilingual modules, in the last 2–3 years) • (regarding EIO) have attained level 4 of the Common Framework for Europe Competence. CertiLingual schools are located in The Netherlands, some German “Länder,” Austria, and Finland. Knowledge, Skills, and Views with Respect to the European and International Orientation The discussion about which knowledge elements should be learned and which skills stimulated form the core of the theoretical part of this publication. In addition, it deals with the question of how the Europe competence concept could be given shape by integrating the European and international orientation and the acquirement of foreign language skills into a Framework. Knowledge As regards European integration, the following factual aspects will not give rise to much discussion: the history of this process and the predominant activities of the Union and the EU institutions. However, the implications of these developments will certainly lead to different conclusions by

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the various social groups, both within the member states and among them. The perception we have of European integration is that it has symbolized a brand new start after the atrocities of the Second World War. In many publications, documents, debates, as well as educational material, this is the leading view. However, one can also ask oneself if European cooperation is perhaps a phase in a process through the centuries, going back as far as the Middle Ages or even to the Greek–Roman times. The choice between one of these two, or possibly even more, perspectives partly determines the way in which we look upon the current and future developments. If it is considered as a phase in a long process, more emphasis may be put on the fascinating developments in our long history. However, when looking at the European integration process itself, the question could be posed whether it would perhaps be more interesting to trace what actually goes on behind the treaties, decisions, and minister councils’ meetings and examine the impact on the daily lives of the Europeans in the member states. So, rather than focusing on guidelines and regulations, the emphasis should be on the consequences of the decisions for the European reality. Further, rather than reporting on treaties and decisions in a factual manner, it would be more interesting to pay attention to the often turbulent changes that are typified by large differences of opinion. For example, as was the case with the introduction of the Euro, European cooperation is not only a matter of peace and prosperity; it is also characterized by conflicts of interest, competition, and a diversity of political and social views. Skills and Views To enable the mutual communication among the citizens of 27 member states with 23 languages, the command of foreign languages is crucial. Do the policies in this field have to be aimed at promoting English as the lingua franca, or is a combination of foreign languages preferable? Dealing with different cultures requires intercultural skills: the ability to cooperate with pupils of foreign partner schools in a common project and to use ICT skills. In the context of intercultural skills, certain background issues also play a part with respect to the relationship between the national and the European identity and between the dominant national cultures and the minority subcultures with a migrant background. It is not the task of education to propagate certain views; attention should be paid, however, to concepts such as democracy, freedom and responsibility, (European) citizenship, and human rights. Views and attitudes are also associated with the question of common European values and norms: Is there a common framework of orientations reflecting a real cultural unity

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of Europe, or is the emphasis primarily on diversity at both the national and the regional level? In a debate about Europe, the Polish philosopher Pomian is quite firm in giving his contribution the following title: “The European Identity: A Historic Fact and a Political Problem” (Pomian, 2007). In his view, identity refers to “something which is not volatile, something which retains its distinguishing characteristics in spite of the passing of time . . .” (p. 49). So, there is a strong coherence between identity and the past. When looking at the differences between Europe and its neighbors, Pomian states, “We can certainly speak of a European identity which has been formed in the course of time, and which distinguishes Europe from the rest of the world” (p. 50). “Starting from who we are, the point of discussion is, however, what do we decide to save from our past and present? What are we prepared to give up, and what is so dear to us that on no account we will accept its loss?” (p. 53). Just as in the case of the earlier questions, pedagogical views play a role in dealing with this issue. How do we see the education provided by teachers and the resulting pupils’ learning in relation to questions of a European and international nature? What are the judgmental views and possibilities? Is it possible to translate a common framework into a curriculum scheme that—in the course of the years of learning—may result in a structured approach in line with the existing courses, either in an interdisciplinary form or as a separate subject? If one wants to portray a picture of the policies, the theoretical concepts, and the results of research as regards the European and international orientation in secondary education, one tries to do this from both a pedagogic and an educational perspective. Also in the case of EIO, theories on teaching and learning play an important role: A teacher who introduces pupils to important issues (Imelman, 1978), in the context of the European and international developments, provides fruitful starting points by using the EIO pedagogic concept. In addition to this concept, a discussion is required about the interpretation and execution of the so-called “competence-oriented” education. If the “competence” notion is interpreted too narrowly in the sense that only skills matter, that knowledge is not necessary, and that pupils have to create their own leaning environment, then a question is posed about whether less able pupils will benefit from this view, and whether it would not be better to support them through additional instruction and teaching them basic knowledge. This may, for that matter, also apply to more able pupils. Empirical research into methods that are most effective is not only necessary in the domain of internationalisation but generally also in the field of education.

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Framework for Europe Competence In an attempt to further elaborate the content elements of EIO, a group of educational scholars from different European countries has made a first draft of a Common Framework for Europe Competence (CFEC; see Maslowski, Naayer, Oonk, & Van der Werf, 2009). The first part of the framework contains EIO objectives for the six consecutive years of learning, with a focus on knowledge, skills, and attitudes, while the second part is a brief version of the already existing Common European Framework of References for Languages (Council of Europe, 2001). Europe competence is therefore considered as a combination of European and international orientation (EIO) and foreign languages. Central to this is the question how the European and international orientation, with the domains knowledge, skills, and attitudes, can be included in a framework in combination with the acquisition of foreign language skills? In practice, it has appeared that the implementation of EIO in the curriculum benefits from a detailed exposition in the form of an EIO curriculum scheme. Such a scheme combines all relevant courses in each year and tries to connect the EIO knowledge elements and EIO activities in a logical and attractive manner. If such an approach is adopted for each learning year, the whole curriculum is based on a well-structured EIO learning line, which is much more beneficial than the fragmented methods mostly used in the current day-to-day teaching practice. When experts on education from different countries make a common effort to develop a common framework for Europe competence, there is no guarantee that agreement will be reached on the content of EIO. Due to its political and social aspects, EIO may potentially cause more conflict than the elaboration of the common European framework for languages. However, consensus among experts does not mean that the teachers in the field will also give their approval and adopt the concept. It must also be considered whether one framework for all secondary education levels would suffice or whether variants should be developed for both lower and upper secondary education. Forms of Instruction and Evaluation with Respect to Internationalisation in Secondary Schools The internationalisation approach is partly based on the specific subjects for which its objectives have been formulated. To what degree the focus on Europe and internationalisation is actually reflected in the curricula differs among countries and has been subject to change in many of these

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countries in the past decades. As Haus (2009) observes, French schools nowadays pay significantly more attention to Europe and the EU in their history and geography subjects than they did in the 1980s. Moreover, the way in which Europe is addressed in the curricula has also changed. Today, the French curriculum increasingly portrays Europe as a continent with a common heritage and values rather than as a foreign area of nation states (Haus, 2009). This increased exposure to the European dimension by the French schools in their teaching of history and geography (and also in their civic education) started at the secondary school level in the mid- to late1990s and at the turn of the millennium. Since 2002, it has also clearly been noticeable at the primary school level. In other countries, as in the UK, Europe is hardly mentioned in the core objectives of subjects such as history, geography, and citizenship in the key stages I to IV. And even though the importance of Europe has notably increased in the attainment targets set for pupils, as in The Netherlands, it still depends on the way in which teachers translate these goals whether the European focus is actually realized. Often European and international issues remain rather underdeveloped in the curricula, since they are conceived as themes to be addressed in the schools’ extracurricular activities. Examples are exchanges with pupils from foreign countries. The general aim of such activities is to increase pupils’ understanding of other cultures and to teach them competencies in a foreign language, as well as to reflect on their own situation. Through these exchanges, pupils come into contact with their peers in other countries. In teaching the EIO subject material, many didactically attractive work forms can be used, such as exchanges and school partnerships. However, it remains uncertain whether these additional EIO activities actually lead to a better command of the subject material or whether they have an extra effect on the socio-emotional elements of the educational learning process. These are “learning activities,” which are difficult to steer. Often, in an effort to retain some form of control over the internationalisation activities, schools arrange host families for the pupils during the foreign exchange programs. Mostly, these families are selected by the partner school and are assumed to have a positive attitude towards the goals of the exchange. The intention is to create a learning environment in which the objectives pursued can be realised as much as possible. In order to increase further the chances of success, teachers often participate in the exchanges. From time to time, they can then bring the pupils together to let them reflect on what they have seen and experienced. Many of these extracurricular activities are based on the idea that pupils can individually construe the meaning of their experiences by distilling the relevant knowledge from them and developing suitable skills and attitudes. In this way, the learning process is, sometimes implicitly, largely considered

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as an active and self-steering way of learning. This approach, based on socio-constructive principles, starts from the view that “learning is not preorganized and pre-planned by an outsider or expert, nor is it depending on coincidental intrinsic motivations,” as Simons, Van der Linden, and Duffy (2000, p. 5) point out. At the same time, research has taught us that a more self-steering approach is especially suitable for the relatively more gifted pupils, often in the higher classes of secondary education. This raises the question of how these activities can be given shape in order to support the learning process in an optimum manner and, more fundamentally, whether in the case of internationalisation these “open” methods of teaching are actually the most suitable for this group of pupils. Even more important seems to be the question of how the other groups of pupils—those in the lower classes of secondary education and those who follow more vocationally oriented programs in secondary education—can be best facilitated. A significant part of the internationalisation pathway is not only aimed at obtaining knowledge but also at developing pupils’ skills and attitudes. The latter cannot be acquired so easily through the more structured forms of instruction. For many pupils, however, this approach nevertheless seems to be the most sensible one. A question associated with this issue is the way in which the internationalisation activities are being tested at school. With respect to the parts integrated within the curriculum, this question is generally not so difficult to answer. However, as indicated earlier, much of what is done in the framework of internationalisation takes place in the more informal learning environments—through projects with pupils from partner schools, via exchanges, or, for example, by visiting cultural institutions or events. In recent years, experience has been gained with forms of assessment based on process indicators that evaluate the execution of their tasks, or pupils’ progress during activities, where the results are judged by pupils themselves or by their peers. Examples are self-assessment, peer-assessment, or co-assessment, by which pupils assess their performances together with the teacher. Such forms of assessment often take place in the context of a concrete result, such as a paper about a project, a process report, or a portfolio of a pupil’s activities. However, neither the pupils nor the teachers have become sufficiently familiar yet with these forms of assessment, and—as a result—the actual value of these new assessment forms still remains unclear. This does not mean, however, that the internationalisation pathway does not require a form of testing, and that there is no need for the development of reliable and valid forms of assessment for this purpose.

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Meaning and Effects of EIO In order to make the introduction of internationalisation a success, it is important that the concept is meaningful to the teachers and pupils in the school (cf. Fullan & Stiegelbauer, 1991). To achieve this, various factors play a role. For teachers, internationalisation usually means an increase in their work load. It means that they have to become familiar with topics which previously they had no or only limited knowledge of. One can add to this task the actual time spent on organizing projects, maintaining contacts with schools abroad, or participating in exchanges themselves. Oonk (2004), however, has shown that teachers may also be given something in return. It can mean a welcome change in the routines which they have developed over the years. Further, contacts with teachers from abroad can be stimulating in terms of one’s perspective on the subject to be taught. Many teachers derive motivation and inspiration from the internationalisation activities in which they participate or co-operate. Further, the expected results of pupils’ performance appears to be an important source of inspiration for teachers. Oonk’s study (2004) reveals that schools, particularly, expect that pupils’ participation in international activities will lead to an increase in their knowledge of other European countries and respect for the language and culture of these countries and will discourage preconceptions, stimulate tolerance towards others, and improve pupils’ modern foreign language skills. The results of the internationalisation activities as perceived by the pupils are often mainly practical and tangible: better communication skills in a foreign language and knowledge about the city where they have stayed. Only to a lesser extent do pupils report on reflection upon their own situation or on a changed attitude towards other European peoples and cultures. In this respect, the question arises to what extent the intended results are actually achieved. Do pupils who participate in internationalisation activities indeed possess more knowledge of Europe and international institutions and treaties? Do they have, in comparison with their fellow pupils, better language skills? Has their attitude towards other cultures been changed by the activities in which they participate? Moreover, another contextual implication is that the different European countries all use different forms of internationalisation. To what degree does this have repercussions on the results in each of the countries? In this publication, these topics will be explored in more detail.

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Structure of the Study This study is divided into three parts. In Part A, attention is paid to internationalisation policies. Part B presents the analyses of the theoretical aspects, and part C concludes this publication with some research examples. Part A reports on the policies of the European Union and the Ministries of Education in the countries studied and the possible influence of other institutes on these policies. Next, an impression is given of current trends and discussions in the different countries. Finally, the similarities and differences of the internationalisation policies are outlined. Part B deals with the different theoretical aspects of the European and international orientation. Are there common European values, and is a broadly shared European attitude the golden mean between unreflective parochialism and abstract universalism? We will illustrate the content and methodological parts of the EIO concept as well as the common framework for European competence that has ensued from them. This is a first attempt to integrate the most important knowledge and skill elements of EIO in a common model. In EIO, foreign languages are a strong combination within the European schools, and we will touch upon the different aspects of the successful common European framework of reference for languages. After an overview of the different assessment possibilities of EIO in the form of an evaluation pyramid, we will refer to teaching and learning in general; the importance of a meaningful relationship between the teacher, the pupils, and the subject material; and the issue of the questionability of constructivism as an educational philosophy. How can we find ways to embed the cognitive elements of a new domain such as EIO in the learning environment in such a way that profound knowledge and skills are attained to prepare students to become citizens of the European society? Finally, in Part B, a number of conclusions and recommendations are presented. Part C concludes this collection of articles with an outline of the different results of the research studies conducted in the countries participating in 2008 and 2009, and a more general overview of the possibilities for a successful educational policy, especially aimed at decreasing inequality, a theme that is certainly relevant in the European context. In the final section, some critical remarks are made about three forms of internationalisation, namely European integration, globalisation, and the multicultural society. In addition, the necessity of a twin track policy is identified: a policy aimed at maintaining the European orientation as an option for pupils with an interest in Europe, on the one hand, and of increasing the focus on involving pupils with less intellectual capacities and interests in EIO activities, on the other hand.

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References Council of Europe. (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Available from http://culture2.coe.int/portfolio/documents. Dronkers, J. (1993). The causes of growth of English education in the Netherlands: Class or internationalisation? European Journal of Education, 28, 295–307. Duroselle, J. B. (1990). Europa. Geschiedenis van zijn bewoners [Europe. History of its inhabitants]. Utrecht, The Netherlands: Kosmos. Fullan, M., & Stiegelbauer, S. (1991). The new meaning of educational change (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Haus, L. (2009). Europeanisation, education, and school curricula: The role of historical legacies in explaining policy variation between England and France. Comparative Political Studies, 42, 916–944. Imelman, J. D.(1978). Plaats en inhoud van een personale pedagogiek [Place and content of a person oriented pedagogy]. Groningen, The Netherlands: WoltersNoordhoff. Maljers, A., Marsh, D., & Wolff, D. (Eds.). (2007). Windows on CLIL: Content and Language Integrated Learning in the European spotlight. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs. Marsh, D., Maljers, A., & Wolff, D. (2006). Consortium documentation. Unpublished manuscript. Maslowski, R., Naayer, H., Oonk, G. H., & Van der Werf, M. P. C. (2009). Effecten van internationalisering in het voortgezet onderwijs: Een analyse van de implementatie en effecten van een Europese en internationale oriëntatie [Effects of internationalisation in secondary education: An analysis of the implementation and effects of a European and international orientation]. Groningen, The Netherlands: GION. Oonk, G. H. (2004). European integration as a source of innovation in education: A study of the meaning of internationalisation and its results in secondary education in the Netherlands. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs. Pomian, K. ( 2007). De Europese identiteit: Een historisch feit en een politiek probleem [The European identity: A historic fact and a political problem]. In L. Ornstein & L. Breemer (Eds.), Paleis Europa. Grote denkers over Europa (pp. 29– 54). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: De Bezige Bij. Simons, R. J., Van der Linden, J., & Duffy, T. (2000). New learning: Three ways to learn in a new balance. In R. J. Simons, J. van der Linden, & T. Duffy (Eds.), New learning (pp. 1–20). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer. Standaert, R. (2008). Globalisering van het onderwijs in contexten [Globalisation of education in contexts]. Leuven, Belgium: Acco. Treaty on European Union, Official Journal C 191, 29 July 1992. Luxembourg, Luxembourg: Office for official publications of the European Communities. Ultee, W. C. (1989). Economische eenwording, groter wordende sociale afstanden, blijvende culturele verscheidenheid? Afwijkende antwoorden op nieuwe vragen over ongelijkheid en cohesie in de Europese Gemeenschap sinds 1957 en na 1992 [Economic integration, increasing social distances, remaining cultural diversity? Deviating

18   H. OONK and R. MASLOWSKI answers on new questions regarding inequality and cohesion in the European Community since 1957 and after 1992]. Inaugurational speech as Professor in Sociology, Catholic University of Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Weenink, D. (2005). Upper middle-class resources of power in the education arena, Dutch elite schools in an age of globalisation (Doctoral thesis). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: University of Amsterdam.

Part A Internationalisation policy

In this volume, we examine question A, formulated in the introduction, Chapter 1: A: What are the characteristics of internationalism policy at national and European levels and which educational concepts have developed as a result? It is expected that both policies, at the European and national levels, are effectively linked in the daily practice of schools where European and national programs are implemented together. Part A concludes with an analysis of the similarities and differences of the internationalisation policies in the different EU Member States.

Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, page 19 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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Chapter 2

European Union Policy Henk Oonk

Steering a Course Between European Communality and National Individuality EU education policy and the member states’ internationalisation policy can best be understood taking account of the following statement: “Being in the EU implies constantly having to steer a course between the need to preserve national identity on the one hand and the wish to reinforce European cooperation on the other. These two poles constantly attract and repel each other with respect to both politics and education” (Oonk, 2007, p. 114).1 Those who analyze European cooperation as it is evidence in the EU may be tempted to regard this desire for unity as a centralized affair. Anyone with knowledge of European history, however, knows that, although various initiatives for cooperation have been undertaken over the years, the European reality has primarily demonstrated the reverse in the form of disunity, war, and differences. In an attempt to identify possible starting points for notions of communality in the face of abundant diversity, Schulze and Paul (1994) compiled a source guide of texts by hundreds of European academics, priests, artists, and politicians, spanning 25 centuries of European history. The titles of the chapters alone clearly reflect the range of themes and discussions developed: myths, geography, hegemony and balance, plans and visions, Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 21–32 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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freedom and tyranny, humanism and progress, religion and knowledge, identity and otherness, Europe outside Europe, and unity despite diversity. Looking at the history of Europe, Schulze and Paul (1994) conclude: National identity is at the forefront of a European’s historic awareness. Just as one sometimes cannot see the wood for the trees, Europeans cannot see the continent for the nations. We therefore have to learn to view Europe in a manner that it can become a living reality. An awareness of communal heritage can help in this respect. The idea is to re‑read European history in order to trace the good and bad side—the opportunities and dangers—of European communality, so as to discover the key theme sustaining the identity of Europe over hundreds or even thousands of years. (p. 14)

This is a difficult undertaking, fraught with contradictions. It is better to give up the idea of a harmonious, clearly defined Europe. “Communal Europe can be found in its inner multiplicity and contradictions, in its fractures and discord” (p. 15). Historians are constantly reviewing European history, taking a fresh approach to and reassessing certain periods or events. For instance, in a recent publication, Zamoyski drew a link between the fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna (Zamoyski, 2007). In his introduction, he suggests that the Congress perhaps signalled the most defining period of modern European history. Its direct or indirect impact can be seen in everything that has occurred in Europe ever since, including militant nationalism, Bolshevism, fascism, two world wars, and ultimately the emergence of the European Union. For some readers, the link between the Congress of Vienna and the European Union represents a fresh perspective. Also, the cultural differences between the “old” Member States and the new Eastern European Member States, which acceded in 2004, clearly demonstrate that identifying this theme is tricky, to say the least. This tension, however, can also generate new perspectives and alter existing views. For example, Zeeman points out that the attitude of the citizens in the older member states with regard to the EU differs entirely from those of new member states: Euroscepticism is primarily a matter for Europeans who feel they are citizens of the EU. Anyone who does not belong can only look on with a feeling of longing. The image of the broken family once again rears its head. Within the expanded EU, those experiences are immediately compared with expectations, and the qualification and facetiousness with which the more established citizens of the EU regard the achievements of that organisation cannot, for the time being, be reconciled with the expectations of those that

European Union Policy    23 have watched it develop over the decades with admiration and envy. (Zeeman, 2004, p. 18)

This search for a shared Europe, with the retention of national identity, has also led to a renewed interest in the origins and meaning of the nation state. Frequent references are made to the 19th-century author Ernest Renan (1882/1994) who, in his book Qu’est-ce qu’une Nation?, sums up a number of characteristics. He writes that the nation is the result of a prolonged past full of effort, sacrifices, and dedication, as well as the will to keep making similar efforts in the future. Although it was believed at the end of the 20th century that the nation state would be swallowed up into a greater whole as a consequence of European integration, these days people tend to adopt the point of view that, although the nation state may have changed and have to continue to change even more, this construction remains, for many citizens, the most important basis for citizenship. The rejection of the draft of the treaty establishing a constitution for Europe in France and The Netherlands during the referenda in 2005 clearly showed that, although many citizens are not entirely negative about European integration, they are still concerned about the retention of national individuality and control. This concern is emphasized by the problems relating to the integration of citizens with Islamic backgrounds into society at national level. This process of Europeanisation and the conflicts relating to integration make citizens unsure and result in greater skepticism as regards the transfer of authorities to the EU. A major undertaking in the decades to come will be to link the patriotic feelings in the various member states and regions to the idea of European communality. In this context, it is essential to stress that the shift in power between member states and the EU is not a simple matter of addition and subtraction. In effect, processes are taking place simultaneously of power waning and increasing at both European and national level. Some authors even view European integration as a way of saving the nation state (Milward, 1992). At the heart of this view is the belief that essential national reforms have been achieved “through engaging with Europe” and that both the EU and the member states have been strengthened as a result. It is also important for us to realize that the nation state is a product of specific development and not a natural phenomenon. One could even call it a 19th-century invention. It is therefore also feasible that the EU can undergo such a development if there is sufficient support for this within the member states.

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The European Dimension in Decisions and Programs Against the background described in the previous section, it is understandable that, in addition to being beset by all manner of obstacles, the Europe– education relationship has many fascinating aspects. Since the start of European cooperation in the 1950s, repeated attempts have been made to focus attention on this phenomenon in education. After all, a wide range of reports by the European Commission, resolutions by the Council of Ministers and the European Parliament, documents at national and federal state level, and discussions and the practical experiences of schools formed the basis of Article 126 on education (later amended to Article 149) in the Maastricht Treaty (Treaty on European Union, 1992). This chapter outlines the relationships between the EU and the member states with regard to education: The member states continue to bear full responsibility for the content of education, the structure of the education system, and their cultural and linguistic diversity, which is also referred to as the principle of subsidiarity. The EU contributes to the development of high-quality education by encouraging cooperation between the member states and by supporting their activities as necessary. One of the activities referred to in Article 149(2) is relevant to the subject of this publication: “Community action shall be aimed at developing the European dimension in education, particularly through the teaching and dissemination of the languages of the Member States” (Treaty on European Union, 1992, p. 47). The fact that 20 years passed after the establishment of the European Economic Community (1957) before it was possible to lay down an initial resolution on education (Resolution, 1976), that 12 years passed after this before an initial resolution on the European dimension in education was published (Resolution, 1988), and that the first article on education was included in the Maastricht Treaty (Treaty on European Union, 1992), indicates how sensitive the issue of education was and still is in the context of the relationship between the European institutions and the member states. The 1976 Resolution identifies—as well as the six main themes, including education in foreign languages—the development of the European dimension as one of the many subthemes. The Resolution of 1988 focuses explicitly on all possible aspects of the European dimension, such as the promotion of European identity, its integration in the education systems and curricula subjects, the knowledge of the historical, cultural, economic, and social aspects of the Community and its Member States, exchanges, and study visits. Article 149 (Treaty on European Union, 1992) on education facilitated the establishment of the first European education programme in secondary education known as “Socrates” (Decision, 1995).2 The objectives of this

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European program include: (1) develop the European dimension in studies in order to consolidate the meaning of European citizenship based on the cultural heritage of the member states; (2) improve and expand the effectiveness of language education: (3) encourage the mobility of pupils, students, and teachers; and (4) enhance the exchange of information and experiences so that the diversity of the education systems in the member states can become a source of enrichment and mutual stimulation. In 2000, a decision was made to initiate the follow-up phase of the Socrates program (Decision, 2000). The objectives highlight slightly different aspects: promoting a knowledge-based Europe via the development of the European dimension in the field of education and training and supporting the development of knowledge, skills, and competences to stimulate active citizenship and employment prospects. Formal decision-making as regards the third phase of the EU education program was completed at the end of 2006 (Decision, 2006). This phase (i.e., Lifelong Learning Program, or LLP) was launched during the German presidency on May 6 and 7, 2007. In addition to the usual objectives of the Comenius program, such as knowledge and understanding of the diversity of the culture, languages, and active citizenship, a quantitative objective is also included for the first time: At least three million pupils have to be involved in the educational activities during the course of this program. A reference is also made to the importance of ICT, as well as to increasing the quality and European dimension of teacher training courses. During the launch of this education program in Berlin, the European Commissioner for Education, Jan Figel, emphasized the importance of the schools when it comes to the transfer of European values. During the same event in Berlin, experts from the “Von und mit Europe lernen“ Forum highlighted the importance of knowledge and competences. The “European dimension in education” objective, as applied in the documents discussed above, is developed in more detail using a summary of the following sub-objectives: focusing attention on foreign languages, instilling a sense of European citizenship, using cultural heritage of the member states, encouraging the mobility of pupils and teachers, exchanging information and experiences, and promoting active citizenship. This is a highly diverse collection of reasonable operational objectives (e.g., languages and mobility) and objectives that are more difficult to define (e.g., cultural heritage and active citizenship). In recent years, thousands of schools in the EU have benefited from numerous forms of cooperation. This will be continued in the new program as Comenius projects, addressing such aspects as pupil and teacher mobility, the establishment and maintenance of partnerships, multilateral projects, assistantships, and the development of content and teaching methods.

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Apart from the central activities about which the European Commission itself makes decisions, the EU education programs are implemented by what are referred to as national agencies.3 The tasks and names of these institutions differ according to each member state. In many cases, these institutes also work under the direction of the national government. The trick is to attune these remits as effectively as possible in the interest of the schools. More EU Influence on Education via the Lisbon Strategy Before the ink had even dried on the document containing the decision to extend the Socrates program, the European heads of government made a series of decisions in 2000 designed to boost the economy (see also Chapter 1, Introduction). Education was part and parcel of what is known as the Lisbon Strategy. The Ministers of Education began work and in 2001 submitted a report entitled “The concrete future objectives of education and training systems” to the European Council (Council of the European Union, 2001). In 2002, this report served as the basis for the publication of a work program with three key objectives and 13 sub‑objectives (Commission of the European Communities, 2002). In addition to the objectives referred to in the above section, the work program also refers to new ones such as: developing skills relevant in the knowledge society, optimizing use of ICT, encouraging science education, and highlighting active citizenship. Working groups were established for key competences and languages. Some time later, a working group presented a framework of eight key competences deemed necessary in the knowledge society: communication in the mother tongue, communication in a foreign language, mathematical literacy and basic competences in science and technology, digital literacy and ICT skills, learning-to-learn, interpersonal and civic competences, entrepreneurship, and cultural awareness (European Commission, 2004). In effect, the intergovernmental approach within the framework of the Lisbon Strategy increases the scope and the agreements on the comparison of performance in education between countries and will prove to be a major influence. Using “peer pressure,” the member states determined and assessed their policy objectives. The benchmarks offered the potential to measure progress and determine the relative achievement level of the member states. This was a surprising development in an area in which the individual educational responsibility of the member state is regarded as being of paramount importance. Standaert has commented critically on this approach, which, in his opinion, came about in a fairly undemocratic manner. In any

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event, it came about without consulting the education sector itself: “The education sector itself (i.e., teachers in classrooms) did not make any contribution; ministers and heads of state have been advised by unidentified experts” (Standaert, 2003, p. 124). It should be emphasized, however, that the education programs referred to above are the result of extensive consultation between the European institutions, the member states, and the agencies. Schools also contributed during certain phases. The definitive decisions relating to Socrates and the LLP action program in 2006 were rooted in what is known as “co-decision” (i.e., a joint decision by the European Parliament and the European Commission). Multilingual European Policy and Bilingual National Reality A reference has already been made to Article 149 of the Treaty on European Union (1992), which states that the European dimension will be developed particularly through the teaching and dissemination of the languages of the member states. It makes sense, therefore, that this is a recurring theme in all the documents. It is also striking that 23 official languages are spoken in a Union of 27 countries. Language is, of course, also a key aspect of national identity. However, the question is whether it is sensible to refer not only to the positive aspects of multilingualism, but also to the negative aspects (i.e., the difficulty of communicating with each other in 23 languages). The EU’s language website presents information on the EU’s language policy: Our policy of official multilingualism as a deliberate tool of government is unique in the world. The EU sees the use of its citizens’ languages as one of the factors which make it more transparent, more legitimate and more efficient. At the level of culture and of enhancing the quality of life, too, the EU works actively to promote the wider knowledge and use of all its official languages throughout the Union.4

While many things can be said of this policy, it cannot be termed “efficient.” This is a point that has already been picked up by others. Van Els (2000) believes that, although diversity should be defended, this also takes account of efficient institutional language communication. His proposal is to limit the number of working languages in the EU to three (in order of importance): English, French, and German. “As regards the non-natives whose languages are not used as working languages in these sorts of situations, a

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maximum of two working languages would be better than three. A single working language would actually be ideal” (p. 80). De Swaan (2001) also recognizes that the language debate revolves around the dilemma, on the one hand, to preserve the diversity of languages and to improve internal EU communication, on the other. His view is that the more languages there are, the more English will be used. In order to understand the language issue at European level, it is important to state that English and French are classic examples of languages that have managed to move beyond domestic competition and now compete at European level. Various research on the use of a foreign language as the official language of communication in various EU programs has clearly shown that English predominates. As stated in Key Data on Teaching Languages at School in Europe (Euridyce, 2005), “the teaching of English is constantly expanding and predominates almost everywhere; German and French [are] the second most taught language[s]. Over 60% of in service training courses funded by the European Socrates (Comenius) programme are given in English” (pp. 11–12). Independent research among Dutch schools reveals the same trend (Oonk, 2004): “English is spoken in host families during exchanges with Italy, Spain, Poland, Greece, Sweden and Denmark. However, it also appears that English rather than German is selected in this pupil population in German host families” (p. 239). Incidentally, learning two foreign languages, in addition to one’s native language, is also EU policy. However, monolingualism is usually applied in the practice of institutions based in Brussels. Interpreters are available at only a limited range of meetings, while in most work meetings interpreters are not present at all, and English is then used as the official language of communication. This ever-increasing use of English as the lingua franca can also be observed in various member states where, in addition to the native language, a growing section of the population has a command of English. In a few member states, there are small numbers of people who are able to read, speak, or understand a second or even a third foreign language in addition to English. It would be sensible of the EU to ensure that its foreign language policy focused not only on the fascinating aspects of multilingualism but also on the problems this phenomenon entails and to suggest solutions. More National Individuality than European Communality The objectives of the EU education programs referred to in the previous sections can be categorized in various ways. In light of the importance of

European Union Policy    29

introducing pupils to the fascinating but complicated European reality, we are primarily interested in the objectives designed to achieve that. A division into the categories of “diversity” and “communality” produces the following: Diversity: • cultural and linguistic diversity • teaching and dissemination of the languages of the member states • cultural heritage of the member states • mobility • exchange of information and experiences • diversity of the education systems as a source of enrichment • active citizenship Communality: • sense of European citizenship One should note that in the “communality” category, there is no mention of education on how to become a European citizen but rather, as stated in the LLP, “to reinforce the role of lifelong learning in creating a sense of European citizenship based on understanding and respect for human rights and democracy, and encouraging tolerance and respect for other peoples and cultures.”5 While it is clear that the EU education programs’ objectives imply considerable attention for diversity and scarcely any for communality, communality is, in effect, an inherent aspect of diversity. This is a logical consequence of the activities of member states that interpret their own educational responsibility in such a way that the search for common European values and common characteristics of European cultural heritage are deemed an intrusion, at least as part of an EU education program. The consequence would be that the internationalisation policy of the member states themselves should include this common aspect of the European dimension. The following chapters in this publication examine whether this is, in fact, the case. The question remains how pupils and teachers can be given a “sense of European citizenship” if the EU programs do not, in effect, pay any attention to this issue. This calls for a certain degree of optimism. We would like to propose the following hypothesis:A contribution to European citizenship is developed, as it were, from the bottom up by the school partnerships, exchanges, study visits, bilingual education and all kinds of other types of cooperation projects. These contacts will certainly lead to an increased awareness of the variety of regional and national cultures and customs, and one should not exclude the possibility of notions of communalities emerging.

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We could test this hypothesis using the outcomes of the empirical research in Part C of this publication. Council of Europe, Foreign Languages, and Citizenship While the EU is a mix of supranational and intergovernmental elements, the Council of Europe, which was established in 1949 and has its seat in Strasbourg, is a purely intergovernmental institution.6 At the start of the 1990s, the Council began development of a common European framework of reference for languages (CEFR). This CEFR is “a practical tool for setting clear standards to be attained at successive stages or learning and for evaluating outcomes in an internationally comparable manner.”7 This framework, which has six level descriptors, is applied in nearly every European country and can therefore be regarded a success (Council of Europe, 2001). A European Language Portfolio has also been developed that consists of a pupil’s language biography, a language passport in which the pupils can indicate their CEFR level, and a dossier of examples of their own work. The EU incorporated the Council of Europe’s framework of reference into its language policy. A focus on European citizenship, another theme of the Council of Europe, has been a key activity for many years. In 2002, the ministers adopted a recommendation relating to European Democratic Citizenship (EDC) (Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers, 2002). After that, an overview of EDC policy in Europe was published (Council of Europe, 2004). This type of document is, of course, heavily oriented towards policy. Empirical research into implementation in schools would offer information on the everyday educational reality. Here, too, the empirical research in Part C of the publication may provide additional clarity. In the next chapters about the internationalisation policies of the Member-States, it will be clearly evident how far the European policy is interwoven with the national policies. Notes 1. I am indebted to Kees Zwaga, former head of European Programs department of the European Platform in Alkmaar (NL), for his valuable comments regarding this article. 2. The “Lingua” program served to pave the way in secondary education; the Erasmus program for higher education started already in the second half of the 1980s.

European Union Policy    31 3. For a summary of the agencies in the 27 Member States and other participating countries, please refer to: http://ec.europa.eu/education/programmes/ llp/national_en.html 4. European languages portal (http://europa.eu/languages/en). 5. Article 3 I, LLP, 2006. 6. The aim of the Council of Europe is to promote democracy and human rights in Europe as a whole. All the countries of Europe are members of the Council, including Russia, Turkey, and the countries of the Caucasus. 7. www.coe.int/education

References Commission of the European Communities. (2002). Education and training in Europe: Various systems, shared goals for 2010. Luxembourg, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Council of Europe. (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Available from http://culture2.coe.int/portfolio/documents Council of Europe. (2004). All-European study on education for democratic citizenship. Strasbourg, France: Author. Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers. (2002). Recommendation to member states on education for democratic citizenship (Recommendation 12). Strasbourg, France: Author. Council of the European Union. (2001). Outcome of proceedings (Council Document No. 6365/02). Brussels, Belgium: Author. Decision (1995) no. 819/95/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 14 March 1995 establishing the “Socrates” community action programme. Brussels, Belgium: Official Journal of the European Communities: legislation, vol. 38 (1995), no. L87 (20-4-1995), pp. 10–24. Decision (2000) no. 253/2000/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 24 January 2000 establishing the second phase of the “Socrates” community action programme in the field of education. Brussels, Belgium: Official Journal of the European Communities: legislation, vol. 43 (2000), no. L28 (3-2-2000), pp. 1–15. Decision no. 1720/2006/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 November 2006 establishing an action programme in the field of lifelong learning. Brussels, Belgium: Official Journal of the European Union, L 327/45, 24-11-2006. De Swaan, A. (2001). Words of the world: The global language system. Cambridge, UK: Polity. European Commission. (2004). Implementation of “education and training 2010” work programme, working group “key competences.” Brussels, Belgium: Author. Eurydice. (2005). Key data on teaching languages at school in Europe (2005). Brussels, Belgium: Author. Milward, A. S. (1992). The European rescue of the nation-state. London, UK: Routledge.

32   H. OONK Oonk, G. H. (2004). European integration as a source of innovation in education: A study of the meaning of internationalisation and its results in secondary education in The Netherlands. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs. Oonk, G. H. (2007) Internationalisation in primary and secondary education, a theoretical exploration of policy, implementation, effects and research. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs. Renan, E. (1994). Qu’est-ce qu’une nation? [What is a nation?]. Leiden, The Netherlands: Academic Press. [Original work published 1882] Resolution (1976) by the Council and the Ministers of Education, within the framework of the Council meeting of 9 February 1976, comprising an action programme in the field of education. Brussels, Belgium: Official Journal of the European Communities, C, Notifications and announcements; Dutch edition, vol. 19 (1976), no. C38 (19-2-1976), pp.1–5. Resolution (1988) by the Council and the Ministers of Education, within the framework of the Council meeting of 24 May 1988. Brussels, Belgium: Official Journal of the European Communities, C, Notifications and announcements; Dutch edition, vol. 31 (1988), no. C.177 (6-7-1988), pp.5–7. Schulze, H., & Paul, I. U. (Eds.). (1994). Europäische Geschichte: Quellen und Materialien [European history: Sources and materials]. München, Germany: Bayerischer Schulbuch-Verlag. Standaert, R. (2003). Becoming the best: Educational ambitions for Europe. Enschede, The Netherlands: CIDREE/SLO. Treaty on European Union, Official Journal C 191, 29 July 1992. Luxembourg, Luxembourg: Office for official publications of the European Communities. Van Els, T. J. M. (2000). De Europese Unie, haar instituties en haar talen; enkele taalpolitieke beschouwingen [The European Union, her institutions and her languages; some language policy observations]. Nijmegen, The Netherlands: Catholic University Nijmegen. Zamoyski, A. (2007). Rites of peace. The fall of Napoleon & the Congress of Vienna. New York: Harper Press. Zeeman, M. (2004). The broken home. Discrepancies in cultural, democratic and historical stadia within the new Europe. In H. Pröpper (Ed.), Dromen van Europa. Hafid Bouazza, Bas Heijne en Michaël Zeeman over het nieuwe Europa (pp. 44–53). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Uitgeverij Bert Bakker.

Chapter 3

The Case of England Internationalisation Policy in England (with Additional Notes for Wales and Scotland) Ray Kirtley

Policy of the Department of Education from 1990 Introduction The period from 1990 to the present day has seen important changes to the education systems in the United Kingdom (UK) that need to be clarified before any discussion on international education can begin. These can be summarized as follows: Changes due to devolution: In 1990, the education systems of the four countries of the UK were linked to some degree, especially between England and Wales. By 2008, devolution had seen the development of separate systems in all four countries. This strengthened the existing distinctiveness of the systems in Scotland and Northern Ireland. A similar pattern emerged in Wales, culminating with the publication of a new curriculum in 2007.

Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 33–46 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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Political changes: The period in question represents the final seven years of the Conservative administration and ten years of Labour government. During this time, there were several changes in name for the responsible education department and a distinct change of emphasis as some of the policies for international education were shared with a newly created Department for International Development (DFID, 1997 onwards). Changes in the way schools are run: This period saw schools gain a greater degree of autonomy and have a looser relationship with their local education authority (from about 2005 simply known as Local Authorities or Children’s Services). At the same time, governments introduced a range of measures that centralized and standardized the curriculum, testing, and the system for the inspection of schools. For most of this period, school examination and test results have been published nationally in “league tables.” The early 1990s saw considerable activity at both central government and local authority levels. Much of this activity was related to the completion of the Single European Market in 1993 and therefore, unsurprisingly, the emphasis was on “European Awareness.” Local authorities were encouraged to develop a European strategy and policy, and this was supported by the publication by the Department for Education of a policy models document in 1993 (Department for Education, 1993). Many local authorities responded with locally focused policies of their own, which gave teachers access to ideas for incorporating European topics in the curriculum and to the resources that might make this possible. At this time, all local authorities employed an adviser for modern foreign languages, and this individual was frequently given the additional responsibility of promoting the European dimension. However, some authorities appointed a European Awareness Adviser to fulfill this role. Often, these were the authorities that had developed their own policies well ahead of the governmental initiative. Humberside Local Authority in the north of England, which was abolished by the government in 1996, had in fact developed a policy in 1990 and revised this in 1994 (Humberside County Council, 1994). It is important to appreciate the wider environment in which this was taking place: 1. The fax machine was seen as an innovative tool for school linking. 2. European mobility programs were very limited and restricted to higher education. 3. Very few schools had partnerships outside of the then European Community. However, local authorities in England and Wales did have access to a study visit program through central government funding. This gave a handful of teachers each year the opportunity to visit a partner school. Authori-

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ties were also able to apply, on a competitive basis, for development funding, and for many this supported the generation of their new European policy. These programs, although valuable at the time, brought opportunities for funded international work only to a limited number of schools. Putting the World Into World Class Education (2004) Putting the World Into World Class Education (Department for Education and Skills [DfES], 2004) was a high-profile policy document and action plan produced at the instigation of the Secretary of State, Charles Clarke, and represented an important milestone for international education in England. In his foreword to the document, Charles Clarke states: Our vision is that the people of the UK should have the knowledge, skills and understanding they need to fulfil themselves, to live in and contribute effectively to a global society and to work in a competitive global economy. To realise this vision, we need a world-class system of education, children’s services and skills development. (p. 1)

The foreword goes on to state: 1. Developing and maintaining a world-class system begins with understanding the world in which we live. 2. It also means knowing what constitutes world-class educational standards. 3. It means being a global partner. 4. And it means, in short, putting the world into the world-class education to which we aspire. The document is constructed around three goals. It is noteworthy that higher education is included within these goals alongside school education and also that all three carry the implication that international education is first and foremost an economic imperative rather than a means of broadening experience and increasing intercultural understanding. Goal 1: Equipping our children, young people, and adults for life in a global society and work in a global economy This goal relates to the global dimension using the widest definition of the term and is concerned with equipping young people with qualities that will enable them to function in an increasingly globalized society. It also highlights the need to transform our capability to speak and use other languages and to improve the mutual recognition of qualifications. Strategies towards achieving this goal include the promotion of the eight

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key concepts of global citizenship (see the later section on the Department for International Development), the development of the International School Award, and a range of measures around encouraging young people to find out more about living and working abroad. The goal also mentions the introduction of a foreign language to primary pupils (the National Languages Strategy) and the forthcoming integrated Lifelong Learning Program. Goal 2: Engaging with our international partners to achieve their goals and ours This goal is concerned with benchmarking performance standards against those achieved elsewhere in the world. It clarifies the term “worldclass education,” which is the hallmark of the whole document. The goal mentions the EU specifically in terms of global competitiveness (the “Lisbon goal”) but also includes the aspiration to share expertise and resources with poorer economies, particularly in Africa. Once again, the document points to a number of strategies that might help the UK to achieve this goal. These include references to a range of institutions and groups (the European Union, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the Commonwealth, the World Bank, and G8) that have a bearing on global competition. However, the goal also extends to the development of the portal and website, the Global Gateway, and most importantly states: “Engage in a programme of action between now and 2010 to enable every English school and college to establish a sustainable partnership with at least one equivalent institution in another country” (p. 15). Goal 3: Maximizing the contribution of our education and training sector and university research to overseas trade and inward investment This goal relates quite specifically to further and higher education and emphasizes the need for UK universities and colleges to become “international hubs for learning and research.” The accompanying strategies also focus on higher education and are therefore outside the scope of this chapter. The document also includes references to an International Education Week, which is now a well-established annual occasion, usually in November. In terms of those who support international education, Putting the World Into World Class Education (DfES, 2004) was an important milestone, which gave considerable credibility to their work in promoting school partnerships within the curriculum. It also gave ministerial recognition to the International School Award as a means of recognition and accreditation. This award has since been adopted by the other jurisdictions in the UK and also by pilot groups of schools in India and Sri Lanka.

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Action Plan 2007 Action Plan (DfES, 2007) presented an update and a new focus to Putting the World Into World Class Education (DfES, 2004). The document is introduced in the context of the Leitch Review of Skills, (DfES, 2006b). This was a report commissioned by the UK government and compiled by Lord Leitch, which analyzed the skills that would be needed in the UK to maximize economic growth and deal with global competition, especially from the emerging economies of China, India, and Brazil (Leitch Review of Skills, DfES, 2006b). The Action Plan moves on to consider the necessity for young people to see themselves as “confident global citizens” in a world changed not only by a new economic order but also by environmental factors such as climate change. This understanding may well be created by international school partnerships but also by young people becoming more aware of their fellow citizens, their backgrounds, and values. The issue of community cohesion has become increasingly important in the first few years of the new millennium as the UK admitted many new migrant workers. Most originated in the newly enlarged EU and, unlike earlier Commonwealth immigrants who often join established communities, many EU newcomers settled in parts of the UK unfamiliar with inward migration (see the following section on Community Cohesion). The Action Plan (DfES, 2007) makes several references to the UK’s engagement with other countries and within the EU. These are used to highlight the interest of other government departments in international and global education. For example, the document draws attention to the publication for schools, The World Classroom: Developing Global Partnerships in Education, which was published by HM Treasury in collaboration with DFID in 2006 (HM Treasury, 2006). This section also emphasizes the UK government commitment to partnerships with the developing world that aim to improve educational provision through aid budgets (GBP 8.5 billion up to 2016). In common with Putting the World Into World Class Education (DfES, 2004), universities also feature prominently in the Action Plan (DfES, 2007) as a model for international cooperation and for the international professional development of teaching staff. The remaining parts of the Action Plan (DfES, 2007) take the form of a review of the three goals looking at progress under each heading and featuring broad case studies from the Department for Education and Skills itself and a number of other bodies and institutions. There is only one case study from an individual institution (a college), although many can be found on the DfES Global Gateway website, which is itself one of the case studies (www.globalgateway.org). The case studies feature several of the supporting funding programs for school linking:

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Global Interconnectedness—the Geographical Association Wordskills 2011—DfES The Bologna Process—DfES CILT Workplacement Language Tool-Kit Global Gateway—DfES China School Links—DfES Support for Africa Greenwich Community College

Policies of the Department for Children Schools and Families (DCSF) Schools in England were given the duty to implement a community cohesion policy in 2007. This was prompted by the publication of a new independent review that made a series of recommendations aimed at promoting diversity across the curriculum and enhancing the content of the curriculum for citizenship education (DCSF, 2007). Community cohesion ranks alongside other “duties” such as race equality. One useful tool in this respect is the encouragement of local school partnerships that can give pupils opportunities to work with a neighboring school with a different ethnic or social composition. This policy was already well established in Northern Ireland, where schools from the Protestant and Catholic communities routinely worked together often in partnership with a school from the Republic of Ireland. There had also been a number of pilot projects that had linked schools in Bradford with a predominately Asian population with schools in suburban and rural areas where the pupils mostly came from a white British background. In Autumn 2007, the DCSF gave this scheme a national remit. The School Linking Network is now responsible for helping schools into partnerships across the UK and forms a dedicated part of the Global Gateway website, which is funded by the DCSF and managed by the British Council. Many schools see the value of a local partnership as a precursor to international school linking. Indeed, one of the UK’s National Priorities in the 2008 Comenius application round were schools with an existing UK partner. Every Child Matters was an important policy development that was finally introduced by the DfES in 2006 through the publication Every Child Matters—Change for Children (DfES, 2006a). This followed a long period of consultation and was prompted by a high-profile case of child neglect that exposed the lack of communication between education and social services. Every Child Matters (ECM) promoted a “joined up” approach which at local level united education and social services into a single body, usually known as Children’s Services. The five strands of ECM are:

The Case of England    39



1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

being healthy staying safe enjoying and achieving making a positive contribution achieving economic well-being.

Those with an interest in international education quickly saw the potential to link these with both learning activities and learning outcomes for pupils and also how these activities and outcomes might be widened beyond the school environment and the typical school day. Policy and Influences of Other Institutions This section will deal with other government departments and with other institutions and organisations that have a major part to play in influencing or implementing policy in this area. Department for International Development (DFID) The Department for International Development (DFID) is a UK government department that (unlike the DCSF) has competence across the four jurisdictions of the UK. DFID is a comparatively new department formed by the new Labour government of 1997. It is responsible for promoting development and the reduction of poverty worldwide. In the UK, it works to build public awareness of global interdependence and of development issues. It is on this foundation that DFID’s considerable work with schools is based. In the UK, the “Global Dimension to Education” is expressed through some explicit key concepts: • • • • • • • •

global citizenship conflict resolution social justice values and perceptions sustainable development interdependence human rights diversity

These are seen as being cross phase and cross curricular. All can be taught without the benefits of international school partnerships (Developing the Global Dimension in the School Curriculum, DFID 2005). However, DFID is

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aware that many schools in the UK have links in the less developed world and has instituted a specific funding program, Global School Partnerships, to help schools develop and maintain these contacts. The department is keen to ensure that such partnerships do not reinforce young people’s perceptions of the “South” as a part of the world locked into a dependent relationship with the richer “North” and beset by manmade and natural disasters. Research shows that for many young people this is their only perception of the less developed world. As a result, DFID funding for school linking requires evidence that one or more of the key concepts is embedded into partnership and that the partner school is involved in an equitable, if not an equal, relationship with the school in the UK. Funding for schools is therefore used as an instrument to reinforce policy and to help guide school partnerships. Foreign and Commonwealth Office The British Council was founded in 1934 with the aim of promoting British culture overseas. It also had an important role in supporting the teaching of English. Although this generates a certain amount of revenue, the British Council is also dependent on a grant from central government through the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. By the 1990s, the British Council was represented in the capital cities of 109 countries with some additional offices in provincial centers. During the period in question, the British Council had a growing role in the coordination and management of international education programs, and this accelerated in 1994, when the Central Bureau for Educational Visits and Exchanges became part of the British Council. It was now the role of the Council to help promote “abroad in Britain” through the management of a number of international education programmes. This is carried out in a variety of ways: 1. The British Council is the National Agency for significant parts of the EU Lifelong Learning Program including Comenius and Erasmus. 2. It manages a number of mainly bilateral school partnership programs on behalf of the DCSF (with China, Japan, Russia, France, Spain, Germany and Ireland). 3. It manages the DFID Global School Partnership program (school partnerships between the UK and countries in Africa, the Indian sub-continent, Latin America, the Caribbean, and parts of SE Asia). The British Council has created a number of programs and initiatives that utilize the UK government grant and can therefore be more closely aligned to the Council’s own cultural objectives. These include the Con-

The Case of England    41

necting Classrooms programs, which encourage schools to work together in cluster groups; Dreams and Teams, which concerns linking around sport; and the Comenius Ambassadors’ program, which aims to promote both Comenius and eTwinning. On a domestic level, the British Council uses a grant from the DCSF to fund the Regional Network for International Learning in England and Wales, which works through networks of local authorities. This network provides teacher training programs that are planned by regional steering committees. The courses and conferences attract teachers with an interest in international work and help in the work of promoting international programs and showing how this work can help to raise standards in schools and to enrich all parts of the curriculum. The British Council also manages the International School Award (ISA), which is open to all schools in the UK through agreements with the devolved administrations. The ISA has been achieved by over 10% of UK schools, although the aspiration is for all schools to obtain the award. The ISA operates at three levels—foundation, intermediate, and full ISA. Schools achieving the full award must demonstrate an “international ethos,” which means that at least 75% of pupils are somehow involved in international work and that the school has embedded partnership activities in most curriculum areas. There are also requirements for schools to have an international policy and to have appointed a designated coordinator. It is important to point out that the ISA is one of several award schemes open to schools that have an international and/or global context. The British Council also manages the Global Gateway. This is a major web portal funded by the DCSF. It offers support for school linking, a partner finding service, and links to all the major school linking programmes. The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) is funded by government and is responsible for regulating, developing, and modernizing the curriculum (in England). The QCA recently launched a review of the lower secondary curriculum, and one product of this process has been the Curricular Dimensions:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Identity and Cultural Diversity Healthy Lifestyles Community Participation Enterprise Global Dimension and Sustainable Development Technology and the Media Creativity and Critical Thinking

These dimensions are cross-curricular and aim to reflect the major ideas and challenges facing society and the individual. The QCA has produced

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specific guidance for schools for each one on its website. However, in November 2007, the QCA chose to publish The Global Dimension in Action as a booklet for schools (QCA, 2007). This featured 14 school case studies from primary and secondary schools from England. Of these, most have international partnerships that help to reinforce their global education work. The case studies show how schools can make use of a variety of linking programs to support their work and also how international education helps to further an understanding of global issues. Actual Trends and Discussions Global and International Education These terms are widely used in the UK and need careful definition. “Global education” is usually defined by the Department for International Development’s eight key concepts referred to in an earlier section. These help teachers to develop a global dimension in the curriculum and enable pupils to learn about the impact they have on the world and about the globalisation of all aspects of life. Many teachers use work on fair trade, human rights, interdependence, and climate change to help build up a concept of global citizenship. Global education offers young people opportunities to examine their values and attitudes to a whole range of global issues. It may present pupils, teachers, and whole communities with difficult and controversial questions. The term “international education” focuses on school partnerships but does not itself define the educational context or benefits of the partnership—this is up to the schools involved. Schools create international partnerships for a variety of reasons—language learning, professional development, and curriculum enrichment, for example. The curriculum context may include global education concepts or may focus elsewhere in the curriculum. Many workers in the part of the UK voluntary sector dedicated to promoting global education (or development education) feel that partnerships with schools in developing countries often do little to dispel stereotypical views of the “South.” Indeed, many UK schools focus their partnership efforts into charitable fundraising, which has limited educational objectives. For this reason, support for school linking is not universal among those involved with global education. Of course, many schools will use a Comenius project as a vehicle to develop a global theme, but global education workers do not always have the background, capacity, or inclination to support European school links. The focus on global education has tended to overshadow the achievements of schools that have concentrated on developing the European di-

The Case of England    43

mension in the curriculum. It is now some time since central government gave much positive encouragement to schools in this direction. An interesting indicator of this change of emphasis was the manner in which the UK government chose to involve schools in the recent UK Presidencies of the European Union. The 2005 Presidency had little to offer schools in terms of activities to raise the profile of the EU in the curriculum, whereas the 1998 Presidency generated free resources and a high-profile competition. The UK government also felt unable to continue the funding for the unique network of European Resource Centers for Schools and Colleges when European Commission financial support finally ended in 2003. This regional network was established in 1997 and provided information and resources for both students and teachers. The centers also offered inservice teacher training and were jointly responsible for a number of new publications for pupils of all ages. It is perhaps indicative of the sensitivity about Europe in England that the European Resource Centers continue to be supported to a degree by the devolved administrations in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Teaching about Europe is therefore seen today very much as a component of international work in schools but clearly does not have the same emphasis or support it enjoyed during the 1990s. Modern Foreign Languages in the School Curriculum and Local Education Authorities Secondary school pupils in state education in England must study a modern foreign language up to the age of 14—the transition from Year 9 to Year 10 and the point at which study for the first public examinations begins. In Year 10 (apart from in specialist Language Colleges), pupils may opt for a curriculum that does not include a language option. Unsurprisingly, many secondary schools now have very limited provision for language learning, and languages may be taught by non-specialist staff. The current situation in primary schools is very different. After many years when only a limited number of primary schools taught a foreign language, this is now an entitlement for older pupils and is soon to become a statutory requirement. The majority of primary schools have chosen to teach French, with smaller numbers teaching Spanish or German. The DCSF continues to offer training and support for primary teachers needing to enhance their language skills, and a number of university departments now offer a language specialisation as part of their primary teacher training courses. The primary languages curriculum includes an intercultural element, and many schools have chosen to establish new school partnerships to help support this part of the curriculum.

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The support offered by local authorities for international work varies considerably across England. Very few authorities are able to fund a dedicated post. Some of those with an International Education Officer do so within an international unit that may cover civic and business links as well as those in the education sector. One important international program that has involved local authorities has been Teachers’ International Professional Development (TIPD). This scheme, which is funded by the DCSF, aims to give teachers experience of other education systems. It gives each authority a number of places each year. These can be redeemed through a number of providers who offer group visits based around a number of educational themes. A small authority may have 10 places each year, a large one 25 or 30. The scheme is usually coordinated within the authority by the education officer responsible for professional development. TIPD has done much to increase the number of teachers with international experience and has in itself given many teachers the confidence to embark on international school partnerships. International Education in Wales and Scotland Wales International education in Wales is marked by a high degree of cohesion between the various bodies interested and responsible for it. In contrast to England, there is a statutory element through a distinctive strategy known as Education for Sustainable Development and Global Citizenship. The Welsh Assembly Government has also published a new strategic framework for international education plus a guide specifically for senior schools and colleges (Welsh Assembly Government, 2009a, 2009b). Scotland There are some very distinctive strategies for International Education in Scotland mostly directed by or through Learning and Teaching Scotland. These include International Officers designated in each Local Authority with a responsibility for promoting international work in schools. Teachers can also attend International Masterclasses—a distinctive strand of professional development. The Scottish Parliament held a debate on an International Education motion on April 24 2008. The motion touched on a range of issues including school linking. The fact that this debate took place, including the fol-

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lowing quotation from the Minister, illustrates the importance of the issue in Scotland: International education is not an add-on, and the curriculum for excellence is the ideal vehicle to deliver international education in schools and to equip young people with a modern and enterprising Scottish world view. The experiences and outcomes that are currently the subject of engagement and trialling in schools have been written such that they will provide ample opportunity for learning and teaching from an international perspective. (Maureen Watt, Minister for Schools and Skills)

References Department for Children Schools and Families. (2007). Diversity and citizenship, curriculum review. Retrieved from http://publications.teachernet.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/Diversity&Citizenship.pdf Department for Education. (1993). Policy models: A guide to developing and implementing European dimension policies in LEAs, schools and colleges (Archival document). London, UK: International Resource Centre for Schools and Colleges, University of Hull. Department for Education and Skills. (2004). Putting the world into world-class education. Retrieved from http://www.globalgateway.org.uk/default.aspx?page=624 Department for Education and Skills. (2006a). Every child matters, change for children. Retrieved from http://publications.everychildmatters.gov.uk/eOrderingDownload/DfES10812004.pdf Department for Education and Skills. (2006b). Leitch review of skills: Prosperity for all in the global economy—World class skills. Retrieved from http://www.hm-treasury .gov.uk/leitch_review_index.htm Department for Education and Skills. (2007). Putting the world into world-class education—Action plan and update. Retrieved from http://www.globalgateway.org. uk/default.aspx?page=624 Department for International Development. (2005). Developing the global dimension in the school curriculum. Retrieved from http://www.globaldimension.org.uk/ resourcesearch/details.aspx?id=1135 HM Treasury. (2006). The world classroom: Developing global partnerships in education. Retrieved from http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/development_key.htm Humberside County Council. (1994). European awareness—County policy statement and development plan (Archival document). Beverley, UK: International Resource Centre for Schools and Colleges, University of Hull. Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. (2007). The global dimension in action, a curriculum planning guide for schools. Retrieved from http://orderline.qcda. gov.uk/bookstore.asp?FO=1307426&Action=Book&ProductID=97818472167 24&From=SearchResults Watt, M. (2008). Proceedings of the Scottish Parliament for April 24, 2008, debate on Motion S3M-1768 (International Education). Retrieved from http://www

46   R. KIRTLEY .scottish.parliament.uk/Apps2/Business/ORSearch/ReportView.aspx?r= 4790 Welsh Assembly Government. (2009a). International education strategic framework. Retrieved from http://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/publications/ guidance/worldclasswales/?lang=en Welsh Assembly Government. (2009b) World class Wales—Transforming learning for success in a globalised world. Retrieved from http://wales.gov.uk/topics/education andskills/curriculumassessment/guidanceresources/waleseuropeworld/ ?lang=en

Chapter 4

The Case of France Yves Olivier

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the development of a European education in secondary schools in France.1 In France, the European and international dimensions are of growing importance for school education. The Europe of knowledge and education is well and truly on its way, in accordance with the Lisbon strategy. In March 2000 indeed, in Lisbon, the European Union set up as its objective for 2010 “to become the most competitive and the most dynamic knowledge economy in the world.”2 For the schools of the 21st century this means to be more open to cultural and linguistic differences. For the students of today and tomorrow, this means to go well beyond yesterday’s intellectual and geographical borders. Therefore, Europe and the wider world will open up new perspectives for everyone and create new chances that should not be missed. Ministry of Education Policy from 1990 European and international orientation in school education in France takes on diverse forms. It includes:

Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 47–64 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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• The European and international dimension, which is part of education programs and of exchanges and mobility projects, whether they are individual or collective • Facilities located at schools that support international learning such as European sections, international sections, or French-German sections. These are options in French high schools to teach a subject in a European language other than French. It also gives pupils the opportunity to have more hours in the language studied. Teachers present their lessons in English, German, or Spanish. There are also Asian language sections in which teachers present their lessons in Japanese, Chinese, or Arabic. • The privileged bilateral relations that France maintains with its German partners or English partners with the aim of a more active cooperation. The European Dimension in Schools Created in 1992, the sections of European or Asian languages contribute to fulfilling the need for the European and international dimension in French schools. Since 2001, it has been evident in the professional high schools. In 2007, more than 208,000 pupils were educated in about 9,200 sections sited in schools and secondary schools of general and technological education, as well as in professional secondary schools. The number of students registering in these sections is constantly increasing. The sections of European languages or Asian languages are constantly expanding and every year more students choose this option, as shown in Table 4.1. In April 2005, the French Ministry of Education envisaged that there would be a Table 4.1  Evolution in the Number of Pupils Schooled in Sections of European Languages or Oriental Languages

Year

Secondary school

High School of general and technological education

Professional secondary school

Total

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

81,493 90,120 96,453 103,865 106,158 112,491

42,370 48,800 59,989 69,707 77,138 87,080

2,698 4,800 6,129 7,914 8,359 9,215

126,561 143,732 162,571 181,486 191,655 208,786

The Case of France    49

20% increase in European languages and Asian languages for secondary schools and high schools in 2010. The students in the sections for European languages or Asian languages are highly motivated to learn living languages. Their professional education includes: • a reinforced training in a living language that is otherwise not part of secondary schools’ curriculum • a training that focuses on real-life situations in a foreign language and not on linguistic questions • a training that is based on profound knowledge of a foreign country and its culture The following languages are involved: • (in European sections): German, English, Spanish, Italian, Dutch, Portuguese, Russian • (in sections of Asian languages): Arabic, Japanese, Chinese In these sections of European languages or Asian languages, the students learn one or several subjects (e.g., history, sciences, or mathematics) in a European language like English, Spanish, German, or other. At the end of the three years of the secondary high school named lycée, they have a specific assessment included in the high school diploma, the baccalauréat. It includes an oral examination between a teacher and the student in a European language or an Asian language (as chosen by the student) dealing with various concepts of the subject. The Asian or European schooling in the section allows the candidates who fulfill the required conditions to use the designation “European section” or “section of Asian language,” followed by the language in which their certificate of the baccalaureate was obtained (i.e., a baccalauréat with a European or an Asian designation). The European sections allow the candidates having reached the standards required to obtain the “European section” or “section of Asian language” label. The label “European section” or “section of Asian language” in the baccalauréat is followed by the designation of the specific language and is recorded on the certificate of the general, technological, or professional baccalaureate. Two cumulative conditions are requested in order to get this label: first, the candidates have to reach an exact grading of 12 (out of 20) points or higher when tested on the first group of living languages; second, they have to reach 10 (out of 20) in a specific assessment of the level of command in the language acquired during the course of the schooling in a section of European or Asian languages. Since 2004, the candidates for the general and technological

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baccalaureate can take into account this specific assessment in the calculation of the total grading for the baccalaureate, by substitution of one of the optional parts of the examination. The students have to opt for a substitution by the time of registration for the final examination. French–German Cooperation The treaty of the Élysée,3 signed on January 22, 1963, between France and the Federal Republic of Germany by General de Gaulle and Chancellor Adenauer, has led to the setting up of a close co-operation, notably in culture and education. It has generated the creation of unique types of institutions, such as the Franco-German Office for the Youth, the High Franco-German Cultural Council, the cultural television channel ARTE, and the Franco-German University. In school education, over 40 years, co-operation strategies have been set up: • The AbiBac or simultaneous delivery of high school diploma (baccalauréat) and the Abitur. • Three French–German secondary schools (in Germany, Fribourg and Sarrebrück; in France, Buc) offer an extensive bilingual education in non-linguistic subjects and the opportunity to achieve a Franco–German high school diploma. • A network of sections with a French–German profile: European sections of German in France and bilingual sections of French in Germany. • The programs Voltaire and Brigitte Sauzay finance individual student exchanges in a school in the partner country. Typically, the French high school student stays in Germany between March and August; he goes to the school of his school pal. The latter visits France between September and the end of February. • Teachers and languages assistants participate in exchanges. AbiBac is a simultaneous awarding of the baccalauréat and its German equivalent, the Abitur. During the three years of studies in the high school, known as the lycée, French pupils are taught in their stream (economics, literature, or science) except for history and geography, which are covered by four hours of classes weekly, taught in German. They also have three hours of German literature classes weekly, also taught in German. German pupils are taught in accordance with current standards in their Länder and also have history and geography and French literature classes taught in French.

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The content of the history and geography and literature courses is defined jointly by the relevant French and German authorities. French candidates take all of the examinations corresponding to their baccalauréat stream, with the exception of history and geography, each of which is covered by a written examination in German. The grade counts for both the baccalauréat and the Abitur. They also take a German literature examination in German, which counts only for the Abitur. To be awarded the AbiBac, candidates must obtain a pass in all of the baccalauréat subjects as well as in the special subjects (history, geography, and literature). In France in 2006, the AbiBac was awarded to 454 candidates, which represents more than 95% of the pupils who sat for the exam. The AbiBac entitles pupils to enter university in Germany or France. Concerning the French–German secondary schools, most of the pupils are German and French, but other nationalities are also represented. Born mostly of native relatives, they are almost bilingual. The programs are defined and harmonized between three establishments. The teaching staff are French–German. The lessons are distributed for two thirds in German and for a third in French. The secondary school of Buc has sections of the school leading to the patent Franco–German option, but also primary classes (CP in CM 2). Access to the sixth grade is the result of an entrance examination. The secondary school of Buc prepares for the French–German high school diploma. This diploma is awarded at the end of the course at the conclusion of a programme of education (series ES, L, and S) different from the one which leads to the AbiBac. A certain number of disciplines, varying according to the streams, is taught in German. The examination includes a third continuous assessment and a section of written and oral tests. This high school diploma of the Franco–German education benefits from a general recognition in both countries. In 2003, the celebration of the 40th anniversary of the treaty of the Élysée generated various actions: • It was decided that January 22 would be the day celebrated annually as the Franco–German day. • The Parliament of young people, established by the Franco–German Office of the Youth (OFAJ),4 met in Berlin on January 21, 2003: 500 young French and German high school students prepared a statement on the future of the Franco–German relations. They wished to create a history book having the same contents for both countries, to reduce the prejudices caused by mutual misunderstandings.

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Since 2004, the action plan for the language of the partner aims at developing the learning of German in France and French in Germany. In 2006, several objectives were agreed upon. The Creation of a Franco-German History Book for the Classes at Secondary Schools, with the Same Contents in Both Countries Published by both the French editor Nathan and the German editor Klett,5 these textbooks are available in two versions: a German version and a French version. It is the first time that both countries have come to an agreement to provide the same interpretation of history to their youth. So, teachers of both countries—five teachers in each —prepared a book of 335 pages for the cohort of final-year students. The book covers the period from the end of 1945 to present days. The first volume of the Franco–German textbook of history, entitled Europe and the World Since 1945, was a true success in both versions (in France, it sold more than 100,000 copies). The second volume was published in April 2008 in French and in German. This second volume of the common textbook of history covers the period from Napoleon to Hitler and is entitled Europe and the World of the Congress from Vienna in 1945. It is copiously illustrated and includes 385 pages. The third and last volume, concerning the former period of 1814, will be published in 2010. According to the editors, this new textbook is enriched with a history of Germany and with an introduction on German pedagogic practices. This last point should interest teachers particularly, because it corresponds to a true intercultural approach to cooperation initiated across this strategy. In comparison with classical textbooks in both countries, this joint textbook will provide young Germans with deeper insights into the political evolution of France during this period and also with more definite notions on decolonisation. On the other hand, young Frenchmen will learn more about the division of Germany, the fall of the Berlin Wall (1989), and the Reunification. For the first time, the interpretation of history was merged in spite of differences in cultural perceptions. For example, the question of decolonisation is not perceived as having the same importance on the French as on the German side. It is necessary to say that Germany “lost” its colonies after the end of the First World War, while France saw the independence of its colonies taking place more or less from opportunities. The biggest point of divergence finally came from a different perception regarding the United States of America and of its role. Indeed, Germany rebuilt thanks to American support on an economic level, while becoming stable politically facing the Soviet empire and facing the German Democratic Republic (GDR), the “other Germany.” On the other hand, France has certainly used American logistical support but it also fought against the United States in order to keep its position on the worldwide chessboard:

The Case of France    53

notably with the refusal of General De Gaulle to accept the presence of American troops in France, in the name of NATO. Promotion of the Learning of the Partner Country Language The general objective is to increase by 50% the number of people learning the language of the partner country before 2013. For example, in school education: • development of a certification of institutional language on the basis of the common European framework of reference, in Germany at the end of the 10th and 11th class, in France for the pupils of the third and second grades • in France, maintaining the offer of education in German in all the Académies (regional education authorities) and the continuity of the education of German everywhere where it is provided in the first degree • in Germany, bringing pupils into contact with French as soon as possible and teach French until Abitur • development of a school network endowed with a European section of German in France and with a bilingual network of French in Germany • encouragement of exchanges for the benefit of the assistants, the German educators (nursery schools), and the teachers at primary and secondary levels; for instance, measures in favor of mobility in the school system, in favor of mobility in the field of vocational training, in favor of teacher’s mobility, and also exchange of staff between the educational administrations of both countries French–German Exchanges in Vocational Training The French–German Secretarial Department for the exchanges in vocational training, located in Saarbrucken, has since its creation in 1980 successfully coordinated and managed exchanges of young people between the two countries. The groups of adults stay at least three weeks in a training institution situated in Germany, within the framework of an educational project that has been jointly developed between the partners. Every exchange requires the preliminary conclusion of an agreement between a French school (professional secondary school, apprenticeship training center, training centers) and a German vocational training school. Mostly, these refer to the “two-third system,” alternating time at school and in companies. The exchange is preceded by the linguistic preparation of the pupils/ trainees as well as by teachers or by trainers who accompany them. This preparation can be ensured with the cooperation of the French–German

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Office for the Youth (OFAJ), the exchange itself taking place within the training program and allowing the beneficiaries to experience in a concrete way the mode of training of the nearby country. In 2006, these exchanges involved 2,500 young adults and 100 training establishments. Besides, binational additional training courses lasting eight months which address the level young people achieve in CAP, BEP, vocational high school diploma, or BTS 6 were experimentally organized during the school year 2002–2003. These training courses integrate a compulsory stay of three months in a vocational training school and a company of the partner country. A certificate recognised in both countries confirms the training. Other Bilateral Agreements French–English Co-operation Agreements of Le Touquet (February 4, 2003).7  The French–English co-operation in the educational and linguistic fields had a revival in 2003 with  the British wanting to revive the bilateral educational co-operation programme set up with the agreement of French–British co-operation March 2, 1948. These steps were highly valued by the French side, which also wanted to intensify existing exchanges and build a durable partnership with the partners. In this context, a new administrative arrangement was signed on February 4, 2003, during the summit of Le Touquet, between both Ministers of Education, Luc Ferry and Charles Clarke; both Ministers of Education agreed to intensify the educational co-operation between France and England. The Ministry of Youth, Education and Research notably undertook to collaborate in the domains of the training of the staff, mobility, and educational policies. Agreements of Paris (June 9, 2006).8  On the occasion of the 28th French– British Summit, which was held in Paris on June 9, 2006, Gilles de Robien, the French Minister of Education, Higher Education and Research, and Jim Knight, Minister of State for School in the United Kingdom, signed an administrative arrangement that would serve as a framework of the educational co-operation between both countries during the coming four years. The new administrative arrangement intended to develop the exchanges in all areas of the school education. Three domains are privileged: the training of the teachers and supervisory staff, school partnerships, and exchanges on subjects of public interest. The French Ministry of Education implements the programs of exchanges and educational cooperation nationally by associating with the International Centre of Educational Studies (CIEP).9

The Case of France    55

It signed, in 2003, with the French Ministry of National Education, a contract of objectives that defines its missions. These center around two major fields of activity: first, French language as a foreign language and foreign languages in France; second, educational engineering and international cooperation. Biennially, the CIEP organizes a teaching practice for aid of German and French teachers who teach in the sections with a Franco–German profile preparing for the AbiBac. The CIEP manages and stimulates the exchanges of assistants of foreign languages for the Ministry of Education, Higher Education and Research. The CIEP manages exchanges post for post between teachers of foreign languages and the foreign teachers every year with the following countries: Germany, Australia, Austria, Canada, Spain, the United States, the Republic of Ireland, and the United Kingdom. The objectives of these exchanges are to allow teachers of foreign languages: • to complete their linguistic and professional training • to deepen their knowledge of the country of the language they teach and, therefore, to enrich the contents and the practices of the teaching • to contribute to the international access of the French and foreign educational systems by the promotion of the foreign languages in France and that of the French language abroad • to create or strengthen links between educational communities. The English Ministry of Education (DCSF) implements the agreement of cooperation in partnership with the British Council and, according to the relevant programs, with the Teacher Development Agency, the Center for International Language Teaching and Research, the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust, the National College for School Leadership, the Youth Sport Trust, and the Vocational Links Service. French–British Conference of Young People The first French–English Conference of young people took place in 2004, to celebrate simultaneously the Centenary of the Cordial Agreement and the extension of the European Union. Due to its success, the experiment was renewed in 2005 and in 2006. This annual conference is henceforth registered, in confirmation of the school partnerships, in the agreements of Paris, signed on June 9, 2006. Between February 14 and 16, 2007, the fourth conference of young people took place in Hothorpe, Leicestershire, UK. On this occasion, 72 pupils (36 French pupils from academies and regional education authorities of Bordeaux and Strasbourg and 36 British) met on the subject “Sports, media and ethics.” This subject can be linked to “Do you Speak Rugby?”,

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also a French–British operation, organized to accompany the Rugby World Cup. Apart from a range of activities that were offered to them, the high school students also found time and occasion to think about: • • • •

the place to be given to ethics in the practice of a sport the means to strengthen the links between sport and health the role which the media play in an activity or a sports event the means to facilitate the access to sports for the disabled people

The conference was a contribution to the education of responsible behavior as well as the intensification of equal opportunities. French–Scottish Cooperation The French–Scottish cooperation is in the field of education and training. According to the declaration of intent signed by France and Scotland November 30, 2004, the French Ministry of Education and the Scottish Executive agreed in November 2005 to launch several actions in the field of educational co-operation and training. Quality of learning and education in schools.  The French Ministry of Education and the Scottish Executive agreed upon: • the setting up of groups of experts, to study their approaches and exchange their good practices concerning the law on the schooling for all and education for citizenship • the fostering of exchanges between pupils learning the language and native speakers, either directly or with the technologies of information and communication (TRICK), through the establishment of school partnerships. The French Ministry of Education and the Scottish Executive agreed to lead a comparison of the organisation of professional training in France and in Scotland, as a result of their joint working session during the conference organized by Scottish Education and Teaching Technology in September 2005. Using information technologies and communication in the field of school exchanges, the French Ministry of Education and the Scottish Executive agreed to study the exchange of information, practices, and expertise in the following domains: • the evaluation of the TRICK skills for the pupils and teachers in training • training in e-learning • the virtual office, notably Scottish Schools Digital Network Modern Language Environment

The Case of France    57

• the safety of the under-18s on the Internet • the incorporation of new technologies in learning and education • the evaluation of the impact of the TRICK on the quality of the processes of learning. Both parts will study the possibilities of promoting and of developing these exchanges within the framework of European projects. Policy and Influences of Other Institutions International development takes place in academies and schools under the regional Council influences. Today, the construction of a European space for higher education includes 45 countries in Europe. The international development of schools is an important training policy line of the Ministry. This activity was consolidated, in each academy (that is the regional education authority), by the creation of the role of the Academic Delegates in the European and International Relations and in Cooperation (DAREIC) ,which ensures the coordination of the academic activities in this field in schools. The DAREIC promotes class exchanges, international activities in technical and professional schools, linguistic skills improvement for teachers, educational support for foreign schools, as well as school partnerships (see the list in Appendix 1). The role of the DAREIC is: • to conceive and implement in the Académie all projects having an international dimension and make sure they are in fitting with the policy of both the Académie and the schools • to coordinate the whole network of people involved in international activities within the Académie • to inform and advise the pedagogical school teams so as to support them in the development of their international actions, and in doing so to work closely with the experts in the Académie • to create an international dynamic in those schools that are not yet or too little involved in international projects and support them in setting up and developing such projects • to foster educative cooperation and training within the framework of bilateral or multilateral agreements signed between the Académie and partner countries, or possibly with European and international organisations • to eventually represent the Recteur when dealing with the various partners

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• to provide a yearly evaluation of the international actions in the Académie, based on qualitative and quantitative indicators. For example, in the Académie of Orleans-Tours (http://www.ac-orleanstours.fr/international/), three lines are being developed in each of the following areas: Europe, International (outside Europe), and co-operation with international solidarity. Concerning the European main line, the new European programme (2007–2013) “Life Long Learning” consists henceforth of four sector-based programmes: Comenius (school education), Erasmus (higher education), Leonardo da Vinci (professional education and training), and Grundtvig (education for adults). The DAREIC helps schools and teachers to reach the objectives of this programme. There is also a European project for professional secondary schools which is implemented in the Académie. Europass is a new initiative intended to help the pupils or students in: • returning with the skills and visible qualifications in all Europe (European Union and country candidates) • facilitating mobility in Europe. Europass was established by the Decision No. 2241/2004/CE of the European Parliament and the Council of December 15, 2004, establishing a unique frame for the transparency of the qualifications and skills. Europass consists of five documents: the curriculum vitae, the language passport, the descriptive supplement of the certificate (diploma, title, certificate of professional qualification), the supplement to the diploma (for the higher education), and Europass mobility. Trans Europe Centre10 is a specific program aimed at developing competencies for pupils during a trip in Europe or an exchange with other European school partners. The projects are supported by the DAREIC and the regional service for training and development (SRFD) in the regional department of Agriculture and Forests (DRAF). This program is financed by the Regional Council. Examples of projects are: • “Italian Intrigues” (sciences in Rome, letters in Rome, history in Rome)—secondary school,Claude of France (Romorantin-Lanthenay) • “Multiculturalism and social ditch in London”—secondary school,Jean Zay (Orléans). • “The knights of the oval table”—secondary school, Marshal Leclerc de Hautecloque (Saint-Jean-de-la-Ruelle) • “Art and culture in the European capitals: the example of Lisbon”—secondary school, Grandmont (Tours)

The Case of France    59

• “From some wine from the Loire valley to the wine from the River Thames area”— secondary school, Albert Bayet (Tours) • “Greece in the heart of Europe: between past and present”—secondary school, Jean Giraudoux (Châteauroux) • “From raw stones to cut stones”— secondary school, Jean Guéhenno (Saint-Amand-Montrond) • “Ireland, the American dream in the European awakening”—secondary school, Benjamin Franklin (Orléans) • “The work of Charles Rennie Mackintosh within the city of Glasgow”—secondary school, Marceau (Chartres) There is also a project of decentralized cooperation in the region of Gorgol (Mauritania). In association with Draf and Centraider,11 on the initiative of the Regional Council, the coordination and follow-up by projects that set up within schools participating in this project, within the framework of the education in development and international solidarity (five secondary schools, three agricultural secondary schools, one primary school). Initiated by the Regional Council,12 the projects set up in various schools are coordinated and followed up together by the DAREIC, the SRFD, and overall by Centraider and are part of the education on international development and the solidarity sector of the international activities. Actual Trends and Discussions Opening schools up to Europe and to the world at large will require appropriate curricula, and notably the development of foreign language teaching from primary level. It will also require greater exchange and mobility opportunities for both pupils and stakeholders. A whole range of resources and tools relating to Europe are available for those wishing to continue developing their linguistic and cultural frames of reference. The Language Renovation Plan13 The language renovation plan consists of the following elements. 1. A Diverse, Coherent Language Offer Each year, the commissions produce a report on language teaching and may propose changes to the académie language map. To optimize learning coherence, care is to be taken to ensure that there is continuity between primary school and lower secondary school in each catchment area. As we have commented before, the numbers of European and Asian language sections

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and international sections will be increased. In order to make the language offer even more diverse, special emphasis will be placed on German. 2. Progress Objectives at Each Stage of Schooling In accordance with the August 2005 regulations after the vote of the Education Act in April, progress in the learning of modern languages will be measured against the scales of the common reference levels set out in the Common European Framework of Reference for Language (CEFR), which was published by the Council of Europe in 2001.14 The objectives to be reached are defined as follows: A1 at the end of primary school, B1 at the end of compulsory schooling, and B2 at the end of general or vocational secondary schooling. In the organic law pertaining to finance acts, these objectives were set out as evaluation criteria for the education system with respect to language teaching. 3. A New Approach Each of these levels corresponds to a body of linguistic, sociolinguistic, or cultural knowledge and to a set of competences to be used in communication. Language learning will now be approached in terms of the realisation of actions (CEFR’s so-called “actional approach”). Pupils will be trained to master appropriate language-communication activities with a view to performing a given action. This requires innovation with respect to both teaching and organisation: Teaching can be carried out by languagecommunication activity groups in accordance with the CEFR levels; with the approval of the teachers, pupils may subsequently move from one group to another, depending on their progress and on their needs as determined by tests held once or twice during the year; some periods of intensive teaching will be spread throughout the year, and will alternate with periods of “lighter” teaching. Moreover, the académie (regional education authority) websites can usefully encourage the sharing and pooling of practices developed by the teachers. 4. Language Teaching from the Second Year in Primary School (Grade 2) Starting in September 2007, primary school pupils will be taught foreign languages from Grade 2. In the meantime, all pupils should receive language teaching during their last three years in primary school. 5. Recognized, Free-of-Charge Language Certification Language certification based on the CEFR will gradually be made available to pupils on a voluntary basis at each stage in their schooling. This certification will be free of charge. An initial experiment involving German

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was conducted in 2006 across a sample group of 500 schools. This experiment concerned 7,000 pupils. 6. Developing Independent Learning Multimedia tools (satellite channels, CD-ROMs, and the Internet) must be made more easily and more generally available in schools. Wherever possible, schools’ multimedia workrooms must be equipped with appropriate language-training software enabling individualisation of study paths. To facilitate self-learning—notably during lighter teaching periods—multimedia rooms should be made available to pupils as required during study and extracurricular periods, in accordance with locally defined procedures and with available resources. 7. A Training Effort To enable teachers to familiarise themselves with this new approach, training actions are organized at national level, with the inclusion of the language renovation plan in the national management program (Programme national de Pilotage) providing continuing education for teachers A command of languages is the first prerequisite for a knowledge of other cultural frames of reference. The language renovation plan, which was presented within the 2005 Education Act,15 aims to develop language teaching at all levels of the education system as part of the common European framework of reference for languages. • The exchange and mobility tools: Action to foster openness to other countries may take the form of exchanges, partnerships, or mobility projects, which may be either individual or collective. These actions concern pupils, teachers, and administrative staff. • Resources for Europe: Many resources are dedicated to Europe at both national and académie (regional education authority) levels. These include: –– information sources encouraging exchanges and travel throughout Europe at national level and regional level –– pedagogical tools used for promoting better understanding of European challenges and opportunities –– online publications Starting on July 1, 2008, for six months France held the presidency of the Council of the European Union, a function that is exercised by every member state, by rotation. Different priority domains were defined: immigration, energy, environment, matters of defense. Beyond these working axes, the French presidency was a chance to mobilize Frenchmen on European

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stakes, by leaning, notably, on the representatives of the society: associations, firms, locally elected representatives, and labor unions. The school is an essential actor in this mobilisation: It has the responsibility to prepare the pupils for having common landmarks, for sharing a European culture, for locating France and Europe in today’s world. The objective is to develop the building of a European understanding of education and of professional training, to discover the educational systems of other European countries, and to discover the cultures of the member states of the European Union through meetings and cultural exchanges and educational actions involving the pupils. Notes 1. Three websites have been used to write this text: http://www.education.gouv. fr/pid5/europe-et-international.html, http://eduscol.education.fr/D0129/ accueil.htm, and http://www.ac-orleans-tours.fr/international/ 2. See http: // www. consilium.europa.eu/ueDocs/cms Data/docs/pressData/ fr/ec/00100-rl.fO.htm 3. For more information about the Treaty of Elysée, see http://www.france-allemagne.fr/Traite-de-l-Elysee-22-janvier-1963,029.html 4. In application of the Treaty of the Élysée (January 22, 1963), the intergovernmental agreement created the French–German Office for the Youth (OFAJ) on July 5, 1963. The OFAJ is in charge, from this date, of developing relations of friendship between the French youth and the German youth. The OFAJ supports the exchanges of young people provided by: youth associations and educational popular sporting clubs, linguistic centers, training centers, professional and labor-union organisations, school and university establishments, local authorities and committees of twinning. It helps them on the financial, educational, and linguistic plans; it reflects on the contents of the meetings and offers information and advice. Two programs concern directly the high school students: the Voltaire program and the Brigitte Sauzay program. 5. For more information, see http://www.nathan.fr/manuelfrancoallemand/ or http://www.klett-franzoesisch.de/manuel-franco-allemand.html/ 6. CAP is the abbreviation of Certificat d’Aptitude Professionnel, BEP the abbreviation of Brevet d’Enseignement Professionnel, and BTS the abbreviation of Brevet de Technicien Supérieur. They are all diplomas of the vocational school and they are progressive; the studies to get them are more and more difficult. 7. This is available online from http://eduscol.education.fr/D0156EN/angleterre-memorandum.htm 8. This agreement is online available from http://eduscol.education.fr/D0156/ arrangement_franco-britannique_2006_en.pdf 9. Created in 1946, the CIEP contributes to the development of the international cooperation in education. National public establishment since 1987. 10. http://www.regioncentre.fr/jahia/Jahia/AccueilRegionCentre/Education/ pid/143

The Case of France    63 11. http://www.centraider.org/ 12. On the following website, the reader can find more explanations about the policy of the regional council: http://www.regioncentre.fr/jahia/Jahia/AccueilRegionCentre/CooperationDecentralisee/pid/110 by the name of the learned language, on their high school diploma.   The European sections or Asian languages sections give matter to various studies and reflections: official reports and colloquiums, most particularly during the seminar that celebrated the 10th anniversary of the European sections (see the list in Appendix 1). The website Emilangues offers pedagogical support for the European sections or of Asian languages. 13. In a law voted by the French parliament on April 23, 2005, Article 19 of the Education Act provided for the creation, in each académie (regional education authority) of a modern-language commission responsible for “ensuring that there is a diverse language offer with coherent, continuous language paths” and for “providing information on the language offer to schools, elected representatives, parents and pupils.” 14. See: http://www.coe.int/T/DG4/Linguistic/Source/Framework_FR.pdf 15. Loi d’orientation et de programme pour l’avenir de l’École: see http://www. legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnTexteDeJorf?numjo=MENX0400282L

Appendix 1 List of the DAERIC Aix-Marseille, Place Lucien Paye 13621 Aix-en-Provence Cedex 1 Mél: ce.dareic@ ac-aix-marseille.fr Amiens 20 boulevard Alsace-Lorraine BP 2609 80026 Amiens Cedex Mél: daric@ ac-amiens.fr Besançon 10, rue de la Convention 5030 Besançon Cedex Mél: [email protected] Bordeaux 5, rue Joseph of Carayon-Latour BP 935 33060 Bordeaux Cedex 01 Caen 168, rue Caponière BP 6184–14034 Caen cedex Clermont-Ferrand 3, rue Vercingétorix 63033 Clermont-Ferrand Cedex, Mél: [email protected] Corse Boulevard Pascal Rossini BP 808 20192 Ajaccio cedex, Mél: [email protected] Créteil 4, rue Georges Enesco 94010 Creteil cedex , Mél: [email protected] Dijon 51, rue Monge BP 1516 21033 Dijon cedex Mél: [email protected] Grenoble 7, place Bir-Hakeim 38021 Grenoble cedex, Mél: [email protected] Guadeloupe Grand Camp La Rocade Boulevard de l’Union 97142 Les Abymes, Guyane Route de Baduel BP 6011 97306 Cayenne, Mél: [email protected] Lille 20, rue Saint-Jacques 59033 Lille cedex, Mél: [email protected] Limoges 13, rue F. Chénieux 87331 Limoges cedex Lyon 92, rue de Marseille BP 7227 69365 Lyon cedex 07, Mél: [email protected] Martinique Les Hauts de Terreville 97279 Schoelcher cedex Montpellier 31, rue de l’ Université 34064 Montpelier Cedex, Mél: ce.recdaric@ ac-montpellier.fr

64    Y. OLIVIER Nancy-Metz 6bis, rue du Manège-Site Mably CO 13 54035 Nancy Cedex, Mél: [email protected] Nantes La Houssinière BP 972 4326 Nantes Cedex , Mél: [email protected] Nice 53, avenue Cap de Croix 06081 Nice Cedex 2, Mél: [email protected] Nouvelle Calédonie Service des relations internationales et de la coopération 22 rue Dezarnaulds BP G4 Nouméa Cedex, Orléans-Tours 21, rue Saint-Etienne 45043 Orléans Cedex, Mél: [email protected] Paris 94, avenue Gambetta 75020, Paris Mél: [email protected] Poitiers 5, Cité de la Traverse 86022 Poitiers Cedex, Mél: [email protected] Reims 1, rue Navier 51082 Reims Cedex, Mél: [email protected] Rennes 96 rue d’Antrain BP 2023 35044 Rennes cedex, Mél: [email protected] Reunion 24 avenue Georges Brassens Le Mouffia 97702 Saint Denis Messageries Cedex 09 Mèl : [email protected] Rouen 25, rue de la Fontenelle 76037 Rouen Cedex, Mél: [email protected] Strasbourg 6, rue de la Toussaint 67975 Strasbourg Cedex , Mél: [email protected] Toulouse Place Saint Jacques 31073 Toulouse Cedex, Mél: [email protected] Versailles 3, boulevard de Lesseps 78017 Versailles Cedex.

Chapter 5

The Case of Germany Internationalisation and Foreign Language Teaching in North Rhine-Westphalia Michael Rogge

Internationalisation Policies: Ministries of Education To some extent, the European dimension in education was always existent in foreign language teaching due to the dominance of European languages like English and French in teaching. But in the light of the political changes that took place in Europe in 1989, the question of how to create a common European consciousness among the people in Europe became more and more important in teaching. Before 1989, the European dimension in education mainly focused on teaching European languages with a clear emphasis on English as an alleged “lingua franca” for European and international communication purposes. But now, it seemed not enough to provide young people with the necessary communicative skills they need to meet the major changes of European society and prepare them for mobility and work in

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a growing and merging Europe, but also to make them aware of their common cultural heritage and their shared responsibilities as Europeans. A starting point for the development of a comprehensive educational concept that covered various dimensions of a “European education” was a document called Europa im Unterricht (Europe in education) (Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 1990) and the common report of the German Länder about the European dimension in education (Zur europäischen Dimension im Bildungswesen, Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik, 1991). Both documents refer to the changing political and social situation in Europe and strongly recommend that schools impart knowledge and understanding of the following topics (cf. Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik, 2006, author’s translation): • the geographical diversity of Europe with its physical, social, and economic structures • the political and social structures of Europe • influential historical forces in Europe, especially the development of an understanding of justice, the role of the state, and freedom in Europe • lines of development, features, and evidence of a common European culture, notwithstanding its diversity • the linguistic diversity of Europe and the cultural richness this represents • the history of the European ideal and the integration efforts since 1945 • the balance of interests and joint action in Europe to resolve economic, environmental, social, and political problems • the functions and procedures of European institutions The topics mainly focused on subjects in the field of humanities and German and foreign language lessons. Additionally, bilateral or multilateral projects, student competitions, exchange programs, school twinning projects, and exchange of foreign language teaching assistants aimed at improving the European dimension in education. Finally, it was recommended to expand content and language integrated learning (CLIL) activities in public schools and develop pilot projects to further expand the opportunities of teaching European aspects in an integrated way. As a consequence, a pilot project, “Learning for Europe,” was launched in North Rhine-Westphalia in 1991, with the support of the Bund-Länder commission for educational planning and research promotion (BLK). The pilot project was to evaluate aspects of European education and further im-

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prove the European dimension in schools in North Rhine-Westphalia. The project, which lasted until 1994, defined four major spheres of action:

1. 2. 3. 4.

language acquisition/foreign language learning language maintenance/natural multilingualism intercultural competences preparing a school for Europe

The pilot project clearly showed that a school can only fulfill its tasks of social and cultural integration of students in a merging Europe if multilingualism and multiperspectivity are placed at the heart of teaching throughout all schools in North Rhine-Westphalia. As a result, the pilot project clearly voted for diversification and intensification of foreign language teaching at schools, which were understood as the key to successful internationalisation and integration. The project strongly recommended a series of measures including early language immersion and additional courses in minor foreign languages (e.g., Spanish, Italian, Russian, Dutch). Simultaneous efforts to improve German as a foreign language for students with an immigrant background, clearly underlined the positive effects of CLIL and called for the recognition of extracurricular foreign language activities and certificates. Moreover, for some of the pilot schools in North Rhine-Westphalia, the pilot project was also the starting point for additional projects that aimed at defining key competences that students need for successful participation in a merging Europe. Some of the key competences that needed to be strengthened included: • the knowledge about European neighbors, their political, societal, and cultural realities and possible problems connected to this • the ability to communicate in foreign languages • the development of a European identity by reducing prejudice, improvement of solidarity, understanding and empathy, readiness to work together on conflicts in order to enable a common European peace education • the ability and readiness to cooperate with students from other countries in common projects • the aptitude to master one’s life in a multicultural society • the use of new technologies and media in order to share information and cooperate with schools in other European countries (cf. Landesinstitut für Schule und Weiterbildung, 1995, p. 70). All schools that participated in the pilot project did not only focus on foreign-language competences and foreign language teaching but also developed their own bi- and multilateral school projects with a European

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dimension, organized internships in partner countries, and focused on European aspects in non-language subjects. The pilot schools’ activities finally led to the 1999 Cologne declaration, in which a common network of “Europe-oriented” schools (Europaschulen) was established that aimed at systematically preparing students for the demands of a knowledge society in a merging Europe. Apart from teaching knowledge and skills, the schools declared their commitment to impart basic attitudes and intercultural competences that students need to live in a world of peace, self-determination, and social responsibility. A central aspect of the schools’ co-operation in a network of Europe schools is the development and evaluation of action-oriented projects and encounters with students in European partner countries, common workshops and conferences for students in order to discuss experiences, and to develop a common system of quality management that finally leads to the development of a Europe-oriented school curriculum. Policy and Influences of Other Institutes and Developments The process of European integration, the internationalisation of a global economy and society, and the growing diversity of students caused by migration are central issues to be dealt with in education. European and international topics are an essential part of the educational commitment of the public school sector in North Rhine-Westphalia. Foreign language teaching has taken a lead role in providing the central communicative and intercultural competences needed for a globally oriented education. Foreign Language Teaching and National Educational Standards In North Rhine-Westphalia, European and international education are also implemented in a larger context of communicative foreign language learning, which is based on the principles of educational standards, teaching towards clearly defined competences with commitment towards plurilingualism and intercultural competences as key targets of foreign language teaching. European and international orientation in foreign language teaching in North Rhine-Westphalia can only be fully understood in the context of these developments. Orientation to clearly defined educational standards (“output orientation”) is considered a paradigm change in foreign language teaching in Germany (Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der

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Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 2006, p. 5) because it clearly defines the skills and competences students have to achieve by the end of their school career instead of focusing on curricular issues and topics (“input orientation”). The educational standards have already been defined for secondary schools in Germany by the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany (Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 2003)1 and will soon also be available for upper secondary level. These educational standards, which have been agreed upon by all German Länder, continue a general development that has been initiated by the common European framework of reference for languages (CEFR).2 Accompanying measures of quality management, including central examinations, comparative testing, and scientific support by the Institute for Quality Management in Education (IQB), which was set up by the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany and is located at the Humboldt University in Berlin, ensure a constant assessment and development of these national standards in foreign language teaching. Based on these educational standards, North Rhine-Westphalia has developed new curricula for foreign language teaching that, especially in the domain of intercultural competences, also include aspects of European and international orientation. Plurilingualism and Intercultural Communicative Competence as Key Targets of Foreign Language Learning Plurilingualism as a basic principle of foreign language teaching dates back to several pilot projects in North Rhine-Westphalia and other German Länder, which finally led to a recommendation by the Standing Conference (Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 1994b), in which plurilingualism was declared a key target of foreign language teaching. The document underlined that foreign language teaching should be considered a basic element of any type of primary and secondary education irrespective of the students’ social and economic background. Supported by corresponding documents of the Council of Europe (cf. Council for Cultural Cooperation—Language Policy Division, 2006), foreign language teaching was further diversified and today includes 14 foreign languages as well as 19 migrant languages. In North Rhine-Westphalia, English as a first foreign language is obligatory for all students from the first year of primary school to the end of secondary education. A second foreign language is learned by the majority of students in North RhineWestphalia, and a smaller number of students also include a third or even a fourth foreign language in their studies at secondary school.

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Furthermore, the competence-oriented curricula for foreign language teaching in North Rhine-Westphalia define intercultural competences as a key objective. Intercultural competences aim at imparting specific attitudes that allow communication between partners from different cultures, even if the communicative competences are limited. Moreover, intercultural competences provide the necessary skills and competences to understand communication and behavior as determined by both cultural and individual factors and develop strategies for intercultural communication. Finally, intercultural competences include knowledge about communication, culture-specific knowledge, and prevailing cultural stereotypes and misunderstandings, which are necessary to understand and communicate successfully in intercultural situations. These basic competences are a necessary prerequisite to cover aspects of European and international orientation in education. When looking back at the last 20 years of constant development of internationalisation policy in North Rhine-Westphalia, one can easily see the gradual movement from a very narrow understanding of internationalisation, as intensified foreign-language education towards a more comprehensive understanding of internationalisation with a clear focus on the European dimension and a strong commitment towards an education for democratic citizenship and human rights. The updated recommendations of the European education in schools (Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 2008) clearly stress that a common European consciousness can only be created if the whole school community contributes to the development of a European dimension in education. However, foreign language education still plays a dominant role in exploring and understanding the linguistic and cultural plurality in Europe. Therefore, internationalisation in North Rhine-Westphalia still has a clear emphasis on foreign language learning but also understands the importance of applying these communicative competences in authentic situations—for example, in CLIL courses, school exchange programs, or intercultural encounter projects. Furthermore, the development of a competitive school profile with a clear European and international orientation, additional bilateral qualifications, and international foreign language certificates also plays an important role in the internationalisation of foreign language teaching and a European and international orientation in education in North Rhine-Westphalia. Internationalisation Means Diversification and Intensification of Foreign Language Teaching The process of European integration strongly requires European citizens with language competences in more than one European language. In order to learn effectively, these languages have to be acquired from an

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early age. Therefore, in its recommendations for foreign language learning at primary level, the Standing Conference clearly voted for an early beginning of English as a first language in primary schools (Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 1994a). Positive experience from regional projects finally led to the decision of starting at Year 1. Research showed that young learners at this age show a high motivation irrespective of their individual level of proficiency, gender, or family background. The young learners’ talkativeness, spontaneity, and unconcern, their lack of fear of the unknown, as well as their ability to use imitational learning can easily be utilized for foreign language learning. These abilities help to maintain a greater motivation and pleasure in learning and at the same time create an open-mindedness towards other language communities and a general awareness of cultural differences. With the early start of English as the first foreign language at the age of 6, the earlier start of a second and even a third foreign language also becomes possible. Usually, a second foreign language starts at the second year of secondary school (students age 11), a third foreign language can either be learned in Year 8 or at the beginning of upper secondary level. Currently, more than 45,000 foreign language teachers and about 260 foreign language assistants in North Rhine-Westphalia offer more than 14 foreign languages and an additional 19 migrant languages, which include English, French and Latin, Chinese, Greek, Hebrew, Italian, Japanese, Dutch, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Spanish, and Turkish. Internationalisation Means Using Foreign Languages in Authentic Situations Bilingual teaching/CLIL started more than 30 years ago in North RhineWestphalia with the Treaty on Franco–German Cooperation (January 22, 1963) and aimed at increasing the number of students learning the partner country’s language. Gradually, Franco–German high schools and schools with a special Franco–German school curriculum emerged in the two countries. Apart from intensified foreign language learning, these schools also offered additional CLIL courses in French. In the 1990s, additional bilingual sectors at public schools that used English as a working language emerged throughout North Rhine-Westphalia. Today, more than 200 schools (out of approximately 800 in Germany) in North Rhine-Westphalia offer bilingual courses. Most of the schools now use English as a working language, but some schools also offer bilingual courses in French, Italian, Spanish, Dutch, Greek, and Russian. In addition to the approximately 220 schools in North Rhine-Westphalia that provide bilingual strands in English and French, some other schools have successfully developed bilingual modules that al-

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low for a more flexible way of teaching bilingually in different languages and subjects for a shorter period of time. Recent studies clearly underline the success of bilingual teaching. A comparative study of students’ performances in English and German (DESI) came to the conclusion that, on average, the performance of bilingual students exceeds the performance of their non-bilingual classmates by up to two years (Klieme & Beck, 2007). The study results underline the importance of providing authentic, real-life situations to which language competences can be applied. Internationalisation Means Using Foreign Languages in Intercultural Encounter Situations In North Rhine-Westphalia, many schools have successfully established partnerships or regular school projects with partners in other countries. Additionally, students can choose between two- or three-month individual student exchange programs with Canada, New Zealand, Australia, France, and French-speaking Switzerland or participate in German–French Youth exchange programs, individual government scholarships for two- to fourweek stays in Spain or The Netherlands. Finally, some students use individual exchange programs with the United States (USA), Canada, or Great Britain to obtain international examinations and certificates, like the British A-level certificate or a high school diploma in the U.S. Internationalisation Means Developing a Competitive School Profile Many schools have realized the importance of further developing their individual mission statement by placing international exchange programs at their focal point. North Rhine-Westphalia’s Europe schools, UNESCO schools, and the CertiLingua pilot schools consider education towards an international understanding and European citizenship both in various subjects and in extracurricular projects as the main objective of their educational activities. Exchange programs with more than 3,000 partner schools all over the world and a participation of many secondary schools in North RhineWestphalia in the European educational program for lifelong learning clearly underline the schools’ commitment towards internationalisation. A large number of schools increasingly provide opportunities for work placements abroad in order to foster foreign language and intercultural competences. Currently, 25 schools in North Rhine-Westphalia belong to the international network of UNESCO schools. The network consists of

The Case of Germany    73

some 8,000 educational institutions in 177 countries (ranging from preschools and primary to secondary schools and teacher training institutions), who work in support of quality education in practice. The schools are encouraged to conduct projects that are concerned with questions of human rights, the environment, intercultural learning, and international peace-keeping. Additionally, 59 schools in North Rhine-Westphalia have officially been accredited by the Ministry as Europe schools. It is a crucial part of the school policy in North Rhine-Westphalia to further increase the number of Europe schools over the coming years (Antrag der CDU Landtagsfraktion, 2006) in order to equip students with the necessary competences and knowledge they need for a self-determined life in a globalized European society. Internationalisation Means Orientation Towards Bi-National and International Standards International certificates have become a successful supplement to the educational profile of many secondary schools in North Rhine-Westphalia. Internationally recognized foreign language certificates and many other forms of documentation have seen an enormous increase over the last years. Students can not only use these examinations as an addition to their national school leaving examinations and other forms of European documentation of competences, like the Europass and the European Languages Portfolio, but can also achieve highly valuable additional qualifications for their professional education and academic studies abroad. Year after year, more than 25,000 students in North Rhine-Westphalia participate in international language examinations, including examinations in English (Cambridge ESOL, TOEFL, TOEIC, etc.), French (DELF/DALF), Italian (CELI, ele.IT junior), Dutch (CNaVT, TELC), Russian (TRKI), Spanish (DELE), Chinese and Japanese (cf. Ministerium für Schule und Weiterbildung, 2008a). Many schools have incorporated these external examinations into their school profile and closely cooperate with foreign cultural institutes and non-school-related institutions, like adult education centers. Moreover, as part of the Franco–German cooperation program, nine secondary schools in North Rhine-Westphalia have successfully introduced the possibility of simultaneously acquiring the German university entrance qualification (Abitur) and the French Baccalauréat diploma. The students have to successfully complete the Franco–German bilingual education strand at these schools and have to present their examinations to both French and German auditors. The AbiBac curriculum includes a close cooperation with a French partner school (cf. Ministerium für Schule und Weiterbildung, 2008b).

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The Europass is a portfolio consisting of a standardised CV form that provides a comprehensive and standardized overview of the holder’s work experience and education; a language passport, which documents the holder’s language proficiency; an instrument for documenting education and work experience gained in one of the other European countries; and a certificate and diploma supplement, which describes all the skills and qualifications acquired in secondary and vocational education. With the help of the Europass, European students can easily present the skills and competences they have acquired in school, at university, or while studying or training abroad. The entries in the language passport are mainly based on the European Language Portfolio, a portfolio developed by North Rhine-Westphalia in cooperation with the Council of Europe in order to comprehensively document native language and foreign language skills in the context of European standards. The European Language Portfolio consists of three parts: The Languages Passport gives information on the skills acquired on the basis of the common European framework of reference for languages. In the language biography, the students can describe and document their learning experiences and progress of their language competences, and the language dossier holds all relevant certificates, diplomas, and successful examples of work collected. Actual Trends and Discussions The CertiLingua Label of Excellence for Plurilingual, European, and International Competences as an Integrated Concept of European and International Orientation With the CertiLingua label of excellence for plurilingual, European, and international competences, it has become feasible to document foreign language competences and European and international competences in an internationally recognized way. CertiLingua was launched as an initiative of North Rhine-Westphalia in close cooperation with The Netherlands and has been further developed by ten other German states and eight European partners. The pilot phase started in the school year 2007–2008 with 55 schools in the participating countries. In North Rhine-Westphalia, 32 pilot schools participate in the two-year pilot phase. After the successful completion of the pilot phase at the end of the school year 2008–2009, the CertiLingua label of excellence will be available for a growing number of partner countries and schools.3 CertiLingua certifies the students’ competences in at least two foreign languages at the level B2 of the Common European Framework. More-

The Case of Germany    75

over, the students have to document bilingual skills as well as European and international competences, which can be obtained in European and international projects in cooperation with other schools in the partner countries. The quality standards for the CertiLingua label of excellence have been agreed upon in an international network of CertiLingua schools and therefore guarantee a Europe-wide comparability of CertiLingua skills. For especially skilled and talented students, CertiLingua provides unique opportunities for demonstrating their above-average performance in the field of foreign language and intercultural skills. In addition, the certificate helps students to gain access to universities abroad and to international professional education. The CertiLingua network, which consists of a growing number of international universities, institutions, and companies, supports the project in gaining international recognition and actively helps to promote the CertiLingua label of excellence in its partner countries and beyond. At individual universities, the CertiLingua Label of Excellence is already recognized as a formal substitute for existing foreign language entrance exams. Moreover, the participating companies from business and industry seek to place CertiLingua graduates at international internships. For the participating schools, CertiLingua is also an instrument of school development. The plurilingual, European, and international competences that are documented have a positive impact on existing school profiles and mission statements. Preliminary results of the first year of the pilot phase already underline the clear advantages for the participating schools: a. CertiLingua Promotes Internationalisation by Strengthening Plurilingualism CertiLingua documents the students’ language competences in at least two foreign languages at the level of B2 of the CEFR. As an excellence label for plurilingual competences, CertiLingua also promotes language competences in languages beside English. The first year of the pilot phase with 111 graduates in North Rhine-Westphalia showed that apart from Spanish (20%) and Russian (2%), the students predominantly used French (78%) to document a second-language competence beside English. CertiLingua motivates students to continue the language-learning process of a second (and third) language until the end of upper secondary school. The external evaluation of language competence through standardized language certificates (such as Cambridge ESOL, DELF) clearly demonstrates the high quality of the linguistic competences of the participating students. In the case of certificate examinations in French (DELF), 88% of the graduates in Grades 12 or 13 easily achieved language competences at the level of B2 of the CEFR. Additionally, 12% of the pupils successfully achieved level C1. Finally, the high level of linguistic competences of CertiLingua graduates has

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a positive impact on the students’ overall language-learning attitudes at the participating CertiLingua pilot schools. Even students who are not actively participating in the pilot project and do not aim to achieve the CertiLingua label of excellence nevertheless show a higher motivation to keep up the language-learning process and show significantly better results in overall language skills. b. CertiLingua Promotes Internationalisation and Supports Real-Life Application of Foreign-Language Competences The bilingual competences necessary for the accreditation of the CertiLingua label of excellence can be achieved in all subjects that are part of the school’s curriculum. The label requires at least one subject to be taught in a foreign language; however, most schools provided courses in two different subjects. For the first pilot year, the subjects offered at CertiLingua schools in North Rhine-Westphalia included subjects like history (82%), geography (35%), biology (11%), mathematics (9%), social sciences (12%), economics (7%), physics (2%), and politics (2%). The broad diversity of subjects from the fields of natural sciences and humanities had a positive impact on the pilot schools’ profiles. Furthermore, many pilot schools planned to further expand the range of subjects taught in a foreign language over the coming years. Finally, CertiLingua helps to establish languages other than English as the working language in bilingual subjects. In the first year of the pilot, the CertiLingua schools in North Rhine-Westphalia also provided courses in French (29%) and Spanish (8%). For future years, further diversification is to be expected. c. CertiLingua Promotes Internationalisation through an Active Network of Participating Schools The international network of CertiLingua pilot schools helps to intensify collaboration between schools and school administrations and to facilitate mobility and integration of pupils, teachers, and language assistants. CertiLingua schools in North Rhine-Westphalia have already benefited from the close cooperation with partner schools in Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, and The Netherlands and have successfully established joint projects with other schools. The involvement of other European partner countries will further strengthen the importance of the international network. Notes 1. The Standing Conference of Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs (KMK) is a joint coordinating body between Federal States in matters of education and culture (that are regulated by the Federal States).

The Case of Germany    77 2. The CEFR is a common European project that aims at describing the competences necessary for communication, the related knowledge, and skills, and the situations and domains of communication in a foreign language. The CEFR can be found at http://www.coe.int/T/DG4/Linguistic/CADRE_ EN.asp 3. More information about CertiLingua, the pilot phase, and its member states can be found at www.certilingua.net

References Antrag der CDU-Landtagsfraktion. (2006). Europäischen Dimension in der Schulbildung—NRW braucht mehr Europaschule mit einem einheitlichen Qualitätsprofil. (Landtagsdrucksache 13/4427 [European dimension in school education: North Rhine-Westphalia needs more European Schools with a consistent quality profile]. Retrieved from http://home.landtag.nrw.de/mdl/marietheres.kastner/mehreuropaschulen.pdf Council for Cultural Cooperation—Language Policy Division. (2006). Plurilingual education in Europe. 50 years of international co-operation. Retrieved from http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/PlurinlingalEducation_En.pdf Klieme, E. & Beck, B. (Ed.). (2007). Sprachliche Kompetenzen—Konzepte und Messung. DESI-Studie (Deutsch Englisch Schülerleistungen International) [Linguistic competences—Concepts and assessment]. Weinheim, Germany: Beltz. Landesinstitut für Schule und Weiterbildung. (1995). Lernen für Europa 1991–1994. Abschlussbericht eines Modellversuchs [Learning for Europe 1991–1994. Final report of a pilot project]. Soest, Germany: Kettler. Ministerium für Schule und Weiterbildung. (2008a). Fremdsprachenzertifikate in der Schule [Foreign-language certificates at school]. Retrieved from http://www.schulministerium.nrw.de/BP/Unterricht/Faecher/Fremdsprachen/Zertifikate/ FremdsprachenZertifikate.pdf Ministerium für Schule und Weiterbildung. (2008b). Internationale Schulbildung in Nordrhein-Westfalen [International Education at schools in NRW]. Retrieved from http://www.schulministerium.nrw.de/BP/Unterricht/Faecher/Fremdsprachen/Schulbildung_NRW_Stand_25_11_08.pdf Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. (1990). Europa im Unterricht (Beschluss der Kultusministerkonferenz vom 8.6.1978 i.d.F. vom 7.12.1990) [Teaching about Europe. Resolution of the KMK as amended and promulgated on 12-07-1990]. Retrieved from http:// www.z-e-b.de/seiten/europaeischer_wettbewerb/europa_im_unterricht .pdf Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. (1991). Zur europäischen Dimension im Bildungswesen (Gemeinsamer Bericht der Länder zur Umsetzung der Entschließung des Rates und der im Rat vereinigten Minister für das Bildungswesen vom 24.5.1988 in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Beschluss der Kultusministerkonferenz vom 8.11.1991) [The European Dimension of Education. Joint Report of the German Länder about the Implementation of the Decision of the Council and its ministers of

78    M. ROGGE education and cultural affairs in Germany]. Bonn, Germany: Sekretariat der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. (1994a). Empfehlungen zur Arbeit in der Grundschule (Beschluss der Kultusministerkonferenz vom 02.06.1979 i.d.F. vom 06.05.1994) [Recommendations concerning the teaching in primary schools. Resolution of the KMK as amended and promulgated on 06-02-1979 and updated on 05-06-1994]. Retrieved from http://www.kmk.org/fileadmin/veroeffentlichungen_beschluesse/1970/1970_07_02_Empfehlungen_Grundschule.pdf Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. (1994b). Überlegungen zu einem Grundkonzept für den Fremdsprachenunterricht mit Gutachten zum Fremdsprachenunterricht in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland [Considerations concerning the basic concepts of foreign language education including expertise about foreign-language education in Germany]. Bonn, Germany: Sekretariat der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. (2003). Beschlüsse der Kultusministerkonferenz: Bildungsstandards für die erste Fremdsprache (Englisch/Französisch) für den Mittleren Schulabschluss (Beschluss vom 04.12.2003). [Resolutions of the KMK: educational standards for the first foreign language (English/French) concerning the general education school leaving certificate]. Köln, Germany: Luchterhand. Retrieved from http://www. kmk.org/fileadmin/veroeffentlichungen_beschluesse/2003/2003_12_04BS-erste-Fremdsprache.pdf Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. (2006). Das Bildungswesen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 2006. Darstellung der Kompetenzen, Strukturen und bildungspolitischen Entwicklungen für den Informationsaustausch in Europa [The educational system of Germany 2006. Describing competences, structures and political developments for a exchange of information throughout Europe]. Retrieved from http://www. kmk.org/dossier/europaeische_dimension.pdf Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. (2008). Empfehlungen der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Europabildung in der Schule (Beschluss der Kultusministerkonferenz vom 08.06.1978 i.d.F. vom 05.05.2008) [Europe in Schools (Resolution of the KMK as amended and promulgated on 06-08-1978 and updated on 05-05-2008)].Retrieved from http://www. schulministerium.nrw.de/BP/Schulsystem/Schulformen/Europaschulen/ KMKEuropa in der Schule.pdf

Additional Resources Council of Europe. (Ed.). (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Available from http:// culture2.coe.int/portfolio/documents.

The Case of Germany    79 Rönneper, H. (2007). CertiLingua—Excellence label of plurilingual, European and international competences. In D. Marsh & D. Wolff (Eds.), Diverse contexts: Converging goals. CLIL in Europe (pp. 343–350). Frankfurt, Germany: Lang. Rogge, M. (2008). Das Exzellenzlabel CertiLingua für mehrsprachige, europäische und internationale Kompetenzen [The CertiLingua label of excellence for plurilingual, European and international competences]. Schule NRW, 12, 592–594. http://www.schulministerium.nrw/de/BP/Unterricht/Faecher/ Fremdsprachen/Mehrsprachigkeit/Certilingua/index.html

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Chapter 6

The Case of Lithuania Brigita Janiunaite

Policy of the Constituent Assembly (Seimas) of Lithuania and Ministry of Education and Science Major Aspects of Lithuanian Education Policy After Independence Before presenting the essential issues of internationalisation from different documents that govern the policy of education in Lithuania (since 1990), it is important to stress the transformation of Lithuanian education after the country regained its independence. The transformation explains not only the issues of internationalisation but also how the situation is different from other countries. At the end of the 1980s, the Perestroika in the Soviet Union determined the movement of the Lithuanian national revival and the aims of education reform. Lithuanian teachers publicly declared their determination to develop Lithuanian national education in December 1988 during the Congress of Employees in the Education System of the USSR. This vision became the first significant strategic document for education entitled Tautinė mokykla. Mokyklų tipų koncepcijų projektai (The national school. Concepts of different school types) (Lietuvos TSR Liaudies švietimo ministerija. Pedagogikos mokInternationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 81–96 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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slinio tyrimo institutas [Ministry of People’s Education of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic, Institute for Research in Pedagogy], 1989). Therefore, the year 1988 may be considered the beginning of the reform of Lithuanian education. The main idea of this concept was to provide every republic of the former Soviet Union with the opportunity to develop their education systems independently. The ideological basis of the education reform corresponded to the common ideals and principles of the national liberation movement: development of national culture as the basis of continuity and strengthening of the nation and consolidation of the principles of a democratic, juridical, open society and culture. Rationality, democracy, humanism, and change are considered to be the fundamental principles of Lithuanian education reform. These principles were not conditioned by a systematic dialogue between different political or social powers or coordination of education policy requirements, because in the beginning of the reform there were no other political powers or parties in Lithuania, apart from the ruling communist party. The principles expressed the common aims of the revived state to develop its national culture, to stimulate modernisation of education through constant renewal and innovations. These requirements were consolidated in a new education law. Lietuvos Respublikos Švietimo įstatymas (The Law on Education of the Republic of Lithuania) was passed in 1991 (Lietuvos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija [The Ministry of Education and Science of Lithuania], 1991). It determined the main objectives of the educational system. In 1992, the government ratified the Lietuvos švietimo koncepcija (The General Concept of Education in Lithuania) (Lietuvos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija, 1992). This document provided a rationale for the dynamically renewing society as its open and critical consciousness. The General Concept states that a permanent educational system based on differentiation and integrity was being created for educational purposes. It points out that: the restoration of the state has opened new perspectives of Lithuanian social, cultural, economical and political development that meet the nation’s goals. By joining democratic Europe, the Lithuanian society together with other post-communist countries experiences the period of essential historical transformation that gives Lithuania an opportunity to unchain the creative powers of the nation, that were strangled during the occupation regime, to create an open politological, harmonious society of unconstrained citizens. . . . The mission of the reformed education of Lithuania is not to legitimize the social and ideological structures, but to provide the background for the dynamically reviving society, its open and critical consciousness. The main goal of education reform is independent and creative personalities able to develop their skills at school. (p. 4)

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Other important goals are the education of the individual for democracy and the development of a Lithuanian citizen. For these purposes in Lithuania, a permanent education system based on differentiation and integration has been created. As the General Concept (Lietuvos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija, 1992) says, “The education system is based on the values of European culture: personal value, love for the dearest, natural equality of people, freedom of conscience, tolerance, democratic relationship within the society. The education reform is based on the democratic experience of Lithuanian and European education” (p. 4). Therefore, in 1991, having regained independence, the essential goal was to change the education system so that it could become the background for the development of the refounded society. From the point of view of internationalisation, it is important to note that the concept not only emphasizes education of the reviving state’s citizen but also highlights the process itself through the prism of the European culture. Education Reform from the Point of View of Internationalisation At the beginning of the reform, the Institute of Pedagogy at the Ministry of Culture and Education of Lithuania (1993) developed Lietuvos švietimo reformos gairės (The Guidelines of Educational Reform in Lithuania) (Dereškevičius, 1993). These guidelines indicate the common items of educational reform methodology, the outline of structural changes of the education system, the content of the reformed school’s education, and organisation of the education process. They also highlight the European dimension in the educational content: Education has to help in defending peace, democracy, human rights, justice, economical safety, European and global ecological balance. Therefore, the school must provide pupils with a splendid view of the geographical situation of Europe: its natural, social, economical peculiarities, political and social structure, external factors determining its present shape, particularly its judicial thought, the concept of state and the idea of freedom. The educational content has to reflect the essential characteristics of European culture, to develop an attitude of solving European economical, ecological, social and political issues by cooperation. (p. 19)

On the other hand, the document points out that educational content should not be limited by the materials reflecting sociocultural experience of a particular country or region (e.g., Europe):

84    B. JANIUNAITE Miscellaneous relations between the countries highlight the importance of the so called global, international education. In many cases, educational content includes the material that helps pupils to perceive the global problems of today—demographical, environmental, lack of food, poverty, country development, crime, addiction, AIDS, etc. . . . The tendency of global education in contemporary educational science is often supplemented by an opposite trend—attempts to include the materials reflecting the originality of local geography, history, cultural traditions into the content of education. The new programs of Lithuanian schools will also strive for embodiment of local, national, regional and global perspectives, i.e., reflection of geography, environment, sociocultural experience and problems of particular locations, ethnical regions, national minorities, Lithuania and neighboring countries, especially those of the Baltic region, Europe and the world. This way, openness of Lithuanian education to other cultures, linguistic traditions, integral development will be secured and it will help to avoid the exaltation of one particular cultural region (e.g., Western Europe) or language (e.g., English). (p. 20)

Even though this document highlights the European dimension in the educational content, it also points out the importance of the global, international dimensions alongside the local and regional dimensions. In 1997, the Ministry of Education and Science of Lithuania developed Lietuvos bendrojo lavinimo mokyklos bendrosios programos (The General Curriculum of General Education) (Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija, 1997). It reflects the level of educational policy realisation through particular subject groups. In addition to other objectives of the school, one is especially emphasized: to contribute to the creation of a peaceful and harmonious Europe. General education acquires a common European dimension: it develops the culture of linguistic, cultural, economical, technological, juridical and political co-operation necessary for European nations and the consciousness of responsibility for the future of Europe. By presenting and developing traditional values of European culture, school contributes to preserving not only Lithuanian but European cultural identity. (p. 12) The school creates conditions for pupils to experience the basics of society and natural science knowledge, elementary technical, technological and practical skills, European religious and philosophical experience, to perceive the main political ideologies and economical theories, to gain aesthetical thinking and the skills of linguistic communication as well as historically grounded understanding of the Western culture. (p. 13)

The General Curriculum (Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija, 1997) states that one of the school’s objectives is the development of pupils’ civil consciousness. The school not only helps pupils “to cog-

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nize, understand and experience the historical and cultural heritage of the Lithuanian nation, to develop love for one’s own homeland, national identity and consciousness,” but also contributes to pupils’ “acquisition of European and world citizen’s consciousness” (p. 15). The school develops personal identity by revealing the inherited forms and ways of national behavior and cultural expression and by nurturing pupils’ national consciousness: By presenting the national and European cultural heritage, it strengthens children’s and young people’s confidence in tradition, develops dialogue and creative relationship with school. Pupils are guided to see the internal discrepancy of tradition, the positive and negative power of novelties. Traditions are presented for pupils as cultural, scientific, technical, technological juridical, social, economical and political experience of national and European community full of internal tensions. The school is trying to overcome national stereotypes, to prevent manifestations of discrimination in due time. It also develops an open, tolerant, but dignified attitude, based on partnership relationship with other European and global cultures and religions. Pupils get to know the development of the historical European and global cultures and religious experience, basic values of Western culture and essential contemporary problems of its manifestation as well as the peculiarities of the interaction between Lithuanian and Western cultures. Pupils are stimulated to feel responsibility not only for the future of their own country’s culture, but for the future of European culture, too. (p. 17)

In the General Curriculum (Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija, 1997) extensive attention is paid to the creation of Europe, to a presentation of the historical and cultural development of Europe and its basic values. Although one of the goals highlights an acquisition of European and global citizen’s consciousness and the development of European and global historical culture and religious experience, the European dimension predominates. In 1999, the priorities of the second stage of the education reform were confirmed. The basic directions and principles of this period (from 3 to 5 years) remained the same, though the most significant priorities were identified as: 1. modernisation of education and studies and development of the quality of education 2. development of social and pedagogical conditions for learning and studies 3. harmonisation of the educational system.

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In comparison to the first stage, the implementation of the reform was much better planned—the objectives and means of implementation of every priority were provided. In the objectives for the implementation of certain priorities, the most important tasks were pointed out. They were associated with the aspects of internationalisation: When creating a coherent system of educational monitoring, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), and other important documents were referred to. Drawing on them and the needs of the Lithuanian education system, there were attempts to identify Lithuanian indicators; society got constant information about the condition of Lithuanian education; European Union (EU), Nordic, and Baltic countries’ students and teachers’ mobility programs were launched; there were agreements concerning higher education academic qualifications; recognition between neighboring countries was prepared; regulations of higher education students’ mobility and qualification comparisons were worked out; the principle of free mobility was considered. There were also plans to create conditions for children of migrant families to learn according to the requirements of the EU directive 77/486 and to participate in the second stage of the EU educational programs. In 2003, The Constituent Assembly (Seimas) of the Republic of Lithuania passed a new amendment of the Law on Education of the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija, 2003). It created the conditions for further development of the education system of the country. It did not regulate the institutional structure of the education system but advised for a flexible and high quality educational process. The law is oriented towards the learner. Alongside with the other goals of education, the following aims were pointed out: • to present the basics of national and ethnic culture, traditions and values of humanistic European and global culture, to create the conditions for development of a person’s mature national consciousness, spiritual, aesthetical, research culture; to guarantee the continuity of national and country’s culture, preservation of its identity, constant creation of its values; to develop country’s openness and possibility of dialogue • to create conditions for a person to acquire the basics of a social and political culture that embodies democratic traditions, to develop the skills and experience necessary for a person as a competent citizen of Lithuania, a member of the European and global community and multicultural society The new law highlights the development of competent citizens of Lithuania and members of European and global community by letting them acquire

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not only the basics of ethnical culture but also the values and traditions of European and global humanistic culture. In other words, both dimensions—the European and international—are considered to be important. Change of the General Curriculum In 2003, Lietuvos bendrojo lavinimo mokyklos bendrosios programos ir išsilavinimo standartai (The General Curriculum and Educational Standards of General Education) (Lietuvos švietimo ministerijos švietimo aprūpinimo centras [Education Supply Centre of the Ministry of Education and Science of Lithuania], 2003) was updated. We can see the relationship with the General Curriculum of 1997 (Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija, 1997) by comparing the aims of several subjects. For example, the mission of the subject of geography in the General Curriculum of 1997 addresses two essential aims: 1. To highlight the national and regional identity of the analyzed phenomena by revealing similarities and particularities of local, regional, national, and global phenomena perceived in the context of global relationships 2. To develop an understanding of European identity in order to perceive oneself as an inhabitant of a European geographical region, a representative of European culture (p. 253) In the updated General Curriculum (Lietuvos švietimo ministerijos švietimo aprūpinimo centras, 2003), two new teaching aims are addressed: 1) to present the basics of geographical knowledge by revealing the aspects of closely linked environmental phenomena’s structure, process development, covering the system of the geographical spheres of the Earth; 2) to help the pupils to perceive the main global, regional, local problems of the world and mankind, the reasons of their origin, the ways of their solution, etc. (p. 384)

With reference to the aims, in the Curriculum of 1997 (Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija, 1997) a more distinct focus on European identity as an educational dimension can be identified, whereas in the document of 2003 (Lietuvos švietimo ministerijos švietimo aprūpinimo centras, 2003) the global, regional, and local values are highlighted; the importance of harmony between human beings and nature and national identity are pointed out. The General Curriculum of 2003 is more oriented towards the perception of the common system of the natural world by stressing democratic values, responsibility, and national, regional identities, or the global context. Nevertheless, in the introductory part of

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the document, several significant factors determining the change of educational content are pointed out. The European context is distinctive among them: the necessity to help pupils to become active citizens, patriots, committed members of both European and a global community; the change of the country’s political, economical, social and cultural life: globalisation, sustainable development, and integration of Lithuania into the European Union (Lietuvos švietimo ministerijos švietimo aprūpinimo centras, 2003). This shows the European focus through the regional aspect. In the General Curriculum of 1997 (Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija, 1997), school subjects in natural sciences are considered as providing the fundamental knowledge about nature and have an exceptional position in the history of European science and culture. In the General Curriculum of 2003 (Lietuvos švietimo ministerijos švietimo aprūpinimo centras, 2003), natural sciences are presented as an integral part of general education in preparing pupils for further life. Natural sciences are important not only because they provide knowledge essential for understanding the world but also to develop skills and embody values. The main aim of natural sciences is “to create the conditions for pupils to develop the basics of natural literacy. Pupils are prepared and matured for further life as citizens able to adapt in the changing society and ready to develop” (p. 322). The curricula of both periods highlight the significance of common scientific culture and literacy. In the curriculum of 1997, this aim is focused on pupils’ contemporary world perception based on scientific knowledge, the skills of scientific thinking and research, and the ability to use scientific knowledge. The document of 2003 highlights the significance of developing values and attitudes. The concept of natural literacy in the programs of 2003 is much wider. It covers not only knowledge and abilities, but also values: responsibility for the preservation of nature and rational usage of resources, care for other people, interest in the environment, responsibility for oneself, one’s own behavior, self-respect, and respect to others (p. 324). Policies and Influences of Other Institutes and Developments Strategy for the Lithuanian Education System from 2003–2012 A working group formed by Valdas Adamkus, President of the Republic of Lithuania has drawn up a draft strategy for the development of the Lithuanian education system for 2003–2012 (Boruta et al., 2002). The draft document aims to equip the educational reform in Lithuania with a practi-

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cal approach and links the educational reform to the major changes in the country and reforms in other areas. The strategy points out that educational change has to be more consistently based on the guidelines of European educational development and common European values. Further Lithuanian educational change should be oriented towards the educational guidelines and goals of the EU countries: • Education is powerful in consolidating the community of European citizens. It is the most important guarantee of the common European values and preservation of the multicultural European heritage. It has to be based on the European dimension and the culture of one’s own country, to develop European citizenship and multilingualism typical of Europe. • Education is the main means of human resources development, the competitiveness of a particular country and Europe, a guarantee of employment and social stability. • Education is the guarantee of economy creation based on the knowledge society and knowledge. • Even today, education of the country has to be oriented towards European education, towards a more open European labor market and the mobility of European citizens. • By becoming a member of the EU, Lithuania must provide education to the children of the European countries’ migrating employees. • The revised educational content should highlight and develop the following personal qualities and values: self-esteem and respect for other people, love of one’s neighbor, tolerance, patriotism, solidarity, respect for the tradition of one’s own national and country’s tradition and readiness to develop it, respect for the tradition of European culture and the variety of global cultures. • The systems of teachers’ training and qualification development should be consistently based and should purposefully strengthen the following teacher’s characteristics and values: tolerance, active patriotism, and public spirit; respect for the principles of democracy; respect for the tradition of Lithuanian culture and readiness to develop it; respect for the tradition of European culture and the variety of global cultures. On July 4, 2003 The Constituent Assembly (Seimas) of the Republic of Lithuania passed the main political document of the development of Lithuanian education—The State Strategy for Education 2003–2012 (Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija, 2003). This document presents the main guidelines and indicators for education. The provisions of the strategy draw a new horizon for the educational reform that can be called

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the third stage of the reform. The provisions were prepared on the basis of the State Long-Term Development Strategy, the Long-Term Development Strategy for Lithuanian Economy by 2015, the European Memorandum on Life-Long Learning, the European Employment Strategy, the Bologna Declaration, the goals raised by the European Commission for the development of EU countries’ education by 2010. At present, the State Strategy for Education for 2003–2012 is the main document defining the vision for the development of Lithuanian education. On its basis, a national agreement concerning the future of national education was drawn up in 2003. The main values and principles are declared in the provisions of the above-mentioned State Strategy: “Education of Lithuania is based on the main values of national, European and global culture: personal value and dignity, original equality among people, love to one’s neighbor, human freedom and rights, tolerance, declaration of democratic relationship within the society” (Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija, 2003, p. 9.). In order to guarantee the quality of the development of education, a reinforced learning of foreign languages is highlighted with a vision that all secondary school graduates could be able to speak two foreign languages. Good knowledge of two or three foreign languages becomes a natural part of higher education. By modernizing educational research and assessment, research on different spheres of education is regularly ordered and carried out. Lithuania consistently participates in international comparative educational research. The main goals by 2012 require that not less than 70% of pupils graduating from the basic school should have first foreign language skills meeting the requirements of the threshold level according to the common European framework of reference (CEFR); less than 70% of the secondary school graduates should have the first foreign-language skills at the level of vantage, whereas the skills of the second foreign language should be at the level of threshold. Integrating the European Dimension What basic activities were carried out when integrating the European dimension? • The Europass Language Passport was adapted for Lithuanian secondary school pupils (16–18) and piloted (1,000 copies). • Two pilot projects devoted to integrated language and subject learning (Lithuanian–English, Lithuanian–French, Lithuanian–German) and bilingual learning (Lithuanian–Russian) were carried out.

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• Early foreign language learning is expanding; the number of pupils who choose to start learning English in the 2nd form at primary school is growing. • Teachers participate in Comenius projects. In 2004, 116 Comenius 2.2. applications (language and general courses, language assistants) received funding. Three primary teacher training projects were supported. Comenius 1 “European school partnership projects” funded 182 projects. After Lithuania joined the EU in 2004, the budget of the three programs promoting mobility (Comenius, Erasmus, and Grundtvig) has increased. In comparison to 2003, the funds for these programs from the European Commission increased almost four times: from LTL 4,2 million in 2003 to LTL 14,8 million this year. According to the preliminary data, in 2004–2005, 1,500 students participated in the students’ exchange program Erasmus. During the same period, 600 teachers in higher education participated in exchanges. In 2004, about 200 school groups went abroad on Comenius school exchange programs. In 2003, this number was less than half this figure. Lithuania is also becoming more attractive to students from other countries. The numbers of students coming to Lithuania on Erasmus programs are increasing. About 500 students came in the academic year 2004–2005, which is twice as many as in the previous year. Future teachers participating in the primary teacher-training project also show more active interest in Lithuania. Comenius language assistants come to Lithuania from Germany, Italy, the UK, and other countries. • The renewed General Curriculum and Educational Standards of General Education (Lietuvos švietimo ministerijos švietimo aprūpinimo centras, 2003) highlighted the competencies that pupils need to acquire by the end of their secondary education to become future citizens of their own country, Europe, and the world. • The European dimension is integrated in the syllabi of different subjects. For example, Europe is chosen as an integrating theme in Learning about the World in the primary school curriculum, Geography in the basic curriculum, and in Foundations of Civic Education. Pupils discuss the role of Lithuania as an EU member state, the European integration process, co-operation of the EU countries, cultural diversity, population mobility, and preservation of ecological equilibrium. They discuss what it means to be a European, what constitutes human, child, and European values. • The cross-curricular framework has been developed. This includes learning to learn, communication, civic competence, entrepreneurship, cultural awareness, healthy living, and safe environment.

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• Since 2004, foreign language teaching has pursued new directions: an environment favorable to language learning has been created, multilingualism and different initiatives of teaching and learning foreign languages are encouraged, cooperation between formal and informal educational institutions and other countries’ institutions in language learning is stimulated. From 2008, the country was ready to start compulsory early teaching of foreign languages. The change of educational content in Lithuania is closely connected with international cooperation. In 1995, Lithuania participated in the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)—the international assessment of seventh- and eighth-grade pupils’ achievements—for the first time. Though the results of the Lithuanian pupils were rather low, the research was very significant. Its materials were used for the preparation of the general programs and educational standards, writing new textbooks, and the creation of tasks for pupils’ assessment. In 1998, Lithuanian pupils participated in the research TIMSS-R. The results of the research showed that pupils’ achievements were much better and were close to the average of the TIMSS countries. Lithuania was among the countries that had made the biggest progress. Lithuanian schools also take part in the following international research projects: Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), Civic Education study (CIVIC), Computers in Education (CompEd), Second Information Technology in Education Study (SITES), Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), International Civic and Citizenship Education Study (ICCS), Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS), and The European School Survey Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs (ESPAD). The Dissemination of EU Strategic Guidelines for Education and Human Resource Development in Lithuania In October 2003, Vilnius hosted a sub-regional conference, “Quality of education for all: Major skills of lifelong learning. European dimension and the vision of the Baltic countries.” The event was held in association with UNESCO, the World Bank, the United Nations Development Program, and the Open Society Fund. The conference dealt with the quality of education, the new role of teachers, and approaches of different countries to this issue; there were presentations of national practices for pursuing and implementing the objectives of the program “Education for all,” organizing and implementing the “Lifelong Learning” program, also translating into action the educational reforms at all levels; the conference discussed

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the outlook for national education systems within the European Union and surveyed the opportunities for closer regional cooperation in the sphere of education. In March 2004, the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Lithuania organised an international conference entitled “The challenges of the Lisbon strategy for European educational systems. Is Lithuania ready to deal with them?” The participants of the conference deliberated the development and strategy of the Lithuanian educational system and discussed the national education system in the context of the peer systems of the EU member states. At the close of 2004, the Ministry of Education and Science in all regional centers of Lithuania held seminars entitled “Education and Training 2010. Harmonising the Lisbon strategy and national educational policy.” The regional seminars featured the presentation of the aspects of national implementation of the Lisbon strategy, debates about the compatibility between the strategy and the Lithuanian Vocational Education and Training (VET) policy, the implementation of the lifelong learning strategy in Lithuania, the EU, Structural Funds as an instrument of implementing the Lisbon goals, as well as information about the transparency and recognition of qualifications and regional development. The Bologna Process Promoters disseminated the information about how to apply the principles of the process to specific academic or other activities within the academic communities of higher schools. The promoters also informed the communities about the priority fields of the Bologna process, which ministers defined at a conference in Berlin. On May 5, 2005, Vilnius was the scene of the conference “Bologna Process and Institutions of Higher Education.” This conference was organized by the national group of promoters of the Bologna Process. The group’s activities are coordinated by the Socrates Fund (The Ministry of Education and Science of Lithuania, 2005). Actual Trends and Discussions The greatest problem in Lithuania is the readiness of teachers to implement the new curriculum and use modern teaching/learning and assessment methods. Until now, teachers have not been trained for early and integrated foreign language and subject teaching. The European dimension should be more thoroughly embedded in the educational content; teachers need more teaching materials and in-service training (The Ministry of Education and Science of Lithuania, 2005). The number of foreigners’ children at secondary schools has a tendency to grow in Lithuania. The research results show that there are obstacles for the successful education of these children: lack of teachers’ methodological

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knowledge and literature about teaching foreigners; education content is not oriented towards interculturalism; foreigners’ children do not know the state language (Lithuanian) (The State Strategy for Education, 2003–2007, Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija, 2003). Children and adults, as well as citizens of the Republic of Lithuania who come to live and work in Lithuania without the knowledge of the Lithuanian language, can take a one-year course of Lithuanian in remedial classes or mobile groups before following studies at schools of general education. The research into foreigners’ children’s education showed that the barriers to successful communication are teachers’ inability to speak foreign languages and a lack of methodological knowledge and literature about teaching foreigners. Pupils in senior classes face inconveniences because of different requirements and the assessment of achievement. Foreigners’ families and their children also face a lack of interculturalism in educational content and special teaching aids. Integrated language and subject teaching should be expanded to ensure that pupils learn foreign languages at an earlier age and that there is a greater variety of languages offered (not only English, German, and French) (The Ministry of Education and Science of Lithuania, 2005). According to the EU Language policy and the requirements of the State Strategy for Education (2003–2012), Lithuanian citizens should know two foreign languages in addition to their native language (Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija, 2003). People should start learning languages from a very early age. A common trend to learn foreign languages at a very early age and the learning of more than one foreign language has been noticeable in Europe. Meanwhile, Lithuania is the only country in the EU where the index of compulsory foreign language hours per year is three times lower than in other countries. It is difficult to say whether the early teaching and learning of foreign languages is a matter of fashion or a necessity. At present, it might be called a fashionable necessity in Europe. But in order to make foreign language teaching in primary classes better and to successfully introduce compulsory foreign language teaching at an early age, it is necessary to supply schools with appropriate equipment, methodological and teaching aids, and to revise the list of textbooks and make recommendations for teachers about how to select teaching aids. It is also important to stimulate young teachers and those with less experience to develop their qualifications and professional competence and to organize different after-class activities for the development of foreign language skills. At the national level, it is important to renew the General Program of Early Foreign Language Teaching and education standards. Because of a lack of specialists, not all schools at present are able to provide pupils with an opportunity to learn foreign languages according to the program of

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early foreign language teaching. Therefore, it is not possible to answer the question about the real need of foreign language teaching at an early age. In the period 2002–2006, foreign language teaching in the fourth grade was accessible to 40% of pupils through the early foreign language teaching program. The arguments against introduction of foreign language teaching from the second grade are as follows: Children are different, and therefore, without a revision of the whole education program, introduction of early foreign-language teaching would make their learning more difficult; compulsory foreign language teaching at an early age would be ineffective as the number of hours in the education plan is insufficient; introduction of foreign language teaching at an early age would be problematic for most schools (especially in rural areas) because of the lack of qualified teachers; in primary classes, it is important to focus on the native language; at nonLithuanian schools, it is necessary to focus on learning a state language, not a foreign one; it would be more complicated to set timetables, if foreign language teachers worked at primary classes too (Skripskiene, 2006). Summing up the trends of internationalisation policy, one may note that in the changes made in Lithuanian education policy (inspired by the restoration of the state) and the integration of Lithuania into the European Union, a consistent orientation not only to local, national, but regional (European), global education of public spirit remains in the fundamental education policy documents. As for the reflection of the balance between the regional and global dimension, a bigger focus is on the implementation of the European dimension in education, but this is associated with the development of Lithuania as an EU country and particular political obligations. The analysis revealed that there is no special documentation on the aspects of internationalisation, but separate aspects of internationalisation are included into all basic documents of education policy. They have been developed with reference not only to local problems but also the main global and European education strategies. References Boruta, J., Gudynas, P., Jackūnas, Z., Karosas, J., Kuolys, D., Lukšienė, M., . . .  Vebraitė, V. (2002). Lietuvos švietimo plėtotės strateginės nuostatos. Švietimo gairės 2003–2012. Projektas [The State Strategy for Education 2003–2012. Project]. Vilnius, Lithuania: Švietimo kaitos fondas. Dereškevičius, P. (Ed.). (1993). Lietuvos švietimo reformos gairės: Str.rinkinys. [The Guidelines of Educational Reform in Lithuania]. Vilnius, Lithuania: Valstybinis leidybos centras. Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija. (1997). Lietuvos bendrojo lavinimo mokyklos bendrosios programos. I-X klasės. [The General Curriculum of General Education]. Vilnius, Lithuania: Švietimo aprūpinimo centras.

96    B. JANIUNAITE Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija. (2003). Valstybinė švietimo strategija 2003–2012 [The State Strategy for Education 2003–2012]. Retrieved from http://www.smm.lt Lietuvos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija. (1991). Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo įstatymas [The Law on Education of the Republic of Lithuania]. Retrieved from http:// www3.lrs.lt/pls Lietuvos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija. (1992). Lietuvos švietimo koncepcija [The General Concept of Education in Lithuania]. Retrieved from http://www. smm.lt/strategija Lietuvos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija. (2003). Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo įstatymas [The Law on Education of the Republic of Lithuania]. Retrieved from http:// www3.lrs.lt/pls Lietuvos švietimo ministerijos švietimo aprūpinimo centras. (2003). Lietuvos bendrojo lavinimo mokyklos bendrosios programos ir išsilavinimo standartai. Priešmokyklinis, pradinis ir pagrindinis ugdymas [The General Curriculum and Educational Standards of General Education]. Vilnius, Lithuania: Švietimo aprūpinimo centras. Lietuvos TSR Liaudies švietimo ministerija. Pedagogikos mokslinio tyrimo institutas. (1989). Tautinė mokykla. Mokyklų tipų koncepcijų projektai. [The National School. Concepts of different School Types]. Kaunas, Lithuania: Šviesa. Skripskiene, R. (2006). Ankstyvasis užsienio kalbų mokymas—Būtinybė ar mada? [Foreign language teaching—A necessity or fashion?]. Švietimo problemos analizė, lapkritis, 7(10), 4. The Ministry of Education and Science of Lithuania. (2005). Modernisation of the education and training systems. Towards the 2010 common goals of the European Union. Preparation for the Joint Council/Commission Report of 2006. Vilnius, Lithuania: Author.

Chapter 7

The Case of the Netherlands Henk Oonk

Policy of the Ministry of Education since 1990 Parallel to and partly as a consequence of European initiatives, Dutch internationalisation policy received a significant push in the early 1990s. The first policy document on internationalisation by former Minister Ritzen, entitled Grenzen Verleggen (Widening Horizons) was published in 1991 (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap [Ministry of Education, Culture and Science], 1991).1 It is interesting to consider the aim of internationalisation expressed in this policy document. The aim is described as follows: “Activities aimed at the structural enhancement of the international orientation and reputation of Dutch education so that education acquires maximum access to the knowledge and experiences at international level, can benefit optimally from international partnerships and programs, and can contribute to international cooperation” (p. 5). With regard to secondary education, a reference is made to the importance of the international dimension in the core objectives and considerable value is attached to exchanges. National programs will be initiated to promote internationalisation in the EU and with neighboring countries, in addition to the bilateral programs, which have existed for much longer Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 97–107 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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(based on cultural agreements with various countries, which are usually limited in scope). The core of this first policy document lives on in current policy (e.g., enhancement of pupil exchanges and of cooperation with Germany, Belgium, and France, facilitation of study visits for teachers, and promotion of bilingual education). In order to facilitate the effective implementation of both European and Dutch programmes, CEVNO2 was transformed, in 1993, into the much larger Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs (European Platform for Dutch education). The board of this organisation consists of representatives from Catholic, Protestant, public, and general special education. The Ministry of Education finances the core tasks of the European Platform in The Netherlands, including research and analysis, national and bilateral programmes, and the implementation costs of EU programs. The first policy document of 1991 was followed in 1997 by the policy document entitled Onbegrensd Talent (Infinite Talent) with an action plan by the same minister (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 1997). The highly positive response from the schools to existing internationalisation activities make launching new initiatives unnecessary. Once again, this confirms that internationalisation contributes to the optimal preparation of individuals for their personal and social roles in The Netherlands and elsewhere, that it promotes European and global citizenship, and that the quality of education is improved through learning from each other’s education systems. Former Minister Hermans oversaw the publication of the policy documents entitled Kennis: Geven en Nemen (Knowledge: Give and Take; Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 1999) and Onderwijs Voor Wereldburgers (Education for World Citizens; (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 2001). The emphasis, however, is somewhat different. This is particularly true of the latter document. Discussions were held on the need for an international orientation with a focus not only on learning foreign languages and about foreign cultures but also on “an interaction between internationalisation and intercultural education, with attention being paid to schools with a lot of ethnic minority pupils and associated contacts with countries of origin, including opportunities for teacher mobility” (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 2001, p. 15). When summarizing the objectives, the accents are all on international orientation, and there is no mention of the European aspects (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 2001, p. 13). When taking these views into consideration, it makes sense that the policy document talks about world citizens and not European citizens. During her tenure, former Minister Van der Hoeven did commission the Onderwijsraad (Education Council), the most important advisory body in the field of education, to compile a number of important recommendations on European developments. In 2004, the Dutch government published a

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response to the recommendations of the Education Council on “European citizenship” (Van der Hoeven, 2004). The government felt it was important that Dutch citizens appreciate the broader context of the EU of which The Netherlands is part. Various policy plans refer to internationalisation or enhancement of the European dimension. The Education Council’s idea to develop a certificate for Europe competence also garnered a degree of interest, and the European Platform in The Netherlands was asked to compile recommendations on the matter. The Education Council’s proposal to draw up an internationalisation agenda had the complete backing of the former minister (Van der Hoeven, 2006b). She referred to the support she had given to the Elos Project, which was designed to give the curriculum a European and international orientation, the promotion of bilingual education, and the possibility of highlighting French and German in primary education. This latter theme (i.e., foreign-language education) emerged from the foreign languages activities program published in response to a European request for an action plan (Van der Hoeven, 2005). A reference is made to the initiative to increase the focus on French and German. In 2005, there was also support for a German initiative from the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia to develop an additional European certificate for secondary education pupils in addition to national final examinations; this certificate was named “Certilingua.” During the first stage of the project, a “label of excellence” was developed for pupils excelling in pre-university education. In order to become eligible for the label, the pupils had to: • have a command of at least two foreign languages at the minimum CEFR level of B2 • use at least one of those languages as a working language (bilingual education or bilingual modules in any event at upper secondary school level) • attain, as regards EIO, Level 4 of the Common Framework for Europe Competence (CFEC) A representative appointed by the Ministry of Education must accredit schools that want to issue Certilingua certificates to pupils. At the beginning of 2008, the following federal states and countries were participating in this project: North Rhine-Westphalia, Berlin, Hessen, Niedersachsen, Thüringen, Rheinland-Pfalz, Sachsen, Finland, Austria, and The Netherlands. Other countries and federal states have indicated their interest to do so. This project was managed by a steering committee consisting of representatives from participating Ministries of Education. The European secretariat tasks were performed by the Ministerium für Schule und Weiterbildung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen in Düsseldorf.

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The educational freedom enshrined in the constitution prevents the Dutch government from directly determining the content of education. The government does, however, bear responsibility for the quality of education (e.g., by establishing core objectives, attainment targets, and school-leaving examinations). A number of core objectives pertain to Dutch and European civics and the role of citizens and to countries of the European Union. A letter submitted to the EU outlines government policy relating to Europe and education (Van der Hoeven, 2006a). According to the letter, education can make a significant contribution when it comes to training young people to become full-fledged citizens in Europe. Knowledge of European institutes is also key, as is attention to the common values, which serve as the basis for cooperation in the EU. Attention for citizenship in The Netherlands and Europe is a theme that was recently laid down in law: Education at all levels has a task to perform as regards citizen development (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 2005). This is also occurring in a number of individual EU member states, as well as at the EU level. Of course, the Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science fully supports the implementation of the EU’s Lifelong Learning Program (LLP), initiated in 2007, about which a number of comments have already been made in Chapter 2. Moreover, The Netherlands, together with other member states and EU institutions, regularly exchange ideas on the progress of the 2010 Education and Training Work Program. The fact that the Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science has created a separate dossier on education and the EU on the ministerial website reflects the significance of EU policy.3 The “open coordination method” was discussed at the meeting of the European Education, Youth and Culture Council of February 2008. Most Member States are highly positive about this method, and the outcomes have been embraced. The former Minister of Education, Ronald Plasterk, has expressed his doubts about the use of European targets, which, although they can increase the focus on a certain field, can also take on a life of their own and fail to take into account the very diverse situations in the various member states (Plasterk, 2008). When looking at the policy of the past 20 years, schools have enjoyed a considerable degree of continuity under the leadership of various ministers of education with different political backgrounds as regards the implementation of programs. There are, however, differences in focus between a more European (Christian Democrats), a more international direction (Liberals), and a combination (Social Democrats) of both. As far as the schools are concerned, this international direction is aimed at the I part of the EIO concept. From a thematic perspective, the international part of EIO is more straightforward but lacks the political framework such as that of the EU. The international part does not have programs like the EU, at

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least not in secondary education. Nevertheless, the themes have been dealt with for decades in the curricula and textbooks of various subjects, and there is also a great deal of interest in this problem among teachers and pupils. At many schools throughout Europe, there is more interest in international issues than in the European ones, which fits in with the proposition referred to previously that few can see the European woods for the national trees. Common themes include development co-operation, war and peace, the UN, human rights, globalisation, climate change, international environmental pollution, migration flows, and, in recent years, Islam and Islamic extremism. There are also European aspects to the themes referred to, and proper coordination between both EIO parts is vitally important. In Chapter 1, we stated that EU education programs focus more on variety than on common themes. We questioned whether the member states would take responsibility for tackling the common European themes. The Netherlands emerges positively from the above policy analysis. Policy and Influences of Other Institutes and Developments In recent years, Dutch policy has also been heavily influenced by the recommendations of the Education Council. In 2003, it issued recommendations on the consequences of the Lisbon Strategy for Dutch education (Onderwijsraad, 2003) and, in 2004, on the European influences on Dutch education (Onderwijsraad, 2004b). The Education Council feels the European agenda, which highlights investment in the knowledge economy, will be an enduring influence on the national policy agenda: While the structuring of education and training systems is formally an issue of individual Member States, joint, harmonisation agreements are made, which influence education in the EU context in areas such as social policy and the internal market. Europe is sneaking, as it were, the education system in via the back door. (Onderwijsraad, 2003, p. 30)

In 2004, recommendations were also published on European citizenship, a theme with strong ties to the European and international orientation (Onderwijsraad, 2004a). The Education Council advocates a threeprong orientation when it comes to dealing with the issue of Europe in schools. First, there has to be a focus on Europe as part of the canon of general education of each citizen. There is also a reference to the core objectives in primary education and examination requirements in secondary education. A focus on Europe is then required as regards skills (e.g., at least two foreign languages from an early age and the development of European

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culture), and finally a critical assessment of Europe is also important. The Education Council acknowledges that a European orientation among pupils also has ties to the developing concept of European citizenship but that this aspect is associated with uncertain outcomes regarding the EU’s future development. With regard to the issue of training European citizens, I have previously advocated the development of EIO educational practice as a basis for European citizenship (see also Part B). The Dutch government’s response to the recommendations has been highly positive (Van der Hoeven, 2004). Raising the profile of the European dimension based on a Europe competence and an associated certificate has garnered interest. In a response to other Education Council recommendations, the Minister has stated that internationalisation must permeate to the very heart of education (Van der Hoeven, 2006b) and that, as a consequence, support must be given to the Elos Project, bilingual education, and the possibility of focusing on French and German in primary education. The next section discusses the Education Council’s recommendations in relation to the International Baccalaureate. In 2007 and 2008, the Education Council had so far not published any recommendations relating to internationalisation. However, the 2008 annual report does refer to the ambition of ranking among the European knowledge economy elite (Onderwijsraad, 2008) and includes an overview of the performance of Dutch pupils on the OECD league table (30 countries). In comparison to other countries, Dutch pupils who score “average” or “poor” are high in the table, although the scores of our best pupils are lower than those of the pupils who score best in other countries (p. 3). The National Modern Languages Bureau (Nationaal Bureau Moderne Vreemde Talen) plays an active role in the field of foreign languages. In 2004, an outline of the situation of foreign language education in The Netherlands was published (Edelenbos, De Jong, & Westhoff, 2004). The policy document states that this kind of education is of prime importance for The Netherlands. It is therefore a shame that so little research is done into the influence of certain innovations or practical methods of working. As no additional time is made available in the curriculum for foreign languages, it is recommended that as much use as possible be made of the internationalisation activities in the schools. The authors feel The Netherlands is generally overoptimistic about the level of language education. Although the European Platform in The Netherlands is an implementing agency, there are still opportunities to take policy initiatives and start new developments in consultation with the Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science. For example, the plan was conceived to start the Elos Project in 2004 in order to attempt to implement Europe as a learning environment in schools. With the support of the Ministry and the European Commission, this resulted in a European network of Elos schools in a large num-

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ber of member states. This project and the results are examined in more detail elsewhere in this publication, and this publication can be regarded as one of the results. In 2004, empirical research was completed with support of the Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science into the meaning of internationalisation and its results in secondary education in The Netherlands (Oonk, 2004). The outcomes of the study provided starting points for further developments in subsequent years. Actual Trends and Discussions It is striking that internationalisation policy has been undisputed over the last 20 years, and we think this will be continued in the same way in the years to come in terms of programs and available finances, albeit with certain accentual differences. Whereas other themes in education quietly disappear with time, this is not the case regarding internationalisation. I have already mentioned that it is precisely the bipolar nature of European cooperation that is a source of innovative activities. The fact that the member states are themselves responsible for education means they consider it extremely important not to leave internationalisation policy entirely to the European Commission. This fact is conducive to the continuity of national internationalisation policy. In The Netherlands, it is also interesting that there is constant growth of schools with a bilingual department and, in general, considerable interest in the foreign language initiatives. Whereas there were five schools with a bilingual department in 1993, in 2007–2008 there were 92, with another 10 ready to go.4 This means that approximately 15% of Dutch secondary schools have a bilingual department. With the exception of one (involving German), most are bilingual in English. Bilingual education schools can apply for a quality mark from the European Platform in The Netherlands, which has assigned the assessment to a panel of experts.5 This quality mark is based on the standard developed in cooperation with the national network of bilingual education schools. The focus regarding results is a high level of English language skill and EIO (Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs, 2003). Although—so far—English could only be taught in upper primary education, a change in legislation means that, since 2006, it has also been possible to teach French, German, and other foreign languages. The LinQ Project was initiated in order to highlight French and German more in secondary and primary education.6 An increasing number of schools enable pupils to earn a foreign language certificate in addition to their national diploma.7 Certilingua is working to ensure that this need is fulfilled.

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The 2006 mobility monitor reports on the striking stability of the Dutch schools choosing the national option. Germany occupies the undisputed first place, followed by Italy with about half the number of pupils. Belgium has pushed France from third place, and Spain has moved into fifth place. The number of partnerships with British schools is limited primarily because British schools prefer partnerships with Italy, Spain, or France. Notable growth can be seen in Turkey with the level of pupil exchanges generally being comparable. In 2006, nearly 23,000 pupils participated in pupil exchanges, and almost 7,000 teachers visited another EU member state. Almost 70% of outgoing mobility occurs in secondary education, 6% in primary education, with the remainder involving other sectors (Nuffic, 2007). The Netherlands deploys national resources for international contacts. For example, the renewed national program Bevordering Internationale Oriëntatie en Samenwerking (BIOS; Promotion of International Orientation and Cooperation) will be started in 2008 for a period of four years, offering subsidies for pupil exchanges, in-service training for teachers, and other international activities. Although, as mentioned previously, internationalisation policy enjoys broad support, a certain amount of controversy about the continued development arose during the course of 2006. This controversy affected the eventual internationalisation objectives, particularly the relationship between national and European/international identity. In short, the matter boils down to the following: At the end of 2004, a parliamentary majority voted in favor of a motion in which the Minister of Education was asked to open up the International Baccalaureate (IB) for regular Dutch pupils. The Minister did not believe it was an option to respond to this motion since The Netherlands had no control over these IB schools, the tuition fees are twice as high, and the official language is English. The decision was taken to ask the Education Council for advice. (Onderwijsraad, 2006). The Education Council recommended that the IB be situated in the middle of the international curricula and learning pathways as a possible variant and that it be opened up temporarily for senior general secondary education/ pre-university education schools and pupils. The Minister invited various institutions and individuals to respond to these recommendations. The responses were generally positive, with the exception of those of the European Platform in The Netherlands (Oonk, 2006), which maintained, for example, that this introduction would create an undesirable dichotomy between “first-rate” English language education and “second-rate” Dutch language education and that it would cause the Dutch government to lose sovereignty and authority in the education field. In fact, bilingual education involving English is the most suitable formula for The Netherlands. Based on the responses, the Minister decided to initiate a pilot with a number of secondary schools. The limits of internation-

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alisation will become clearer in the years to come. Interestingly, similar discussions have taken place in a number of other EU member states, and the initiative to start Certilingua is based partly on these considerations. It can be concluded that national internationalisation policy in The Netherlands has a solid foundation, can count on considerable interest from schools, and is sufficiently financed by the Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science. Notes 1. I am indebted to Wolter Blankert, head of the subsidy programs of the European Platform in The Netherlands (Europees Platform) in Alkmaar, for a number of suggestions. 2. The Contact Group for European Information in Dutch Education (Contactgroep voor Europese Voorlichting in het Nederlandse Onderwijs, CEVNO) was established in The Hague in 1961 on the initiative of political parties, teachers unions, the Ministry of Education and Science, and the Information Services Bureau (Bureau van de Voorlichtingsdienst) of the EEC. 3. www.minocw.nl/euonderwijs 4. Overview of primary and secondary schools with early foreign language education, additional emphasis on language education, and bilingual education in The Netherlands, 2007–2008, European Platform in The Netherlands. Compiled by Linda Geene, Reinier Maljers, and Anne Maljers. 5. As of mid-2007, approximately half of bilingual education schools have been awarded a quality mark. 6. The overview in footnote 4 refers to 121 primary schools offering foreign language education: 96 English, 16 German, and 15 French (some schools offer more than one language). There are 22 secondary schools that place additional emphasis on English, 18 for German, and 22 for French (here, too, some schools focus additional emphasis on more than one single language). 7. This involves sitting such examinations as those offered by the Goethe Institute, as well as the Delf scolaire examinations, Cambridge, IB English and Anglia examinations.

References Edelenbos, P., De Jong, J. H. A. L., & Westhoff, G.J. (2004). Vreemdetalenonderwijs in Nederland: Een situatieschets [Foreign-language education in The Netherlands: Sketch of a situation]. Enschede, The Netherlands: NaB-MVT. Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs. (2003). Standaard Europees Platform tweetalig onderwijs Engels-vwo (2003) [ Standard European Platform bilingual education English pre-university education]. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Author.

106   H. OONK Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap. (1991). Grenzen verleggen: Nota internationalisering van het onderwijs [Widening horizons: Memorandum on internationalisation]. Den Haag, The Netherlands: SDU. Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap. (1997). Onbegrensd talent: Internationalisering van onderwijs [Infinite talent: Internationalizing education]. Den Haag, The Netherlands: SDU. Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap. (1999). Kennis: Geven en nemen: Internationalisering van het onderwijs in Nederland [Knowledge: Give and take: Internationalizing education in The Netherlands]. Den Haag, The Netherlands: SDU. Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap. (2001). Onderwijs voor wereldburgers: Hoofdlijnenbrief internationaal beleid [Education for world citizens: Outline document international policy]. Zoetermeer, The Netherlands: Author. Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap. (2005). Wetsvoorstel 29959 “Bevordering actief burgerschap en sociale integratie” [Proposal Bill 29959 “Promoting active citizenship and social integration”]. Den Haag, The Netherlands: Author. Nuffic. ( 2007). Internationale mobiliteit in het onderwijs in Nederland [International mobility in Dutch education]. Den Haag, The Netherlands: Author. Oonk, G. H. (2004). European integration as a source of innovation in education: A study of the meaning of internationalisation and its results in secondary education in the Netherlands. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs. Oonk, G.H. (2006). Response by the European Platform in the Netherlands to the recommendations of the Education Council on international learning pathways and the international baccalaureate. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs. Onderwijsraad. (2003). Europese richtpunten voor het Nederlandse onderwijs: De bijdrage van onderwijs aan een sterke nationale en internationale kenniseconomie [European benchmarks for Dutch Education: The contribution of education to a strong national and international knowledge economy]. Den Haag, The Netherlands: Author. Onderwijsraad. (2004a). Onderwijs in Europa: Europees burgerschap [Education in Europe: European citizenship]. Den Haag, The Netherlands: Author. Onderwijsraad. (2004b). Onderwijs in Europa: Europese invloeden in Nederland [Education in Europe: European influences in The Netherlands]. Den Haag, The Netherlands: Author. Onderwijsraad. (2006). Internationale leerwegen en het Internationale Baccalaureaat [International learning routes and the International Baccalaureate]. Den Haag, The Netherlands: Author. Onderwijsraad. (2008). Gesteld op onderwijs, Jaarboekje 2007 [To be fond of education, Yearbook 2007]. Den Haag, The Netherlands: Author. Plasterk, R. H. A. (2008). Verslag van de EU-onderwijs-, Jeugd- en Cultuur Raad van 14 febr. 2008, Kamerstuk 05-03-08) [Report from the EU Education, Youth and Culture Council of 14 February 2008, Lower House of the States General]. Den Haag, The Netherlands: Ministry of Education, Culture and Science.

The Case of the Netherlands    107 Van der Hoeven, M. J. A. (2004). Kabinetsreactie op het advies van de Onderwijsraad over Europees burgerschap [Dutch government’s response to the recommendations of the Education Council on European Citizenship] (Ref. BOA/ ADV/2004/47015). Den Haag, The Netherlands: Ministry of Education, Culture and Science. Van der Hoeven, M. J. A. (2005). Nederlands activiteitenprogramma moderne vreemde talen [Dutch activities programme modern foreign languages] (Ref. VO/ OK/2005/47742). Den Haag, The Netherlands: Ministry of Education, Culture and Science. Van der Hoeven, M. J. A. (2006a). Europa-brief [ Europe letter] (Ref. 2005–2006, Parliamentary Document 22452, No. 24). Den Haag, The Netherlands: Ministry of Education, Culture and Science. Van der Hoeven, M. J. A. (2006b). Internationalisering van het onderwijs [Internationalising education] (Ref. 2005–2006, Parliamentary Document 22452, No. 24). Den Haag, The Netherlands: Ministry of Education, Culture and Science.

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Chapter 8

The Case of Poland Policies of Internationalisation in Polish Education at the Turn of the 20th and 21st Centuries Grażyna Czetwertyńska

Policy Ministry of Education from 1990 When speaking about international cooperation and developing international attitudes in Poland at the start of the 21st century, we need to remember the political and economic changes that took place in the country during the final decade of the 20th century. Changes in education included structural and curricular changes from the previous eight-year primary school and four- to five-year secondary school, to six years of primary school, three years of middle school, and three to four years of secondary school; the structural reform of the Polish system of education was conducted in 1999. In curricula, this involved changes in the teaching of foreign languages (from 100% of students from age 12 learning Russian, to approximately 5% learning Russian and widespread teaching of English today). Poland’s accession to NATO and the European Union, the return of a capitalist economy, moving away from ideology at school—all this has changed the image of Polish schools. Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 109–121 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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Education Policy Trends Current trends in the education policy of European Union countries, including Poland, are the effect of an increased awareness of the future role of a well-educated civil society. The possibility of traveling around Europe and the world, new demands made by the labor market, and increasingly multicultural communities, force action to be taken to ensure flexibility, innovation, and openness of the education process. Consequently, supranational indices are increasingly being sought so that cohesion of work at different education levels can be achieved. A special role in the education of children and young people is played by activities aimed at fulfilling the priority of opening the education systems to Europe and the world, including developing mobility and exchange, improving foreign-language learning, and consolidating European cooperation. The priorities of Poland’s education policy are a part of the implementation of the Lisbon Strategy as well as serving to initiate and stimulate activities aimed at obtaining key competences in the process of life-long learning. In Polish education policy, great emphasis is placed on developing foreign-language communication skills, social and civic competence, as well as learning skills. Internationalisation policy in education is understood to mean activity related to: • European and international orientation—comprehensive educational activities aimed at obtaining knowledge and skills of a European and world standard—learning history, social sciences, geography, economics • teaching of modern languages, including advanced level and bilingual teaching • international exchange of experiences among teachers and among young people, undertaking diverse joint activities of an educational nature Internationalisation policy is implemented through educational concepts practiced at Polish schools and developed in school curricula, the contacts which Polish students and teachers have with foreign partners, and through the development of culture, which is conducive to developing values important to an intercultural and international perspective. Internationalisation Policy in Polish Education There are two fundamental directions in Poland’s education system:

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• structural, curricular activities (linked to defining the scope of teaching and then implementation) • carrying out specific programs, such as study exchanges for teachers (Arion Program until 2007, study exchanges from 2007—more broadly: the new perspective for 2007–2013 in view of joining the Life Long Learning Program, LLLP), international cooperation (Youth Program until 2006; Youth in Action Program for 2007–2013), courses upgrading teachers’ language qualifications organized domestically, and quality certificates (European Language Label). European education issues were introduced to curricula at all stages of education by a decree of the Minister of Education and Sports (Minister of Education, 2002) on the core curriculum for general education. Implementation is mandatory and universal. The core curriculum for six-year primary schools includes objectives and content introducing pupils to these issues and values in a way that is compatible with the level of knowledge, experience, and activity of children of this age group. The issues include Poland’s cultural, historical, economic, and social ties to Europe, its membership in the European community, consolidating European humanist and civilisation values, as well as introducing pupils to the structures, processes, and directions of Poland’s integration in the European Union. The core curriculum of general education in the three-year middle school, which is compulsory for all young people upon leaving primary school, creates conditions for equipping students more fully with knowledge about the world, the European Community, and Poland’s closest neighbors. These issues are covered in the course of teaching individual subjects (social studies, history, and geography) and as part of the teaching paths “European education” and “Polish culture and the Mediterranean tradition.” The Minister of Education at the time explained that the paths were designed as educational activities moving between school subjects, where the content is concentrated around issues that are not wholly covered by any single school subject, which have special cognitive and educational value, and which foster pupils’ comprehensive perception of the surrounding reality (Handke, 1999). Thus, it is an educational concept for presenting the world in an integrated way. The intersubject path is not a separate subject, which is why it was not designed to have a separate teacher, textbook, or specified number of classes per week. Marks are not awarded, either. Educational paths pervade and permeate individual subjects; develop a shared language for all teachers; and refer to new educational challenges such as the role of media in education, the European integration process, new approaches to shaping the environment, and preparing young people for functioning in a free market economy. The

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paths are used to the greatest advantage if they become a joint project for several teachers at a given school, and individual classes are taught as part of different subjects but with a shared introduction and summary. The teaching content in the “European education” path has been set down in substantial detail, but it is not exclusively about the European Union. It also includes topics like “A Europe of values,” “The spiritual dimension of the European community,” “Human rights,” “Civil rights and duties,” and “European and worldwide organisations.” In the core curriculum of general education for secondary schools (threeyear general schools and four-year technical schools, after which students pass their school-leaving exams and can start university-level studies), the above range of knowledge has been developed and expanded, and the educational process in its individual and social dimension has been deepened. One very important educational aid here was the “Europe every day” package prepared by the National In-Service Teacher Training Center (Centralny Ośrodek Doskonalenia Nauczycieli [CODN], 1997). It contains a methodological handbook for teachers, a student’s textbook, a video tape (120 minutes of film in 11 episodes, to supplement all the thematic blocks in the handbook), and material on DVD with educational games, diagrams, and maps. These materials are widely used by schools. After ten years of functioning, the intersubject educational paths were abandoned. The skills described in the programs of these paths were used to present the profile of the graduate and the requirements that he or she was supposed to fulfil, whereas the content was integrated into different types of school classes (Minister of Education, 2008). Teaching of Foreign Languages In Poland, the number of pupils learning English as a compulsory foreign language keeps growing. Within the last ten years, it increased from 30% to 72%. The number of pupils learning German increased by 7% and constitutes 30% now, whereas the number of those learning Russian decreased by five times. It is noted that the popularity of other languages is also growing, for example, Spanish—even though only 0.3% of pupils learn it as a chosen compulsory foreign language, last year the total number grew by over 1,000. Other languages that young Poles are taught are: French—2.6%, Latin—0.5%, Italian—0.3% (data for 2007, according to the national System of Educational Information, see http://www.sio.edu.pl/). It is possible that other foreign languages may begin to be taught, provided that the pupils are interested and the school agrees to organize the classes. Over 80% of middle schools organize additional foreign-language lessons; the principals are very eager to allocate time to these kinds of classes (Otręba, 2008). Out-of-school

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classes devoted to learning another language or additional lessons of the language taught compulsorily are the most popular options. Up to 2008, in accordance with binding curricular and organisational guidelines, compulsory learning of a foreign language was introduced in the second stage of education, that is, in the 4th year of primary school. Starting on September 1, 2008, learning a modern foreign language is compulsory for 1st-, 2nd- and 3rd-year primary school pupils (aged 7–10). It should be noted that the school principal and teachers, in consultation with parents, will decide which foreign language the children will learn. In anticipation of the implementation of language education for all children from Year 1 of primary school, a pilot program for teaching English in the first years of primary school was launched on September 1, 2006. On a national scale, in the year 2007–2008 the number of primary schools taking part in the program was 9,514, which equals 65% of all primary schools in Poland. Language teaching took place in 15,880 classes. Today, at the end of middle school in Poland, national external integrated exams in humanities and science subjects are conducted. Recently, a specification of standards for foreign language exams was drawn up and offered for discussion, and work began to introduce a third external exam—in a modern foreign language of choice (Minister of Education, 2007). Such an exam could be a good diagnostic base and provide material for studying and monitoring how the language education system works, enabling comparisons to be made between the results at this stage with the results of the already mandatory foreign language exam that is part of the secondary school leaving exam. The requirements for this exam are based on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (Council of Europe, 2001). Since 1998, when the final version of the common European framework of reference for languages was drawn up, there has been great commitment in Poland to introduce the solutions it proposes to the Polish system of teaching and assessment. A Polish translation of the framework of reference was published in 2003. The first Polish model of a European language portfolio (ELP) was developed in 2004, based on the framework (CODN, 2004). The Council of Europe’s Accreditation Committee granted accreditation to 65 national versions of the ELP, including the Polish version which received a commendation, the number 62/2004, and the right to use the Council of Europe name and logo. Since that time, several dozen official language teaching curricula have been developed at different levels on the basis of the portfolio. Teachers have come to appreciate the work of the authors and increasingly often make practical use of the proposed techniques and forms of autonomizing the process of learning a foreign language. Bilingual teaching has been conducted in Poland since the early 1960s, but the greatest development of this type of teaching occurred in the 1990s.

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Today there are approximately 40 bilingual schools with English, 35 with German, and also bilingual schools with French and Spanish, and one school with Italian as the foreign language. French, Spanish, German, and English are taught in a system of content and language integrated learning (CLIL) in middle and secondary schools, and Italian—in secondary schools. Any subjects can be chosen for CLIL, but most frequently the following are taught in the foreign language: mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology. Regional and minority languages are also taught: Belarusian, Lithuanian, German, Slovakian, Ukrainian, Kashubian, Lemko (Rusyn), and Romany. Policy and Influences of Other Institutes International Baccalaureate The International Baccalaureate (IB) is a foundation set up in 1960 under the patronage of UNESCO. The three programs provide for children and young people from age three to graduation from secondary school, ensuring comprehensive intellectual, personal, and emotional development for pupils and students, preparing them for life in society (The Primary Years Program [PYP], The Middle Years Program [MYP], and The Diploma Program [DP]). In Poland, the third program, for the eldest students of secondary schools, has been implemented for many years. This a two-year course allowing students to develop their interests at a high level and ending with exams. The first Polish schools began implementing the IB program in 1993, when the Minister of Education gave official consent to the program being carried out as an experiment at two Polish state-run secondary schools: XXXIII Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Mikołaja Kopernika in Warsaw, and III Liceum Ogólnokształcące im. Marynarki Wojennej in Gdynia. At present, from among the schools of the Polish education system (state-run schools and non-state schools with the same powers as state schools), 27 secondary schools are implementing the program. Two middle schools are carrying out the MYP program, and two schools are applying to join the PYP program (IB authorisation is required). European Language Label The European Language Label (ELL) competition first started in 2002. It is organized every year by the Foundation for the Development of the Education System, commissioned by the European Commission and the Polish Ministry of Education. Certificates for the best individual and group

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projects are awarded by a selection committee working on the basis of European Commission guidelines. Submitted projects testify to the great diversity and richness of forms of teaching foreign languages and teaching about the culture of European countries proposed at all stages of education. Awarded projects are special in their originality, application of teaching innovations, leading to increased student motivation and preventing teachers from settling into a groove, which increases the attractiveness of learning a foreign language. The number and quality of projects is evidence that teachers, schools, and other educational institutions are very active and that interest in learning languages remains high. The common feature of the projects is that they are attractive and focus on showing the importance of language abilities and knowledge of the cultures of other countries (Czetwertyńska, 2007). A dozen or so projects receive the certificate every year. Annual competition rounds show certain trends connected with new educational needs that are emerging in our country, such as, for example, the lowering of the age at which pupils begin learning a foreign language (Komorowska, 2007). Upgrading Teacher Qualifications Great emphasis is placed in Poland on upgrading teacher qualifications, not only in the case of those teaching foreign languages but also those teaching in bilingual classes—that is, teaching other subjects (math, chemistry, physics, geography, biology) in a language other than Polish. With Switzerland, Bulgaria, and Hungary, Poland is taking part in the SCALA TRANSEUROPE program—a three-year program of bilingual teaching in the individual countries. Teachers’ foreign language skills are upgraded in cooperation with various institutions. In the case of Spanish, for example, teachers learn and improve their skills with help from the Spanish Embassy and the Cervantes Institute. About 200 seminars are held every year for teachers of German: 125 in Poland and 75 abroad, covering a broad range of topics. About 2,400 teachers take part (2,200 in Poland and 200 abroad). All the seminars are held in association with the National In-Service Teacher Training Center (CODN) and many foreign partners. Teachers of English take part in INSETT, a national training program carried out in association with the British Council. Training courses on a national scale are also held during the summer vacation. A total of 3,200 English teachers were trained under this program in 2007. The CODN also took part in selecting the people responsible for implementing the European Social Fund program of teacher training courses, which trained over 26,000 teachers in 2007 in English and German language

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courses. These are only examples, as teacher training takes place at national and regional levels and is conducted by many educational institutions. European and International Activities Many schools in Poland (especially secondary schools) have European clubs. About 1,500 such clubs have been officially registered, but at many schools the students form clubs that are not registered anywhere. The tasks of these clubs include: • researching young people’s needs in terms of European knowledge, for example, by conducting surveys and interviews • holding classes that offer inspiration to other student groups and to teachers • planning and carrying out pro-European projects, for example, a “European Day,” European festivals, exhibitions about a single country, or a group of European countries • documenting the school’s pro-European activities, interesting lessons, international exchanges, competitions Annual meetings of club representatives are held in several Polish provinces. The Schuman Foundation in Warsaw is also an organizer. Every year in mid-May, Warsaw hosts the great and colorful Schuman Parade, organized by the Robert Schuman Foundation in Poland on the anniversary of the signing of the Treaty of Rome. Several thousand young people take part, some of them representatives of school European clubs who convene for their annual meeting at this time. Some are participants of Polish European Meetings, conferences, and seminars. The “Europe at School” competition is a national competition organized by the Ministry of Education in three stages: school, provincial, and national. The 15th competition in 2006 had 80,000 entrants from all over the country. The aim of the competition is to promote the idea of a uniting Europe, involving children and young people in shaping European values, and using culture as a universal means of communication. Students prepared all kinds of projects including art, essays, photography, films, and computer projects. Since 2001, the European Language Day is celebrated annually on September 26. Its popularity grows steadily, and in many schools it has already become a regular event. The day constitutes a perfect occasion to promote multilingualism and European multiculturalism in schools. During this festival, the pupils organize different kinds of events—exhibitions, language competitions, competitions of knowledge of European cultures; they prepare guidebooks, presentations, stage plays, invite foreigners so that they

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give presentations on their countries, and organize online debates with friends from other countries. A substantial role in the internationalisation of children and young people is played by numerous nongovernmental organisations that support the educational process. One example is Poland’s largest organisation of scouts and guides, a member of the WOSM and WAGGGS—Związek Harcerstwa Polskiego (the Polish Scouting and Guiding Association). This organisation maintains regular contact with many similar organisations around the world, and its members attend international jamborees, take part in troop exchanges, and go on hiking trips outside Poland. In 2007, for example, when the world scouting movement celebrated its 100th anniversary, more than 800 Polish scouts and guides took part in a 40,000-strong jamboree near London in late July/early August. Several hundred scouts and guides organized many different foreign expeditions to mark the occasion, most of them in the form of international exchanges. Among various forms of international exchange and joint projects by schools from different countries, the Comenius program (part of the Socrates program) is especially noteworthy. The aim of this program in Poland, as in all the other European countries, is to improve the quality of school education, support international cooperation between schools, promote foreign language learning, and increase students’ intercultural awareness. The number of projects involving Polish schools is growing steadily. For example, in 2001 there were 473 such projects; in 2004 there were 858, and in 2006, 1,179. The school projects are the most popular. In addition, Polish schools also carry out language projects and school development projects. The important thing about Comenius projects is the opportunity to involve all the students of a given school. Preference is given to projects in which students take part in all the stages—from planning, through organisation and implementation, to assessment. In accordance with the rules adopted across Europe, all the projects are based on international cooperation. They require close cooperation between students and teachers. A project has to last at least a year and a maximum of three years, and the end result is a specific “product”—a project journal, an artistic presentation or a publication, even a publication on a website. Projects may receive financial support up to 100% of their costs. Among the Comenius School Projects, the most popular topics have been those related to cultural heritage and history/tradition. Projects on European citizenship, democracy, and regional identity are slightly less popular, followed by information technology and communication. The Pentor Institute for Opinion and Market Research carried out an assessment of the Socrates program (including the Comenius programs) (Minister of Education, 2003).

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The conclusion was that completed projects had an impact on school curricula, became an integral part of the school’s educational program, helped develop intercultural education, and served to significantly improve foreign language teaching and increase the motivation to learn foreign languages; the use of motivating teaching methods also increased. The Comenius program has good potential to involve a growing number of schools in Poland. Many schools also have student exchanges outside the aforementioned programs. Schools’ international contacts are often based on teachers’ own initiative and imagination. They receive support from different institutions and organisations. For example, the Polish–German Youth Cooperation (Deutsch–Polnischen Jugendwerk) organisation, established in 1991 by the governments of Poland and Germany, has contributed greatly to bilateral exchange on the basis of the two governments’ authorisation, in the form of an international treaty, to support Polish-German youth exchanges on their behalf. This organisation commenced operations in 1993. Each year, 70,000–80,000 young Polish people and the same number of young Germans take part in exchanges. The eTwinning campaign introduced to European education in 2004, a part of the EU’s Life Long Learning Program since 2007, was enthusiastically received by Polish schools (Gajek-Kawecka, 2007). Thanks to the Internet, students can learn about other cultures, discover common universal human values, present their local culture, and develop their interests in other local cultures. Young people become “citizens of the world.” Being a European becomes a part of their identity. The benefits of early intercultural experiences include the development of a natural acceptance of cultural diversity, which is important in countries like Poland, which in over 95% is a single-language country. The eTwinning program is based on the Internet as the main means of communication. The usage is varied—from emails to chat rooms, to audio and video presentations. Language and technology are becoming means that serve learning, communication, and personal, social, and professional development. School partnerships are a good way of preparing young people for life in a multilingual and multicultural society in which people are connected through social networks appropriate for their interests and choices. In 2007, Poland was the most active country in Europe in the eTwinning campaign. Applications for the program were submitted by 3,918 schools, and 1,390 of them carried out projects with schools from other countries (Italy 3,018/1,157, France 2,813/837, Spain 2,851/689). Schools from 27 countries undertook cooperation with Polish schools—the largest number from Italy (235) and Greece (160), the lowest from Luxembourg (1). The 1,390 Polish schools carried out projects with 1,613 partners. The main language of communication was English, but in over 100 cases the students communicated in Polish; in total, students communicated in 15 different

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languages. The partners tackled a diverse range of topics, which can be described in terms of seven overlapping categories: everyday culture and school culture, history and tradition as well as local culture of the region, the natural environment, arts and music, knowledge from a specific subject, multilingual and multicultural cooperation, and topics not related to the curriculum. It has been established in Poland that the eTwinning initiative meets the expectations of students and teachers, because by using foreign languages and digital technology young people are better prepared for their future lives. Current Trends and Discussions In the currently conducted reform of Polish education, the importance attached to linguistic development has grown significantly. The issue under discussion is whether to give preference to the English language and make it a compulsory foreign language from the beginning of school, or, as it is now, to leave the decision to the pupils and their parents. This discussion can be considered as groundless, as the dominance of English has been observed lately without any legal regulations. Attention should rather be focused on preparing a broader offering and giving pupils a chance to choose some other foreign languages. From the level of middle school, it will be compulsory for Polish pupils to learn a second foreign language, and the proposition is that the duration of teaching of at least one of the languages is not shorter than nine years. Equally, the subject of interest of educational decision-makers is developing the content and language integrated learning at an appropriately high level; this is difficult because of the shortage of teachers who are well prepared in this field and the high costs of this type of learning. The increasing number of schools preparing for the International Baccalaureate promoted a discussion on the adequacy of the IB offer to the Polish system of education. The intended legal regulations will permit the functioning of IB classes, as well as other international sections with programs set up by foreign educational institutions, on condition of obtaining permission from the Minister of National Education. The programs realized within the above-mentioned sections must prepare the pupils to pass Polish external exams on the level of primary school and middle school. Even though the classes are carried out in a foreign language, Polish language lessons and lessons in the history and geography of Poland are compulsory and need to be conducted in Polish, according to the Polish program. Changes in the manner of teaching, especially the popularity of the project method, also constitute a chance to develop international contacts and increase the presence of Europe-related subjects in Polish schools. It is rec-

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ognized that sometimes this takes place at the expense of detailed knowledge, for which there is not enough teaching time. Nevertheless, the emphasis on key abilities and the need to prepare young people to meet the linguistic and cultural requirements of Europe is growing steadily. Many of these requisites cannot be achieved without starting an international cooperation. This is the only way to effectively teach openness, acceptance of cultural variety and, as a consequence, also a better understanding of the native culture. As all the aforementioned examples show, many curricular and organisational activities have been undertaken in recent years in Poland aimed at educating Polish children and young people to become full-fledged citizens of the world who speak foreign languages, value other cultures, and have many friends outside their own country. This work will be continued and developed. References Centralny Ośrodek Doskonalenia Nauczycieli. (1997). Pakiet edukacyjny—Europa na co dzień [Educational bundle—Europe every day]. Warsaw, Poland: Author. Centralny Ośrodek Doskonalenia Nauczycieli. (2004). Europejskie Portfolio Językowe dla uczniów od 10 do 15 lat [European Language Portfolio for students between age 10 and 15]. Warsaw, Poland: Author. Council of Europe. (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Available from http://culture2.coe.int/portfolio/documents. Czetwertyńska, G. (2007). European Language Award 2007. Warsaw, Poland: Fundacja Rozwoju Systemu Edukacji. Gajek-Kawecka, E. (2007). E-Twining. European partnership of schools—Poland. Warsaw, Poland: Fundacja Rozwoju Systemu Edukacji. Handke, M. (1999). Wychowanie na tle reformy edukacji [Upbringing in context of educational reform]. Warsaw, Poland: Ministry of National Education. Komorowska, H. (2007). European Language Award 2007. Warsaw, Poland: Fundacja Rozwoju Systemu Edukacji. Minister of Education. (2002). Rozporządzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej i Sportu z dnia 26 lutego 2002 r. w sprawie podstawy programowej wychowania przedszkolnego oraz kształcenia ogólnego w poszczególnych typach szkół [Regulation of pre-school and general education curricula in all types of schools]. Dziennik Ustaw nr 51/2002. Minister of Education. (2003). National report of the implementation of the Socrates programme in Poland. Warsaw, Poland: Ministry of National Education. Minister of Education. (2007). Rozporządzenie, z dnia 30 kwietnia 2007 r. w sprawie warunków i sposobu oceniania, klasyfikowania i promowania uczniów i słuchaczy oraz przeprowadzania sprawdzianów i egzaminów w szkołach publicznych [Regulation of conditions and evaluation, classification and promotion of pupils and listeners, and conduction of exams in public schools]. Dziennik Ustaw nr 83/2007.

The Case of Poland    121 Minister of Education. (2008). Rozporządzenie Ministra Edukacji Narodowej z dnia 23 grudnia 2008 rw sprawie podstawy programowej wychowania przedszkolnego oraz kształcenia ogólnego w poszczególnych typach szkół [Project of regulation of preschool and general education curricula in all types of schools]. Dziennik Ustaw nr 4/2008. Otręba, R. (2008). Organizacja nauczania języka obcego w gimnazjum [Organisation of teaching foreign language in secondary schools]. Języki Obce w Szkole, 4, 98–102.

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Chapter 9

Internationalisation Policies A European Network Kirsten Stamm

The Need for an Elos Network In 2003, a comparative study was published “of the place occupied by the European Union in the secondary education curriculum” in EU countries (European Parliament, Directorate-General for Research, 2003). Striking findings were that the understanding of the “European Dimension” varied enormously between and even within countries, that there was no “common European knowledge base” in education, and that the countless initiatives were neither visible nor accessible. One year later in The Netherlands, a national initiative rose to that challenge. After extensive discussions with schools and the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science, the European Platform for Dutch Education launched a network called “Elos” (Europe as a Learning Environment in Schools). A Dutch research institute conducted a feasibility study (questioning schools, the inspectorate, and educational centers in The Netherlands, as well as authorities in other countries and the European Commission) and found that Elos was judged innovative, inspiring, and attainable, Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 123–136 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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provided that sufficient funding and organisational support were available (GION, 2004). With the beginning of the school year 2004–2005, 14 Dutch schools were granted national funding for implementing the Elos concept; in the last year of the pilot program (2007–2008), that number grew to 21 schools and is now still expanding annually. Within the framework of their financial autonomy, all schools invested substantially from their own resources in the Elos development. The European Platform was aware of the fact that a national initiative can never fully reach its European goals without sustainable participation of partner schools in Europe and without at least conceptual support for those schools. The European Platform consulted in depth with a number of fellow National Socrates Agencies and organized a launching conference “Schools for European Citizenship” in November 2004 (Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs, 2005), as an event under the Dutch EU presidency, with support from the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science and the European Commission. About 170 participants came from almost all of the countries of the European Union, representing schools, agencies, and European institutions. The conference evaluation reflected that there was both a need and a potential for commitment. Participants were asked to rate statements, on a scale from 1 (highest) to 5 (lowest), and the average result gave a clear message: • Schools have an important task in educating students as European citizens: 1 • Introducing “Europe as a learning environment in schools” is a good thing: 2 • European and International Orientation should be a clearly defined part of school policy: 3 • Schools in the EU should devote part of curriculum to European matters, preferably within school partnerships: 3 • The Elos project can open up new perspectives for existing school partnerships and networks: 3 • Students should receive some type of official certification (diploma) for their achievements in European projects: 4 Ireland/Northern Ireland/Portugal Although Elos as a concept is carried out by schools, expert organisations were sought as network partners to reach three objectives: to support individual schools through organized regional or national school networks, to jointly develop the European Elos concept, and to link it with regional and national policies and practice. These support organisations were thus chosen based on

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their involvement in different innovations or associations in their own country or in Europe. Elos can rightfully be called a “network of networks.” In the other chapters of Part A, some of these connected networks and their EIO results have been explored in-depth: Europaschulen in Germany, the European NEOS network, Sections Européens at secondary schools in France, and European activities in Poland. Here, we will briefly present two other examples: the European Studies Programme in Ireland/Northern Ireland and the European activities in schools in Portugal (including the European Clubs network). In Ireland and Northern Ireland, Elos is managed by the European Studies Programme (ESP). Established in 1986 by the Departments of Education in both jurisdictions, ESP links Irish and Northern Irish secondary schools with schools from other European countries. Multilateral school groups work together on cross-curricular student projects, with a focus on European topics. In 2008, 75 schools in Ireland and 82 schools in Northern Ireland were engaged in the European Studies Programme, as well as being exposed to Elos developments. In each school, one or two teachers are appointed as coordinators who are responsible for managing European and International activities in their schools. At regional training days and cluster meetings, coordinators learn about ways to implement EIO, receive up-to-date classroom resources and materials, and exchange ideas with colleagues. Coordinators also attend an annual international planning conference where they meet with colleagues from their partner schools and plan their cooperation activities in the next school year. The national ESP support team visits the schools at least once per year. Schools complete an annual questionnaire and submit samples of their work. The Departments of Education decide about the continuation of ESP with national/regional funding. In Portugal, Elos is managed by the Jacques Delors European Information Center (CIEJD). CIEJD was created in 1994, with the European Commission and the Portuguese Ministry of Foreign Affairs as founding members. In January 2008, CIEJD was a unit of the General Directorate of European Affairs, a central service of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Its main activities are training and education in European citizenship and the dissemination of information on European issues to the general public. Pedagogical events include Jacques Delors Classes for students from primary up to tertiary education and training courses for teachers and staff in primary and secondary education. In 2004, the CIEJD launched the portal www.aprendereuropa.pt (Learning Europe), which also offers classroom resources in the Portuguese language. Many schools that use CIEJD’s programs already had Clubes Europeus, extracurricular activities that stimulate the interest of students, teachers, and parents in the European Union, since the pre-accession days. Portuguese schools with European Clubs formed a network in 1986, which grew in the 1990s into an international network. The development was steered by GEPE (Bureau

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for Statistics and Planning of Education), on behalf of the Portuguese Ministry of Education, and national coordinating points were established in other countries such as Poland or Italy. When the international network was no longer financed by the Portuguese State, the formal international contacts ceased. However, the national networks continued to work independently, and a number of their schools joined Elos. These network descriptions point to a number of benefits to be gained from a larger network of networks such as Elos: • Chances of survival are better. National networks in the field of European and International Orientation are strongly influenced by the political climate in their country. A European network that does not depend on (financial) support from one country only can provide a sustainable framework for schools and an argument for national support organisations to stay involved. • Quality and frequency of contacts improves. The implementation of a European and International Orientation in schools needs time and commitment to structural change. Schools have to be matched with like-minded, long-term partner schools abroad and meet them faceto-face on a regular base. Annual conferences of whichever network provide such linkage opportunities for teachers and other experts. • Resources get efficiently used. For example, the resources section of the European Studies website www.european-studies.org contains valuable information for all schools that use English as language of communication, whether they are ESP members or not. • Results carry further. All serious networks in the field of European and International Orientation try to embed their work in regional or national curricula. However, if partner schools only follow their own curriculum guidelines, international cooperation cannot easily be planned and evaluated jointly across the national systems. An overarching framework and standard is needed that unites school partners beyond the diversity of their educational contexts. The last point deserves a closer look. How far is Elos “embedded in regional/national curricula”? And has Elos managed to develop a useful “overarching framework and standard”? Embedded in Regional or National Educational Structures All Elos partners were expected to set up working structures that ensured coherence with regional and national developments. Most installed a regional or national advisory panel, with representatives from government

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authorities, school inspectorate, curriculum and testing institutes, or other organisations that were relevant in their educational and political context. Together with these experts, partners drew up “country profiles” that provided information on relevant existing school networks, the legislative framework, general education aims and curriculum aspects concerning EIO, as well as links to resources, research, and funding options. This information was not readily available when the Elos Network started. Concerning specifically (European) Citizenship Education, Eurydice had analyzed national data from 31 European countries (Eurydice, 2005). One finding was that “the specifically European issues of people’s rights and duties as European citizens and the history of the EU integration process are part of the curriculum in around 10 and 20 countries respectively, mainly in secondary education” (p. 53). However, the report did not provide information that went deeper into these issues or included “international” (beyond European) or non-citizenship matters. The Elos country profiles do provide this insight into how EIO is embedded in the educational contexts. Extracts from these internal documents shed some light on countries that are not covered elsewhere in this publication. Country Profile: Basque Country The Elos partner in the Basque Country, the Direction of Educational Innovation, belongs to the Department of Education of the Basque Government. One of the priority working areas is called Social and Cultural Dimension, which includes two programs: Basque Dimension and European Dimension of Education (EDE). In a new law, the European dimension is included and brought along the following tasks: to include the European dimension explicitly in Basque curriculum guidelines, to compile adequate resources, to address the European dimension in teacher education and in-service training, to help schools to include the European dimension in their own innovation projects, to guarantee that the European dimension gets included in textbooks and other teaching materials and that it is correctly taught, and to promote European exchange projects and increase international relations between schools. The main subjects that address the European dimension are social and political sciences, natural and environmental sciences, economics, and the first-language program (Basque). Country Profile: Portugal In Portugal, the legislative framework also explicitly refers to a European dimension in education. The Portuguese educational structure is divided into

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the mandatory Grades 1–9 (ensino básico) and then a choice between vocational or pre-university education in Grades 10–12 (ensino professional/ensino secundário). EU topics are being addressed in general education subjects such as geography (7th, 10th, and 11th grades), history (9th and 12th grades), economics (10th and 11th grades), and law (12th grade). Primary school students should learn about the process of European integration throughout the curriculum, particularly in 7th-grade geography and 9th-grade history. There is also an underlying theme of cultural diversity (mainly addressed in social and environmental studies) that reflects the European motto “United in Diversity.” Knowledge about the EU is then taught over the years in history, geography, economics, and law. In Grade 11, students analyze and discuss the challenges and opportunities for Portugal as member of the EU and the Eurozone, in economics and geography. Various topics are covered, such as the EU enlargement, common agricultural policy, environmental policy, transports policy, as well as the implications of these policies, programs, and community funds on national territory. A specific Portuguese issue, for example, is whether the country has become a peripheral member of the EU and plays a central role in the Atlantic context as a point of access for other continents. In Grade 12, history, European integration, and European citizenship are dealt with in greater depth. The law program dedicates a chapter to EU law, in relation to national legislation. Country Profile: Ireland and Northern Ireland According to the Revised Northern Ireland Curriculum from 2007, all pupils aged 11–16 years take part in citizenship education, which includes a European dimension. Local and global citizenship is a compulsory subject at Key stage 3 (age 11–14). The European Dimension is addressed specifically in Modules 2, 3, 8, and 9 of the AS/A2 Government and Politics Examination of the Council for the Curriculum Examinations & Assessment (CCEA). In Ireland, the subject civic, social, and political education (CSPE) is compulsory in the junior cycle (age 11–14). It aims to help young people become actively involved in their communities, their country, and the wider world. The European dimension is embedded into the concepts of democracy, law, rights and responsibilities, and knowledge of Ireland and the wider world. In the Transition Year, schools can offer a module in European Studies. There were plans to include a strong European dimension in a new subject Social & Political Education in the senior cycle (age 15–17) as well. In both Ireland and Northern Ireland, pupils in post-primary education can receive the International Award, an accredited skills-based award that also acknowledges achievements in European exchange projects.

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Integrated Schemes of Work The Elos Network explicitly encouraged schools to connect their student and teacher activities to such existing EIO frameworks and materials. Elos schools made their own analysis of where in their schemes of work they already had included EIO topics or activities and which of those could become part of international projects with their partner schools. Schools such as the Italian secondary school Istituto Superiore Fantoni listed for each age group an impressive number of subjects, topics, classroom materials, and activities related to EIO. For example, the school offers students at age 18 topics such as EU integration policy, origins of community law, defence of human rights in Europe, European finance and trading, in the subjects history, geography, law, economics, and foreign languages. The school organizes projects on how to create a travel agency on Europe or organize a concert for peace once a year; and it links activities outside the classroom to the curriculum, such as foreign language certifications, internships abroad in the summer and IT contacts with peers. If we compare this to what, for example, the Spanish school IES Augustobriga has in their scheme of work for the same age group, namely the topic European institutions in the subject area of English, or arts in Europe in the subject area of history of art, it becomes evident that embedding joint projects into the respective curricula does require some effort. For most schools, this kind of inventory was a new and challenging exercise, for several reasons: Subject teachers still tend not to work cross-curricular; student exchange activities still tend to be based on one subject area; in southern or eastern European countries where English is not yet spoken widely by the older generations, teachers who organize exchange programs still tend to be foreign language teachers. Elos, however, stresses with the school management that schools need to involve a broad team of teachers across all subjects in their EIO development and implementation. One crucial difference with other European (mobility-based) activities of schools is that Elos schools try to develop and embed a concept, not just a project. The analysis of EIO across countries and schools showed that a framework of reference that would work in international, collaborative projects was indeed missing. The Elos Network therefore set out to develop a Common Framework for Europe Competence (CFEC; see Maslowski, Naayer, Oonk, & Van der Werf, 2009) that provided a learner-centered set of indicators for European citizenship education and a standard for Elos schools. Overarching Framework and Standard The Elos Scientific Committee defined a Common Framework for Europe Competence (see Maslowski et al., 2009) that all partners, schools, and

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experts from the regional or national advisory panels commented upon. Comparable with the can-do statements in the Common European Framework of Reference for languages (Council of Europe, 2001), the common framework for Europe competence describes in concrete indicators which competences pupils acquire in Elos schools. The indicators are grouped in three competence areas: Pupils have a high knowledge of Europe and the wider world; pupils can work successfully with peers from other countries in international topic areas; and pupils are able to communicate and cope well while staying abroad. Teachers and pupils can use this framework to plan and evaluate EIO activities, inside and outside of the classroom. In the next phase of the Elos Network, it is intended to finalize the Framework together with experts from vocational and higher education and link it to the European instrument Europass (which aims to make skills and qualifications clearly and easily understood in Europe; for more information, refer to http://europass.cedefop.europa.eu). Vocational and higher education have started to more or less jointly implement innovations such as the European Qualifications Framework or the European Quality Charter for Mobility; secondary education is hardly involved yet. The European Working Group recommends specifically the use of Europass for transparency of qualifications and competences, and some national Europass liaisons are beginning to involve upper secondary education and teacher training in their promotion efforts. In the Europass “Mobility Supplement,” schools can state the competences that a student achieved during an international exchange. However, no further definitions or indicators are provided by Europass. Elos now proposes the use of the (revised) framework to underpin such competence statements in Europass. The European initiative CertiLingua, a project by Ministries of Education in a number of EU countries to certify language and international competencies in secondary schoolleaving diplomas (for more information, refer to http://www.certilingua. net/), already applies the Elos framework in order to fill this gap. The second base document for the Elos Network is a draft standard for schools. Elos schools commit themselves to work towards a written set of objectives at school system level. The standard specifies how schools should shape the learning environment, school curriculum and policy, how to enhance staff competence and institutional capacity, and how to organize international cooperation and quality assessment. A final agreement on a common Elos school standard and on an appropriate school certification procedure is expected to be reached during the next phase of the development. The discussion has been controversial, since the level of the draft standard was set high and appeared to be biased by national standards. During the first phase, it was also impossible to visit all schools, following the same principles, within the restricted funding scheme. Most Elos Network partners did visit the schools that had signed a letter of commitment towards

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the Elos school standard and awarded certificates of achievement. A number of schools took the opportunity to present their results in a compilation of school portraits, one of the internal publications of the Elos Network. In the future, a peer review system might be most appropriate within the bottom-up approach. This type of approach is another characteristic aspect of the Elos Network. Bottom-Up Approach Schools always were at the core of the Elos development. Unless EIO becomes one separate mandatory subject across all EU countries, which is not to be expected in the foreseeable future, the school management decides about the status of EIO in school, while the subject teachers determine how they address EIO in their classrooms. Even where educational authorities provide curriculum guidelines, textbooks or tests, it is the teacher who either just covers the mandatory knowledge base or aims for a broader Europe Competence. And without being facilitated by the school management and supported by colleagues, the individual teacher cannot ensure that pupils can practice their skills in international encounters with peers. As European citizenship needs to be “taught” as well as “caught,” both the teacher’s attitude and the students’ interaction with peers from abroad are crucial for achieving Elos goals. In some Elos countries, formal state structures further facilitate this bottom-up development. In others, schools implement EIO despite the educational or political context. In the case of Norway, the “E” in EIO is problematic: Although the national curriculum frequently states the importance of internationalisation, and the EU is being treated within the compulsory subject social studies, the official attitude towards Europe remains ambiguous. Norwegian Elos schools must decide for themselves whether they regard European citizenship education as relevant for their pupils. In individual “school portraits,” Elos schools shared their successes and challenges with other schools. Selections of quotes from these portraits illustrate how EIO gets realized at school-level: • Wallace High School, Northern Ireland: The European and International dimension of the school is included in the School Development Plan. All departments and pupils are involved in international activities ranging from the opportunity to participate in school trips abroad to involvement in whole school events such as The European Day of Languages and Europe Day. Specific European competences are integrated into curriculum subjects such as History, Geography, Modern Languages and Citizenship. Pupils collaborate with their peers in schools in Denmark, Ireland, Norway and Romania on a variety of annu-

132    K. STAMM ally agreed topics. Pupils are encouraged to participate in a variety of International events such as The European Youth Parliament, Mock European Councils and the Model United Nations General Assembly.

• Collegio Vescovile Barbarigo, Northern Italy: We think that European and International Orientation must be implemented inside the lessons (in the curriculum) and outside (with students’ exchanges). We teach “Europe” in geography, history, civic studies through all school years in relation to the syllabus and the profile of the various streams. We have an International Activities School Team that develops lesson plans and materials for the CLIL methodology and that organises all the international activities, including Comenius. We have been using a language Portfolio for four years now, which has been recently improved with contributions from the Elos Portfolio. Since 2006 we have celebrated Europe Day with several activities, among which are games and quizzes, lectures and debates with the participation of experts. Pupils and parents are normally involved in the planning, organisation and evaluation of the exchanges. With the support of the European Parliament we have just started a new project called Web Radio European Parliament Education. The aim is to educate European citizens—and young people in particular—on Europe and to promote European intercultural awareness and citizenship through a series of actions (for more information, see www.ciaoeurope.eu).

• Scientific high school Boggio Lera, Sicily: Great importance is given to internationalisation through multilateral (LLP) projects, student visits to the European Parliament, participation in ministerial Europe-centred initiatives (L’Europa dell’istruzione, Spazio 22 I colori della cittadinanza, L’Europa va a scuola), and membership in Elos and in Euro School Net 2000 (www.euroschoolnet2000.org). A wide range of initiatives promotes especially the quality and motivational value of scientific standards: an annual scientific week, the edition of “European Pupil Magazine” (a scientific magazine made up of international articles, essays, extracts, produced by students from different European schools), coordinated by Boggio Lera within an LLP Multilateral Project. . . . On a daily base the students are being offered the opportunity to learn about Europe (multicultural modules, integrated lesson plans including the contribution of more teachers of different subjects, written tests based on texts related to international, European topics). . . .  All interested teachers include in their annual didactic plan the main Elos aims and the approximate Elos contents. The Elos coordinator organises periodical teacher meetings . . . to share ideas, materials and suggestions to improve the state of things. The POF (Piano dell’offerta formativa) of the school includes the reference to the membership in Elos so to inform everybody that the European dimension is part of the educational offer of our institution. . . . Obstacles are reluctance or decrease of motivation

Internationalisation Policies    133 from some colleagues, a lack of face-to-face contacts at a national/international level, and no funds to pay teachers’ extra-work.

• Escola Secundária de Figueiró dos Vinhos, Portugal: We firmly believe that European cooperation is the path to promote and develop tolerance and increase knowledge. We think our common future as a united Europe of different countries is a must and a priority. . . .  In the past three years our school has been taking part in international student exchanges with different European partner schools both for the general as for the vocational department. We participated in several eTwinning projects related to the environment and climate change, and in chat sessions on European topics through the European SchoolNet. Our school also has a European Club where students weekly meet to develop different tasks, prepare international events and learn about European countries and institutions while becoming aware of their roles as European Citizens. . . . We feel strongly that schools need some sort of common European educational policy. Some subjects must have a common ground, so that students gain the same competences, which will give them the possibility to easily integrate into another educational or work context.

The school portraits demonstrate how committed and creative schools are while implementing EIO. Naturally in the first development phase, the support organisations, advisory panels, and the scientific committee played an important role in the Elos Network, trying to achieve broader recognition and to secure funding. In the next phase, the network intends to transform into a new form of association of schools and support organisations. In three of the 16 countries that are represented in the new consortium, the regional or national school networks are already led by elected or selected schools. Most other countries are represented on this European development level by both a support organisation and a lead school. The Elos partners agreed that national or regional networks should decide themselves about their optimal national or regional Elos structure. The Elos base documents remain the shared ground that guides further development. When the Elos partners evaluated the first network phase, there was no doubt that this open method of coordination had indeed added value to previous activities. Added European Value In internal and external evaluations, Elos was found to: • enable schools to fulfil the responsibility to have a European dimension within the school curriculum, as stipulated in the Maastricht Treaty (Treaty on European Union, 1992)

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• promote a coherent and cohesive approach to a European and International Orientation that becomes fully embedded into the curriculum, rather than the more typical fragmented approach • offer an international learning route to pupils on all achievement levels in all school types (not only at pre-university level and for top performers in the student population) • provide a framework of tried and tested European and international competences for all learners, as proposed in the Lisbon strategy • use the framework and standard to achieve synergy with other networks, without interfering in existing structures and affiliations • ensure that pupils and staff engage meaningfully in active (European) citizenship • increase mobility and (content) language learning of pupils and staff of schools in Europe. With regard to mobility projects, Elos schools were explicitly encouraged to make use of the relevant European Commission programs. The Elos Network organized two contact seminars together with the National Agencies in The Netherlands and the UK/(Northern) Ireland, which resulted in more than 20 new Comenius school projects, involving around 100 schools. Topics and methods in these projects evolve explicitly around EIO. Since these projects only started in 2007 or 2008, there are no formal results to be presented yet. According to the final report Impact of the Comenius School Partnerships on the Participant Schools (European Commission, 2007), not more than a third of the schools state that school time organisation has been modified and that their pupils and teachers have been involved in local activities, while only about 4% of pupils and 16% of teachers took part in transnational activities. It seems safe to predict that schools structurally involved in EIO networks have significantly higher mobility numbers and that European activities will carry on beyond the Comenius funding period, in line with the objectives of the Lisbon strategy and Copenhagen process. In the German lead school Europaschule Köln, for example, 20% of the pupils can go abroad each year. In the Elos school standard, the target was being discussed that each student should have the chance to participate in an international exchange at least once in his or her secondary school career. Elos schools were also encouraged to make use of European activities and materials that promote EIO. In Italy, the coordinator of the Italian “Europe at School” was chosen as the Elos partner to ensure a linkage with this European competition. Until 2006, more than half a million young people in over 30 European countries participated in the Europe at School activities annually. The main elements were an art and essay competition at the primary and secondary school level, the Europe@School Internet Award Scheme, a series of youth gatherings involving prize winners, training semi-

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nars for youth leaders and teacher seminars. Participation was open to pupils and students from the member states of the European Union, the Council of Europe, and from other contracting parties to the European Cultural Convention. When European funding stopped, most countries were unable to continue the activities. Many Elos schools take part in “Spring Day” activities (some even provide the national teacher advisor to Spring Day) and celebrate especially Europe Day. The European SchoolNet (www.europeanschoolnet.org) organizes the Spring Day activities on a European scale, supported by national liaisons. Again financially, the annual continuation of Spring Day depends on European funds. The added value of Elos for schools that are engaged in such initiatives is that Elos offers instruments to deepen the schools’ commitment and to add structure to their activities so that they do not remain loose or incidental. Future Scenario When discussing scenarios for the future of the Elos Network at the beginning of 2008, partners and school representatives identified a number of critical issues for EIO in general. One of them is very relevant to this publication: Should “European citizenship” education remain the guiding principle for Elos? As with the European dimension in education, European citizenship has lacked clarity for practical implementation in schools. This is why Elos adapted the notion of “European and International Orientation” (Oonk, 2004) and developed concrete indicators for student achievement. The first Common Framework for Europe Competence (see Maslowski et al., 2009) was derived mainly from the European key competence “interpersonal/ intercultural/social and civic competence” as defined by the European Working Group (European Commission, 2004) and included indicators mainly for social science subjects in schools. However, parents and students increasingly demand less idealistic and more profitable educational results. Many Elos schools feel that their EIO program should successfully prepare for future careers abroad and that pupil achievements at their schools need to be validated beyond secondary school. Establishing links with the world of international study and work therefore has become a core concern for Elos as a whole. In the upcoming years, Elos intends to involve parents, career guidance systems, vocational and higher education institutions and employers; and to review the common framework for Europe competence against the background of all key competences, especially the transversal ones such as “entrepreneurship” (as amended by the European Focus Group, 2005; see also the recommendation by the European Parliament

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and Council, 2006). It remains to be seen whether this means that European citizenship will lose out against other concepts in the development of a European and International Orientation in schools. References Council of Europe. (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Available from http://culture2.coe.int/portfolio/documents European Commission. (2004). Draft framework for key competences in the knowledgebased society. Brussels, Belgium: Author. European Commission. (2007). Impact of the Comenius school partnerships on the participant schools (Final Report Association for Empirical Studies). Kassel, Germany: Author. European Focus Group. (2005). Implementation of “Education and Training 2010” work programme (Report of the Focus Group on Key Competences, June 2005). Brussels, Belgium: Author. European Parliament and Council. (2006). Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council. Official Journal of the European Union 30.12.2006 (2006/964 EC). Brussels, Belgium: Author. European Parliament, Directorate-General for Research. (2003). A comparative study of the place occupied by the European Union in the secondary education curriculum. Brussels, Belgium: Author. Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs. (2005). Schools for European citizenship. (Conference report). Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Author. Eurydice. (2005). Citizenship education at school in Europe (Report). Brussels, Belgium: Author. GION. (2004). Europa als leeromgeving op school [Europe as learning environment in schools]. Groningen, The Netherlands: Author. Maslowski, R., Naayer, H., Oonk, G. H., & Van der Werf, M. P. C. (2009). Effecten van internationalisering in het voortgezet onderwijs: Een analyse van de implementatie en effecten van een Europese en internationale oriëntatie [Effects of internationalisation in secondary education: An analysis of the implementation and effects of a European and international orientation]. Groningen, The Netherlands: GION. Oonk, G. H. (2004). European integration as a source of innovation in education: A study of the meaning of internationalisation and its results in secondary education in the Netherlands. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs. Treaty on European Union, Official Journal C 191, 29 July 1992. Luxembourg, Luxembourg: Office for official publications of the European Communities.

Chapter 10

Internationalisation Policies in Europe An Analysis Henk Oonk, Ralf Maslowski and Greetje van der Werf

In this final chapter of part A, an answer is given to the question, expressed in Chapter 1 of this book, regarding the characteristics of internationalisation policies on national and European levels and the educational concepts to which these polices have led. In relation to this central issue, a number of aspects described in paragraph 1.3 are dealt with. Characteristics of Internationalisation Policies in Secondary Education The descriptions of the different internationalisation policies show that many countries consider cooperation with other countries in the field of education as valuable. In addition, almost all countries attach importance to a focus on European and international aspects in education on a national level, an interest that ranges from primary to higher education. Since Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 137–159 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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this compilation of studies deals with the European and international orientation of secondary education, this has also been the point of attention in the analysis of internationalisation policies. The descriptions of the different countries also tell us, however, that internationalisation initiatives have been taken in other sectors as well, although in some countries to a slightly larger extent than in others. In general, it can be concluded that internationalisation has advanced the most in the higher education sector. Although it may further gain momentum in this sector in the coming years, a large number of the organisations for higher education have already integrated internationalisation into their policies; many activities are organized to interpret this concept, both by students and academic staff, as well as by managements (cf. Knight, 2003). In secondary and vocational education, fewer initiatives have been taken, at least until now. To an even larger degree, this also holds true for primary education, although in this sector clear developments in the field of internationalisation can nevertheless be observed. In the curricula of some countries, the focus on knowledge about Europe has increased, but there is also a notable growing interest in foreign-language education in the higher classes of primary education. These developments are also important for internationalisation policies aimed at secondary education and for the way in which secondary schools interpret their internationalisation activities. This is because only if there is a certain degree of harmonisation among sectors will internationalisation be truly effective. It is obvious that students are better equipped to participate in exchange programs in higher education, or to follow even their entire study curriculum abroad, if they properly master the language of the country they are visiting. Moreover, the threshold for participation in mobility programs is expected to be lower when pupils have already gained a certain amount of experience in a foreign country. In a comparable manner, higher education can profit from the foundation laid in primary education. In this way, the continuing learning lines in the field of internationalisation can be given shape in the curricula of the different countries. An Increasing Focus on Internationalisation as a Trend in the Whole of Europe In the previous chapters, the internationalisation policies of a number of European countries have been described. Although the policies in these countries are in some respects not completely representative of those in other countries in Europe, this compilation does give an impression of the activities generally taking place in Europe in the field of internationalisation. In 2005, an outline was produced of the attention given by European member states to the European dimension in their primary and secondary

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education programs (Eurydice, 2005). This overview shows that practically all countries identify Europe in their curricula—even though there are clear differences with respect to the aspects addressed and the relative attention which they are being given. Schools may teach factual information about the European Union (such as European institutions and treaties and the member states of the European Union), issues related to a European identity (the foundations of a common European culture or the position of a person’s country within the EU), subjects of debate within society (the issues dealt with in European cooperation), and values (an understanding of the socio-cultural diversity in Europe). In some countries, all these facets are being addressed, whereas in other countries the focus is on only some of them. There are comparable differences with respect to education in modern foreign languages. Olivier (see Chapter 4) shows that in France the attention paid to other European languages has strongly increased since 1992 through the sections européennes, following the sections internationals, which have existed since 1981. Similar differences can also be discerned in other countries in the early 1990s. The Eurydice research study into the position of content and language integrated learning (CLIL) in European schools shows that we are dealing here with a trend that is almost Europe-wide (Eurydice, 2006). Also in that sense, the descriptions in this book of the internationalisation policies in the separate countries can be considered as a reliable reflection of the developments elsewhere in Europe. Education in the Wake of Political and Social Developments The focus on internationalisation in the field of education mirrors the changed national and European political situation of the past decades. Since the period following the fall of the Berlin wall, the realisation of the internal market, the Maastricht Treaty (Treaty on European Union, 1992), and the preparation and introduction of the Euro, the member states have been active in the stimulation of the European dimension, while many programs and initiatives are being developed. Through the changes that took place in Europe, especially at the end of the 1980s and in the 1990s, a renewed sense of involvement seems to have developed in all sectors, and thereby also in education. For some countries in the former Eastern block, this manifested itself in a very concrete manner through the fall of the Berlin wall. Whereas in earlier times there were hardly any possibilities for cooperation with western European countries, from the 1990s on this collaboration has become possible. European roots were rediscovered, often inspired by the wish to form part of the European Union. A good example

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is provided by the changes in education in Poland, where Europe has been given a clear place in the curriculum (see Chapter 8, Czetwertynska). Janiunaite (see Chapter 6) describes a comparable development with respect to the attention paid to Europe in education in Lithuania. Although the educational policy in Lithuania as regards internationalisation is not only directed at European issues but also at global aspects, it is particularly shaped by a strong focus on Europe. In following this approach, the “new” member states are in many respects more active in promoting Europe competences to their pupils than the “old” member states. This is why—in the context of internationalisation—countries such as Poland and Lithuania can be regarded as member states on the front line. The way in which internationalisation is being realized in education strongly depends on the countries’ aspirations with respect to their position in Europe. This is reflected most clearly in the way in which internationalisation is interpreted in English educational policy (see Chapter 3, Kirtley). Whereas in the other countries the relation with respect to Europe plays an important role in the objectives pursued with the aid of internationalisation, in England this is rarely if ever the case. In Putting the World Into World-Class Education (Department for Education and Skills [DfES], 2004), the emphasis lies on global issues; the pupil has to become a global citizen. The fact that schools nevertheless have regular contacts with schools in other European countries seems to point to the need in these countries to increase English proficiency rather than a need for increasing knowledge of Europe with English schools. Although, on the one hand, foreign language education in England itself has been intensified for pupils in primary education through the proposed introduction of one compulsory foreign language, foreign language education in secondary education, on the other hand, has been marginalized. In this context, Kirtley points to the fact that pupils of 15 are no longer obliged to learn a modern foreign language and that facilities to offer good standards in foreign language education in schools are not always favorable. Also indicative of the priority given to Europe in educational policy is that, after 2003, the European Resource Centres and Colleges have no longer been eligible for financing by the government (see Chapter 3, Kirtley). These regionally organized centers provided, among other things, additional schooling for teachers and the publication of learning material about Europe for pupils in both primary and secondary education. In contrast, Europe has a very central place in the internationalisation policies conducted in The Netherlands (see Chapter 7, Oonk). Here, we see a fruitful combination of a stimulating government and an active executive organisation. Via the European Platform, which is largely financed by the Ministry of Education and Culture, policy initiatives in the schools’ domain are realised and supported (Onderwijsraad, 2007). Partly as a result of these initiatives, it has become possible to establish schools with a specific Europe-

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an orientation (ELOS) and those offering content and language integrated learning, next to other forms of education. At the same time, a process can be observed in The Netherlands in which the share of foreign languages in upper secondary education at the regular schools is decreasing in favor of other subjects. Moreover, the final attainment levels, which lay down what secondary schools have to do in terms of internationalisation, are formulated in a rather abstract manner. As a result, it is left up to the schools themselves to decide to what extent and in which way they wish to interpret the internationalisation concept. The government stimulates internationalisation through the availability of financial means, but it has no steering function via laws or regulations, and neither does it supervise the internationalisation activities executed by the schools (Onderwijsraad, 2007). In Germany and France, the internationalisation of schools is more clearly institutionalized. What applies in Germany is that, although the authority with respect to educational policy is almost fully in the hands of the federal states, common national education policy intentions have been formulated in the framework of the Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (KMK). In his description of how these intentions have been elaborated for the federal state of NordrheinWestfalen, Rogge (see Chapter 5) strongly focuses on the way in which language education is being given shape. Since 2003, output standards have been formulated for foreign language education, and a certification system has been developed. Olivier (see Chapter 4) describes in detail how Germany and France have made bilateral arrangements about exchanges of pupils between both countries, the teaching of one another’s language at schools, and an end exam that is legally valid in both countries. The arrangements may apply to only a limited number of pupils, but through their structural character and the degree to which the measures agreed upon affect the daily practice in schools, the importance of these bilateral agreements is nevertheless considerable. The Highly Steering-Oriented Influence of the European Union on Internationalisation Initiatives The policies conducted by the governments in the different European countries—while taking into account the differences in government intervention as indicated above—largely concern the formulation of new or adjusted final attainment levels and/or curricula, the (partial) financing of the organisations that support schools in their internationalisation activities, the stimulation of activities initiated by the schools themselves, and the moral plea directed at the schools to give shape to the internationalisation concept. The question is whether the activities of schools in the context of

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internationalisation would have actually been realized to this extent without the stimulation measures taken by the European Union. Oonk (see Chapter 2) describes how, since 1995, the European Union has stimulated the educational sector to introduce exchanges within a European framework in a goal-oriented manner. These stimulation programs have played an important role in terms of the international experiences of pupils and teachers (and of others in the school)—particularly, the opportunity to actually get into contact with pupils and teachers from abroad, to execute projects on a mutual basis, and to undertake exchanges. In many schools, these activities are the basis of the interest in internationalisation. Internationalisation in education is largely carried by the strength of foreign language education. Foreign language skills enable one to communicate with one’s fellow Europeans and fellow global citizens and in this way give access to other cultures. For this reason, the European Commission has expressed the importance it attaches to the learning of languages and the promotion of language diversity in Europe. Understanding and speaking other languages has to be part of the basic knowledge of all European citizens. In addition to mother tongue, every European citizen should be able to use at least two other languages. Although the responsibility for language policies largely lies with the national, regional, and local governments in each of the member states, the European Union also plays a very stimulating role. This is demonstrated most clearly by the common European framework of reference for languages, established by the Council of Europe (2001). In the different member states, this framework forms the guideline for determining pupils’ language competencies. In this way, the framework gives a strong impulse to foreign language education at the schools in the member states. In addition, the European Union has been instrumental in putting the concepts of “European citizenship” and “European identity” on the map. At a first glance, the “forming of citizenship” theme seems to be contrary to the objectives of internationalisation. This is because, in the case of citizenship formation, the first thought that comes to mind is the introduction into the national culture. However, the notion of European citizenship transcends this national focus. It motivates pupils to think about the differences in values and norms among European countries, whereby the foundation is laid down for a better understanding of the cultural differences among people with respect to their origin. This is not only important in the European context but also in the national context, which is often subject to multicultural tensions. In many European but also in Western countries outside Europe, this situation presently manifests itself the most clearly by the radical actions of followers of Islam. In intellectual and social areas, these developments have led to a renewed reflection on Western values and norms and, within this scope, to a revived interest in the theme of “citizenship” and the aspect of social cohesion.

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At the same time, the term European citizenship also offers clues to verify what it is that binds people in terms of common views and experiences. This also includes the European identity of young people. Risse (2005) argues that the stimulation of a European identity does not mean that young people will as a result identify themselves to a lesser extent with their own country or local community. The development of a European identity should not be interpreted in so-called “zero-sum terms.” On the contrary, young people who identify themselves to a larger degree with their own local, regional, or national community are generally also more inclined to feel part of Europe (cf. Citrin & Sides, 2004). An explanation for this may be found in the extent to which young people possess bonding as well as bridging social capital (Putnam, 2000). Bonding social capital refers to a process in which people identify with one another, for example, because they have the same age, origin, or religion. Interaction with others who belong to the same group strengthens the group ties. Putnam has pointed out that it is also important that people possess bridging social capital, which refers to friendships with people outside one’s own group. According to Putnam, these two forms coexist, and, moreover, they reinforce one another. People who have a stronger connection with their own group are generally also more inclined to enter into closer relationships with people outside this group. Therefore, European citizenship does not have to be in contradistinction with the focus given in education to national values and norms but can, on the contrary, serve as a useful complement. Embedding the internationalisation Policy in the Educational System Within the field of internationalisation policy, we can see a varying palette of goals: making a contribution to the quality of education; stimulating the personal development of pupils; acquainting pupils with the cultures of other countries and Europe’s cultural heritage; promoting respect for those other cultures, active citizenship, and a European identity; and stimulating the pupils’ foreign language competences. In order to achieve this multitude of objectives, the different European countries often deploy identical or comparable educational concepts. Below, we will list the educational forms which exist in the different European countries. Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) CLIL education is closely related to internationalisation and internationally enjoys a great deal of interest. The attractiveness of CLIL is especially as-

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sociated with the view of parents, pupils, and teachers that a good command of a foreign language—in most cases English—is a good preparation for a future study and position. In several countries, the development of CLIL has started with schools, individual teachers, and sometimes even parents who have taken the initiative to make education more challenging to the pupils and to offer them something extra in the area of language education. In many cases, CLIL was later adopted by national institutions, which stimulated its further development. Since the 1990s, the European Union has promoted CLIL in schools. In 1995, a resolution of the Education Council of the European Union was published, which refers to the promotion of innovative methods and, in particular, to “the teaching of classes in a foreign language for disciplines other than languages, providing bilingual teaching”. It also proposes improving the quality of training for language teachers by “encouraging the exchange with Member States of higher education students working as language assistants in schools, endeavouring to give priority to prospective language teachers or those called upon to teach their subject in a language other than their own.” (Eurydice, 2006, p. 8)

In the years that followed, the European Union repeatedly pointed at the importance of CLIL. For many countries that had not yet introduced CLIL, this European promotion in turn formed an important motivation for them to start propagating this concept in their educational sectors. Since the introduction of CLIL, several studies into its effectiveness have been conducted. Their general outcome is that CLIL pupils often acquire better foreign language competences. In this respect, Rogge (Chapter 5) refers to the DESI research study conducted in Germany. This study, which investigated schools in Nordrhein-Westfalen and Niedersachsen, shows that CLIL pupils have better English language skills than pupils from other schools, also after controlling for their social origin and general linguistic competencies (Klieme et al., 2006). In addition, CLIL pupils appear to have more insight into the ethnical and cultural differences among groups of people than non-CLIL pupils appear to have. Comparable results have been reported for other countries. Dalton-Puffer (2008) indicates that especially the listening and fluency skills of CLIL pupils in the English language in Austria are more advanced than those of pupils from non-CLIL schools. In The Netherlands, linguistic competency is measured at the end of lower secondary education. It appears that CLIL pupils have clearly a better command of the English language than their peers (Berns, De Bot, & Hasebrink, 2007; Verspoor & Edelenbos, 2009). Moreover, with respect to other subjects, pupils do not appear to experience any negative effects from CLIL education (Admiraal, Westhoff, & De Bot, 2006). Also, Seikkula-Leino (2007) indicates that the Finnish CLIL

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pupils are not put at a disadvantage in their other subjects, nor in the Finnish language. Seikkula-Leino did find in her study, however, that relatively fewer CLIL pupils can be marked as overachievers. She argues that CLIL may have a constraining effect on the achievements of very good pupils in non-language subjects offered in English. Another reservation to be added to the generally positive research results is made by Ruiz de Zarobe (2008). This study shows that, although Spanish pupils acquired better foreign language competencies, this difference decreased during the course of secondary education and even disappeared at the end of it. Taking into account the additional comments about CLIL as made by a number of countries, there are nevertheless clear indications that pupils acquire better linguistic competencies in the modern foreign language in which they are being taught. Moreover, on the part of the schools, there is a strong belief that CLIL contributes to a more open attitude towards other groups of people, and thereby towards other European cultures. A possible reason could be that, apart from the language component, the curriculum has an—albeit less prominent—internationalisation component. This is because the latter gives the pupils the opportunity to put the language into practice in its natural setting (De Bot & Maljers, 2009). Through the interrelation of language and internationalisation components, CLIL’s popularity offers a good opportunity to bring internationalisation to the attention of pupils and parents via the language programs. CertiLingua and AbiBac Partly connected with CLIL is the certification of language competencies in the CertiLingua project. The CertLingua project has been an initiative of the Ministers of Education from Nordrhein Westfalen and The Netherlands and started in the middle of 2005 (see Chapter 5, Rogge). By now, the Ministries of Education of several German federal states, the German-speaking part of Belgium, Finland, France, Italy, and Austria have joined the project, as well as a number of other cooperating partner countries. With CertiLingua, the different European countries have created an additional European certificate for multilingualism and European and international orientation. With respect to the prerequisite of multilingualism, pupils have to master at least two modern foreign languages on the B2 level of the common European framework of reference for languages (Council of Europe, 2001). In addition, they have to have followed at least 90 teaching hours of CLIL education in a non-language subject at school and, as regards EIO, they have to attain Level 4 of the common framework for Europe competence (CFEC) (see Chapter 1, Oonk & Maslowski).

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There was a two-year pilot phase before the project was introduced in all schools eligible for accreditation in September 2009 (see Chapter 5, Rogge). This is why, in the past, the scope of CertiLingua was solely limited to specific groups of pupils in The Netherlands and in the participating German federal states. Through the increase in the number of participating and cooperating partner countries and its introduction to all schools, it is expected that the certificate will gain importance. In the participating countries in the future, the CertiLingua certificate should therefore represent an additional value in the transition to higher education. For example, a pupil with a CertiLingua certificate will have a good chance of being exempted from language tests when entering higher education in one of the participating countries. In this way—at least for Germany and France—the introduction of CertiLingua is in line with the simultaneous development of the AbiBac. Although the AbiBac is relatively small-scale—about 50 schools offer this certificate—it has a clear additional value for the pupils who participate in this program (cf. Olivier, Chapter 4). In the final years of secondary education, they follow a curriculum for history and geography, which contains elements of both the French national curriculum and the German school curriculum. They are being tested in the language of the partner country and are also assessed by a second supervisor from the partner country (in terms of subject content). By passing the other subjects on the Abitur and Baccalaureate level, respectively, the pupils acquire the AbiBac, which gives them access to both French and German higher education. Both initiatives, which complement and reinforce one another, are still fully in a developmental stage. Since its introduction in 1994, the AbiBac has already enjoyed a relatively long tradition. Although a fairly large group of schools, which is still growing, offers the AbiBac, the group of pupils participating in this program within the schools is still relatively small. The development of the CertiLingua certificate is clearly more recent, and it may in the future overshadow the AbiBac. On the other hand, however, the civil value of the certificate is still small, while much will depend on the way in which institutions for higher education in the different countries will acknowledge the certificate. Europe as a Learning Environment within Schools (ELOS) A number of schools in Europe have chosen to give an orientation that is both European and international and which also forms part of the CertiLingua certificate, a central place in their education. A good example is the ELOS school type, which has been developed since 2004. These are schools

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that have given shape to Europe as a learning environment. In many cases, this is done by having pupils participate in exchanges with pupils from partner schools, by organizing projects on schools about European topics, and by paying attention to Europe and the European Union. Stamm (see Chapter 9) points in this context to the Europaschulen in Germany, a name that schools have been allowed to use since 1996, if they can prove that European themes have a place in their education programs, offer at least three foreign languages, participate in European education programs, and (with the aid of ICT) remain in contact with their partners in Europe on a regular basis. Similar intentions also form the basis of the sections Européens in France (see Chapter 4, Olivier), the European Studies Programme in Ireland and Northern Ireland, and the European activities in Portugal (see Chapter 9, Stamm). These initiatives are often a formalisation of the activities that have already been developed for a longer period of time by the schools involved. In that sense, it is a development process with a considerable history. This does not mean, however, that the formal recognition of schools with a European profile is not of importance. What applies to both the ELOS schools in The Netherlands and the Europaschulen in Germany is, for example, that they have to meet clear conditions in order to be recognized as such and that they thus take on an obligation to try to interpret this profile in terms of content in a systematic manner. With respect to the continuity and the further development of the European profile within the schools, school networks play an important role. In The Netherlands, the European ELOS network has been established, in which schools from Germany, Northern Ireland, Italy, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, and the UK participate. In each of these countries, there is a coordinating institution supporting the schools in the implementation of the European and international orientation. In this respect, Stamm (see Chapter 9) also refers to the Network of Europe Oriented Schools (NEOS), which has its basis in Nordrhein Westfalen, and in which schools from, among other countries, Italy, England, Finland, France, Poland, and Spain participate. The NEOS network organizes conferences and workshops for teachers and pupils. It is based on the principle that pupils should be part of an exchange with a foreign country at least twice in their school careers. International Baccalaureate Many countries offer the opportunity to follow the International Baccalaureate (IB). The International Baccalaureate aims to develop inquiring, knowledgeable, and caring young people who help to create a better and

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more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect. To this end, the organisation works with schools, governments, and international organisations to develop challenging programs of international education and rigorous assessment. “These programmes encourage students across the world to become active, compassionate and lifelong learners who understand that other people, with their differences, can also be right,” as stated by the International Baccalaureate Organisation (IBO) when referring to its mission (see http://www.ibo.org/). The IB curriculum is attractive to internationally oriented parents, pupils, and teachers: The whole curriculum is in the English language, there is an international exam independent of the national government and also in English, and there is a focus on essays, philosophy, and the social service sector. Another advantage is that the diploma is recognized by almost all universities in the world, which makes it attractive to pupils who want to follow a course of study abroad. In several countries, the attractiveness of the IB has led to rather fundamental discussions about the direction of the internationalisation process and the relation between the national curriculum of a national government and the international curriculum of an international organisation (see the following paragraph). The European School It is striking, though rather understandable, that the school type in Europe with the strongest European orientation, the European school, is relatively speaking the least known among the internationally oriented European public. The explanation for this has to be sought in the accessibility of the European schools to pupils and parents. European schools have primarily been established for the children of officials of the European Union. Further, a number of international organisations and companies have entered into contracts with European schools. The children of the employees of these organisations and companies are also entitled to admission to these schools. Other pupils are only admitted under certain conditions. Two types of European schools can be distinguished: • The original schools, basically established for the children of EU officials. Other pupils are only admitted if there is place. • Associated schools, connected to an EU institution, but with pupil groups that are too small to belong to the first category. On these associated schools, the children of EU officials are given precedence. Currently, there is a development in the direction of a third type of school, which has similarities with a regular national school and has no direct rela-

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tion with the EU. It is the intention that these schools become accessible to everyone. European schools can be found in different member states, with an overrepresentation in Belgium, which accommodates six of them. Further, there are three schools in Germany, and one each in Spain, Italy, England, and The Netherlands. Each school consists of departments for toddlers, primary education, and secondary education. The education offered by the European School concludes with the European Baccalaureate. This diploma gives access to the higher and scientific education in all member states of the European Union. The current schools are governed on the basis of a multilateral, intergovernmental agreement: the Statute of the European School. The schools are placed under a board of directors in which the governments of the different member states and the European Commission are represented. Current Developments and Discussions From the previous paragraphs it has become clear that the internationalisation policies in the EU member states show similarities in several ways, but that there are also clear differences in the emphasis placed on the various policy items. This also applies to the developments that are currently taking place with respect to internationalisation and the discussions about this process. Below, we will briefly touch upon some trends and discussions taking place in the different countries. Europe’s Place in the Internationalisation Process within Schools There are clear differences in the position given to Europe in education by the internationalisation policies. Paragraph 10.1 already indicated that, in particular, England takes a special position in this respect, in that in this country final attainment levels rarely if ever include Europe but are rather aimed at developing pupils into global citizens and at addressing themes with a scope exceeding the European continent, such as the environment, poverty, and human rights. Here, the attitude is one of reservation, if not disapproval, towards education that can be interpreted as propaganda for Europe or for the European Union. It is rather the case that British education merely tolerates Europe as a framework where certain topics manifest themselves that are important to address at school. In the two eastern European countries referred to in the previous chapters, Lithuania and Poland, the situation seems to be the opposite. Al-

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though here discussions take place about the degree to which education should focus on these topics, there is a clear objective to educate pupils to become European citizens. This means that, apart from paying attention to knowledge of Europe and the European Union, the pupils are—albeit implicitly—put through a process of socialisation aimed at an identification with Europe and the European values. Here, France, Germany, and certainly The Netherlands take a middle position. Schools should be directed at education about Europe, but education for Europe is generally considered as a bridge too far. In this way “Europe” is predominantly considered as a knowledge component, while pupils’ attitudes towards Europe are for the greater part left out. Whenever a more normative approach to international themes—such as sustainable development or counteracting global warming—is in fact adopted, this is usually done in a global context. A link with Europe as an instrument to conduct an effective policy with respect to these themes is often lacking. This does not change the fact that in these countries schools are offered the opportunity to choose a European profile, such as the Europaschulen in Germany, the sections Européens in France, and the ELOS schools in The Netherlands, as listed in paragraph 10.2. Schools and teachers can opt for such a profile and thereby reach those pupils and parents who are consciously willing to choose “Europe education.” Frictions as they occur in the relation between Europe and international issues—for example, regarding the topics of counteracting environmental pollution and poverty—also manifest themselves in other fields. In most countries, there are a number of general end exam prerequisites or final attainment levels associated with internationalisation. One of them is, for example, avoiding intercultural tensions. In many schools, there are multicultural pupil populations. For instance, in schools in Germany with a large number of Turkish pupils, or in Dutch schools with many Moroccan pupils, it is much more common to pay attention to intercultural differences on class or school level or on the level of the pupils’ local context. If the schools are confronted with the task of integrating these pupils, it generally concerns the regional or national rather than the European level. This means that, in the case of issues such as respect for other people or the environment, or topics such as tolerance, the attention paid to them by schools often takes place either in a broader international or a more narrow local or national context. In this way, despite the efforts of the European Union to have education introduce the European dimension, the mainstream schools in western Europe increasingly consider Europe as a knowledge domain.

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The Development of (Common) Curricula Notwithstanding the developments mentioned above, Europe is given an increasingly prominent place in the formal curricula of most countries, as already indicated in Chapter 1. The trend is that Europe is becoming more strongly embedded in the objectives of education. In this respect, it is interesting that in the past there has been a tendency towards mutually adjusting the curricula in the different countries. The previous paragraph already pointed to the AbiBac, where German and French pupils in the final years of secondary education follow curricula for history and geography that contain elements of both the French and the German national programs. Also, the CertiLingua certificate, although less prescriptive, can be interpreted as a further harmonisation of the curricula. This is because, according to CertiLingua, pupils have to master at least two modern foreign languages on the B2 level of the common European framework of reference for languages and on Level 4 of the common framework for Europe Competence. Since these levels have been laid down fairly precisely, they form the standards of education offered by the teachers of the various subjects. A more striking example of the way in which curricula grow closer to one another is formed by the mutual development of a textbook for history, intended for both German and French pupils (see also Olivier, this volume). After the edition dealing with the history of Europe and the world after 1945, a mutual history book was published in 2008, which covers the period between 1814 and 1945 (Henri, Le Quintrec, & Geiss, 2008). The book, published in both French and German, is being used by a large number of schools in both countries. Following this volume, there has also been an initiative to develop a common book for the history of Germany and Poland that meets both countries’ curriculum demands. Both cases concern recent initiatives that may increase in value when similar projects are also started for other subjects, especially in the field of the humanities and particularly when other countries participate in them as well. Standards of Learning In addition to the inclusion of Europe in the secondary education curricula, a trend can be observed towards a more explicit formalisation of learning standards. Olivier (this volume) points in this respect to the decision made in France to lay down the standards of learning at the end of the different phases in education. At the end of the primary school, pupils should master a foreign language on the A1 level of the common European frame-

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work of reference for languages, at the end of the lower secondary education phase at the B1 level, and at the end of the upper secondary education phase on the B2 level in accordance with the CertiLingua requirements. We already referred to the CFEC (see Chapter 1, Oonk & Maslowski), developed for EIO, in which the pupils’ required competencies at the end of the secondary education have been defined as specifically as possible. The development of standards with respect to modern foreign languages and European competencies is closely in line with a more general tendency in the field of education policies to formulate absolute learning standards. Since the 1990s, there has been a clear trend towards the specific formulation of pupils’ competencies at the end of the education trajectory and towards holding schools accountable when pupils do not appear to meet these standards. In most cases, this trend concerns standards of basic subjects, such as the mother tongue and mathematics. As such, this development poses a threat to the internationalisation activities at the schools, because accountability systems generally pay no attention to the progress made in modern foreign languages or to the aim of schools to develop their pupils’ competencies in specific knowledge and skill domains associated with Europe. Of the countries described in this volume, England is clearly the most advanced. The so-called “League tables” dictate to an important degree the issues on which schools have to focus. In the light of this, it is worth mentioning that England has decimated its foreign language education in the upper key stages. Although this decreasing interest in foreign languages cannot be entirely explained by this development, the accountability culture with respect to certain subjects does have an influence on the importance attached by secondary schools in England to foreign language education. Increasing Focus on Foreign Language Education in Primary Education In some of the countries in Europe, foreign language education within the secondary education sector is under pressure, whereas in other countries the interest in learning different languages is increasing or the current foreign language education is not under discussion. These differences occur in the descriptions of the educational policies in England, France, Germany, Lithuania, The Netherlands, and Poland, as explained in the previous chapters. What is remarkable at the same time in these descriptions is that in almost each of these countries there is an increasing focus on foreign languages in primary education.

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Kirtley (see Chapter 3) shows that the center of gravity in foreign language education in England has shifted from Key Stages 3 and 4 to Key Stages 1 and 2. Foreign languages now form part of the primary education curriculum, in which particularly French and to a lesser extent Spanish and German are offered to the pupils by the schools. In France, a similar development can be observed (see Chapter 4, Olivier). Since the school year 2007–2008 pupils have been offered foreign language education from Grade 2. Janiunaite (see Chapter 6) indicates that this is also the case in Lithuania. The number of pupils offered English from Grade 2 of the primary school is increasing. The Netherlands have already had a longer tradition of education in the English language, but mainly in the upper primary education sector. Since 2006, opportunities have been created for schools to give other languages a central place in the education, with a particular focus on French and German. The rationale behind the stimulation of foreign language education at an early stage seems to be based on the fact that learning languages comes naturally to pupils of primary education level. When pupils are introduced to a foreign language at an early age, it is expected that they will have less difficulty in learning it. At the same time, offering a foreign language to children in lower primary education is not without debate, as Janiunaite (see Chapter 6) states. Apart from practical problems with respect to the provision of foreign language education at an early age, in Lithuania some believe that the primary school should be initially focused on the development of the first language and that the education of foreign languages should become relevant only in a later stage. English as Lingua Franca All countries pay a great deal of attention to the stimulation of foreign languages in many forms. In this process, policy measures have consciously been taken to promote a variety of languages. As already previously indicated, The Netherlands, for example, has created legal possibilities to provide German and French in addition to English and possibly other languages. Partly as a result of the bilateral agreement between both countries, Germany and France largely stimulate one another’s languages within the schools. Simultaneously, in most countries a dominance of the English language can be observed. Oonk (see Chapter 7) indicates that, although the CLIL education in The Netherlands is growing strongly, there is only one school, located nearby the German border, that offers bilingual German education. All the other schools only offer bilingual education in the English

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language, while none of the schools appears to be interested in bilingual French education. Moreover, in The Netherlands English is an obligatory subject for pupils in primary education, whereas other modern foreign languages are optional subjects. A similar focus on English, although sometimes less strong than in The Netherlands, can also be observed in other European countries—in spite of all the stimulation measures aimed at other modern foreign languages. Czetwertynska (see Chapter 8) tells us that in Poland there is presently a debate about whether or not English should be made obligatory in primary education, because currently parents still have to make this choice. At the same time, she argues that this discussion is in fact no longer relevant, because the large majority of parents already choose English. Also, through the influence of the United States on the world stage, a good command of the English language is considered as the best way to prepare oneself for future study or a position in other European countries and to communicate with foreign people. As a result, education and its policymakers are faced with a dilemma. On the one hand, education is aimed at preparing pupils in the best possible way for society, which no longer merely exists within the country borders. This actually implies a close connection with the English language. In many cases, this is also what parents and pupils ask for, while referring to the practical value that the learning of modern foreign languages has to them. On the other hand, education has the function of providing pupils with a general knowledge base, and the command of several modern foreign languages forms part of this. Languages reveal the cultural heritage of other countries. Moreover, the European Union explicitly stimulates a diversity of languages. Education is finding itself at a crossroads, which requires the making of choices. The first signs, however, indicate that this choice will probably be made to the advantage of the English language. In addition, with respect to the smaller European countries, another issue, playing a role in the background, is the discussion about retaining the mother tongue. In higher education, it is already common practice that many courses, and sometimes even entire curriculum programs, are offered in English. This is often also done out of necessity in order to have students from other countries participate in the higher education programs. As a result of developments such as CLIL and the International Baccalaureate, English slowly but surely is finding its way also towards the secondary education sector. According to some people, this situation puts the national language under pressure and thereby the national identity and the country’s cultural heritage. Currently, there is a discussion to what extent the adoption of English as a common language in education is desirable and in which way the national language should be preserved.

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Discussions about the Desirability of the International Baccalaureate In many countries, the IB enjoys a growing interest. At the same time, however, there is a discussion in a number of countries whether this development is in fact desirable. On the one hand, the transition from secondary education to higher education in other countries is made easier, and, as in Poland, educational forms associated with the IB are appreciated (cf. Czetwertynska, Chapter 8). Czetwertynska argues, however, that the degree to which the IB fits the assessments at the end of primary education and lower secondary education is problematic. Although the IB program contains parts that cover the national literature and culture of the country in which it is offered, these components are perceived as too limited in comparison with the knowledge offered to pupils in the regular curriculum about the history and culture of Poland. Oonk (see Chapter 7) indicates that also in The Netherlands the necessary comments are made with respect to the IB. On the one hand, the IB fits in well with the tradition of the large freedom of choice which pupils and parents have with respect to their preferred school and education program. On the other hand, The Netherlands has a tradition in which both public and private education are financed according to the same standards in order to maximize the accessibility to education and to counteract segregation. This is why the higher costs for pupils who want to participate in the IB are considered undesirable. Of course, measures could be taken in this respect, such as a grants system for pupils who have less financial resources at their disposal. There are doubts, however, about the relation between the extra effort required to facilitate the IB and the ultimate additional value of introducing the IB. This is because the additional value mainly consists of the international development of pupils and their access to higher education in other countries (cf. Onderwijsraad, 2006). Oonk (see Chapter 7) explains that these objectives are already being sufficiently safeguarded by the international agreements made with respect to higher education and by the European and international orientation offered within the Elos and CLIL schools in The Netherlands. Another aspect that in some countries leads to reserve with respect to the IB and a broader access to the European school concerns the fact that governments are partly losing their control over the education program. In countries in which schools have been given increasing levels of autonomy, this argument is no longer that relevant, but in countries in which national or regional authorities are in the position to exert a large degree of influence on schools, this matter is a sensitive one. Of course, the International Baccalaureate Organisation has a system of strict quality procedures and assessments, while it evaluates the IB programs every seven years. However,

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these measures do not change the fact that a government cannot intervene in the case of problems. For this reason, most countries primarily consider the IB as a facility for pupils of foreign parents, who will in most cases go to a foreign university after the completion of their IB education. Internationalisation as a Focal Point in Secondary Teacher Training Courses A successful implementation of internationalisation in education partly depends on the degree to which teachers are capable of interpreting this concept and the extent to which they are being guided by the school or the supporting institutions. An overview study of Eurydice (2005) into citizenship education in Europe shows that in most countries internationalisation forms part of the secondary teacher training course. In some countries, among which are France and Germany, attention is paid to this topic in initial teacher education. In Germany, for instance, the pre-service teacher education in subjects such as the social sciences, politics, citizenship, and history includes a European dimension, while in France secondary school teachers of civics, history, and geography are also required to participate in an initial training that pays attention to the European dimension. In addition, in both countries teachers can follow post-schooling programs in this field. By far most countries exclusively offer post-schooling programs for teachers in the fields of Europe and internationalisation, including Poland, Lithuania, and England. Kirtley (see Chapter 3) explains that in England these programs are in the hands of the local authorities and the Teachers International Professional Development (TIPD) program. These authorities may give shape to the professional development of teachers in the field of internationalisation and support them in the activities which they want to initiate in the framework of this field. As the Eurydice report notes, schools in Lithuania and Poland can consult specialist advisers on European matters (Eurydice, 2005). In a limited number of countries, there is little if any interest in the professionalisation of teachers in the framework of internationalisation. These countries are mainly Scandinavian countries in Europe—Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Norway, and Iceland. But also in The Netherlands, the French-speaking part of Belgium, Luxembourg, Estland, Slowakia, Liechtenstein, and Bulgaria the teacher training courses rarely include any aspects of internationalisation. Because these courses hardly pay any attention to this concept, the chances are small that teachers will focus on internationalisation topics in their daily teaching practice. The lack of European and international themes may make them less inclined to attach importance to these issues in the context of their subject, but also when they

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do have an interest in them themselves, it can be expected that they will feel less confident to introduce these topics to their pupils. This does mean, nevertheless, that a number of countries do offer professional development opportunities to teachers who are specifically focused on Europe and internationalisation. For example, in The Netherlands there is a professional development program available to teachers who pay attention to Europe in the framework of Elos and CLIL. Moreover, schools with a Europe profile are obliged to give teachers the opportunity to participate in professional development activities in this field. This is an additional facility next to the common opportunities for professionalisation made available to teachers through the Comenius program. A disadvantage of this approach is, however, that as a result mainly teachers are reached who work at schools that have consciously opted for a European or international profile. Continuance of the Internationalisation Policies on the National and the European Level The discussions described above make clear that within almost all countries there are developments with respect to the internationalisation of secondary education and specifically regarding the role of Europe in this process. A number of countries have formulated policy plans or measures that have to be implemented in the coming years. On the European level, the European Commission is currently engaged in the formulation of a framework for European co-operation in education and training. In May 2009, an agreement was reached on various starting points and objectives (Council of the European Union, 2009). It has been established that, also between 2010 and 2020, education and training will remain important areas of interest with the following objectives: (1) pursuing the personal, social, and professional fulfilment of all citizens, and (2) achieving sustainable economic prosperity and employability, while promoting democratic values, social cohesion, active citizenship, and intercultural dialogue. In this context, it is stated that such aims should be viewed in a worldwide perspective. Member States acknowledge the importance of openness to the world at large as a prerequisite for global development and prosperity which—through the provision of excellent and attractive education, training and research opportunities—will help the European Union achieve its objective of becoming a world-leading knowledge economy. (Council of the European Union, 2009, p. 4)

This means that the areas of interest formulated in the past by the European Commission in the area of education will be generally maintained in the coming period. In this way, the focus on Europe and the Europe-

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an Union in education through the promotion of European citizenship and European identity will remain a central component of the European Union’s stimulation policies. In this context also, the importance of learning a variety of modern foreign languages has been re-emphasized: In view of the importance of learning two foreign languages from an early age, as highlighted in the March 2002 Barcelona European Council conclusions, the Commission is invited to submit to the Council—by the end of 2012—a proposal for a possible benchmark in this area, based on the ongoing work on language competences. (Council of the European Union, 2009, p. 17)

This proposition offers schools as well as their supporting organisations in each of the member states a stable basis for realizing their spearheads in the field of Europe and internationalisation, now and in the coming years. References Admiraal, W., Westhoff, G., & De Bot, K. (2006). Evaluation of bilingual secondary education in the Netherlands: Students’ language proficiency in English. Educational Research and Evaluation, 12, 75–93. Berns, M., De Bot, K., & Hasebrink, U. (2007). In the presence of English: Media and European youth. New York: Springer. Citrin, J., & Sides, J. ( 2004). More than nationals: How identity choice matters in the new Europe. In R. Herrmann, T. Risse, & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Transnational identities: Becoming European in the EU (pp. 161–185). Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield. Council of Europe. (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Available from http://culture2.coe.int/portfolio/documents Council of the European Union. (2009, May). Council conclusions on a strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training (“ET 2020”) (Document 9845/09, 11–12 May 2009). Brussels, Belgium: Author. Dalton-Puffer, C. (2008). Outcomes and processes in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL): Current research from Europe. In W. Delanoy & L. Volkmann (Eds.), Future perspectives for English language teaching (pp. 139– 157). Heidelberg, Germany: Carl Winter. De Bot, K., & Maljers, A. (2009). De enige echte vernieuwing: Tweetalig onderwijs [The only real innovation: Bilingual education]. In R. de Graaff & D. Tuin (Eds.), De toekomst van het talenonderwijs: Nodig? Anders? Beter? (pp. 131–145). Enschede, The Netherlands: NaB-MVT. Department for Education and Skills. (2004). Putting the world into world-class education. Retrieved from http://www.globalgateway.org.uk/default.aspx?page=624 Eurydice. (2005). Citizenship education at school in Europe. Brussels, Belgium: Author. Eurydice. (2006). Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) at school in Europe. Brussels, Belgium: Author.

Internationalisation Policies in Europe    159 Henri, D., Le Quintrec, G., & Geiss, P. (2008). Histoire/Geschichte: Europa und die Welt vom Wiener Kongress bis 1945 [History: Europe and the World from the Vienna Congress till 1945]. Stuttgart, Germany: Ernst Klett Verlag. Klieme, E., Eichler, W., Helmke, A., Lehmann, R. H., Nold, G., Rolff, H. -G.,  . . . Willenberg, H. (2006). Unterricht und Kompetenzerwerb in Deutsch und Englisch: Zentrale Befunde der tudie Deutsch Englisch Schülerleistungen International (DESI) [Education and competence aquisition in German and English: Central outcomes international s student results German and English]. Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Deutsches Institut für Pädagogische Forschung. Knight, J. (2003). Internationalisation of higher education practices and priorities: 2003 IAU survey report. Paris, France: International Association of Universities. Onderwijsraad. (2006). Internationale leerwegen en het internationale baccalaureaat [International learning routes and the International Baccalaureate]. Den Haag, The Netherlands: Author. Onderwijsraad. (2007). Veelzeggende instrumenten van onderwijsbeleid [Important instruments of educational policy]. Den Haag, The Netherlands: Author. Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone. The collapse and revival of American community. New York: Simon and Schuster. Risse, T. (2005). Neofunctionalism, European identity, and the puzzles of European integration. Journal of European Public Policy, 12, 291–309. Ruiz de Zarobe, Y. (2008). CLIL and foreign language learning: A longitudinal study in the Basque country. International CLIL Research Journal, 1(1), 61–73. Seikkula-Leino, J. (2007). CLIL learning: Achievement levels and affective factors. Language and Education, 21, 328–341. Treaty on European Union, Official Journal C 191, 29 July 1992. Luxembourg, Luxembourg: Office for official publications of the European Communities. Verspoor, M., & Edelenbos, P. (2009). Tweetalig onderwijs: Beter geschoolde leerlingen in 2024 [Bilingual education: Better educated students in 2024]. In R. de Graaff & D. Tuin (Eds.), De toekomst van het talenonderwijs: Nodig? Anders? Beter? (pp. 147–163). Enschede, The Netherlands: NaB-MVT.

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Part B Theoretical Aspects

This volume focuses on research questions B and C, as formulated in the introduction (Chapter 1): B: Which knowledge elements, skills, and views with respect to the European integration process and other international developments should be given a place in the curriculum? In which way could the Europe competence concept be given shape by integrating the European and International Orientation and the acquisition of foreign language skills into a framework (Chapters 11, 12, 13)? C: Which instruction forms are suitable for introducing the European and International Orientation into teaching practices, and which forms of evaluation are useful (Chapters 14, 15)?

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Chapter 11

Common European Values Jacek Hołówka

Introduction Philosophical reflection on ethics and public morality is often based on the assumption that one system of values fits all mankind. Aristotle did not write for the Greeks, nor Kant for the Germans, or Mill for the British. But such an approach can be considered too bold and too naïve. Aristotle, Kant, or Mill may have tried to reform mankind, but they have not managed to influence many individuals. They produced theories rather than educational programs, and whether we like it or not, social expectations and deep-rooted behavior within groups have more persuasive power than philosophical ideas. Thus, if one wishes to think in practical terms, a reference to already existing, widespread attitudes is more effective than an appeal to philosophical arguments. These considerations offer a strong support to the project of identifying core European values. It is sound and promising because many individuals in Europe do not consider themselves members of a local community as much as they consider themselves Europeans. They feel they are citizens of the continent rather than of their close localities. For many, a broadly shared European attitude is an appealing middle ground between unreflective parochialism and abstract universalInternationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 163–188 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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ism. It is a very promising attitude, but its practical significance depends on whether we will be able to say more or less precisely what it means to be European: “Defining Europe is fraught with problems, for Europe is a protean idea and not something self-evident. It is erroneous to regard Europe as merely a region for the simple reason that it means different things to different people in different contexts” (Delanty, 1995, p. 3). Uncertainty as to the size of the European territory and its population (some British citizens strongly emphasize they do not live on the continent, and some inhabitants of the Balkans or Asian Russians prefer to opt out of Europe as well) strongly undermines the proposal to define Europe and its values. But if some cases of being European may be debatable, most are not, and Europe is not a fuzzy or shifting concept. Its history, if not geographical boundaries, is a strong unifying factor. Cultural Contrasts Various societies, cultures, and political states across the ages belonged to Europe. Ancient Greeks and Romans were Europeans even if they did not use the term. German and Slavic tribes were European even though had little in common. European heritage was created by various peoples who lived east of the Ural Mountains, some of whom did not have a sense of common destiny or bother to cultivate cultural contacts. A uniform European stance was probably formulated for the first time in the Middle Ages in the crusades against the Muslims under the aegis of the Catholic Church, which at the time represented the dominant religion of the continent. Strengthened with an official liturgy and a centrally organized and militant episcopacy, Europe evolved a . . . counter-offensive against the Muslim Orient. The ensuing crusading ideology that emerged became an integral component of the identity of the European. . . . Pius II was one of the first to use the adjective “European” in the context of the Turkish threat. (Delanty, 1995, pp. 34 and 37)

The Crusaders were the first major force that unified loose political systems into a whole capable of a large-scale military effort. They effectively canvassed participation from several ethnic groups speaking different languages, and helped to establish Latin as a language of universal communication beyond its formal use in the Church, in law, and in the sciences. The crusades confirmed the fact that most European communities of the Middle Ages relied on two different languages in social communication—one was Latin used as a common speech across the continent, and the other was any one of the local vernaculars. Moreover, from that time on and through several centuries, Latin was not only a universal means of communication

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but also an instrument of social differentiation. Those who knew the language belonged as a rule to the middle or upper classes. Those who relied on the vernacular alone usually had lower status. The religious wars had other effects as well. They helped Europeans to articulate their common interests and made them brothers in arms against a common enemy. Their common fate probably enhanced the sense of being a European more than any other circumstance. But commerce, schooling, and support for migrant tradesmen were important factors, too. They mollified differences that arose from local traditions and habits, smoothed regional dialects, and broadened the range of acceptability of coins minted in the neighborhood. The hatred originating from religious prejudices was not a happy circumstance, but it brought about effects that were durable and socially advantageous. Perhaps Ernest Gellner was right when he remarked that vices and faults are stronger integrating forces than virtues and merits. “Logically facile beliefs engender no self, but offensive ones do so” (Gellner, 1998, p. 89). The wisdom of that observation should not blind us, however, to limited but important influences of cultural encounters based on good will, mutual interests, and the desire to undertake common ventures, not necessarily combative. Probably European identity was shaped as much by acts of heroism and compassion as by egoism and greed. History is no more an intellectual repository of high values than religion and philosophy are guiding forces in everyday behavior. Typically for social life, one set of values is loudly preached, while another is quietly practiced; and neither Europe nor any other continent found a remedy against this inconsistency. Social traditions are formed by two parallel forces—captivating ideas that serve as highly respected guiding principles in individual life and by practical examples of successful behavior that promises pleasures and power but falls short of those lofty standards. This picture is further complicated by various adaptive mechanisms of partial adaptation to two different sets of imperatives with relative predominance of either perfectionist or prudential considerations. Some values are given lip service and little following; others may be repeated as part of unreflective everyday behavior, with very few provide a strong motivational force. Dominant European values must be therefore defined rather carefully. They cannot be identified with popular catchwords, nor can they be reconstructed from behavior that is practiced surreptitiously with a sense of shame. They must be both practically and theoretically viable. They must include a behavior that rises above widespread manners and customs, on the one hand, and they must be something else than highly praised but practically neglected ideals, on the other hand. It is not a mark of Eurocentrism, or an attempt to mask European faults and sins, if one claims that European values include neither those acts and attitudes that are common but

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publicly considered shameful, nor those that are postulated but hardly ever practiced. Values are different from both ideals and shortcomings, insofar that they must be both legitimate (shortcomings are not) and implemented (ideals not always are). In this context, it is useful to distinguish three different relationships with respect to ideals. First, some behavior is practiced without much regard for what it is worth at all. We have to eat and to drink, we have to make an income, but we do not necessarily consider these preoccupations to be of superior value. They are necessary concessions to what must be done in order to keep us alive and well functioning. Traditional attachment to local dialects may be another example of that kind. It is commonly practiced without being much valued. A dialect may be even useful and pretty, but no one believes that it may win a crowd of foreign admirers. Secondly, some values may be only superficially observed and falsely glorified. Many churchgoers, for instance, believe that it is their obligation to declare themselves as good, God-fearing citizens. They want their children to grow up with religious education and their important episodes in life be embellished by religious rites. Their attitude may be a concession paid to custom or tradition, or it may be a calculated hypocrisy practiced for the sake of retaining a high reputation among the neighbors. But that behavior is not a tribute to any truly respected values. Finally, there are values that are characterized by a strong bond between action and motivation. They are the guiding principles for those who aspire to have their life organized by thought-out rules and ideals that have been consciously and critically selected. European values, as the values of any other culture, may only be found in this third category, when values operate as strong behavioral causes and can be defended with sound arguments. People who share such values tend to have parallel life-plans, enjoy engaging in common efforts that support these values; they want to be identified as individuals who cultivate these values, and they gladly admit others to their community only if the newcomers are ready to respect and support these values as well. But sometimes values that are found in that category do not withstand the test of time. Delanty is clearly right when he argues that the Crusades, which forged Europe into a rich and strong amalgam, turned its inhabitants into brothers in arms on the one hand but also made them xenophobic and prone to ethnic discrimination, on the other hand: “With the deliverance of Europe from the external enemy following the final retreat of Islam from the Iberian Peninsula, the function of the victim, Europe’s Other, was transferred onto the internal enemy, the Jews” (Delanty, 1995, p. 43). Delanty charts the beginning of the anti-Semitic sentiment in Europe at the period immediately following the Crusades. A large-scale undertaking against Islam could easily be transformed into a loathing of Judaism simply because religious wars produced a hatred of all heretics and members of

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different faiths. But the exact meaning of Delanty’s claim is not sufficiently precise. Granting that the Muslims may have been replaced by the Jews in “the function of the victim,” it is not clear whether the change was a case of thoughtless behavior or of false consciousness, or a conscious policy of persecuting the Jews on the strength of some theoretical principles. These are three different situations discussed in the previous paragraph, and they have entirely different implications. Pure indolence can be easily corrected with arguments. Hypocrisy must be exposed as inconsistent and duplicitous. Attachment to culturally entrenched values that are however connected with completely erroneous moral preconceptions must be strongly condemned as unjust and unfair. The problem is difficult because it is connected with the perennial strife between culture and politics, or between Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft, two different ways of viewing social identification of individuals. Thus, having a common foe may have been originally the dominant factor in the coalescence of European identity, but its specific operation is not quite clear. Probably it was not of long duration, either. After all, in the Middle Ages only the troops of Genghis Khan posed a real threat to European territories, and they did not leave a lasting impact on local populations. Apart from the Crusades, which may have worked as a catalyst for European integration, the continent as a whole did not wage mass wars until well into the 20th century. There is also some exaggeration in the formula that initially Europe was fused together by the Islamic wars, or the “eastern frontier” and later on it was coalesced by the “western frontier” or the expansion into Africa and the Americas with the view of acquiring new territories: “The Christian myth was simply transformed from the eastern frontier to the western in the substitution of the Islamic ‘infidel’ with the construct, the ‘savage.’ The idea of ‘civilisation’ became associated with Europe, which gradually began to replace Christendom and became an absolute value” (Delanty, 1995, p. 45). Offering the conquered peoples eternal salvation or introducing them to legal and political institutions of Europe was a lame excuse for obtaining new land, finding gold, and hoarding natural riches. We cannot seriously claim that their salvation was more assuredly provided by the belief in the Holy Trinity than it would have been by voodoo practices, or even that the conquerors honestly thought so. Neither is it true that European institutions were so firmly implanted in foreign lands that they could give their inhabitants genuine benefits of due process, academic education, technical development, efficient medical services, or integration within the European society. It is a self-serving simplification to say that the wish to Christianize the whole world was in due course superseded by the sincere wish to civilize the whole world. The desire to win power and wealth played too

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prominent a role in these scenarios. All the same, however, an expansion disguised as religious or lay mission was something better than crass and naked invasion. So the lesson from Gerard Delanty is wise and important. European identity emerged from contacts with other cultures. Wars, commerce, colonial ideology, and religious expansion made Europe stronger and helped to define its identity more clearly. Other cultures came out crippled and enfeebled from these encounters, their identity often split and disintegrated. African and American cultures had not been strong enough to withstand foreign dominion. Under pressure, local traditions were abandoned or mongrelled into a strange mixture of local and foreign customs. But it would be unfair to say that the policy of destroying foreign cultures was practiced purposefully by Europeans or with the intention to destroy them completely. Their demise was spontaneous and natural, and not a result of planned, insidious action. European culture simply turned out to be more resilient than others, perhaps more ruthless and single minded, better organized, and more perseverant. It is quite possible, however, that the era of its domination is coming to an end before our eyes, and the future belongs to some amalgam of global values totally cut off from local influences. We should bear in mind, however, that European identity was shaped not only by wars and conquests. Peaceful contacts were quite important, too. They were effected by trade, development of new technologies, intermarriages, and growing volumes of production. These exchanges were probably more durable and constitutive than combats, and they strengthened the bonds that initially may have been tied in wars. The idea that cultural identity is formed by distinctive oppositions can be interpreted along structuralist lines (identities emerge from comparisons) or along functionalist lines (identities are shaped through interaction). It does not matter much which interpretation we choose. The essential thing is that European identity grew from indigenous inventions and traditions, from selective assimilation of some elements of foreign cultures, and from rejection of others. Europe is what it is because its populations had a common history and common ideas about what makes life worthwhile. These assumptions were frequently tested in contacts with other peoples and their cultures. “It was in the encounter with other civilisations that the identity of Europe was shaped. Europe did not derive its identity from itself but from the formation of a set of global contrasts” (Delanty, 1995, p. 84). In other words, the process of the crystallisation of the European identity was a result of fascination versus contempt shown to different aspects of other cultures. Some Europeans were always attracted by other lands and traditions, and they truly admired the artistic and political achievements of other people. Others despised foreigners and summarily rejected them as less refined and inferior. That was especially clear in the contacts with

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Oriental societies —the Arabs, Chinese, the inhabitants of India and Persia. The disgust and fear of their religions was mingled with fascination with their poetry, manufacture, and a leisurely life style. Contacts with the Orient contributed essentially to the creation of the European myth that the East was populated by peoples of less productive and less efficient cultures, who were nevertheless more refined and more ceremonial. The Orient was constructed in such a way that it existed to be conquered by the West. . . . Europe’s interest in dominating the Orient was expressed in the predominance of female stereotypes which served to portray the Orient as a domain awaiting the intervention of Europe: the West could be characterized as social stability while the East is pleasure. . . . The opposition of the female Oriental slave and the male Western traveller was the perfect foil for the invention of a specifically western identity based on patriarchal notions of superiority and intellectual mastery. . . . Europe represented progress and rationality while the Orient represented stagnation and decay. (Delanty, 1995, pp. 88–89)

The feminisation of the Orient tells us more about European identity than it tells us about the Orient. As Delanty indicates in the quote above, Europeans who organized themselves into political empires in the 19th century wanted to be perceived as masters of the whole world, all powerful and charged with the mission to oversee the entire globe. These pretensions, fortified by expectations of huge benefits arising from the position of control, were supported by the fantastic claim that Europeans not only ruled over so many parts of the world but deserved that distinction naturally, by virtue of their history, military power, religion of charity, and opulence in courts and cities. The superiority of the European culture was taken for granted by its armed ambassadors, and it was forcibly imposed on the conquered populations against their protests. Military triumphs were interpreted as a proof of the superiority of European culture, which was allegedly destined to liberate local populations from their superstitions and barbarity. The arrogance of this attitude in relation with the East was so glaring that its validity could not be taken seriously for a moment. All of this does not necessarily mean that all cultures are of equal value. We are accustomed nowadays to compare cultures with the explicit intention of not reaching conclusive results. None can emerge as better than others. Political correctness blinds us to important differences between various heritages and traditions, to their intellectual legitimacy, and breadth of vision. This is not a prudent approach, for contrary to what Bishop Berkeley says, things do not disappear when we close our eyes. Hence it is not wise to perceive numerous European faults associated with European imperial policies and not notice the positive aspect of those European influences, when they are purified of false ideologies, arrogant boasting, and naïve faith in a

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historical mission. It is true that Europeans too often paraded themselves as omniscient beings without flaws and absolved themselves of the obligation to justify their actions. It is also true that nothing had given them the right to impose their standards by force, or to dress their greed and lust as privileges of a superior race. But on the other hand, whether we like it or not, European influences had good effects on many local populations in the world, and numerous societies managed to free themselves from the power of local chieftains or oppressive political systems because their efforts had been supported by the wider public opinion who had been inspired by ideas of the French Revolution or other related concepts of human rights originating from Europe. Moreover, the numbers of voluntary cultural transfers from one environment to another indicate that the European heritage was attractive to many individuals with other backgrounds of their own. Ancient philosophy, German music, French fashions, and Russian literature appeal to many individuals all over the world and testify that Europe was not only capable of conquests but of cultural radiation as well. There is one complicating factor, however. Contacts between cultures can be used to stimulate industriousness, inventiveness, educational viability of school curricula, and impressive achievements in philosophy and arts. But it can also produce a widening gap between a stronger culture that imposes its norms and a weaker partner whose culture may wither away under the heavy impact of its rival. The chances of mutual growth or mutual adaptation are often ignored and lost. It is not very frequent that two cultures flourish side by side on the same area and do not compete for dominance. Biculturalism is a difficult attitude for an individual and a complicated problem for a well-organized society. It seems to be an attractive prospect, however, in the areas where individuals can freely travel, where they can openly seek new identity, and are allowed to start their life anew. Europe solved the age-old problem of the universal versus the particular by consigning the sphere of the particular to the relativism of national cultures while the idea of Europe was designated to the realm of the universal. . . .  Europe is thus subjectively experienced as national identity. This dual identity was a specifically European phenomenon. The idea of Europe can be seen, in fact, as an expression of the universalist project of nationalism and the unfulfilled claim of the nation-state to universality. (Delanty, 1995, p. 85)

European culture was never parochial. It could be short-sighted, biased, narrow minded, authoritarian, or voracious, but it was never marked by the prejudice that the locally brewed ideas were exclusively right. Europeans did not only pride themselves of having the most impressive cathedrals; ancient water pipes; small, cozy towns; and cultivated landscapes. They also gladly incorporated into their lifestyles Persian carpets and erotic poetry, Chinese silk and methods of bureaucracy, Indian condiments and philosophy of life,

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Japanese ascetic aesthetics and mental discipline, African mysticism and music. Their search for universal values may have been skewed from the start and done half-heartedly, but Europe did not practice isolationism. The two processes, that of imposing European preferences on others and that of learning from other cultures, have existed side by side for a long time. It is quite difficult to tell how much Jewish food is Polish and vice versa, whether Californians have contributed something of permanent value to the French wine, if the Brazilian language has superseded the Portuguese on the world scale, and whether the vuvuzelas will become a nuisance in the European streets at night. Europe may have been culturally imposing, but it has also led a search for universal values with a childish enthusiasm, and whether it ends with success or in failure, it does not ultimately matter. The search itself is invigorating and instructive. The New World

“Keep, ancient lands, your storied pomp!” cries she With silent lips. “Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore. Send these, the homeless, tempest-tossed to me, I lift my lamp beside the golden door!”           —Emma Lazarus, 1883

America was for the two past centuries a promised land to many Europeans, and the inscription on the Statue of Liberty epitomizes a widespread sentiment. Due to mass immigration from Europe, North America has developed a culture that is a clone or an offspring of the European culture. The ensuing rivalry between the two continents was thus immensely important for the formation of their cultural identities. This competition is probably responsible for the growing rift between the two cultures. Now, the American culture is only superficially similar to the European. It is more deeply infused with allegorical thinking than is European tradition, and this aspect of the American mentality is often irksome to many Europeans. From the time of early settlements in the New World, its inhabitants saw their life in terms of a mystic reenactment, a living allegory of the fate of Israel. An excellent book by Deborah L. Madsen, Allegory in America, shows how the settlers of New England perceived their life as a series of events that were conducive to their moral improvement: “Typology is the discursive mode which has come to characterize the rhetoric of New World exceptionalism. Typology, the reading of history as a pattern of promises and fulfillments,

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assumes a guiding intelligence the transcendent authority of which touches and empowers the typological interpreter” (Madsen, 1996, p. 38). Local preachers affirmed that all successes and misfortunes in their congregations were moral lessons for their improvement. The very arrival in America was like the exodus from Egypt or the flight to escape Herod’s soldiers. The battles with the Indians were like a great migration into Canaan, a fierce war ending with an almost complete extermination of the indigenous population. Those who were abducted for ransom by Indian tribes saw their fate as a repetition of the Babylonian captivity or Joseph’s fate. Wherever they looked, life was a reenactment of biblical stories, and because of that they found their vicissitudes already familiar, meaningful, and elevating. Powerlessness and sin had a special sense in these circumstances—challenges of everyday perils honed the will power of the victims, diluted responsibility of the wrongdoers, and explained their weaknesses and failures. Allegorical stories made Americans bolder and more certain of themselves, but also made them more susceptible to lame excuses and fake apologies. Against the biblical background, Europe provided a paltry model for inspirational thought and/or coping with practical dilemmas. The Americans found themselves wedged between the role of fully independent agents and the vehicles of mysterious allegorical forces. Consequently, some of them became unscrupulous and ruthless, others self-indulging and undiscriminating. Yet, the largest number learned to be self-reliant and helpful to others, which is a distinctly pleasant aspect of everyday life in the U.S., as noted by many visitors. Madsen (1996) sees one more beneficial consequence of biblical allegories. Americans have grown to be astonishingly tolerant and championed social liberties with unparalleled determination. They have also tended to spread these attitudes as a universal standard for other cultures. Tolerance as a fundamental virtue has grown from the understanding that in many conflicting situations there is simply no good way out and no universally valid solution. People are different, and we have to accept them with their differences. Madsen discusses two books, one of which is a story of captivity, the other a story of enslavement, one shows a white woman captured by the Indians, the other depicts a black girl toiling at a plantation. The first book is The Sovereignty and Goodness of God by Mary Rowlandson. It is a moving story of a lady abducted by the Narrangansett Indians. “It establishes a typological model for an interpretation of the experience of captivity which is consonant with Puritan ideology and which exemplifies the status of New England as an infant ‘redeemer nation’” (Madsen, 1996, p. 58). Mrs. Rowlandson’s torments are deep. She suffers from hunger, cold, and dirt; she meets with derision and contempt. Only one Indian shows her some compassion and presents her with a copy of the Bible. Mrs. Rowlandson finds this to be an act of God. Her faith is strengthened even

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more when she meets her son whom she believed to have lost forever. Every favorable turn of her fortunes is a proof of God’s protection, every further affliction is an indication that God has decided to put her endurance to harsher tests. The ordeal not only mortifies her soul but also teaches her how to better understand her past and recognize her present sins. “The Indians are represented as Satanic agents through whom God warns and chastises His people. It is only when she is prevented from observing the Sabbath that she remembers how many Sabbaths she misspent or let pass unremarked” (Madsen, 1996, p. 62). In one respect, the story is characteristic for the American perception of the human condition in general. Every moment in her life is to Mrs. Rowlandson a new chance given to her by God. She must discover what that chance is, and where it is supposed to lead her to. Seeing her captors as a direct instrument of Satan and an indirect instrument of God makes her plight tolerable. She takes it with perfect submissiveness. She knows she has no chance to escape, but she refuses to countenance her imprisonment unreservedly. She does not try to accommodate herself to her situation because it is almost unreal to her. For instance, she does not try to please or pacify her tormentors, nor is she tempted to fight for salvation of their souls, which she, as a religious person from Europe, should at least have tried. But Mrs. Rowlandson has no desire to act for the good of the cruel tribe, no wish to preach charity to them. She finds her chastisement necessary and just. She believes that her suffering has a strong redeeming quality: She is part of the chosen, because she is one of the select few who can understand and rejoice in the wrath of God. She is prepared to withstand all hardships because she thinks that her captors are wicked and will be punished. She does not negotiate with them to obtain leaner terms, and occasionally refuses even to bend to their demands. For instance, she finds it blasphemous to work on the Sabbath, and when she is threatened with having her face disfigured, she boldly stands by her word. The Indians are impressed and do not punish her. At that moment, the culture gap between her and them is narrowed. Both parties are learning that their cultures have something in common. Her endurance and intransigence convince the Indians of the values of the emerging American culture more than the sermons they have heard or the money they are forced to use. The story of the black girl Linda, related in the Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, by Harriet Jacobs, using the pen name “Linda Brent,” is similar on the surface. Linda is exposed to hardships and forced to do hard work. She bears her fate without protests. But, unlike Mrs. Rowlandson, she has not found herself among “noble savages” but amidst “white trash.” She must cope with violence, hypocrisy, and male lust. She is somebody’s property, because she has been acquired for money. She can be maltreated according to the wishes of her owners, and she is punished harshly for any

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weakness or disobedience as if she had no human feelings. It is no secret to her that in her neighborhood some whites torture and murder slaves. They call themselves Christians and believe that cruelty to slaves is morally and religiously acceptable. In these circumstances, Linda could resign herself to biblical allegories, as Mrs. Rowlandson did, but instead she learns to be rebellious. She does not take her suffering as God’s chastisement, not because she is unable to see her tormentors as a tool of the devil, but because she sees clearly that they are evil and ruthless as men who do not need any supernatural inspiration for their vile excesses. They want her to work hard and submit to their sexual desires. That makes her sad, but also angry and calculating: “I was struggling alone in the powerful grasp of the demon of Slavery; and the monster proved too strong for me. I felt as if I was forsaken by God and man; as if all my efforts must be frustrated; and I became reckless in my despair” (Madsen, 1996, p.75). In the end, Linda takes a lover of her own choice. Rather than yield to Dr. Flint, whom she despises, she gives herself to Mr. Sands, whom she almost loves. When doing so, she disapproves of her decision and feels ashamed by her defeat. But she gathers her strength and tries to make the best of the circumstances. These two responses to enslavement, by Mrs. Rowlandson and by Linda, are equally typical for the American culture. The former is marked by submission to God’s will rather than man’s, the latter by intransigence that relies on no ally. Such conditional submission and quiet intransigence have much in common. Both women can withstand enormous pressure and they do not succumb to despair. Neither do they seek martyrdom or try to elevate their status in their own eyes by undertaking a morally uplifting mission for the tormentors. Both see their predicament in terms of allegorical thinking. Linda knows she is an embodiment of the eternal slave, without rights, without rescuer, without loving friends. But she finds a meaning for her solitude and abandonment: She finds it in exceptionalism. Linda believes she has a mission that has no precedent. She must prove herself stronger than any other woman in her place. The technique by which the allegorical text prescribes its own interpretation is allusion; the specification of examples or comparisons or contrasts, within the narrative, points to the hermeneutic connections that the interpreter is required to make. Meaning is thus consciously hidden or made indeterminate by the writer who uses an allegorical style of rhetoric. (Madsen, 1996, p. 14)

These two literary biographies highlight many characteristic values of the American culture: the optimistic faith in a happy ending; religious fundamentalism; tendency to control behavior rather than thought; tolerance of widespread sin and obsession, but not of duplicity and weakness; the desire to act in good faith as long as possible; allegorical interpretation of

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difficulties; and exceptionalism. A mythical European story would be based on quite different assumptions. Captives of a prison camp would typically pray to God for a good outcome, but they would not dream of enacting an allegorical story by their courage. An underground organisation would be created in order to put together a common program of emotional support but not necessarily in order to organize an escape. Some prisoners would be suspected of spying and might be excluded from further proceedings, but they would not be considered the emissaries of evil forces. The captives would feel abandoned and forgotten, they might even be led to despair, but they would not believe their fate was exceptional or their tormentors unusual. They would draw strength from their upbringing, their tradition, and social culture, and they would dream in the first place of being brought back into their world. They would not be consoled by a chance of biological survival or a transfer to a new culture. In general, where the Americans extol inventiveness, belief in success, pragmatism, self-confidence, and Puritan ethics which separates toil and pleasure, the Europeans emphasize mental reservation, legal protests, absorption in new activities, hope against all hope, decorum, and a sense of self-esteem. The Conquered Lands Three or four centuries ago, the countries like Spain, Holland, Great Britain, Portugal, or France mounted an enormous effort to conquer new territories. The colonists developed a strong belief in their natural and cultural superiority. They took pride in being able to adapt to difficult conditions in tropical or inhospitable regions, and they tried to prove they possessed unparalleled virtues as soldiers, pioneers, and administrators who could organize the life of the natives. It is to be understood that a large part of those qualities existed only in their imagination, so it is reassuring that some colonists had a more realistic conception of their own qualities and learned to detect merits in the characters and tradition of local population. They often detected the strength of instinctive responses, easygoing attitude to ordinary worries, attachment to broader groups than close family, literal belief in mythical or mystic stories, and a strong identification with nature and biological functions. This set of qualities constituted a stereotype that is now strongly offensive to the supporters of the thesis of equivalence of cultures and individual equality. However, facts are not norms. People deserve to be treated as equal, at least initially, but they are not equal, which should be especially evident to radical egalitarians. Likewise, cultures should be treated as endowed with equal initial worth, but they are not strictly equivalent, whether they use their viability as the yardstick or their inner worth and refinement. Therefore, there is no reason why we should trust Mrs.

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Rowlandson’s report, when she learns to respect and be respected by the Indians, but reject the story of Mrs. French-Sheldon, published in a 19th-century anthropological journal, in which she displays a rather condescending attitude to some African cultures. Mrs. French-Sheldon left an interesting and convincing literary picture of the native cultures of East Africa. She is straightforward and frank, and quite impartial as it is even indicated by her decision to publish under her husband’s name and without even mentioning her first name. The tribes of Kilimanjaro that Mrs. French-Sheldon undertook to study seemed to her a group of peaceful, friendly, and childish people. They have a great spirit of fun lurking ready to burst out into shouts of ringing laughter at the slightest provocation, and as I went marching as quietly as possible through the approaches to their plantations, I could not but marvel at their joviality and the happiness which seemed incumbent upon the free life, untrammeled by all the burdensome troubles of civilisation and thought. (French-Sheldon, 1892, p. 360)

But that was only her first approximation. Mrs. French-Sheldon also makes a frank, first-hand report on the life of a tribe that she is happy to observe day by day. She does not either like them or dislike them, in a strong sense of the term. She is simply curious to see how they live, and she records her observations. She feels secure as a foreigner and a woman, and she even believes she is better tolerated than a male observer would be because nobody tries to please her or make an impression on her. She is almost invisible as a reporter. Then she notes, when she probes more deeply into their customs, that the pleasant attitude she observed in the open gives way to tense emotions and behavior whenever the members of the tribe apply themselves to something they consider important, sacred, or emotionally overwhelming. At the time of leisure, they are predictable, communicative, and kind, but when they engage in festive ceremonies, indulge in local customs, or when they go out hunting, they are totally submerged in their traditional mode of behavior and seem unable to control their acts. Mrs. French-Sheldon finds the tribe has clear and functional customs. She describes, for instance, a chief after his meal who proceeds to give a ritual speech, one he repeats day after day. The chief steps into the central area of the village, where he is awaited by everybody. “I, Songora, speak, I say to you that there is no boy that is the virility of any chief, who can shoot in a twinkle of an eye the whistling eagle on the wing, as can my son. Come! I, Songora, the virility of my father Endella, say to you, it is not a lie. I have spoken!” Then, having strutted three or four yards in every direction, he squats down on the ground and waits to hear who dares dispute him. (French-Sheldon, 1892, p. 361)

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Nobody steps forward to challenge the prowess of his son or his own rhetorical proficiency. His title to the position of the chief is confirmed. The scene is not only theatrical but highly functional. In fact, it is more convincing than a flat declaration of his superiority would be. Moreover, an open and brash announcement of his position could be received as a challenge and might find a challenger. The ritual braggadocio is more amusing than annoying, and the performance confirms what everybody already knows, that the chief rules and for the time being nothing is going to change it. As nobody steps forward, the village is safe and in good hands. The theatrical mode of communication was not so offensive as to provoke an unpremeditated challenge. It promised stability without producing tension. Another episode made it clear how strongly the tribe was attached to its customs, how it was unwilling to change them or to look critically at them. Any deviation from the established custom was considered dangerous and wild. They would rather trust their forefathers than any foreigner who came as a visitor—especially when they saw for themselves that their behavior did not have an obvious explanation. Mrs. French-Sheldon was not always an anthropologist, and on occasion she wanted to get a souvenir for herself. She knew that the women of the tribe she visited used a piece of cloth-wrap around their hips and protected that garment jealously. She wanted to buy such a skirt, but then she met with staunch opposition. They have never been known to sell, give or barter one of these clothes after having worn it until I procured the one in my possession. The reason for this is very rational, considering the people from whom it emanates; the idea being that if they should give to any mzunga—white man—the cloth, or if he should obtain it in any way, the woman would be under some sexual subjection to this man, that he would bewitch her, and at any time, wherever he might be, however unwilling the woman should feel, he would take her from her husband and her people to the ends of the earth. (French-Sheldon, 1892, p. 364)

Mrs. French-Sheldon initially had not known that. She persisted and offered various gifts, more and more valuable, to get a real cloth, which meant for her one that had been used and not made especially for her. At some point, she found a woman who under a spate of gifts began to shift uneasily. Mrs. French-Sheldon found out from her why the woman hesitated, and when she learned the reason, she assured her that she had nothing to fear. Mrs. French-Sheldon was a woman, too, and therefore she would not exercise sexual magic over her, especially across vast distances. In the end, the woman yielded, took Mrs. French-Sheldon far from the village, and gave her the cloth in a deserted place. That was an interesting example of friendly communication between two individuals belonging to different cultures and against a strong prohibition to perform certain acts.

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Usually, Mrs. French-Sheldon did not depart so far from her role of the anthropologist, even when some customs seemed to her cruel and indefensible. In the tribe, marriages were arranged by abduction. Girls of approximately ten years were both potential victims and partners in the scheme. A prospective bridegroom started from collecting a bevy of four best men with whom he would procure a wife for himself. The ritual was brutal and terrifying. The four friends of the expectant bridegroom pursue the girl who is soon captured with much affectation and resistance, and is conveyed to the hut of the bridegroom’s mother, where she is kept a close prisoner for five days. During this time the young people dance and carouse and make themselves generally merry and promiscuously drunk, carrying the excess of their dissipation to such an extent that they dance until they fall down in a type of epileptic fit. The girl is now accessible to these four friends, and after this atrocious privilege has been indulged in, the legitimate husband claims his bride and they are then visible to all their acquaintances, become the recipients of gifts and indulge in much dissipation. (French-Sheldon, 1892, p. 366)

Mrs. French-Sheldon does not speculate about the potential merits of such customs. Some could be found of course, but it would be rather callous to seriously use them. Getting married at Kilimanjaro was a strictly organized and a strict social arrangement. It was not motivated, or regulated, by love, so perhaps the abducted girls did not suffer from being exposed to the four best men as much as they would if they had a chance to find a husband on their own. With the arrangement as it was, the girls had higher chances of getting immediately pregnant, which was supposedly a bonus in their lives. The five men would presumably have to live with the thought that it was unclear whose child the girl would bear, so a larger concept of the family resulted from the arrangement. All this does not mean that the custom was pardonable and that it would be unwise to urge the local population to change their manners. Cultures can be evaluated; they are not all equal, and it is permissible to persuade those who practice cruel rites that they should stop. There may be other reasons than cruelty for finding some aspects of various cultures unacceptable, and in general it seems desirable to look at every culture with a critical eye and to convince its practitioners that they should throw away some of their customs and beliefs. At some of their festivals this dancing is carried to such an extent that I have seen a young fellow’s muscles quiver from head to foot and his jaws tremble without any apparent mobility on his part to control them, until foaming at the mouth and with eyes rolling, he falls in a paroxysm upon the ground, to be carried off by his companions. (French-Sheldon, 1892, p. 367)

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Many cultural anthropologists would agree that such a dance may be part of religious communication. Dancing, intoxication, and blurring one’s consciousness with herbs or mushrooms are believed to be ways of communicating with spiritual powers of various kinds. Falling down in a trance is in Africa something else than an escape from everyday worries, as it seems to be for some confused individuals in Europe or America. An African dancer exposes himself to the elemental forces of nature, throws himself at the mercy of chance and the unknown, he tests his luck and challenges his fate. He may gain inspirational visions in such moments, and many people will trust those clues. The strongly irrational element in such behavior fits in a completely different frame of references than it would in Europe. This does not mean, however, that European cannot understand it or must not find it misleading and unacceptable. Pale social emotions did not, on the other hand, seem to Mrs. FrenchSheldon very different in England and East Africa. Jealousy, petty quarrels, scheming, and pointless rivalry at Kilimanjaro made her think of her home country: “One family [brought] me milk and eggs, and seeing that somebody had anticipated them, they immediately would commence a tirade as to the bad quality of the other’s gifts and recommending theirs with great vivacity” (French-Sheldon, 1892, p. 368). It is probably true all over the world that to keep us in good mental shape each day must bring us its small satisfactions; if they do not, we fight back and try to find a culprit responsible for our misery. It is also probably true for all cultures that they use social games through which they control their people trying to outsmart them, perhaps cheat and confuse until they have subjected their will and reason to traditional customs. We are not obliged to accept such stratagems either in our own or in other cultures: “They avoid letting any stranger know of the death of one of their tribe. If a familiar face is missing, and an inquiry is made someone promptly says, ‘He has gone on a journey,’—doubtless to the great hereafter” (French-Sheldon, 1892, p. 369). The African culture described by Mrs. French-Sheldon was widely different from either the European or the American cultures. Being rather indifferent to human pain and terror, it cultivated resistance to such feelings and made local population better adapted to their circumstances of hunger, war, disease, and high temperature. Their ritualistic forms of communication strongly enforced the status quo in order to prevent rebellious tendencies in the younger generation. The tribe was religious in a way that presupposed faith in mystical communication during self-induced periods of partial loss of consciousness. Elements of such a lifestyle are not entirely absent in Europe and North America, but here they do not predominate. So it is one thing to understand why certain customs may be functional in difficult circumstances, and quite another to argue that they are therefore universally desirable.

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The Far East The Japanese are consciously interested in a systematic description of their own identity, probably more than the members of any other national tradition in the world. They have a special name for that activity, nihonjinron, which means “talking about the Japanese.” According to Kosaku Yoshino (Cultural Nationalism in Contemporary Japan), this curiosity tends to intensify rather than abate: “The linguistic and communicative mode of the Japanese is characterized in the nihonjinrom by taciturnity, ambivalence, nonlogic, situational ethics and emotionality. The Western mode, by contrast, is characterized by eloquence, dichotomous logic, rigid principles and rationality” (Yoshino, 1992, p. 13). Strictly speaking, the two valued logic of truth and falsity cannot be rejected, but it can be neglected. What the Japanese are accustomed to do, must therefore be described in different words, perhaps by saying that politeness is more important to the Japanese than consistency. Conversation is probably treated more ceremoniously in Japan than elsewhere, and humoring the listener is probably considered a strict obligation—people in power are respected, children are more obedient, invited and welcomed guests are pampered, and so forth. In a manner of speaking, the Japanese behave as if they were influenced by the later philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein, who believed that speech is not essentially descriptive but serves a thousand purposes defined as language games. It can be used to ask for something, compliment somebody, encourage, or puzzle them—that is, to cajole the listener rather than purely pass information. Evidently, the Japanese like these games more than other people do. The pragmatic aspect of talking must be essential to them. Probably they want to know first of all how the speaker feels during a conversation, what she intimates, indicates, insinuates, what she desperately wants to avoid in the conversation, and what she hopes to hear. If the conversation meets these requirements, it will be courteous, cautious, and consequential. It is interesting how Yoshino explains the causes of that communicative style: Hunting was the productive way of life of Europeans at the time when the European languages were being formed. Hunters must convey their messages clearly with one another in their cooperative work. . . . This is not the case with cooperation in food gathering and agriculture. Language formed under these conditions is intended to exchange the feelings of consideration, gratitude, encouragement and sympathy, which are unnecessary in hunting. (Yoshino, 1992, p. 21)

This points to Japanese communalism, which is different from communalism of African cultures, and probably non-existent in Europe and America. Polite and highly structured conversation reinforces the sense of unity

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among the speakers and helps to avoid conflicts in closely knit society. Or, to put it in different terms, some cultural traditions emphasise unanimity (presumably the African), others put a premium on accuracy and veracity (presumably the European and American), still others take great pains to avoid unintended insult or a hurting of the feelings of partners in conversation (apparently the Japanese). “Groupism” is one of the main issues in nihonjinron: “The Japanese social structure is characterized in the nihonjinron by groupism or ‘interpersonalism’ (or ‘contextuality’), verticality, and dependence (or other-directedness) in contrast to Western society which is characterized as having the opposite characteristics: individualism, horizontality and independence (self-autonomy)” (Yoshino, 1992, p. 17). These observations are confirmed by a psychiatrist who had an opportunity to treat Japanese and Western patients. In his opinion, one of the common causes that leads to an emotional discomfort in Japan is a disappointment generated by deceitful partners or co-workers. The average Japanese wants to be trusted and feels secure only when he or she can trust others. He finds it very stressful when the colleagues in the workplace or partners in a social organisation have to be both trusted and controlled. Such dual attitude undermines loyalty and produces in a typical Japanese a sense frustration and exhaustion. On the basis of his experience of treating Japanese and Western patients as a psychiatrist Mr. Doi formed his conviction that amae is a key concept for exploring the essence of the Japanese personality. Amae is the noun form of amaeru, which roughly means “to depend and presume on another’s goodwill.” (Yoshino, 1992, p. 18)

Another emotional problem besetting the Japanese is connected with the response to a defeat or failure. An average person in Japan is placed under enormous pressure to produce results and achievements. The cult of efficiency is a major goal in every form of education. That may again be a byproduct of agricultural mentality, which creates a lot of stress for those who falter, as everybody does from time to time. In such a case, Yoshino points out, the Japanese, unlike most other people, pretend that nothing has happened. They turn around, try to forget, and without apologies immediately start doing something else without tormenting themselves by a sense of guilt. Here they are different from both American and Europeans. The Americans, perhaps due to their religiousness, openly admit to their failures, while the Europeans, by and large, tend to refuse to make apologies but quietly make amends. If this generalisation is at least partly accurate, we can say that Americans are the most flexible and the Japanese have the most rigid personality. The Japanese approach is counterproductive in a situation when you have to mend old fences. Neighbors usually do not forget your faults. But if

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you are prepared to turn over a new leaf and become an entirely new person, the Japanese approach is very helpful. For instance, after World War II, the Japanese accepted their defeat with amazing equanimity. They quickly rejected their imperial politics and agreed that it had been a grave mistake trying to overpower stronger opponents. Such mistakes must not be made. Consequently, they did not feel obliged to continue their pre-war programs of education, and did not feel they had lost face and honor in the war. Their forefathers did, and the new generation took the lesson in a sporting manner. Someone had to lose the war, and they did; it was inevitable and does not reflect adversely on their abilities, talents, preparation, or dedication to accomplish important tasks. Of course, it is not true that every Japanese thinks in this way. All descriptions of cultures play with dangerous generalities. Some Japanese took the loss of the empire with grief and sorrow. They felt humiliated, even though the American troops, warned by Ruth Benedict and other anthropologists, tried to pass over the Japanese defeat as quickly as possible. But to some Japanese, it was difficult to adapt to the new situation, and they were ashamed to have been found ineffectual in their attempt to impose their rule on other nations. They blamed politicians and teachers for the debacle. Politicians were accused of short-sightedness and wishful thinking, teachers of enforcing imperial brain-washing on the young pre-war generation—especially if after the defeat they quickly rejected their pre-war views that they had instilled in their pupils. Mr. I recollected some events of his youth which, he thought, had been pivotal in forming his political attitude in general and his critical perception of war-related phenomena in particular. Of one such event he recalled the actions of a teacher of his secondary school days who had no principles and “made a 180o-turn in his attitudes” at the time of Japan’s defeat in 1945. (Yoshino, 1992, p. 144)

Clearly, the sense of self-esteem had to be repaired after the war, but it was hard to decide in what way. To some, the best solution was to abandon their former militaristic views and restore the country as quickly as possible. Such was the opinion of the majority. But to others, the best way to deal with the memories of the war was to engage in soul searching and find out where the mistake had been committed. Thus, some people wanted to forget and start anew, while others wanted to safeguard themselves from further errors. It may be claimed that the first response was more truly Japanese, while the second was not so. But, strictly speaking, this would be like placing one shaky generalisation upon another. No culture is a uniform monolith; it always has cracks and warps that are as characteristic for it as its main traits. After the war, for some Japanese it was essential to undertake a quick recovery, for others it was a suspicious reaction. The first response was

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apparently more widespread and soothing. The second was more inquisitive and demanding. Both approaches seem to have been deeply rooted in the Japanese tradition. So, what essentially distinguishes a Japanese from another national in the situation of a serious social dilemma is not so much the desire to act like a uniform collective body but the desire to act in a distinctly Japanese way even if there are more ways than one to do so. In other words, the Japanese are more Japanese than, say, Russians are Russian or Saudis are Saudi. A comparison with the Jewish culture is very telling in this context, as both cultures are considered overpowering and demanding. But reasons for the desire to sustain strong identity may be different. Jewish identity is supported by the determination to remain faithful to the book which established that identity and by the desire to counteract the erosion of identity due to physical dispersion. Japanese identity has been strengthened by agricultural and military past, and also by the feeling that as a whole they do not make a part of a larger society. They do not think of themselves in terms of being Asians or Orientals. “Contrary to the religious Jews, BenDasdan argues that ‘the entire Japanese nation is a body of faithful followers of Nihonism [Japanism], which is based on human experience instead of on covenant or body of dogma.’ Nihonism in this sense is a ‘secular religion.’” (Yoshino, 1992, p. 121). Foreign missionaries often complained that the Japanese culture was very exclusive and ruled out other identifications. For one reason or another, the Japanese found the narrative of God who was born as a Jew and then created a new religion a bit abstract. In this respect, the gap between the Japanese culture and the European or American cultures seems too wide to be ever bridged. European Dilemmas As we have seen, in Europe certain activities are undertaken as regional endeavors, other as national, still other as programs involving the whole continent. In this respect, we are not like Japanese, for whom the national identity is ultimate. This dualism of a local perspective versus continental identification is combined in Europe with another: an individualistic versus communal conception of identity. Gellner (1998) argues that the European culture was created by the merging two resourceful forms of life, a peasant tradition of communal living and a cosmopolitan lifestyle of educated classes. Peasants were not interested in the life of other classes, which they found curious but not instructive. The educated classes, on the other hand, were cosmopolitans who gladly traveled abroad, easily settled away from home, and put their trust in formal institutions of law and politics rather than the sense of belonging to local communities. They felt at ease in every

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Gesellschaft, or a society created by formal norms, working positions, commercial relations, and open discussion. Peasants, on the other hand, were homebound and felt secure only in a Gemeinschaft that was not formally described by codes and legal contract but constitutes a group of individuals with common tradition, beliefs, and customs. Most Europeans are torn between these two prospects. For Gellner, the confusion of these two points of view or, more exactly, the desire to live by the standards of them both at the same time, is the main determinant of nationalism, a typical European invention. It is these internally mobile, but externally closed, societies which discovered and made the cult of Gemeinschaft, of the closed society, and claimed (quite falsely) to be implementing and exemplifying it. In forging new state-linked “high” (educationally transmitted, codified) cultures, they used folk themes and invoked the Gemeinschaft of the village green: but they were neither establishing a village green, nor did they greatly appeal to those who were still in the village. (Gellner, 1998, p. 22)

Gellner believes that nationalism is a key to social life in Europe because it has a strange power to divide and unite. It divides different countries and sets them against one another, but it also unites their inhabitants to give them a peculiar power to survive through centuries by believing they belong to the same nation. So, on the one hand, the Poles survived as one nation for over a hundred years under a tripartite division; on the other hand, undisguised nationalistic campaigns were responsible for two world wars and for their atrocities. It is not entirely clear why this has happened, why the old man-tied-to-his-niche should have been replaced, not, as the Enlightenment taught and hoped, by Universal Man committed to a corresponding universal brotherhood, but by an ethnically specific man, detached from rigid links to the old niches . . . mobile only within the limits of a now formally codified and state-protected culture, i.e., within the bounds of a nation-state. But that it has happened is one of the most significant facts of the last two centuries. (Gellner, 1998, p. 23)

In other words, nationalism is a response to the conflict between ethnicity and citizenship. It builds up confidence in local populations confused by xenophobic fears, and it promised them security warranted by gigantic state administrations that are presumably created to serve the needs of all citizens. By this policy, nationalism offers to small communities a sense of independence and autonomy, though at the same time it tells them that they would enjoy their security only if they agree to divide the world into friends and foes. It elevates charismatic leaders to the position of autocratic rulers and encourages them to stop at nothing in order to make their im-

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age more and more popular. Considered as ideology, nationalism assumes that one’s own ethnic group is an organism that has to be protected from predators, that is, similar groups with similar feelings. Faced by such inconsistencies, nationalism adopts the policy of legitimisation of tendentiousness. All forms of persuasion are used to prove that biased solutions are fair and just. Abstract concepts like national autonomy, free development of trade, sustainable development of local communities, strict observance of the law, and so forth, are used exclusively, and contrary to their obvious meaning, only to support narrow group interests. Wars between football fans are a good illustration of this approach. Those who are interested in football usually feel attached to one club—not because this is the best club in the world, but because it built its stadium in the vicinity or because it has a nice emblem and a catchy song. When the team marches in the field, their fans are caught between conflicting feelings. They want the game to be played honestly and according to the established rules. Otherwise, a victory would not be a victory. But the fans also want their team to win the game no matter what. As a result, they do not know what they want more: the game to be fair, or their team to come out the winner. As long as they remain true fans, they fail to notice that cheating turns sports into a farce, and that impartiality cannot be combined with the desire to win at all costs. The idea that social life can give every man a sense of communal belonging and also give him or her the rights of a free citizen under the rule of law was equally torn by conflicting rules, and the separation of local interests from nationwide considerations seemed impossible. At the end of the 18th century, a practical compromise was devised, however. Huge European empires were created on the principle that individual and local interests can be combined with a minimal but spacious state that could promote liberalism as a universal political system and indirect rule in all semi-independent political units. This idea was practiced with considerable success by the Habsburg Empire. It was based on the plan that numerous ethnic groups—the Austrians, Magyars, Serbs, Poles, Croatians, and so on—could retain their local customs and traditions as long as they paid the taxes, served in one army, and endorsed the emperor’s foreign policy. Further relations between these separate groups were not modeled on any prior political blueprint. They were developed freely and spontaneously by the parties themselves. Some communities dominated over others, but as long as the stronger partner respected the law, the central administration did not interfere. No assurances of equality or state protection had been given to the weaker parties to compensate for their disadvantage, and thereby the member groups were compelled to compete more effectively to improve their position. Some people thought it was an excellent arrangement, and Bronislaw Malinowski was so strongly impressed by the idea of “indirect rule” prac-

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ticed by the Habsburgs that he recommended it as the best administrative solution for British administration of colonies. In his proposal, the central administration should only provide a legal system and basic bureaucratic organisation. All important executive positions are to be filled by representatives of the local population, who are happier if they are ruled by their equals. Malinowski even wanted to use this scheme as a reconstruction pattern after World War I. The Habsburgs allowed Polish culture to flourish in Galicia, but obviously set limits to Polish political assertion vis-a-vis other groups. Malinowski’s positive recommendation for the post-war future was the creation of a more effective League of Nations to which individual nation-states would surrender much of their sovereignty, enough to render further wars or oppression difficult and even impossible, without, however inhibiting their own cultural exuberance. And here one can, I think, see the underlying equation of his thought: Indirect Rule = Habsburg practices = League of Nations with the teeth. (Gellner, 1998, p. 143)

But the Austro-Hungarian experiment with indirect rule was only partly successful. The ethnic groups interpreted differences of status and income as a result of deliberate social discrimination: The Empire was big and contained many cultural, linguistic and religious groups. When the Empire began to modernize and industrialize, naturally some individuals and some groups did better out of it than others. There were fortunes to be made, social positions to be ascended. . . . The Empire failed to satisfy the ethnic groups. It was not so much that it was rigid and unwilling to accommodate itself to their requirements: on the contrary, many of them did exceedingly well. It was rather that, given the complexity of the ethnic map, and the distribution of the ethnic groups both on the map and in the social structure, there was simply no way of satisfying them all. (Gellner, 1998, pp. 32–33)

Communal feelings were a powerful disintegrating factor. The empire was destroyed by fierce rivalry between ethnic groups who could not agree on school curricula, on unavoidable differences of income, and on the access to positions of power. Those who were dissatisfied had two choices: They could insinuate themselves into the dominant ethnic groups by marriage or by joining the ranks of social or professional circles, or they could become liberals who claimed that in a political state ethnic distinctions must be suppressed. The liberal solution was attractive to all individuals with uncomfortable backgrounds, and they were counted in millions. The disadvantaged group included those who did not speak good German, had not been baptized as Christians, had defective education, or had imbibed communists’ ideas and advertised them.

Common European Values    187 This is how the underclass of the pariah was formed. The consequence for the history of ideas, culture and literature was curious. The pariah liberals were gifted and clever, they were exceedingly good at thinking and writing, and as on balance they were debarred from easy access to political positions, they had time to write, and they produced the great masterpieces of twentieth century liberalism. (Gellner, 1998, p. 34)

The situation in the Habsburg empire offered one basic choice to anyone who wanted to find a compromise between the Gemeinschaft and the Gesellschaft, or between ethnic identity and citizenship. They had to espouse and promote nationalism. The idea of a strong ethic state obliterated such secondary distinctions as the language used at home, the level of formal education, social roles, and religion. Gellner shows how the “groupies” and the liberal solipsists were tempted by nationalism. The “groupies” had to rely on unjustified social prejudices that were deeply inimical to democratic ideals. The liberals claimed that the social informal structure was oppressive and unfair and through positivist assumption that an individual can face the universe alone, as a free, independent spirit, without history, without a background, and without allies. This philosophy can be found in Ludwig Wittgenstein’s Tractatus: “What the book in effect does is to explore, in a formal and a priori way, the relationship between a single mind and its world. It also says [. . .] that this relationship is the same for all minds. [. . .] There is no such thing as culture” (Gellner, 1998, p. 68, the order of quotes reversed). Nationalism had to undermine traditional culture because it tried to reconcile the strife between the advocates of the Gemeinschaft and the proponents of the Gesellschaft. But peace at home could only be bought with a mad war between huge nation states. European Values Summarized European values can be tentatively summarized as follows. They are centered round the concept of truth and free communication. In general, open communication is not conducted in Europe in order to strengthen the existing social structure, or to incorporate current events into a scheme of allegoric images, or with the view to silence social or political opposition. Rational thought is treasured as much as freedom of speech. In Europe, cultural and social identification are not as strong as they may be elsewhere, and a critical attitude to the dominant conceptual schemes is encouraged and often practiced for a long time. Cultural identification is furthermore influenced in Europe by two fundamental political concepts: communal Gemeinschaft and abstract citizenship. The dilemma between “groupism” and liberalism is in principle irresolvable, but it can be minimized. It is mini-

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mized, if politics is separated from culture, and the former is made responsible for ensuring peace and stability, while the latter provides individuals with a sense of life and opportunities for development. Within this framework, the dual identity of Europeans based on local tradition and broad institutional programs will not be eliminated but may be enhanced. Eclecticism, rationality, respect for human rights, reliance on law, attachment to aristocracy, and a stern demand that all divisive issues must be solved by appeal to democratic institutions will remain intact. They are ingredients of European history and protect our future from serious faults and deep discord. These values do not point to any concrete program suitable for the whole continent. Their variety indicates, on the contrary, that any compromise among them will be temporary and precarious. But it does not matter. Living in an open society is more important than having efficient programs, and a culture that helps us notice how difficult it is to bring numerous life plans together teaches us a skill that is essential for every culture. References Delanty, G. (1995). Inventing Europe. Idea, identity, reality. Houndmills, UK: Macmillan Press. French-Sheldon. (1892). Customs among the natives of East Africa, from Teita to Kilimegalia, with special reference to their women and children. The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 21, 358–390. Gellner, E. (1998). Language and solitude. Wittgenstein, Malinowski and the Habsburg dilemma. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Madsen, D. L. (1996): Allegory in America. Houndmills, UK: Macmillan Press. Yoshino, K. (1992): Cultural nationalism in contemporary Japan. A sociological enquiry. London, UK/New York: Routledge.

Chapter 12

Theoretical Aspects of European and International Orientation Henk Oonk

The various analyses of the internationalisation policy as described in the chapters of Part A signify that a considerable number of initiatives have been taken in terms of policies as well as education practice: In the past two decades, the opportunities in the field of internationalisation have strongly increased as a result of European and national measures.1 The European and international orientation (EIO) activities of the past 20 years have proved to be highly motivating to both teachers and pupils, while the positive learning environment has formed the basis for the further elaboration of the EIO concept. When defining the theoretical aspects of the EIO in further detail, one has to take into account that this field has only existed for some twenty years or less (some member states have been engaged with this issue for no more than five years; they entered the European Union in 20042). In the first ten years (1990–2000), the focus was mainly on the development of activiInternationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 189–212 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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ties at schools. Only in the following years did it become possible to start a process of reflection and theory development. Naturally, the initial impetus to formulate concepts was already given at the outset, as in the European Curriculum Network, an association of the University of Brighton, the Europaïsche Akademie Berlin, and the CEVNO Alkmaar. The research question in this chapter is dealt with in the following manner: First, the EIO concept is analyzed in more detail. Next, it is made operational in the form of a framework and a curriculum scheme, and finally, the framework is further specified by an elaboration of the subject content. EIO Concept: A Further Analysis Internationalisation and EIO The concept is an effort to provide the rather vague notion of “European dimension in education,” frequently emerging in many European and national documents, as well as the very general term “internationalisation,” with a more concrete form and educational perspective and a well-founded content base, and to separate this notion from the ever-changing political policy initiatives (see Chapter 1, Oonk & Maslowski). In order to further analyze the term “internationalisation,” I developed an “Internationalisation Model” in 2006 (Oonk, 2007, pp. 12, 13). The word internationalisation is used in all kinds of fields and on all kinds of levels. This often leads to a great deal of misunderstanding with respect to what is actually meant, especially within actual school practice. Internationalisation is a broad concept involving various aspects. For example, there are both European and international developments that exert their influence on the internationalisation of education. In addition, policies are conducted on the European and international as well as on the national and regional level. The “implementation” component has various elements: EIO, modern foreign languages, and comparison. Research and evaluation can contribute to determining the meaning and effects of these different elements. When referring to EIO, we also include Europe and its member states. Earlier we already identified the incorrect view that within a growing Europe the nation state will become of ever lesser importance. To most citizens, the nation state is still the most important basis of their citizenship, whereas European citizenship is only a dimension of national citizenship. But although the nation state remains important, certain aspects will change in relation to the process of Europeanisation. The relation between EU and member states is also reflected in the relation between EIO and national curriculum. Here, the point of departure is that the national curriculum is

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maintained, while the EIO component is not just a separate and detached part but strongly connected with the regular curriculum of, for example, history, geography, economics, and social science. Balance Europe and the World, Knowledge, and Activities In my doctoral thesis research (Oonk, 2004), I introduced the concept of European and international orientation (EIO) to look for a balance between the focus on Europe and on the world, on the one hand, while on the other hand introducing an educational concept that justifies the importance of the EIO knowledge and the EIO activities components and is thereby more suitable for the actual school practice. EIO is defined as follows: “European and International Orientation for a school or training institute and for pupils and students refers to all of the educational activities that are intended to provide specific knowledge, insight and skills with regard to European and international developments” (Oonk, 2004, p. 85). An adequate approach to EIO is considered as a contribution to the establishment of European citizenship. Given the hybrid character of the European Union, the lack of clarity with respect to its political structure, and the concerns about the influence of the EU on day-to-day education practice, the more neutral “EIO” education concept provides a better basis for dealing with European and international developments within the schools. European citizenship education is only possible if an acceptable combination of national and European elements is found. This view is in line with my earlier hypothesis on national identity and European commonality: Within the European Union there is a constant search for the right balance between the need to maintain national identity on the one hand and the improvement of European cooperation on the other. These are the two poles that alternately repel and attract each other both in politics and in education. (Oonk, 2007, p. 144)

Although these two orientations (European and international) coincide, they entail issues of different magnitude. The European Union has formalized structures with far-reaching authority, laid down in laws and institutions, which exert their influence on the national laws and rules. The EU is an economic unity with its own currency. This is why the EU has the most formalized structure known, as opposed to, for example, the structure of the United Nations, the Organisation of African Union, and so forth.

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The Ambivalent Concept of “European Citizenship” In a formal sense, European citizenship has been a concept known since the Treaty of Maastricht. Whether this makes the inhabitants of the EU feel as Europeans is another and, for that matter, personal issue. However, in actual fact they are European, for they have agreed to being subjected to European authority in a number of areas. On the other hand, there is no formal kind of international citizenship, regardless of how much an individual may feel he or she is a global citizen. The ambivalence with respect to European citizenship is also expressed by Johnson in his “Dream of Rome” (Johnson, 2006), in which he makes fascinating comparisons between the Roman Empire and the European Union. Why were people so anxious to become Roman citizens, and why do the people in our time not feel the need to become European citizens? Through their Roman citizenship, people were specifically and directly connected with the emperor. This citizenship did not ensue from the membership of some group or nation, such as the European citizenship; it was acquired on a personal title. Johnson finds it remarkable that people from various regions of the Roman Empire were so eager to obtain this citizenship: Were they not proud of their own culture and civilisation? The discussions in the different European member states about the integration issue in relation to the concept of “citizenship” also have consequences for the concepts of “European citizenship” and “global citizenship.” Scheffer (2007) has made a number of valuable analyses of this topic. He concludes that in many European countries a growing gap can be discerned between elite groups who increasingly consider themselves as global citizens and have a vested interest in a transnational society and those whose lives are much more tied to one place. Scheffer (2007) also refers to Stefan Zweig when the latter writes about his exile: Austria’s defeat brought about a change in my personal life which I initially perceived as utterly trivial and only formal; I lost my Austrian identity card and had to ask the English authorities for a blank surrogate form, a pass for the stateless. In my cosmopolitan dreams I had often secretly imagined how wonderful it would be and how it would suit my beliefs, to be stateless, having no obligations to any country, and to be home everywhere without exception. But once more I had to admit how deficient our simple imagination is, and that one understands life’s most important events only if one has experienced them personally. (Zweig, 1990, p. 393)

Reflection on the weak aspects of the global citizen concept is also stimulated by the discussion about the problematic aspects of cultural relativism, which is hardly consonant with a society characterized by extensive

Theoretical Aspects of European and International Orientation    193

migration. According to Scheffer, this kind of society requires a number of common orientations to prevent serious conflicts as a result of the different backgrounds of people. A shift from multiculturalism to shared citizenship seems to offer more opportunities for both the current majority and the emerging minority: It requires adjustments of both groups, which means it is not a conservative concept such as the multicultural society. “We have to resist the urge to embrace traditions without questioning them, but simultaneously reject a global citizenship which is far detached from the society for which one feels responsible” (Scheffer, 2007, p. 283). European Orientation in Education Let us return to education. The Dutch Education Council, the highest advisory body of the Minister of Education, has published several recommendations with respect to the European and international developments. The recommendation made in 2004 on European citizenship also deals with this issue in terms of content (Onderwijsraad, 2004; see also Oonk, 2007, pp. 81–82). In its recommendation, the council put forward several arguments as to why Europe is important for education: The process of unification has ensured peace in Europe and has promoted welfare. In addition, Europe functions as a block against the Eurasian communist states, and has become a full-fledged communication and trade partner of the United States. With respect to the future, the council has pointed to developments that increase the importance of co-operation in Europe. An increase in the scale of political and economic decision making is necessary, because an increasing number of companies are becoming more internationally oriented, and some economies are so large that a similar scale is required to compete with them. Further, the individual European states are too small to fight crime effectively on a global scale. The free movement of people, goods, and services is necessary to ensure growth and prosperity. Structural developments, such as an ageing population, the weakening position of the less educated, an increased heterogeneity in society, and higher levels of the mobility of capital make agreements with surrounding countries essential. The Education Council is a supporter of addressing the subject of Europe in schools but also points out that, evidently, this should not lead to propaganda for the European Union. The approach should include three aspects (Onderwijsraad, 2004, p. 30): a. orientation on Europe as an item that must be familiar and is part of the standard general education of every citizen (see the core objec-

194   H. OONK

tives in primary education and secondary education and the examination requirements) b. orientation on Europe in relation to the necessary skills (at least two foreign languages from a young age and development of European culture) c. forming a critical opinion on Europe and developments as regards European integration. The council also recognizes that European citizenship is faced with uncertain outcomes with regard to the future development of the EU and that education must take account of this uncertainty. The education sector has therefore been set no simple task. Two aspects deserve attention: • preparation for European-oriented “state citizenship” with direct EU connotations (such as direct elections at the European level) and with indirect EU connotations (representation via national citizenship). • preparation for European-oriented “social citizenship” that can function in support of the forms of state citizenship mentioned above, but also has its own value and primarily considers the interaction between a specific Dutch historical and future contribution in the broader social, as well as the cultural history and development of Europe (Onderwijsraad, 2004, p. 27). These theoretical views of the Education Council on a European orientation in the field of education are in line with the EIO concept. The same applies to a document published in May 2008 by the Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (KMK), entitled Europabildung in der Schule (see Chapter 5, Rogge). Since in Germany the federal states are responsible for education and also the curriculum, our eastern neighbors can focus in more detail on the relevant themes than is the case in The Netherlands. The obligation of the schools, as stated by the KMK document, is to make pupils aware of the cooperation of the European nations and states as well as the rearrangement of their relations and to teach their pupils the so-called Europaorientierte Kompetenzen. In this respect, central aspects are geographical diversity, Europe’s political structures against the background of communalities and differences, the meaning of the European institutions, the significance of the development of views on law, state and freedom, the common European culture, the cultural wealth of multilingualism, the history of the European concept, the pursuit of the European states to realize integration, the necessity of common action, the preparedness to achieve mobility, the nation’s engagement with respect to a democratic Europe, and a peaceful world.

Theoretical Aspects of European and International Orientation    195

The tension between these issues and the actual reality can be fruitfully translated in a pedagogical sense. The goal of the education provided in schools is to stimulate the pupils’ perception of a European identity and prepare them for their future tasks as citizens. European issues and topics form an obligatory part of subjects such as history and political sciences, as well as courses with geographical, economic, and legal contents. History is about the origin of the European peoples and states, secular and religious movements, views and expressions of culture, as well as the process of the European integration. The political sciences are aimed at the current and changing political, social, and economic systems, their values, norms, and realities. Subjects with an economic and legal content focus on the economic and judicial foundations of the European Union in particular, as well as on the conflicts of interests among economic, ecological, and social objectives. The central topic of geography is the European space, with its multitude of landscapes and its man-made cultural environment, of which the origin goes back centuries, and ultimately, Europe’s economic relations and its role in the global challenges of our time. Foreign languages open the cultural world of Europe, which is why they have a special significance. A specialized education program based on a bilingual approach serves the purpose of mastering the European languages in a more intensive manner and getting acquainted with fellow students in other European countries. The ancient languages have an important function with respect to obtaining a deeper insight into the European heritage. Also subjects such as ethics, philosophy, mathematics, physics, technology, art, music, and sports are not limited to national cultures, but represent common European similarities, thereby forming part of a common tradition in education. In addition, the KMK document (Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 2008) offers practical pointers in referring to various activities, such as the Day of Europe, the LLP education program of the European Union, other forms of international exchange, schools engaged in international environmental education, games, and so forth. Finally, it is recommended this note should be translated into curricula and educational standards, to start pilot projects on the basis of the experiences with the European schools, to pay attention to teacher training programs, to see to it that the integration of the European dimension is represented in the educational tools, and that project activities are stimulated in various ways. The recommendations mentioned above should be supported by research. As in Chapter 11, Holowka made an effort to describe European common values, Nieke has analyzed seven crystallisation points with respect to the identity of Europe (Nieke, 2007, pp. 234–238): rationality, Roman law, Christianity, Renaissance, Humanism and natural law, the principle of

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equality, tolerance, and capitalism. The other authors in this publication also offer points of reference in their contributions. The various concepts as described above have originated in different European countries, and as a result of European collaboration projects they have also been introduced in other countries. In fact, through critical analysis and suggestions they have become increasingly European. The objective is to formulate concepts which can be used on a European scale. In actual practice, this will mean that a number of these concepts are commonly European and therefore usable in all countries. It is possible to think of 40% commonly European and 60% national. Naturally, in a further elaboration of the EIO concept, these suggestions can be used. The concept has developed into a diptych of each two elements. One panel refers to the content and the other to the method. The content panel deals with Europe and the world and with knowledge and activities. The method panel explains the EIO learning activities and their link with the regular curriculum. The EIO concept forms the basis of the common framework for Europe competence (CFEC) and is also used in the standard content and language integrated learning (CLIL) Netherlands, the European Elos project, and the European CertiLingua project. Research (Oonk, 2004, 2007) has established that there is relatively more interest in EIO in the higher segment of secondary education than in the lower segment. This also applies to CLIL, the international schools, and the European schools. In making policies and evaluating particular developments in the field of education, it is important to take this into account. There are certainly schools in the lower segment that are active in the area of internationalisation, but they form a relative minority. The EIO activities for pupils attending these schools require a different approach and design. In the light of the importance of citizenship as well as European citizenship, it is certainly necessary to involve this group in the European and international orientation. Table 12.1  EIO Concept Content Knowledge segment Activities segment Europe and the world.

Exchanges, partnerships, study tours, projects, etc.

Method EIO-curriculum scheme

Link with regular curriculum

Knowledge and activity elements during the whole education trajectory, with coherence among the subjects.

Knowledge and activity elements coincide with the current contents of the subjects.

Theoretical Aspects of European and International Orientation    197

Common Framework for Europe Competence This section describes the operationalisation of the EIO concept in the form of the common framework for Europe competence (CFEC) as the interpretation of its content. The methodological part is implemented by the EIO curriculum scheme. The content component of the EIO concept consists of the elements knowledge and activities. The different aspects of these two elements are dealt with next. It has to be added that these elaborations form a theoretical framework that does not completely, but only partly reflects the educational practice. The different contributions in Part A do make clear, however, that the European schools use their source material and didactical approaches in very different ways in giving shape to the EIO concept. Research conducted among Dutch Elos schools also shows that in preparing their lessons teachers mainly use approved EIO teaching methods, websites, programs, and subject materials, whereas CFEC is used very rarely (Maslowski, Naayer, Oonk, & Van der Werf, 2009). This is shown in Table 12.2. The focus should not be on including all elements in one framework but on using the different sources in such a manner that a responsible and attractive EIO learning objective is formulated. The CFEC is an instrument to achieve this. Competences The CFEC forms the operationalisation of the EIO concept, while combining the foreign language aspects of the common European framework of references for languages, which was developed earlier (Council of Europe, 2001). This so-called CEFR was designed 15 years ago under the auspices of the European Council and is implemented in the curricula and exams of all European countries (see Chapter 13). The different development initiatives mentioned in this chapter and earlier ones have made it necessary to elaborate the general notions of “European dimension” and “Europe Competence” more concretely in terms of content. For this reason, the Scientific Committee3 of the Elos project started preparations for the development of a Common Framework for Europe Competence in 2005. In a meeting of the Scientific Committee in Alkmaar (The Netherlands) in the spring of 2006, the first building blocks of the CFEC, developed within the European Platform by Blankert and Stamm, were extensively discussed. In a follow-up meeting in Vilnius (Lithuania) in 2007, a few minor adjustments were made (see Maslowski et al., 2009). The CFEC was developed to classify and give shape to the concepts of “European and International Orientation” and “Europe Competence,”

Official curricula CFEC The school’s own material Original sources (treaties, etc.) Approved teaching methods Commercial materials ICT Media (TV, radio, journals)

46% 82% 21% 47% 25% 41% 24% 18%

No 59% 16% 48% 37% 40% 49% 56% 63%

partly 5% 2% 21% 7% 35% 9% 21% 19%

strong

Lower segment (n = 43)

42% 100% 29% 57% 29% 29% 29% 29%

No 29% 0% 42% 29% 14% 42% 57% 57%

partly 29% 0% 29% 14% 57% 29% 14% 14%

strong

vmbo-4 (vocational) (n = 7)

Table 12.2  Sources for EIO activities in the lessons of Dutch Elos schools

48% 69% 8% 30% 22% 34% 0% 8%

No

34% 30% 70% 61% 48% 56% 70% 62%

partly

17% 0% 22% 9% 30% 9% 30% 30%

strong

havo/vwo 5 (secondary) (n = 24)

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Theoretical Aspects of European and International Orientation    199

aimed at general secondary school pupils aged 12–19. The CFEC is also based on the key competences in a knowledge-based society outlined as part of the Lisbon Strategy: Among other competences, active citizenship is an important objective (Commission of the European Communities, 2002). Experiences with regard to the European dimension in schools in various EU member states have equally contributed to the development of the Framework. The areas reconciled within the concept of EIO are knowledge, skills, and awareness, as well as activities and forming opinions. Combining EIO with foreign languages within a common framework is a logical step in the light of both European and national policies and, given our conclusions in the previous sections, also desirable. The CFEC is to be developed further by the Scientific Committee and will be tested in secondary schools in Europe.4 It is for the first time that a well-substantiated and structured framework has been developed, offering a solid footing in dealing with European and international themes in secondary education. This framework is particularly focused on a close connection between the knowledge elements and the activities. In designing the framework, the members of the Scientific Committee have chosen the classical division of knowledge, skills, and attitudes, which is in their opinion still a valuable and suitable approach. Nowadays, there are education scientists, politicians, and policymakers who emphasize the importance of learning skills. They claim that, as a result of our current “dynamic” society, knowledge acquisition has become less useful. The term “competence” is frequently interpreted in a one-sided manner as skills oriented. However, a competent history teacher has both a sufficient knowledge of history and the didactical skills to transfer this knowledge to the pupils, while he or she is also capable of assessing historical events critically. In a document published by the EU (Education Council, 2006), the definition of civic competence is also based on the division of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. The limited appreciation among part of the educational scientists of the significance of knowledge acquisition is particularly disadvantageous for the weaker pupils, since this group especially needs the school to obtain the knowledge that is not available to them at home. In brief, a particular amount of basic knowledge in the field of EIO is very important, preventing a situation in which pupils’ opinions are not based on factual knowledge. In a reflection on the European identity as a dimension of education, a number of Lithuanian scientists endorse the importance of knowledge: “Knowledge, provided by general education should give an individual basic support to help him/her communicate by overcoming different cultural and educational barriers, by preserving traditional values of one’s own country and Europe alongside with acknowledging the modern World” (Adaškevičienė & Janiūnaitė, 2004, p. 56).

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Researchers have established that the formulation of civic competences has led to a fair number of overviews from different perspectives (Hoskins, Vallalba, Van Nijlen, & Barber, 2008). Also, the relation between the key competences and the national curricula leads to a large variety of frameworks (Van Woensel, 2008). With respect to research on this issue, the results of the international Civic Education Study of 14-year-olds (Torney-Purta, Lehmann, Oswald, & Schulz, 2001) are considered of great significance. Further, in order to make an adequate assessment of this competence, a research study among 16- to 17-year-olds would be a welcome addition. Europe Competence Finally, to be able to develop the various components in more detail, the framework is divided into the EIO-1, EIO-2, and CEFR categories, respectively, and further subdivided into EIO-1.1.1 and EIO-2.1.1. The currently existing labels A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, and C2 are used in relation to the CEFR, and further subdivided into CEFR-A.1.1, and so on. The following three areas constitute the Europe competence: Area EIO-1: refers to knowledge, skills, and forming opinions (attitudes); it contains elements of reflection. Area EIO-2: refers to competences in communicating and behaving successfully in partnerships, exchanges, projects, and other activities; it contains elements of reflection in view of the relevant European/ international contexts. Area CEFR: foreign languages. Categories 1 to 6 (see Figure12.1) indicate either progress over time (achievement levels) or the credit value assigned to pupil activity in a particular category. Although the forms of assessment have not yet been formally established, self-evaluations, tests, certificates, and portfolios are among the possibilities. As already indicated, the Domain EIO-1 concentrates on the knowledge elements and combines them with skills and the development of views. The horizontal columns EIO-1.1.1 up to and including EIO-1.6.1 specify the knowledge elements that can be dealt with from Year 1 up to and including Year 6. In the horizontal columns EIO-1.1.2 up to and including EIO-1.6.2, which are closely connected with the first columns, attention is paid to the skills relevant in internationalisation: collecting information on the broad field of EIO as well as the capacity to discuss EIO themes on the basis of sound arguments.

I have an idea of the variation within Europe (per country: natural condition, size of population, language, affiliation to EU or other supranational institutions). EIO-1.2.1

I can collect and organize information on current European and international affairs. EIO-1.2.2

I can share knowledge with my classmates on my own country (politics, geography, economics, history, science and technology, culture/ national heritage) in relation to Europe. EIO-1.2.3

I have basic knowledge of the topography in Europe and a general idea of European history. EIO-1.1.1

I can collect and organize general information on Europe and the wider world. EIO-1.1.2

I am aware of the principles of democracy in European countries. EIO-1.1.3

I can share knowledge about a broad range of European countries with other pupils abroad. EIO-1.3.3

I can give an outline of the history of European integration, and can relate European key figures to certain events. EIO-1.3.2

I understand shared concepts such as democracy, citizenship and the international declarations expressing them. EIO-1.3.1

3

I can relate the values Europe stands for (such as: peace, democratic decision-making, separation of religion and state, economic prosperity) to what they mean to me personally (my rights and responsibilities). EIO-1.5.2 I take an active role as a European citizen at school and in the school environment. EIO-1.5.3

I form my own opinion about critical European and international issues (such as enlargement, constitution, globalisation etc.) and their consequences for citizens. EIO-1.4.3

I have well informed opinions on the whole process of European integration and the social/economic/ environmental problems which arise from that, for Europe and the wider world. EIO-1.5.1

5

I can access and process information from different foreign media about topics with a supranational/ international dimension. EIO-1.4.2

I have a sound understanding of structure and function of European and international institutions (EU, CoE, UN, NATO etc.; in relation to each other and to national/ regional affairs). EIO-1.4.1

4

Figure 12.1  Common framework for Europe Competence; version July 2007.

I am an informed European citizen who can access, process and evaluate knowledge relevant to Europe and the wider world, and act upon it.

Domain EIO-1

2

1

Credit level:

continued

I have an idea of the importance of lifelong learning and which steps I myself can take towards personal fulfilment, active citizenship and employability in Europe. EIO-1.6.3

I can defend my opinions on European affairs in discussions with others with well-informed arguments. EIO-1.6.2

I know in which fields European and international institutions exert an important influence, and can explain the consequences for citizens, giving concrete examples. EIO-1.6.1

6

Theoretical Aspects of European and International Orientation    201

I have the organisation skills needed to plan and run face-to-face meetings with pupils from other countries (about mobility, programmes, etc). EIO-2.4.2

I can cope with problems arising in collaboration with pupils and teachers from other countries. EIO-2.4.3

I know how to negotiate and act according to a “code of conduct” during exchanges with partners abroad. EIO-2.3.2

I exchange my opinions about European and international affairs with pupils from other countries, and learn about different points of view. EIO-2.3.3

I am internationally computer literate, using the Internet for chats, forums, searches. EIO-2.2.2

I am aware that how persons from other cultures act, might arise from different norms and values than my own. EIO-2.2.3

I show interest and respect for others in Europe. EIO-2.1.3

I carry out tasks together with pupils from other countries, in face-to-face meetings. EIO-2.4.1

I can use e-mail to present myself and my interests and hobbies and request the same information from my partners in other countries. EIO-2.1.2

I take part in a school projects with pupils from a partner school via the Internet. EIO-2.3.1

I make plans and preparations for a visit to a partner school in another country. EIO-2.2.1

4

I establish links with partners from another country and swap information on topics of personal and social interest. EIO-2.1.1

I can collaborate constructively with peers from other countries on a common task or project.

3

Domain EIO-2

2

1

Credit level:

I can contribute actively to the project management and administration of international activities in a school setting. EIO-2.6.2

I feel motivated and prepared for future study and work in a European setting. EIO-2.6.3

I have positive attitudes towards organizing and taking part in an individual learning period (such as a course or internship) abroad. EIO-2.5.3

I participate actively in public debates and simulations with persons from different countries on EIO- themes. EIO-2.6.1

6

I can participate actively in a new project with groups/ teams of peers from other countries. EIO-2.5.2

I plan and carry out an international survey on a European topic, together with partner pupils abroad. EIO-2.5.1

5

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I can express my own opinions, needs, feelings and communicate coherently about them in a common language of communication with my peers from other countries. CEF-B.1.2

I can talk about how stereotypes and discrimination work, in a multicultural group. CEF-B.1.3

I try to learn the basics of a language other than my mother tongue (and other than the common language of communication) of a partner student. CEF-A.2.2

I can show respect (verbally and nonverbally) for the opinion of persons from a different cultural background. CEF-A.2.3

I am aware of the diversity of languages in Europe and know basic aspects of at least two languages other than my mother tongue. CEF-A.1.2

I can communicate with persons from Europe and other parts of the world. CEF-A.1.3

4

5

I can identify and interpret explicit or implicit values in my own or others’ communication in a common language. CEF-C.1.2

I consider learning and using several languages as normal. CEF-C.1.3

I can adapt to other ways of communication during a stay abroad, without giving up my own identity. CEF-B.2.3

I can use a common language of communication at level C1 of the Common European Framework of Languages. CEF-C.1.1

I can apply different communication styles in a common language of communication to different intercultural settings. CEF.B.2.2

I can use a common language of communication at level B2 of the Common European Framework of Languages. CEF-B.2.1

6

I am confident in my communication with others in a common language (even if I make mistakes) while I try to improve further. CEF.C.2.3

I can discuss controversial European issues with people from other backgrounds in a common language, while voicing respect for differences in norms and values. CEF-C.2.2

I can use a common language of communication at level C2 of the Common European Framework of Languages. CEF-C.2.1

Figure 12.1 (continued)  Common framework for Europe Competence; version July 2007. © Elos, Scientific Committee.

I can communicate effectively in a European/ international setting.

3 I can use a common language of communication at level B1 of the Common European Framework of Languages. CEF-B.1.1

I can use a common language of communication at level A2 of the Common European Framework of Languages. CEF-A.2.1

I can use a common language of communication at level A1 of the Common European Framework of Languages. CEF-A.1.1

2

1

Credit level:

1.1.1 Domain CEFR

Theoretical Aspects of European and International Orientation    203

204   H. OONK

Knowledge and skills promote the process of forming opinions, which can manifest itself in different ways; this is further described in the horizontal columns EIO-1.1.3 up to and including EIO-1.6.3. The Domain EIO- 2 is aimed at different EIO activities, which have to be carried out in the school as well as with pupils from other schools. Apart from the ability to execute these activities adequately, it is also important that pupils are capable of dealing with the cultural differences as they may occur both among Europeans and among other parts of the world. In the coming years, the CFEC will have to be theoretically improved and further worked out in practical terms. In particular, the trajectory of framework to class practice will involve many obstacles, since—as is common knowledge—the schools’ current programs are overfull in terms of curricula, school books, exam requirements, and numerous other projects and activities. The CFEC provides insight into the different elements that constitute the pupil’s learning process with respect to obtaining a European and international orientation in combination with acquiring foreign language skills. The standard of the Europe competence can be defined with the aid of the following four elements: • • • •

yields/results the education learning process quality care preconditions

A further elaboration of these elements is crucial. EIO knowledge as well as the activities and progress made in the foreign languages will be assessed on a regular basis. For the languages, use will be made of the common European framework of reference (CEFR), regular tests, and international language exams. The EIO elements can have various forms of assessment: self-evaluation, making portfolios of pupils, making tests, writing essays, or presenting the results of research into a particular subject. The board of a school will make sure that the teachers charged with the internationalisation task as well as the participating teachers have sufficient time at their disposal to execute all activities. Additional training in the fields of EIO and foreign languages is important. EIO Curriculum Scheme The elaboration of the methodological part of the EIO concept is operationalized in the EIO curriculum scheme (see Table 12.3), finally resulting

Theoretical Aspects of European and International Orientation    205

in an EIO curriculum. In many schools, the attention given to European and international developments lacks coherence. With respect to the content component, for example, there may be a strong focus on international development, whereas EIO knowledge aspects are hardly dealt with, or there may be an overload of EIO activities, whereas only little attention is paid to EIO knowledge elements. Also, the methodological component can have several imbalances, such as insufficient coherence among the different subjects and study years. All of these factors can lead to a situation in which the pupils’ learning progress is only little. In order to give more structure to EIO throughout the entire school, the EIO curriculum scheme has been developed. If this approach is chosen, the various subjects and school years will be connected by a clear, common EIO learning thread, facilitating interesting combinations between subjects and activities, such as exchanges and school partnerships, as well as the use of email and the Internet. In this way, the themes dealt with will become more interesting for the pupils. Another new methodical element is to create awareness of the relation between the regular curriculum and EIO: EIO themes are in fact modern excursions organized in the regular curriculum of the different subjects. The existing curriculum has to be viewed from a new perspective, as it were. Much of it is already European oriented: arts, but also history as it is being taught (see also the Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 2008). Experiences as documented by the “Opleiding Coördinator Internationalisering” (Training course Coordinator Internationalisation) in The Netherlands (Oonk & Mateusen, 2008–2009) indicate that this scheme is a workable control instrument. The translation of the EIO curriculum scheme into an EIO learning objective will be highly diverse within the different European countries and school types, which is actually recommendable. In The Netherlands, in recent years dozens of EIO curricula have been developed with a similar structure but with different contents. The collection and dispersal of usable EIO curricula should be a principal activity in the coming years. Table 12.3 

Subjects History Geography Other subjects English Other languages

EIO-Curriculum Scheme Regular Curriculum/ EIO Main stream Knowledge Hours

EIO Activities

Hours

Materials

206   H. OONK

Examples of the Elaboration of EIO Subject Contents Examples of the elaboration of EIO subject contents constitute the implementation of the CFEC and the EIO-curriculum schedule. By means of key words, the CFEC indicates the major themes and activities in the field of European and international orientation; it offers the teachers a framework. In our examples, we make use of the instruction guide by Blankert and Oonk (2009); its numbering refers to the numbering of the CFEC. Domain EIO-1; EIO-1.1.1 I have a basic knowledge of the geography in Europe and a general idea of European history. Pupils are acquainted with the following facts: • Although democracy originated in Greece, it was quite different from our modern democracy as we know it today. • The Roman Empire brought peace in Europe for centuries, by— among other measures—increasingly granting the different parts of the empire equal rights. • The Roman Empire was only partly European; a large part of Europe was not part of it. • Christianity gradually disseminated over large parts of the Roman Empire until it finally became a state religion. Christianity originated in what is now Israel. • The empire of Charlemagne comprised of a major part of Western Europe but did not extend beyond Europe, and the empire’s fall gradually resulted in a large number of European states. • Voyages of discovery formed the beginning of the process of globalisation. Domain EIO-2; EIO-2.1.1 I establish links with partners from another country and swap information on topics of personal and social interest. • Pupils are capable of holding a debate in the classroom about a current theme. • In addition to their study of the Greek democracy, pupils can enact a parliament in the classroom on the basis of the theme “the functioning of the democracy.” • They can present their conclusions to their fellow pupils and request them to provide comments.

Theoretical Aspects of European and International Orientation    207

Domain EIO-1; EIO-1.3.2 I can give an outline of the history of European integration and can relate European key figures to certain events. Pupils can: • sketch the developmental history of the European unity as a response to the disruption after the second world war and the division of Europe as a result of the Cold War • explain the significance of the Schuman Declaration, drawn up by Monnet, on May 9, 1950 • give a general overview of the content and the significance of the Treaties of Rome, and explain why countries in Central and Eastern Europe could not become members of the EEU • sketch the great reversal after 1989 in Europe • explain the contents of the following treaties: Maastricht (European Union), Nice (access granted to Central and Eastern Europe) • give a general overview of why the economic union was coupled with a common agricultural policy, why initially this was a success, whereas it was criticized later, and how this policy was adjusted • explain why the EU has decided to formulate common environmental policies • explain that the European Union is a union of states with free movement of persons, goods, capital, and services, and that for most countries a border document is no longer required (in accordance with the Schengen Agreement) • explain that as from 2001 the euro has become the common currency and the European Central Bank in Frankfurt monitors its value • place the following names within their contexts: Churchill, Schuman, Monnet, De Gaulle, Adenauer, Delors, Kohl, De Gasperi, Mansholt, Spaak, Heath, Thatcher • give a general outline of the ways in which the environment is threatened and which measures seem crucial to improve this situation • explain why the current situation in the world leads to large numbers of refugees Domain EIO-1; EIO-1.4.1 I have a sound understanding of the structure and junction of European and international institutions (EU, CoE, UN, NATO, etc. in relation to each other and to national/regional affairs). Pupils can: • sketch the function of the institutions of the European Union, which are the European Council, the Council of Ministers, the European Commission, the European Parliament, and the Court of Justice

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• explain the balance between the influence of the member states (intergovernmental) and the influence of the European institutions (supranational) • give a general outline of NATO, and explain why the military cooperation does not take place on a European but on an Atlantic level, and why this hinders a common European foreign policy • explain that the General Assembly and the Security Council are the most important bodies of the United Nations, and describe their different tasks • describe the term globalisation and the possible consequences and disadvantages of this process Domain EIO-2; EIO-2.3.3 en 2.4.1 I exchange my opinions about European and international affairs with pupils from other countries and learn about different points of view. I carry out tasks together with pupils from other countries in face-to-face meetings. • Both partner schools jointly organize a panel discussion on the Internet in which pupils can exchange their opinions about current themes—for example, about the attitude towards migrants and how to improve the environment. • The school organizes a pupil exchange event with a central theme. In advance, the pupils have thought about the theme, its design, and the rules of conduct during the exchange via IT contacts. During their stay in both countries, the pupils work in small groups on a theme with the aim to achieve real international cooperation. Domain EIO-1; EIO-1.6.1 I know in which fields European and international institutions exert an important influence and can explain the consequences for citizens, giving concrete examples. • The pupil has the knowledge and power of judgment to present an argument, write an essay, or participate in a discussion about European and international themes. Especially with respect to current issues, he or she is capable of taking a substantiated view. The principal themes in this context are those mentioned earlier. Other themes could be: the EU–U.S. relation, the importance of and a possible critical attitude towards the policies of development cooperation, possibilities of realizing sustainable energy, the relations between NATO and the UN, and those between the EU and the Islamic world.

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Conclusions During the past 20 years, a whole spectrum of possibilities in the field of internationalisation has developed within the secondary schools. The variety of these activities has called for a theoretical framework, which offers points of reference in the developments as they present themselves in the European educational landscape. In this respect, it is remarkable to see the growing interest in content and language integrated learning (CLIL) together with a focus on a European and international orientation. The English language, and to a lesser extent the other foreign languages together with EIO, are the instruments for the pupil to acquire a future position in European and international companies and institutions. In this way, the pupils, stimulated by their parents, collect cultural capital to climb the social ladder. Which conclusions can be drawn on the basis of the research question posed in the beginning of this chapter? The question whether it is possible to underpin the EIO concept theoretically can be answered positively. The increasing importance of European integration makes it necessary to acquaint pupils with the European developments in general and the major activities and institutions of the European Union in particular, as well as with other international themes. In this way, the promotion of national citizenship is given a European dimension with a real perspective, a development that is required in the light of the large group of pupils with a migrant background: European history and the European cultural heritage form an indispensable common orientation. Research has shown that mainly the higher secondary education segment has an interest in the European and international approaches to learning. On the one hand, this is a highly favorable development, which has to be further elaborated. On the other hand, however, it increases the degree of inequality in education, because the lower segment participates to a relatively lesser extent, or not at all; the contributions of Dronkers (Chapter 22) and Van der Werf (Chapter 14) also point to a growing inequality and efforts to do something about it. The adoption of alternative EIO approaches in the lower segment of secondary education is also in the interest of adequate (European) citizenship education. The EIO activities directed at pupils from these school types require a different approach and design. In the light of the importance of both national and European citizenship, it is crucial to involve this group in the European and international developments as well. The operationalisation of the content part of the EIO concept in the common framework for Europe competence (CFEC) and the methodological part of the concept in the EIO curriculum schedule has proven possible. The Europe competence has been translated into aspects of knowledge,

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skills, and attitudes, while recognizing that it is easier to cultivate knowledge and skills than attitudes. Given the educational developments in Europe, a combination of EIO and foreign languages in this framework is a logical choice. The general framework should therefore be implemented in practical examples that are in line with the traditions of the country or groups of countries, the school curriculum, and the age and level of the pupils. A good cooperation between educational theorists and teachers in the practical field, in which development and research are well balanced, is highly recommendable. This CFEC is in its first stages, which is why its design is still basic. Further theoretical refinements and more concrete interpretations regarding themes, age, and school type are desirable. One can ask oneself whether this framework sufficiently covers the traditions and educational policies of all member states, or whether a structure should be preferred of 40% common European indicators and 60% national indicators. The EIO curriculum schedule offers structure to an EIO learning thread running through all school years, on the one hand, and room for individual interpretations as regards content on the other hand. To prevent a growing deviation in the adoption of the European and international learning approaches, the presence of a common framework for various school types is of the utmost importance: It obligates the educational theorists and teachers to develop adequate models for all secondary education segments. The implementation of the CFEC and the EIO curriculum schedule into subject content has also proven possible, which forms an important tool for the teachers. Here, the same conclusions can be drawn as in the case of the CFEC: It is still a first design that needs to be further elaborated with the aid of examples from practice and suggestions for additional materials. Notes 1. I am grateful to Kees Zwaga (former head of the European programmes department of the European Platform) and Wolter Blankert (former head of the grant and subsidy programmes of the European Platform) for their valuable advice with respect to the concept version of this chapter. 2. These members states already participated in Socrates as aspirant members. 3. Members of the Scientific Committee: Prof. Brigita Janiunaite (University Kaunas), Frank Heyworth (Expert), Prof. Grazyna Czetwertynski (University Warsaw), Raymond Kirtley (University Hull), Prof. Wolfgang Nieke (University Rostock), Yves Olivier (Academie Orleans-Tours), Maxine Judge (Education and Library Board, Armagh), Prof. Greetje van der Werf (University Groningen), Dr. Henk Oonk (European Platform/University Groningen, Chair), and Lilian Hoff/Kirsten Stamm (Secretariat, Alkmaar).

Theoretical Aspects of European and International Orientation    211 4. In the meantime, the Elos European Network developed a new version of the Framework in June 2008, see http://www.europeesplatform.nl/internationale leerroutes/elos/kwaliteitsstandaard Elos voor vwo/A2; the theoretical aspects and research in this publication are based on the CFEC version of July 2007 (Maslowski et al., 2009).

References Adaškevičienė, V., & Janiūnaitė, B. ( 2004). Europinio identiteto kaip švietimo dimensijos raiškos ypatumai bendrojo lavinimo turinyje [Challenges for the education in countries in transition; European identity as a dimension in education and its reflection in the curriculum]. Socialiniai Mokslai, 3(45), 53–67. Blankert, W., & Oonk, G. H. ( 2009). EIO-Teacherguide secondary education—Guide for lessons, activities, tests and examinations. Haarlem, The Netherlands: Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs. Commission of the European Communities. (2002). Education and training in Europe: Various systems, shared goals for 2010. Luxembourg, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Council of Europe. (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Available from http://culture2.coe.int/portfolio/documents. Education Council. (2006). Recommendation of the European Parliament and the Council of 18 December 2006 on key competencies for lifelong learning (Official Journal of the European Union, 30.12.2006). Brussels, Belgium: Author. Hoskins, B., Vallalba, E., Van Nijlen, D., & Barber, C. (2008). Measuring civic competence in Europe—A composite indicator on IEA Civic Education Study 1999 for 14 years old in school. Luxembourg, Luxembourg: European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Johnson, B. (2006). The dream of Rome. London, UK: Harper Collins. Maslowski, R., Naayer, H., Oonk, G. H., & Van der Werf, M. P. C. (2009). Effecten van internationalisering in het voortgezet onderwijs: Een analyse van de implementatie en effecten van een Europese en internationale oriëntatie [Effects of internationalisation in secondary education: An analysis of the implementation and effects of a European and international orientation]. Groningen, The Netherlands: GION. Nieke, W. (2007). Bildung für Europa—Zwischen geopolitischem Wirtschaftsblock und abenländischer Wertegemeinschaft [Education for Europe—Between a geopolitical economic block and occidental community of values]. In F. Jaeger & H. Joas (Eds.), Europa im Spiegel der Kulturwissenschaften, Denkart Europa, Schriften zur europäischen Politik, Wirtschaft und Kultur, no. 7 (pp. 226–244). Saarbrücken, Germany: Asko Europa Stiftung/Nomos. Onderwijsraad. (2004). Onderwijs in Europa: Europees burgerschap [Education in Europe: European citizenship]. Den Haag, The Netherlands: Author. Oonk, G. H. (2004). European integration as a source of innovation in education: A study of the meaning of internationalisation and its results in secondary education in the

212   H. OONK Netherlands. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs. Oonk, G. H. (2007) Internationalisation in primary and secondary education, a theoretical exploration of policy, implementation, effects and research. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs. Oonk, G. H., & Mateusen, L. (2008–2009). Studiegids 2008–2009. Opleiding coördinator internationalisering. Haarlem, The Netherlands: Europees Platform, advies & training. Scheffer, P. ( 2007). Het land van aankomst [Country of arrival]. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: De Bezige Bij. Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. (2008). Empfehlungen der Ständigen Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland: Europabildung in der Schule (Beschluss der Kultusministerkonferenz vom 08.06.1978 i.d.F. vom 05.05.2008) [Europe in Schools (Resolution of the KMK as amended and promulgated on 06-08-1978 and updated on 05-05-2008)]. Retrieved from http://www.schulministerium. nrw.de/BP/Schulsystem/Schulformen/Europaschulen/KMKEuropa in der Schule.pdf Torney-Purta, J., Lehmann, R., Oswald, H., & Schulz, W. (2001). Citizenship and education in twenty-eight countries: Civic knowledge and engagement at age fourteen. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). Van Woensel, C. (Ed.). (2008). A toolkit for the European citizen, the implementation of key competences—Challenges and opportunities. Introduction. Brussels: Belgium: CIDREE. Zweig, S. (1990). De wereld van gisteren, herinneringen van een Europeaan [The World of yesterday] (W. van Toorn, Trans.) Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Arbeiderspers.

Chapter 13

The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages and the Common Framework for Europe Competence Frank Heyworth

The aim of Elos (Europe as a learning environment in schools—a Comenius 3 Project of the European Union)1 is to encourage the development of “Europeanness” in the member schools. The development of genuine communication among member schools and the preservation of linguistic and cultural diversity are key elements in doing this, and the common European framework is an essential tool for achieving them, and for this reason its levels are an integral part of the common framework for Europe competence (CFEC; see Maslowski, Naayer, Oonk, & Van der Werf, 2009) and it shares many common values with it. The methodology of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR; Council of Europe, 2001) is based on the definition and description of competences, and this provides some interesting models for developing a competence-based

Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 213–225 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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approach to European and citizenship issues. Further developments of the framework competences have explored the use of “pluralistic approaches” to both general and language education, and this, too, is relevant to international and European education. In this chapter, I will describe all four of these aspects. Real and virtual exchanges are at the heart of the Elos project, and for this language skills are essential. The CEFR is an instrument that helps schools and learners to set goals for communicative skills and to measure and compare the progress they are making. For readers unfamiliar with the CEFR, here is a short description. What is the CEFR? The Common European Framework (CEFR) has its origin in over 40 years of work on modern languages in various projects of the Council of Europe. This activity led to a series of detailed syllabus specifications, at several different language learning levels, such as the Threshold Level (Van Ek, 1977) and the Waystage and Vantage Level (Van Ek & Trim, 1991, 1997). All these documents illustrate a communicative, action-based, learner-centred view of language learning. The Council’s work on language education has also historically embodied a political agenda, promoting plurilingualism as a means to facilitate mobility in Europe and encouraging linguistic tolerance and respect. All these trends are reflected in the development of the CEFR. A first draft of the framework was published in 1995, and later a revised version was published (Council of Europe, 2001),2 as part of the European Year of Languages. In a nutshell, it seeks to: provide a common basis for the elaboration of language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, examinations, textbooks etc. across Europe. It describes in a comprehensive way what learners have to learn to do in order to use a language for communication and what knowledge and skills they have to develop so as to be able to act effectively. (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 1)

In other words, the CEFR attempts to bring together, under a single umbrella, a comprehensive tool for enabling syllabus designers, materials writers, examination bodies, teachers, learners, and others to locate their various types of involvement in modern language teaching in relation to an overall, unified, descriptive frame of reference. It consists of two main, closely linked aspects, the “common reference levels,” on the one hand, and the remainder of the framework, on the other.

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The Common Reference Levels “The common reference levels” are at the core of the CEFR and are its best-known feature. They consist of a comprehensive description of levels of language learning, structured as follows: • A global scale of six levels—A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2—with general descriptions of language competence for each level. Each descriptor is expressed in positive “can-do” terms (even at the lowest level) and follows the order reception, production, interaction, mediation (= translation, interpretation). The scale is organized as in Figure 13.1. • A self-assessment grid, with descriptors of different skills (understanding, speaking, writing) at six levels • A rating scale for spoken proficiency, describing qualitative aspects of language at the levels and providing assessment criteria for range, accuracy, fluency, interaction, and coherence • 54 more specific scales covering areas of linguistic, socio-linguistic, strategic, and pragmatic competences The reference levels are becoming increasingly important in the organisation of language teaching and assessment. The members of the Association of Language Testers in Europe (ALTE)—Cambridge ESOL (Examinations for Speakers of Other Languages), the Goethe Institute, the Alliance Française, and other national bodies—have calibrated their examinations according to the six levels, and they are influencing the way in which course book levels are indicated. The “European Language Portfolios”—collections of documents consisting of a “language passport,” a language biography, and a dossier of the learner’s own work—are also based on the levels (Little & Perklova, 2001). Over 60 of these have been produced for different age groups and in different countries and validated by the Council of A Basic User

A1 (Breakthrough)

B Independent User

B1 A2 (Waystage) (Threshold)

Figure 13.1  The levels in the global scale.

B2 (Vantage)

C Proficient User

C1 (Effective Operational Proficiency)

C2 (Mastery)

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Europe. The levels have also been adopted as a language assessment scale in a number of European countries. (Heyworth, 2006). The Other Parts of the CEFR The common reference levels are the part of the CEFR that has so far had the most direct influence on language teaching, but it is important to see them in the context of the rest of the study. This includes a detailed analytic account of the domains of language use and language learning, of different kinds of competence (including an important section on the notion of partial competences), of the nature of texts and tasks, of methodological options for teaching, together with chapters on the consequences for the curriculum of a policy promoting linguistic diversity, and so on. It should be stressed that the CEFR does not set out to prescribe a particular approach to language teaching and encourages readers to reflect on their own practice. However, it is not neutral. One of its main aims is: “To promote methods of modern language teaching which will strengthen independence of thought, judgment and action, combined with social skills and responsibility” (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 4). Other Frameworks Why did Elos choose to create a “Common Framework for European Competence” rather than a set of objectives, or a programme as a basis for describing its educational aims? There were a number of reasons: Elos wanted to provide a tool that would combine a clear overall description of the domain in which schools could work to promote European awareness and at the same time leave enough flexibility for local initiative and creativity. Elos aims to go beyond mere knowledge of European issues to encourage positive attitudes and develop real, practical commitment to European citizenship. In order to explain the theory behind the way the Elos framework was developed and the validity of frameworks of level descriptors, I will describe three other frameworks in the educational domain and the similarities and differences between them and the Elos framework. A framework in the context of education is a set of descriptors usually divided into stages or levels. The descriptors generally describe either learning outcomes or abilities. For example, the European Qualifications Framework (EQF; European Commission, 2008), defines its framework as: a statement of what a learner knows, understands and is able to do on completion of a learning process. The EQF therefore emphasises the results of learn-

The CEFR and the Common Framework for Europe Competence    217 ing rather than focusing on inputs such as length of study. Learning outcomes are specified in three categories—as knowledge, skills and competence. .

Its main purpose is to contribute to mobility in Europe by making national qualifications more “readable” across Europe. It is a framework of “reference” designed to indicate what is common to different qualifications and to relate them to eight levels of achievement—outcomes that learners who get a qualification should be able to demonstrate. This part of the framework is meant to be of “particular interest to those designing, approving and reviewing academic programmes. They will need to be satisfied that, for any programme, the curriculum and assessments provide all students with the opportunity to achieve, and to demonstrate achievement of, the outcomes” (European Commission, 2008). The second part of the EQF is a statement of the abilities that typical students could be expected to have developed so that they can decide what qualifications are appropriate to them. It is intended both for learners and prospective employers to use—for learners to decide what are appropriate qualifications to try to achieve, and for employers to judge the relevance of a qualification to selection for a particular job. The EQF illustrates well a number of the main premises governing the use of frameworks in education: • They serve as reference systems for comparability and readability of different approaches. • Levels tend to unite a range of criteria—an EQF level is a combination of knowledge, skills, and competence—and therefore represent “bands” of similar outcomes or achievement. • They are designed to be understandable and usable by a variety of audiences in a variety of ways; for example, for defining curricula, assessment design, to relate qualifications and abilities. The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR, Council of Europe, 2001), shares many of the characteristics of the EQF with a set of descriptors divided into levels at its core. It has, however, a broader aim of describing language learning, teaching, and assessment. A central scale—the common reference scale—is described as a “global” scale, and its six levels give a general description of communicative competence. It is complemented by 56 other scales which describe particular aspects of communication, such as oral interaction or written correspondence. The CEFR has, perhaps more than other frameworks, addressed the methodology of writing scale descriptors. It deals with the requirement to produce level descriptors that clearly distinguish between different levels, that are comprehensible to the learners and other users, and that contrib-

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ute positively to the learning process. It also attempts a categorisation of scales. A distinction is made between user-oriented scales, which are designed for learners, employers, and other judges of level reached—they tell us what the learner can do—and assessor-oriented scales, which guide the evaluator and tell us how well the learner performs. The descriptor scales are divided into those describing communicative activities, with general skills scales complemented by specific uses; communication strategies, such as asking for clarification, and turn taking; and communicative language competence describing linguistic range and accuracy, sociolinguistic competence and pragmatic competence, including flexibility, coherence, spoken fluency. The result of this is that the CEFR is a very powerful instrument for a large number of educational purposes—from designing national curricula to planning courses and levels; its levels are now the most common constructs on which national and international language examinations are based, and there has been a good deal of research into the validity of the scales. For example, Cambridge ESOL found “a strong empirical link between test performance and perceived real-world language skills, as well as between the Cambridge ESOL levels and the CEFR scales.”3 The Canadian Public Service Commission found that the CEFR had: • construct validity: level descriptors based on a theory of communicative competence and empirically validated • face validity: level descriptors congruent with teachers’ perceptions and experiences with language learners • contextual validity: able to accommodate different needs and pedagogic cultures4 The CEFR has also proved its importance as a tool for self-assessment, and the scale descriptors are at the core of the different European Language Portfolios, in which learner self-assessment is combined with teacher judgment and the results of examinations. Various studies have shown a high degree of correlation between the results of tests and exams and learners’ own evaluation of their level against the scale. (see, especially, North & Schneider, 1998). The Elos framework has integrated the CEFR levels for the assessment of language level, and has constructed a portfolio as a tool for motivation and for self-assessment. A Framework of Reference for Pluralistic Approaches (CARAP; Candelier et al., 2007) is an attempt to produce a set of descriptors particularly related to intercultural communication on the pattern of the CEFR, and because of this it is very relevant to the central issues addressed in the Framework for Europe Competence. It consists of a large number of descriptor scales which define the knowledge, skills, and attitudes (in French savoirs, savoir-

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faire, and savoir être) needed to develop pluralistic approaches to language and cultural learning. Pluralistic approaches are defined as those where more than one language or culture is involved in the learning process. CARAP is especially interesting in its definitions of competence, where the emphasis is placed on the capacity to activate knowledge, skills, and attitudes: “competence is to be understood as ‘the ability of a subject to activate in an integrated way interior resources (knowledge, skills and attitudes) to be able to cope with a set of tasks which are complex for him’” (Rey, Carette, & Kahn, 2002, p. 57). The detailed description of attitudes which encourage intercultural understanding is also relevant to the concerns of the Elos Framework. Here is an example of the descriptor of “curiosity”: “Curiosity/Interest” about “foreign” languages/cultures/people/pluricultural environments about linguistic/cultural/human diversity in the environment and about linguistic/cultural/human diversity in general. • Curiosity about multilingual/multicultural environments • Curiosity about discovering how languages work (one’s own/others)

• Being curious about (and wanting to understand) the similarities and differences between one’s own culture and the target culture

• Interest in discovering other perspectives on interpretation of familiar and unfamiliar phenomena both in one’s own and in other cultures and cultural practices • Interest in why things are happening in the way they do in crosscultural interactions’ (Candelier et al., 2007, p. 71). CARAP does not divide its descriptor tables into levels—it is not feasible to do this with attitudes—although in the descriptor categories there is a progression from simple to more complex. Overall, it is a good example of how descriptor frameworks can be designed that treat complex areas of human behavior; it illustrates the way in which a single descriptive system can deal with areas of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. The Common Framework for Europe Competence (CFEC) and the CEFR The CFEC shares a number of characteristics with the other frameworks that have been described. It has a range of aims and can be used for setting learning objectives, for assessment purposes, and for certifying

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achievement. It includes descriptors of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. For example: • I understand shared concepts such as democracy, citizenship and the international declarations expressing them (at Level 3). • I have the organisation skills needed to plan and run face-to-face meetings with pupils from other countries (about mobility, programmes, etc.) (at Level 4). • I can show respect (verbally and nonverbally) for the opinion of persons from a different cultural background (at Level 2). It has integrated the levels of the CEFR for the areas connected with language competence. In other areas, the definition of the levels should perhaps better be described as a sequence going from simpler aspects to more complex ones, rather than a set of empirically verified “levels.” They correspond intuitively to the likely development of children as they go through school systems, and their appropriateness will, no doubt, need to be verified as the CFEC is used in schools over the years. The Elos project, which developed the CFEC, has also created a portfolio that is based on the descriptors, as a form of self-assessment and as a means of motivating learners to be involved in European concepts. It has deliberately restricted itself to areas linked to Europe, and, except for the areas of language competence, the underlying general skills have not been included if they have been described in other frameworks. It might be useful in any guide to the CFEC to point out relevant links to other frameworks. In conclusion, if a framework is to be considered successful and usable, it should fulfill a number of criteria: • The descriptors must be understandable by learners and teachers. • The knowledge, skills, and attitudes described must be observable and be capable of being evaluated. • The individual features of the scale must contribute to a general competence which corresponds not just to school achievement but to a set of specific abilities which can be activated in “real” life. The CFEC framework has the merit of being reasonably simple and clear, with its three sets of descriptors focused on a coherent concept of what schools might contribute in a practical way to Europe competence—informed and critically evaluated knowledge, skills, and attitudes promoting collaboration, and effective communication:

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• I am an informed European citizen who can access, process, and evaluate knowledge relevant to Europe and the wider world, and act upon it. • I can collaborate constructively with peers from other countries on a common task or project. • I can communicate effectively in a European/international setting. The descriptors under the three headings provide learning aims relevant outside the context of the school, and at the same time they give guidelines that enable schools to devise useful and interesting activities. Values The two frameworks share very similar values. The underlying values and aims expressed in the CEFR can be described as follows: • The development of European citizenship, with an educated European understanding of several languages, able to study and travel in many countries, knowledgeable about and having respect for many different nationalities and national cultures. • The conviction that knowing different languages is a powerful factor in intellectual development, encouraging open-mindedness and flexibility, contributing to the development of other skills. • The commitment to life-long language learning, accepting that it is unlikely that schools can predict exactly which languages their students are going to need, and that therefore the aim should be to train them to become good language learners, capable of acquiring the particular languages as they meet the need for them. • The idea that language study offers opportunities to acquire independence and autonomy as learners, that it can be learned in ways that encourage cooperation and other social values. (Heyworth, 2004, p. 13). These values without the specific references to languages could well fit into the CFEC. Methodological Aspects In many ways, the methodology of the CEFR is the model on which the Common Framework for Europe Competence is based. Although there are

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many examples of the use of descriptors of competence, the CEFR has a very good example of a well-made scale; aspects it shares with the CFEC are: • The use of only positive language in all the descriptors—apart from the knowledge-based aspects, all are expressed as what one can do. • The division into levels that are always independent of each other— with no descriptions repeated at different levels (this permits reliability and flexibility of assessment). • Self-assessment is at the centre of both sets of descriptors—in the CEFR, this is included in both the self-assessment grid that is part of the framework and in the European language portfolios that are associated with it, in the same way as the CFEC is linked to a portfolio. Where the two frameworks differ is in the categories used to describe what the learner can do. The CFEC is based on the traditional division into knowledge, skills, and attitudes, with some descriptors that describe activities, whereas the CEFR distinguishes between activities—in language terms, reception, production, interaction, and mediation—and a range of competences: linguistic, pragmatic, intercultural, strategic, sociolinguistic, and existential. The CFEC might wish to explore these categories in its continued further development. Language Learning Aims and Achievement The first important use of the CEFR is to set realistic and action-based goals for language teaching. Because these are described in terms of what the learner can do with the language rather than what she or he knows, this helps schools to decide what kind of international exchange activities are appropriate at different levels. For example, children who start languages in primary schools will probably be able to attain Level A1: Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/ herself and others and can ask and answer questions about personal details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help. (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 24)

Although the level of language is limited, it has sufficient range for the beginning of exchanges of basic information, about the learners, their school, where they live, and so forth. Postcards can be exchanged and posters made presenting the class together with short biographies, for example. At the age of 15, in many countries the target level is B1:

The CEFR and the Common Framework for Europe Competence    223 Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of personal interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes & ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans. (Council of Europe, 2001, p. 24)

Here, the language is adequate for a school exchange trip, living in a host family, and for collaborating through e-mail to make arrangements and plans. Joint projects, with reports and documents, are within the learners’ grasp, and they would be able to follow content-based classes in the language concerned. It is likely that a large proportion of international and exchange activities will be carried out in one of the major European languages, but because the CEFR encourages all levels of language learning, it should be able to encourage the learning of regional, lesser spoken or neighbour languages at A1 or A2 levels as well. Pluralistic approaches to language education In a development associated with the CEFR, a project led by Michel Candelier (Candelier et al., 2007) at the European Centre for Modern Languages of the Council of Europe has created a framework for pluralistic approaches to language education. These include the integration of the learning of different languages, work with young children on “awakening” to languages in general, and intercultural approaches to language teaching. The framework is divided into three sections providing descriptors of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required in these approaches. It includes a number of aspects relevant to the CEFC, especially in the sections on attitudes, including features such as “readiness to adapt,” “sensitivity to other cultures,” “willingness to suspend judgment,” and so on. Conclusion From this brief survey, it will be evident that there are many elements of synergy between the CEFR and the CFEC: first of all, the practical elements related to language requirements and the kind of activities that can be undertaken. It has been a source for the development of a rigorous approach to constructing descriptors, and the CFEC has adopted and adapted much of its methodology from the language framework. But the work that has been done on languages, especially on the nature of the competences and the way they can be activated in activities, and the attitudes which promote

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real intercultural interchange have, in my view, great potential for the further development and refinement of the CFEC. Notes 1. http://www.europelearning.info 2. It can also be downloaded from the Council of Europe website at http:// www.coe.int/T/E/Cultural Cooperation/education/Languages/Language Policy/Common Framework of Reference/default.asp 3. http://www.cambridgeesol.org/what-we-do/research/cefr/testing-development-cycle.html 4. Presentation to Policy Forum COE by Jennifer Macdonald, Public Service Commission of Canada, and Larry Vandergrift, Institute of Official Languages and Bilingualism, University of Ottawa, see www.coe.int/T/DG4/Linguistic/ Source/SourceForum07/Canada

References Candelier, M., Camilleri-Grima, A., Castellotti, V., de Pietro, J.-F., Lörincz, Meissner, F.-J., . . . Noguerol, A. (with Molinié, M.) (2007). Across languages and cultures— CARAP: Framework of reference for pluralistic approaches to languages and cultures (Report, version July 2007). Strasbourg, France/Graz, Austria: Council of Europe/European Centre for Modern Languages. Council of Europe. (2001) The common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Available from http://culture2.coe.int/portfolio/documents European Commission. (2008). The European qualifications framework for lifelong learning. Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learningpolicy/doc44_en.htm Heyworth, F. (2004). Why the CEFR is important. In K. Morrow (Ed.), Insights from the Common European Framework (pp. 12–21). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Heyworth, F. (2006). The common European framework. English Language Teaching Journal, 60, 181–183. Little, D., & Perklova, R. (2001). European language portfolio. Guide for teachers and teacher trainers. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe. Available at http:// culture2.coe.int/portfolio/inc.asp Maslowski, R., Naayer, H., Oonk, G. H., & Van der Werf, M. P. C. (2009). Effecten van internationalisering in het voortgezet onderwijs: Een analyse van de implementatie en effecten van een Europese en internationale oriëntatie [Effects of internationalisation in secondary education: An analysis of the implementation and effects of a European and international orientation]. Groningen, The Netherlands: GION.

The CEFR and the Common Framework for Europe Competence    225 North, B., & Schneider, G. (1998). Scaling descriptors for language proficiency scales. Language Testing, 15, 217–262. Rey, B., Carette, V., & Kahn, S. (2002). Lignes directrices pour la construction d’outils d’évaluation relatifs aux socles de competences [Guiding directives for the construction of evaluation instruments regarding concepts of competences]. Brussels, Belgium: Université Libre de Bruxelles. Van Ek, J. A. (1977). Threshold level for modern language levels in schools. London, UK: Longman. Van Ek. J. A., & Trim, J. (1991). Waystage 1990. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Van Ek, J. A., & Trim, J. (1997). Vantage level. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe.

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Chapter 14

Teaching and Learning in Schools in Europe Greetje van der Werf

Introduction Every day, thousands of teachers in secondary education in Europe are facing the challenging task of teaching students the knowledge and skills that our society considers important for their future. Or, in other words, the knowledge and skills that are deemed to be necessary to function in our society (Prick, 2004). In the first instance, this knowledge and these skills pertain to the traditional schooling domains, which are considered as a common body of knowledge that everybody has to possess in order to be prepared for future study and professional development. However, society expects more than this. Students also have to be able to communicate, to collaborate, and to deal flexibly with the challenges of a knowledge-based society, which is rapidly changing and becoming increasingly complex. And if this were not enough, due to the developments in the European Union and the rapid development of the European society, students also have to become prepared to function as a citizen of Europe. The new tasks and challenges of education put a heavy burden on the responsibility of schools and teachers to equip students for future study and a career, being able to function adequately in their national society and in Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 227–244 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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the European society as well. Looking at the problems that nowadays are still present in education regarding the more traditional domain of specific knowledge and skills, one might wonder if schools and teachers will ever be able to face these new tasks and challenges. Many students learn less in school than their teachers desire them to. Also students themselves, their parents, as well as teachers in higher levels of education, are not satisfied with the level of knowledge and skills that is acquired in secondary education. Moreover, drop-out and repetition rates are quite high (Kuyper & van der Werf, 2005). Altogether, it is obvious that learning is difficult for most of the students, even for those in the highest levels of secondary education. Every day, teachers are wrestling with the question of how it is possible that their students have problems with the learning content and how they could help them to acquire as much as possible of the content they are offering. Every day, many students also are wrestling with difficulties in the learning content, having to spend a lot of time on homework, and, regardless of this, getting low grades. Every day, parents see their children doing their best, being tense before tests, coming home with low grades, becoming less motivated, and preferring to spend their time on other things rather than doing their homework. Students, teachers, and parents expect that educational policymakers and educational scientists have thought thoroughly about how education should be arranged in order to teach as many students, wherever possible, the necessary knowledge and skills. This is a legitimate expectation. However, in many countries this expectation is not fully or even partially met. Frequently, policy makers force schools to implement educational innovations that are not based on well-grounded theory and empirical research concerning learning and teaching. Or, where policy makers have no direct influence on classroom practices, educational scientists promote innovations for which they refer more to ideological views than to evidence about their effects. Recently, many innovations have been grounded in social constructivism, which has deeply influenced educational practice in classrooms worldwide. Since the beginning of the 1990s, constructivist teaching became more and more common in The Netherlands, starting in comprehensive and upper secondary education, and in higher professional education as well. During the last two years, it has also been evolving in lower professional education and even in primary education. I consider employing constructivist teaching as problematic in two respects: (1) there is an absence of empirical evidence of effectiveness, and (2) employing an approach for which there is a lack of evidence of effectiveness implies not employing instructional practices for which there is indeed empirical support (see also Matthews, 2003). Moreover, employing instructional practices for which there is no empirical support, and not employing practices for which there is support, is unethical. It means thousands of children are

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subject to uncontrolled experiments, possibly leading to negative consequences for their future. I am mostly worried about those students who are from disadvantaged backgrounds or have lower levels of cognitive abilities and who cannot be compensated for low-quality education by their family or by themselves. The purpose of this chapter is to present an overview and critique of the assumptions of constructivist teaching practices, followed by some empirical data about the effects in general and in particular about the differential effects for disadvantaged and lower ability students. At the end of the chapter, I provide an alternative approach, mainly aimed at giving suggestions for implementing the European and international dimension in education. Theoretical Background of Constructivist Teaching The concept of constructivist teaching has been accepted broadly by educational practitioners. They consider implementation of constructivist teaching as necessary because of the current societal and economic developments, other types of students who enter the schools, a decrease of student motivation, and so forth. Educational practitioners feel themselves supported by educational scientists who emphasize that recent psychological and pedagogical insights show the need for learning environments that are based on knowledge construction instead of knowledge transfer. They emphasize three important principles of learning: (1) learning is a constructive activity; (2) learning is a situated activity; and (3) learning is a social activity (Simons, 2000). Originally, these principles are from two different theoretical perspectives—that is, the constructivist perspective and the perspective of situated learning. The ideas of these perspectives are not identical. The constructivist perspective assumes that knowledge is in the mind of the individual and probably cannot be known by someone else. The perspective of situated cognition assumes that knowledge exists in the social world. Constructivism has its roots in epistemology, a branch of philosophy that deals with the question of the nature of knowledge. The essential claim of the constructivist view on knowledge is that there is no objective reality that can be known, implying that individuals construct their own knowledge by giving meaning to their own experiences. Based on this claim, the proponents of constructivist teaching argue that the student should be made responsible for his own learning. The student determines his own goals and how to reach them. Prior knowledge and structuring of the learning process and content are neglected. On the contrary, the assumption is that students learn best when they are confronted with com-

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plex problem situations. If a student discovers that he lacks certain prior knowledge, he can fill these gaps himself. The ultimate consequence is that all students acquire different knowledge and that objective assessment of this knowledge is not possible. For this reason, assessment should be flexible with respect to the standards and should be focused more on the learning process than on the outcomes. The two other principles—learning as a situated activity and learning as a social activity—are based on the perspective of situated cognition. The first principle states that all knowledge is specific for the situation in which it was learned and that more general knowledge cannot be transformed to situations in the real world. For this reason, learning should take place in “authentic” learning environments, which are very similar to the real world or to problems that students meet outside school. The principle of learning as a social activity is strongly related to the principle of learning as a situated activity. Learning in an authentic environment also implies a social context, because most professions are not practiced in isolation. For this reason, the perspective of situated learning also emphasizes collaborative learning in a community of practice. Individuals having the same status work together to promote acquisition of individual and shared knowledge. The individuals learn from each other by means of symbols (mostly language). Recent constructivist teaching ideas state that the perspectives of constructivism and situated cognition are mixed together under the concept of “social constructivism.” This concept emphasizes that learning is a process of knowledge construction by the learner, that learning is “situated” or connected to a specific context, and that learning is a social activity in which collaborative knowledge construction takes place. In order to do justice to these learning principles, constructivist learning environments have to be created in which (1) the role of the teacher has to be changed from being the one who transfers knowledge into being the coach of the learning process aimed at students’ own construction of knowledge on the basis of complex problem situations, (2) an “authentic” learning content or an “authentic” learning environment is available, and (3) collaborative learning is promoted. Here, we see that the (social) constructivist theory about learning is applied to prescribe educational practice. Strictly, this is not possible because constructivism is a descriptive theory about learning and not a prescriptive theory about teaching (Stijnen, 2003). In the references to the scientific basis of constructivist teaching, this descriptive theory is translated with little discussion into prescriptions for educational practice. Frequently, these prescriptions for practice are described in tables such as Table 14.1, in which constructivist practice is compared with more traditional practices. In The Netherlands, one speaks about “new” versus “old” learning. The assumptions are that constructivist learning environments are more effective, efficient, and motivating than traditional learning environments

Teaching and Learning in Schools in Europe    231 Table 14.1  Traditional versus Constructivist Prescriptions

Teacher roles

Student roles

Curriculum characteristics Learning goals

Types of activities

Assessment strategies

Traditional practice

Constructivist practice

Transmitter of knowledge; expert source; director of skills/ concepts development through structured experience Receive info.; demonstrate competence; all students learn same material Based on skill and knowledge hierarchies; skills taught one after the other in set sequence Stated in terms of mastery learning and behavioural competence in scope and sequence Lecture, demonstration, discussions, student practice, seatwork, testing Written tests and development of products matched to objectives; all tests and products match set criteria; same measures for all students

Guide as students generate their own knowledge; collaborative resource and assistant as students explore topics Collaborate with others; develop competence; students may learn different material Based on projects that foster both higher level and lower level skills concurrently Stated in terms of growth from where students began and increased ability to work independently and with others Group projects, handson exploration, product development Performance tests and products such as portfolios; quality measured by rubrics and checklists; measures may differ among students

(Simons, Van der Linden, & Duffy, 2000). The question now is whether these assumptions are supported by empirical evidence. Comparison of the Effects of Constructivist and More Traditional Teaching Because the effects of fully constructivist learning environments have not been thoroughly evaluated until now, we are not able to answer this question in depth. There have, however, been some studies in which the effects of specific components of constructivist teaching are compared with similar components of more traditional teaching. From the results of these comparisons, we are able to learn clearly which effects might be expected if fully constructivist teaching—meaning a combination of different constructivist components—were to be implemented. Subsequently, I will discuss research into teacher-directed versus student-directed instruction; discovering and problem-based learning; abstract, school-based learning environments versus authentic learning environments; and collaborative learning versus individual learning.

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The first assumption of constructivist teaching is that knowledge cannot be transmitted by a teacher but can only be constructed by the student himself. However, from review studies by, for example, Anderson, Reder, and Simon (2000) and Mayer (2004), it appears that a teacher can indeed transmit knowledge. Moreover, teacher-directed instruction is more effective and efficient than self-directed learning. Instruction in the form of examples, analogies, and a selection of stimuli and feedback by the teacher helps students to construct knowledge and understanding. Also, reviews of studies into discovery learning show clearly that this way of learning is less effective and efficient than direct instruction. These studies also show that this is not only the case for domain-specific knowledge and skills but also for higher-order skills such as scientific thinking. Moreover, students not only learn more if they receive direct instruction, but their knowledge and skills are also more proficient, and they are better able to apply the knowledge and skills to new situations (Klahr, Chen, & Toth, 2001; Klahr & Nigam, 2004). The argument that constructivists frequently use against direct instruction, namely that it promotes only routines instead of understanding, is clearly not supported. Research has also shown over and over again that real expertise only can be gained by vast knowledge and frequent practice in a certain domain. Moreover, basic domain knowledge is necessary to acquire new knowledge and higher-order skills like analyzing, reasoning, problem solving and synthesizing (Anderson, 2000). In other words, basic knowledge and skills are essential conditions to construct new knowledge or for “learning to learn.” The proponents of constructivist teaching also argue that knowledge cannot be split up into separate components and that students learn best if they are confronted with complex problem situations. Based on this assumption, several educational practices have been developed that can be identified as experiential learning, problem-based learning, or explorative learning. The additional value of these practices has not been supported by empirical research as yet. Already early studies of direct instruction and mastery learning show that educational programs in which knowledge and skill components are hierarchically formulated in concrete learning goals and are practiced to a well-described mastery level promote a more effective learning process, better achievements, and higher levels of motivation (see, for a review, Creemers, 1994). As well as this, a recent review article by Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2005) shows that experiential learning, problem-based learning, and explorative learning in general are not only less effective than guided instruction but also have negative effects because they promote misconceptions among students or only partial or unorganized knowledge. Also, reviews of the U.S. National Academy of Science provide a lot of evidence for the negative effects of unguided science instruction and the benefit of more strongly guided instruction at all age levels and

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across a variety of science and mathematics content (Chall, 2000; Stebbins, St. Pierre, & Proper, 1977). The constructivist view on learning also assumes that all knowledge is specific for the situation in which it was learned and that more general and abstract knowledge does not apply to everyday situations. For this reason, students have to be confronted with authentic or real-life tasks. Examples of these tasks can be found in context-based mathematics curricula. A more progressive form is the authentic learning environment that is based on the assumption that skills learned at school do not promote a successful professional practice. In professional education, these ideas are elaborated upon in practice-based learning. From education with authentic tasks as well as from authentic learning environments, it is expected that students learn more and to a higher standard, that they are better able to apply what was learned in everyday situations (transfer), and that they are more motivated to learn. Until now, however, hardly any research has been conducted into the effects of authentic learning. From research in the 1990s of the added value of context-based mathematics curricula, it appeared that these were no more effective than traditional curricula (Harskamp, 1988). Nowadays, one frequently complains that students do not possess abstract mathematic skills and are not able to mathematize everyday situations (De Lange, 2003). This implies that there is too little transfer of learning in an authentic context. On the other hand, international comparative studies of mathematics achievements show that students in countries like China and Korea, where the mathematics curriculum still mainly consists of abstract mathematics, score high on tests that mainly consist of context-based items. This finding implies that abstract knowledge can indeed be transferred to specific contexts. Altogether, the claim that authentic education promotes better transfer than school-based and abstract learning is not yet supported by empirical research. As well as this, research shows that authentic, electronic learning environments are not only less effective in terms of achievements but also have negative effects in terms of student motivation (Gulikers, Bastiaens, & Martens, 2004). Finally, social constructivists assume that learning is a social activity and that effective instruction can only take place in a social environment. Learning takes place in a “community of practice” in which all participants work together in order to construct individual or shared knowledge (see, for example, Roelofs, Van der Linden, & Erkens, 1999; Van der Linden, Erkens, Schmidt, & Renshaw, 2000). However, the huge number of studies into the effects of cooperative learning still did not show convincingly positive effects. The meta-analysis by Slavin (1990) shows that, overall, there are no differences between individual and social learning. In a later edition (1995), he gives a more nuanced view. About two thirds of the studies in the meta-analysis show positive effects, less than one third shows no differences,

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and some studies show negative effects of cooperative learning. From this meta-analysis, it cannot be concluded that cooperative learning is preferred over individual learning, according to Slavin (1996). A closer inspection of the studies that are included in the meta-analysis suggests that the effects of cooperative learning are only positive if a number of strict conditions are met, which are related to the goals of cooperative learning, the composition of the groups, and the structure of feedback and evaluation. These conditions are rarely found in educational practice and are, even after intensive training of teachers, mostly not realizable (see also Veenman, Van Benthum, Bootsma, Van Dieren, & Van der Kemp, 2002). Constructivist Teaching and Student Diversity All together, it is clear that the assumptions of social constructivism with respect to learning and teaching are not supported by empirical research; direct, teacher-based instruction is essential for an effective learning process, abstract knowledge can indeed be transferred to specific contexts, and individual learning is no less effective than collaborative learning. So, there is no empirical evidence that justifies the implementation of social-constructivist teaching on a large scale. On the contrary, there is empirical evidence to cause concern; this is because most empirical evidence points in the direction of negative effects. This evidence only regards comparison of just one component of social constructivism—for example, collaborative versus individual learning. It might be expected that if social-constructivist teaching is implemented to the most extreme extent, which is student directed, complex, authentic, and in collaborative learning environments, the effects would be even more negative, not only in the short term but in particular in the long term. We must be especially concerned about the effects on students from disadvantaged families and students with lower cognitive abilities. Although the studies that I reviewed hardly paid any attention to the differential effects of social-constructivist components of teaching, there are other studies that show some evidence for this concern. In a review study by Clark (1989), summarizing the results of Aptitude Treatment Interaction (ATI) research, he makes clear that especially lower ability students who were assigned to unguided instruction had lower scores, not only in comparison with students who were assigned to guided instruction but also in comparison with their own pretest scores. In other words, unguided instruction causes a loss of learning among lower ability students. These results imply all age levels and different learning domains. Also from the studies into the effects of cooperative learning, reviewed by Slavin in 1996, it is clear that lower ability students frequently achieve less when they learn in groups than when they learn individually. Other evidence comes from

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the evaluation of the well-known program for Students at Risk—FollowThrough (Stebbins, St. Pierre, Proper, Anderson, & Cerva, 1977). In this evaluation, nine models of teaching were compared to each other as well as to control schools that were not participating in the program. Seven of the teaching models were based on student-centered and conceptual approaches to learning; two models were teacher centered and outcome-based. The results were quite clear. The two teacher-centered outcome-based models significantly outperformed the learner-centered/constructivist models on all the dependent variables, even on those outcome measures that were valued in the learner-centered approach (e.g., higher-order skills). More importantly, five of the learner-centered models performed worse than the control groups (see also Matthews, 2003). In her review book about the effects of student-centered and teachercentered teaching, Chall (2000) noted that teacher-centered approaches were particularly effective for low-socioeconomic status (SES) students; moreover, some data even suggest that the student-centered approaches have negative effects on these students. In his very critical article about constructivist teaching, Matthews (2003) considers it remarkable that these findings, while clear, have had little effect on the practice of American education. The same is true for The Netherlands. Despite the fact that in the U.S. the empirical evidence of the effectiveness of constructivist teaching clearly points in a negative direction at the elementary level, primary schools in The Netherlands have recently started implementing it. However, constructivist teaching already exists on a large scale in secondary education, although we have little knowledge of what the effects at that level are. On the basis of what we know from the evidence presented thus far, we might predict that in secondary education constructivist teaching is also less effective than more traditional teaching, in particular for at-risk students. In the next part of my chapter, I will provide some evidence from The Netherlands that supports this prediction. Constructivist-Based Innovations in The Netherlands One of the essential elements of the Dutch system of secondary education is that is it highly tracked. There are three main routes: these are (1) Preparatory Senior Vocational Education (VMBO), Senior General Education (HAVO), and Pre-University Education (VWO). VMBO lasts four years and is divided into three sub-tracks (Individual Pre-vocational Education, Pre-vocational Education, and Junior General Education). HAVO lasts five years and VWO six years.

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Until 1993, each stage in secondary education had its own curriculum. In August 1993, a new common core curriculum for the first two years of all stages was implemented. One of the aims of this new curriculum was to strengthen and enlarge students’ common knowledge and skills, adapted to technological and social-cultural developments. Within subjects, there was a shift from mere content learning (knowledge) towards application of knowledge, general skills (skills that are not related to specific subject domains), and cohesion between subjects. Secondly, specific subjects had to be integrated into broader curricular areas—for example, integrating math, physics, and biology into “science” or integrating subjects like history, geography, and politics into “social studies.” There are no well-defined prescriptions with regard to the level of attainment each student has to achieve within each subject. Only “core goals” for each subject and for six general skills are defined and described by law. In 1998, a new innovation started in the upper grades of the two highest stages of secondary education (HAVO and VWO). The content of the examination programmes was changed from an emphasis on separate learning domains into comprehensive study areas that fit with the different studies in university. Moreover, the teaching strategies and the organisation of education also had to be changed. The core concept became independent learning, leading to other ways of thinking and the development of learning processes by students, emphasizing the development of practical and social skills. These are not solely directed at knowledge acquisition but also at learning to handle large amounts of information and its application and at “learning to learn.” Therefore, education should be directed more at the learning process itself and at the process of knowledge acquisition by the student, instead of at the learning content. With the stronger emphasis on the learning process of the student, the role of the teacher should also be changed. The teacher should become a guide and counselor during the learning process instead of a transferor of knowledge. In order to prepare students for the new way of learning in the upper grades, as well as in the lower grades, more student-directed learning and learning to learn should be implemented. The same kind of innovation was implemented in 1999 in the upper grades of the three VMBO stages. After the common core curriculum, students choose a sector that prepares for the different domains in secondary professional education. In all stages, the emphasis has changed from domain and professional knowledge into learning and practicing practical skills and general skills like learning to learn, learning to communicate, learning to reflect on one’s own strengths and weaknesses, and so forth. Also, broad personal and social development is important, as well as independent learning and learning to learn.

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Together with all these innovations in secondary education, the concept of “competence” was introduced. Instead of an emphasis on knowledge and skills as educational outcomes, one considers the acquisition of broad competences being the main aim of education, which reflects the constructivist view on learning. In line with this view, the national examinations also became heavily criticized because competences cannot be assessed with standardized tests. Lately in The Netherlands, there has been a widespread plea for a limitation of the national curriculum guidelines in order to give schools and teachers more freedom to develop a program that fits with the characteristics and the age of their students and to the specific situation of the schools. Lessons to be Learned from The Netherlands Even before the implementation of the national innovations in 1993, it was determined that the results should be evaluated by means of large-scale cohort study. So far, three cohort studies have been conducted (Kuyper & Van der Werf, 2007). In each of these studies, about twenty thousand students were followed during their career through secondary education. The first study started in 1989, four years before the innovations relating to the constructivist view on teaching were implemented. The results of this study can be used as baseline data with which the data of the second and the third study—started in 1993 and 1999, respectively—can be compared. Although these comparisons do not give an insight into the effects of constructivist teaching in its full extent, they might shed some light on the effects of constructivist elements of teaching that were implemented with the national curriculum innovations, together with the emphasis on more independent learning that most schools in The Netherlands currently embrace. In the three cohort studies, we measured students’ achievements in Grade 3 (age 15) with standardized tests for comprehensive reading, mathematics, and general problem-solving skills. Comparison of the scores between the three cohorts showed a decrease between the first and the third cohort. Although the differences were small, in general the results were not in favor of the constructivist view. In particular, the decrease of the general problem-solving skills is striking because these are skills that are typically focused on in constructivist theory. However, it could be possible that the cohorts were not completely comparable with respect to students’ background characteristics, intelligence, prior achievement, and so forth, and thus that the lower achievements in the most recent cohort had nothing to do with the innovation. For this reason, we performed a multiple regression analysis to establish the cohort effect after taking into account the students’ intake characteristics. In these

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analyses, we also included the effects of interaction between cohort and student characteristics in order to establish the differential effects of the innovation for different categories of students. The results showed that the cohort effect was still negative after taking into account student intake characteristics. The effects of the intake characteristics were all in the expected direction: the higher the abilities (recommendation, prior achievement, and level) and the higher the SES, the higher the achievements in Grade 3. Ethnic minorities did worse than Dutch students, and girls did better on reading and worse on mathematics. The interaction effects were most interesting. For cohort and gender, the effect was positive for reading and negative for mathematics. Closer inspection of these effects showed that the reading scores of the girls decreased less than the scores for the boys, while their mathematics scores decreased more. This implies that the gender differences for both subjects have increased since the implementation of the innovation. The same holds for the ethnic differences. For both subjects, the scores of ethnic minorities have decreased more than for Dutch students. The interaction effect of cohort and stage was positive, meaning that the decrease of the scores for both subjects was less in the higher than in the lower stages. Finally, there were also interaction effects of cohort, stage, and respectively gender and ethnicity. Generally, these effects showed that the gender differences favouring girls for reading and favouring boys for mathematics have increased more in the two highest stages than in the three lowest levels. The ethnic differences for reading have become larger at all levels, except in the highest. For mathematics, they have become larger at all levels, except in the lowest. Based on these results, we must conclude that student achievement in general has decreased since the implementation of the constructivist-based innovations and that the decrease was greatest for the disadvantaged and/ or lower performing students. Because these results only pertain to shortterm effects (achievements in Grade 3 of secondary education), we also analyzed the differences between the cohorts regarding long-term personal educational profit. Personal profit was defined as the combination of the level of attained diploma and the number of years that it took to attain the diploma, given the recommended stage of secondary education at the end of primary school. For example, a student with a recommendation for stage VMBO who attained a HAVO diploma within four years has a higher attainment score than a student with the same recommendation who attained a VMBO diploma. The analyses were performed per recommended stage. The results showed that the overall cohort effect was positive for the three highest recommended stages, while there was no effect for the two lowest stages. This is remarkable, given the decrease in the achievements on standardized tests between cohort 1989 and 1993 (see above). This appears to point to a downward adaptation of the standards when teachers make deci-

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sions about student promotion to a higher stage or to the next grade, which in turn could be the result of other ways of testing student outcomes—that is, more competence-based testing instead of performance testing. The analyses above pertain only to the students who have attained a diploma. Drop out has not been taken into account. Looking at drop-out rates separately, we found that drop-out numbers have increased in all stages, but to a greater degree in the three lowest ones—the VMBO stages—and most among the ethnic minority students. Teaching and Learning in Schools in Europe: European and International Orientation as an Example All together, the results of international research as well as the experiences in The Netherlands make clear that there is hardly any reason to be optimistic about the positive effects of constructivist teaching. In general, the results from experimental studies as well as large-scale evaluation studies show that the effects are negative, in particular for students in the lower educational stages and for those from an ethnic minority. With respect to differential gender effects and differential effects for lower versus higher ability students, the effects are mixed. In my opinion, there is hardly any empirical evidence that supports the implementation of constructivist teaching to its full extent and on a large scale. Moreover, I believe that the concept of constructivist teaching of European and international orientation (EIO) is even less fruitful. Firstly, because of the complicated political-economical environment that we aim to transmit in the context of (European) citizenship, it is vital that teachers operate as the transmitter of knowledge. Students will not choose EIO activities by themselves, nor will they discover EIO knowledge on their own. They need to be supported by teachers. Implementing a constructivist learning environment for EIO denies teaching strategies for which there exists empirical support with respect to the effects, which is direct instruction. Direct instruction is clearly more effective, at least for lower ability students and for students with a disadvantaged background. However, I do not argue for direct instruction as a way of teaching in which the student is assumed to be an empty vessel into which the teacher puts knowledge. This is a caricature of direct teaching. The model of direct teaching emphasizes explicitly that learning is an active process and can only take place by student activities, student attention, and student effort. The role of the teacher is important in order to provide learning tasks that students will not choose by themselves and to guide them through these tasks in such a way that they construct the knowledge and skills that are necessary

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to build on in the future (Kozloff, LaNunziata, Cowardin, & Besselieu, 2000). The challenge for researchers is to find out which learning environments promote effective learning and at the same time motivate students to do what is necessary. One of the clearest empirical findings is that students need practice in order to attain deep knowledge and skills (Simon, 2001). It is important to search for tasks that provide the opportunity to practice and at the same time maintain students’ interest, such that they are engaged in learning. The concept of engagement refers to the psychological processes, specifically attention, interest, effort and time, that students invest in learning (Marks, 2000) and comprises a behavioral (time spent, concentration, effort), an emotional (enthusiasm, optimism, curiosity, and interest), and a cognitive (cognitive and metacognitive strategies) component. Many studies show that each of the three components strongly influences student outcomes. But engagement can also be affected strongly by the learning environment, which is the instruction behavior of the teacher, the task characteristics, and the social context in which learning takes place (Fredericks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004). This influence can be positive or negative. The fact that engagement generally decreases across the years that students are in secondary school suggests a negative influence of the learning environment. The concept of engagement could be fruitfully connected to the concept of EIO, the central topic of this book. Bringing a European and international orientation in the schools in Europe, by, for example, partnership and exchange programs will motivate students as well as teachers, and will also bring in emotional elements to the teaching and learning process. Oonk (2004) found in his study among more than a hundred schools that internationalisation activities and developing a network of foreign contacts could enrich teachers’ personal toolkit, which in turn inspires them in their daily work to discover new subjects and teaching methods that interests the students. Moreover, joint internationalisation activities, such as joint educational projects, staying with a host family, lessons in partner schools, encounters with other European pupils and teachers, working with language assistants, bilingual education, contacts via ICT, and communicating in a foreign language appeared to make the lesson material livelier for the students and added new dimensions to their educational experiences. Also, the content and language integrated learning (CLIL) activities, as developed in several European countries, might be very attractive for students, as Oonk shows in Chapter 12. So, the strength of EIO activities might be very motivating for students and thus provide possibilities for developing knowledge and skills. However, whether this will actually be the case strongly depends on the degree to which the EIO activities really stimulate students to spend time and effort on challenging learning tasks, while at the same time hold-

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ing their interest and curiosity. The most important task of the teachers is to find out how the cognitive elements of EIO could be built into the learning environment in such a way that deep knowledge and skills are attained, in order to prepare students to function as citizens of the European society. That this is not an easy task becomes clear from the empirical study among Dutch Elos schools, in which it was found that there is no relationship between students’ knowledge and students’ EIO activities. Participation in exchanges, taking part in discussion with people from other European countries, and being able to organize exchange activities are not related to knowledge on EIO. Maslowski, Naayer, Oonk, and Van der Werf (see Chapter 17) suggest that the extracurricular EIO activities are relatively loosely coupled to the integration of EIO in the formal curriculum. Further research is needed into the ways in which the cognitive elements of EIO could be connected to the regular curriculum. In part, this might be possible by integrating EIO activities in subjects like history and geography. But also the connection between EIO and foreignlanguage teaching might be strengthened, because foreign language education seems to be a moderating factor in promoting EIO competences. Maslowski and colleagues showed that knowledge on European and international issues correlates significantly to language skills in German and French and most strongly to language skills in English. In summary, further research is needed to find out how EIO activities not only promote student engagement but also students’ EIO competences in terms of knowledge and skills. This research implies looking for an optimal fit between instruction strategies, task characteristics, and social context. Also, student characteristics have to be taken into account, because it might well be possible that different types of students need different learning environments. Some students might benefit from more structured instruction, while for others more independent learning might be more effective. Some students might profit more from cooperative learning, while others learn better if they work individually. These differential effects of different kinds of instruction in turn might be dependent upon the kind of learning task they have to deal with or of the social context of the learning environment. These types of questions could be studied in small-scale experiments or in more large-scale research into the effectiveness of EIO. In my opinion, we know too little about the conditions in which different types of students learn the most effectively to justify the large-scale use or planned implementation of the fully constructivist teaching model. In particular, for the relatively new domain of EIO it is most important to make use of evidence-based education.

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References Anderson, J. R. (2000). Cognitive psychology and its implications (5th ed.). New York: Worth Publishing. Anderson, J. R., Reder, L. M., & Simon, H. A. (2000). Applications and misapplications of cognitive psychology to mathematics education. Pittsburg, PA: Carnegie Mellon University, Department of Psychology. Retrieved from http://act-r.psy.cmu. edu/papers/misapplied.html Chall, J. S. (2000). The academic achievement challenge: What really works in the classroom? New York: Guilford Press. Clark, R. E. (1989). When teaching kills learning: Research on mathematics. In H. N. Mandl, N. Bennett, E. de Corte, & H. F. Freidrich (Eds.), Learning and instruction. European research in an international context (Vol. 2, pp. 1–22). London, UK: Pergamon Press. Creemers, B. P. M (1994). The effective classroom. Londen, UK: Cassell. De Lange, J. (2003, September 13). Wiskundeonderwijs is treurig [Mathematics education is tragic]. NRC Handelsblad. Fredericks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74, 59–109. Gulikers, J. T. M., Bastiaens, T. J., & Martens, R. L. (2004). The surplus value of an authentic learning environment. Computers in Human Behavior, 21, 509–521. Harskamp, E. G. (1988). Rekenmethoden op de proef gesteld [Arithmetic methods put to the test] Groningen, The Netherlands: Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2005). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41, 75–86. Klahr, D., Chen, Z., & Toth, E. E. (2001). Cognitive development and science education: Ships that pass in the night or beacons of mutual illumination? In S. M. Carver & D. Klahr (Eds.), Cognition and instruction. Twenty-five years of progress (pp. 75–121). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Klahr, D., & Nigam, M. (2004). The equivalence of learning paths in early science instruction: Effects of direct instruction and discovery learning. Psychological Science, 15, 661–667. Kozloff, M. A., LaNunziata, L., Cowardin, J., & Besselieu, F. B. (2000). Direct instruction: Its contributions to high school achievement. Wilmington, NC: University of North Carolina. Kuyper, H., & Van der Werf, M. P. C. (2005). VOCL’99-3: Prestaties en opvattingen van leerlingen in de derde klas van het voortgezet onderwijs [VOCL’99-3: Achievements and opinions of students in the third grade of secondary education]. Groningen, The Netherlands: GION. Kuyper, H., & Van der Werf, M. P. C. (2007). De resultaten van VOCL’89, VOCL’93 en VOCL’99: Vergelijkende analyses van prestaties en rendement [The results of VOCL’89, VOCL’93 and VOCL’99: Comparative analyses of achievement and attainment]. Groningen, The Netherlands: GION.

Teaching and Learning in Schools in Europe    243 Marks, H. M. (2000). Student engagement in instructional activity: Patterns in the elementary, middle, and high school years. American Educational Research Journal, 37, 153–184. Matthews, W. J. (2003). Constructivism in the classroom: Epistemology, history, and empirical evidence. Teacher Education Quarterly, 30(3), 51–64. Mayer, R. E. (2004). Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? American Psychologist, 59, 14–19. Oonk, G. H. (2004). European integration as a source of innovation in education: A study of the meaning of internationalisation and its results in secondary education in the Netherlands. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs. Prick, L. (2004, October 30). Een wijs alternatief? [A wise alternative?] NRC Handelsblad, p. 45. Roelofs, E., Van der Linden, J., & Erkens, G. (1999). Leren in dialoog. Een discussie over samenwerkend leren in onderwijs en opleiding. In J. van der Linden & E. Roelofs (Eds.), Leren in dialoog: Een discussie over samenwerkend leren in onderwijs en opleiding [Learning in dialogue. A discussion about co-operative learning in education] (pp. 7–34). Groningen, The Netherlands: WoltersNoordhoff. Simon, H. A. (2001). Learning to research about learning. In S. M. Carver & D. Klahr (Eds.), Cognition and instruction. Twenty-five years of progress (pp. 205– 227). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Simons, R. J. (2000). Towards a constructivistic theory of self-directed learning. In G. A. Straka (Ed.), Conceptions of self-directed learning: Theoretical and conceptual considerations (pp. 155–169). Münster, Germany: Waxmann. Simons, R. J., Van der Linden, J., & Duffy, T. (Eds.). (2000). New learning. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic publishers. Slavin, R. E. (1990). Cooperative learning: Theory, research and practice. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Slavin, R. E. (1995). Cooperative learning: Theory, research and practice (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Slavin, R. E. (1996). Research for the future. Research on cooperative learning and achievement: What we know and what we need to know. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 21, 43–69. Stebbins, L. B., St. Pierre, R. G., & Proper, E. C. (1977). Education as experimentation: A planned variation model (Volume IV-A and B). Effects of follow through models. Cambridge, MA: Abt associates. Stebbins, L. B., St. Pierre, R. G., Proper, E. C., Anderson, R. B., & Cerva, T. R. (1977). Education as experimentation: A planned variation model (Volume IV-A). An evaluation of Follow Through. Cambridge, MA: Abt Associates. Stijnen, P. J. J. (2003). Leraar worden: “Under construction”? Over lerarentekorten en afstandsonderwijs voor de opleiding tot leraar [Becoming a teacher: “Under construction”? About shortage of teachers and distance teacher education]. Maastricht, The Netherlands: Shaker. Van der Linden, J., Erkens, G., Schmidt, H., & Renshaw, P. (2000). Collaborative learning. In R. J. Simons, J. van der Linden, & T. Duffy (Eds.), New learning (pp. 37–54). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

244    G. van der WERF Veenman, S., Van Benthum, N., Bootsma, D., Van Dieren, J., & Van der Kemp, N. (2002). Cooperative learning and teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18, 87–103.

Chapter 15

Assessment of EIO Grażyna Czetwertyńska

Documents Constituting the Basis for Evaluation of the Achievements of Schools and Students The basis for evaluation of students’ Europe-oriented skills and attitudes should be created according to clearly determined standards of requirements, which can be employed in both self-evaluation and external evaluation. In the Elos program, there are two documents on the basis of which it is possible to create a consistent system of evaluation and quality control in schools. These are the Elos student portfolio1 and the common framework for Europe competence (CFEC).2 With these two documents, a multilevel system of evaluation of students’ and schools’ activity in the program can be created. CFEC is based on the framework for key competencies in a knowledge-based society, especially “civic competences,” on national guidelines from the Elos countries (regarding European and international orientation/European citizenship education), and on the common European framework of reference for languages (CEFR).3 Only European/international competency aspects have been included, not general (underlying) local/regional/national knowledge, skills, and attitudes. In each case, it is possible to introduce additional requirements related to core curricula that are in force in a given country. The universality of the standards can be helpful in the case of international comparisons, whereas the possibility Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 245–256 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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of adding local requirements will help integrate EIO topics with standard school programs. In this way, it might be possible to meet the Elos program goal of closer integration of European and international topics in local educational programs. The very first draft of the CFEC was developed by the Elos Scientific Committee, and it has been tried out in Elos schools since 2006–2007, with students and teachers who work on specific activities (e.g., in Elos student portfolios), which are relevant to the can-do statements in a given educational context. As a consequence, these students and teachers participate in the creation of new program directions and in the assessment of the quality of teaching in the given field. The CFEC framework specifies Categories 1–6, which means that it is possible to measure the achievements and level of proficiency in standard competences. The categories can also reflect progress over time—subsequent stages of education—or can be considered as points indicating the level of achievements. The description of skills in CFEC is divided into three areas: 1. Knowledge of Europe and the world: I am an informed European citizen who can access, process, and evaluate knowledge relevant to Europe and the wider world, and act upon it. 2. Ability to act and cooperate (also in the international environment): I can collaborate constructively with peers from other countries on a common task or project. 3. Communication skills (knowledge of foreign languages): I can communicate effectively in a European/international setting. The Elos student portfolio applied in the Elos program, modeled after the European language portfolio, consists of three parts: 1. a passport in which students can note their proficiency in what they already know 2. a biography in which students reflect on their own learning progress and record their learning achievements and objectives 3. a dossier in which students keep examples of work they have produced during the project The portfolio may differ in form and structure from student to student. There are forms for students to fill in, but the forms allow for development and modification. In general, a form should contain enough information for the student to reconstruct and describe the steps taken to achieve a given objective, which constitutes reaching higher and higher levels of proficiency on the map of standards.

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To the dossier students may attach: • notes taken in class (complete and in correct order) • work done in school and at home, showing the various steps taken during learning, together with the final versions of each work • comments on what they learned • educational materials, a record of steps taken, work done as part of a larger project, souvenirs from excursions and studio visits, etc. It is worthwhile suggesting to students that they include in their portfolios their own reflections on particular stages of their work. It might be helpful to provide the students with phrases they can use to write out their reactions, such as the opening words of sentences indicating what students feel they have accomplished: • • • • • • • • • • • • •

I learned that . . .  I was able to practice  . . .  The most important thing I learned is that . . .  I understood that . . .  I started wondering whether . . .  I was surprised that . . .  I recalled that . . .  Now I appreciate more . . .  What I liked most was . . .  I promise myself that in future I will . . .  In the future I will always make sure that . . .  I asked myself new questions about . . .  I confirmed my opinions on . . . 

The value of such portfolios, especially if students prepare them carefully and keep careful records of their work and the materials they receive, is that all the interested parties—the students themselves, their parents, and teachers—can see what the student has learned and is able to achieve within EIO, including language skills, as well as what the student needs to work on in the future. Collecting and keeping track of materials is an opportunity for the student to reflect on the work done and to evaluate goals reached. For the teachers, it constitutes an occasion to assess the results of students’ learning and to plan further instruction. At the same time, and equally important, parents have the opportunity to follow the work of the student in a supportive way. They can watch their children progress in the grasp of European and international topics and in language acquisition. They can compare the achievements of their child with the requirements presented in the CFEC.

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The portfolio does not have to be—in fact it should not be—a means of summative assessment, as this would reduce its value as a good tool for selfevaluation and auto-reflection. It should be completed with honesty and consistency: The data inserted by students, together with their notes about the learning process, should point out not only the students’ strong points but also the problems and difficulties they encountered. For learners, the awareness of weak points and failings helps them make the best use of help offered with future work. For teachers, the analysis of students’ portfolios provides a unique insight, based on specific information regarding the level and depth of realisation of the teaching program. Evaluation Pyramid and its Possible Uses The Scientific Committee of the Elos program has proposed a system of evaluation and accreditation of schools participating in the program, called the evaluation pyramid (see Figure 15.1). A similar system can be applied in other large-scale programs, in which the key elements would be self-evaluation and peer assessment, with less emphasis on the certification. To a great extent, such a system is based on the willingness to participate and mutual trust of the participants. The titles and certificates function as awards—they give much satisfaction, but they do not necessarily grant important rights. The basic way to assess the level of achievement is school self-evaluation. It combines students’ individual achievement data (gathered on the basis of students’ portfolios) and the general evaluation of the school conducted on the basis of the analysis of its programs and their methods of realisation,

External visit

Student-research

Peers (panel with other schools)

Obligatory in all Elos schools (all countries)

School self-evaluation

Figure 15.1  Elos evaluation pyramid. Source: Elos Scientific Committee.

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carried out by means of different tools—document analysis, interviews, surveys, and so forth. In the following subsections, I will present examples of types of evaluation of school work within a given field. The results of self-evaluation can constitute the basis for comparison and peer debate with partner schools; this is the basis for peer assessment—the second level of evaluation available for wide application. Both self-evaluation and peer assessment constitute the foundation of the evaluation pyramid. The two remaining levels, forming the top sections of the pyramid, concern procedures that are much more expensive, require precise organisation, and involve the establishment of permanent structures responsible for the certification. These structures need to be permanent in order for them to carry out continuous assessment and keep a register of schools that have received the certificate for verification and renewal of titles awarded previously. The additional segment of the pyramid described as “Student Research” requires constant cooperation with institutions of higher education. More precisely, it requires engaging these institutions as project partners in all countries participating in the program. On the top of the pyramid, we find the visits of external auditors, if possible in international teams, who would examine the level of realisation of adopted standards. There should also be an active program council, responsible for analysis of the results, improvement of the tools of assessment, and updating of standards for the work required. Instead of creating an organized network of schools, it is obviously also possible to assume that the research and school assessment is a single event for scientific purposes. The results, comparisons, descriptions of good practices, and assessment of schools obtained in this way could afterwards be used to create systems of support, educational programs, and methodological tools. However, if this strategy is chosen, it will mean abandoning the idea of a common program or international association of schools promoting shared values and working toward common goals within European and international education. Self-Evaluation and Assessment by Peers—Compulsory Elements of the Assessment of the School As already stated, the most important things in ensuring quality in the teaching process are self-evaluation and peer assessment. This is because they are obligatory and applied to everyone, but also because they are widely appreciated. The prime mover in this form of assessment is an emphasis on the autonomy of the school, the responsibility of the school’s community for the efficiency of all school activities, and consistency and reliability in fulfilling duties. Responsibility, strong motivation to work, and conviction

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of the importance of school tasks within EIO can be expected if schools join the program voluntarily (on the initiative of students, teachers, and parents) and recognize the need for an assessment of their work. The reliability of assessment increases when competition among schools gives way to strengthening cooperation among schools, the building of a system of support, and exchange of experiences. In this case, schools become more satisfied in that they obtain educational value added and are able to provide useful help to other schools. This forms a much stronger motivation than the kudos of being ranked higher than other educational institutions in the race for awards. This is confirmed by teachers taking part in the Learning School Program (LSP),4 organized in Poland by the Centrum Edukacji Obywatelskiej, the Center for Citizenship Education (CCE)5 over the last few years, in which peer assessment and self-evaluation are practically the only techniques applied, using criteria established in advance. While applying the two bottom levels of the evaluation pyramid, the following principles need to be respected: • Cooperation within teacher and student teams: Because of the subject matter and the kind of skills to be developed, it is extremely important to teach through action; building responsibility and developing civic attitudes in students requires close student–teacher cooperation. Applying the methods of self-evaluation in schools favors or even requires collaboration of this kind. • Setting measurable and realistic educational objectives (e.g., according to the Elos framework): It is also important that school goals are achievable and measurable. In self-evaluation, it is crucial to describe precisely what the student should know and be able to do— not only the content of the education, which tools are employed, and which methods applied. • Monitoring the work of teachers: In order to assess teachers’ work, it is worth using the system of open classes, into which peers are invited, as well as in-school presentations of good practices, discussions within teacher task teams, and meetings in the so-called Critical Friends Groups. A Critical Friends Group (CFG) brings together 6 to 10 teachers within a school, to help each other look seriously at their own classroom practice and make changes in it. They work out strategies to move students toward these goals and collect evidence on how those strategies are working. In a structured setting of mutual support and honest critical feedback from trusted peers, they then work to adapt and revise their goals and strategies. CFG members bring to the table student work, teacher lessons and units, case studies of students, classroom dilemmas,

Assessment of EIO    251 etc. Using structures called protocols, CFG members help each other “tune” their practice by analyzing these artefacts and issues.6

•

•

•

•

The CFG method of work has been successfully employed in CCE programs, because they require the conducting of peer assessments, giving feedback and improving teacher teamwork. It is the regularity of meetings and their careful and precise planning that contributes most successfully to CFG efficiency. Monitoring of students’ results (e.g., through the Elos portfolio): Students themselves record their activity in portfolios/passports/ credit books. According to the instructions presented in language understandable to them, they gather “evidence” for progress on the way to achieving their goals. Reflecting on school practice (e.g., using the Elos portfolio): Internal reflection by all the parties interested in school events—from students and teachers to parents, bodies managing the school and bodies responsible for controlling the quality of work—regarding school practices within EIO can be much more efficient if conducted with the use of tools allowing for cooperation and discussion in representative teams. Merely collecting data and analyzing it does not necessarily suffice. Creation of a school community: The practice of common discussions and reflections on the functioning of the school and inviting to it all interested parties increases awareness of the meaning of this education field and is fundamental for increasing a sense of shared responsibility for the school. The next step would be an increased readiness to participate in various educational events and the feeling of community with other learners, teachers, friends, and school supporters. Cooperation among schools: A school that is constantly monitoring its own programs and conducts self-evaluations also needs the opportunity to compare its results with others in order to assess applied methods and their efficiency, to widen the educational offerings and to improve organisational solutions. This can be realized through cooperation with partner schools, which, in an atmosphere of mutual trust and readiness to help, would agree to carry out peer assessment.

Apart from obvious benefits resulting from well-organized and consistently applied self-evaluation and peer assessment, such as an increase in the level of education in the given field, remarkable improvement of educational results, successes of students and schools, it is also true that the internal and external conditions of the school’s functioning also improve significantly.

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Thanks to self-evaluation and peer assessment, we can achieve the following goals: • increase the autonomy of the school, as well as of the teacher and the student, allowing them to assume responsibility for efficiency and quality • create and sustain a network of schools that implement EIO (Elos) standards • promote Elos standards for schools • help teachers, students, parents, and communities cooperate in school development. The conclusions from the LSP program, the objective of which was to strengthen and improve self-evaluation of schools and peer assessment, list the most important benefits of participating in the program, considered as its basic effects (Mazurkiewicz & Fischer, 2005): • • • •

communication—improvement of communication and promotion development—creative use of human capital awareness—responsibility for quality of processes change of values—parents and students might be partners

Thanks to the principles of cooperation and assessment adopted in the program, all the schools profited from it. A change of values influencing school communities occurred, the awareness of school needs increased, progress in organisational functioning of school was noted, school programs were modified, and educational outcomes and quality of student work improved. In Poland, teachers participating in the large-scale School with Class program,7 conducted via the Internet, also gave evidence for the importance of cooperation and peer assessment, which constitutes an opportunity to develop professionally and to gain satisfaction from one’s own successes as well as from one’s partner’s successes. Although, at first, teachers were rather reserved (even skeptical), with time they more and more eagerly joined the program, which required from the participants open and systematic cooperation with schools and teachers from different schools, evaluating achievements, reviewing scenarios of lessons and educational projects, evaluating plans, methods, and ways of their application, and finally evaluating methods of students’ achievement assessment. Asked about the drawbacks of this kind of cooperation and their concerns about the program, teachers mentioned their unwillingness to share their professional secrets with others and concerns about others using their materials without quoting authors’ names. According to them, it was not

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just that one teacher had to work hard spending his or her time on developing and implementing a new method while others could just use his ready materials. Some admitted they didn’t like being constantly under the pressure of assessment, especially that they were not sure if they would be understood correctly. They were reluctant to be critically evaluated, especially if the assessor had a shorter professional career and lower academic degree. According to many, peer assessment should not have been published or made available to students’ parents. On the other hand, many were happy to be evaluated by professionals— peers doing similar jobs in similar conditions. Also new relationships, with a good influence on professional development, were built. Teachers also appreciated the fact that the right to assess and to be assessed in such a system was proof of trust in them and of respect for their work. Listing similar factors favoring self-evaluation and those that make it more difficult, John Macbeath8 called them “nutrients” and “toxins,” respectively. The process of self-evaluation of a school depends mostly on their proportion. Many teachers stressed that writing an opinion of a colleague’s work is even more difficult than being assessed by peers. In order to make the assessment easier, special training sessions were organized through the Program’s web pages. Here, the teachers could also access manuals and guidelines. All schools had access to assessment criteria—special brochures, posters, and guides were available on the Internet (www.szkolazklasa.pl). In the case of a program like Elos, the procedure of internal self-evaluation can look as follows: 1. Introductory self-evaluation and reflection—the school compares its programs, ethos, climate, management, and development with Elos program materials. 2. The school recognizes its strong and weak sides, chooses priorities, and creates individual, operational objectives. 3. The school appoints task teams—groups of teachers and/or students appointed to single tasks. For example: how to organize school exchange or how to help students to evolve abilities of effective communication in the European setting. 4. Teams create indexes of goal achievement level. They design valid and reliable evaluative tools. They prepare detailed plans of action. 5. They act. 6. They summarize their actions by inviting partner schools for a discussion on their achievements. 7. Go back to point 2.

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The school self-evaluation team should be ready to conduct assessment; its members become leaders of assessment, so all team members should have appropriate knowledge and skills to fulfill the following tasks: • design tools • create indexes • provide information and counseling for the school community (teachers, parents, pupils, administration) • monitor action and implementation of evaluation tools • prepare reports for everyone interested, including schools invited for peer assessment. Guidance for Self-Assessment Guidance for self-assessment can be divided into three levels arranging standards and indexes (Birzea, Cecchini, Harrison, Krek, & Spajic-Vrkas, 2005): 1. curriculum 2. the spirit of the school and educational atmosphere 3. management and development For example, at the curriculum level (1) we can design the following indicator: Is there evidence of an adequate place for Elos in the school’s goals, policies, and curriculum? Within this indicator, we can define the following: • The school has a clear and well-articulated statement of its policy for the development of education for democratic citizenship. • A plan exists for putting this statement into practice. The content of the school’s curriculum covers all the areas of knowledge, skills, and values set out in the Elos framework.If it is possible for peer assessment to be conducted not virtually but through direct contact, it will be worthwhile to finalize the process of assessment by a peer panel. A peer panel as a form of assessment is composed of the following steps: • exchange of documents useful for the evaluation of the realisation of the program by the schools • assessment and feedback on the analyzed documentation • preparation of a group of panel members to visit the partner school

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• visit at school; shadowing (observations in classrooms); talking to students, teachers, parents, and school administration • a panel discussion and conclusions of the assessment The representatives of all the interested groups (teachers, parents, students, governmental and educational bodies) and the assessors from the partner establishment take part in the discussion. This discussion concerns the analyzed fields, problems that the school encounters in a given area, applied solutions, and obtained results. A panel is also a good occasion to present future development plans for the school. The research project of the Socrates program “Assessment of the Quality of School Education,” in which 101 schools from 18 countries took part, also confirmed that in all the participating schools, thanks to the use of self-evaluation tools (MacBeath, Schratz, Meuret, & Jakobsen, 2000/2003), positive changes were observed. If we care to improve the functioning of schools, especially as far as EIO is concerned, we should definitely appreciate the important role of selfevaluation. In the case of this field, it is crucial to show to the students correct attitudes and create an appropriate climate for change, in order to build the culture of the schools. Such processes will not begin if we rely mainly on a system of orders and external auditing. If we want to teach the students constructive cooperation, independence, and reliability in action, all these qualities should be present in the school environment, and the students should learn thanks to the good examples of fruitful cooperation among the adults, who autonomously choose to work for the necessity of professional development. Notes 1. The portfolio and the guidelines for its application can be found on the Elos program web page: http://www.europelearning.info/press_kit.php 2. The Elos Scientific Committee, Common Framework for Europe Competence can be accessed here: http://www.europelearning.info/files/news/2009_10_29_ 09_49_37_CommonCFECseptember2008NW.doc 3. Council of Europe, Common European Framework for Languages, http://www. coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Framework_EN.pdf 4. A network of schools that the CCE supports in their efforts to incorporate quality assessment systems. Quality assessment requires that the school focuses on: teacher teamwork, goal development, and monitoring progress, and an aware organisational, didactic, and educational practice. 5. Established in 1994, the CCE is a non-governmental educational organisation. The CCE promotes civic knowledge, practical skills, and attitudes that are necessary in the building of a democratic state founded on the rule of law

256    G. CZETWERTYŃSKA and civil society. The CCE also operates a non-profit teacher-training institute registered by the Ministry of Education in Poland. 6. See The Coalition of Essential Schools, The Annenberg Institute, http:// www.cesnorthwest.org/cfg.php 7. The School with Class program requires that participating schools attempt to implement such principles as: providing every student with a good education, guaranteeing fair assessment, developing thinking skills and helping to understand the world, promoting a social orientation, helping students believe in themselves, preparing young people for the future. Over 5,000 schools have been awarded the title of “A School with Class.” The program has sponsored such projects as the “School with Class Academy,” “Lego, Cogito, Ago,” and “Teacher with Class.” It is run by the CCE in cooperation with the biggest Polish newspaper, Gazeta Wyborcza (Czetwertyńska, in press). 8. Presentation by John MacBeath for teachers and LSP program leaders, in Warsaw, Poland, 2001.

References Birzea, C., Cecchini, M., Harrison, C., Krek, J., & Spajic-Vrkas, V. (2005). Tool for quality assurance of education for democratic citizenship in schools. Paris, France: UNESCO. Czetwertyńska, G., (in press). Akcja społeczna “Szkoła z klasą” jako strategia zmiany szkoły polskiej. Plany, oczekiwania, reakcje [Social campaign “School with Class” as a strategy for changing Polish school. Plans, hopes, reactions]. Warsaw, Poland: University of Warsaw, Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies “Artes Liberales.” MacBeath, J., Schratz, M., Meuret, D., & Jakobsen, L. (2003). Czy nasza szkoła jest dobra? [Self-evaluation in European schools] (K. Kruszewski, Introduction & Trans.). Warsaw, Poland: Wydawnictwa Szkolne I Pedagogiczne. (Original work published 2000) Mazurkiewicz G., & Fischer J. M. (2005, September). Learning school: An evaluation study of a democratic school reform in Poland. Paper presented at the European Educational Research Association Conference, Dublin, Ireland.

Chapter 16

The Theoretical Basis of a European and International Orientation in Education Conclusions and Recommendations Greetje van der Werf and Henk Oonk

Introduction In Part B of the book, several theoretical issues regarding the European and international orientation (EIO) in secondary education were discussed. The aim of this section was to provide the building blocks for the theoretical basis of EIO. Two main questions were raised in this section. Firstly, the question of which knowledge elements, skills, and views with respect to the European integration process and other international developments should be given a place in the curriculum? And, related to this question, in which way could the Europe competence concept be given shape by integrating the European and international orientation and the acquisition of foreign language skills into a framework? The second leading question addressed Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 257–267 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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the issue of suitable instruction forms for introducing the European and international orientation into teaching practices and useful forms of evaluation. One might also say that the first question pertained to the “what” of EIO, while the second regards the “how.” Considering the “what” issues of EIO, the chapter by Oonk (see Chapter 12) focuses on the knowledge, skills, and attitudes, including language skills, that could be the core of a common European framework for EIO. The chapter by Heyworth (see Chapter 13), in which the common European framework for references of language is discussed, elaborates in particular upon common language skills as being part of EIO. The chapter by Holówka (see Chapter 11) takes a different point of view by discussing the (impossibility of) common European values. All together, the three chapters shed some light on the suitable content of EIO, the issues that are commonly agreed upon, and the issues that remain problematic. In the chapters by Van der Werf (Chapter 14) and by Czetwertyńska (Chapter 15), two “how” questions are discussed, focusing on teaching and learning and the assessment of EIO, respectively. Comparison between the theoretical perspectives in both chapters shows some commonalities but also some differences between both authors with respect to how they prefer to concretely organize EIO in the school and teaching practice. In the current chapter, we have tried to bring together the common and different perspectives on respectively the “what” and “how” of EIO. Moreover, we will draw some conclusions about how to connect the “what” and “how,” because we believe that the success of EIO in schools is highly dependent on the fit between the content and processes of teaching. As regards the “how” of EIO, we comment upon the constructivist teaching approach, which is quite common among scholars in the field. We, however, are more in favor of the instructivist teaching approach, which fits closely with the view of developing a curriculum framework for the EIO content (the “what” of EIO). Nevertheless, as we will argue in the final section of this chapter, we see some opportunities to connect both teaching approaches towards realizing a somewhat more synergetic view. The “What” of EIO When looking at the general scope of EIO in relation to the theoretical views of Holówka (see Chapter 11) and Oonk (see Chapter 12), one conclusion is immediately clear. Although EIO is considered as a contribution to European citizenship, it is not meant to establish a European identity at the cost of a national or cultural identity. Holówka states that this is fundamentally impossible, because Europeans are, thanks to their history, sensitized to two different lifestyles: communal Gemuetlichkeit and abstract citizenship. By

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now, they have almost learned that a compromise between these two styles is impossible. A fortiori, the dilemma between “groupism” and liberalism is irresolvable too. It can only be minimized, and it will be minimized if politics is separated from culture; politics is responsible for ensuring peace and stability, while culture provides individuals with a sense of life and opportunities for development. Within this framework, the dual identity of Europeans will not be eliminated but in fact enhanced. Everyone should feel free to start his or her life anew in a different setting and with different prospects. Local identities should be cultivated, but no one should be obligated to retain the identity with which he or she was born. Neither politics nor culture should decide when individuals are interchangeable. It is up to them to make such decisions. According to Holówka (see Chapter 11), the values traditionally cherished in Europe are not threatened by these assumptions. Eclecticism, rationality, human rights, aristocratic mythology mediated by democratic obligations, and impatience against arrogance that ends in a revolution all remain intact. These are important ingredients of European history and safeguard against new faults in the future. Finally, even the experience gained from trying to solve irresolvable dilemmas is not in itself a bad thing in Europe. It helps to see the complication of things. And this is a vital skill in any culture. Oonk (see Chapter 12) considers the concept of EIO as more neutral than the concept of European citizenship. He defines EIO as follows: “European and international orientation for a school or training institute and for pupils and students refers to all of the educational activities that are intended to provide specific knowledge, insight and skills with regard to European and international developments.” He considers it as more neutral because it provides a better basis for dealing with the European and international developments within the schools. Moreover, he states that European citizenship education is only possible if an acceptable combination of national and European elements can be found. This view is in line with his earlier hypothesis on national identity and European commonality: Within the European Union there is a constant search for the right balance between the need to maintain national identity on the one hand and the improvement of European cooperation on the other. These are the two poles that alternately repel and attract each other both in politics and in education. (Oonk, 2007, p. 144)

In line with Holówka’s view, however, the concept of European citizenship might go beyond the focus on national issues, because it stimulates students to think about differences in norms and values between European countries, which might develop a basis for a better understanding of cultural differences between people of different origins. Moreover, the concept

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of European citizenship offers possibilities to find out what unites people in Europe with respect to common opinions and experiences. For this reason, European citizenship is not necessarily contradictive to the attention of education to national values and norms. It might even be a useful addition (see also Maslowski, Naaijer, Oonk, & Van der Werf, Chapter 17). European citizenship might be the common element in EIO for developing a European identity, while the national culture offers possibilities for individual identity development. Risse (2005) states that stimulating a European identity does not imply that youngsters are going to identify less with their own country or local community. On the contrary, according to Citrin and Sides (2004), youngsters who identify themselves more with their local, regional, or national community also feel more attached to Europe. However, it remains to be seen whether this is true for all categories of young people. It might be true for those with a higher level of education, but we also know that lower social status groups are less enthusiastic about Europe, while at the same time emphasizing more their own national identity. For the time being, a European identity combined with individual or group identity seems to be reserved for the elite youth of Europe. However, we believe that EIO activities in schools might change this. This brings us to the common framework of EIO. In the EIO framework, a clear distinction has been made between knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors. Knowledge and skills seems to be a necessary condition for developing attitudes and behaviours. Knowledge about the national history, culture, and values, as well as about the differences and commonalities in history, culture, and values across the countries within Europe, might be considered as requisites to understand different values and identities, and thus to acquire tolerant and democratic attitudes and behaviors towards all citizens of Europe. Knowledge of and skills in other languages could also be considered necessary. The framework is a first attempt to organize the knowledge and skills, including language skills, that are necessary to acquire such attitudes and behaviors across different levels of competence. The framework assumes that this knowledge and these skills are both acquired in particular domain-specific subjects such as history, geography, or foreign languages, as well as in school-based internationalisation programs. Moreover, it assumes that the required knowledge and skills cannot only be acquired within school and classrooms. They also, even more importantly, should be acquired by exposing students to different cultural norms and values in real life, by confronting them with peers from different countries and showing them the differences between their own life and the life of their peers in other countries. The idea is that such experiences will not only increase their knowledge and skills, but will also change their attitudes and behavior towards other cultures within Europe and eventually educate them as European citizens.

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However, there is still a long way to go. Looking forward to the chapters in Part C of this book, we already know that internationalisation in schools is more a matter of schools educating the elite youth of Europe rather than a common pressure that all schools feel as necessary for all students, irrespective of their social background or level of education. This is a serious matter, as we know that in particular the lower educated youth, mostly coming from lower educated families, have the least understanding of different cultures, identify the most strongly with their own national culture, and are the most resistant toward the unification of Europe. In this sense, one could say that the statement of Citrin and Sides (2004) that youngsters who identify themselves more with their local, regional, or national community also feel more attached to Europe cannot be said to be true of all types of students. However, this finding might be explained by the fact that the youngsters for whom it is not true have not had the opportunity to get acquainted with other cultures, which seems to be a necessary condition for changing their attitudes. The challenge for the future is to expand the framework further to make it equally suitable and viable for schools that cater more to students in the lower levels or stages of education. Another challenge for the future is to develop the framework to make it appropriate for younger children. We will discuss this in more detail in Chapter 23. Taking all of this into consideration, we might conclude that the common framework for Europe competence (CFEC) is a good first step upon which to build. But a lot of work needs to be done in the future. This will be a long process taking many years, as the development of the common European framework of reference for languages (CEFR) has taught us. This has been a process taking over 40 years, but it has resulted in a series of detailed syllabus specifications, at several different language-learning levels (see Heyworth, Chapter 13). The aim should be to develop the common framework for Europe competence to a similar level of detail. The CEFR offers sufficient points of departure for doing this. Moreover, as Heyworth also notes, the general design of both frameworks is already similar: In both frameworks, a main distinction is made between knowledge, skills, and attitudes. The advantage of this, however, is not only because of similarity with the CEFR, but also because of promoting the effectiveness of EIO in the practice of education. This brings us to the “how” of EIO. The “How” of EIO The question of how EIO should be provided in schools and classrooms pertains to two issues: the way in which EIO should be taught to students and the way in which students’ outcomes should be evaluated. These issues are strongly interrelated because they both rely upon the viewpoint taken

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with respect to teaching and learning. Taking the social-constructivist view, students should learn EIO competences in a context-rich learning environment and preferably in cooperative learning situations. Because the socialconstructivist view assumes that all students construct their own knowledge, they consider the use of standardized or criterion-referenced achievement tests as not appropriate. Alternatively, context-rich evaluation methods should be used—for example, portfolios, practice-based assignments, or group products. Taking the instructivist view, on the other hand, students should learn EIO competences mainly through the strong guidance of a teacher: The teacher determines what and when students should learn, and the content and order of EIO is guided by clear objectives. In line with this view, students should show their competences by completing standardized or criterion-referenced achievement tests. In Chapter 14 by van der Werf, an entirely instructivist view is taken. She assumes that EIO competences could be hierarchically ordered from simple basic knowledge, via higher-order skills to more complex skills like reasoning and problem solving. It is the task of the teacher to ensure that all students acquire the necessary basic and higher-order skills in a systematic order; in this way, it can be assured that all competences being conditional for higher-level skills are attained. This can only be guaranteed when students’ outcomes are regularly tested against the objectives, which are the same for all students. This demands strict, objective, and common evaluation standards and criteria on the basis of which one could decide whether each student has mastered the objectives or not. The chapter regarding assessment, written by Czetwertyńska (Chapter 15), does not show an explicit view on teaching and learning. The main body of the chapter is concerned with the way in which the success of the Elos project has been evaluated. Part of this process consists of an evaluation of students, EIO performance. The main instrument for this performance evaluation is the portfolio assessment, by which students could show their work and could report on what they have learned in the EIO activities. This portfolio assessment procedure is unsurprising because as yet hardly any materials have been developed to assess EIO performance by means of achievement tests. We know that in The Netherlands some tests have been developed, but they have yet to be translated into other languages. Developments in other countries are unknown to us. However, the portfolio procedure is also in line with the social-constructivist approach, of which we have the impression that many people who are involved in EIO projects and activities generally share. If this impression is true, we would like to highlight the risk that EIO may never become successful in terms of high-level acquirement of EIO competences of all students in Europe. Moreover, we are afraid that EIO will remain an affair for mainly the elite youth. In order to avoid these risks, we would like to propose some ideas by which the instructivist and

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social-constructivist views on teaching and learning could be connected. We believe that EIO offers a strong opportunity to resolve the controversies between both views. Moreover, we think that the common framework for Europe competence might serve as a bridging tool, provided that it can be developed into more specific guidelines and can be adapted to younger and lower-level students. Towards a Synergetic View on EIO Van der Werf (Chapter 14) is strongly opposed to the constructivist teaching approach. One could now ask whether this is not a conservative view of education. Our reply to this is that in particular the political progressives should resist against the so-called progressive educational concepts that are based on neoliberal, consumer-like ideas about society and on a false view of human beings. Such concepts are conservative because they can result in the failure of education and larger social inequity. Hirsch (2005) argues that the only way to attain more social equity is to adopt a conservative view of education or, better said, maintaining instructivism. Neoliberal education maintains the social status quo, while instructivism is the only method by which children from disadvantaged families can acquire the knowledge and skills required to enable them to improve their situation (see also Chall, 2000; Matthews, 2003). But in the debates about educational concepts, the so-called progressives put, according to Hirsch (2005), the alternatives unfairly against each other, creating misleading controversies between old and new learning. He mentions, for example, the controversy between traditional and modern. A typical caricature of traditional knowledge-based education is that it emphasizes rehearsal, rote learning, memorisation, testing, grades, and failure. We fully agree with Hirsch that traditional knowledge is still successfully used in every society and that traditional learning content could be taught in a lively and challenging way. We also agree that a lack of traditional knowledge is an important cause of the lack of academic competences among many students. Another controversy that Hirsch (2005) mentions is fragmented versus integrated knowledge. He refers to the depreciation of direct teaching of subjects such as mathematics, spelling, or biology in lessons that are particularly organized for these subjects. Subjects have to be replaced by themes, projects, or learning domains, as we also see in many EIO activities in schools. The consequence is that students do not succeed in learning the most elementary knowledge of the different subjects. The final example that we want to mention is the controversy between boring versus interesting. Hirsch (2005) argues that this argument is used for the neglect of classical subjects, because education should be adapted

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to children’s own experiences. His counterargument is that one forgets that children are by themselves never interested in any learning content whatsoever. A good teacher could make the most boring subject interesting, while a bad teacher could make every subject boring. The progressives who say that classical subjects are boring or irrelevant are anti-intellectual and non-academic. All together, many quasi-progressive assertions about education are, according to Hirsch (2005), oversimplifications, not supported by research and harmful, in general as well as in particular for the less able students. This does not only hold true for the traditional subjects but also for EIO, as Maslowski, Naaijer, Oonk, and Van der Werf show in Chapter 17. Is there an alternative? Yes. It is knowledge-based education within the common framework for Europe competence. In order to improve students’ EIO knowledge and skills and to enhance equal opportunities, schools need a firm, specific, and common core curriculum, by which all students could acquire, step by step, a strong knowledge base (The Core Knowledge Foundation, 2006). It is said that knowledge ages fast, that what students learn today is already outdated by tomorrow. Nevertheless, there exists a body of knowledge that lasts longer and that should be the core of the EIO curriculum. Knowledge builds on knowledge. Students learn new knowledge by building on what they already know. Only EIO education where it is clearly stated which knowledge and skills are necessary in order to participate in every successive grade could be appropriate and fair for all students. For this reason, an EIO core curriculum should exist that has a clear ordering of learning content that should be taught grade by grade. This ordering not only assures that students will be well prepared for each successive grade but also prevents repetition or knowledge gaps. Moreover, the core curriculum should concretely specify the important EIO knowledge and skills in measurable achievement, which makes clear for everybody (teachers, parents, and students themselves) what has to be learned. And, finally, such an EIO curriculum will also guarantee that all students, no matter what their background, are provided with common knowledge upon which they can build during their future life and which they need for participation in the national, European, and global culture. A society without a common, shared knowledge is in the long run doomed to failure. The EIO core curriculum should be explicitly taught, based on the idea that education implies “bringing forward,” to introduce new members into a culture of ideas (e.g., bodies of knowledge), moral principals, and skills, which offer them opportunities to attribute themselves to the culture and to actualize their capacities. Systematic education not only needs a curriculum but instruction as well. Knowledge is organised in systems—literature, history, and so on—and it is the task of teachers to help students acquire this knowledge. The starting point of instructivist education is that almost

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all students are able to learn successfully and that there is something wrong with the instruction if they don’t (Kozloff, LaNunziata, Cowardin, & Besselieu, 2000). By means of instruction, students acquire a higher-level mastery of facts, concepts, strategies, and operations, but also of knowledge about other people’s norms and values, than when they have to discover these by themselves. EIO education will be more effective in the long run if it produces particular knowledge and skills instead of broad, but more superficial knowledge and skills. The last is nowadays the usual approach in EIO education, in which a broad range of knowledge and skills are introduced, while at the same time trying to change attitudes and behaviour. Such an approach does not promote real mastery of knowledge and skills, let alone allowing attitude and behavioral change to occur. In direct instruction, strategic integration within and across topics takes place. The aim is to help students to acquire integrated and detailed knowledge, which in turn provokes new questions and activities. Lessons are designed in such a manner that students get the opportunity to show their understanding as well as their problems. Problem-solving strategies are taught directly. In other words, direct instruction teaches students to think competently. Lessons are followed by independent activities in small groups, in order to make students actively practice their newly acquired knowledge and skills and to make them apply these to new material and situations. Instruction moves slowly from teacherdirected to student-directed. In other words, direct instruction promotes independent and higher-order thinking. Regularly, short tests are taken to evaluate whether all students have achieved the goals and to determine which areas may need additional attention (Kozloff et al., 2000). The question is now whether there still is room for a more constructivist approach to EIO. This is indeed the case. The previous text mainly addressed the knowledge and skills component of EIO. This component also includes knowledge about norms and values of other cultures, as well as knowledge about universal moral principles. It has been argued that this knowledge and skills set has to be transmitted by instruction. However, attitudes, beliefs, and behavior by definition cannot be transmitted by instruction. After all, this would be indoctrination. Students themselves pre-eminently acquire attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors through experiences. Herein lies the power of the constructivist approach within EIO. The knowledge and skills of the core curriculum that are transmitted by instruction should also be applied in new situations, for example, during group assignments or exchange programs. These application activities could be organized in such a way that students are placed outside their own daily school world and are confronted with a diversity of other opinions, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. One may expect that in such “authentic situations” students will reconsider their own views and behaviors when this is appropriate. However, they will only do so if they possess sufficient know-

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ledge and understanding of the background of different views and if they are sufficiently able to compare these with their own beliefs, and to analyze and evaluate them. In turn, they are only able to do this if they have learned the necessary analyzing and evaluating skills, based on the EIO core curriculum and through instruction. In conclusion, we might state that the EIO knowledge and skills must be specified in a hierarchical structured EIO curriculum. This curriculum should also include knowledge other than one’s own norms, values, and beliefs, as well as universal moral principles. Attitude and behavioral change should not be included in the EIO curriculum, but teaching the skills to compare own attitudes and behavior with that of others and to analyze and evaluate these should. EIO knowledge and skills are a necessary, but not a sufficient condition for attitude and behavioral change. Additionally, knowledge and skills should be practiced in authentic situations with a diversity of views. One might expect that students will find it easier to change their attitudes and behavior, if appropriate, based on their experiences in such situations and their evaluations of these than when one tries to transmit EIO-related attitudes and behavior. In short, EIO education should consist of instruction of knowledge and skills by teachers, as well as construction of attitudes and behavior by students. This synergistic view on EIO combines the advantages of direct instruction with those of a more constructivist perspective. One also might characterize this view on EIO as “classic modern”: classic because it emphasizes knowledge and skills that encompass a strong and long-lasting tradition and teaching methods that have proven to be effective, and modern because it also includes knowledge and skills that students need in the modern European society and that are supposed to be acquired by new methods suited to the new generation of European citizens. References Chall, J. S. (2000). The academic achievement challenge: What really works in the classroom? New York: Guilford Press. Citrin, J., & Sides, J. (2004). More than nationals: How identity choice matters in the new Europe. In R. Herrmann, T. Risse, & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Transnational identities: Becoming European in the EU (pp. 161–185). Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield. Hirsch, E. D. (2005). Why traditional education is more progressive. Washington, DC: The American Enterprise Institute. Kozloff, M. A., LaNunziata, L., Cowardin, J., & Besselieu (2000). Direct instruction: Its contributions to high school achievement. Wilmington, NC: University of North Carolina. Matthews, W. J. (2003). Constructivism in the classroom: Epistemology, history, and empirical evidence. Teacher Education Quarterly, 30(3), 51–64.

The Theoretical Basis of a European and International Orientation in Education    267 Oonk, G. H. (2007) Internationalisation in primary and secondary education, a theoretical exploration of policy, implementation, effects and research. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs. Risse, T. (2005). Neofunctionalism, European identity, and the puzzles of European integration. Journal of European Public Policy, 12, 291–309. The Core Knowledge Foundation. (2006). What is core knowledge? www.coreknowledge .org

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Part C Results of Research

This section focuses on research question D, as formulated in the introduction (Chapter 1): D: What is the meaning and what are the effects of internationalisation within schools for secondary education in Europe?

Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, page 269 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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Chapter 17

Implementation and Effects of European and International Orientation at secondary schools in The Netherlands Ralf Maslowski, Harm Naayer, Henk Oonk and Greetje van der Werf

Introduction Since the early 1990s, internationalisation has been a major theme in Dutch educational policy. The Dutch Minister’s white paper Grenzen Verleggen (Widening Horizons)—issued in 1991—proved to be a landmark in the development of internationalisation activities in schools (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap [Ministry of Education, Culture and Science], 1991). The aim of augmenting internationalisation was to enhance the personal and cultural development of pupils as well as pupils’ European awareness (Oonk, 2007). As a result, attainment targets for lower secondary education were adapted to reflect the internationalisation objecInternationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 271–294 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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tives for schools. Moreover, national examination topics for upper secondary education were reformulated. The 1991 white paper also marked the beginning of the first national and bilateral programs such as the pupil exchange program Iku, the study visit program Plato, the neighboring country program Gros, and the program for bilingual education (Oonk, 2007).1 Since then, educational policy has been strengthening its international focus, through stimulating exchange programs between pupils and between teachers across countries, and through stimulating pupils’ learning of foreign-language skills and knowledge of other countries (see, e.g., Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 1997, 1999, 2001). The memorandum Kennis: Geven en Nemen (Knowledge: Give and Take) conveyed the aspiration of secondary schools to work with partner schools in various foreign countries, as well as the desire to increase the subsidized period of exchange activities with foreign schools (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 1999). The Ministry’s 2001 policy memorandum, entitled Onderwijs voor Wereldburgers (Education for World Citizens), emphasized the importance of learning foreign languages and the need for pupils to become familiar with other (European) cultures and important international topics, such as sustainability (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 2001). Internationalisation had to be aligned to intercultural education with special attention paid to immigrant children at school. Also, facilities had to be created for international mobility of pupils in upper secondary school, by which pupils’ self-reliance and intercultural skills could be enhanced. A group of vanguard schools in secondary education (EuroKis group) is mentioned, as is the growing number of schools with bilingual education (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 2001). In anticipation of the Dutch presidency of the European Union in the second half of 2004, the Dutch Minister of Education requested the national Education Council to explore the concept of European citizenship in the context of education. The Council had to further identify programs and good practices in schools that enhance European citizenship and a European identity among pupils. In reaction to the Minister, the Education Council argued that knowledge of Europe has to be considered as part of every pupil’s general education, and therefore recommended that European issues be included in the attainment targets and examination requirements for pupils in secondary education (Onderwijsraad, 2004). The Council further designated that pupils in secondary school should acquire competences that will equip them for future study and work in other European countries, thereby taking up their roles as European citizens. At the same time, pupils should be encouraged to critically examine what happens in the European Union, in particular, regarding European integration. One of the major recommendations of the Council was to develop

Implementation and Effects of European and International Orientation    273

European competences for pupils based on these three goal orientations (Onderwijsraad, 2004). In parallel to the Education Council’s report, Oonk (2004) set out on an identification of internationalisation activities in schools and their effects on pupils’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes towards Europe. A recommendation of his study was to combine a “more traditional classroom approach within the subjects and the interdisciplinary learning areas on the one hand and the internationalisation programmes on the other” (Oonk, 2007, p. 79). Oonk (2004) proposed the concept of European and international orientation (EIO) to incite such an amalgamation of formal subjects with informal extracurricular activities that take place in schools. EIO, in his view, is an umbrella term for all education activities targeting specific knowledge, insight, skills, and attitudes regarding European and international developments. Oonk (2004, 2007) highlighted the importance of the knowledge component, as complementary to international activities for pupils and teachers, which were the main focus in schools until then (see Van der Werf, Chapter 14). European and International Orientation in Elos Schools One of the major structural developments in the enhancement of a European and international orientation in Dutch secondary education was the establishment of a network of Elos schools in 2004.2 In order to become a participant in the network, schools had to meet the following criteria: • Schools need to have previous experience with internationalisation. • Schools are making a deliberate choice, involving teachers as well as the school administration, for a European orientation of the school. • Schools need to be in contact with partner schools who also have the intention to observe and promote internationalisation within their school (or were willing to engage in partnerships with new schools with these intentions). • Schools are willing to invest their own (financial) resources for the whole period of the project. • Schools are willing to offer opportunities for teachers to engage in in-service training and to participate in a network of Elos schools to share their practices and experiences. Elos schools aim to prepare pupils for their roles as European citizens, especially their future study and work in Europe (see Oonk & Maslowski, Chapter 1). For that purpose, Elos schools subscribe to a European-ori-

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ented curriculum, which is taught in school and forms the basis for the international activities that are being developed. Guidance for the development of the curriculum can be found in the common framework for Europe competence (CFEC),3 which defines knowledge, skills, and attitudes that students need to cooperate successfully in an international setting (see Oonk, Chapter 12). The framework is based on the European key competences as identified in the Lisbon Strategy of the European Ministers of Education. These competences are translated into concrete indicators for a “Europe competence,” organized in three components. The first component of this framework reflects to what degree the pupil is “an informed European citizen who can access, process and evaluate knowledge relevant to Europe and the wider world, and act upon it” (EIO-1 domain). This domain consists of cognitive and meta-cognitive skills of pupils regarding various aspects of Europe and European and international institutes. Moreover, it addresses a variety of geographic, historical, civic, and political issues regarding European and international developments. The second component in the CFEC reflects pupils’ competency to “collaborate constructively with peers from other countries on a common task or project” (EIO-2 domain). It addresses pupil attitudes such as showing an interest in, and respect for, others in Europe, a positive attitude towards organizing and taking part in an individual learning period (such as a course or internship) abroad, and whether pupils feel motivated and prepared for future study and work in a European setting. Pupil skills concentrate on, among other issues, the ability to negotiate and act according to a “code of conduct” during exchanges with people abroad, or having the organisational skills necessary for planning and running a face-to-face meeting with pupils from foreign countries. The third component in the common framework for Europe competence centers on the competency of pupils to “communicate effectively in a European and wider international setting” (common European framework of reference for languages, CEFR domain). This domain mainly captures, next to a few attitudinal aspects, the language skills of pupils. Foreign language skills are considered to be important as European and international learning experiences outside the classroom are an important element in Elos. These involve opportunities for pupils to work together with peers from foreign partner schools both online and face to face. Schools that became participants in the Elos network in 2004 were required to implement European and international orientation (EIO) in lower and upper secondary grades, directed towards all pupils in one or more school tracks. This so-called EIO core consists of two components: the integration of EIO in regular lessons and the development of extracurricular EIO activities in and outside school. In addition to the EIO core, three variants were proposed by the Dutch European Platform for

Implementation and Effects of European and International Orientation    275

Education: (1) EIO-Plus, (2) science and technology, and (3) European vocational orientation for pre-vocational pupils. These variants aimed at a deepening of EIO competences for specific groups of pupils. To what degree schools implemented EIO in their schooling, and whether this affects the Europe competency of pupils at school, has been studied with 15 Elos schools. More specifically, the study set about answering the following research questions: 1. To what degree have Elos schools implemented EIO in their curriculum, and to what degree has the common framework for Europe competence guided the implementation efforts of schools? 2. To what degree have pupils at Elos schools developed European and international competences? In the next section the method—in terms of respondents and instruments used in the study—is explained. This is followed by a focus on the implementation of EIO: variants of implementation and the kind of EIO activities employed by schools, as well as the role of the Common Framework for Europe Competence in implementing EIO in school. Next, the effects of EIO on the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of pupils are explored, followed by a discussion of the findings and conclusions. Method Participants Between March and May 2008, pupils, teachers, and coordinators of 15 Elos schools participated in a study on the implementation and effects of EIO in The Netherlands. All so-called “first shift” Elos schools were involved, that is, schools that became part of the Dutch Elos network when it was established in 2004, as well as a small number of other schools that joined the network in later years. In total, 27 Grade 8 and 20 Grade 10–11 classes took part in the study. Questionnaires were distributed among all pupils of these classes, as well as among four teachers teaching in these classes. In total, around 1,150 pupils, 117 teachers, and 14 school coordinators participated. Instruments In the study, six instruments were used to obtain information on pupils’ competences and attitudes regarding European and international orienta-

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tion, and the implementation of European and international orientation at school: (1) a cognitive pupil test, (2) a pupil background questionnaire, (3) a pupil questionnaire regarding their activities and opinions, (4) a language teacher questionnaire, (5) a general teacher questionnaire, and (6) an interview with the Elos coordinator at each school. The cognitive test, the pupil questionnaires, and the language teacher questionnaire were administered to explore the development of pupils’ competences at school, while the general teacher questionnaire and the interview with school coordinators were used as data sources for judging the implementation of EIO at school. The cognitive test was taken by 1,153 pupils. The test, which consisted of 75 items, was based on the common framework for Europe competence (June 2007 version; see Maslowski, Naayer, Oonk, & Van der Werf, 2009). Based on the competences identified in the framework, a number of issues were identified, which were further operationalized into knowledge and skills of pupils. This operationalisation guided the development of items that reflected these various issues, which were subsequently prioritized to be included in the test. After item analysis of the data, 29 items were removed as they did not meet the psychometric criteria set for the test. Cronbach’s alpha for the remaining multiple choice items was .71. Besides the test, pupils were required to complete two questionnaires. The first questionnaire, which was completed by 1,159 pupils, consisted of questions on pupil background, such as age, gender, and their parents’ educational and occupational status. These questions were included in order to allow comparisons between pupils and schools on pupil competences, taking into account the individual background of pupils as well as the composition of the student population at school level. The second pupil questionnaire, which was given to 1,147 pupils, contained various items addressing the attitudes, skills, and behaviors (or behavioral intentions) of pupils. These items reflected pupils’ competency to collaborate constructively with peers from other countries on a common task or project, as delineated in the common framework for Europe competence (EIO-2 domain). Based on an exploratory factor analyses, six scales were identified reflecting EIO skills, attitudes, and behaviors: (1) exchange with pupils from other countries, (2) discussions on international issues with people from other countries, (3) contacting people in other countries, (4) organizing exchange activities, (5) sensitivity for cultural differences between people, and (6) vision regarding one’s own future in an international context. Table 17.1 contains the constructed scales and their items, as well as Cronbach’s alphas for each of the scales. The third domain in the common framework for Europe competence centers, except for a few attitudinal aspects, on the language skills of pupils. To determine these skills, two language teachers for each class reported the skills of individual pupils in their class. Language teachers were requested

Implementation and Effects of European and International Orientation    277 Table 17.1  Pupil Competences on European and International Orientation Scale

Cronbach’s alpha Item

Exchange with pupils from other countries

.82

1. Exchanging information with foreign pupils on issues that are of interest to you 2. Making plans to visit a partner school in a foreign country 3. Visiting a partner school in a foreign country 4. Receiving pupils from a foreign partner school at your school 5. Collaboratively working on a project with foreign pupils (at a place where all pupils involved come together)

Discussions on international issues with people from other countries

.61

1. Actively participating in debates and discussions on European and other international issues, together with people from foreign countries 2. Exchanging opinions on European and international issues with pupils from foreign countries

Contacting people in other countries

.75

1. Introducing myself to foreign pupils with whom I have contact 2. Telling foreign pupils about my hobbies 3. Using chatrooms, forums or search engines on the internet to make contact with people from foreign countries

Organising exchange activities

.82

1. Organising meetings with foreign pupils to discuss exchanges 2. Active participation in a new project with pupils from foreign countries 3. Co-ordinating and managing businesses for an international activity at our school 4. Solving problems which might occur in cooperation with foreign pupils or teachers

Sensitivity for cultural differences between people

.73

1. I have respect for people from other European countries 2. I know that the behaviour of people from other cultures may stem from values and norms which are different from mine

Vision on own future in an international context

.83

1. It sounds interesting to me to attend classes or lessons in foreign countries 2. I would like to receive future training in another European country 3. It sounds interesting to me to work in the future with my training in another European country

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to rate pupil language skills according to the classification of the common European framework of reference for languages (CEFR; Council of Europe, 2001). For each pupil, an evaluation was obtained regarding English language skills and the pupil’s skills in one of the other foreign languages taught at school—either German or French. In total, 22 English language teachers, providing data for 523 pupils (44% of all pupils), and 22 German or French language teachers, providing data for 555 pupils (47% of all pupils), participated in the study. As well as language teachers, the study involved two other teachers per class. In total, 43 teachers in lower secondary education (80%) and 30 teachers in upper secondary education (68%) completed the general teacher questionnaire. The intention of the questionnaire was to identify aims of European and international orientation in school, the integration of these activities in the school curriculum, whether European and international orientation is assessed at school, and which pupil activities are employed in school. Based on the teacher questionnaire, information was gathered on the implementation of European and international orientation in practice. Teacher data were combined with qualitative information from the school coordinators on the implementation of European and international orientation in their school. Besides the various activities employed in school and the number of pupils and school tracks involved in European and international orientation, school coordinators asked for support from teachers, school management, and parents in implementing EIO at their school. For this purpose, a semi-structured interview was developed containing specific questions on the aforementioned issues. Implementation of EIO at Elos Schools Degree of Implementation In August 2004, 14 schools became participant in the Elos network. These schools were required to implement European and international orientation (EIO) in lower and upper secondary grades. Participating schools were granted autonomy in designing the EIO curriculum for their school. Based on this freedom, schools made choices regarding the locations, school tracks, and grades in which EIO was implemented, to what degree various EIO components were implemented, and regarding the pace of implementation. Although schools differ in their organisation and implementation of EIO, three main types can nevertheless be identified: • Schoolwide implementation of EIO: Pupils in all tracks and grades within school are involved in EIO activities, or the school has con-

Implementation and Effects of European and International Orientation    279

crete plans to broaden EIO to all tracks and grades within a shortterm period. • Track-specific implementation of EIO: EIO has been implemented in only one or two school tracks, while EIO is not implemented in other school tracks. Usually, these schools implement EIO in preuniversity classes or in both senior general secondary education and pre-university classes. Implementation of EIO is often based on existing internationalisation activities in these respective tracks, which have been broadened and formalized for the participating grades and tracks. • Grade-specific implementation or implementation of a specialized education program: Schools deliberately implemented EIO only in one or a few grades. This usually concerns (upper) grades in preuniversity education. A special case is the development of a specialized trajectory in which pupils may enroll as part of the regular education program. Often, this specialized trajectory is offered only to pupils in pre-university classes. These differences in implementation are rather the result of choices made by schools regarding the way they want to treat EIO in their schools than of different phases of implementation. A third of the schools indicated that implementation of EIO has not yet reached its final stage. In some cases, this implies broadening the implementation process to additional grades or school tracks. In other cases, it refers to a further development of activities and learning materials for the tracks and grades involved in EIO. This latter aspect also applies to some degree to schools that have already fully implemented EIO. The Elos coordinators in these schools reported that they are still constantly developing new materials and activities and piloting, evaluating, and adapting these. In these schools, a constant refining is reported in order to optimize current EIO education. Next to the EIO core, three variants were proposed by the Dutch European Platform for Education: (1) EIO-Plus, (2) science and technology, and (3) European vocational orientation for pre-vocational pupils. EIOPlus was put forward to enhance EIO knowledge and skills of upper secondary pupils in senior general secondary and pre-university education. Many schools adopted this variant to organize study trips to foreign countries for pupils (ranging from 1 to 3 weeks), to offer the opportunity to write the required “profile paper” on a subject related to EIO, to attend (nonlanguage) courses taught in either English or German language, and to arrange advanced ICT projects in which Dutch pupils participate along with pupils from other countries. The science and technology variant was only found at a few Elos schools. It is directed towards pupils in the natural sciences and focuses on Europe-

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an and international aspects of science and technology. In many cases, pupils take part in environmental and energy projects at school. One school, for example, has developed modules on sustainable energy. Pupils study various forms of alternative energy sources, along with pupils from other European countries. At the end of the modules, a conference is organized for pupils from the participating countries where they meet to present their studies. Moreover, a foreign study trip is made during which pupils learn more about sustainable energy. The third variant, European vocational orientation for pre-vocational pupils, is still under development at a few schools. Thus far, the experiences are that it is difficult to address pre-vocational pupils with a meaningful program that serves their interests well. As a result, hardly any programs for vocational orientation have been developed for pre-vocational pupils yet. The Common Framework for Europe Competence The implementation of EIO in Elos schools was hindered in the first year by the lack of a clear description of the EIO subject matter. For that reason, the common framework for Europe competence (CFEC) was developed in which the various competences were described that pupils have to acquire regarding EIO. All schools have adopted this as a basic framework for developing EIO learning materials and EIO activities. The study reveals, however, that the framework is only commonly known by the persons who are actively involved in the Elos network. Many teachers in the schools are not familiar with the framework itself, nor with the opportunities for using the framework to structure learning activities for pupils. The framework specifies competences of pupils in the various grades. In the schools, however, the framework is not used as systematically as it was intended. In many schools, the framework is used as a heuristic device in order to structure already planned activities, rather than as a formal tool to plan activities. Nevertheless, a few schools indicate that they have used the framework to determine which competences are addressed in the regular curriculum. Based on this inventory, themes are added to lessons or activities for pupils. Nearly all school coordinators indicate that they do not aim to cover the whole framework. Rather, they choose aspects of EIO in the CFEC that they consider most relevant for their pupils. A complete implementation of the competences in the framework would put too high a burden on the instructional time and financial resources available for EIO, and would increase the already high workload of teachers in an Elos school. Moreover, a number of teachers and school coordinators criticize the content of the framework. In their view, too much emphasis is placed on formal knowledge instead of skills and understanding.

Implementation and Effects of European and International Orientation    281

Schools value the fact that they are able to adapt the various EIO components. They can develop EIO with subject teachers who are then able to implement it in school and focus on themes and activities that are thought of as relevant for their pupils. On the other hand, this discretion of schools leads to variations in implementation and, as a consequence, to differences in pupils’ competences across schools. One of the main criticisms from Elos coordinators is that the acquired EIO competences are not formally recognized in a diploma. Such a formal recognition would imply a stronger reliance on the CFEC as reference for certification. It is believed that, in its current form, the framework is not suitable for this cause. Certification would mean that a more concrete and more restricted version of the framework has to be developed. Curricular and Extracurricular EIO Activities In order to attain (part of) the competences described in the framework, schools have developed several curricular and extracurricular activities (see Table 17.2). Central to the activities employed by all schools are exchanges between Dutch pupils and pupils from other countries and school partnerships. Although these partnerships vary across schools, in about two thirds of the schools pupils from Grade 9 onwards take part yearly in physical exchange activities. In the other schools, pupil exchanges are normally reserved for Grade 10 and Grade 11 pupils. In general, higher grades show an increase in foreign exchange activities for pupils. Besides physical exchanges and study visits to other countries, schools have integrated EIO into the curriculum. As mentioned previously, this can take the form of integrating aspects of EIO into several existing subjects, creating a separate subject “Europe knowledge” in which components of geography, history, economics, culture, and language are combined or offering a module on Europe to (a specific group of) pupils. Moreover, for a number of subjects the “profile paper” is used to study a European topic. A special form of integrating aspects of EIO into the curriculum concerns language studies. Foreign languages are part of the formal curriculum in secondary schools, but many schools implement EIO through extensions of these language studies. On the increase, not only in Elos schools but in other secondary schools as well, is bilingual education, in which pupils receive part of the subject matter in a foreign language—English in nearly all cases. Moreover, several schools pay extra attention to the language skills of their students by employing language assistants who are native speakers in a foreign language. These assistants actively help pupils to acquire language skills. A stronger concern for foreign languages in lessons is also reflected in the so-called “target language is language of communication” principle: A

282   R. MASLOWSKI et al. Table 17.2  Internationalisation activities at Elos schools School Exchange of knowledge and expertise between school boards partnerships Exchange of knowledge and expertise between teachers Participation in (various) European networks Exchange Exchange with pupils from foreign schools for a short period of time (often activities staying with host families) Attending lessons at a school in a foreign country Writing a “profile paper” (paper for a specialised compulsory component in upper secondary school) abroad Study visits Excursions to European institutions (European Parliament etc.) Visits to political institutions in The Netherlands (like the Dutch Lower and Upper House) Visits to (industrial) companies in foreign countries Europe Europe Knowledge as separate subject (including aspects of geography, history, education economics, culture, and language) “Europe” as integral part of various subjects (cross-curriculum approach) Europe as a module for specific grades “Profile paper” on Europe Compiling an international portfolio (report of all international activities) European energy and environmental projects (e.g., “EU-Energy” of Comenius) Administering pre-exam CertiLingua Language Use of language assistants (native speakers) education Email projects linked to exchanges or international events “target language = language of communication” in English, French, and German Bilingual education in non-language subjects Participation in the European Day of Languages Organisation of a “Language Village” Anglia summer school Lessons non-current languages in Dutch education (Russian, Chinese, Spanish, Italian) World literature projects Political Debating clubs and social Role play conducting “mini” United Nations or European Parliament orientation Projects on citizenship, discrimination, or tolerance ICT projects Email projects with partner schools Design and maintenance of internet pages by pupils Digital portfolio Digital “profile paper” ICT activities through international projects (e.g., Euroschoolsnet2000) Cultural Day of Europe orientation Organisation of a “Holiday Fair” European art history/school subject “Culture and the arts” with a European accent Exchange school orchestras Poetry, theatre, photography, and cinema (with a European accent) Career Projects on applications in an international context/the international labour orientation market Study visits to international corporations Vocational orientation in pre-vocational education Vocational orientation and apprenticeships with companies abroad Social apprenticeships for pupils in upper secondary education

Implementation and Effects of European and International Orientation    283

foreign language is taught using only this language in class. Alongside and sometimes instead of these adaptations of the regular curriculum, schools also enhance language skills by taking part in special events, for example, the European Day of Languages; the organisation of a “language village”; participation in the Anglia Summer School; offering additional lessons in languages like Spanish, Italian, Russian, or Chinese; or by special projects on world literature. Furthermore, schools organize several extracurricular activities around EIO. Examples are participation in the “Day of Europe,” pupil elections for the European Parliament, and role plays on meetings of the United Nations or the European Parliament. In some cases, these extracurricular activities are more general than just focusing on EIO, but in which EIO is nevertheless integrated. Examples of such extracurricular activities are debating clubs for pupils or projects on discrimination and tolerance. Moreover, a number of schools organize extracurricular activities with a cultural orientation, such as poetry, theatre, photography, and movies. This takes several forms, from watching a movie that gives a good view of the daily life of people from another European country to meeting pupils from other European countries in a cultural festival where pupils exhibit their photos or visit each others theatre pieces. Less often, pupils are engaged in activities regarding a European or international career orientation. This may take the form of study visits to international companies, or sometimes even apprenticeships at companies abroad. Effects of EIO on Pupil Competences in Secondary Schools In order to identify to what degree pupils develop EIO knowledge, skills, and attitudes during their school career, pre-university pupils in lower secondary education (Grade 8) were compared to pupils in upper secondary education (Grade 11). Knowledge and Foreign Language Skills For the knowledge of pupils, as measured by means of the achievement test, notable differences were found between pre-university pupils in the various grades (Table 17.3). On average, taking into account pupil background and their home climate, Grade 11 pupils scored 5.07 points higher than Grade 8 pupils. This indicates that Grade 11 pupils answered correctly about five questions more than pupils in Grade 8. On average, the total score for Grade 11 pupils was about 35 correct answers. This resembles a substantial

284   R. MASLOWSKI et al.

difference. Grade 11 pupils, for example, have a considerably better understanding of the meaning of concepts such as democracy and citizenship and have more knowledge of European history, geography, and international declarations, like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Table 17.3  Factors Affecting Pupil Knowledge on EIO and Pupils’ Language Skills in Elos Pre-University Classes English language skills

EIO knowledge

B

(se)



.46 .38 –.02 .00

(.98) (.04) (.11) (.01)

(.63) (1.17) (1.26) (.27)



–.33 –.03 .03 .02

Family structure (reference: two-parent family)   Single parent –.35 (1.23)   Other type of family structure –.43 (.96) Education mother .29 (.42) Education father .36 (.42)



Birth country mother (reference: the Netherlands)   Other European country .80 (1.73)   Other country outside Europe –2.33 (1.56)

Constant Grade Gender (reference: boy) Relative age (compared to others in the same grade) Religious beliefs (reference: none)   Catholic   Protestant   Other belief Practising belief

B

(se)

30.06 1.69 –2.08 –.11

(5.11) (.17) (.52) (.05)

.27 –.65 –3.00 .57

Birth country father (reference: the Netherlands)   Other European country 1.17 (1.78)   Other country outside Europe 4.71 (2.27) Both parents from foreign –4.92 (2.26) countries Number of books at home .02 (.22) Availability facilities   Internet at home   Subscription to newspaper   Reference books Interest mother in social and political issues Interest father in social and political issues

German/French language skills B

(se)



.25 .17 .03 –.02

(.34) (.04) (.10) (.01)

(.14) (.33) (.29) (.06)



–.21 –.12 .64 .11

(.12) (.20) (.31) (.05)

.05 –.06 .08 .07

(.26) (.21) (.10) (.09)



.13 –.04 .04 .11

(.28) (.19) (.08) (.08)

.18 .48

(.42) (.45)

–.81 –.19

(.70) (.32)

–.79 –.10 .05

(.46) (.61) (.66)

.79 .15 –.20

(.31) (.53) (.54)

.06

(.05)

.09

(.05)

–3.21 –1.20 .59 .65

(4.95) (.69) (.90) (.45)

.87 –.25 –.09 .20

(.94) (.15) (.20) (.11)

–.17 .02 –.03

(.13) (.16) (.09)

–.12

(.46)

–.09

(.11)

.07

(.10)

Implementation and Effects of European and International Orientation    285

The first columns in Table 17.3 further reveal that gender, parents’ country of birth, and religious beliefs predict the knowledge pupils acquire in Dutch Elos schools. Girls on average attained a lower score on the EIO test than boys. This difference is rather large. All other factors being equal, girls scored about two fewer correct questions than boys. This difference is comparable in size to the difference of more than one year schooling. Furthermore, relatively older pupils within their grade appear to do worse on the cognitive test. The mean difference is about –.10 for a month in age difference, meaning that a pupil in a certain grade who is ten months younger than his peer in the same grade is expected to have one extra item correct. For the religious beliefs of pupils, no direct relationship with EIO knowledge was found, except for pupils with “other” religious beliefs. This latter category involves students who classify themselves as being religious but do not see themselves primarily as Catholic, Protestant, or Muslim. This group of pupils, who form slightly over 4% of all pupils, on average score considerably lower (nearly 3 items fewer answered correctly) than non-religious pupils. Moreover, independent of their belief, pupils who are actively involved in religious activities on average got a higher score on the cognitive test. This compensates to some degree for the negative effect on the test for students with a non-Catholic, non-Protestant, and non-Muslim belief in comparison to non-religious pupils. A similar phenomenon is found for the pupils’ father’s country of birth. In cases where the father is born outside of Europe,4 the child on average shows a better understanding of civics than his or her Dutch classmates. The group of children to which this applies, however, is relatively small, encompassing less than 4% of the pupils in the sample. Moreover, more than half of the students whose father was born in a non-European country also have a foreign mother. As a relatively large negative effect is found for pupils with both parents coming from a foreign country, for many of these pupils this is likely to “compensate” for the positive effect of the father’s birth country. For pupil language skills in both English (Table 17.3, Column 2) and German or French (Table 17.3, Column 3), Grade 8 and Grade 11 pupils also differ according to their teachers. For Grade 8 pupils, the median is between level A2 and B1 regarding English language skills. This corresponds to an average pupil being able to understand English sentences familiar to the pupil’s direct social environment or being able to deal with most situations likely to arise while traveling in an area where English is spoken. In Grade 11, the median is at B2 level, which indicates that an average Grade 11 student is also able to deal with diverse customary issues in an Englishspeaking environment and is capable of producing a consistent simple text on topics that are familiar or of personal interest to the pupil. For German or French language, the pupils’ foreign language teachers also reported

286   R. MASLOWSKI et al.

a significant difference, but this difference is less impressive in absolute terms. Moreover, the language teachers’ reports indicate that the skills of pupils for German and French language in Elos schools are considerably lower than for English language. In Grade 8, the median lies between A1 and A2 level, while being at the A2 level in Grade 11. This indicates that in Grade 11 a regular pupil is only able to understand sentences and frequently used expressions in German or French that are related to a pupil’s personal and family background or to issues like shopping or local geography. Communication typically involves only simple and routine tasks. This also applies to a number of Grade 8 pupils, while others are still only able to understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases, for example, introducing oneself and asking and answering questions about personal details such as where the pupil lives, people he or she knows, and things he or she has. Controlling for pupil background and the home climate of pupils does not alter these differences between Grade 8 and Grade 11 pupils substantially. For English language skills, Catholic pupils on average appear to have less advantageous language skills than non-religious pupils. A possible explanation would be that Catholic pupils mainly live in the south of The Netherlands, next to the German and Belgium border. On the other hand, this would suggest that the German and French language skills would be better for these students. This is not the case, which indicates that the relatively lower language skills might be caused by other factors. Instead, for pupils’ German or French language skills a positive effect is found for pupils with “other religious beliefs” in comparison to non-religious pupils, as well as for pupils whose father comes from another European country. A small negative effect was found for the relative age of a pupil in comparison to the other pupils in his grade. These various findings, however, show no consistent pattern between the language skills for English and German/ French, nor for language skills and pupils’ knowledge of EIO. Activities, General Skills, and Attitudes Differences in pupil activities, skills, and attitudes in lower and upper secondary school are shown in Table 17.4. The analyses reveal significant effects between Grade 8 and Grade 11 pupils for four of the six scales that were constructed: exchange with pupils from other countries, discussions on international issues with people from other countries, contacting people in other countries, and organising exchange activities. For pupils’ sensitivity for cultural differences between people and pupils’ vision on their own future in an international context, no evidence was found for differences between Grade 8 and Grade 11 pupils.

–.02 .04 .00 .00

Family structure (reference: two-parent family)   Single parent –.05 (.11)   Other type of family structure .07 (.08) Education mother .08 (.04) Education father –.02 (.03)

.53 .04 .00 –.00

B

.07 –.03 .13 –.01

.09 .10 .04 .02

Religious beliefs (reference: none)   Catholic   Protestant   Other belief Practising belief

(.42) (.01) (.04) (.00)

(se)

(.05) (.10) (.11) (.02)

.19 .05 .10 .01



Constant Grade Gender (reference: boy) Relative age (compared to others in the same grade)

B

Exchange with pupils from other countries

(.09) (.06) (.03) (.03)

(.04) (.08) (.09) (.02)

(.34) (.01) (.04) (.00)

(se)

Discussions on international issues with people from other countries







.08 .24 .07 .02

.14 .12 –.01 –.03

2.60 .08 –.06 .00

B

(.16) (.12) (.05) (.05)

(.08) (.14) (.16) (.03)

(.63) (.02) (.06) (.01)

(se)

Contacting people in other countries







–.01 .05 .02 –.01

.10 –.05 .20 .03

2.99 .09 .00 .00

B

(.20) (.14) (.06) (.06)

(.09) (.18) (.20) (.04)

(.78) (.03) (.08) (.01)

(se)

Organising exchange activities







.34 .21 –.02 .05

–.01 .12 .06 .03

.19 .01 .19 –.00

B

(.18) (.13) (.06) (.06)

(.08) (.16) (.17) (.04)

(.69) (.02) (.07) (.01)

(se)

Sensitivity for cultural differences between people







.05 .40 –.03 .06

–.03 –.16 .33 –.04

.46 .04 .28 .00

B

(.26) (.20) (.09) (.08) (continued)

(.13) (.23) (.27) (.06)

(1.03) (.04) (.10) (.01)

(se)

Vision on own future in an international context

Table 17.4  Factors Affecting Pupil Activities, Skills, and Attitudes Regarding EIO in Elos Pre-University Classes

Implementation and Effects of European and International Orientation    287

Availability facilities   Internet at home   Subscription to newspaper   Reference books Interest mother in social and political issues Interest father in social and political issues (.40) (.06) (.07) (.04) (.04)

.59 –.05 .12 .05

–.01

–.06

(.03)

(.33) (.05) (.06) (.03)

(.02)

–.01 .34 –.04 .10 .07

(.12) (.18) (.16)

(.12) (.11)

(se)

–.12 –.28 .20

–.01 .26

Birth country mother (reference: the Netherlands)   Other European country .03 (.14)   Other country outside Europe .09 (.13)

Birth country father (reference: the Netherlands)   Other European country .24 (.14)   Other country outside Europe –.03 (.19) Both parents from foreign .03 (.19) countries Number of books at home .01 (.02)

B

(se)

B

Exchange with pupils from other countries

Discussions on international issues with people from other countries

–.08 –.08 –.07 .04

.00



.03

.22 –.03 .03

.10 .34

B

(.06)

(.61) (.08) (.11) (.06)

(.03)

(.22) (.28) (.28)

(.22) (.20)

(se)

Contacting people in other countries

–.01

–1.42 –.03 .20 .04

.06

–.17 –.77 .28

.23 .46

B

(.07)

(.75) (.10) (.14) (.07)

(.03)

(.27) (.34) (.34)

(.26) (.24)

(se)

Organising exchange activities

2.58 –.16 .05 .09 .05



.00

.10 .48 –.20

–.57 –.11

B

(.06)

(.67) (.09) (.12) (.06)

(.03)

(.24) (.31) (.30)

(.23) (.23)

(se)

Sensitivity for cultural differences between people

1.02 .01 .16 .13 .08



.01

.21 –.49 .13

–.05 –.23

B

(.10)

(.99) (.14) (.18) (.09)

(.05)

(.35) (.46) (.45)

(.35) (.36)

(se)

Vision on own future in an international context

Table 17.4 (continued)  Factors Affecting Pupil Activities, Skills, and Attitudes Regarding EIO in Elos Pre-University Classes

288   R. MASLOWSKI et al.

Implementation and Effects of European and International Orientation    289

Pupils in Grade 11 take considerably more often part in exchange activities. First, as shown in Table 17.5, this concerns a greater percentage of Grade 11 pupils (83%) than Grade 8 pupils (63%) that take part in one or more exchanges. Second, of these pupils involved in exchanges, Grade 11 pupils generally take part in more exchange activities than pupils in lower secondary school. Nearly two of every five pupils in Grade 11 report that they were involved in four or five exchange activities, while the figure is only slightly more than one in every five Grade 8 pupils. When these differences between Grade 8 and Grade 11 pupils are controlled for background and home situation, the difference between these cohorts remain (Table 17.4, first column). With regard to the discussions of pupils on international issues, notable differences between lower and upper secondary school become apparent. Descriptive analyses indicate that about 26% of all Grade 11 pupils in Elos schools participate in these discussions, while this is only true for 12% of the pupils in Grade 8. This difference becomes even more startling for pupils who indicate that they are regularly involved in these discussions. About 15% of Grade 11 pupils report to be involved against only 2% of Grade 8 pupils. Taking account of the background of pupils, this difference between grades does not alter substantially (Table 17.4, second column). A similar conclusion can be drawn on pupil skills in the analyses for contacting people in other countries and organizing exchange activities. Grade 11 pupils in Elos schools have better competences in these areas than pupils in Grade 8 (Table 17.4, third and fourth columns). For contacting foreign people, this is a rather gradual difference between lower and upper secondary school. In absolute terms, the average skill for Grade 8 pupils is 3.12 on a 4-point scale, while it is 3.29 for pupils in Grade 11. With regards to organizing exchange activities, a similar picture emerges. In absolute terms, the average skill for Grade 8 pupils is 2.41 on a 4-point scale, as opposed to 2.62 for pupils in Grade 11. From a relative point of Table 17.5  Number of Exchanges Pre-University Pupils Are Engaged in at Elos Schools Number of pupil exchanges

Grade 8 pre-university education Grade 11 pre-university education

None n (%)

1 n (%)

2 n (%)

3 n (%)

4 n (%)

5 n (%)

133 (37%) 84 (27%)

74 (21%) 33 (10%)

35 (10%) 34 (11%)

38 (11%) 46 (15%)

49 (14%) 62 (20%)

28 (8%) 54 (18%)

290   R. MASLOWSKI et al.

view, therefore, the differences between lower and upper secondary pupils are smaller for their skills than for the activities in which they are involved. When it comes to the attitudes of pupils, no apparent differences are found between pupils in Grade 8 and Grade 11. Pupils in upper secondary school do not show more cultural sensitivity for cultural differences, nor do they on average have a clearer vision on their own future in a European context (Table 17.4, fifth and sixth columns). Relationship Between Knowledge, Activities, Skills, and Attitudes of Pupils Table 17.6 presents correlations between the various EIO competences for pupils in Elos schools. Knowledge on European and international orientation correlates significantly to language skills in German and French and, most strongly, language skills in English. Both these aspects are strongly rooted in the school curriculum. Knowledge of European and international orientation is in part taught in subjects like geography and history. Those aspects, which are not usually taught in the school curriculum, are often connected to subjects in Elos schools. Moreover, English, German, and French languages are also part of the formal secondary school curriculum in The Netherlands. Given this formal obligation to pay attention to these competences in the curriculum, it makes sense that Grade 11 pupils have more advantageous competences in these areas than Grade 8 pupils and that these “formal” competences are related. Pupil knowledge on aspects of European and international orientation is also related, although more weakly, to the attitudes of pupils. More knowledgeable pupils also have a more favorable attitude towards future education or work in other European countries. Further to this, pupils with more knowledge of EIO are more sensitive towards cultural differences between people from different countries. However, no relationship between a pupil’s knowledge and pupil activities and pupil skills were found. Participation in exchanges, taking part in discussion with people from other European countries, being able to contact foreign people, and being able to organize exchange activities are not related to knowledge on EIO. This suggests that the extracurricular activities in Elos schools are relatively loosely coupled to the integration of EIO in the formal curriculum. This is especially true for knowledge of EIO, but not or to a lesser degree to pupils’ language skills in English, German, and French. The relatively high correlations between English-language skills and pupil activities and skills suggest that much of the communication that takes place is in English.

*

p < .05; ** p < .01.

EIO knowledge Exchange with pupils from other countries Discussions on international issues Contacting people in other countries Organising exchange activities Sensitivity for cultural differences between people Vision on own future in an international context English language skills

.06



.06 .41**

Exchange Discussions with pupils on from other international countries issues .07 .25** .26**



Contacting people in other countries

.32** .48**



.03 .32**





Organising exchange activities

.13** .16** .18**



.11** .13**





Sensitivity for cultural differences between people

.38** .34**



.32**

.24**

.08* .29**









Vision on own future in an international context

.13*

.17**



.31**

.17**

.38**

.35** .23**

English language skills











Table 17.6  Correlations Between Pupils’ EIO Competences in Lower Secondary Education

.20**

.19**



–.01

.15**

.14**

.09

.18** .25**













French/ German language skills

Implementation and Effects of European and International Orientation    291

292   R. MASLOWSKI et al.

Conclusion Since August 2004, 14 secondary schools have been implementing European and international orientation in their education. Although many of these schools already employed a variety of school activities on internationalisation, this study indicates that schools have put considerable effort in further implementing an orientation on Europe and internationalisation for their pupils. About one third of the schools indicate that the implementation process has not ended yet. The other schools indicate that they have implemented EIO but are still further improving and refining it. One of the problems in implementing EIO was the lack of a clear conceptual framework at the start. In 2007, the CFEC became available for schools. This has been a great help for schools, but mainly for those persons organizing the EIO activities in school, such as the school coordinators and a small circle of enthusiastic teachers. It only partially reached teachers, and therefore has not yet affected the daily classroom practice of a majority of the teachers. Moreover, the framework can be criticized for its scope. It contains a number of competences that cannot be addressed fully in a few lessons or in a restricted number of activities for pupils. Schools therefore tend to use the framework as a cafeteria model, from which they pick the competences that seem most relevant for the school or which are conceptually coherent with the activities the school is engaged in. As a consequence, the planned hierarchy of the CFEC does not hold in practice. The competences mentioned in the framework do not cluster along lines of grades but rather along lines of types of competences—that is, activities, skills, and attitudes. For part of these competences, namely activities and skills, some differences are observed between Grade 8 and Grade 11 pupils, but these differences cannot be traced back directly to sequential stage in the framework. Sometimes, Grade 8 pupils already have certain skills that they should have in Grade 10 or 11, while missing others that they should already have acquired in Grade 8. As skills are closely connected to the activities pupils employ, one of the main reasons for this phenomenon seems to lie in the extracurricular activities schools organize. Since schools employ (physical) exchange activities more often in upper secondary school, this could explain the differences found between Grade 8 and Grade 11 pupils. This, however, is more often the result of practical considerations than of a systematic organisation of learning activities for pupils. For attitudes, no empirical evidence for a difference between Grade 8 and Grade 11 pupils was reported. This suggests that attitudes of pupils regarding Europe or regarding international issues might be difficult to change in school. This notion is further strengthened by the fact that attitudes are not significantly related to the activities and skills of pupils. This indicates that being involved in certain activities, such as contact with pupils

Implementation and Effects of European and International Orientation    293

from other countries, does not alter the identification or openness of pupils towards Europe. Remarkable, at the same time, is that the knowledge of pupils is not closely related to activities employed by pupils and their achieved general skills. It seems, therefore, that lessons on aspects of EIO are not directly related to the extracurricular activities on EIO in school. Despite this, a clear difference in knowledge is to be observed between Grade 8 and Grade 11 pupils. To some degree, this makes sense, as a number of aspects are part of the formal curriculum taught in school. As some of these aspects are not part of the attainment targets for secondary schools in general, this suggests that Elos schools have an added value for their pupils regarding knowledge on European and international issues. Notes 1. For an elaboration of internationalisation in Dutch education policy, the reader is referred to Chapter 7 in this volume and Oonk (2004, 2007). 2. Elos is an acronym for the Dutch equivalent of “Europe as a Learning Environment in Schools.” 3. The June 2007 version of the Common Framework for Europe Competence was used for the operationalisation of items (see Maslowski, Naayer, Oonk, & Van der Werf, 2009) 4. This includes all non-European countries with exception of Surinam, The Netherlands Antilles, Turkey, and Morocco.

References Council of Europe. (2001). Common European framework of reference for languages: Learning, teaching, assessment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Available from http://culture2.coe.int/portfolio/documents Maslowski, R., Naayer, H., Oonk, G. H., & Van der Werf, M. P. C. (2009). Effecten van internationalisering in het voortgezet onderwijs: Een analyse van de implementatie en effecten van een Europese en internationale oriëntatie [Effects of internationalisation in secondary education: An analysis of the implementation and effects of a European and international orientation]. Groningen, The Netherlands: GION/University of Groningen. Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap. (1991). Grenzen verleggen: Nota internationalisering van het onderwijs [Widening horizons: Memorandum on internationalisation]. Den Haag, The Netherlands: SDU. Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap. (1997). Onbegrensd talent: Internationalisering van onderwijs [Infinite talent: Internationalizing education]. Den Haag, The Netherlands: SDU.

294   R. MASLOWSKI et al. Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap. (1999). Kennis: Geven en nemen: Internationalisering van het onderwijs in Nederland [Knowledge: Give and take: Internationalizing education in The Netherlands]. Den Haag, The Netherlands: SDU. Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap. (2001). Onderwijs voor wereldburgers: Hoofdlijnenbrief internationaal beleid [Education for world citizens: Outline document international policy]. Zoetermeer, The Netherlands: Author. Onderwijsraad. (2004). Onderwijs in Europa: Europees burgerschap [Education in Europe: European citizenship]. Den Haag, The Netherlands: Author. Oonk, G. H. (2004). European integration as a source of innovation in education: A study of the meaning of internationalisation and its results in secondary education in the Netherlands. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs. Oonk, G. H. (2007) Internationalisation in primary and secondary education, a theoretical exploration of policy, implementation, effects and research. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs.

Chapter 18

Elos Development and Integration in a Network of United Kingdom (UK) Schools Mary Rose

Introduction and Impact of Policy In autumn 2005, the launch of the Comenius 3 network with 11 participant countries enabled a UK network of schools to be established. The International Learning and Research Centre was the Elos UK coordinator. The previous year, the official launch of the Elos program in the Autumn of 2004 during the Dutch presidency of the European Union (EU) had provided an opportunity for the International Learning and Research Centre to engage groups of UK secondary headteachers in a consideration of Elos principles and concepts. In promoting the Elos project, the Head of the International Learning and Research Centre worked in partnership with a secondary headteacher who was chair of a southwest consortium of a group of six schools and a further education college. This proved to be a significant strategy. It resulted in three of the consortium’s secondary schools and the further education college subsequently joining the Elos UK network. Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 295–306 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

295

296    M. ROSE

In addition, the secondary headteacher became the English headteacher representative member on the Elos national advisory panel. This initial development indicated the strength of establishing a partnership between a policy leader and a headteacher practitioner leader in order to spearhead a development. It was an important strategy for developing Elos in the UK; the Elos program did not have formal recognition from the Department for Education and Skills (DfES) in 2005 as a national initiative. In the absence of an endorsement as national policy, there was a need to be able to demonstrate the value of Elos at the institutional level in order to promote schools’ commitment and participation in the program. The UK secondary curriculum was subject to a farreaching reform program for 14–19 education. It was therefore essential to communicate the added value that Elos would bring to the curriculum and students’ learning experiences in order to ensure Elos became part of each institution’s policy. Taking account of these national circumstances, the target number of participating secondary schools for the UK Elos network was set at 10. Initially, 15 schools opted to join the network. The largest groupings of schools were in the southeast and southwest of England, with individual institutions in the north of the country and in Scotland. The group of schools in the southeast was drawn into Elos as a result of existing successful Comenius school partnership programs, especially where there were strong Dutch partners. This reflected the influence of the Dutch national initiative which had the full support of the Dutch Minister of Education. The group of schools in the southwest were mainly new recruits and did not all have previous successful Comenius school partnership experience. From the initial 15 schools/colleges opting to join the network, 11 schools/ colleges successfully sustained their membership of the UK Elos network throughout the life of the program (2005–2008). All 11 institutions received the UK Elos award in June 2008 in recognition of their three-year membership of the network. The Elos national advisory panel, in which the British Council played a key role, became the leading strategic group for the development of Elos in the UK. From 2005–2008, membership of the Elos national advisory panel included representation from the British Council, the Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF), the Specialist Schools and Academies Trust (SSAT), the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA), ASDAN, representative secondary headteachers from England and Scotland, and The International Learning and Research Centre (the UK coordinator).

Elos Development and Integration in a Network of United Kingdom Schools    297

Factors Influencing the Development of Elos Concepts in School and College Settings A wealth of data has been gathered and analyzed during the program period, 2005–2008, to support the identification of the drivers and barriers in Elos implementation. These data include institutions’ aims and outcomes, action plans, curriculum plans, surveys and questionnaires, meeting records, seminar records, helpline logs, Elos school profiles, Comenius project applications, and reports. The evidence drawn from the documented data has been triangulated through telephone and face-to-face interviews with Elos participants. It is clear from the analysis that the following areas have been the most significant in achieving Elos outcomes in UK school and college settings:

1. 2. 3. 4.

policy institutional capacity funding external support

These key points will be examined in further detail following the presentation of two case studies where different approaches have been taken to achieving substantial and sustained Elos developments. The first case study features an academy in Scotland. Case Study 1: Trinity Academy, Edinburgh, Scotland Trinity Academy is a comprehensive school for over nine hundred 12–18-year-old students in the city of Edinburgh. The academy, which has held the International School Award since 2004, has a history and tradition of European partnership working. The Elos program built effectively on existing practice. The academy’s European education policy is well developed, and the Elos program forms a large part of this policy. The main aim was to ensure that a whole-school and cross-curricular approach to Elos was established and sustained. The school is recognized in the local authority and in Scotland for its international practice and, as a result, provides in-service training and initial teacher training in the local area and more widely in Scotland. The school has made strong contributions to the Elos UK network through seminars and the sharing of successful practice.

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Critical Success Factors for the Development and Integration of Elos Critical success factors for the development and integration of Elos are: • The strong leadership and commitment of the Rector, who was the Scottish headteacher representative on the UK Elos national advisory panel • Leadership of Elos, its development, monitoring, and evaluation, was the responsibility of a senior leader. • All staff were fully and continually informed about the developing Elos program, and as many teaching staff and support staff as possible were actively involved. • European immersion is a whole school strategy that provides progression throughout the school. This impacts on all students, enabling their active participation. The Elos program is a feature of the school’s Quality Improvement Plan. • The Elos program has been shared with the whole school at all the stages of planning, development, monitoring, and evaluation. • Training has been provided for staff to develop their skills further. • External partnership links have been maximized through the Comenius school partnership program. Much external support has been received from parents, the local community, and employers.

Impact of Elos All pupils look forward to the opportunities that being involved in the European dimension brings. Students appreciate and value the major part it plays in the senior curriculum. Sixty students aged 16–18 years take part in annual work-related learning experiences in Sweden, Germany, and The Netherlands. These student placements add breadth and depth to higher education applications. However, it is recognized that greater funding would enable more staff to be involved in these Elos-related activities. Students are motivated and enthusiastic about European education as a result of the immersion program received. They are keen and willing to consider the opportunities that the European dimension provides in terms of mobility in their student years, travel, and future employment. Students now confidently consider studying abroad, spending a year in Europe and making visits to partnerships established through school-based projects. Students are noticeably more confident and mature with high expectations and a sound understanding of what it means to be a European citizen.

Elos Development and Integration in a Network of United Kingdom Schools    299

Case Study 2: The Grange School, Warmley, Bristol, England The second case study is drawn from a school in the South West of England. The Grange School and Sports College is a comprehensive school for over nine hundred and fifty 11–18-year-olds in East Bristol. The school has a history and strong track record of successful and extensive international partnership work in Europe and beyond. The International School Award has been held since 2006. Critical Success Factors for the development and integration of Elos Critical success factors for the development and integration of Elos are: • strong support and leadership from the headteacher who has a deep interest in internationalism • a core team of Elos key teachers, keen to contribute • support and commitment from other staff, including senior leaders, with international experience • a strategic, long-term approach to embedding Elos competences in curriculum areas involving a number of different school departments in the Elos program • a strong Elos Comenius school partnership project with an effective online communication platform • strategies to engage key staff in the Elos program, with visits to Lithuania and Norway, including heads of sixth form, modern foreign languages, ICT, citizenship, and the school bursar • Elos is integrated as a part of school policy and features in the school improvement plan • good communication strategies have been developed with clear aims for the Elos program, for example, whole school involvement through in-service training, the inclusion of Elos activities and progress in every issue of the school newsletter, and strategies to enable the students to communicate confidently with partner students in unfamiliar languages • participation in a range of contact and dissemination seminars and Elos conferences • building capacity and developing sustainability for the Elos program through a focus on working with younger students in the school • external support from the British Council, local practitioners, and the UK Elos team

300    M. ROSE

Impact of Elos The program has been inclusive, as a result of the long-term curriculum planning strategy and also through involving all students in whole-school assemblies for the development and dissemination of ideas and activities. The weekly after school Elos club, led by the Elos team leader, has been popular and well attended. During the three-year project, at least thirty students have been directly involved in Elos mobility visits, together with 14 staff members. Many students have gained confidence in engaging with international partners, have developed significant intercultural skills, and are keen to host further visits. The parent community has shown enjoyment of the Elos program opportunities and celebratory events, with examples of written evidence of parental appreciation of the Elos program. Sustainable friendships have been developed between students in the different Elos partner countries, and further invitations to both homes and partner countries have been evident—for example, an invitation by the town mayor in one region. Overall, students have developed a noticeably broader outlook in terms of their perception of their place in the world. The impact and benefits of the program at The Grange School have been externally validated through the English inspection process. The school’s Ofsted inspection report in 2007 judged that students “have a good awareness of other cultures. High-profile projects are helping students gain awareness of education and life in other countries” (p. 5) and that “ongoing work with a group of schools overseas has brought opportunities for students to participate in activities not normally available in this country” (p. 7). Analysis and Findings It is clear from the analysis of the development, progress, and sustained participation in the Elos program that no single factor ensured the successful implementation of the program. Rather, four connected influential key factors emerged: policy, institutional capacity, funding, and external support. Policy and Institutional Capacity The significance of national policy in influencing the implementation of Elos was stated at the beginning of this chapter. An overview of progress in each Elos partner country, discussed through collaborative review at regular European partner meetings, clearly indicated the positive impact of support for Elos from national policy leaders. The imperative for institutions to meet the priorities promoted by individual country national educa-

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tion agendas presents a challenge when schools engage in developing additional initiatives that may not, initially, appear to fully meet the national priorities. Support and endorsement for Elos at national policy level was a marked advantage for participating secondary schools, in countries where this pertained. In the absence of official endorsement, as in the case of UK Elos, strategies that gave value, credibility, and profile to the program needed to be found. The role of the UK Elos national advisory panel was pivotal in providing a forum for representatives from a number of the main national agencies to be well informed about Elos and to enable these representatives to provide guidance for steering the UK network. The British Council’s support and facilitation for the national panel was critical in sustaining the leadership role this group fulfilled. In addition, the group provided a reference point for the UK coordination of the network. When the network schools/colleges were required to submit letters of commitment and supporting action plans, it was the Elos national advisory panel members who assessed the submissions and made decisions about the readiness of individual institutions for formal entry to the UK Elos network. Given the 14–19 curriculum reform process, clear exemplification of how the Elos competences could be integrated into the design of the secondary curriculum was essential. Briefings were provided for the Elos lead teachers through the national Elos seminars held in London, and new national materials were worked with and disseminated. For example, when the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) draft framework for personal, learning and thinking skills (PLTS; QCA, 2007) was issued, the UK Elos team conflated the Elos competences with the PLTS framework, thereby enabling added value to be offered to curriculum programs that integrated the revised PLTS framework. As a result of this, it was possible, in schools using the framework, to track students’ progress in the active development of the Elos competences. In these cases, the potential added value of Elos became a reality. Accreditation for students within a nationally recognized framework of qualifications is a significant influencing factor when developing any curriculum program. Currently, student achievement of the Elos competences is not able to be validated within any verified pan-European framework. Ongoing investigations into the possibility of integrating Elos as part of a supplement to EUROPASS may go some way to progressing this. ASDAN, an awarding body for student achievement, was represented on the UK Elos national advisory panel. The ASDAN representative was able to propose an outline program for accreditation of students’ Elos competences. However, despite extensive lobbying, it was not possible to secure the necessary funding to test and develop the program. From the analysis of the UK data, it is clear that endorsement of Elos at national policy level and recognizable accreditation routes for students would have made a positive impact on the

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spread and take up of Elos in the UK. Arguably, this would have resulted in greater numbers of schools and colleges actively participating in the Elos program. It is evident that there were significant differences in these issues across the European Elos partner countries. In terms of policy at school/college level, similar practice across the European network was more evident. Wherever individual country networks and schools had identified clear Elos aims and the potential added value for students’ learning within the Elos program, incorporation into school policy was relatively straightforward. This was frequently evidenced through the school improvement plan. In the majority of cases in the UK, this inclusion ensured that indicators for successful implementation were identified, progress was monitored and measured, and Elos program developments were evaluated within the school/college annual cycle. There is a wealth of research literature that highlights the essential role of clear, committed leadership in the success of any development program. Unsurprisingly, this was evident in the Elos program. From the analysis of both of the case study schools, it is very clear that the support and leadership of the rector1 and the headteacher2 was critical to the success of the program. The case studies offer two different and highly successful models of leadership for Elos. It is also clear that leadership is not the only institutional factor to take account of. At Trinity Academy, the Elos program was led by a member of the senior management team (SMT) with extensive successful experience of European partner working. This leader involved other members of the SMT and as many staff throughout the whole school as possible. At The Grange School, a core team of Elos key teachers was established. In addition to the core team, the Elos lead teacher worked with and was exceptionally well supported by senior leaders with wide experience and commitment to international and European programs. Both of these examples highlight the significance of developing the institutional capacity to implement European programs successfully. Two aspects of this capacity are leadership and the creation of appropriate leadership and management structures. The UK Elos network provided a range of examples of how this had been achieved in different contexts with relative success. A third, more complex aspect, which is central to capacity building, is teacher competence. A starting point for developing teacher competence for Elos was with the defined Elos competences. It was understood within the network that teachers would need to be able to demonstrate competence in the key identified areas in order to develop the competence framework within the students’ curriculum. In addition, in supporting the UK network it was helpful for the UK Elos team to refer to the ten key international competences defined by Beernaert (2003). Staff who demonstrated best practice within the UK network were those who understood

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and demonstrated successful experience of European partner working; respected protocols; displayed excellent planning, preparation, and evaluative skills; had strong interpersonal skills; and had well-developed intercultural understanding. Together with these attributes, an intellectual and emotional commitment to European partner working was evident. The two case study schools showed the way in which senior leaders modeled these competences and nurtured the growth of these areas with less internationally experienced teachers, thereby enabling a critical mass of staff to be engaged successfully in internationalism. In the absence of funding in the UK to implement professional training for the Elos network, the responsibility for the development of this essential area of professional learning resided at institutional level. This served to stress the importance of selecting the most appropriate staff to lead Elos; either those staff with demonstrable excellent track records or those staff with clear potential who, with support, would develop the essential competence set. In addition to the competences identified in the previous paragraph, the most successful staff displayed a passion and commitment for European partnership working. Teacher competence at this high level develops over time as the result of an identified capacity-building program within an institution. There are examples from within the UK network that underline the singular significance of this level of teacher competence in effecting the outcome. In one institution, with a visionary and fully committed headteacher, where training had been provided, neither the Elos lead teacher nor the two more senior leaders designated to provide support were able to demonstrate the necessary levels of teacher competence. This resulted in Elos having a limited institutional impact. Teacher leaders charged with implementing Elos required clear specifications, a sound grounding in the Elos program, and a willingness to develop the required competences. In another institution, the leadership of Elos was allocated to the language college.3 In this example, Elos appeared to be subsumed into generic language college European activities. Elos concepts were not featured or incorporated into the curriculum program. Again, the impact of Elos was limited. There is much to learn from both the successes and challenges of developing institutional capacity in order to implement any international program, including Elos, in schools and colleges. Funding and External Support From the outset, the variance in national funding streams was a significant factor in the successful development of the program. The Comenius 3 network funding provided for mobility and overall coordination services

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by each partner. In the UK, this allocation did not allow for school support visits, regional training, or meetings of development groups. This was an inhibiting factor for sharing practice and for collaborative developments in view of the geographical location of the UK Elos schools and colleges. As a result, face-to-face network collaboration was limited to the annual seminars held in London. Participation in these central events was dependent on individual schools and colleges funding teacher release and travel costs from their own budgets. In addition, there was no funding allocated to schools/colleges to support the introduction and development of Elos within institutions. This resource also had to be found from the individual institution’s budget; in many cases, this was prohibitive. For a number of schools, it was not possible to identify Elos as a budget priority. Those UK schools that successfully achieved Comenius school partnership projects were in a stronger position to fund appropriate developments. However, those schools that were not successful in their Comenius applications found the lack of funding to support their Elos program a constraint. In these cases, developing effective European partnerships without mobility funding was extremely difficult. Within the Elos European network, there was evidence indicating the difference that had been made by an allocation of targeted funding. For example, in the Dutch schools an individual school grant had been provided for the Elos program, and in Lithuania the Ministry of Education had provided a central training program for the Elos schools. These and other examples in the Elos European network demonstrated the essential nature and positive impact of targeted funding on the successful development of the Elos project. The role of external agencies at national level in supporting the development of the UK Elos network has been of great benefit. This support brought credibility to the network and raised awareness of the aims and outcomes of the program with some policy advisers. This in turn enabled the UK Elos network to develop more broadly. The widespread location of the Elos schools/colleges meant that those located in the southwest and therefore closer to the International Learning and Research Centre were able to access greater levels of advice and support from the UK Elos team. In all cases, this was identified as a benefit. Other schools/colleges received frequent advice and support via e-mail and the helpline. Inevitably, distance rendered face-to-face engagement impossible. At central seminars and in the interviews conducted, access to external support has been identified as a positive driver in the Elos program. At institutional level, there are examples where the support of the local community through parents and employers has made a valued contribution to Elos activities. Both the case study schools cite this support as valuable.

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Within the UK network, the engagement and collaboration with European partner institutions has been a major factor in achieving sustainable Elos programs. The commitment and enthusiasm generated through these partnerships, for both students and teachers, has been marked. External support of this nature has been a major factor in establishing the success of the Elos project in many institutions. Conclusions From 2005–2008, strategies were developed in the UK that gave a profile and credibility to the Elos program through the engagement of representatives from national agencies. The Elos national advisory panel provided an essential forum for strategic discussion, enabled connections to be made with national programs, and offered an opportunity to identify bestpractice examples of international development work. However, this panel was not in a position to influence current policy. For any development program, a long lead in time is required to achieve an essential synergy with national priorities. The importance of the establishment of a broad stakeholder base at the onset of any international development is clear. This stakeholder base should involve policymakers, policy leaders, students, staff, and the community. Both case study schools demonstrate the significance of this when applied at institutional level. Allocation of funding to support the development and implementation of the Elos program was a key factor underpinning successful practice— funding that offered teacher release time, provided for teacher training, and supported staff and student mobility for full engagement in a collaborative European development. A range of appropriate, timely, and targeted external support clearly helped progress and sustain the Elos developments. Within schools, the added value provided through the engagement of the community and employers was identified by participant institutions. For success in schools and colleges, harnessing the three factors that are the essential elements in institutional capacity—that is, leadership, systems and structures, and teacher competence—is critical. The analysis has shown that the first two factors alone will not ensure success. Leadership, systems, and structures must have a positive impact on teacher competence. In all the examples reviewed, within the UK Elos network and in the broader practice of the Elos European network, it is very clear that the most successful practice and outcomes were achieved when policy, institutional capacity, funding, and external support were brought together at national, regional, and institutional levels. The Elos three-year program demonstrat-

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ed how skilled leaders orchestrate these four areas to empower staff and provide memorable European learning experiences for students. Notes 1. Trinity Academy 2. The Grange School 3. Language College is a designation within the Specialist Schools program.

References Beernaert, Y. (2003). The international and European competencies of the school teacher involved in European and/or international projects: A practical manual. Leuven, Belgium: KHLeuven/Educonsult. Ofsted. (2007). The Grange school and sports college (Inspection Report No. 109322). Retrieved from www.ofsted.gov.uk Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. (2007). A framework of personal, learning and thinking skills. Retrieved from http://curriculum.qcda.gov.uk/uploads/ PLTS_framework_tcm8-1811.pdf

Chapter 19

European Political Consciousness in German Schools A Framework for Qualitative Research Markus W. Behne and Dirk Lange

Introduction The AGORA Political Education at the Leibniz University of Hannover (http://www.ipw.uni-hannover.de/3654.html) with its focus points and empirical approaches of the work closely cooperates with other faculty’s didactics. The qualitative research concept presented on European political consciousness in schools is part of this context, and builds upon Markus W. Behne’s doctoral research on the didactical structure of European political conceptions held by European youth. It also builds on integration theory. The survey of the doctoral work, scheduled for completion in 2010, evaluates concepts and social patterns of interpretation (Plaß & Schetsche, 2001) on how groups of young Europeans procure a discursive presence and didactically contrasts them against the ideas, approaches, and theories

Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 307–319 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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about how they can and are developed in the political science discussion regarding the European integration process. This chapter on European political consciousness in schools introduces a research plan that has as its focus the concepts of both students and teachers. It presents examples for a collective pattern of interpretation from a previous study that outlines the European political consciousness in classes and/or school groups. In Hannover, political consciousness is the unifying element for empirical political didactics. The term “political consciousness” and its specification as “European political consciousness” are therefore first discussed and then prepared for the question at hand. The debate in the political science realm also requires modern approaches to be addressed and pursued from a political-didactic perspective. The political science context of European politics and political consciousness will therefore be analyzed as well. The central question for the research project presented here is the empirical justification of a European political-didactic diagnostic and Europe competences’ progressive development in Germany that corresponds to age group and school grade. Because an output orientation is of increasing importance for school systems, curricula, and teaching plans throughout Europe, political didactics need to deliver the corresponding empirically founded approaches. In the context of a Europe-wide study, this analysis also helps to compare and positively develop further the results of the efforts made for education within this co-operative project. For the continued development of standardisation within the Elos project “Europe as a Learning Environment in Schools,” the research project offers an empirical further development and justification of the common framework for Europe competence that was initially normatively formulated (see Oonk, 2007, pp. 88–89). Political Didactical Framework: Political Consciousness as a Diagnostic Concept for Planning Consciousness is the mental realm where a person develops perceptions of reality. It is the home to subjective perceptions of reality. The political consciousness is the spiritual realm where a person develops political perceptions of reality. It is the home to subjective perceptions of political reality. Within the political consciousness, a person reduces the complexity of his or her social experiences. Models are constructed that serve both recognition and action function purposes. On the one hand, these models provide a mental schema or pattern that filters and structures political reality. On the other hand, they allow an intentional engagement. A person

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requires and applies modeling to explain and alter the reality he or she encounters. The mental structures of the political consciousness produce the political sense that opens the door for an individual to have an orientation and take action in society. Here, political consciousness can be understood as the realm in which a person builds “overall political-sociological perceptions” (Giesecke, 1973, p. 28). When discussing “political education that has at its core the reworking and development of political consciousness” (Giesecke, 1973, p. 159), this means that the raw forms of consciousness can also be understood as political consciousness. The perceptions of reality developed within the political consciousness are process related and are constantly being changed or confirmed. This process is—besides a daily practice in re-thinking experiences—an important part of informal learning by communicating in groups. This kind of fluidity of consciousness can be understood as an equilibrium process in which mental structures are permanently being expanded and re-structured. This construct makes consciousness relevant for learning theory. Correspondingly, political learning can be considered a lifelong process of expanding and updating the political consciousness that is facilitated through the processing of experiences and overcoming problems within the social world. Through this, political consciousness transcends to being a key category of political didactics. Regarding the central question of the following research concept, European-related political consciousness is to be understood as all of those subjective perceptions of people who relate to European identity as well as the processes of politics and integration on a European level. Political Science Context: European Politics and Political consciousness In past years, we have seen various explanatory patterns compete with one another in the political science discussion on why interest from and participation by citizens has had an overall weaker development on the European level than on the national level. Two of these patterns have gained particular relevance for political didactics. One explanatory pattern points to the lack of a European identity, while the other addresses the missing ability on the part of citizens to perceive highly complex, expert-dominated processes in the political realm. The identity-oriented political understanding that continues to be found, and from which ideas can be traced to Rousseau (Kailitz, 2007, p. 284), presents a lack of European identity as a fundamental contrast to the European unification process (Lübbe, 1994). In any case, the profoundness of

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the European integration is, as seen by the German Federal Constitutional Court, limited by this contrast (Bundesverfassungsgericht, 1993). This viewpoint draws on a democracy whose citizens see it as their own and unchangeable based upon a certain spiritual, social, and political homogeneity (Heller, 1928/1971, pp. 427–428). From the viewpoint of a European identity concept, lacking homogeneity prevents political discourse between “social powers, interests, and ideas that encounter one another” (Bundesverfassungsgericht, 1993, break 101). Without this ability for discourse, neither citizens nor democracy emerge. In the same direction goes the decision of the Federal Constitutional Court concerning the Lisbon Treaty (Bundesverfassungsgericht, 2009). Into the 1990s, Germany’s didactics on European politics reacted to this explanatory pattern, concentrating on education as a means towards a European identity, which allows the development over time to a foundation of loyalty to supranational institutions (e.g., Mickel, 1993). Positively applied, this approach is ultimately aimed at counteracting the lack of identity seen in the European integration process. In the past, research on the term of identity and on what an identity within a European democracy is has repudiated the identity-oriented criticism of the unification process. Even though it cannot be assumed that the concept of identity is a closed case for democratic theory and practice, the scientific debate has had overall repercussions for the didactics of European education (Walkenhorst, 1999). A “naïve European enthusiasm” or an artificial feeling of “us” contradict the fundamental principles of political education that aim to produce young people who make unbiased judgments and who do not just express an opinion and values, but instead intelligently discuss issues in a well-informed manner. These fundamental principles are bound together in Germany under the term Beutelsbacher Konsens (Wehling, 1977, pp. 173–184). In contrast to the model of the European Union’s democratic ability that sees it as impossible or comparatively limited, we find the explanatory pattern of the inadequately developed ideas of citizens compared to the expert groups that dominate the EU with highly complex collective patterns of meaning. This explanatory pattern draws from the analysis of internationally associated expert groups: The complicated technical circumstances found in many political regulations, e.g., financial markets, require the development of homogenous expert groups at an international level. Although they are formally a part of government ministries, they control the access to the relevant international forums, and together maintain exclusive access to knowledge and contacts. They are considered an international club, and obtain autonomy over their employers. (Jachtenfuchs & Kohler-Koch, 2003, p. 39)

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The expert groups in their international clubs comprise a specific form of European, albeit exclusive, publicity that is frequently found in the deliberative EU system. In contrast to these groups, Jachtenfuchs and KohlerKoch see the national-based political parties. They are, as is formulated in the German constitution (Article 21 (1)), mainly engaged in the forming and articulating of political opinions, but appear—from their addressees to the citizens—mostly incompetent on the European level. Jachtenfuchs and Kohler-Koch (2003) emphasize: The independence of the international technocrats of political control stands in clear contrast to the still-provincial world of political parties. Parties organize themselves with the aim of achieving political power. And although the perception of public duties is widely predetermined by politics on the European level, political power is still obtained and lost in national elections. . . . The EU appears on the party agenda, but the parties find it difficult to direct the attention of their primarily locally-minded constituency to the associated political alternatives. With the exception of the elite, the citizen’s notions of Europe have a very simple structure and display a very nationalistic tendency. (p. 39)

In contrast to the position discovering a lack of European identity, those supporting this second school of thought assume that, among the interwoven multilevel system of the European Union, there is indeed a discourse between the social powers, interests, and ideas that encounter one another. However, these communication processes, considered essential for democracy, mostly occur independently of the broader public within autonomyforming expert groups. A reason for this is the existing and/or developing collective perception patterns regarding the complex interrelations on the European level. Because there is a lack of complex perception in the populations of EU states, the citizens are unable to participate in the discourse. From this perspective, the need arises for a European-related political education. The study done by Medrano (2004) impressively shows that in the three EU states investigated, the attitudes of the populations are strongly nation-based and stand in contrast to one another. However, the focus of our research is not the political (negative or positive) attitudes of people but the beliefs and perceptions that create meaning for them. This creative constructive process is located in the political consciousness and can be extracted from group discourse. Perceptions are not independent of political attitudes, but neither are they identical to them. The attitudes found among those in the wider population are hardly suitable as a point of reference to the perceptions generated in the expert groups and their patterns of interpretation. The comparison of perceptions found in and reconstructed from the discourses among citizens is consequent and has a clear methodical definition. Within this research project, perceptions

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are understood as associative constructs that are found on varying levels of complexity and which include terms, concepts, mantel patterns, as well as theories (Gropengießer, 2001, p. 31). Because meaning-giving perceptions shape political consciousness, they are the decisive empirical factor in political education didactics (see Lange, 2007). Empiricism and Method: Group Discussions as a Research Tool Group discussions, in U.S.-dominated social research often used in parallel to the established term “focus groups,” are a method of social research that is seeing increasing use and development. Because they are capable of obtaining and investigating “opinions, attitudes, behaviors towards the various everyday topics . . .  norms, values, sanctions [as well as] ideologies, philosophies, etc.” (Lamnek, 1998, pp. 69–70) within the respective discussions, they will continue to find increasing interest in research on politics and political didactics. From a methodological perspective, group discussions are a very new branch of social scientific investigative techniques. Lamnek (2005) concludes: “Despite the intensified discussion on the interpretive paradigm and the qualitative methodology, the group discussion tends to have an inferior methodological status” (p. 410). Probably the best advantage of the group discussion is its situational relevance. For everyday practice, it offers a predominantly communicatively present intersubjective construct of the social realm. However, group discussion processes are hardly suited to comprehending individual opinions and/or perceptions. Instead, they represent a self-contained instrument for the systematic and controlled investigation of “informal group opinions” (Mangold, 1988, p. 17). But with the exception of a group of studies done in the 1990s on the European attitudes of German youth (Henschel, 1994) and the empirical findings of the doctoral work described above, within the qualitative research on Europe in the German language realm, group discussions have not been applied. In this research context, the group is considered to be the amount of individuals who, according to Bohnsack (2004), comprise the direct communication context. Students from the same grade or with teachers from the same school form actual groups as defined by Nießen (1977; see also Flick, 2002); groups that are impacted upon by the discussion also take form outside the research situation and, as a result, display identical group members. The group discussions investigated here are not artificial groups brought together only to examine the relevant investigation aspects and specifically for research purposes. They are a real, natural group (Flick, 2002, p. 172). This particular feature distinguishes group discussions from

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the interview forms of other studies and avoids the “unnaturalness of oneon-one interviews” (Lamnek, 2005, p. 421). The group discussion displays real-life situation parameters, and is understood as a communication situation that is similar to what is found in day-today life. It therefore offers an outstanding starting point for an exploration of the social constitutional processes of attitudes and patterns of action and meaning that are revealed via the contexts and attributions of meaning that emerge from the investigation. (Lamnek, 2005, p. 427)

The contexts of social processes that underlie the concept of perception produce social patterns of interpretation (Kassner, 2005). The group discussion method therefore does not build upon the concept that each group produces new patterns of interpretation, but instead that the existing patterns of interpretation “are updated when several group members are together” (Pollock, 1955, pp. 21–22). During this update, the collective mental patterns in between individual political consciousness can be documented and the single orientation patterns can be reconstructed. In a preliminary study, this method proved itself to be pragmatic for outcome-based research. Six students from the 11th grade of a Lower Saxony Gymnasium volunteered to participate in a group discussion where they discussed Europe and European unification for 45 minutes. The topics that were focused on will be further differentiated in the content analysis of the following group discussions, and their scope will be qualitatively assessed and structured. For ease of readability and comprehension, the quotes from the group discussion of the preliminary study were grammatically and stylistically polished and summarized. The group from the preliminary study placed its initial focus topic on economic integration. This stands in contrast to groups of young Europeans questioned outside the school environment who placed their initial focus on cultural aspects: Europe is one big economic union from which everyone can gain something, regardless of whether it’s cultural, economic, or both. It’s always the case that lots of people joined together are stronger than one. For example, a businessman or a carpenter who was only active in Germany would do less business there than in the European Union.

The underlying pattern of interpretation can be reconstructed as “fundamental market advantage.” The economic guiding theme is expanded with the strikingly simple appraisal of how Europe is a social society. A further focal topic that was repeatedly addressed in different forms was the “boundaries” of Europe. What this includes and what this does not

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include, that is, to what extent can a region or country belong to the inner circle of Europe, was discussed. For the group, this inner circle is the EU. Europe is kind of divided into East and West. . . .First, there’s the EU, which itself has economic connections, and where you can travel wherever you want to go. That’s the real Europe. This doesn’t apply to the rest of the countries. They could also be in Africa, and you probably wouldn’t even notice. The countries that are not in the EU don’t really gain from it, it doesn’t matter. Lots of people in those countries feel themselves more linked to Russia. . . . So actually, Europe isn’t necessarily geographic Europe, it’s the European Union.

The individual countries and their proximity to the European Union are also discussed. You can see this with the Ukraine. . . . Europe, which you can see as a something that’s unified, is only that when most of the countries in the European Union are in it. Mutual support and having a say in what happens is also needed. . . . The EU itself is a kind of power, and the other states don’t have that much influence. Switzerland is not part of the EU, and they aren’t as corrupt of a system [meaning: Switzerland is not a corrupt state].

The comparison with countries outside the EU with the EU and its member states made it possible for the group—as can be seen here and in other examples—to also better describe the EU itself. The young people view the EU as a system that secures for its members a right to vote and participate in government, provides them with support, and protects them from corruption. Those on the outside cannot enjoy the advantages of membership and only with exceptions have a system free of corruption. Europe’s relationship to the U.S. is also part of the context of the discussion on comparisons and boundaries. Culturally, there’s no difference to the U.S. But some states have the death penalty. . . . The U.S. for example is also a democracy, although there’s not much to see in terms of democracy, for example with the election [this apparently refers to a previous election]. . . . This is also partially the case with regards to Germany and the EU. There are also power mongers here. And with the U.S., they are a democracy and are waging a war in Iraq.

The U.S. is clearly separated from the European Union as a different kind of democracy that, comparatively, functions less democratically, even though cultural differences cannot be attested, as can be seen in comparison with Muslim societies. The trans-Atlantic community of “power mongers” is used to explain why the U.S. is waging a war in Iraq. However, the question of why the EU is not waging war remains undiscussed.

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A pattern of interpretation that addresses competition also contains the continuative geopolitical comparison of leading powers. The EU has to be able to keep up with the U.S., China and the like.

This results in the sobering, disappointing conclusion that here, politics have to be understood as power. Apparently, this negative connotation is fundamentally attributed to the individual nationalism of the states rather than the European Union. Politicians have to be power brokers.

Despite all the criticism of the U.S. and the implicitly stated better situation in Europe, the future of European integration is seen as being an acrossthe-board project of integration—that is, a global federation where the EU and the U.S. are the nucleus. I think that the EU is only a forerunner of a global unification. Europe and the U.S. economically. . . . That the entire world will be unified because there’s so much war. . . . That’s exactly the reason why all will join together, because really, nobody wants war.

Within the pattern of interpretation that foresees a Kantian “eternal peace” (see Gerhardt, 1995) via global unity, the young people also place value on an EU that secures peace and cultural sovereignty. The advantages are mostly cultural because the EU accepts different cultures as such. When a small country is threatened by its neighbors . . . when those [small countries] go into the EU, then the threat stops and the problem vanishes.

A federal-thinking pattern of interpretation also presents a comparison between Germany and the EU. For the young people, European integration doesn’t just take from the example of German unity from the 19th century. It also follows the pattern of the German federal structure of government and is less compatible with political systems with a central government structure. The EU should become something like Germany and its federal states. . . . Didn’t they want to have a common constitution? And didn’t it fail after Ireland refused to ratify it? . . . In the beginning, Germany was something like a mini EU. They came together, but that’s more like what you see with the EU than you do with France for example, where it’s central. [European integration] can be done better with Germany than with France.

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While small countries—in the eyes of the discussion group—see membership in the European Union as clearly advantageous, in particular regarding the protection of culture and peace, a negative component of membership for large countries like Germany is also discussed. However, this involves an advantage that is connected to a negative overall pattern. The disadvantage for Germany, and all the large countries of course have this disadvantage, is that they have to pay in so much. . . . Germany has [mostly] economic advantages. . . . It doesn’t matter whether Mercedes builds its cars in Germany or, say, Poland. . . . Power mongers clearly see the advantage.

The young people in this group see only a few personal advantages for themselves. They concentrate on states and peoples. The euro has brought more states more closely together. There’s no getting to the boundaries any more. On the map, Europe is only so big. . . . You can drive over it . . . the feeling of togetherness.

This is an especially surprising comparison for groups of young Europeans in non-formal educational settings. For those, the personal views, experiences, and advantages are in the forefront. Although all students who participated in the discussion of the school group had gathered European experience via school exchanges and projects, these were not integrated into the discussions and reconstructed patterns of interpretation. This could indicate a flaw in the didactic efforts that would have to be verified. It may also be a sign of a discussion timetable that was not allowed sufficient time. Conclusions Empirical research on the European political consciousness in German schools is in its infancy. Nevertheless, it can be seen that the method of focus groups as used in the non-formal educational sector can also be adopted for research in schools. Students were recognized as relevant experts on the topic of their own knowledge. In the atmosphere of a peer group, they communicate frankly about their beliefs, ideas, and concepts towards Europe and the European integration process. These factors form the commonly chaired social patterns of interpretation. The updated social patterns of interpretation in the group can be documented and analyzed. The social patterns of interpretations can give hints on how the individual side of a group context is structured. Even though these hints cannot be taken as direct, the way of a different (see Reichertz, 2004) interpretation can help to reconstruct the divers underlying individual consciousnesses.

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The small-scale research of one group in one school is hardly enough to produce relevant data for a European political-didactic diagnostic. The students of this group took part in the group discussion voluntarily to test the method. But the hints concerning the concepts and social patterns of interpretation of Europe and the European integration process given throughout this test can be used for a wider framework of empirical studies with the method of group discussions. References Bohnsack, R. (2004). Gruppendiskussion [Group discussion]. In U. Flick, E. von Kardorff, & I. Steinke (Eds.), Qualitative Forschung. Ein Handbuch (pp. 369– 384). Reinbek, Germany: Rowohlt. Bundesverfassungsgericht. (1993). BVerfGE 89, 155 [Decision of the Federal Constitutional Court Number 89]. Retrieved from http://www.servat.unibe.ch/ dfr/bv089155.html Bundesverfassungsgericht. (2009). BVerfGE – 2/08 et a.l, 267. [Decision of the Federal Constitutional Court Number 2/08 et al.]. Retrieved from http://www. servat.unibe.ch/dfr/bv123267.html Flick, U. (2002), Qualitative Sozialforschung. Eine Einführung [Qualitative social research. An introduction] (6th ed.). Reinbek, Germany: Rowohlt. Gerhardt, V. (1995). Immanuel Kants Entwurf “Zum Ewigen Frieden”. Eine Theorie der Politik [Immanuel Kant’s proposal for eternal peace. A political theory]. Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. Giesecke, H. (1973). Didaktik der politischen Bildung [Didactics of political education]. München, Germany: Juventa-Verlag. Gropengießer, H. (2001). Didaktische Rekonstruktion des “Sehens“: Wissenschaftliche Theorien und die Sicht der Schüler in der Perspektive der Vermittlung [Didactic reconstruction of seeing: Scientific theories and the views of pupils from a mediation perspective] (2nd ed.). Oldenburg, Germany: Didaktisches Zentrum. Heller, H. (1971). Politische Demokratie und soziale Homogenität [Political democracy and social homogeneity]. In M. Drath, G. Niemeyer, O. Stammer, & F. Borinski. (Eds.), Gesammelte Schriften, Bd. 2 (pp. 421–433). Leiden, The Netherlands: Sijthoff. (Original work published 1928) Henschel, Th. (1994). Europa – det is’n Anfang, Jugendliche und ihre Einstellungen zu Europa [Europe – It’s a Start! Young people and their attitudes on Europe]. Mainz, Germany: Forschungsgruppe Jugend und Europa, Arbeitspapiere Vol. 2. Jachtenfuchs, M., & Kohler-Koch, B. (2003). Regieren und Institutionenbildung [Governance and institution building]. In M. Jachtenfuchs & B. Kohler-Koch (Eds.), Europäische Integration (2nd ed., pp. 11–46). Opladen, Germany: Leske & Budrich. Kailitz, St. (2007). Staatsformen im 20. Jahrhundert II: Demokratische Systeme [20th century forms of government II: Domocratic systems]. In A. Gallus & E. Jesse (Eds.), Staatsformen. Von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart (pp. 281–328). Bonn, Germany: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung.

318    M. W. BEHNE and D. LANGE Kassner, K. (2005). Soziale Deutungsmuster – Über aktuelle Ansätze zur Erforschung kollektiver Sinnzusammenhänge [Social patterns of interpretation— Current approaches on the research of collective contexts]. In S. Geideck & W.-A. Liebert (Eds.), Sinnformen. Linguistische und soziologische Analysen von Leitbildern, Metaphern und anderen kollektiven Orientierungsmustern (pp. 37–57). Berlin, Germany: de Gruyter. Lamnek, S. (1998). Gruppendiskussion. Theorie und Praxis [Group discussion. Theory and practice]. Weinheim, Germany: Psychologie Verlags Union. Lamnek, S. (2005). Qualitative Sozialforschung [Qualitative social research] (4th ed.) Weinheim, Germany: Beltz Verlag. Lange, D. (2007). Politikbewusstsein und Politische Bildung [Political consciousness and political education]. In D. Lange (Ed.), Konzeptionen Politischer Bildung [Conceptions of political education] (pp. 205–213). Baltmannsweiler, Germany: Schneider-Verlag Hohengehren. Lübbe, H. (1994). Abschied vom Superstaat. Vereinigte Staaten von Europa wird es nicht geben [Farewell to the superstate. There will be no united states of Europe]. Berlin, Germany: Siedler. Mangold, W. (1988). Gruppendiskussionen als Instrument der Untersuchung von kollektiven Orientierungen in Gruppen von Jugendlichen [Group discussions as an investigative instrument of collective orientation in groups of young people]. In W. Mangold & R. Bohnsack (Eds.), Kollektive Orientierungen in Gruppen von Jugendlichen. Forschungsbericht für die Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (pp. 8–63). Erlangen, Germany: DFG. Medrano, J. (2004). Framing Europe. Attitudes to European integration in Germany, Spain and the United Kingdom, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Mickel, W. W. (1993). Lernfeld Europa: Didaktische Grundlagen einer europäischen Erziehung [Learning Realm Europe: Didactical Foundations of European Education] (2nd ed.). Opladen, Germany: Leske & Budrich. Nießen, M. (1977). Gruppendiskussion. Interpretative Methodologie, Methodenbegründung, Anwendung [Group discussion. Interpretive methodology, method substantiation, ppplication]. München, Germany: Fink. Oonk, G. H. (2007). Internationalisation in primary and secondary education. A theoretical exploration of policy, implementation, effects and research. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs. Plaß, Ch., & Schetsche, M. (2001). Grundzüge einer wissenssoziologischen Theorie sozialer Deutungsmuster [Outlines of an epistemological-sociological theory of patterns of social interpretation]. Sozialer Sinn, 3–2001, 511–536. Pollock, F. (1955). Gruppenexperiment [Group experiment]. Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Europaeïsche Verlagsanstalt. Reichertz, J. (2004). Abduktion, Deduktion und Induktion in der qualitativen Forschung [Abduction, deduction, and induction in qualitative research]. In U. Flick, E. von Kardorff, & I. Steinke (Eds.), Qualitative Forschung. Ein Handbuch (pp. 276–286). Reinbek, Germany: Rowohlt. Walkenhorst, H. (1999). Europäischer Integrationsprozeß und europäische Identität: Die politische Bedeutung eines sozialpsychologischen Konzepts [The European integration process and European identity: The political significance of a socio-psychological concept] (Doctoral thesis). Baden-Baden, Germany: Nomos.

European Political Consciousness in German Schools    319 Wehling, H.-G. (1977). Beutelsbacher Konsens [The Beutelsbach consensus]. In S. Schiele & H. Schneider (Eds.), Das Konsensproblem in der politischen Bildung (pp. 173–184). Stuttgart, Germany: Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Baden-Württemberg.

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Chapter 20

Implementation of the European Dimension in Education in Lithuanian Schools Brigita Janiunaite

Expression of European and National Identity Before disclosing the peculiarities of the implementation of the European dimension in Lithuanian educational practice, it is important to reveal how European and national identity manifests itself among Lithuanian citizens and what place Europe takes in the system of citizens’ values; that is, before analyzing the implementation of European educational dimensions, the context of the implementation of the European dimension in education is important. At the present rate of globalisation, European integration involves paying more attention to the problems of interaction and the dynamics of national and European identities. Formation of European identity is related to traditional destiny and the place of national identity and self-awareness in Europe. At present, no nation or ethnic group is closed. Identity is open to pluralism and globalism and accepts ethnic laws—that is, reacts to the Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 321–335 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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other despite belonging to another ethnic group. The phenomenon of identity erosion can take place, and a person’s presence in two or more cultures can form bicultural identity. European identity can be defined in both a political and a values aspect. European identity can also be defined entirely by values strengthening intercommunity between most European citizens—the feeling that they belong to a peculiar European culture and institutional system, which they consider to be legal and valuable (Castells, 2002). European identity, in its political nature and content, substantially differs from national identities, which are understood as corporate identities based on the perception of common origin, kindred cultural, and/or morphophysiological features. The basis of European identity is common but not unified because Europe is and will remain a pluralistic continent; cultural and social order in Europe as a whole has to be formed and entrenched gradually (Hix, 2004). However, it would be improper to imagine that European identity would be as significant for individuals as their identities regarding gender, religion, linguistics, or national identities. These are more important to the individual as they relate to all aspects of life. In order to assess the strengthening of European identity in European countries, the resulting data from the surveys by Eurobarometer (European Commission, European Opinion Research Group EEIG, 2003) as well as the data from the surveys by the barometer of countries candidates to European Union in 2003 are applied. Research (European Commission, European Opinion Research Group EEIG, 2003) shows that, on the eve of the membership of the EU, the national identity in new states of the EU was on average weaker than in the societies of the old members of the EU: Respectively, 32.54% and 44.11% of the respondents only pointed out the identity with a corresponding nation. Double national and European identities are more characteristic for the societies of new countries of the EU than for citizens of the EU-15 (15 countries of the European Union: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and the UK). Estonia, Czech Republic, Lithuania, and Hungary demonstrate the strongest national identities, and European identity was strongest in Slovakia and Latvia. However, differences of national and European identity among separate new countries of the EU were fewer than in old states of the EU where the difference of nationally oriented states from pro-European is larger (Krupavičius & Šarkutė, 2005). In this context, the chapter analyzes more thoroughly the relationship between European and national identity in relation to the identification of Lithuanian citizens with their homeland, Europe, and the world. In 2004, the Lithuanian Institute for Social Research carried out a survey of stratification of Lithuanian society (1,500 respondents) (Socialinių tyrimų institutas, 2004).The survey contained questions about identity. Newly

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obtained data have been compared with the research carried out in 1990, 1999, and 2004, and some similarities have been noted (Socialinių tyrimų institutas, 2004). In 2004, it was found that the order of self-identification of Lithuanian people was as follows: identity with Lithuania, own living place, own region, the European Union, and lastly the world. Differences between numbers identifying themselves as Lithuanian and a more parochial identity—that is, own city (village)—were not great, and the number of people identifying themselves with the world was insignificant. Having compared all three research studies, it was revealed that in 1990, two thirds of the respondents identified themselves as Lithuanian. In addition, every fifth respondent indicated Lithuania in the second place. Almost nine out of ten respondents had identified themselves as Lithuanian. It is evident that in 1999, when Lithuania existed as an independent state, the number of people who identified themselves in this way was much less. The identification with Europe and the world was more frequently put in second place in the 1990 survey than in the 1999 one. In 2004, the identification with Europe and the world did not dramatically increase: Evidently, some time was necessary to develop a self-perception that Lithuanians were citizens of both the EU and the free world (Socialinių tyrimų institutas, 2004). The number of people who identify themselves with Europe and the world initially were only several percent of the respondents; when adding those who identify themselves in this way, this percentage is reduced further. In 1999, it was shown that respondents identified themselves with Europe more than with the world, and in 2004 this was not significant. It is possible to draw the conclusion that in 1999, before the access to the European Union, Europe was more attractive; and the entire free world became more attractive when the European Union was open to more countries (Socialinių tyrimų institutas, 2004). So it is natural that during the period of transformation into a democratic society, when it was necessary to consolidate the statehood of a country as well as withstand external dangers, self-identification with one’s own country, pride in it, and defense of it were especially important, and this is reflected in the answers of the respondents. Only when independence was restored in post-communist countries did people identify themselves initially with their country. When the dangers were over and as the society became more democratic, the number of people identifying themselves with a particular location increased (Matulionis, 2005). The latest research of Eurobarometer (European Commission (The Gallup Organisation), 2008), one of the aspects of which was to judge public opinion of the European Union, was aimed at discovering how EU citizens perceive their status as European citizens and any different rights, which they possess when having this second “nationality.”

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Forty-one percent of the respondents state that they are acquainted with the term EU citizen and know what it means; 37% have heard of the term, but they are not sure exactly what it means. As the research showed, the people of new state members of the EU are more acquainted with the term EU citizen than those from old member states. Estonia (94%), Romania (94%), and Hungary (93%) displayed a higher percentage of the respondents who were familiar with the term EU citizen. Only 3% of the respondents from 27 (EU) countries declare themselves to be “very well informed” about their rights as EU citizens; 28% of the respondents feel they are “well informed” in this area. Citizens of Cyprus, Estonia, Denmark, Luxemburg, Ireland, Romania, Slovakia, Finland, and Austria are informed sufficiently well about their rights, but citizens of Latvia, France, Lithuania, Portugal, Great Britain, Italy, and Greece are among those who are “not well informed” or “not informed” about their rights as EU citizens. Identity is not free from contradictions. It is a more social than personal phenomenon. European identity is or should be in the hearts and minds of Europeans. Being a European should be equal to being a citizen of one’s own homeland. Though identity is more of a social phenomenon, the interface of European identity with an individual manifests itself. Thus, European identity forms within individuals’ self-consciousness, and only later it grows into social corporate activity. European identity is an open and dynamic process; therefore its development by stressing the implementation of the European dimension in education is important. Implementation of the European Dimension in Education in the Curriculum: Results of Dissertation Research The second part of this chapter, after presenting in general the sense of citizenship with regard to European identity, will analyze the results of doctoral dissertations relating to the implementation of a European dimension in education in the curriculum. European aspects in the context of educational science were first analyzed in dissertations that were being defended when the independence of Lithuania was restored. In her dissertation, Railienė (1998) analyzed problems in the development of national self-awareness and European identity when teaching geography in the sixth grade by relating the formation of European identity to traditional destiny and the position of national identities and self-awareness in Europe. A European dimension in the teaching of geography was analyzed by Matuzevičiūtė (2003); wider and more comprehensive aspects relating to the implementation of the European dimension in education were ana-

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lyzed in the dissertation by Adaškevičienė (2003). Essential results of these dissertations will be discussed in more detail. In the dissertation by Matuzevičiūtė (2003), the problem of whether the content of separate subjects, in this case geography, acquires qualities corresponding to European educational dimensions as well as the problems revealed and how to solve them is analyzed. One of the elements of the research undertaken as part of the dissertation was the survey of the eighth-grade pupils aiming to identify their viewpoint on modern Europe, understanding the concept of Europe, as well as knowledge of economical, natural, social, cultural, and geopolitical changes in Europe. There were 800 pupils participating in the survey. The research revealed that the pupils faced difficulties in outlining features of European nations as well as differences between nations in the south and north of Europe (more than 50% of the respondents did not answer); 61.4% of the respondents could not even indicate features or characteristics of at least one chosen nation. More than half of the respondents could specify in what countries German and Roman languages are spoken. The respondents did not know who J. Cook, F. Nansen, J. Verne, or A. Nobel were, nor where they were born. The pupils faced difficulties in answering the questions relating to geo spaces, especially map change since 1990. Only around 20% of the respondents correctly indicated five states that had appeared in Europe during the last decade. It was hard to indicate the countries belonging to the EU as well as state candidates. These results show that the pupils possess poor knowledge of the change in the political map of Europe and the new geospatial–political–economical distribution of EU countries. In order to find out how the pupils treat the concept of Europe, the question “What is Europe for you?” was asked. More than half of the respondents replied that it was a continent, 15% of the respondents related Europe to interesting geographical objects, and 16% to culture. Thirteen percent of the respondents did not have any firm opinion and marked all given answers. The results show that, during the research period (2002–2003), the concept of Europe among pupils was more geographic than geosophic; that is, pupils most frequently understand Europe as a physical and social space and less as geo-cultural or geo-spiritual. In order to judge the scale of pupils’ values, the question “What does it mean for you to be a young person in Europe?” was posed. For 39% of the pupils, it meant traveling; 30% pointed out the possibilities of learning abroad. In the dissertation research of Matuzevičiūtė (2003), 154 geography teachers were surveyed by referring to Ballantyne’s (1999) instrument and putting it into the Lithuanian context as well as paying attention to the process of teaching geography, application of IT for teaching geography, and the content of European geography. The resulting data showed that teachers of geography understood the globalisation process and strove to

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organize the content of geography teaching on three levels: local, regional, and global. However, 10% of the respondents indicated that developed values such as understanding of international solidarity and cooperation and foresight of international and global perspectives were less important. In the recent past, the content of geography dealt with natural geography, but when reforming it, the curriculum was supplemented with the elements of public and social geography. However, as the research results revealed, teachers preferred natural geography. Topics related to culture, religion, business and policy are avoided, and subsequently traditions of old, natural geography prevail. Of the teachers, 48.7% indicated that a textbook was the most important instruction aid and knowledge source determining the curriculum. Instruction aids for geography were grouped according to the intensity of their application: maps, globes, photos, and diagrams were the most popular (75% of the respondents chose these). The second group includes models, pictures, and the Internet. The third group consists of the aids which 49% of the respondents felt were not so important—they were computerized instructional programs and compact discs. During the research, the viewpoint of the teachers with respect to the content of Europe’s geography was surveyed. Teachers were given a list of 20 topics, to which they had to assign a value between 1(unimportant) to 4 (very important). The results showed that the most necessary topics were “Lithuania as a European State,” “Ecological Problems in Europe,” “Nature within Europe,” “Change to the Political Map in Europe,” as well as analysis of separate regions. The second block revealed that teachers were in the main ready to deliver the most traditional topics, such as “Lithuania as European State,” “Nature within Europe,” as well as topics relating specifically to the geography of separate regions. The following topics are the least popular and least used amongst teachers: “Old and Present Centers of Culture,” “The Spread of European Civilisation and Culture in Other Continents,” “European Religions,” and “European Languages and Nations.” Teachers are not ready to deliver the topics that are not reflected and presented in school textbooks. Matuzevičiūtė (2003) prepared an experimental program that sought to reflect an essential European dimension in education, a contemporary conception of Europe, its problems and perspectives. It emphasized cultural, geopolitical, socioeconomic, and important nature-related topics. The application of the new program experiment took place at 20 schools during the 2001–2002 academic years. As part of the study, 850 pupils were questioned. During the experiment, the pupils drew a mental map of Europe and carried out creative assignments. Pupils were asked the following question: “Of what place or region do you consider yourself to be a citizen?” The results showed that 35.8% considered national public spirit a priority. The second choice, European public spirit, was considered a priority by

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45%. It is therefore possible to prioritize opinions on national, European, local (place of residence), and global identity. According to the pupils, the following values are important for the future of Europe: peace, justice, respect for human rights, friendship, social welfare, and protection of the environment. The second group would consist of democracy, united policy, and a feeling of responsibility. The third group emphasizes multiculturalism, tolerance, and religion. When rating the aspects to which their future in Europe should relate, the pupils stressed the importance of education (62.2%), knowledge of languages (50.1%), as well as possibilities to implement ideas (43.1%).When comparing the results of pilot and experimental research, an obvious difference can be seen regarding the priority of travel as an important value change. During the experiment, the pupils were also taught the topics that were absent or only narrowly explored in the traditional curriculum. The results showed that most pupils correctly identified the date of Europe Day (80%); when the topics of environmental protection were explored within the process, the pupils were aware of a wide spectrum of problems in this area. However, during the pilot research study, only 50% of the respondents could identify even one problem. The performed analysis revealed that comprehensive dissemination of European educational dimensions lacked a deeper analysis of some topics; some dimensions were only partially explored. In order to attain a qualitative result, teachers’ competence becomes one of the most important factors. In Lithuania, another dissertation was undertaken by Adaškevičienė in 2003. The comprehensive school implements different educational programs, the most important of which is a general education giving fundamentals of different life areas for pupils, and it is presumed that it is the most favorable environment for the implementation of European identity as an educational dimension in curriculum. Considering that general education provides the fundamentals of different life and science areas, in the dissertation by Adaškevičienė, the process of the implementation of a European identity as an educational dimension is analyzed in the context of the subjects representing different scientific fields: social, natural, and humanitarian (geography, biology, and music), as well as by revealing their possibilities and limitations. In order to examine European identity as an educational dimension at the state level, official verbal documents were chosen for analysis: “General Curriculum” of Lithuanian secondary schools (Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija, 1997; Lietuvos švietimo ministerijos švietimo aprūpinimo centras, 2003) and textbooks of geography, biology, and music subjects for the 5th–10th grades. Having undertaken the analysis of the documents, the place of European identity as an educational dimension in the curriculum at the level of educational practice was analyzed; that is, attitudes of teachers were analyzed. The survey took place in 2003 and was

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undertaken at 106 Lithuanian basic and secondary schools but limited to the 5th–10th grades, in which the basic knowledge of general education was delivered. In total, teachers received 580 questionnaires: teachers of geography received 200, teachers of biology 250, and teachers of music 130. There were 528 questionnaires statistically processed. Summarizing the content of geography knowledge and understanding about Europe in geography textbooks for the 5th–10th grades, it is possible to state that the content of the topics in the textbook for the eighth grade is the most appropriate to geographic knowledge about Europe; it presents not only general geographical knowledge about Europe but also geographical knowledge about its separate regions and cultural and economic variety. Thus, the content of the topics in the eighth-grade textbook is the most appropriate for the formation of an understanding about Europe. Summarizing the content of biology knowledge and understanding about Europe in the textbooks of nature study for the 5th–10th grades, it is possible to state that in the content of the textbooks for the 5th, 7th, and 8th grades (as in curriculum guidelines of the “General Curriculum” (Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija, 1997; Lietuvos švietimo ministerijos švietimo aprūpinimo centras, 2003), knowledge of nature study about Europe does not exist. The topic content is the means by which subject knowledge and understanding of nature study is developed. The content of the 10th-grade textbook, which examines several aspects of nature study related to Europe, is the most appropriate for delivering nature study knowledge about Europe. Summarizing the content of music knowledge and understanding about Europe in the music textbooks for the 5th–10th grades, it is possible to state that for the presentation of music knowledge about Europe the content of the topics in the 5th-, 6th-, 7th-, 8th-, and 9th-grade textbooks is the most appropriate; the content examines not only general music or cultural knowledge about Europe but also music knowledge about its separate regions and cultural variety. Thus, the content of the topics in the 5th-, 6th-, 7th-, 8th-, and 9th-grade textbooks is the most appropriate to form an understanding about Europe. However, it contains rather limited cultural knowledge about Europe. During the survey of teachers, the respondents had to rate the presented topics according to their importance. This chapter presents samples of the rating of some subject and topics. When evaluating topics within the teaching of geography for the 5th grade, the respondents rated the following topics with the highest points: “Pollution of Land and Water, Its Outcomes for Lithuania” and “The Baltic Sea,” which present vivid links to the most important bodies of water in Lithuania and ecological problems. Geography teachers fully explored the topics “Ecosystem of Lithuanian Lakes,” “The Baltic Sea and Its Neighboring Countries,” and “Failing Lithuanian Rivers.” The abo-

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ve-mentioned topics emphasize aspects of natural, ecological knowledge, which would be important for not only integrating into Europe but also as the premise of European identity for the expression of an educational dimension in the curriculum. It is also evident that teachers concentrate on topics that are most appropriate to Lithuania itself. This was influenced by the curriculum presented in both the document and the textbook, which is oriented towards delivering knowledge about Lithuania. Having summarized explorations of topics by biology teachers in the 10th grade, it became evident that the topics reflecting aspects of social and ecological knowledge about Lithuania were most popular. In the European context, only one topic, which deals with the problems of genetic modification in Europe, was highlighted, though similar attention was given to the topic that discussed the same problems in a worldwide context. Such distribution of teachers’ opinions can be linked back to the curriculum presented in the “General Curriculum” (Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija, 1997) and the curriculum of the 10th-grade textbook. This shows that biology teachers do not give the teaching of natural sciences in Europe much importance; they pay greater attention to the traditional subject knowledge contributing to pupils’ understanding of biology as a whole. Realisation of the European Dimension in Education: The Case of the Elos Project Since 2005, Lithuania has joined the Socrates Comenius project Elos (Europe as a Learning Environment in Schools), which, according to Oonk (2007), plays a crucial role in the development of European and international orientation (EIO). The total number of schools actively participating in the Elos network was 16. This chapter presents summarized results of the research performed at ten Elos schools. Twenty teachers from four Elos schools answered questions that related to the realisation of the Elos project and the implementation of European educational dimensions. This chapter also presents the results of the analysis of ten Elos school portraits. One of the questions was with which foreign schools Lithuanian Elos schools cooperated during the project. Lithuanian Elos schools cooperate with schools from Portugal, Spain, Germany, France, Norway, England, Belgium, The Netherlands, and Italy, all of whom participated in the Elos project. They also cooperate with schools from Turkey, which is implementing the above-mentioned project, and Iceland, which does not participate in the Elos project. Most schools cooperating in the project are from The Netherlands and Norway—three out of four surveyed schools named these

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countries, and two schools out of four cooperate with schools from Germany. There are intentions to cooperate with educational institutions from Italy and England as well as to start cooperating with educational institutions in Romania. When answering the questionnaire, the teachers expressed their opinion about the participation of all groups of school community members as well as about their part in the implementation of EIO. Having asked the respondents to assess the interest and/or contribution of school authorities in implementing European and international orientation, most respondents assessed this as excellent (35%) and as very good (35%). Fifteen percent of the respondents evaluated the attention paid by the authorities as good and satisfactory. It is possible to draw the conclusion that this project was well supported from “the top” in schools. When assessing the answers of the teachers about the contribution of their colleagues to the implementation of EIO, the results showed that 20% of the teachers felt rather weak interest—they evaluated the activity of their colleagues as satisfactory—and most respondents (35%) thought that their colleagues’ interest and/or activity should be assessed as good or even very good. Only 15% of the teachers felt that people were fully oriented towards the implementation of EIO work in their organisation. When answering the question regarding how they evaluated the results of their activity within the project, the schools noted a variety of aspects. One of the schools was pleased by having employed a teacher from Spain, who teaches English as well as holds courses in Spanish and Italian. Most respondents mentioned that good relationships had developed between the school and its foreign counterpart. They also noticed the influence of the project on the curriculum; pupils and teachers acquired deeper knowledge about their own country and other countries’ society and culture; they understood the importance of international cooperation in life-long learning; pupils, teachers, and parents acquired or improved their competences in different areas. The improvement of pupils’ foreign language knowledge was evident. Most respondents report that the school became more open to change; it was oriented towards European dimensions. All results are supported by the activities taking place, the achievements of pupils, the implementation of projects, and so on. A survey, formal and informal conversations, as well as meetings took place. Both positive and negative aspects were identified when answering the question how the school succeeded in attaining Elos’ goals. Of course, the attainment of the Elos goals is hardly qualitatively and quantitatively measured, as the results of the project activity will make evident later. The schools participating in the Elos project stated that they received methodological, moral, and financial support from the national coordinator, the Institute of Educational Studies, Kaunas University of Technology, and Socrates Na-

Implementation of the European Dimension in Education in Lithuanian Schools    331

tional Agency; thus, the goals were adequately attained. Elos classes were established, teachers were trained, different kinds of cooperation took place, and so forth. A more comprehensive picture can be gained by incorporating answers of the respondents to the questions. Table 20.1 presents data that show how activities and programs were implemented within the schools during the project. Most schools collaborated with foreign schools, and many teachers were able to refresh their qualifications at seminars and courses. Participation in the projects relating to European dimensions also played an important role. Pupils’ mobility and bilingual teaching (learning)/intensive teaching (learning) of foreign languages did not take place at all the schools chosen for the survey, and a lower success rate was identified in involving language specialists and/or foreign teachers teaching in their native language into the activity and teacher mobility (see Table 20.1). Summarizing the answers of the respondents regarding applied methods, it is possible to state that presentations on different European and international topics are most frequently prepared in an Elos format—all respondents confirmed this. Most respondents mentioned exchange of inTable 20.1  Impact of ELOS upon School Activity Statements in the questionnaire The school gained experience from other countries Greater understanding, respect for the language and culture of other countries is felt Intensive cooperation with teachers and pupils from schools in other countries takes place (by means of e-mail and other media) Pupils more learned more about the European Union (memorised important dates, know important events, etc.) To participate in the Elos project teachers are stimulated by courses, seminars, visits abroad Pupils improved their foreign language skills Pupils and/or teachers began to use information and communication technologies more frequently Participation in the Elos project—it is an advantage in comparison to not participating schools. Pupils’ results improved, learning motivation is increased Elos—is an important step towards European public spirit

Absolutely disagree

Partially agree

Absolutely agree

5%

15%

80%

25%

75%

25%

75%

10%

90%

45%

55%

5%

30% 35%

70% 60%

5%

25%

70%

35%

65%

25%

75%

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formation by means of e-mail/Internet as the method used in implementing European and international orientation. Other frequently used tools are excursions, organisation of conferences or meetings, and integrated lessons. More than half of the teachers cited traditional lessons, individual assignments, learning at partners’ schools, additional lessons of foreign languages, and discussions. Using games as a tool was implemented the least. When answering the question whether the school paid sufficient attention to the implementation of European and international orientation in the Elos formats, 40% of the Elos team members answered positively, and 60% of the respondents stated the reasons preventing the implementation of the Elos project goals. According to 26% of the teachers, one of the most important reasons is lack of specialists, and 23% of the respondents name lack of time as the main reason. The numbers stating lack of knowledge and experience as well as more attention being paid to other activities show that insufficient focus on and attention to the implementation of European and international orientation is distributed in equal percentage parts (by 19%). Thirteen percent of the respondents indicate lack of material and teaching aids as the reason. No teacher stated that the implementation of European and international orientation was not a priority. As mentioned above, at the end of the Elos project schools filled in Elos portraits. When analyzing the school portraits presented in answer to the question, “What did your school want to achieve in participating in Elos?”, it became clear that most schools relate this aim to the creation of European learning environments and strive for European competence by using created environments. Schools pointed out the following aspects: “to develop a European learning environment for acquisition, assessment and recognition of pupil’s, teacher’s and school’s European competences” (Utena school); “to acquire competences relevant to whole European space, to create European learning environments and to develop a European public spirit” (Ariogala school). Other schools place more emphasis on aiming to become a European school, in which European learning environments would be created in order to acquire European competences: “to become a European school where every member of the school community is able to acquire competences relevant for the European environment” (Daukantas school); “to become an open and tolerant European school which seeks to help its pupils to acquire competences significant for learning, working and living in the European space” (Utena school). This shows a particular orientation of schools to the fact that young people who have finished or are still attending school could learn, work, and live in Europe; these aspects reflect the European educational dimension— mobility and its premises. Such comprehensive orientation creates another problem already existing in Lithuania: “brain drain.” Other schools stress aspects of improvement in the education process and quality improvement in implementing European educational dimensions: “to create a European

Implementation of the European Dimension in Education in Lithuanian Schools    333

school pattern and introduce a European dimension in the process of education” (Varpas school); “to improve the quality of education in school and to help school community members acquire European citizenship skills and competences through the learning environment” (Šilainiai school). Also, there are schools that presented less ambitious but more detailed goals and objectives such as “to implement modern, competitive and dynamic European society skills, learn about Europe, and make new contacts” (Veršvos school) and “to increase media and European awareness” (Purienos school). The goals identified by Elos schools display the attitudes of the schools oriented towards a realisation of the European dimension. This is one of the goals of the project, but it is important to emphasise international orientation as well. According to Oonk (2007), it is necessary to employ the description “European and international orientation” in the search for a responsible balance in education between a focus on Europe and a focus on the world. By including the European and international elements within a single concept, a balanced treatment of these subjects can be achieved in education. On the other hand, though the goals are related to EIO implementation, it is important not to forget national identity and a curriculum of dissemination of national peculiarities. One more important aspect of the project is the development of European competences in pupils’ learning experiences. Which competences are considered as acquired? Schools pointed out the following competences as important: understanding of other European nations and their cultures has improved; understanding that pupils may find their learning environments outside the school; communication in English competence; digital competence and team work competence, and so on. How was the aim to achieve European competences realized and integrated into lesson plans and work schemes? European topics were integrated into the separate subjects of ICT, English language, history, geography, biology, the Lithuanian language, and others; schools celebrated the Europe day, the European languages day, and the anniversary of Lithuania’s admission to the European Union; pupils from Lithuania together with contemporaries from Poland, Germany, and The Netherlands participated in an international campus, held conferences—for example, “Hop, hop through Europe” (Atgimimo school); in the academic year 2007–2008, Druskininkai Atgimimo school had a Comenius assistant who taught English and gave Spanish and Italian courses; there was activity at school and curriculum level as well as extracurricular activities; content and language integrated learning (CLIL) has been embedded into the curriculum; students’ self-assessment by European language portfolio (ELP) has been exercised. In their portraits, Elos schools also had to answer the question “What has been most successful and what has been an obstacle in achieving Elos school aims?” Schools noted the following aspects as being important: teachers and students got acquainted with Europe competence; Elos classes have been set

334    B. JANIUNAITE

up; the CLIL project in the Elos classes; modules in English were taught; the school community members were involved in project work; pupils’ motivation increased; impact on pupils’ perception and their attitudes towards multiculturalism and European citizenship; development of an integrated syllabus, and so on. Schools mentioned the following interferences as relevant: the lack of teachers, parents, and even administrators involved in Elos; communication skills in foreign languages; the approval of a Comenius project Elos adding additional workload; some schools mentioned that classes where not equipped enough with educational resources about Europe and the EU; students’ and teachers’ indifference and passiveness, and so on. In summary, it is possible to state that the Lithuanian education system, which has experienced several radical transformations of values, faces a new objective—implementation of a European dimension in education; it is determined by the integration processes in this area, and it creates new possibilities as well as carrying certain cautions. In the beginning of the independence restoration, Soviet ideology that had been inherent in education was changed into national and later into educational content of the independent democratic state of Lithuania, seeking to integrate into the community of Europe and the world. When different transformations take place, the necessity to implement a European dimension in education, which no doubt needs scientific assessment by revealing conditioned possibilities and limitations of the implementation, becomes evident. The performed analysis of the research results shows us that implementation of a European dimension into educational practice takes place directly and/or indirectly—that is, through curriculum and extracurricular activities. Carrying out large and small-scale research at different stages assesses the effectiveness of the implementation process. Some research (European Commission, European Opinion Research Group EEIG, 2003; European Commission (The Gallup Organisation), 2008; Matulionis, 2005; Socialinių tyrimų institutas, 2004) shows the context in which implementation of a European dimension in education—emphasizing the feeling of European identity, public spirit, self-identification as a European—should take place; other researchers (Adaškevičienė, 2003; Matuzevičiūtė, 2003; Railienė, 1998) focus on the implementation of a European dimension in education into separate subjects and their curriculum areas. It is necessary to note that the implementation of a European dimension in education is a new educational phenomenon requiring systemic qualitative and quantitative research. References Adaškevičienė, V. (2003). Europinio identiteto kaip švietimo dimensijos raiška Lietuvos bendrojo lavinimo mokyklos ugdymo turinyje [Manifestation of European iden-

Implementation of the European Dimension in Education in Lithuanian Schools    335 tity as educational dimension in the curriculum of a Lithuanian secondary school] (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Kaunas University of Technology, Kaunas, Lithuania. Ballantyne, R. (1999). Teaching environmental concepts, attitudes and behaviour through geography education: Findings of an international survey. International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, 8, 40–58. Castells, M. (2002). The construction of European identity (Statement prepared for the European presidency of the European Union). Retrieved from http://www. chet.org.za/publications.asp European Commission, European Opinion Research Group EEIG. (2003). Eurobarometer 60. Public opinion in the European Union. Autumn 2003. Retrieved from http:// ec.europa.eu/public_opinion European Commision (The Gallup Organisation). (2008). European Union citizenship. Analytical report. Flash Eurobarometer. Retrieved from http:// ec.europa. eu/public_opinion/flash Hix, S.(2004). The political system of the EU. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan Krupavičius, A., & Šarkutė, L. (2005). Nacionalinis ir europinis identitetas Lietuvoje: ekonominiai ir socialiniai veiksniai [National and European identities in Lithuania: Economical and social factors]. In R. Grigas (Ed.), Tautinės tapatybės dramaturgija. Lietuvių tautinis identitetas ir integralumas kintančiame pasaulyje (pp. 299–310). Vilnius, Lithuania: Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas. Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija. (1997). Lietuvos bendrojo lavinimo mokyklos bendrosios programos. I-X klasės. [The General Curriculum of General Education]. Vilnius, Lithuania: Švietimo aprūpinimo centras. Lietuvos švietimo ministerijos švietimo aprūpinimo centras. (2003). Lietuvos bendrojo lavinimo mokyklos bendrosios programos ir išsilavinimo standartai. Priešmokyklinis, pradinis ir pagrindinis ugdymas [The General Curriculum and Educational Standards of General Education].Vilnius, Lithuania: Švietimo aprūpinimo centras. Matulionis, A. V. (2005). Identiteto identifikacija: Sociologinio tyrimo rezultatai [Identification of identity: Data of sociological research]. In R. Grigas (Ed.), Tautinės tapatybės dramaturgija. Lietuvių tautinis identitetas ir integralumas kintančiame pasaulyje (pp. 202–216). Vilnius, Lithuania: Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas. Matuzevičiūtė, D. (2003). Europos dimensijos realizavimas mokant geografijos [Realisation of European educational dimensions in teaching geography] (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Vilnius Pedagogical University, Vilnius, Lithuania. Oonk, G. H. (2007) Internationalisation in primary and secondary education, a theoretical exploration of policy, implementation, effects and research. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs. Railienė, L. (1998). Tautinės savimonės ir europinio identiteto ugdymas mokant geografijos 6-oje klasėje [Development of national self-awareness and European identity when teaching geography in the 6th grade] (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Klaipeda University, Klaipèda, Lithuania. Socialinių tyrimų institutas. (2004). Etniškumo studijos 2004. Europos integracijos suvokimai [Etnicity studies 2004. Perceptions of European integration]. Vilnius, Lithuania: Eugrimas.

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Chapter 21

European and International Education in Polish Schools Examples from the Research on the Social Campaign “School with Class” Grażyna Czetwertyńska

Social Campaign “School with Class” It is possible to illustrate the importance attached by Polish schools to European education and their readiness to operate in an international environment using the analysis of results of the large-scale social campaign “School with Class.” Almost all schools participating in the Elos program chose this project. Currently, the research describing the results of the campaign and the possibilities of using programs of this type to improve the quality of school work is being completed (Czetwertyńska, in press). “School with Class” was a social program aimed at promoting a new way of educational thinking in educational thinking in Polish schools, showing the principles behind modern, effective teaching, improving its quality,

Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 337–353 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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contributing to the development of educational culture, and stimulating the cooperation between schools and their local environment. Its objective was also to indicate new program directions on which it would be worthwhile to focus while preparing students to live in an ever-changing world. Project coordinators focused mainly on civic and European education, foreign languages, and use of the internet. They intended to evoke a discussion within the schools themselves and to awaken the educational community by inviting them to participate in such a massive undertaking. They were also trying to encourage the teachers to prove both to themselves and to society that Polish schools are able to work well and, in some cases, are already working well. “School with Class” began on May 20, 2002. The initial ideas for the project were developed in the Center for Citizenship Education1 (CCE). It was prepared in cooperation with the biggest Polish newspaper Gazeta Wyborcza and the website gazeta.pl. The program was carried out under the patronage of the Polish president at the time— Mr. Aleksander Kwaśniewski. Project managers communicated with participants via the internet—schools accessed the program by registering on the website and then completing tasks offered within the project, supported by tips and hints, in-depth methodological documentation, and examples of good practice. Once assignments were completed, task teams appointed by the schools examined the actions undertaken, obtained results, and published their reports on the Internet. These reports were read by experts, but also assessed by peers, as teachers were required to give feedback to their colleagues on the quality of the presented proposals. There were three editions of the School with Class project, followed by a few versions dedicated to particular fields of school work, such as “Lego, Cogito, Ago.” This particular project concentrated on how to teach effective reading with understanding, thinking, and acting. Subsequent versions were dedicated to teachers who wanted to develop their methodological abilities (project “Teacher with Class”) and to students, who, under the supervision of their teachers, were getting involved in various educational projects (e.g., “Student with Class,” where students were writing blogs in which they reported the progress of their projects). Their activities were grouped into three categories: “I am a creator,” “I am a researcher,” and “I help others.” A total of 5,679 schools took part in the program, out of which 5,290 succeeded; 4,883 people were awarded the title of “Teacher with Class.” In the original version of the project, one of the most important ideas was “school preparing for the future,” including European education and learning of foreign languages. In subsequent versions, this idea took the form of numerous initiatives demonstrating the commitment of the schools and progress made by the teachers developing their own professional abilities. As a consequence, positive results were achieved in the improvement of the quality of teaching.

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Schools were invited to proceed in accordance with Total Quality Management rules determined by Bonstingl (1995), particularly to analyze each other’s work (not only assess), in order to improve the process but also to highlight any problems and suggest any necessary change in the proposals. The project coordinators were acting in line with the theory of Dewey (1933), according to which the basis of good educational activity is critical reflection—an important aspect of both teaching and learning. Researchers are still looking for developmental or evolutionary aspects of critical reflection in teaching. A few important rules of reflective practice proposed by the researchers below were also adopted in the School with Class project: • Teachers learn from their own practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). • Teachers continually evaluate whether activities and practices adopted by them are well chosen and adequate (Richardson, 1994a, 1994b). • Reflection performed at school must be based on knowledge of subject or domain, knowledge of learning and pedagogy, instructional purpose, and concern about the effects of personal actions on others (Darling-Hammond, Wise, & Klein, 1995). Strong emphasis was placed on all the above aspects during the program. There was always a diagnosis, self-evaluation, and peer assessment element at the beginning of each teacher team work session, supported by an evaluation plan for scheduled activities. It was extremely important to offer all the participants access to good methodological materials, as well as the opportunity to consult experts and colleagues who were dealing with similar tasks. Not only the experience itself but also reflection on it can become a source of positive change in the process of educating.2 This is why teachers’ reflections were so important in the campaign. The route taken by teachers working in the project is illustrated in Figure 21.1. Six principles—standards of functioning of a good school—were proposed by program coordinators, and a few tasks were assigned to each of the principles. Schools were supposed to fulfill one task per principle; the idea was to choose a task in which a school was internally evaluated as poor and wanted to make improvement. The principles were as follows: 1. School teaches each of the students well: “A school with class explains, arouses interest, cares if students achieve better results and develop life aspirations.” 2. School assesses fairly: “A school with class gives fair assessment. Students know what they should learn; they know and understand assessment rules.”

340    G. CZETWERTYŃSKA

3. School teaches students to think and understand the world: “A school with class teaches creative and critical thinking; it helps to understand the world and to manage it in a better way.” 4. School provides social development and teaches sensibility: “A school with class provides social development, teaches sensibility, cooperation, acting on behalf of others and for the common good.” 5. School promotes a faith in oneself, creates a good ambiance: “A school with class helps students to believe in themselves; it has a friendly and respectful atmosphere.” 6. School prepares for the future: “A school with class prepares for life in a modern world. It teaches foreign languages, encourages use of computers and the Internet, it introduces students to the world of culture.” The program was led by institutions not used to these kinds of activities, and without any institutional influence being placed upon the schools. Participation in the program as well as withdrawal from it were decisions to be made solely by the schools with no formal consequences. The awards were School with Class titles and diplomas signed by the patron of the project—the President of the Republic of Poland. The auExamine—discover problem (Which elements of your actions in a given area are not satisfying?

Act and keep checking efficiency. (How does it work?)

Ask questions and suggest hypotheses (Why does it happen)? so?)

Collect and analyse data on your own teaching efficiency. Draw conclusions. (What can I change?)

Figure 21.1  Diagram showing route taken by teachers in the project.

European and International Education in Polish Schools    341

thors of the tasks, who offered schools the opportunity to change their teaching for the better, were relying on the knowledge and experience of experts working for the CCE, a non-government organisation responsible for several educational projects in Poland, including all projects under the heading School with Class, with the authority to train teachers, and on the power of the leading publisher in the marketplace, which guaranteed publication of the results. Interest in European/International Orientation and Foreign Languages It is worth mentioning that tasks from the sixth group proved very popular. This group related to international subjects. Research shows that high levels of knowledge in this area go hand in hand with good, efficient teaching and upbringing. Schools participating in the campaign, involved in educational projects offered by the program managers, obtained better results in external tests than average Polish schools. Tasks associated with this area were not considered as the easiest; they were chosen because of their importance in the educational process. In addition to this, the program began in the time directly preceding Poland’s accession to the European Union, and, apart from obligatory European themes required by Polish programs, many schools were developing their curriculum in this field. In recognition of the level of interest shown by students and teachers and the attempts to establish contacts that would allow for international exchanges with schools abroad, the number of hours devoted to foreign languages was increased (outside the hours agreed by school administrations). Schools chose which area they were particularly keen to improve. They chose one of five tasks in a given field. As shown in Table 21.1 and Figure 21.2, among 5,265 schools taking part in the program, 1,196 concentrated on assignments associated with learning foreign languages and 1,096 on assignments associated with European education. Interest in language tasks was to increase in the following years, whereas the number of schools choosing European education as the area of particular interest started to decrease when Poland entered the EU. Schools redefined their goals, and less time was dedicated to informing students on a united Europe and more on preparing students for their future functioning in an international environment. As for foreign languages education, teachers from over one thousand schools that chose this task analyzed their teaching strategies and applied methods of work; they also presented various forms of cooperation with students, the presence of which increased during the program.

342    G. CZETWERTYŃSKA Table 21.1  Scheme of Interest for Particular Tasks in “School with Class” Project, within the Sixth Principle “School Prepares for the Future,” in Years 2002–2005 School prepares for the future

A. How do we teach languages?—improvement in organisation of classes and modernisation of methods of teaching foreign languages B. Access to a computer and the Internet—use of computers during classes for different subjects and while working on educational projects C. More culture—improvement of teaching and increasing cultural activity of students, additional hours devoted to theatre classes, choir, art classes, film D. Students enter Europe—broadening of knowledge and abilities necessary to function in the European environment, especially the field of international cooperation E. Independent and resourceful—formation of civic attitudes, increase of responsibility for one’s own future, independency and resourcefulness

1,196

22.72%

1,090

20.70%

1,679

31.89%

1,096

20.82%

204

3.87%

5,265

100.00%

A B C D E

Figure 21.2  Popularity of the tasks within “School prepares for the future” group.

Figure 21.3 shows activities chosen by schools from “How do we teach languages.” Apart from establishing contacts with native speakers from abroad, schools expressed their interest in art classes conducted in foreign languages and contact with the cultures of other countries through theater plays performed by students in foreign languages, song competitions, (also songs translated by students), watching and even making films in foreign languages, and so forth. School websites in foreign languages were also very popular. Very often, lesson scenarios included active methods. Following are a few examples of school activities undertaken within the School with Class project, including two schools using Elos standards and participating in the Elos program. These examples were prepared using school reports from the School with Class project, published on the program’s website.3

European and International Education in Polish Schools    343 others contact with native speakers theatre student exchange and international cooperation Internet song festivals films 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

Figure 21.2  Activities performed by children from schools that chose tasks from the group “How do we teach languages?”

Some Case Studies Zespół szkolno-gimnazjalny w Kodrębie (Primary School and Junior High School in Kodręba)4 (Elos School) At the primary school and junior high school in Kodręba, two obligatory foreign languages, German and English, constitute the school’s basic offer for foreign language education. German is the first foreign language and is taught in all grades; the fourth-grade students at primary stage have two hours per week and Classes 5 and 6 have three hours. Also, there are two hours allocated for the second foreign language per week. The school also offers additional after-school classes—conversations, free homework support, organized help for weaker learners, additional teacher–student meetings—during which they work on presentations to be given to the whole school during “European Days” and preparation for language competitions organized every year. Such meetings also provide a good opportunity for students to acquire abilities necessary for everyday use of language. Language classes, both timetabled and extracurricular, are conducted in groups of 12–17 students. Students are assigned to a given group on the basis of test results assessing their language level. There are two well-equipped language classrooms in the school; language lessons can also be organized in a computer classroom. Teachers and students also have access to a rich language library, providing all necessary didactic materials. Foreign language education is not limited to working with standard manuals; to a great extent, it is based on additional materials prepared by the teachers or the students themselves. Project methods are very often applied.

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When determining which issues needed improvement and which were well organized, teachers of this educational establishment decided to ascertain how students and parents were judging the school work and if they had any comments to make regarding the teaching of foreign languages. In order to do this, they distributed a survey prepared by program leaders, and an “open class” was also held during which parents completed assessment charts, sharing their remarks on a given lesson. One of the survey questions was related to the possibility of testing language abilities through meetings and correspondence with students from abroad. Teachers noted that, in spite of their efforts, 52% of students declared that it was impossible to learn a foreign language well at school; for 21%, the school created very good conditions for acquiring a foreign language on a good level, and for 25% the school was a place in which only the basics, necessary for further education, were being taught. Two percent of the students were undecided. The analysis of parents’ declarations showed that 75% considered the school to be fulfilling its duties properly and effectively preparing students for using language as a communication tool. Twenty percent judged the school’s organisation of foreign languages education as poor, and 5% had no opinion. According to the teachers, the best way of encouraging foreign language learning is to have the opportunity for direct communication in the chosen language; this is why students systematically exchange letters with peers from other European schools. Many different events are being organized cyclically—European Day, Nativity plays, school theater performances in German, song competitions, and so on. Students have also founded a European Club within the school. Publiczne Gimnazjum w Drążnej (Public Senior High School in Drążna)5 (Elos School) In the public senior high school in Drążna, students are divided into classes with a basic and an advanced language program. Admission of a student to a given class depends on the results of a language skill test carried out by an external examination institution. English is obligatory in Classes 1–3 with an advanced language program of five hours per week. Classes with the standard program have three hours per week. German classes take place two and three times a week, respectively. Students with a higher level of language competency are given additional activities for each subject, aiming to support their further development, whereas weaker students are offered compensational exercises to broaden their knowledge. The school

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also organizes summer language camps, during which students participate in various projects, language games, and plays and watch films. Thanks to the analysis of survey results, it appeared that 66% of parents, 64% of teachers, 70% of the second-year students and 80% of the third-year students were satisfied with the way foreign languages were taught at school. Respondents appreciated the work of teachers, who facilitate contacts with peers from abroad, offer interesting films and TV programs in original language versions, along with books, theatre plays, and projects. However, they requested more possibilities be made available for direct contact with native speakers—exchanges and trips abroad. Since its establishment, the school cares about the quality of the choices available and involvement in international projects—international contacts with schools from different European countries were established in 1999 via the “Euro Train and Tourism” project. The school also cooperates with Clinton High School in the U.S., under the patronage of the University of North Carolina. The project consists of e-mail exchange between students. In 2001, Drążna school organized an International Week of Education, inviting many students and teachers from the whole region, and in 2002 participated in the third Forum of European Clubs of Wielkopolska (region in central Poland), giving trainings for teachers and directors of regional schools and kindergartens on the Socrates program. The school also celebrated a Socrates Program Week to celebrate its participation in the event and got involved in the European Day of Languages and Spring Day in Europe projects. International student exchanges started in 2005, when the first students went to Italy, and since then learners have been going there every year. Also in 2005, but on a much larger scale, the bilateral student exchange program with Germany was started. Every year since September 2005, Drążna welcomes students from Niederwalgern (Hessen, Germany). The project is supported financially and didactically by the Polish–German Foundation for Youth Exchange (Jugendverk) and authorities from the community of Słupiec. In the school year 2004–2005, together with the Gesamtschule from Niederwalgern in Germany and Istituto Tecnico Commerciale Statale F.M. Genco from Altamura in Italy, the school got involved in the Socrates-Comenius program—“European Development Requires Communication.” Students analyzed regional waters and compared different methods of research and their results. Within the “Mathematical Analysis of Everyday Problems” project, they examined the questions of “work at present and in the past.” They also search for an answer to the question, “what is the future for our students in the era of the global village?” The teachers, explaining their reasons for joining the School with Class program, wrote, “We would like to streamline the teaching of languages and to persuade our students that the knowledge of foreign languages will

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enhance their future in a common Europe.” After joining the project, the school has also introduced elements of foreign language education to computer classes, enterprise management classes, an after-school geography class, and a European Club. During the program, the school was visited by teachers from Great Britain, Denmark, and Italy. Zespół Szkół Samorządowych, Gimnazjum w Sułkowicach-Bolęcinie (Junior High School in Sułkowice-Bolęcin)6 At the junior high school in Sułkowice-Bolęcin, every year a school festival, the motto of which is “Through the Paths of Europe,” is organized. This is a cyclical, community-wide event. Teachers and students from the previous year’s classes are responsible for the organisation of the celebrations; this is an original way of completing the compulsory subject path of European education. In 2003, the celebrations were linked to Austria and Germany, in 2004 to Greece and Italy, and in 2005 to France and the Benelux. All school students gathered and analyzed information on a given country, which also meant broadening their knowledge of geography, history, and political, cultural, and scientific life. The sources of data on EU countries were the Internet, satellite programs (also in German and English), and press articles. Students also used their own materials: pictures, postcards, or tourist folders from their stays abroad. They decorated classrooms and school corridors with flags, posters, and elements of the architecture and landscape typical for a given country. Among original students’ works, it is worth mentioning a two-meter-high Eiffel Tower made of matches. Representatives (students, teachers, principals) of junior high schools from the whole region, together with representatives of local and regional authorities, were invited for the celebrations. The students’ task was to prepare a scene relating to a chosen personality and to present it during the event. The school choir began the party with “Ode to Joy.” The guests were offered cakes originating from different European culinary traditions. People were actively participating in competitions and the prizes were lapel pins shaped as EU stars; students were having fun while obtaining knowledge of the European Union, its institutions, and its inhabitants. Students from Sułkowice-Bolęcin still maintain contacts with young people from other European countries, initially established via the Internet. In Isny (Baden-Württemberg, Germany, the region of Lake Constance) and Landgraaf (near Maastricht, The Netherlands), they were getting to know the habits, traditions, and culture of German and Dutch people. They also improved their ability to communicate in German. In Sułkowice, students welcomed their friends from Isny— they had a chance to present their own

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cultural heritage. Children participated in a musical workshop “To remember, for the future,” led by German musician Manfred Lemm, specializing in the history and culture of the Jewish nation, with particular attention to the work of Mordechaj Gebirtig, a Jewish poet and singer from Cracow (who died in 1942 in the Cracow ghetto). Manfred Lemm has collected and analyzed all the existing works of Gebirtig, popularized them, and introduced them to a wider public. “To remember, for the future” has become a cyclical event, taking place a few times a year, with an average participation of 30–50 people aged 13–19. So far, youth from Poland, Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, The Netherlands, Denmark, Switzerland, and Israel have taken part in it. But the crowning achievement of the students’ and teachers’ work was a Polish–German concert for the Bad Blankenburg public. The trip to Germany was also a good opportunity for the students to find new friends among peers from abroad. Often, parents offered help in completing tasks. For example, they prepared meals with regional dishes from all over Europe, provided articles and props needed, and helped with organizing meetings and cleaning up. The involvement of parents was also significant during the schoolchildren’s stay in school in Isny—ladies from a local Farmers’ Wives Association, wearing traditional Cracow costumes, served traditional meals during Polish Day. After the completion of the project, students wrote in their reports: The future of Poland in Europe depends mainly on ourselves but also on our politicians, who are supposed to represent our interests. I would be very happy if we managed to eliminate or at least decrease unemployment. This is a difficult situation in our country at present. Personally, I’m an optimist. I think in the forthcoming centuries Europe will be the best solution for all the Polish people. In my opinion the perspectives for young Poles are now much wider. Now everything depends on us. It’s us who can make the changes! However, we should not forget about our culture, tradition and history. Whilst being Europeans, we should still remain Poles!

Teachers wrote: Project and team work methods are certainly good patterns of teaching. International exchanges motivate students to learn foreign languages. Very often, thanks to the direct contact with foreigners, they realize how important it is to be able to speak their language. We need to improve the process of teaching of foreign languages. Each junior high school student should be provided with an opportunity to participate in an international exchange, and Polish and EU institutions should provide more support to these forms of education.

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Gimnazjum w Jastrzębiu Zdroju (Junior High School in Jastrzębie Zdrój)7 English is the first foreign language taught in the junior high school in Jastrzębie Zdrój. In order to improve students’ language skills and broaden their knowledge of English-speaking countries, the school joined the “Letters to Europe” project. During their English classes, third-year students were divided into small groups and asked to write an interesting letter to their peers from other European countries; letters written by the students contain information on the students themselves, their interests, hobbies, and plans, as well as information on their school and the place where they live. Enthusiasts of photography took pictures of the school and school community, which were attached to the letters. The most interesting were e-mailed to Ireland, Great Britain, and France. Within the task “Our Future in Europe,” the school organized lessons entitled “Poland from a Distant Perspective.” The aim of these classes was to develop students’ ability to analyze and interpret works of literature, to work as a team, to actively participate in discussions on social subjects, and to direct students’ attention to the importance of the notion of nationality and the possibility of changing the negative stereotype of a Pole functioning outside our country. A discussion took place on the subject of “What other nations think about us.” Some students pointed out positive features of the Polish people: kindness, hospitability, helpfulness, courage, and bravery; however, the majority were of the opinion that abroad the stereotypes of Pole-drunkard, Pole-thief, and Pole-intolerant conservative are very much alive. Students agreed that changing this cliché was a task for young people, who could take advantage of the possibilities that they had been given with Poland’s accession to EU. A European Christmas Eve was organized in the school. Its conception was very special, due to the fact that not much time had passed since Poland had joined the EU. Students therefore concentrated on new member states. They got involved in an educational project entitled “In a Big European Family.” Class representatives chose a country about which they would deliver a presentation during the party. European Christmas Eve took place on December 21, 2004, and almost 200 people participated in it. The celebrations began with a Nativity play entitled “King of Kings,” in which in a philosophical but also didactical way two worlds were presented: that of ancient Rome, with its wealth, music, and splendor, and that of Bethlehem, poor but rich in religious and moral values. The second part of the party included competitions and classes’ presentations. Each of the classes performed a special program, thanks to which other students could learn about the customs, traditions, and Christmas meals of different countries. Classes also presented beautifully decorated Christmas tables with cakes,

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biscuits, fruits, and characteristic Christmas meals of the countries they had chosen. Winners of the competitions received financial awards, which they could use for class excursions. Asked about their opinion on the activities offered within the project, students wrote: It’s a really cool thing. We organize many events, European Christmas Eve, Spring Day in Europe, European Days, and many competitions. As well as this, teachers discuss with us many issues related to the European Union in an interesting way. And certainly “live history” classes are the most interesting. When we’re getting involved in something, we prepare it immediately. We learn about traditions, customs, and values of other countries. And it should always be so! Thanks to Poland’s accession to the European Union we have become aware of many different possibilities, the most important of which is the possibility to make choices. We can leave our country or stay in it. We can spend our whole life abroad, or depart just for a while and come back. But we should always be proud of where we come from.

Gimnazjum w Zespole Szkół Publicznych w Reptowie (Junior High School in Reptowo)8 Students of the junior high school in Reptowo acquire basic knowledge of the EU during civic education classes and through the inter-subject path of European education. But the school also ensures that elements of European and international education appear during other subject classes, such as Polish, math, biology, and foreign languages. Below is a list of examples of subject objectives for civic education. The student is able to: • explain the notions of integration and the integration processes • show on the political map of Europe countries and cities related to the activity of the EU • list the main representatives of Poland in EU institutions • analyze the advantages of Poland being a member of the EU • show on the political map of Europe the countries that signed the Maastricht Treaty • discuss the main guidelines of the European integration program • follow the rate of economic growth in Poland and compare it to other countries • list the main arguments of Euro-skeptics and Euro-enthusiasts

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For the last ten years, the school has been cooperating with schools from Boitzenburg, Germany. In August 2004, teachers from both establishments set up a cooperation program entitled “Our Future in New Europe.” Students’ proposals were also taken into consideration—for example, excursions to European countries, workshops, competitions, a European stand during school festivals, and so on. Such long-term cooperation between the two schools constitutes a unique opportunity for many students to find new friends from abroad. Working in mixed-task teams during the workshops, integration plays, games, campfires, and visiting interesting places in both communities is helpful for establishing new contacts. All the above-mentioned activities not only prepare students to live in a common Europe but also help to get rid of common prejudices and to fight cultural and linguistic barriers. In September 2006, during an integration meeting in Reptowo, students from both schools participated in a Potato Festival. Teams were tasked with preparing potato salads, creating potato sculptures, and other artistic works entitled “Happy Potato.” Also, students participated in the opening of a renovated 18th century German cemetery in Motaniec. The event was an opportunity for the mayor of Boitzenburg (Germany) and the village mayor of Kobylanka (Poland) to talk about strengthening the cooperation between the two communities. During Polish lessons (embracing Polish language and Polish culture), students discussed “what it means to be European.” They analyzed cultural links between Poland and Europe and the impact of Polish culture on European culture; they interpreted a poem by Czesław Miłosz, “Child of Europe,” discussing the notions of cultural heritage, European culture, and Europe. Students wrote in their reports: European countries cooperate with each other for the common good. They try to agree on as many things as possible. In my opinion, by joining the European Union Poland has a chance for better development. Our future in Europe seems very promising. We are looking forward to the economic growth of our country and to increasing interest in Poland. We’ll get money for education and an improvement in our living standards. Poland has many talented people, who plan to link their future with Europe.

Incorporating elements of European education into different subject classes has been very popular among students. Classes using “activising”methods which concentrate on individual activities and research has given excellent results. Gimnazjum w Czerwionce-Leszczynach (Junior High School in Czerwionka-Leszczyny)9 Students in the junior high school in Czerwionka-Leszczyny learn two foreign languages—English and German. One practical way of applying ac-

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quired language skills is the use of the internet, online discussion channels, and chat rooms. The school cooperates with similar establishments in Thessaloniki (Greece) and Cluj (Romania). On February 7–12, 2005, in Thessaloniki, a meeting of cooperating schools—Romanian, Polish, and Greek— took place. Representatives from an Austrian school were also present, as they were planning to join the initiative in the following year. The school actively participates in various projects and events. During the celebrations of Spring Day in Europe, students participated in an international internet discussion forum, in which they presented their opinions on how they would behave in difficult situations. For example: “You see your friend stealing. What do you do?”; “You see that someone is abusing your friend. What do you do?”; “Your friend wants to drive you home, but he has been drinking alcohol. What do you do or what do you say?” The project “Our future in Europe” was prepared by using the program basis for the inter-subject path in European education. The students agreed to organize a festival of European Song and a Scrabble in English competition. Tasks planned within the project aimed to broaden the knowledge of EU structures and symbols, directing attention to important EU issues such as the ratification of the European Constitution and learning about EU member states. Additionally, every year the school celebrates European Language Day. During the last one, the students wrote papers on: “Why we celebrate European Language Day” and “Families of European Languages.” Later on, they presented short scenes in English—“I’m Right” and “English Teacher.” Language competition was another aim of the program—participants displayed their knowledge of English vocabulary, orthography, and etymology. They also explained the meaning of idioms, answering questions concerning the geography, history, and culture of German- and English-speaking countries. The most important part of the program was a festival of European Song, during which each of the classes was supposed to present a song in a chosen European language. The competition of Scrabble in English proved very popular, as over 40 people chose to participate. The school has also joined the Spring Day in Europe project, under the patronage of the European Commission. The main celebrations took place in the school gym. The day began by the official entrance of the Polish and European flags and the singing of the Polish and European anthems. Afterwards, the third-year students reminded others of the history of the EU and discussed its institutions and the symbols of the European community, the history of Polish access, and the process of the creation of a European Constitution. All classes showed great inventiveness in presenting European countries—their national symbols, languages, geography, history, monuments, interesting places, traditional outfits, music, and famous people. They supported their presentations with

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decorations, props, charts, models, recordings, and outfits, which made them even more interesting. Students also took part in the project “How are decisions made in the EU?” according to the scenario devised on the Spring Day in Europe website. They chose “finance and taxation” as a topic and published their findings on the Internet. One of the classes carried out a survey on the tolerance of Poles. The students interviewed members of their community who had come from abroad, asking them how they felt in Polish society. In their reports students have written: I think that by entering the European Union we were given a key with which we can open the door to a common Europe. But it was also a test for the strength of our national consciousness. We, young Poles, we have shown that we are not only the citizens of Poland and Europe but also the citizens of the whole world. I do believe that the unity of the Old Continent achieved thanks to the European Union will be built on a base of agreements, common support, and possibilities for positive changes in many areas of life. My future in Europe depends on my education. We are free to develop, to share our opinions on various issues and, finally, to decide on the future of Europe and world. We cannot waste what we’ve been given. We should take advantage of it! Use it before it’s too late. We need to care about a good, united community. We will be fighting for it.

Conclusions All the reports prepared by schools as well as presented files documenting the findings of over 15,000 educational projects show great enthusiasm among teachers and even greater among students. Prior to Poland’s entry to the EU and directly after it, hopes related to this event and students’ joy at the possibility of working with friends from other countries were, for the participants of School with Class, important reasons to choose the various tasks previously discussed. Methods of work and ideas were similar; everybody was establishing international contacts, getting to know other cultures, and searching for common roots and nationally distinctive features, and, undoubtedly, everybody understood very well the necessity of learning foreign languages. Polish schools owe their success in this area of education mainly to the attractiveness of themes and strong motivation of all the interested parties—students, teachers, and parents. In many cases, especially in villages and small towns, activities undertaken by the schools contributed to the development of the school itself and helped to build its identity, to establish interesting rules of cooperation between students and teachers, and to improve the functioning of the school in local society.

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Notes 1. Centrum Edukacji Obywatelskiej (Centre for Citizenship Education)—an association which has for many years propagated the idea of civic society in Poland; co-author of the subject of “civic education” in Polish schools; an institution leading many projects in educational establishments. 2. See The Role of Critical Reflection in the Portfolio Process, http://www.sitesupport. org/module1/teacherreflection.htm 3. www.szkolazklasa.pl 4. A school located in a small community in central Poland. Around 500 students are taught by 40 teachers. Students are commuting from 33 surrounding villages. 5. A small village school of 190 students and 16 teachers. 6. A small school of 90 students and 13 teachers located in a village of 2,000 inhabitants located in the south of Poland. 7. A school in a city of 90,000 inhabitants, located in the south of Poland, close to the border with the Czech Republic. Around 300 students of the school are taught by 28 teachers. 8. A school of 130 students and 13 teachers, located in a small village of 800 inhabitants in western Poland. 9. A school located in a Silesian town of around 30,000 inhabitants, educating 230 students by 26 teachers.

References Bonstingl, J. J. (1995), Szkoły Jakości Wprowadzenie do Total Quality Management w Edukacji [Schools of quality: An introduction to Total Quality Management in education]. Warsaw, Poland: CODN. Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (1999), The teacher research movement: A decade later. Educational Researcher, 28(7), 15–25. Czetwertyńska, G., (in press). Akcja społeczna “Szkoła z klasą” jako strategia zmiany szkoły polskiej. Plany, oczekiwania, reakcje [Social Campaign “School with Class” as a strategy for changing Polish school. Plans, hopes, reactions]. Warsaw, Poland: University of Warsaw, Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies “Artes Liberales.” Darling-Hammond, L., Wise, A. E., & Klein, S.vP. (1995). A license to teach. Building a profession for 21st- century schools. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Dewey, J. (1933), How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process (rev. ed.). Boston, MA: Heath. Richardson, V. (1994a). How teachers change. What will lead to change that most benefits student learning? Retrieved from http://www.ncsall.net/index.php?id=395 Richardson, V., (Ed.). (1994b). Teacher change and the staff development process: A case in reading instruction. New York: Teachers College Press.

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Chapter 22

Opportunities for Successful Educational Policy Jaap Dronkers

Any discussion of educational policies aimed at reducing educational inequality is necessarily subjective, even if the policies are based on recent research and lessons that have been learned from past mistakes. Although it is possible to learn from mistakes, these mistakes cannot provide a recipe for the future, as history never literally repeats itself (as either tragedy or comedy). In hindsight, academic research might be successful in explaining social phenomena, but such insights cannot produce a set of unquestionable rules for the future. There are two important limitations to the possibility of reducing educational inequality. Policies are unable to remove or compensate for fundamental social inequalities, as they are too strongly associated with the division of labor in and between societies. This does not mean that the division of labor—and therefore social inequality—is fixed, but it does mean that new divisions of labor will be accompanied by new and different inequalities.1 Educational policy is capable, though, of cushioning and softening the consequences of inequality: first, by limiting the extreme consequences Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 355–368 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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of inequality as much as possible, and second, by being alert to new forms of inequality. The latter point highlights the second important limitation: Continuous shifts are taking place in the sum of the many, partly opposing, processes in and around education, which I have outlined above. These shifts are only partly the consequences of educational policy. Usually, they are the result of the reactions to social developments both inside and outside of education. Policies that focus on reducing educational inequality can never be complete, just as there is no such thing as a definitive victory in this field. Nonetheless, the 20th century showed that it is possible to obtain temporary successes; the challenge for politics is thus to produce a series of temporary successes. The following actions could contribute to the successful reduction of educational inequality within the countries of the European Union: (1) invest in the development of early ability; (2) achieve a balance between area and school segregation by combining a limited form of free choice of schools with mixed neighborhoods; (3) ensure equal teaching conditions in all schools; (4) promote joint management of schools by teachers, parents, and representatives of civil society; (5) require the central and public assessment of final results with curriculum-based final examinations, but without governmental process control; (6) combine limited differentiation within and between educational types with generous opportunities for transfer; and (7) provide generous, inexpensive, and performance-related student loans instead of free tertiary education. The importance of increasing the quality of working conditions for teachers and the necessary increase in the quality of teacher training programs are not discussed here. This is not because they are unimportant, but because they are not directly related to educational inequality, which is the subject of this chapter. Invest in Early Ability Development The most effective way to fight unequal educational opportunities is to reduce differences in young cognitive development. As outlined in Dronkers (2010), differences in cognitive ability develop in the early years of childhood, and they become fixed in neurological patterns and hardware over the years (certainly by puberty). These differences are a result of the continuous interaction between the biologically based (but not yet fixed) potential of children and stimuli from parents and other significant people. The higher the quality of the stimuli and the education by the parents is, the greater the chance that the cognitive development of children will be encouraged successfully.2 Delays in the stimulation of cognitive develop-

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ment decrease the likelihood of success, as parts of the neurological patterns will already have been set. Because small children in Europe often spend most of their time with their parents, who are also held responsible for their upbringing, the fight against inequality of educational opportunity should begin by increasing the quality of parenting. The more this quality varies within a society, the greater will be the differences in the development of cognitive capability. There are three possibilities for improving the quality of parenting: 1. Provide advice and assistance to all parents, so that they are better able to deal with the complicated problems involved in raising children in modern society. A society that seriously aspires to address inequality of educational opportunity should organize such help and advice so that it reaches all parents. 2. Provide specific assistance to help parents develop and maintain their relationships. A good relationship between parents is an important condition for successful parenting, and it therefore has an indirect effect on social inequality. Maintaining this relationship is thus more than a purely private affair; it ultimately affects society as a whole. Now that marriage for life can no longer be taken for granted in modern society—nor is it likely to return in the coming decades3—the quality of relationships between parents (whether before or after divorce) must be of concern to society. Relationship help and therapy should be included in the standard health insurance package, as the process of having and raising children can introduce new tensions into a relationship (e.g., conflict over the division of tasks, parenting ideals, expectations for work, and relaxation). For this reason, parents who wish to separate or divorce (regardless of whether they were married or had a formal partnership contract) should first take part in relationship therapy in order to determine that the desire for divorce or separation is not simply the result of a difficult phase, which is inevitable in any relationship. It should be possible for parents to separate or divorce only if clear rules have been drawn up regarding the care of the children by both parents.4 Everything must be done to prevent conflicts from continuing (or becoming worse) after the divorce or separation, as is usually the case. It may also be beneficial to develop ways of reducing the legal battle in the divorce process, as this tends to stimulate conflict between former partners. Furthermore, divorce and separation procedures should also acknowledge that children have at least as much interest in the relationship between their parents as the parents themselves do, even after divorce or separation.

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3. The educational level of young women in Europe is already higher than that of their male contemporaries. Combined with the high chance of divorce or separation, this higher level of education means that most women continue to work once they have children. High-quality, affordable childcare from birth is therefore an important contribution to improving the parenting environment. Childcare is thus not only of concern to employers and employee organisations or to parents but also to society itself. Ensuring the highest possible quality and availability of childcare and creating a stimulating environment for growing children could decrease the magnitude of differences in cognitive capability. This would involve ensuring reasonable staff–child ratios; highly qualified caregivers;5 sufficient opportunities for play, eating, and sleep; and the elimination of childcare waiting lists (to ensure that parents from the lower strata are able to find good places for their children). Activities in childcare should focus on creating a rich and stimulating environment, which contributes to the development of all children. Childcare must therefore provide much more than accommodations for children whose parents work; its primary focus must be raising children on behalf of parents and society. Similar reasoning obviously applies to after-school care for both primary and secondary school children. After-school care must also focus on creating a rich and stimulating environment, particularly for children from the lower strata. Widely available, high-quality childcare and after-school care could further reduce the stress of work and parenting, which disproportionately affects women, thereby benefiting both relationships and parenting. Achieve a Balance Between Area and School Segregation The adverse consequences of the link between area and school segregation, as described in Dronkers (2010), must be brought into balance through a combination of a limited form of free choice of school and variation in housing within areas. Strictly linking school choice to living in particular areas increases area segregation by affecting the housing prices in those areas. Ambitious parents from the lower strata therefore find it impossible to send their children to better schools outside the areas in which they live. On the other hand, complete freedom with regard to the choice of school further increases school segregation, because of the tendency toward homophily (“Birds of a feather flock together”), even though it would reduce area segregation by disconnecting housing prices and the attractiveness of the local school. The best solution is likely to involve a combination of lim-

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ited choice among schools that receive equal government funding and in which students are admitted according to a point system that applies to the municipality as a whole. Particular student characteristics that play a role in school and area segregation would be registered, and this information would be used in the point system to ensure that children from the lower strata have an increased chance of being admitted to good schools.6 At the same time, every possible effort should be made to keep neighborhoods as heterogeneous as possible, in terms of both stratum and ethnic origin. Mixed housing (i.e., the availability of good, expensive housing in less affluent areas and social or rented housing in more affluent areas) alone is not enough, as residing in the same area does not mean living together. To promote this, local residents should take joint responsibility for their surroundings, including the primary school (see Dronkers, 2010). There should also be a statutory and enforceable ban on selecting students according to financial situation and origin. The German constitution is one of the best European examples of such a ban on selection according to the parental financial resources (Besitzverhältnisse).7 Such a ban would not ignore the relationship between school results and the social background; it would primarily mean that schools would be allowed to select only according to school results and not according to the parental resources. This could help children with proven ability to gain admission to the school of their choice, while forcing schools to adopt transparent selection policies. Ensure Equal Teaching Conditions in All Schools The importance of teaching conditions in schools was addressed in detail in Dronkers (2010), where it was made clear that it is impossible to make such conditions completely equal. Because of area and school segregation, student populations will always differ, and the teaching conditions in different schools will therefore never be the same. There are three ways in which education policy can decrease the inequality of teaching conditions, thereby decreasing the likelihood of educational inequality. The first solution involves providing equal and sufficient funding for comparable education institutions and preventing extra funding by parents and other interested parties. The second involves applying the same quality requirements to all schools, regardless of differences in teaching conditions. The third involves compensating for circumstances that result in unequal teaching conditions. From the perspective of the current praxis of most European societies, the equal and sufficient funding of comparable education institutions seems obvious, but it is not. This is primarily apparent in the fact that equal funding is the result of a long political struggle, which began in The Netherlands with the French Revolution and ended only with the Education Pact

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in the early 20th century. In France, this political struggle ended as late as 1960. Equal funding also ended class education. Equal and sufficient funding is not a given in a number of English-speaking countries, where funding depends on local property taxes and is therefore not equal. Equal funding reduces the influence of schools on educational results, thereby reducing the inequality of educational opportunity. The “sufficient funding” condition is necessary, as parents from the higher strata understandably turn to private education if they believe that government-funded education is insufficiently equipped to carry out its task.8 Sufficient governmental funding for education is therefore an important means of reducing the inequality of educational opportunity. Financial efficiency in education is obviously to be applauded, although reasoning based on business economics or state finances should not be the ultimate criteria for assessing the actual level of educational funding. The rapid growth of private schools or (partially) privately funded schools (e.g., English-language schools) should be interpreted as a sign that the funding of educational institutions is no longer sufficient and that the understandable9 flight of the higher strata to private education has begun, also in European societies with a tradition of equal and sufficient funding, like The Netherlands.10 In time, this development will lead to greater inequality in teaching conditions and therefore to greater inequality in educational opportunity. Extra funding from parents and other parties who have an interest in educational institutions (e.g., employers) is undesirable. On the one hand, it creates more inequality in teaching conditions. On the other hand, such funding can mask the average insufficient level of government funding for some time, as parents from the higher strata have more opportunity to complain about the level of funding than do parents from the lower strata. The private funding of schools reduces the need for parents from the higher strata to complain, while complaints from parents from the lower strata do not have sufficient political weight to make a substantial difference. One of the greatest temptations in the light of the divergent teaching conditions that continue to face schools, despite equal funding, is to relax the quality requirements of the schools that are forced to work under more difficult circumstances. One example involves the acceptance of larger differences between internal and central examination results at predominantly minority schools. Although such policies may appear kind and, in the short term, can help individual students obtain their diplomas, the relaxation of quality requirements has a negative effect in the long term. A Dutch example of the lower labor market opportunities of pupils from a predominantly ethnic school should clarify this (Dijkstra, Karsten, Veenstra, & Visscher, 2003). The average quality of graduates from predominantly ethnic schools with larger differences between internal and central examination grades is

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lower than that of graduates from predominantly white schools where the difference between these grades is smaller. In time, employers notice the lower quality and, based on statistical discrimination, develop a preference for not hiring graduates from predominantly ethnic schools.11 At the same time, graduates of these predominantly ethnic schools experience their disadvantage in finding employment (relative to their majority counterparts) as “real” discrimination, as they observe that they have fewer opportunities on the labor market despite having the same diplomas and grades.12 There are many examples to demonstrate the negative effect of qualitystandard differences among schools.13 This therefore implies that policymakers should maintain quality requirements as a way of reducing unequal opportunities (in the educational system as well as later, in the labor market) for children from different backgrounds. In the long term, neglecting selection in education by abandoning universal quality requirements means leaving selection to the labor market, in which universal criteria are applied less frequently and in which children from the lower strata are consequently at a disadvantage. In the long term, abandoning universal quality requirements will also encourage parents from the higher strata to arrange their own education, thereby increasing all of the disadvantages of unequal educational opportunities. It is possible to try to compensate for educational inequality that is caused by area and school segregation. In doing so, it is necessary to concentrate on the most important inequalities (i.e., available teaching and learning time). Increasing the available teaching time primarily involves employing and retaining good teachers who are able to spend as much teaching time as possible on as many students as possible. The importance of personnel management is therefore obvious: higher salaries for teachers who work in schools with difficult teaching conditions, performance bonuses (material and immaterial) for teachers who perform successfully in difficult schools (as an incentive for remaining at the school), and similar measures. In general, however, the primary and secondary employment conditions of teachers at difficult schools should exceed those of teachers in easier schools, such that the advantages of better employment conditions are in balance with the pleasure in teaching. Increasing the amount of available learning time means that as many students as possible spend as much time as possible on the core subjects. It is therefore necessary to consider how much learning time should be spent on each subject, both at school and at home. This means that time that is not spent on activities that are related to school or the curriculum is actually a wasted teaching and learning time, particularly for children from the lower strata. Reducing class size in primary education or paying for textbooks in secondary education are counterproductive with regard to compensating for difficult teaching conditions, as these solutions are costly, and they are pri-

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marily advantageous for children from the higher strata.14 Furthermore, they contribute little to increasing the teaching and learning time.15 Promote Joint Management of Schools by Teachers and Parents The effectiveness of schools increases to the extent that students, teachers, and parents feel involved in the school. Greater parental involvement forms a stronger social network around the school; the mutual contact between parents ensures that students are better protected. Greater involvement on the part of teachers generally contributes to a better school environment, because it encourages teachers to feel proud of their schools and work harder for them. Students from the lower strata benefit from higher-quality schools, as such schools maximize their teaching and learning time. Involvement can be increased by making parents and teachers co-owners of the school. To strengthen the involvement of parents and teachers, they should become co-owners of the school and form the school’s governing board, together with other representatives of civil society (e.g., as nominated by the municipality, religious groups, or employers). The governing board of every educational institution would be a legal body, with a nominated tripartite membership of teachers, parents, and representatives of civil society. This method of governance is partly inspired by the “professional partnership” that is common in other professions (e.g., medicine and law). In education, however, this professional partnership would extend beyond teachers to include parents and representatives of civil society. Parents should be included, as education in school is a continuation of education within the family, and both are more effective when they are related. Representatives of civil society should be included because education is more than a consumer good; it is also the backbone of modern society. Another obvious option would be for several schools to set up a joint governing body, thereby forming a larger unit, as long as it does not create a monopoly in the area and as long as there would be sub-administrators for each school. To prevent the dangers of an oligarchy in the governing body, members could be chosen twice for four years at a maximum, with parents allowed to sit on the board only if they or their children are at the school. One obstacle to this new system of local involvement in the school is that it would require the active participation and expertise of parents. It would be particularly difficult for lowly schooled parents to assume this type of governing role. For this reason, I would recommend maintaining the option for parents to nominate non-parents for membership on the board. Including parents and teachers on the board would also offer marginal groups the opportunity to take part

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in society and to contribute to the effectiveness of their children’s schools. The long-term advantages greatly outweigh the dangers of incompetence of inexperienced administrators who are faced with making decisions over large amounts of money and crucial processes (educational quality). This new form of government could be introduced with the help of the governing boards, which already exist in education. The current boards in private and state schools could change the composition of their boards to allow teachers and parents (or their representatives) to be included as equal partners. Require the Central and Public Assessment of Final Results Ideally, diplomas reflect the composition and level of the knowledge and skills that students have successfully acquired. Diplomas do not help students from the lower strata in the labor market if they have failed to learn the essential knowledge or skills. It soon becomes apparent that such diplomas serve no purpose, and those who hold16 such “fake” diplomas pay for this bad educational policy in the labor market. For this reason, it is also wrong to measure the quality of an educational system as a percentage of dropouts or graduates with diplomas, as is often done in international comparisons. Educational quality involves the amount of knowledge or skills that has been acquired, not simply the number of diplomas. Similarly, high participation in tertiary education is not a good indicator of the utilisation of talent, even though it is often used as such in international comparisons (for the sake of convenience). Much depends on the knowledge or skills that are acquired in secondary education (which vary widely between countries) and which part of the missing knowledge can be acquired in higher education. A comparison of the percentages of students with certain diplomas in various countries has little significance, as we do not know what knowledge or skills those diplomas represent. For this reason, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), which makes many such international comparisons of educational systems, attaches so much importance to the level of applicable knowledge in language, mathematics, and science amongst students in their Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) studies.17 For similar reasons, the education inspectorate must use acquired knowledge or skills as the basis for assessing the quality of schools and not the application of certain educational forms and methods, which should be left up to the individual school. External control of the process erodes the responsibility of professionals concerning the quality of their work, which is an important condition for the effectiveness of schools.

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At the same time, the consequences of inadequate learning results at particular schools should be more severe, and sanctions should be applied more quickly. A school that underperforms should not be assigned to participate in a protracted “improvement program”; it should be closed immediately by the education inspectorate18 and declared a failure. The teaching staff would then be unemployed, just as elsewhere in society. After all, the students are the victims of poorly performing schools, and they do not have the chance to repeat their time at school in an “improvement program” of a couple of years. This is particularly true for students from the lower strata. Combine Differentiation and Transfer The objective to facilitate the transfer between types of education might explain the decrease in the inequality of educational opportunity in The Netherlands that has taken place since the early 20th century. Talented students from the lower strata, who are less able to take risks in their choice of education and who must therefore often choose education below their level, had the opportunity to correct for their earlier decisions19 by following a series of courses and taking detours. In the 1990s, however, the social-democrat Minister of Education made it more difficult to make such use of detours in education. This Minister and his successors had an overly deterministic view of talent and placed too much trust in the predictability of school careers. With this policy, he punished suboptimal choices that were made at the age of 12 and which became so definitive that they eliminated the possibility of growth, particularly for students from the lower social strata. To encourage emerging talent, transfers and detours should be made possible and promoted once again, obviously contingent upon the successful completion of the previous level of education. This condition is important, as it prevents previous education from becoming irrelevant and the development of diploma inflation. The importance of generous opportunities for transfer is even greater in the presence of strong internal or external differentiation within the secondary education; in such systems, it is important to be able to correct decisions that were made at a young age and that were influenced by the social background. This means that, in most continental European countries that have strong differentiation in secondary education (e.g., Germany and The Netherlands), an increase in the opportunity to transfer can make an important contribution to reducing inequality of educational opportunity.

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Provide Inexpensive Loans for Tertiary Education The principle that education should be free, in order to reduce inequality of educational opportunity, is incorrectly applied to tertiary education. As outlined in Dronkers (2010), a lack of financial resources hardly has any influence on the causes of inequality of opportunity at the beginning of the 21st century, particularly after the initial transfers in primary and secondary education. At the same time, free tertiary education involves a significant subsidy for children from the higher strata, who are most likely to enter higher education and thus take advantage of the subsidy. Most important, it involves subsidizing less talented students from the higher strata by making tertiary education an option for them. This money, which was intended to prevent inequality of educational opportunity, can be better spent. The best option would therefore be a system of generous and inexpensive loans for all students in tertiary education. These loans should be generous, so that students are not forced to work alongside their studies, thereby reducing the actual teaching and learning time and the quality of their education.20 The amount of the loan should be able to vary according to the cost of the program of study and the tuition fees, in order to allow the sorely needed variation in the supply of and demand for tertiary education. These loans must be inexpensive, in order to prevent them from deterring good students from the lower strata. Finally, the loans must be linked to results, so that students with unsatisfactory results (less than three quarters of the required credits) receive no loan for the following academic year. This would prevent the use of the loans to prolong the programs of less capable students from the higher strata. Performance-related loans would also make it less necessary to maintain the current rigid system of registration rights. A more flexible system for tertiary education that would allow the accumulation of successfully completed studies would provide capable students from the lower strata the opportunity to correct decisions that were made earlier in their educational careers. Epilogue Inequality of educational opportunity is an inevitable phenomenon in every society with a strong division of labor. It is possible, however, to influence the extent of educational inequality, increasing or reducing it according to the way in which education is organized and embedded within society. For social democrats who want to reduce inequality, there is much

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work to be done. This goal cannot be achieved simply by throwing money at education; it cannot be achieved through revolutionary intervention, nor can it be achieved by introducing the latest education technologies or didactic methods, nor by leaving education to market forces, parents, or employers and employees. What can make a difference is the implementation of the first sentence of the article in the Dutch Constitution concerning education: “The government always bears responsibility for education.” This responsibility must be demonstrated by maintaining a careful balance between the various processes that contribute to reductions or increases in educational inequality and the continuous reassessment of this balance. Results should take precedence over exciting and expansive policies. After all, results are what social democracy is all about. Notes 1. The abolishment of any division of labor in human societies is named by Marx as one of the youth sicknesses of socialism, and this saying is still true. 2. This does not mean that differences in biologically based potential would completely disappear if all parenting were to be of the same quality. In such a hypothetical situation, the remaining cognitive capability differences could only be explained by biological differences and no longer by the social and cultural background. 3. This is partly because a culture of divorce tends to reinforce itself. Children of divorced parents are more likely to divorce, regardless of the divorce in the society in which they live. The likelihood of divorce thus increases automatically among young couples. 4. The clear rules requirement means that the “lightning divorce” should be forbidden when children are involved. 5. Childcare workers should be required to have attained at least the level of higher professional education. Not everyone is naturally capable of raising children. 6. The Catalonia region (in Spain) uses such a point system. It works as follows: brothers or sisters at the same school, 40; lives in school area, 30; works in school area, 20; large family, 15; student or parent with physical or mental problem, 10; student with chronic illness, 10; parent receiving social support, 10; lives in the municipality of the school, 10. This is a more refined version of the double lists that have been applied recently in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. For more information, refer to Departament d’Educació (2007): “Decreto 75/2007, de 27 de marzo, por el que se establece el procedimiento de admisión en los centros en las enseñanzas sufragadas con fondos públicos”. Diari Oficial de la Generalitat de Catalunya, n. 4852 (29-3-2007). 7. “Das Recht zur Errichtung von privaten Schulen wird gewährleistet. Private Schulen als Ersatz für öffentliche Schulen bedürfen der Genehmigung des Staates und unterstehen den Landesgesetzen. Die Genehmigung ist zu erteilen, wenn die privaten Schulen in ihren Lehrzielen und Einrichtungen sowie in der

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8.

9.

10. 11.

12.

13. 14.

15. 16.

17. 18.

19.

wissenschaftlichen Ausbildung ihrer Lehrkräfte nicht hinter den öffentlichen Schulen zurückstehen und eine Sonderung der Schüler nach Besitzverhältnissen der Eltern nicht gefördert wird.” (The right to establish private schools is guaranteed. Private schools as replacement of public schools need the approval of the state and need to conform with the laws of the state. The approval will be given, if the goals, organisation and quality of teachers are not lower than those of the public schools and a special treatment of pupils based upon income and wealth is not promoted), section V of the German Constitution. In The Netherlands, the disappearance of private schools for the elite in the 20th century can be explained by the equal and sufficient funding of secondary education following the adoption of the Education Pact. I consider it understandable, because low school quality is also unfavorable for the future opportunities of children from the higher strata, due to the increasing international competition in education quality. There are other indications that the level of education funding in some European societies is too low; see the OECD figures in Education at a Glance. Statistical discrimination is a normal and rational phenomenon of human behavior. Based on statistical discrimination, people take raincoats with them if they see dark clouds outside, without first calculating the chance of rain for each dark cloud. This does not mean that the added value of schools with difficult or easy teaching conditions is the same. The added value of schools is higher at difficult schools that achieve an average level of school results than at easy schools that achieve similar school results. The added value of schools, however, is not the same as the extent to which schools satisfy the minimal quality requirements (see Dijkstra et al., 2003). The long-term nature of this negative effect can be explained by the principle–agent relationship. The results of many international studies on the utility of government subsidies in education, art, and other useful or pleasurable fields (in The Netherlands, these studies were carried out under the heading of Government Profit) have repeatedly shown that generic subsidies tend to benefit the higher strata, who would have taken part even without the subsidy, although perhaps to a lesser extent. At best, smaller class size contributes indirectly to more learning time because of teachers’ working conditions being eased. Those who hold the “fake” diplomas are not the only ones to suffer; those with valid diplomas are also treated with more suspicion on the labor market, as “bad money drives out good.” see www.pisa.oecd.org The education inspectorate must obtain the exclusive right to do so. At present, only the Minister of Education may do this. This is wrong, because non-educational interests prevent the Minister from closing a school. Not only the easy cases (Muslim schools) should be handled but the poorly functioning schools with strong political support as well. Stairs must be cleaned from the top. This has nothing to do with irrational behavior on behalf of students or parents. Because students from the lower strata have fewer financial, cultural, and

368    J. DRONKERS social resources to help them study successfully, a rational choice of further education is lower for them than it is for a comparable student from a higher class, as they are less able to take risks. The non-material costs for students from a higher class in choosing a lower level of education are also greater than they are for comparable students from a lower class, as they experience social decline in comparison with their parents. The same phenomenon can be seen under migrant students. 20. Because of its universal application, the current system of grants and loans for tertiary education has become too meagre, and it threatens the actual teaching and learning time.

References Dronkers, J. ( 2010). Features of educational systems as factors in the creation of unequal educational outcomes. In J.Dronkers (Ed.), Quality and inequality of education. Cross-national perspectives (pp. 299–328). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Dijkstra, A. B., Karsten, S., Veenstra, R., & Visscher, A. J. (Eds.). (2003). Het oog der natie. Scholen op rapport. Standaarden voor de publicatie van schoolprestaties [The eye of the nation. Report on schools. Standards for the publication of school results]. Assen, The Netherlands: Van Gorcum.

Chapter 23

Implementation and Effects of EIO Across Countries Current Knowledge Base and Directions for Future Research Ralf Maslowski, Greetje van der Werf, and Henk Oonk

Introduction Part A and B of this volume deal with normative aspects of what students should learn about Europe and international themes. The various contributions in these first parts reflect, using Goodlad’s (1994) classification, the intended European and international orientation (EIO) curriculum in school. Part C, in Goodlad’s terms, is concerned with the implemented and attained EIO curriculum, addressing the fourth research question of this book: “What is the meaning of and what are the effects of internationalisation within secondary schools in Europe?” It focuses on EIO in practice: How do teachers use EIO in their school and what do students learn from it?

Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 369–390 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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The implemented curriculum addresses to what extent formal EIO guidelines are interpreted by teachers and actually taught in school. It concerns decisions being made by teachers and other stakeholders in school regarding the content, purpose, and organisation of learning of EIO (cf. Walker, 1990). What subjects or issues regarding Europe and internationalisation are actually taught to students? What aims and objectives do teachers try to accomplish in creating a learning environment for EIO in their schools? And what instructional, didactical, and pedagogical means are used to accomplish these EIO objectives? Based on research findings from The Netherlands, the UK, Germany, Poland, and Lithuania in this chapter, the implementation of these components is discussed. Also, the chapter explores several features of the implementation process, such as the need and relevance of EIO in school; the clarity of the concept for school administrators, teachers, and others involved in the implementation process; as well as the complexity of implementing EIO in school (cf. Fullan, 2001). Moreover, as far as the preceding chapters allow observations on these issues, school characteristics including support from school administration, commitment of teachers, the availability of sufficient time and resources, the availability of accompanying teacher development programs, as well as the availability of external assistance are discussed regarding EIO, as these are likely to affect the successful implementation of any innovation. The attained curriculum is concerned with how EIO learning activities are perceived by students, and what they have actually learned from it. It relates to the question of whether initiatives across Europe to implement a European and international dimension in education have been worthwhile. Addressing this question is hampered by the fact that EIO in its current form is still a relatively recent phenomenon and by the fact that most efforts to date have been directed towards developing and implementing EIO activities in schools, without evaluating the results in terms of changes of curriculum, school organisation, and teaching processes, let alone in terms of students’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Although the studies presented in the preceding chapters are not able to fill this gap, they nevertheless provide some interesting observations on the impact of EIO on youngsters. Based on these conclusions, promising directions for future research are formulated at the end of this chapter. Implementation of EIO in Schools Forms of Implementation of EIO at School Most of the studies conducted on the implementation of a European and international orientation have been conducted in schools that participate

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in the international Elos network. In The Netherlands, where the first Elos schools were established, 14 schools started in 2004. In most of the other countries Elos was adopted from 2005 onwards. From that perspective, taking Europe as a learning environment is a relatively recent phenomenon. That is not to say that schools paid no attention to Europe before 2004. On the contrary, in each of the countries vanguard schools hold long traditions, sometimes dating back decades, of integrating European themes into their education and participating in school exchanges and international projects. It is fair to say, however, that since 2004 the number of schools that include a European orientation in their curriculum has increased substantially, and the comprehensiveness and integrated manner in which European and international themes are dealt with has grown. This development is probably best reflected in the Elos “best practice” schools from the UK (see Chapter 18, Rose). These schools are also recognized for their policies relating internationalisation, judging from the credit given by local authorities as well as the national inspectorate, along with the appreciation of students, parents, and staff for the international program provided. On the other hand, Rose’s discussion of critical factors for success reveals that several other schools in the UK faced severe problems in implementing a European and international orientation, resulting in limited impact of EIO in the curriculum of the school. The study of the implementation of EIO in The Netherlands indicates that schools sometimes deliberately implement only certain features of internationalisation, or that they opt for only implementing EIO for certain school strands, grades, or school locations. Three basic forms of implementation can be identified: school-wide implementation, strand-specific implementation, and grade-specific implementation or implementation of a specialized education program. It is noteworthy that schools that do decide to choose a strand- or grade-specific implementation of EIO often settle on general forms of education—and sometimes just on pre-university education. Vocational or pre-vocational strands are rarely involved in strand- or grade-specific EIO programs in schools. Dronkers (see Chapter 22) alerts us to the fact that this emphasis on general education is likely to create new forms of inequity in our schooling system: the intellectual elite, who have opportunities to educate themselves in an international context versus lower class children who are largely deprived of experiences that might support a future international career. Maslowski, Naayer, Oonk, and Van der Werf (see Chapter 17) note that this risk is also apparent in Dutch secondary schools where more elaborate EIO programs were implemented. Several schools have adopted the so-called EIO-plus variant or the science and technology variant, which is mainly directed towards students in senior general secondary education and pre-university education. The European vocational orientation for

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pre-vocational students is not yet fully developed, although it is encouraging that a number of schools are aiming to develop programs explicitly for vocational students in the years ahead. Differences in implementation are also influenced by the context of the schools in each of the countries. In Germany, political education has been an important theme in education for many decades. A number of research programs as well as institutes have been built around this theme, to provide schools with the knowledge base and assistance in implementing political education. Behne and Lange (see Chapter 19) discuss recent findings on Europe competence in the context of the political learning that takes place in German schools. Although European and international orientation is certainly not confined to political consciousness of young Germans regarding Europe—as chapters on Germany in the first two parts of this book demonstrate—it is definitely an important feature of it, in contrast to the attention this area receives in many other countries. In Lithuanian schools, for instance, the European dimension is more often interpreted as learning about other cultures in Europe, as opening opportunities to engage in collaboration with students and teachers from schools abroad. This is also to be recognized in the aim of a number of Polish schools to feel part of Europe, that is, to develop a European identity that connects students to students abroad. The inspiration to focus on these themes in school is undoubtedly related to the position of these relatively new member states in the European Union. This adhesion to the national context raises the question to what degree a similar implementation of EIO across schools and countries can be expected, and whether this should be pursued. The contributions from the various countries reveal that the implementation process reflects the European subsidiary principle and the—to some extent diverse forms of—policies of educational decentralisation and school autonomy in each of the respective countries. Although there is a common notion of what encompasses EIO in secondary education, national centers have discretion in the planning and organisation of EIO in their country. Moreover, as schools in most of the countries have considerable room for maneuver regarding educational issues, they are likely to mold European and international features as they see fit for their context. This is illustrated in the evaluation of Elos in The Netherlands. The common framework for Europe competence (CFEC) was adopted as a general framework for student competencies, but is more often used as a heuristic device to structure existing internationalisation activities in school than as a planning tool. With a few exceptions, schools tend to use the framework, as Maslowski and colleagues (see Chapter 17) argue, as a menu from which each school and each teacher at school picks elements that suit his or her educational practice best.

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The current practice of CFEC in schools states that, when judging the implementation of a European and international orientation in schools, the efforts of schools have to be put into perspective. Taking Europe as a learning environment in a school reflects a certain profile that the school wants to propagate, aiming at equipping students as future European citizens. Schools have to reach these objectives in conjunction with the national curriculum taught at school, or alongside the attainment targets set by the government. It is questionable as to whether an elaborated framework of competencies is practicable for implementing EIO at schools, as it invites partial use and as a consequence differences between schools in the priorities chosen to educate students about Europe. The accounts of the implementation of EIO in The Netherlands, the UK, Germany, Lithuania, and Poland, provide indications of the variety of structures and activities to add a European dimension to the education of young people in their country. Schools in several countries have implemented a European and international orientation in their curriculum. Maslowski and colleagues (see Chapter 17) demonstrate that many Dutch Elos schools integrated aspects of EIO in subjects such as geography and history, as well as in the attention schools regularly pay to European issues in order to meet the required attainment targets for secondary schools. Some schools even established a separate subject on Europe, addressing the functioning of European institutions, European history, and geographic, economic, and political aspects of individual European countries. Case studies from Poland depict a similar adoption of EIO. Although to different degrees, a number of Polish schools formulated educational objectives—mainly in the sociopolitical domain—that are addressed in civic education classes at school (see Chapter 21, Czetwertyńska). One of the case-study schools states that attention is paid to European and international themes in several other subjects as well. This not only concerns subjects with “natural linkages” to international issues, but also includes “distant subjects” like Polish language and mathematics. The profusion of EIO in education, however, is probably best reflected through the extracurricular activities organized by schools. Student exchanges and student visits are considered important means for enhancing knowledge about other European countries and for understanding other cultures in Europe. These exchanges and visits often take place in the context of formal school partnerships. As several descriptions of schools make clear, partnerships frequently originate from exchanges with foreign schools, which are then institutionalized and strengthened through the formal bond that is established. Although potentially very powerful, at least for students and teachers who personally engage in study trips, the contribution from the UK reveals that the impact might nevertheless be rather limited. Only a relatively small number of students and staff members are

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usually involved in school exchanges, while it requires considerable efforts from school staff as well as substantial funds to organize these activities. Schools often organize presentations or meetings for students and school staff who visited a partner school to share their experiences with their colleagues, but in practice a transfer of insights rarely takes place, and the experiences are primarily meaningful for those who directly participated in an exchange. The descriptions in the preceding chapters of the implementation of a European and international orientation at school reveal that, besides study visits and exchanges with foreign schools, a large number of other activities are organized to enhance Europe competencies of students. Foremost, numerous schools are engaged in projects with a European dimension— whether or not related to special events like Europe Day. These projects generally are of a political, social, economic, or cultural nature, and relate to topical subjects. Politically oriented projects, for instance, are organized around elections for the European Parliament or may concern current international sociopolitical affairs in after-school discussions or in debating clubs for students. Frequently, these projects are structured using a variety of angles, as any of the political themes appear to be related to social and economic issues—for example, policies to ensure equity in Europe or the advantages and disadvantages of a common European market. Even more popular appear to be culturally oriented projects. Czetwertyńska (see Chapter 21) illustrates that the schools use plays, movies, and celebrations, as well as other modes. Partly, these “cultural vehicles” are used as a stepping stone to learn more about Europe or a specific European country. Decorating the school, for example, with the colors of a certain country, portraying customs of that country in posters or statues, requires that students become familiar with its traditions through reading about it, searching for information on the Internet, or by watching documentaries on that particular country. For another part, these cultural projects seem to aim at appealing to the attitudes of students and to enhance a sense of European identity among these youngsters. Factors Affecting the Implementation of EIO in Schools The preceding sections indicated that schools in many countries seem to be engaged in a variety of activities to stimulate students’ Europe competencies, but the impression given by the various studies is that the underlying vision of European and international orientation in schools still needs further development. This relates both to a vision of what we aim to accomplish with our students and to a vision of what means—and the interrelation of these means—we should rely on to reach these objectives

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in an effective and efficient manner. As several schools have considerable experience with education on Europe, dating back many years before they were officially to become an Elos school, this reminds us that implementing innovations like EIO is a long and winding road. Based on data from 2005 to 2008 on the implementation of Elos in the UK, a number of drivers and barriers for implementation are identified. First, a strong case is made for adoption of a European and international orientation in secondary schools if it is part of the (national) policy or if it is acknowledged or even propagated by education authorities. In the UK, a national advisory panel was established, in which the main national agencies were represented. Members of this advisory panel were assigned the function of assessing whether or not schools were ready to become an Elos school. For the schools, this legitimatized their internationalisation efforts, backed by educational policy. For the members of the advisory panel, this meant a commitment towards implementing a European and international orientation in education, while the national agencies were informed through their representatives on the progress of internationalisation in schools. Similarly, the Szkoła z klasą (School with Class) campaign in Poland offered schools opportunities to intensify and extend modern foreign language teaching and teaching on Europe, among other targets for improvement. The president of Poland at that time agreed to be patron of this large-scale campaign and demonstrated his commitment by signing diplomas for schools that participated in the program. In the UK, Beernaert’s framework (Beernaert, 2003) was adopted as it offered opportunities for schools to integrate objectives for internationalisation within the national curriculum (see Chapter 18, Rose). Beernaert’s framework constitutes ten competencies for international teachers, which greatly resemble the core features of the CFEC. Teachers need to be knowledgeable about Europe and European school systems, be able to implement a European and international orientation in their teaching, and to manage international projects, among other competencies. Such an adaptation to the national context, as is known from studies on successful educational innovations, enhances the adoption of a European and international orientation by teachers and school administrators. A close alignment to the existing curriculum, however, may also have some drawbacks (see Chapter 20, Janiunaite). The study of Adaškevičienė (2003) on the European dimension in the Lithuanian curriculum shows that the integration in existing (traditional) subjects could imply that Europe will have no clear place in these subjects, or only a marginal one. In an analysis of textbooks for various subjects it was found that they contained additional information on Europe for only some grades. In the textbooks for Grade 8 in geography and Grade 10 in biology, aspects of Europe were already included, which could then be used for elaborating the European

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dimension on the topics taught (Adaškevičienė, 2003). For other grades, as well as for subjects with a less obvious relation to European themes such as music, European and international topics were hardly addressed in the textbooks. Often, textbook publishers are not very susceptible to new ideas unless they are required to include certain topics or inclusion of these themes is broadly valued in society. Textbook inclusion of European themes, at least in some countries, is likely to make a difference. Matuzevičiūtė (2003) argues that geography teachers in Lithuania were not ready to take up topics in their teaching that are not or only marginally explained in the textbooks they use. This could be as a result of the importance teachers attach to these issues, but also to the fact that they probably do not feel certain themselves about the topics to be taught. In most of the countries, European issues are hardly addressed in teacher education; in particular, longer-serving teachers were not trained adequately to teach on European and international issues in school. Taking account of the competencies of teachers to deal with Europe, it is uncertain whether European and international topics will be addressed in the classroom even when they are included in textbooks. Teachers tend to focus their teaching on content they perceive as significant; this, in turn, is influenced by their own professional training. Although the preceding chapters do not explicitly refer to differential competencies amongst teachers, it is not inconceivable that the most competent teachers teach the better students. Again, bearing Dronkers’ (see Chapter 22) caveat in mind, this could result in social inequalities between groups of students with regard to their “European and international capital.” Rose (see Chapter 18) gives account of considerable efforts in the UK to establish accreditation for Elos students. Although preparations were in place for an accreditation, this could not be accomplished due to lack of funding. The Elos programme would have been more successful if accreditation had been achieved. Schools and colleges decided not to become part of the Elos program and, consequently, not to implement a European and international orientation in their school, as an official recognition of the acquired student competencies was lacking. An inclination for certification is also revealed following interviews with Elos coordinators in The Netherlands. A certificate legitimizes the efforts on internationalisation, for teachers and other school staff involved as well as for students and parents. Certification is likely to provide a basis for the implementation of EIO at school, as stakeholders feel internationalisation is a meaningful endeavor. Simultaneously, it ensures a certain level and quality of the internationalisation activities employed at school as certification is linked to explicit criteria to be met—and often to a system of control. Teachers and school administrators generally are interested in EIO. The majority of teachers in Lithuania, for instance, argue that the inter-

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est of school authorities in EIO is excellent or very good (see Chapter 20, Janiunaite). Only about one in every three teachers refers to the commitment of authorities as good or satisfactory, or even less than satisfactory. With regard to school staff in general, teachers tend to be more skeptical. A minority of teachers think of their colleagues as actively supporting the implementation of a European and international orientation. Although the contribution from The Netherlands is less explicit, it nevertheless reveals that not all teachers in school are involved in the implementation of EIO, and sometimes it is an activity carried out by only a few enthusiastic teachers. This finding seems to be important, as the study from the UK shows that institutional capacity and external support are among the most crucial factors for a successful implementation of EIO. In this respect, the situation in Poland seems a bit stronger, because the case studies suggest that the EIO activities are more supported by the entire school. Probably, this is a result of the fact that in Poland EIO activities are part of a more comprehensive school reform, focusing on teaching reading with understanding, thinking, and acting. The role of the leader is crucial for the institutional capacity of the school for implementing a European and international orientation. Rose (see Chapter 18) indicates that the important role of leadership was apparent in both schools that are to be seen as the most successful in the UK’s Elos program. The principal of the school has to be committed to internationalisation at school. If the principal stresses the significance of an international orientation for the school, and acts accordingly, then staff within the school will feel their efforts will not be futile. A vision of school leadership on the benefits of internationalisation is likely to encourage and inspire teachers and other staff, as well as students and parents, through the proliferation of the school in school magazines, local newspapers, and other forms of communication. Coordination of EIO activities in school demands that one or more people are explicitly assigned to that task. The case studies from various countries indicate that schools are required to appoint a coordinator before becoming an Elos school. Moreover, although only sparse information is available from the preceding chapters, studies suggest that coordinators are generally committed to their tasks and put many efforts into initiating and organizing internationalisation activities. For these coordinators, it seems not only extremely important that they are supported by the principal or the school board, but also that they have some autonomy in establishing the internationalisation program in the school. Several schools that implemented EIO successfully in The Netherlands, for example, indicate that they have a mandate from the school administrator to make the majority of operational decisions with regard to internationalisation (Maslowski, Naayer, Oonk, & Van der Werf, 2009). For decisions on budgets or those areas that concern

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the more strategic aspects of school policy, they consult the school administrator directly. Short and direct lines of decision making seem to be critical in avoiding inflexible, frustrating bureaucratic procedures. The UK experience indicates that embedding the coordinating body in the school may take different forms. In one of the UK schools, one member from the senior management team was responsible for the Elos program, while in another school a collective of key Elos teachers was in charge (see Chapter 18, Rose). This suggests that not the form of leadership in itself is critical but rather the way it is used in the school. Coordination of Elos in both schools is characterized by collaboration and distributed leadership. In order to successfully implement EIO in school, the academic staff has to be committed to adopting a European and international orientation in their teaching, to organize or take part in international activities, to communicate with partners from other countries, among other things. Important aspects, therefore, seem to be that schools have a culture in which cooperation and openness is valued, and that those assigned as coordinators have the informal authority in school and the skills to ensure that others get involved in EIO. Commitment of teachers to get involved in the program presupposes that they value internationalisation activities and expect that these will have some benefits for the students and themselves. From the studies in Lithuania, Poland, and The Netherlands, it becomes clear that teachers consider EIO as motivational and that it allows them to broaden their perspectives on Europe and its countries, gaining a better understanding of and respect for other languages and cultures, and offering opportunities to use information and communication technology. Moreover, they expect that EIO will have a positive impact on student learning results and student motivation. In particular, they expect that students will learn more about Europe and the European Union. The study from Poland shows that, when schools were given the opportunity to participate in educational improvement programs, many of them choose to opt for the areas of European education and learning foreign languages. Notwithstanding this interest among Polish schools for European education, Czetwertyńska (see Chapter 21) notes that this interest decreased after the entrance of Poland into the EU, while schools became more amenable to second-language learning. Besides teacher support, studies from Lithuania, The Netherlands, and the UK also signify that teachers have to feel confident in dealing with EIO in their class or in extracurricular activities in which they participate. Thinking in terms of teacher competencies when implementing EIO in school, as was done in the UK using Beernaert’s framework (2003), appears to be a promising lead in ensuring teachers’ professional competencies in the domain of internationalisation. This presumes that facilities exist for the training of teachers on these topics. This implies the availability of courses

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or other programs directed at the professional development of teachers, while teachers are facilitated through budgets for training and a sufficient number of offered training hours to participate in these programs. Rose (see Chapter 18) emphasizes that funding is a significant factor for a successful implementation of a European and international orientation at school. Schools are often not authorized due to legal restrictions, not able because of limited funds, or not willing to allocate funds to the international program. As a consequence, schools are dependent on funding from national or European agencies, or from parents or local beneficiaries, to fund most of their international activities. This applies especially to school exchanges and mobility of teachers and students, as these are usually the most expensive activities. A lack of funding makes internationalisation in secondary education vulnerable. Exchanges and foreign trips, although their impact on student competencies is certainly under debate, fulfil an important symbolic function for students and teachers. Without such activities, a European and international orientation at school is not likely to last in the long run. EIO Competencies of Students Education on Europe is directed towards enhancing European citizenship and stimulating a European identity. Furthermore, it is aimed at preparing students for a future career in an international setting. To accomplish these objectives, knowledge of Europe and international institutions, social and communication skills, and attitudes towards Europe and other European cultures and citizens are developed by schools. Our current level of knowledge about the degree to which schools are able to raise student competencies in these domains, however, is still limited. Only few studies so far have set out to identify students’ European competencies. Moreover, these studies rarely attempted to attribute students’ knowledge on Europe, foreignlanguage skills, and attitudes towards Europe to the implementation of EIO in schools. Nonetheless, despite its limitations, the diverse studies across countries reveal some interesting observations. This section aims to bind these empirical observations to state-of-the-art EIO research—for knowledge and skills and attitudes towards Europe—that may subsequently guide further research into European competencies of students. Knowledge and Skills on Europe The study of Elos schools in The Netherlands reveals that students in upper secondary education have considerably more knowledge on Europe

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than students in lower secondary education. When tested, Grade 8 students had around 10% fewer questions correct than students in Grade 11. Because the EIO test contained specific questions that are not likely to be learned in other settings, the authors state that this difference in knowledge could probably be attributed, at least in some part, to the education on Europe provided in Elos schools. As students in upper secondary education are also more likely to have gained knowledge through newspapers, television news, or discussions with their parents—apart from specific themes on Europe that are addressed in the regular curriculum—it is difficult to determine to what degree the higher knowledge level of Grade 11 students can indeed be attributed to Europe-oriented education at school, rather than a “natural” growth that could have been observed in other schools as well. A comparison with other schools is even more critical to judge the relevance of the observed differences between lower and upper secondary students in foreign-language skills. Maslowski and colleagues (see Chapter 17) conclude these differences are not likely to be caused by the situation at home but rather by their education at school. As both English language and French and German language are taught as part of the curriculum, higher skills for Grade 11 students are most likely the result of the additional schooling in these subjects. Interestingly, reports on foreign language skills show that Grade 11 pre-university students on average score at B2 level for English language and A2 level for German or French language. With regard to students’ proficiency in English, this means that the average student is proficient to formulate beliefs and opinions on certain topics and to meaningfully discuss familiar topics with foreign students. This certainly reflects a level that is to be considered appropriate in order to engage in projects with students from foreign countries, to collaborate, and to exchange experiences. The proficiency of students in German and French language, on the other hand, is far from sufficient to interact with foreign students on school topics. The A2 level of the average Grade 11 students indicates that these students are generally able to understand sentences and frequently used expressions regarding their social environment. This is adequate for communicating on simple matters, such as introducing oneself and describing certain features of the student’s school or family, but not for exchanging information on common school projects or the subject matter they are studying. For Dutch students, the lower proficiency is understandable as German and French are not obligatory subjects in upper secondary school for all students, the number of school hours for German and French language is less than for English language, and students are far more exposed to the English language in daily life. Although foreign language proficiency was not determined systematically in Lithuanian schools, around 70% of Elos teachers nevertheless re-

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port that students who were involved in Elos activities at school clearly improved their foreign language skill. A similar belief of teachers is reported by Czetwertyńska (see Chapter 21) in a number of secondary schools in Poland. Teachers from several case study schools express that learning a foreign language encompasses more than classroom learning. To become proficient in a foreign language, students need to be engaged in real-life situations in which they have to practice their language skills. Teachers have a strong conviction that engaging in exchange programs indeed leads to substantial gains in students’ foreign-language skills. Moreover, the majority of teachers in Lithuanian schools indicate that students and teachers used ICT more often, which led to an increase in students’ results. This perceived learning gain was observed particularly for facts and figures about Europe. About 90% of the teachers argued that students’ knowledge increased on important dates in the history of the European Union and important events regarding Europe, among other aspects. The impact of this finding, however, is hard to judge, as Matuzevičiūtė (2003), a few years before the Elos project in Lithuania started, found that Grade 8 students had limited knowledge of social, cultural, and geopolitical aspects of other European countries. In order to improve the poor results of students, Matuzevičiūtė developed an educational program through which cultural, geopolitical, and socioeconomic knowledge was taught to Grade 8 students. An evaluation showed that student outcomes on the European topics being taught did indeed increase. Behne and Lange (see Chapter 19) also comment on the attainment of educational objectives on Europe in their analysis of issues from group discussions among German Grade 11 students. Students are able to discuss advantages and disadvantages of various topics concerning the European Union—for example, economic implications of the enlargement of the European Union, issues regarding a European identity, and governance of the European Union. As the findings are based on a small-group discussion in one school, these are certainly not representative of German secondary education. Nevertheless, as political education is an important theme in many German schools; it gives an impression on the cognitive level regarding European themes that is likely to be accomplished by students—albeit those students most interested in Europe and the European Union. As such, it signals the potential of addressing European themes in education. Attitudes and Behavioral Intentions Regarding Europe In the study of Dutch Elos schools, Grade 8 and Grade 11 students’ responses towards two attitudinal aspects were compared. For students’ sensitivity of cultural differences between people, no difference between the two

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grades was reported. This means that, on average, students in upper secondary education neither show more respect for people from other European countries nor indicate to a larger extent that they acknowledge that the behavior of people from other European countries may differ from their own because of other values and norms. The same was found for students’ attitudes towards their future in an international context. Upper secondary students were not more inclined to attend future classes, lessons, or studies in another European country, nor were they more interested in a future job in a foreign country than students in lower secondary school. Based on these findings, Maslowski and colleagues (see Chapter 17) conclude that attitudes towards Europe are resistant to change. This is in line with an earlier study in The Netherlands by Oonk (2004), who concludes that students’ European self-image hardly changes as a result of any exchange programs students may participate in. The survey by Matuzevičiūtė (2003) among 850 pupils in Lithuania, however, offers a different perspective. After implementing a school program directed towards enhancing cultural, geopolitical, and socioeconomic facets of Europe and the European Union, students indicated a strong commitment to Europe. Pupils identified more with Europe than with their local community and considered themselves to more European than global citizens. Moreover, the Lithuanian Grade 8 students listed a number of values considered to be important for the future of Europe, such as justice, respect for human rights, social welfare, and protection of the environment. These values not only reflect positive features but also suggest that students believe that the values can be realised to some extent in a European context. Although these attitudes towards Europe could not be compared to the attitudes of Grade 8 students from a previous study, the results nonetheless indicate that schools can have a role in contributing to students’ positive attitudes towards Europe. The reflections of German and Polish students on Europe convey a positive position towards European institutions and developments. The reports from students in the Polish case-study schools express an appreciation of Poland’s membership of the European Union. Although these reports only offer reflections of a few students’ opinions, they nevertheless signify a strongly felt gratitude to be part of the European Union. Poland’s membership for these students means that they are offered new opportunities and a wider array of future choices. This is a vulnerable basis for developing a European identity, as less favorable economic prospects could easily result in negative views if no alternative reasons can be developed over the coming years. German students also seem to focus, although from a different position than their Polish peers, on economic and political aspects of the European Union. In the group discussion, students compare the European Union to other political and armed powers in the world and discuss

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Europe’s position in a global context. Less concerned about personal opportunities than Polish students, however, they stress the increased chances Europe as a political union offers, both as a collective of countries and for each of the member countries separately. An interesting finding is the discrepancy between knowledge and attitudes among students. The study from Lower Saxony in Germany (see Chapter 19, Behne & Lange) reveals that students do not naturally use their experiences via school exchanges and projects in their discussion on Europe. When discussing aspects of Europe, students seem to focus on cognitive aspects such as knowledge and general reasoning skills. Their experiences in exchanges, and their emotions related to these experiences, do not seem to be linked to the cognitive domain. Similar findings were found in Dutch Elos schools. Although students’ sensitivity to cultural differences between people and students’ vision of their own future in an international context was related to their knowledge on Europe, this relationship was relatively weak. For the practical skills of students, such as contacting people in other countries and organizing exchange activities, such a relationship was not found. This is indicative of a lack of transfer between the informal competencies students acquire in face-to-face contacts with foreign students and the formal competencies they learn at school. Directions for Future Research on a European and International Orientation Adoption of a European and international orientation in school is based on the premise that schools implement EIO in such a way that students will acquire knowledge on Europe as well as social and communication skills for future study, a future career, and for their future role as European citizens. This belief raises several questions. First, is EIO implemented substantially in schools across countries? Do students acquire the European competencies EIO is aiming for? And third: Are young adults able to act as European citizens and competent to study and work in an international context? A second set of questions deals with the relations in the hypothesized causal chain. Do schools that have implemented EIO adequately achieve better European competencies with their students than other schools? Do students with more knowledge on Europe, with better intercultural and linguistic skills and a more favorable attitude towards Europe, develop themselves in later years to European citizens who are able to work with people from other nations, or even in another European country? Based on these questions, directions for future research are identified.

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Implementation of EIO in School The studies from The Netherlands, the UK, Germany, Lithuania, and Poland present a rich mosaic of research into the implementation of a European and international orientation in secondary education. Through a variety of research methods, encompassing qualitative as well as quantitative methodologies, a wide array of aspects concerning the European dimension in schooling has been discussed. Based on survey research, case-study research, and small-scale in-depth studies, comparisons between schools have been drawn, and unique testimonies of the implementation of EIO have been provided. These studies, at the same time, cannot conceal that only little is known about what is actually taught in the classroom. For Lithuania, Adaškevičienė (2003) found that European themes were only present in geography and biology textbooks. As she notes, teachers may use these sections to elaborate on Europe in their teaching. It is, however, unclear to what degree teachers use this opportunity—and if they do, what topics they teach, whether they rely on additional (self-developed) materials, and how much time is allotted to teaching EIO. Matuzevičiūtė’s (2003) dissertation study certainly cautions against high expectations regarding the implementation of EIO in geography. Whereas for Lithuania only limited information is available on how a European and international orientation is taught in school subjects, these details are absent for most countries. The choice of subjects often suggests which aspects of Europe are regarded as important. The subjects reflect the content of education on Europe, which is often a manifestation of the country’s relationship to Europe (cf. Michaels & Stevick, 2009). Philippou (2009) argues that formal documents might increasingly favor a European identity at school, but this need not necessarily be reflected in textbooks used in class. As she notes, “the civic education curriculum and textbooks used in Greek-Cypriot schools have remained relatively untouched by discourses of European citizenship” (p. 217). Philippou’s observation points to a common understanding of educational innovations. Change is only effected if teaching materials are revised accordingly, teaching practices are adapted, and teachers’ beliefs are adjusted (cf. Fullan, 2001). Whereas revision of teaching materials is relatively uncomplicated, changing practices and teacher beliefs is a more complicated endeavor. To judge the merit of a European and international orientation in school, more information on its implementation in secondary education is needed. Research, however, is hampered by the fact that most implementation studies depart from traditional school settings with teachers giving instruction to students. Many of the internationalisation activities are characterized by projects—often student driven—study visits, and exchanges. These are

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hard to judge, as often aims and objectives of these activities are not formalized and therefore vague. Identifying these goals among various stakeholders is a prerequisite for investigating the implementation of EIO. Factors Enhancing Student Knowledge and Skills The objective of most studies is to inform schools and government agencies whether specific aims have been realized. This is a fruitful way to proceed as it provides knowledge that can be used to improve internationalisation practices at school in each of the countries. What becomes clear from the review of current research in this chapter, however, is that the studies so far were not designed to provide hard data on the effects of EIO in secondary education. No thorough comparisons have been made between EIO and non-EIO schools, using input-process-output models to control for effects as a result of student intake. Without such studies, it remains unknown whether EIO is a productive measure to improve students’ Europe competencies. By including process factors, like teacher training on EIO, the availability of textbooks, and the number of hours dedicated to EIO in the classroom, it can be determined which factors contribute to a student’s learning of EIO. Moreover, by conducting such research in different countries, cross-country comparisons can be made in order to investigate national conditions that foster or restrict the implementation and effects of EIO. In addition to country-specific studies, comparative research across countries is needed to make informative decisions on how to improve education on Europe and international issues. One of the major drawbacks of the current variety of studies is that they do not provide benchmarks which can be used to interpret national data. National studies can provide a helpful starting point for international comparative research. In such a study, student background characteristics, as well as levels of education (e.g., vocational versus general secondary education in some countries) have to be taken into account. This will contribute to our understanding of whether all students profit equally from EIO, or whether EIO has differential effects on students, being different with respect to for example gender, socioeconomic status, or ethnic background. If differential effects are present, then EIO may indeed result in a new manifestation of unequal opportunities, which is contradictive to its aims. In order to avoid this negative effect, we refer again to our earlier recommendation to implement the common framework as the basis for the Europe competencies to be minimally required by all students. These competencies should also be the basis for the evaluation of the effects of EIO in the national and crosscountry comparisons.

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Development of a European Attitude Besides knowledge, future studies should focus on the attitudinal component of a European and international orientation and on how student knowledge and skills can be used to develop student attitudes. For this purpose, research can build on the recent knowledge base on European identity among young people. In a study sponsored by the European Commission, Jamieson and colleagues (2007) studied the role of practice in supporting the acquisition of notions of what citizenship means and its importance in helping young adults to grow into a realisation and an acceptance of the important role they can play at social as well as economic levels in society. As Jamieson and his colleagues argue: Indeed where young people feel that they are listened to and that they have an important role in their own particular contexts they also have an enhanced sense of what it means to be a European citizen. Essentially the question is premised around coming to terms with and understanding the language and practice of citizenship. This is both a question of education and learning through doing. (European Commission, 2009, p. 50)

Jamieson and colleagues (2007) found that young adults certainly have developed attitudes towards Europe (whether positive, neutral, or negative) and have sensed to what degree they conceive themselves as being Europeans. Four main sources for developing a European identity can be distinguished: the school, the family, the peer group, and the media. Current research on EIO focuses explicitly on the role of the school. Future studies may broaden this perspective by also exploring relationships between the school and parents, school learning, and peer group learning, and the role of the media in the context within which the school operates. Jamieson and colleagues (2007) note from their studies among young adults that one possible way of gaining a sense of connectedness to other parts of Europe is through friends and family. Interviewees who had friends and family drawn from or scattered across Europe often used this by way of explanation for their own feelings of being European. Besides physical contact through relatives, parents and other members of the family can also encourage and incite a European identity among youngsters. Fuss and Grosser (2006) indicate that young men and women who identify themselves positively with Europe tend to discuss social and political issues concerning Europe—for example, the European unification—more often at home. Moreover, a positive attitude of parents, grandparents, and friends is likely to stimulate a positive opinion with adolescents as well (Du Bois-Reymond, 1995). The development of the social-political consciousness or the social-political identity of youngsters can be seen as the sum of political orientation and political behavior. Orgis and Westphal (2006)

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found parents and peers essential for the development of social-political identity in a research project on the political participation of young people in eight member states of the European Union. Especially noted was a strong relationship between the political orientation of young people and the opinion of a youngster’s father as well as his or her best friend. As well as this, local and national political cultures are important as they provide young people with a stock of predominantly positive or negative views of Europe or the European Union. Jamieson and colleagues (2007) report that national and local media were found to provide stereotypes of immigrants and views on immigration, in some cases linking enlargement of the European Union with discussion of immigration issues. Bruter (2003) has also highlighted the importance of symbols and news on the European identity of citizens. Youngsters, on the one hand, are likely to be influenced by the information provided by the media on Europe, either directly through reading or listening to the information they receive or indirectly through the opinions of their parents or other relatives. On the other hand, previous studies have mainly focused on the European identity of (young) adults, and less on children or adolescents. Youngsters between the ages of 13 and 18 will be less inclined to read newspapers or watch news programs on television, but they will probably use other media, such as the Internet, through which they receive information. It is an interesting lead to investigate to what degree young people get in touch with information on Europe through these “new media,” and what message through these more individualized channels is received. Differential Patterns According to Ethnicity or Cultural Background European identity does not take place in a similar manner among all youngsters. Besides differences across countries and political preferences, recent studies point at differential patterns between young people according to their ethnicity or cultural background. Muslims in England indicated that they “feel” British rather than European, and their non-identification with Europe seems even stronger than for their non-Muslim peers (Condor, Gibson, & Abell, 2006). Condor and colleagues’ studies also revealed that several Muslim youngsters not only do not favor Europe but even show strongly opposed attitudes towards Europe. Some young people expressed the view that being European is some evil strategy from the government, a kind of indoctrination imposed on them. It can be questioned whether this is solely a British “problem” or rather a manifestation of identity formation that is seen among ethnic youngsters in other countries as well. Although it might be more pronounced in the UK, several European countries have

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large groups of people of non-European origin within their borders who have lived for several generations in their current home country and have been educated in the language of their European country. This can be clearly seen in the former colonies: youngsters of Algerian origin in France, Surinam youngsters in The Netherlands, or Congolese youngsters in Belgium, to name a few examples. These youngsters face the same situation as the Indian or Pakistani youngsters in the UK: Due to the multicultural society they daily face, they might have developed a national identity in their current home country but feel attached to another continent other than Europe. Kastoryano (2003) points to another barrier to feeling European among immigrants—even if they have larger stakes in the European continent. Migration in the 1960s and 1970s led to large groups of European Asian and South European immigrants in especially Western European countries. Most prominent is the number of Turks who resided in countries like Germany and The Netherlands—compared to other countries with smaller numbers of Turkish people. Because of the large number of Turks, they have not only created a kind of sub-nation within these countries but have established international contacts across European countries within their group, for example, between Turks in Germany and those in The Netherlands. These bonds strengthen their Turkish identity. Because of this proliferation of being Turkish, and at the same time being confronted with the social request for developing a national identity (such as a German identity), developing a European identity is simply not within reach. If this argument holds, this will probably be of concern to all newcomers in Europe. The struggle to find one’s position amongst these cultural forces that are imposed on these young people, a European identity will probably not be possible out of self-preservation. Moreover, youngsters who migrate within Europe could be considered as being exposed to several European cultures, and in searching for an identity an overarching European identity might be more likely to occur than for their peers who have lived in one country only. It should be noted that migration within Europe, of whole families including their children, is more likely to take place among elite groups within the respective European countries. Although certainly not limited to the elites, migration within Europe certainly differs in this respect from immigration from other continents. These differences in socioeconomic background are as interesting as differences in ethnicity or cultural background of young people in developing a European identity. First, to strengthen European identity, Europe is in need of advocates. Youngsters in the various European countries have to take up this role in the decades ahead, not only by actively participating in supranational institutions, like the European agencies, but also in advocating the importance of Europe in their home country. At the

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same time, non-elite groups are perhaps even more interesting with regard to their attitude towards Europe. Whereas internationalisation often develops quite naturally among elite groups (due to greater awareness at home, more specialized education favoring aspects of internationalisation), this is far less true for non-elites. The greatest skepticism towards Europe is often found especially within these groups, while they form the vast majority in each of the European countries. In order to “make Europe work” for future generations, these lower socioeconomic layers in society, especially, have to develop some kind of European identity. References Adaškevičienė, V. (2003). Europinio identiteto kaip švietimo dimensijos raiška Lietuvos bendrojo lavinimo mokyklos ugdymo turinyje [Manifestation of European Identity as Educational Dimension in the Curriculum of a Lithuanian Secondary School] (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Kaunas University of Technology, Kaunas, Lithuania. Beernaert, Y. (2003). The international and European competencies of the school teacher involved in European and/or international projects: A practical manual. Leuven, Belgium: KHLeuven/Educonsult. Bruter, M. (2003). Winning hearts and minds for Europe: The impact of news and symbols on civic and cultural European identity. Comparative Political Studies, 36, 1148–1179. Condor, S., Gibson, S., & Abell, J. (2006). English identity and ethnic diversity in the context of UK constitutional change. Ethnicities, 6, 123–158. Du Bois-Reymond, M. (1995). The role of parents in the transition period of young people. In M. Du Bois-Reymond, R. Diekstra, K. Hurrelmann, & E. Peters (Eds.), Childhood and youth in Germany and the Netherlands. Transitions and coping strategies of adolescents (pp. 73–102). Berlin, Germany: De Gruyter. European Commission. (2009). European research on youth: Supporting young people to participate fully in society. Brussels, Belgium: Author. Fullan, M. (2001). The new meaning of educational change. New York: Teachers College Press. Fuss, D., & Grosser, M. A. (2006). What makes young Europeans feel European? Results from a cross-cultural research project. In I.P. Karolewski & V. Kaina (Eds.), European identity: Theoretical perspectives and empirical insights (pp. 209– 242). Berlin, Germany: Lit Verlag.` Goodlad, J. (1994). Curriculum as a field of study. In T. Husén & T. Postlethwaite (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of education (pp. 1262–1276). Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press. Jamieson, L., Wallace, C., Machacek, L., Boehnke, K., Ros, M., Condor, S., . . . Grad, H. (2007). Orientations of young men and women to citizenship and European identity. Brussels, Belgium: Directorate-General for Research, European Commission.

390   R. MASLOWSKI, G. van der WERF, and H. OONK Kastoryano, R. (2003, February). Transnational participation and citizenship: Immigrants in the European Union. Paper presented at the Conference on Challenges of Immigration and Integration in the European Union and Australia, Sydney, Australia. Maslowski, R., Naayer, H., Oonk, G. H., & Van der Werf, M. P. C. (2009). Effecten van internationalisering in het voortgezet onderwijs: Een analyse van de implementatie en effecten van een Europese en internationale oriëntatie [Effects of internationalisation in secondary education: An analysis of the implementation and effects of a European and international orientation]. Groningen, The Netherlands: GION/University of Groningen. Matuzevičiūtė, D. (2003). Europos dimensijos realizavimas mokant geografijos [Realisation of European educational dimensions in teaching geography] (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Vilnius Pedagogical University, Vilnius, Lithuania. Michaels, D.L., & Stevick, E.D. (2009). Europeanisation in the “other” Europe: Writing the nation into “Europe” education in Slovakia and Estonia. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 41, 225–245. Oonk, G.H. (2004). European integration as a source of innovation in education: A study of the meaning of internationalisation and its results in secondary education in the Netherlands. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: European Platform Orgis, G., & Westphal, S. (2006). Politisches Verhalten Jugendlicher in Europa [Political behavior of young people in Europe]. Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte, 47, 7–17. Philippou, S. (2009). What makes Cyprus European? Curricular responses of GreekCypriot civic education to “Europe.” Journal of Curriculum Studies, 41, 199–223. Walker, D. (1990). Fundamentals of curriculum. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College.

Chapter 24

Concluding Observations Henk Oonk, Ralf Maslowski, and Greetje van der Werf

In this book, we have attempted to address the following central issue: What should be the content of a European and international orientation in secondary education in Europe, and which educational form would be suitable in this context? On the basis of four research questions, Part A has provided an analysis of the internationalisation policies in the different member states and the European Union. In Part B, we elaborated upon theoretical building blocks and evaluated them, and in Part C the results of a series of studies have been presented. We ended each part with a concluding chapter. In the final chapter of this book, we will reflect upon a number of important results and pose some critical questions to initiate further discussions and developments. The Growing European and International Orientation (EIO) It can be concluded that schools are increasingly participating in internationalisation activities. The combination of initiatives organized on the practitioner level with the internationalisation policies of the government have resulted in a multicolored spectrum of forms of internationalisation. Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 391–401 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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In a number of cases, these activities are related to recent developments or initiatives taken by a relatively limited number of schools, but at the same time we see that some of them have become permanently embedded in the education of the respective countries. Although still only visible in foreign language education, a trend can be observed towards the integration of EIO into primary education. In this way, the basis of EIO is being broadened. Schools, individual teachers, and pupils are all of great importance to EIO initiatives in education. This is not only because the realisation of EIO is given shape within the classroom or school, but also because many of the initiatives are developed within the school. A large part of the success of internationalisation can be attributed specifically to the initiation of activities at the lower school level. This approach has been instrumental in increasing the support for the activities undertaken. Simultaneously, however, it can at times make them “fragile.” Should enthusiastic teachers leave the school, certain initiatives may gradually disappear. Therefore, it is particularly the activities supported by the governments within the member states or by the European Union which are eventually institutionalised in the educational system. Apart from governments, education-facilitating institutions—whether or not financed by the governments—also play a role here. Because some countries have taken bilateral initiatives that sometimes refer to comparable topics but have different forms, internationalisation is in some ways restricted. As a result, it may happen that schools within the same region participate in different initiatives in the field of EIO, for example, with respect to decisions made about the international scope of the “diplomas” that can be obtained. This situation may undermine the clarity provided to teachers, pupils, and parents. In this respect, a relevant question would be whether there should be more supervision. At the same time, however, this raises the issue of who would be most suitable to fulfill this role, and how it could be given shape in such as way that the school level initiatives are not being “stifled.” We have established that, with respect to the characteristics of the internationalisation policies, many similarities but also some differences can be observed among the European countries. It is obvious that both European cooperation of the past 50 years and globalisation have had an influence on the developments in the field of education. Parents, pupils, and schools have witnessed the emergence of a large European space where people can study, gain experience, and practice a profession. This latter possibility definitely requires knowledge of languages, but also knowledge of the European and international developments, as well as of the culture of the countries participating in the cooperation. The great interest of all these countries in EIO activities and EIO school concepts tells us that the internationalisation policies of the individual countries and the European Union have had an impact. The exact amount of this influence is, however, still hard to determine.

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In order to make a proper assessment of the influence of European cooperation, it is interesting to make a comparison with the development of the nation state and the role of education therein (see Chapter 2, Oonk). After a period of cosmopolitanism instigated by the intelligentsia in the second half of the 18th century, a form of nationalism developed in the first half of the 19th century, partly as a result of the Napoleonic wars. As Boyd (1964) argues, before the French revolution the education in Europe was similar everywhere, “but during the first half of the Nineteenth Century each nation followed a line of thought and action of its own in virtual independence of its neighbours” (p. 333). This process started in Germany, followed by France, and finally reached England and other European states; education, therefore, supported the process of nationalism. Standaert (2008) states that education made a large contribution to shaping the national state by providing loyal recruits to the army as well as contributing to a national language and literature, while it stimulated the popularity of national history and the origin of the nation, which was often regarded as mythical. It is clear that the European Union does not possess the means of the former national states to naturalize its inhabitants. Neither can the political and social circumstances be compared with those of the 19th century. Nevertheless, we see that the common member states and the EU are making efforts to accustom civilians to the different aspects of the European community. In Part A, we established that, regardless of the subsidiary principle, the EU has to some extent a steering influence on national educational developments, partly as a result of the Lisbon strategy and the determination of indicators, benchmarks, and key competencies related to this initiative. Although the so-called “open coordination method” within the Lisbon strategy is not legally binding, it certainly has an impact, given the focus on comparing the achievements of the various countries. The member states are highly conscious of the consequences of these comparisons, and it is for this particular reason that there are intense and elaborate discussions between the EU and the member states about the establishment of these indicators. The European developments in the field of education, as described in this study, take place on different levels: within the member states themselves, among the common member states, and at European Commission level, the European Parliament, and the Council of Ministers. Each level has its own characteristics. Attractive School Concepts Require Further Elaboration Both within the different countries and through the member states’ mutual consultation, attractive school concepts have been developed that are

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increasingly drawing the attention of the upper section of the pupil population within secondary education; some are bottom-up initiatives, others have been stimulated by governments and ministries. In this context, we refer to content and language integrated learning (CLIL), AbiBac, Europaschulen, CertiLingua, Elos schools, International Baccalaureate, and the European School. Also the common European framework of references for languages (CEFR) should be mentioned, not as an example of a school concept but as a successful European testing framework for foreign language education. Although the different concepts vary in terms of structure and content, we have also observed that efforts are being made to standardize particular items—for example, the CEFR. As regards these developments, the EU has not played a steering role but has taken an indirect approach: When it became clear that the CLIL concept was a success in many countries, the EU also embraced it. The same applies to the CEFR, which has been developed in the framework of the Council of Europe. Another interesting example of the trend towards a common curriculum and thus towards a certain degree of standardisation is the French–German history book mentioned in Chapters 4 and 10—an initiative that the EU would otherwise never have been able to take. Would a reluctant attitude on the part of the EU not be the best method to realize a European orientation in education? Another central question is to what extent parts of the curriculum could be commonly developed by the different member states and which parts should be kept within national boundaries. In other words, what is the relationship between European and national contexts? Since language forms a fixed part of national identity, the discussions about English as a lingua franca and the extent to which other (foreign) languages remain relevant are an essential part of the European educational discourse. Or, apart from focusing on English as a lingua franca, is it not important that the different European countries continue their extensive interest in German and French as well as in other languages? Not only for language reasons but also in the light of the developments with respect to cultural, political, and economic issues. However, a European internationalisation policy with this particular orientation requires a strong approach because it is not in line with the dominant view held by some countries, which is that English is sufficient. A salient characteristic of the internationalisation policies of the countries involved is that—not in terms of their general aim but surely as a consequence of the nature of the activities (exchanges, partnerships, foreign languages, and studying abroad)—they are particularly aimed at excellent pupils and thus at the upper stratum of secondary education, which means at pupils who are more likely to opt for academic study in the future. The results of these policies are in essence positive, since motivated and gifted students are provided with more opportunities to develop themselves;

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they form the basis for a European and international frontline. However, if a large number of the pupils participate little if at all in these developments and neither the schools nor the parents are involved, problems will arise with respect to the acceptance of these policies. Feelings of discontent generally manifest themselves politically in the form of anti-European views; we will illustrate this issue later. It is therefore important that internationalisation policies pay attention to the necessity of a multiple-strand approach, which is aimed at giving pupils from all social strata the opportunity and the stimulus to pursue a certain European and international orientation. This direction asks for a certain ambition that may be engendered by the way in which a country or a social institution sees its own position in the framework of European integration. If countries attach great value to European cooperation and want to contribute actively to the decision-making process, this attitude is reflected in the educational policies and vice versa. Starting from the conclusion that European integration is a reality but has to be maintained and, where necessary, adjusted to new developments, each nation state should have the ambition to participate as much as possible in the framework of the European Union. This could be done by defending the individual interests as well as recognising the value of the common European principle and making a contribution to its further realisation. Education has a partial responsibility here. If, however, pupils from different groups have to be reached, a more ambitious approach is required. Criticism of Aspects of Internationalisation in General Although the internationalisation of education still has a positive image, it has to be recognized that some aspects of this policy are generally subject to criticism: In this context, we point at European integration and the immigration of migrants. Given that the structure of the European and international orientation in education is partly built on political and social developments with respect to the different forms of internationalisation, it is also important to pay attention to criticism. We will very briefly touch upon some elements of this critique. With regard to European integration, there have been intensive discussions within the member states about the future of this form of cooperation after the rejection of the European Constitution and the final signature of the Treaty of Lisbon. It has become clear that most citizens in Europe are, as yet, not prepared to transfer more powers to the EU. In addition, some research studies (Dronkers, Chapter 22; Maslowski, Naayer, Oonk, & Van der Werf, 2009; Oonk, 2004, 2007) show that it is the elite in particular who

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strongly support European integration and also benefit from it, whereas part of the working and middle class citizens are far more opposed to this policy and also less capable of enjoying its advantages. Another fact is that, during the past decades, national politicians have habitually forced necessary but painful measures on to “Brussels,” while considering all positive results as achievements of the member states. This situation has contributed to the idea that everything coming from “Brussels” is negative; “Brussels is not us but the others” has become the general belief of citizens. The integration issue regarding migrants in the different European countries can be considered as the second branch on the stem of internationalisation, a type of internal internationalisation. The politicians have discarded the problems arising from migration for too long, while saddling the native civilians with the less agreeable sides of this phenomenon under the veil of “tolerance.” However, the discussions about the integration of migrants in the national communities have also challenged the native civilians to reconsider and redefine the core values of their culture. With all the problems caused by the migration issue, this may be regarded as a positive consequence. This is because, in order to have migrants become accustomed to the national culture, there should be some clarity about what this citizenship means. If the negative aspects can be discussed in full openness, there will be more scope for recognizing the positive developments. In the different European countries, there is a growing criticism of the so-called multicultural society, while the core values of the dominant national culture, embedded in the whole of European cultures, are increasingly regarded as a leading norm to which migrants should adapt. Naturally, these migrants may retain some aspects of their own identity in this process. Or, in the words of the Dutch writer Scheffer: “Literally speaking tolerance is tolerating the other, a majority creating room for the minorities in its midst” (Scheffer, 2007, p. 162). Also, the German educationalist Nieke (2008) argues that the assault on New York in September 2001 has started a process of deculturalisation in which migrants are asked to accept the core values of the dominant culture rather than operating in parallel societies; these discussions are changing Europe’s landscape. EIO Content and Method Requires Further Research In the research section of this study (Part C), it has been concluded that in many countries schools are engaged in a variety of activities in order to convey to pupils a certain European and international orientation. However, a clear vision with respect to the “what” and the “how” of EIO is still underdeveloped, which complicates concrete comparisons with respect to its meaning and effects both within the national context and among the

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European counties. For example, the common framework for Europe competence developed within the Elos project is not so much used as a guiding instrument by the schools but rather as a framework on the basis of which choices can be made. So, although with respect to EIO’s implementation, some statements could certainly be made about the “intended curriculum,” as yet relatively little can be said about the “attained curriculum.” The richness with respect to the implementation of EIO is especially visible in the extracurricular activities organized in schools. With regard to the degree of implementation, different forms have been identified whereby the school-wide implementation has attracted far less attention than the strand-specific and grade-specific implementation, or the specialized education program. This interest is particularly notable in pre-university education. In addition to the interest in a specialized education program, there is also a desire for certification, which stimulates the developments in this area and safeguards a certain quality level. The differences in implementation are also influenced by the contexts of the schools in the different countries in relation to the choices of European themes in school books. With reference to the EIO competencies in the area of the knowledge and skills of pupils, Dutch research (Maslowski et al., 2009) has shown that pupils in the last two years of secondary education possess more knowledge of Europe than those in the first years. It could not, however, be established with certainty whether this growth is the consequence of a specific EIO program or that it is a normal increase resulting from regular school education. The teachers, for that matter, are convinced that exchange programs contribute to foreign-language skills. With respect to the attitudes and behavioral intentions regarding Europe, Dutch research (see Chapter 17, Maslowski et al.) has concluded that there are no differences between pupils from the earlier and final years of secondary education. Both Dutch and German studies (see Chapter 17, Maslowski, Naayer, Oonk, & Van der Werf, and Chapter 19, Behne & Lange) indicate that pupils establish no natural link between their EIO activities and partnerships and the discussions about European and international developments. This situation may be due to the lack of transfer between the informal competencies acquired by pupils during exchanges and the formal competencies learned at school; it may take other forms to connect. Influences of School As Well As Family, Peer Groups, Youth Organisations, and Media A great deal of research is conducted to inform schools, agencies, and governments about whether the objectives set are being reached. In this way, knowledge is obtained that can be used to improve the practice of interna-

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tionalisation within schools in the different countries. However, in order to improve its quality and facilitate fruitful discussions, it is additionally required to engage in comparative research across countries to assess the various aspects of EIO. In this context, there is a need for benchmarks which can be used to interpret national data and establish “hard” data. Only in this way can the criticism towards the European and international developments be parried as well as indicating whether or not EIO is a productive concept that improves pupils’ Europe competencies. Here, the emphasis is on knowledge and skills as well as on the development of attitudes and behavior. In this context, the scope of the research into the European/national identity should not be restricted to the school, but—as concluded in a recent study (Jamieson et al., 2007)—be extended towards the family, peer groups, youth organisations, and the media. In this way, the school can concentrate on the core tasks in the knowledge that other significant parties are also making their contribution; Jamieson and colleagues refer to these relations. Apart from differences between countries and political preferences, another important fact is that in the development of the European/national identity there are differential patterns concerning ethnicity and cultural background. Research into the meaning and effects of internationalisation and a focus on Europe in education belong to the pedagogic and educational domains. Therefore, just as in secondary education, these disciplines require a certain European and international orientation. Because the development of European integration has taken place especially in the fields of politics, economics, and law, it is these disciplines in particular that have developed a fairly common tradition. Sociology and history, on the other hand, needed some more time to recognize the European aspects as points of interest; of course, the history domain is still closely associated with the national state. The educational discipline could be considered as the youngest branch on the tree, in particular with respect to the attention given to Europe in primary education. Higher education, however, has known a longer internationalisation tradition and is taking the lead in scientific developments. Within the pedagogic and educational domains, there should be an awareness of the extensive overlap with other developments and topic areas, especially those engaged with Europe. It is more effective to conduct this type of research in relation to the various disciplines in the different faculties than to introduce a new type of “Europe studies” (see Jaeger & Joas, 2008, p. 12). National and European Identity In our theoretical EIO concept, the notions of national and European identity are important elements. This study has repeatedly stressed the importance

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of finding a balance between, on the one hand, maintaining the national identity and, on the other, pursuing the development of a certain European identity. Hołówka (Chapter 11) analyzed the more philosophical aspects of this issue, while Chapter 10 (Oonk, Maslowski, & Van der Werf) refers to Risse (2005), who argues that the stimulation of a European identity does not mean that young people will consequently identify themselves less with their own country or local community (no “zero-sum terms”). On the contrary, both movements might strengthen one another. However, in our view, this situation clearly applies to better educated young people and much less to the lower educated section and the adult population. Part C deals extensively with factors that influence the identity of young people. In addition, it refers to Putnam’s (2000) concepts of “bonding” and “bridging.” For our educational concept, it is important that European identity does not necessarily undermine national identity, which is the baseline for most civilians and, consequently, also for the pupils; the European dimension is a valuable addition to national norms and views. Further, it is important to be aware that there are a large variety of meanings attributed to national and European identity, a variety within the countries among the different social groups but also among the countries themselves; the identity as a “marble cake,” as proposed by Risse (2005), is probably the best representation of reality. Follow-up research into the development of the conceptual pair “national and European identity” in the different contexts remains important. With reference to the prior arguments regarding “national and European identity,” a logical conclusion is that the realisation of EIO should take place within the national educational context. However, the first section of this chapter has highlighted the attractive aspects of common curricula and standards. This would imply that, depending on the country and school type, there could be a focus on a common European section of the curriculum within the national context alongside EIO. Such a development, which can take place in complete freedom (subsidiary principle and a certain school autonomy) has already been observed in connection with previously mentioned school concepts, such as AbiBac, the European school, CLIL, Elos, and CertiLingua. Classic Modern View on Education In the EIO theory, the “what of EIO,” the “how of EIO,” and the possibilities of a synergy between the constructional and the instructional educational approach are central. It is possible that our line of reasoning is based strongly on the Dutch experiences, but we suspect that this type of discussion is also conducted in other countries. Therefore, we propose to use our view as the starting point for this debate.

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In our EIO model, a framework is used that structures the knowledge and skills as well as the foreign language skills per learning cohort and theme, thereby offering the possibility to realize attitudes and behaviour on the basis of knowledge and skills. The educational activities take place during the different courses as well as outside the school, while an important part entails getting acquainted with other cultures and languages in addition to studying the national language and culture. The process of European and international orientation can contribute to European citizenship, which, as explained several times before, is an extra dimension of national citizenship. This EIO framework has to be further elaborated, which will take a considerable number of years. Here, the common European framework of references for languages (CEFR) can serve as an example; in this context, researchers have worked for more than 40 years on the realisation of a series of syllabi specifications on various language levels. Apart from the EIO-specific part of the modern European developments following World War II, it would also be relevant to investigate which EIO dimensions are already incorporated in the different courses offered in the past within primary and secondary education. In other words, which part of the subject of history can still be considered as strictly nationally oriented and which part has a European focus? If a large part of the history education currently taught in the different EU member states could be labeled as “European” (all of them include the important European developments, such as the Greek-Roman antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Age of Reason, etc.), there would be less pressure on a European orientation in our current era. This reflects a “classic modern” view on education: classic in the sense that knowledge and skills form the core issues and modern in the sense that, via EIO activities as subjects in a foreign language, foreign languages in authentic situations, exchanges, common European curricula/textbooks, and partnerships, pupils could be offered attractive possibilities for both the instructional and the constructional part. According to the classic modern view on education, the pupils are subjected to high prerequisites, while the teacher clearly has the function of an instructor who introduces the pupils to knowledge fields structured in subject areas. Naturally, this task is accompanied by attractive didactical work forms. Apart from other assessment methods, objective testing procedures are used. There is a clear ambition to help as many pupils as possible to achieve the best results, and especially to make sure that the less capable pupils are not left to their own devices but that their chances are improved step by step through instruction and testing. In this model, well-educated teachers, who are attracted to both the subject content and the pedagogic concept, are essential. We would even suggest that this approach will make it attractive to graduates to opt for the teaching profession. The

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classic modern view on education will offer pupils with different capabilities significant improvements in the field of teaching in general and strengthen the European and international orientation in particular. References Boyd, W. (1964). The history of western education (7th ed.). London, UK: Adam & Charles Black. Jaeger, F., & Joas, H. (Eds.). (2008). Europa im Spiegel der Kulturwissenschaften, Denkart Europa, Schriften zur europäischen Politik, Wirtschaft und Kultur, no. 7 [Europe in the mirror of the cultural sciences]. Baden-Baden, Germany: Asko Europa Stiftung/Nomos. Jamieson, L., Wallace, C., Machacek, L., Boehnke, K., Ros, M., Condor, S., . . . Grad, H. (2007). Orientations of young men and women to citizenship and European identity. Brussels, Belgium: Directorate-General for Research, European Commission. Maslowski, R., Naayer, H., Oonk, G. H., & Van der Werf, M. P. C. (2009). Effecten van internationalisering in het voortgezet onderwijs: Een analyse van de implementatie en effecten van een Europese en internationale oriëntatie [Effects of internationalisation in secondary education: An analysis of the implementation and effects of a European and international orientation]. Groningen, The Netherlands: GION/University of Groningen. Nieke, W. (2008). Bildung für Europa—Zwischen geopolitischem Wirtschafstblock und abendländischer Wertegemeinschaft [Education for Europe—Between a geopolitical economic block and a occidental community of values]. In F. Jaeger & H. Joas (Eds.), Europa im Spiegel der Kulturwissenschaften, Denkart Europa, Schriften zur europäischen Politik, Wirtschaft und Kultur, no. 7 (p. 230). Saarbrücken, Germany: Asko Europa Stiftung/Nomos. Oonk, G. H. (2004). European integration as a source of innovation in education: A study of the meaning of internationalisation and its results in secondary education in The Netherlands. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs. Oonk, G. H. (2007). Internationalisation in primary and secondary education, a theoretical exploration of policy, implementation, effects and research. Alkmaar, The Netherlands: Europees Platform voor het Nederlandse Onderwijs. Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone. The collapse and revival of American community. New York: Simon and Schuster. Risse, T. (2005). Neofunctionalism, European identity, and the puzzles of European integration. Journal of European Public Policy, 12, 291–309. Scheffer, P. (2007). Het land van aankomst [Country of arrival]. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: De Bezige Bij. Standaert, R. (2008). Globalisering van het onderwijs in contexten [Globalisation of education in contexts]. Voorburg, The Netherlands/Leuven, Belgium: Acco.

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About the Contributors Editors Henk Oonk Henk Oonk has been director of the European Platform for Dutch Education, the official Ministry of Education institute for primary and secondary education from 1990 until 2006. In 2004 he completed his PhD thesis ‘European integration as a source of innovation in education’ at the University of Amsterdam. He was chairman of the Elos scientific committee of the Common Framework for Europe Competence (CFEC) and member of the Dutch research team of the IEA International Civics and Citizenship Education Study (ICCS). Since September 2006 he is involved as researcher in projects on ‘Education and Europe’ at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands and is coordinating small research and consultancy activities in the agency ‘Helios Education and Europe’. His studies focus on the meaning and effects of internationalisation in general and the European and international aspects of the curriculum in secondary schools in Europe in particular. He has published books and several articles on the European and International Orientation in schools. Ralf Maslowski Ralf Maslowski is assistant professor at the Faculty of Behavioural and Social Sciences of the University of Groningen in the Netherlands. He received his Ph.D. in educational sciences from the University of Twente. After more than ten years at the University of Twente he became a staff member of the Education Council in The Hague, prior to his current appointment. His studies focus on the school organisation and the effects of educational policies, with a strong interest on the impact of civic and Internationalisation in Secondary Education in Europe, pages 403–408 Copyright © 2011 by Information Age Publishing All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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citizenship education on student competencies. He has published several articles in scientific journals and books on school culture, educational decentralisation and citizenship education. He is currently coordinator of the theme group on citizenship education and social cohesion at the GION research institute , and member of the Alliance on citizenship education in the Netherlands. Since 2007 he has been NRC for the ICCS study in the Netherlands. Greetje van der Werf Greetje van der Werf is full professor Learning and Instruction at the Groningen Institute for Educational Research (GION) of the University of Groningen in The Netherlands. Her PhD study was about the implementation and effects of curriculum development in primary education. She has been and still is coordinator of several national longitudinal cohort studies in secondary education, aimed at evaluating national policy to improve secondary schools, and National Research Coordinator of the IEA study Civics and Citizenship Education (ICCS). She has published many scientific articles in international journals about effective teaching strategies for improving outcomes of low SES and ethnic minority students, about effective education in developing countries and about equity and excellence in secondary education. Most of her recent publications are about interpersonal differences in personality, motivation, and social relations and their effects on educational attainment.

Authors Markus W. Behne Markus W. Behne is managing director of the Civic—Institute for international Education seated in Duesseldorf/Germany. He studied from 1992 till 1999 political science, history and geography at the Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg and the University of Colorado at Denver. From 2004 till 2010 he was lecturer and research assistant at the University of Oldenburg and head of office for european integration and political education (Euripol) and as such National Coordinator of the EU–funded Elos-Project (Europe as a Learning Environment in Schools). After working for several Institutions in various European Countries in the fields of EU-Political Education, Professional training and executive development for public services, he is currently Head of the German Society for Political Education (DVPB) in Lower Saxony.

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Grażyna Czetwertyńska She has a MA in classical philology, and a PhD in education, literature and classics. She works at the University of Warsaw Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies “Artes Liberales” as lecturer. She used to run the “Educational Laboratory”, an institution designed for encouraging best university students for teaching in schools. She used to work as director of the Department of General Education in the Ministry of Education and used to be program director of “School with Class” project. She is member of the PISA (OECD) national board in the area of reading literacy. Currently she is busy with running a project within the European Social Fund, operational programme Human Capital. She is leading an expert group preparing school curricula for Polish schools abroad. Jaap Dronkers He was head of Research of Education and Sociology at SISWO (1976– 1986), associate professor of the Sociology of Education and Empirical Sociology at the Catholic University of Brabant in Tilburg (1986–1990), Chair in Educational Sciences (1990–1999), Chair in Empirical Sociology (1999–2001) both at the University of Amsterdam and professor of Social Stratification and Inequality at the European University Institute (EUI) in Florence (2001–2009). He is now Professor in international comparative research on educational performance and social inequality at Maastricht University. Frank Heyworth He is a special adviser of EAQUALS (The European Association of Quality Language Services) and coordinator and team member on several ECML projects (European Centre for Modern Languages). He is member of the Advisory Board, Cambridge ESOL and the British Council Innovations Award. His field is the development of quality assurance in language education. He was also member of the Scientific Committee of the Elos project. Jacek Hołówka After graduation in philosophy in 1966 he started as a teacher at the School of the Methodist Church in Warsaw. Since 1992 is editor-in-chief of Przeglad Filozoficzny and in the years 1993–1996 was vice-rector of Warsaw University and head of International Programs. Served as Professor of Philosophy at Indiana University and Notre Dame University, and as Europaprofessor in Philosophy at Viadrina Universitaet Frankfurt (Oder). Since 2004 professor of Philosophy at the College of Education ‘Pedagogium’ in Warsaw, and through most of his life, that is, since 1979, professor of Philosophy at Warsaw University, where he has taught ethics and analytic philosophy.

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Brigita Janiunaite She is professor and deputy director for research at the Institute of Educational Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences, Kaunas University of Technology. She also is assistant editor of the journal Social Sciences and member of the European Science Foundation and the Board of the Lithuanian Educational Research Association. Her research is focused on the issues of change management and social innovation implementation. She is actively involved in international and national research and study projects and evaluation of study programmes. Among her publications is a monograph on ‘Educational Innovation Implementation’ (2004, in Lithuanian) and the research study ‘Citizen’s innovative culture’ (2007, in Lithuanian). She was elected a visiting fellow at St.Edmund’s College, University of Cambridge, in 2007. Ray Kirtley He was a secondary school teacher until 1990 and then became involved with international education through Humberside Local Education Authority. When the authority was abolished in 1996 he moved to the University of Hull, his current employer. Within the university he created the International Resource Centre for Schools and Colleges which is now part of the Centre for Educational Studies. In this capacity he co-ordinates regional networks. Ray Kirtley has also carried out several consultancies for the British Council; he is currently chair of the UK Association for European and International Education in Schools as well as a European Commission expert. He is member of the management committee of Hull Development Education Centre. Dirk Lange Dirk Lange was teacher at a school in Berlin. In 2002 he completed his PhD thesis “Historical-political didactic of daily life history’ (supervisor Prof. Steinbach). He was researcher at the Braunschweig University, Department of political science and political education and professor at the University of Oldenburg (Germany) in political education. Since 2009 he is professor in the didactics of political education at the Leibniz University, Institute for Political Science in Hannover (Germany). Harm Naayer Harm Naayer (1975) is employed as full-time researcher at Groningen Institute for Educational Research (GION) of the University of Groningen in the Netherlands. He received a MSc degree from the University of Groningen, after completing the research master in political and theoretical history. Before his current appointment he worked at a commercial research facility for seven years, mainly conducting research in the fields of criminology, social welfare, drug-policy, and (juvenile) delinquency. His studies at the GION focus on citizenship education and international orientation in

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secondary education. Furthermore he is one of the researchers involved in the cohort study COOL5-18, which follows 22,000 Dutch students during their educational career. Yves Olivier He is inspector of the Academy d’Orleans-Tours, France. He completed his MA in Science and Mathematics in 1974 and his “Agregation” in 1987. He is dean of the IA-IPR in the Academy since 2004. He is responsible for the educational audits of the colleges and lycees in the region OrleansTours. He is member of the scientific committee of the Institute for Educational Scientific Research (IREM) since 2006 and was member of the scientific committee of the Elosproject during 2005–2008. Michael Rogge Michael Rogge did a teaching degree in English, History and Theology at the Universities of Essen and Bonn. After finishing teacher training he worked as a teacher at a Grammar School in Dortmund. Between 2007 and 2010 he worked for the Ministry of Education and Further Education North-Rhine Westphalia, developing curricula and central examinations in the field of foreign languages, bilingual education and international examinations. Currently he works as a lecturer and research assistant at the English Department of the Ruhr-University Bochum and is preparing his PhD thesis on intercultural learning and foreign language teaching. Mary Rose Mary Rose is Head of the International Learning and Research Centre near Bath. She is an experienced trainer, education consultant, coordinator and evaluator of international partnerships and networks. The former head of a Local Authority Advisory Service, an OFSTED Inspector and Headteacher, Mary has been a Consultant to secondary consortia since 2003 for the 14–19 curriculum reform programme. She has provided consultancy for the Department for Children, Schools and Families and since 2002 she has been retained as a quality assurance expert by the Council of Europe [EMCL]. Mary has been a member of the national advisory panel and is the UK Co-ordinator for the European Commission funded Elos programme. Kirsten Stamm Kirsten Stamm holds a Master’s degree in Education with a specialisation in Intercultural Relations, and state teacher diploma’s. She has worked as an international education manager, R&D coordinator, and teacher trainer in Europe. Since 2008, she was Academic Director for a large bilingual school in Vietnam, and currently is Associate Director at an English medium school in Tanzania. From 2005 to 2008, as Deputy Head of the Grants Department at the European Platform in The Netherlands, she coordinat-

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ed the European Elos Network. For many bilateral and multilateral projects and programs, she researched and consolidated data into formal proposals and reports to national and European authorities.