Intercultural Communication in Multicultural Environment of Tertiary Education

Citation preview

Министерство науки и высшего образования Российской Федерации Южно-Уральский государственный университет Кафедра иностранных языков

С5.я7 Е255

Е.В. Евсина

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT OF TERTIARY EDUCATION Учебное пособие Под редакцией К.Н. Волченковой

Челябинск Издательский центр ЮУрГУ 2020

ББК С523.я7 + Ч448.027.я7 Е255

Одобрено учебно-методической комиссией института лингвистики и международных коммуникаций Рецензенты: Т.А. Бояльская, А.Ф. Матушак

Е255

Евсина, Е.В. Intercultural Communication in Multicultural Environment of Tertiary Education: учебное пособие / Е.В. Евсина; под ред. К.Н. Волченковой. – Челябинск: Издательский центр ЮУрГУ, 2020. – 45 с. Учебное пособие предназначено для аудиторной и самостоятельной работы научно-педагогических работников всех специальностей, имеющих уровень владения иностранным (английским) языком не ниже B2. Модульная организация пособия позволяет формировать продуктивные навыки межкультурного общения научно-педагогических работников, необходимые для работы с иностранными студентами. Тематически пособие включает разделы с аутентичными текстами, необходимыми для понимания особенностей культуры и менталитета иностранных студентов. Структура каждого модуля построена по следующей схеме: аутентичные тексты для чтения с заданиями на понимание, задания для развития навыков межкультурного общения на английском языке. ББК С523. я7 + Ч448.027.я7

© Издательский центр ЮУрГУ, 2020 2

CONTENTS INTRODUCTION..…………………………………………………………………..... Module 1. TYPOLOGY OF CULTURES 1.1. Cross-cultural vs. intercultural communication……………………………….. 1.2. Cultural intelligence………………………………………………………….... 1.3. Big “C” and little “c” cultures………………………………………………..... 1.4. Hall’s concept of social cohesion………………………………………............ 1.5. Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory…………………………………............ 1.6. Comprehension check………………………………………………………….. 1.7. Practical task: Cultural awareness self-assessment test………………………... 1.8. References for module 1 ……………………………………………………… Module 2. TERTIARY EDUCATION SYSTEMS: DIFFERENT CULTURES, DIFFERENT VALUES 2.1. Multicultural aspect of internationalization…………………………………..... 2.2. Characteristic features of East Asian students…………………………………. 2.3. Characteristic features of Western students…………………………………..... 2.4. National Peculiarities awareness as a means of foreign students’ successful education………………………………………………………………………… 2.5. Comprehension check………………………………………………………….. 2.6. Practical task………………………………………………………………….... 2.7. References for module 2……………………………………………………….. Module 3. BARRIERS TO INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION 3.1. Intercultural barriers: definition and type…………………………………….. 3.2. Culture shock. Stages of adaptation…………………………………………... 3.3. Direct and Indirect communication style……………………………………... 3.4. Strategies of conflict resolution in different cultural environments…………… 3.5. Comprehension check………………………………………………………….. 3.6. Practical task………………………….................................................................. 3.7. References for module 3……………………………………………………….. Module 4. BRIDGES TO INTERCULTURAL MUTUAL UNDERSTANDING……. 4.1. English as a lingua franca (ELF)..………………………………………………. 4.2. Retrospective development of the phenomenon………………………………. 4.3. Modern lingua francas………………………………………………………..... 4.4. Dynamic relationship between understanding and misunderstanding………..... 4.5. Comprehension check………………………………………………………….. 4.6. Practical task: writing.…………………………………………………………. 4.7. References for module 4……………………………………………………….. APPENDIX. Additional resources……………………………………………………...

3

4 5 6 8 8 11 12 12 13

15 16 17 17 26 26 28 29 31 32 34 35 36 36 37 37 37 38 41 43 44 44 45

INTRODUCTION We all live in a global world, whether we want it or not. Some people believe that this is the beginning of international society, the beginning of a new era of peace and democratization. For others, globalization means America’s economic and political hegemony, that will turn culture into a homogeneous world. All changes taking place in the modern world are reflected in the education system, and especially higher education. The internationalization of higher education, i.e. wide attraction of young people from different countries to study at our universities (as one of the attributes of internationalization) has become a characteristic feature of Russian universities in the 21st century. The educational process in the context of global internationalization has an intercultural aspect. Successful teaching, i.e. high-quality higher professional education can not be achieved without basic knowledge of the culture, history, and mentality of the population of those countries where foreign students come from. This information allows you to start the dialogue with students from different countries successfully. Speaking about education in international groups of students we understand "culture" in the usual socio-scientific sense of the word, i.e. as beliefs, values and lifestyles of ordinary people in their daily existence. That is why the universities whose aim is to take the top places in the rankings of the leading universities in the world have to pay great attention to the intercultural aspect in educational process.

4

Module 1. TYPOLOGY OF CULTURES 1.1. Cross-cultural vs. intercultural communication A lot of people nowadays, even academics, use “cross-cultural” to mean “intercultural” that is the terms are used “interchangeably”. So we are going to try to clarify the differences. “Cross-cultural” means a comparison and contrast between two cultural groups. For example, a cross-cultural study of Brazilians and Mexicans when they celebrate a birthday shows that Mexicans love to focus on cooking and sharing of the food, while Brazilians love the dancing – even grandmas are dancing the samba. ‘Intercultural’ refers to what happens when people from these two groups come together. As a Mexican, I may complain that there’s not enough food, but I love the dancing and join the group. Thus, “Intercultural” is what happens when the two (or more) culturally-different groups come together, interact and communicate. More examples: Intercultural communication is an interaction between people from different cultural areas having different worldviews, values, traditions and/or religions and so on. Of course, the intercultural communication stands on interpersonal relations materialized in all realms and levels of life, including companies, institutions and countries... Intercultural communication is an interaction between people from the same cultural environment having anyhow some kind of different backgrounds of whatever kind. For example, in Western European Christian countries, the intercultural communication is a communication between Catholics and Protestants or in a mountain region, it is an interpersonal communication between the hunters association members and animal rights activists… Intercultural communication pioneer, Milton J. Bennett defines culture as “learned and shared values, beliefs, and behavior of a group of interacting people” [13]. Myron W. and Koester define intercultural communication in their book Intercultural Competence: Interpersonal Communication Across Cultures as “a symbolic, interpretative, transactional, contextual process,” which implies the engagement of culturally–different people. On the other hand, they define cross-cultural communication as “the study of a particular idea or concept within many cultures…in order to compare one culture to another…. Whereas intercultural communication involves interactions among people from different cultures, cross-cultural communication involves a comparison of interactions among people from the same culture to those from another culture [6].” A brief history of the field of intercultural communication research. Intercultural communication is a scientific field whose object of interest is the interaction between individuals and groups from different cultures, and which examines the influence of culture on people, how they act, feel, think and, evidently, speak and listen [3]. As described by Vila, intercultural communication may be defined as a communicative process involving individuals from reference cultures which are sufficiently different to be perceived as such, with certain personal and/or contextual barriers having to be overcome in order to achieve effective communication [14]. Even if the origins of the study of intercultural communication can be situated in the years following the end of World War II, and coincide with the creation of the United Nations in 1945, it is generally accepted that Edward T. Hall 1959 was the first to use the term itself [7]. Most of the work which was carried out in the 1960s and 1970s was very much under Hall's influence, together with that of Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck in 1961 [11]. During the 1970s the field flourished, and the most notable works were possibly that of Condon and Yousef [2] in 1977, as well as Porter and Jain in 1981 who were the first researchers to systematize the area of investigation. During the 1980 s and 1990 s publications were focused on deepening the outreach of theory and on refining the applied methodology.

5

Culture as applied to cross-cultural and intercultural communication. There have been numerous attempts to define the meaning of the term culture following the classic proposal of Taylor in 1871. But, as Gudykunst and Ting-Toomey pointed out: "No consensus has been achieved when it comes to formulating an interdisciplinary definition which can be accepted across the diverse fields of study [5]. French and Bell in their classic "Iceberg Model" identify the behavioral, cognitive and emotional components of culture, and these include values, conceptual systems, behavior and both material and symbolic artifacts [4]. On this base, M.A. Aneas Alvarez [1, p. 120] synthesized as a definition of culture "the set of knowledge, values, emotional heritage, behavior and artifacts which a social group share, and which enable them to functionally adapt to their surroundings." Thus culture affects us in the way we interact with our environment, influencing both how we construct it, and how we understand it [1]. 1.2. Cultural intelligence Study the following definitions and decide which one characterizes the phenomenon better. The ability to function effectively in different cultural contexts, called Cultural Intelligence/literacy Cultural intelligence/literacy is the ability to cross boundaries and thrive in multiple cultures. Culture is often considered to be the fifth skill in language learning but as a term it is quite fluid, shapeless, amorphous and therefore difficult to define. However cultural literacy or else cultural intelligence is a must in the 21st century for obvious reasons – our increased mobility makes it mandatory to develop this skill if we want to communicate successfully across borders. Cultural intelligence involves:  The ability to perceive and recognize cultural differences.  The ability to accept cultural differences.  The ability to appreciate and value cultural differences. Picture 1. The Culture Tree The cultures are formed of geography, faith, gender, generation, organization and sector. That is why people who can communicate effectively and build diverse networks necessary to solve messy problems are of great importance. Yet wherever you go in the world, people are being thrown together and are struggling to adapt and get on. Populations are becoming more diverse. Communication technology means that the boundaries are blurring between the public. Cultural Knowledge is composed of content (what) and process (how) knowledge of other cultures, such as how and when people express disagreements with each other, and how to give feedback to subordinates. How to Develop it: You can gain cultural knowledge through multiple channels, such as newspapers, movies, books, travelling to another country, or working with or being friends with people from a different culture. This learning experience will be optimized if you are mindful during the process, such as through carefully identifying what is unique about one culture, analyzing why it is unique, and forecasting when and how you could utilize this knowledge in the future. 6

Cross-Cultural Skills consist of a broad set of skills instrumental for intercultural effectiveness, specifically: 1. Relational skills; whether you enjoy talking and interacting with people from other cultures. 2. Tolerance of uncertainty; whether you are able to tolerate uncertainties, ambiguities and unexpected changes in an intercultural interaction. 3. Adaptability; whether you can change your behavior according to the cultural demands. 4. Empathy; whether you can put yourself in a culturally different person´s shoes and imagine the situation from his or her perspective. 5. Perceptual acuity; whether you understand other people´s feelings and subtle meanings during intercultural interactions. How to develop it: Cross-cultural skills are best developed through experiential learning, e.g. through studying or working in a foreign culture where you can practice these skills through trail-and-error. Picture 2. The Cultural Iceberg The development of these skills is accelerated when one is equipped with the appropriate cultural knowledge that was developed earlier. For example, if you know that in cultures such as Spain meeting someone 10 minutes after your arranged time is not considered late, you will feel more at ease when a Spanish colleague does not turn up exactly on time for a meeting. Similarly, being adaptive in a new cultural context requires the knowledge of how to behave appropriately in that culture. Again, this learning experience will be optimized if you are mindful during intercultural interactions and analyze your own behavior as well as your counterpart´s reactions. Cultural Metacognition (sometimes called Cultural Mindfulness). It is the knowledge of and control over one´s thinking and learning activities in the specific domain of cultural experiences and strategies. Being culturally mindful means one is aware of the cultural context, consciously analyzes the interactive situation, and plans courses of actions for different cultural contexts. How to develop it: In order to improve cultural metacognition, you need to practice mental exercises where you are observing others´ behaviors, analyzing situations and reflecting on your own behavior.  Pay attention to how the other party acts and reacts to you in a number of situations – this serves as the foundation for evaluating whether your behavior has achieved your desired goal. Based on this analysis, you can then decide what action you wish to take next.  Reflect on successful as well as unsuccessful intercultural interactions and write down what knowledge and skills you have used during those interactions. Are there any clues you missed or misread? Was there any word or behavior you did not know how to interpret? What would you do differently in a similar context?  Again, this learning experience will be optimized if you already have some cultural knowledge and cross-cultural skills. For example, if you can relate to your counterpart and are able to put yourself in his or her shoes, it will be easier for you to interpret his or her behavior and plan for your next move.

7

1.3. Big “C” and little “c” cultures Cultural knowledge is often described in terms of “little c” culture, comprised of cultural beliefs, behaviors, and values, and “big C” culture, such as literature, art, and institutions. We focused our work on two big categories of culture: “Big C” culture “Big C” culture refers to that culture which is most visible. Some visible forms of culture include:  holidays;  art;  popular culture;  literature;  food;  architecture. When learning about a new culture, the “big C” cultural elements would be discovered first; they are the most overt forms of culture. These are the “Shakespeares”, the “Gaudi’s”, the Michelangelos, the Vazovs – the famous figures, literature, architecture, music, dance, history – things that will never go away. “Little c” culture, in contrast, is the more invisible type of culture associated with a region, group of people, language, etc. Some examples of “little c” culture include:  communication styles,  verbal and non-verbal language symbols,  cultural norms (what is proper and improper in social interactions),  how to behave,  myths and legends. Picture 3. The Big Culture 1.4. Hall’s concept of social cohesion Edward T. Hall was an anthropologist who made early discoveries of key cultural factors. In particular he is known for his high and low context cultural factors. Context: High context. In a high-context culture, there are many contextual elements that help people to understand the rules. As a result, much is taken for granted. This can be very confusing for a person who does not understand the 'unwritten rules' of the culture. Low context. In a low-context culture, very little is taken for granted. Whilst this means that more explanation is needed, it also means there is less chance of misunderstanding particularly when visitors are present. Picture 4. Edward T. Hall Contrasting the two. French contracts tend to be short (in physical length, not time duration) as much of the information is available within the high-context French culture. American content, on the other hand, is low-context and so contracts tend to be longer in order to explain the detail. 8

Highly mobile environments where people come and go need lower-context culture. With a stable population, however, a higher context culture may develop. Note the similarity with Trompenaars Universalism (low context) and Particularism (high context). Time: Monochronic time. M-Time, as he called it, means doing one thing at a time. It assumes careful planning and scheduling and is a familiar Western approach that appears in disciplines such as 'time management'. Monochronic people tend also to be low context. Polychronic time. In Polychronic cultures human interaction is valued over time and material things, leading to a lesser concern for 'getting things done' – they do get done, but more in their own time. Aboriginal and Native Americans have typical polychronic cultures, where 'talking stick' meetings can go on for as long as somebody has something to say. Polychronic people tend also to be high context [8]. Table 1 Comparing High-context and Low-context cultures Factor

High-context culture

Low-context culture

Overtness (smth done in an open way) of messages

Many covert (hidden) and implicit messages, with use of metaphor and reading between the lines.

Many overt and explicit messages that are simple and clear.

Locus of control and attribution for failure

Inner locus of control and personal acceptance for failure

Outer locus of control and blame of others for failure

Use of non-verbal communication

Much non-verbal communication

More focus on verbal communication than body language

Expression of reaction

Reserved, inward reactions

Visible, external, outward reaction

Cohesion and separation of groups

Strong distinction between ingroup and out-group. Strong sense of family.

Flexible and open grouping patterns, changing as needed

People bonds

Strong people bonds with affiliation to family and community

Fragile bonds between people with little sense of loyalty.

Level of commitment to relationships

High commitment to long-term relationships. Relationship more important than task.

Low commitment to relationship. Task more important than relationships.

Flexibility of time

Time is open and flexible. Process is more important than product

Time is highly organized. Product is more important than process

9

Contrasting the two. Western cultures vary in their focus on monochronic or polychronic time. Americans are strongly monochronic whilst the French have a much greater polychronic tendency – thus a French person may turn up to a meeting late and think nothing of it (much to the annoyance of a German or American co-worker). Table 2 Monochronic and Polychronic actions Factor

Monochronic action

Polychronic action

Actions

do one thing at a time

do many things at once

Focus

Concentrate on the job at hand

Are easily distracted

Attention to time

Think about when things must be achieved

Think about what will be achieved

Priority

Put the job first

Put relationships first

Respectforproperty

Seldom borrow or lend things

Borrow and lend things often and easily

Timeliness

Emphasize promptness

base promptness relationship factors

Space. Hall was concerned about space and our relationships within it. He called the study of such space Proxemics. We have concerns about space in many situations, from personal body space to space in the office, parking space, space at home. The need for space:  Some people need more space in all areas. People who encroach into that space are seen as a threat.  Personal space is an example of a mobile form of territory and people need less or greater distances between them and others. A Japanese person who needs less space thus will stand closer to an American, inadvertently making the American uncomfortable.  Some people need bigger homes, bigger cars, bigger offices and so on. This may be driven by cultural factors, for example the space in America needs to greater use of space, whilst Japanese need less space (partly as a result of limited useful space in Japan). High territoriality:  Some people are more territorial than others with greater concern for ownership. They seek to mark out the areas which are theirs and perhaps having boundary wars with neighbors.  This happens right down to desk-level, where co-workers may do battle over a piece of paper which overlaps from one person's area to another. At national level, many wars have been fought over boundaries.  Territoriality also extends to anything that is 'mine' and ownership concerns extend to material things. Security thus becomes a subject of great concern for people with a high need for ownership.  People high territoriality tend also to be low context.

10

Low territoriality:  People with lower territoriality have less ownership of space and boundaries are less important to them. They will share territory and ownership with little thought.  They also have less concern for material ownership and their sense of 'stealing' is less developed (this is more important for highly territorial people).  People with low territoriality tend also to be high context. Contrasting:  Australian Aboriginal people will say that they belong to the land rather than the other way around. Before we scotch this, we should remember that they have thrived in harsh conditions for thousands of years. Western society, on the other hand has shown much barbarity over ownership of land.  When working across cultures, pay attention to high and low cultures through the actions of others. For example, if people are late for meetings it may be because they are polychronic, not because they are disrespectful or lazy.  When you understand the personal, national or organizational culture, then you can seek to align with them and hence gain greater influence. 1.5. Hofsted’s cultural dimensions theory Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory includes: Power Distance, Individualism-Collectivism, Uncertainty, Masculinity-Femininity, and Long Term Orientation. National culture has been shown to impact on relationship in different fields of peoples’ activities. Cultural awareness can lead to greater success of international activities and lack of it can just as well lead to their failure. Geert Hofstede is a renowned author who developed a model to describe various cultural ‘dimensions’, and has researched issues relating to cultural differences (for example in the GLOBE Project). Geert Hofstede’s model was based on a study of IBM employees in over fifty countries. He identified five dimensions or ‘problem areas’ which represent differences among national cultures: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism/collectivism, masculinity/femininity and longterm orientation [10]. 1. Power distance defines how social inequality is perceived and accepted in different cultures. Hofstede explains how in high power distance cultures children are raised with a great emphasis on respecting elders, which is carried through to adulthood. Therefore organizations are more centralised, employees prefer a more autocratic leadership style where subordinates are expected to be told what to do and there are wide wage gaps in the hierarchical structure. On the other hand, in low power distance cultures inequality is not desired, employees prefer to be consulted with regards to decision making and thus prefer a more resourceful and democratic leader. 2. Individualism (versus collectivism) is the preference of people to belong to a loosely knit society where importance is placed on the self and autonomy. In opposition, collectivist structures place importance on interdependent social units such as the family, rather than on the self. In individualist societies, employees require the freedom to work independently and desire challenging work (which is more important than personal relationships) that will help them reach selfactualization. In collectivist cultures, unquestioned management structures are responsible for the organization of teams of employees and the cohesion of the collective. 3. According to Hofstede, masculinity represents cultures with distinct gender roles where men focus on success, competition and rewards while women focus on tender values such as quality of life and modesty. Femininity represents cultures where gender roles overlap. In masculine cultures managers are defined as more assertive and decisive, whereas feminine cultures breed more intuitive managers who negotiate disputes and encourage participation in decisions.

11

4. Uncertainty avoidance is the degree to which members of a culture feel threatened or uncertain in unfamiliar situations. Thus in high uncertainty avoidance cultures, people prefer a structured environment with rules and policies in place. Hard work is embraced, and there is a greater sense of anxiety amongst the workforce. In contrast, in weak uncertainty avoidance cultures rules created is comfort, almost fear, and exist only where absolutely necessary. People tend to be more relaxed in these cultures, and work at a slower pace. 5. Following Hofstede, a subsequent study based on Chinese Confucian Theory revealed a fifth dimension referred to as long-term orientation. This describes the extent to which people have a dynamic, future-oriented perspective (long-term orientation – LTO) rather than a focus on the past and present (short-term orientation – STO). Conclusion. It appears that Hofstede’s cultural dimensions are still valid today, supported by the recent GLOBE study. It can be concluded that cultures have different learned values and norms which can determine actions and play a significant role in influencing business outcomes. 1.6. Comprehension check Answer the following questions: 1. Enumerate the cross-cultural skills 2. What is the difference between Big “C” and little “c” cultures? 3. What are the differences between monochromic and polychromic people according to Hall’s theory? 4. In what type of culture according to E. Hall much is taken for granted, which can be confusing for a person who does not understand the “unwritten rules” of the culture? 5. How did E. Hall call the concerns about space and our relations within it? 6. What does the term “Monochronic time” mean? What nations are strongly monochronic? 7. What are five dimensions or “problem areas” according to Hofstede, which represent differences among national cultures. 1.7. Practical task: Cultural awareness self-assessment test Please give a qualitative evaluation of each of the 10 factors by marking the circle that represents the appropriate numerical score, which in your opinion best represents your assessment of your performance on each factor. This is not an opportunity to assess your desires, wishes, hopes, dreams or even your potential. 7= outstanding (superb); 6= excellent; 5= very good; 4= average (good); 3= fair; 2= poor; 1= very minimal; 0= no ability at all. Table 3 Cultural awareness self-assessment test Questions/ situations

7

6

5

1. I listen to people from other cultures when they tell me how my culture affects them. 2. I realize that people from other cultures have fresh ideas and different points of view to bring to my life and to the workplace. 3. I give people from other cultures advice on how to succeed in my culture.

12

4

3

2

1

0

End of table 3

Questions/ situations

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

4. I give people my support even when other members of my culture reject them. 5. I realize that people outside of my culture could be offended by my behavior. I have asked people if I have offended them by things I have done or said and have apologized whenever necessary. 6. I realize that when I am stressed out I am likely to make myself and my culture right and another culture wrong. 7. I respect my superiors (boss, teacher, group leader, etc) regardless of where he/she is from. I do not go over his/ her head to talk to someone from my culture in order to try and get my way. 8. When I am in mixed company, I mix with everyone. I do not just stay with people from my culture, or only with people from the dominant culture. 9. I go out of my way to work with, recruit, select, train and/or promote people from outside the dominant culture. 10. When people in my culture make jokes about or talk negatively about other cultural groups, I let them know that I do not like it.

1.8. References for module 1 1. Aeneas Alvarez, M.A. Intercultural Competition, Concept, Effects and Implications in the Exercise of the Citizenship, Ibero-American Journal of Education, 2003. – P. 45–61 2. Condon, J. An Introduction to Intercultural Communication / J. Condon, F. Yousef. – Prentice Hall PTR, 1995. – 263 p. 3. Dodd, C. H. Dynamics of intercultural communication / C. H. Dodd. – Dubuque, A: Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1991. – 174 p. 4. French, W. Organization development. (5th Ed.) / W. French, C. Bell. – Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall International, 1995. – 342 p.

13

5. Gudykunst, W. B., Ting-Toomey S. Culture and Affective Communication. SAGE Social Science Collection. Volume: 31 issue: 3, 1998. – P. 384–400 Issue published: January 1, 1988.https://doi.org/ 10.1177/ 0002764880310003009 6. Myron, W. L. Intercultural Competence: Interpersonal Communication Across Cultures / W. L. Myron, J. Koester. – Harper Collins College Publishers, 1993. – 399 p. 7. Hall, E. T. The Silent Language / E. T. Hall. – New York: Doubleday, 1959. – 280 p. 8. Hall, E. T. The Hidden Dimension / E. T. Hall. – New York: Doubleday, 1966. – 317 p. 9. Hall, E. T. Beyond Culture / E. T. Hall. – New York: Doubleday, 1977. – 294 p. 10. Hofstede, G. Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind / G. Hofstede. – London: McGraw-Hill, 1997. – 352 p. 11. Kluckhohn, F. R. Variations in value orientations / F. R. Kluckhohn, F. L. Strodtbeck . – Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson, 1961. – 327 p. 12. Larry, A. S. Understanding intercultural communication / A. S. Larry, E. R Porter, N. C. Jain. – Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1981. – 364 p. 13. Milton, J. Bennett. Basic concepts of intercultural communication / J. B. Milton. – Nicholas Brealey Publishing, 1998. – 402 p. 14. Vila, R. La Competencia Comunicativa Intercultural. Un estudio en el primer ciclo de la ESO. Tesis Doctoral, http://www.tesisenxarxa.net/TDX-1216105-135329/ [Access: 10/10/2019]

14

Module 2. TERTIARY EDUCATION SYSTEMS: DIFFERENT CULTURES, DIFFERENT VALUES 2.1. Multicultural aspect of internationalization Domestic and foreign researchers consider the internationalization of higher education as an international solidarity, expressed in uniting pedagogical efforts of lecturers and students of different countries on the basis of the adoption of common ideals and mutual respect. Internationalization involves the recognition of cultural pluralism, intensive dialogue of cultures, the formation of multicultural competence, tolerant attitude to other countries and peoples. The number of foreign students marks the success of a University in the global services market. Today, the international environment is represented by the students from nearly 40 different countries in SUSU. The experience of implementing international scientific and educational programs demonstrates the need to identify and take into account the essential national characteristics of students of different countries. Why, for example, can’t Japanese students independently form small groups, despite the repeated calls of the lecturer? Why do not Chinese students correct the mistake made by the lecturer in the recording on the board, and Russian students ask less questions to the professor than their German counterparts? Why is a lecturer from Peru often late and does not consider it necessary to apologize? Why do French colleagues insist that the scientific text must be divided into three parts, each part by three points, and each paragraph must contain three examples? Why does the German professor-moderator of the scientific discussion find no response from the Spanish colleague on the offer to express his own opinion or criticisms? Currently in Russia, there are many foreign students, representing both the developed countries of America and Europe, and the countries of Asia and Africa. As a result of intercultural interaction, three cultural and educational traditions meet: European, Asian and Russian, each of which has its own national roots. What are the most significant differences in the educational traditions of European and Asian countries? Table 4 Comparing Asian and European attitudes to education Asian traditions

European traditions

The special role of the lecturer (guru), who has personal wisdom;

The special role of knowledge, which is broadcasted by any competent teacher;

The lecturer knows the answers to all questions;

The lecturer has the right not to know something;

The correct result of solving the problem is important;

Important is not only the result, but also the creative process of solving the problem;

The lecture is in the centre of training;

Independent work of students is in the center of training;

Students expect specific assignments from the lecturer;

The lecturer expects creative initiatives from students;

Students prefer precise goals, detailed instructions, specific work schedules; students want to learn how to do.

Students prefer open goals, general instructions and flexible schedules; students want to learn how to learn.

15

Cultural differences. To better teach international students, teachers have to be aware of cross-culture communication issues. International students may come from every part of the world with different religions, cultures and backgrounds. Although globalization makes the world smaller, we still cannot ignore differences between cultures. To describe this problem might be very general, so we choose two typical cultures to analyze: East Asian students and Western students. 2.2. Characteristic features of East Asian students The most common culture source in East Asia is Chinese culture, where most of students are influenced by old Chinese philosophy, called “the golden mean”. The students who are led by this philosophy usually do not want to perform very actively in class to attract attention. Additionally, East Asian students are likely to experience lack of confidence in their English ability and thus feel ashamed to express their opinions. Some teachers in western universities judge East Asian students to be too quiet in class. Not only Chinese philosophy and lack of confidence influence their performances, but also tradition plays an important role in affecting their behavior. From ancient times in East Asia, mentors and teachers have absolute authority, and every student should obey and respect their teacher unconditionally. Students do not have the right to question their teacher, since the teacher and the student do not have equal rights. There is a famous proverb in Chinese reciting “one day as a teacher, a life as a father”; more than half of Chinese students believe this proverb and rely on it. Therefore, in the class they don’t want to be critical to the teacher and would like to show their respect to the teacher. Besides the influence from ancient Chinese philosophy, some modern culture, built up after the Second World War, have strong impact on East Asian students’ behavior. With the explosive increasing of economy in East Asian countries, for instance, Japan and Korea since 1960s, and China since 1990s, the populations of these East Asian countries have highly increased. Due to this reason, the competition for the students in East Asian countries has become extremely fierce. Under the pressure of competition, most of East Asian students tend to work hard and motivate to achieve higher grades to have a better position in future life. Teaching is an exalted profession in Chinese culture and teachers enjoy a high social status. For 2,000 years the policies and practices of Chinese education were dominated by Confucianism, one major mission of the teacher is to teach students to fit in the conservative, patriarchal and hierarchical system. Given the moral focus in education, the ideal relationship between student and teacher goes beyond the transmission of knowledge. The teacher is an instructor, but also an educator in that he or she prepares the student for all aspects of life as a socially aware and responsible member of the community and a citizen of the nation [3], which sets a high expectation to teachers for both their knowledge and morality. Though it was seriously challenged during the Cultural Revolution, respect for teachers is simply too deeply ingrained in Chinese culture for it to have been overturned in a given period of time. The hierarchy of teacher–student relationship is revealed more explicitly than it is in American or European culture. Chinese students are seen to respond to teachers as if they are their parents –with attention, silence and fear. As researchers and most American students have observed, it is not rare to see that Chinese teachers use humiliation and scolding to keep their students in line while the students always keep quiet and never argue back. Humiliation could better motivate them to study hard and make progress rather than compliments. Compliments would make them proud and self-satisfied, thus leading to less progress. Second is the different attitude to teacher – student relationship between the two cultures. Although Chinese teachers have a lot more personal power over their students, they often have a closer relationship with their students than that, for example, in the U.S. the American student Ryan recalled his time when he was teaching English in a rural Chinese area:

16

American teachers (even university professors) almost never give out their cell phone numbers to students. But Chinese teachers all do. Teachers also come and participate in student activities. Teachers would play basketball with the students regularly, and join in their New Year's parties. If students have problems at home, teachers are also more likely to help out. (They may gather old clothes or give a little money for school supplies or better food to the families of kids who are really poor). Students would also often come to teacher's offices to talk to them or get help with their work, which they rarely do in the U.S. Maybe the biggest difference is that in China, it is ok for students and teachers to meet outside of school. Also, in the U.S, a student would NEVER go to a teacher's home, but they would go there for tutoring all the time. 2.3. Characteristic features of Western students From their childhood, western students were encouraged to think critically, meanwhile in western culture, teachers are positioned as equal to students, thus, in a typical western class, students are usually trained to discuss the topic energetically with lecturers, reaching knowledge through dialogue and discussion rather than from passive hearing. They think university is the starting point for their career and an important life experience, creating networks will be useful in the future, spending a lot of time in social activities as an icebreaker. Hierarchy is regarded as a challenge rather than an impediment (obstacle), and decisions from groups almost always outrank decisions from individuals, as the essence of democracy. Students enjoy more freedom in classroom. They may wear casual clothes: one student wears a very loose shorts and leaned to the desk in the class; students eat and drink while listening to the teacher; it is very common for students to go to the restroom without the permission of the teacher. (from a Chinese professor’s observation report). If a student is very active in class this behavior is highly encouraged in European and American class because student participation is considered as having intrinsic value. Learning is through discussion and debate. In Europe the teacher will introduce the theory of internal relationship for one hour, and then, the next hour, she will present a question, or some incident problem, like Nigerians attack. Using this theoretical framework, they would like the students to debate, like which is better, capitalism or socialism, people would make their own arguments. And now we are going to give some characteristics to students who are the most often taught at our university. 2.4. National Peculiarities awareness as a means of foreign students’ successful education Arab students. Arab countries are one of the most stable civilizations in the world. Throughout their history, their psychological foundation has remained virtually unchanged. Their culture served as the basis for the development of many countries in Asia and Europe, and scientific achievements were the engines of progress for many civilizations. Algebra, Geometry, Astronomy have precisely Arab roots [1]. According to the ethnocultural stereotypes that still exist in relation to the Arab nations, many of its representatives are prone to religious fanaticism. However, the more educated part of the Arabs is moderate in their religious feelings, although it treats its religion with great care and, as far as possible, strictly adheres to all its rules. In addition, the Arabs show great respect for the other faiths, religious beliefs of other people. There are significant elements of common Arab culture, manifested in the everyday life, traditions and spiritual life of the Arabs, without knowing these peculiarities mutual understanding 17

and normal communication with the Arabs is simply impossible. Lewis R.D., a British cultural expert, formulated the main reason for the failures in communication between Europeans and Arabs as follows: “They live in completely different worlds, each of which is organized in its own way ... Each culture has its own vision of good and evil, what is right and what is wrong, logical and illogical” Therefore, it is clear that without knowing the basics of Arabic etiquette it is difficult to establish relations with an Arab audience. Modern etiquette in the Arab world is experiencing, above all, the influence of Islam - the state religion in most Arab countries. Every action of any Muslim theoretically strictly regulated by the Quran. The Quran as a divine word plays an important role in the development of human relations to the people around him and the world as a whole, in the formation of norms of behavior and communication, and Islam permeates all spheres of human life. The personality in the East is subject to the interests of the family, the clan. The Arab family, as a rule, is a large group united by kinship ties. Parents are at the head of the family, elders of the clan. The family includes married sons, their children, married grandchildren and greatgrandchildren. Often, especially in the village, they live together and farm together. The family is based on the power of the husband – the head of the family. The relationship between elder and younger brothers is similar to the relationship between father and sons. Obedience and reverence for elders – the main advantage of the young man. A son is considered wise if he follows the advice of his elders. Honoring power, respect for power – the traditional image of the relationship between the people and its leader in the Arab world. Family relationships and family traditions are the core that permeates the whole society. For the Arabs family is in the first place. The Arabs who study in Russia for a relatively long time at first cannot abstract from the family, and any negative news from home can cause their isolation and despondency. The Muslim religion, which regulates almost all aspects of people's lives, strengthened the Arabs' disbelief in their personal transformative potential, developed submission and humility. “Intalla” (“Everything is in the hands of Allah”) is a duty phrase accompanying any action of an Arab. In case of failure, they say: "It was so pleasing to Allah." Arabs show a resigned willingness to work, but they are not distinguished by hard work. Their work is not combined with discipline, pedantry and accuracy in work. For most of them, leisure and recreation are more important than the results of labor. Idleness and laziness are practically not condemned in society – the student may be absent from the class because today, in his homeland, it is his uncle’s birthday or his brother is having a wedding ceremony; Etiquette situations: when meeting with the Arabs there should be observed a certain ritual. A man is always introduced to a woman first, regardless of position or age. Younger by age or official position should be introduced to senior, and not vice versa. If people of the same age, then the bachelor should introduce himself to a married, and unmarried to married. One person is introduced to a group of people. The Arabs, like many Europeans, when they meet, the men embrace, touch each other, first with one cheek, then with the other, slapping on the back and shoulders. And if they haven’t seen each other for a long time and are close enough, they usually greet each other with a three-fold kiss on both cheeks, hugging each other. The handshake and hugs usually follow the traditional Muslim greeting of two people, “al-salamuleykum” (“peace to you”) and the answer to “and peace to you”. For Arabs, there is nothing more important than human communication. This is easily noticed in everyday life, for example when visiting a student. You will definitely be offered coffee, and the conversation will drag on for a long time. The most important for them will be the conversation than the result of your visit. Arabs have a calm attitude towards time, so all kinds of public events, meetings should not be limited to time frames. It is advisable to proceed in advance from the fact that some kind of delay, a delay, is sure to occur. This sometimes causes resentment on the part of those who are waiting, however, if you insist on observing the schedule or on performing the work strictly by a certain hour, then an Arab student may get the impression that you are impatient and too demanding. 18

When you go somewhere with the Arabs, it is necessary to remember that the one on the right has the advantage. Therefore, when entering the building or leaving it, the one who goes to the right begins the movement first. The Arabs are very flattering, and therefore when they talk, they try to establish an atmosphere of mutual trust. And although the conversation may not always be pleasant, they will be extremely polite to hold on, and their cordiality and hospitality under any circumstances truly knows no boundaries. After all, there are no differences for Arabs, whether a friend came to him or an outsider – everyone will be given a warm welcome. At the same time, the Arabs greatly appreciate when the same attention is shown towards them. According to Eastern etiquette, it is customary to ask your interlocutor about his successes, family, and health. For Arabs, such questions are the basis of their etiquette and culture. Moreover, they do not wait for detailed answers to these phrases, they are quite satisfied with short answers, because the questions were purely ritual. Self-confidence, high self-esteem as a national feature often leads to disputes (they prefer to bargain with all other forms of interaction with a business partner). They always try to reserve the opportunity to continue contacts if it becomes obvious that this time they will not be able to defend their position. It is in their nature to avoid certainty, unambiguous answers "yes" or "no." Instead, they usually say: “In Sha-la” (“if God wills”). As we see, the Arabs have peculiar norms of etiquette, in which elements of the Muslim culture occupy a significant place. In the Arab world, all life for many centuries was determined and continues to be determined by the ideology of the Muslim religion, which covers all aspects of human life and acts as the decisive normative factor. Arabs belong to the introverted thinking type, according to the classific ation of K.G. Yuong. They are under the decisive influence of ideas, which flow, however, not from a subjectively given, but from a subjective basis. This explains the religiousness of Islamic countries representatives, which was cultivated for a long time within a certain ethnic community, and its idea penetrated deeper and deeper into the collective unconscious ness of the masses. Thus, in the educational process, it is necessary to try to interest the Arabs in studying a particular subject, and not to force them to be engaged in this or that activity if there is a noticeable decline in interest in the latter. Much of the above can be attributed to representatives of other (non -Arab) ethnic groups, people from countries whose main religion is also Islam. Here it will be appropriate to use the term Muslim-type of culture, a key factor in the formation of which is Islam. In this regard, exploring the ethnic psychology of Arab students, one can trace the similarity of their psychological profile with the psychology of students from countries such as Chad, Bangladesh, Pakistan and some others. Afghan Students. Knowing the history of the country, which the students represent, the peculiarities of its national culture, religion will help to overcome the psychological barrier, to establish an atmosphere of mutual interest and trust. It should be noted that Afghanistan is a country with an ancient history, where cultures of the peoples of Iran and India, the Tajiks, and the Turkmen have long been intertwined. Among Afghans, we will meet fearless men with a warm heart and self-esteem, for whom the concept of honor (almost lost in the modern world) is sacred. The basis of the mentality is the diversity of cultural traditions that have existed here for many millennia (Arab, Persian), as well as religious (Muslim) canons.

19

Afghans are correct in communication, polite. They have a desire to "serve" or help the teacher or each other. Among Afghans, one should avoid noisy, familiar behavior, disrespect towards others. They react vividly to the "troublemakers", consider it unforgivable to give a promise, and then not follow it. They will occasionally consider a thumb raised upward during a conversation to be an act of obscenity. When meeting outside they are very restrained in greetings. Afghans, like all Muslims, respect a woman greatly, appreciate her modesty. If in their presence someone allows himself a dismissive statement about a woman, a teacher, such an “offender” can be punished. Afghan students are open to communication, but they can only be frank if they completely trust the teacher. To complain and be offended is not in their character: it is a manifestation of the weakness of the spirit. If you come to visit your students, do not refuse the proposed treats. Your refusal will be considered indecent. Like all Muslims, they do not eat pork, but they will offer national dishes. In conversations with students one should not touch on topics relating to religion and politics. Afghans, as Muslims, honor all the rules and religious instructions of Islam, observe the daily fivefold prayer. Friday is for them a day of collective prayer - this is the day of rest for Muslims, therefore it is advisable not to give the students a lot of tasks on this day. In the month of Ramadan, fasting is observed, during which people limit themselves to eating and having fun. Among the family holidays, the New Year, which begins on March 26, is especially celebrated among Afghans. Various dishes are prepared for this holiday, the name of which must necessarily begin with the letter “a”. Over 30 nationalities live in modern Afghanistan. Afghan students learn Russian with great interest, they are quite inquisitive. African Students. On the one hand there is the largest variety of ethnic groups, languages, cultures, religions. On the other hand, Africa is still a continent of the third world countries. Africans live apart and have large families. There are several dozens of local dialects in each African country, therefore communication between representatives of different countries is possible only in European languages. Education in schools and universities takes place more often under the American or British system, so the quality of education is good. But not everyone is able to pay for it, because most of the population is rather poor. Many go to study abroad, as it is difficult to enter the university because of the high competition. Characteristic features of Africans are friendliness and relaxation. If your students – Africans, do not forget that the word "Negro" is an insult to them. Be sure that the Russian adjective "black" your students learned before you first pronounced it. Try not to use, in vain of course. After all, you do not want cute and charming black students to behave with you as silent stone idols. If there are not only African students in your study group, you will have to work hard before the atmosphere of your classes becomes comfortable for everyone. If you have only Africans in your study group, and even from one country, and speaking only one dialect, you are very lucky! As a rule, with rare exceptions, African students are well-trained, quick-witted, sociable, inquisitive, and often have talent and a sense of humor.

20

Let your students feel that you are not only a highly qualified specialist, but also a cultured, erudite modern person, a good psychologist and reliable companion – and their natural abilities and linguistic flair, typical of almost all Africans, will fully manifest itself. Do not be lazy before the first lesson to look at the encyclopedia, look through the journals, to learn more about the countries from which your students came: about their history, language, religion, traditions, about their cities and attractions. This will help you to establish contacts. In the future, follow the news from these countries and do not miss the TV shows devoted to them. Show interest in their life, ask to show family photos – they will respond with pleasure. Ask questions and tell them what you have learned and read. Sometimes students can learn a lot of new and interesting things about their country and about themselves from you, and then, as they say, your authority will have no limits! In practical classes, African students usually talkaktiv, although they will assert that talkativeness is not peculiar to their culture. What else is not characteristic of Africans? It turns out that a self-respecting man will not use an umbrella even in the heaviest rain – this is the privilege of women (the only exception is an umbrella opened in bad weather over the smart bride and groom on their wedding day). A self-respecting person will not go to the theater – it is a pleasure for “dissolute” people. But the peak of lack of culture and wildness is considered to spit in a public place: a spitting man is not homosapiens. Vietnamese Students. When working with Vietnamese students one should not only take into account the fact that they are representatives of the richest Asian culture with centuries-old cultural and historical traditions, but also to know some of the features of the Vietnamese national character. The researchers note that the development of the national Vietnamese character took place in conditions of continuous contact with representatives of other cultures. For a long time, Chinese remained the official language of Vietnam. For a thousand years, Vietnam was a Chinese colony, and all this time the Vietnamese fought against the invaders. They did not stop fighting for independence with the Japanese, the British, the French, and the Americans. It is probably difficult to impose one’s will on a person whose genes have a desire for freedom, a readiness to defend their own independence. Also noteworthy are the inherent patience, organization, and respect for elders. The constant struggle with difficulties has developed discipline and common sense in them, has formed the strong traditions of collectivism among the Vietnamese. Here everyone is convinced that he will succeed only by relying on the team. The public interests stand above personal ones: first, the needs of the Motherland only then your own problems. They consider sincerity to be the highest virtue. Vietnamese are surprisingly sturdy, and hardworking. They are, by nature, creators, who are not afraid of dirty, hard work. Vietnamese are inquisitive, ready to get acquainted with the life of other nations, while remaining nationalists. They are very observant. They immediately notice the smallest details in the behavior of the interlocutor and easily guess his weak points. Speaking with the Vietnamese, one should know that he “sees through you”. If you show disrespect to him, try to harm him, he will answer you at that moment when you do not wait, and with your own weapon. When communicating with the Vietnamese, you should not be gesticulating, waving your arms – they will consider you an impolite and poorly educated person. Do not try to touch his head or hair. According to Eastern traditions, the head is sacred, and an attempt to touch it can be regarded as an insult. Self-esteem is transmitted in Vietnam at the gene level, from generation to generation. However, an adult is good at controlling himself and does not allow emotions to spill out even in 21

conflict situations. Eastern philosophy teaches to be flexible with regard to the interlocutor. A popular proverb says: "If you give someone a way, it will be easier for you to follow it yourself." However, if it concerns fundamental issues, the Vietnamese will show a firm position and will be unshakable, like a rock. Chinese Students. Understanding is the key to success, so it is very important to get acquainted with the national characteristics of the people you have to work with. To succeed in working with a Chinese audience, you should be persistent, patient, attentive and prudent. China is known as a country where etiquette and ceremoniality have always been important. This is a state with an ancient culture, rich traditions and distinctive national characteristics, the knowledge of which will be very useful in the process of communication with Chinese students. The Chinese idea of good manners is very different from the European. Here is one of the examples. In China, there is an old Confucian rule, according to which a man and a woman who give or take something should not touch each other. It is unacceptable to touch a woman, to take her arm, to help put on a coat. It is not accepted to give a woman a place, open the door in front of her. When communicating, you should exclude any physical contact – hugs, kisses and even touching. Women in China are completely equal with men, and yet, according to the Chinese tradition, women should be modest. For her, it is unacceptable to smoke and drink alcohol. One of the key concepts of Chinese etiquette is the face hence the loss of the face is the most terrible for the Chinese. That is why you should avoid situations in which a Chinese student may feel embarrassed, offended. This does not mean that one should not make remarks to the student, to shame him, however, such conversations should ideally be face-to-face. The concept of ketsi – politeness, modesty, submission plays a huge role in Chinese philosophy and culture. The Chinese are usually quite restrained and stingy in expressing feelings, therefore it is necessary to always maintain a certain distance and show respect for the interlocutor. According to Confucian etiquette, any manifestation of anger, irritation and even joy is also discouraged. The Chinese will be outraged by the excessive display of familiarity, rudeness, arrogance. However, the Chinese are extremely patient. It is unacceptable for them to complain, so silence and the absence of complaints does not mean that they are fine. Most Chinese students are friendly, very hardworking, diligent and inquisitive. However, long stories do not arouse their interest, so if a teacher carries a Chinese on a tour, he should not stay in one place for a long time. The Chinese love books and respect knowledge, so their admiration can cause the teacher's erudition, as well as his efforts in mastering the language, even if he makes mistakes in pronunciation. In general, the Chinese love jokes and humor. However, one should be quite selective here, since their sense of humor does not always coincide with our usual one. In addition, in order not to be trapped and not accidentally offend Chinese interlocutors, one should get acquainted with the associations caused by some concepts, objects and animals, which sometimes differ dramatically from those to which we are accustomed. Thus, in the perception of the Russian people, as, indeed, of the European people, such an animal as a dog traditionally symbolizes loyalty and devotion, is perceived as a universal favorite. In Chinese culture “gou” (dog) is a part of words and expressions with negative semantics: zougou (go + dog – henchman), goutuizi (dog's foot – footman), kanjiagou (watchman + house + dog – yard dog, chain dog), laypigou (scab + skin + dog is a lousy dog), sanjiagou (a dog in a house where 22

mourning is a stray dog), goutsuy (do not expect ivory from a dog's mouth) Lan Xin Goufei (wolf heart and dog lungs – 1) cruel; 2) a wolf's womb, a dog's soul), hu-pengou-yu (foxes friends and dogs friends are a bad company). As you can see, all words and expressions with a “gou” component have a negative meaning and even often are expletive. In the language picture of the Chinese world, wolf, fox, rat, owl, raven, and tortoise look like unpleasant animals. Lion and tiger, as well as mythical creatures such as the dragon, phoenix and qilin (described to resemble a unicorn), are animals that evoke admiration. A positive symbol is, in addition, the fish (s), the image of which is associated with wealth. The symbolism of color, which also does not always coincide with the one to which we are accustomed, bears a certain semantic load in the perception of the Chinese. So, the white color, which for European nations embodies purity, freedom, peace and goodwill, in the East symbolizes mourning. A special place in China is reserved for yellow color – the color of the emperor, the symbol of everything precious and noble. For more than one century, it was preferred to other colors. For a long time people of China love red color – the color of the sun and fire, heat and light, a symbol of joy and celebration. Red as positive is opposed to black – negative. In addition, black is “Yin”, water. If we analyze and compare Russian and Chinese non-verbal means of communication, then we can be divide them into the following groups. 1. Gestures with complete coincidence, for example, “show thumb”, i.e. to put your thumb up while squeezing the rest of your fingers into a fist, has the meaning of high marks: "excellent", "well done". You can safely use this and the following gestures when communicating with the Chinese: frown, make big eyes, roll up sleeves, clench your teeth, click your tongue, put a finger to your lips, support your head. 2. Partial coincidence in gestures. We often shrug our shoulders and shrug. The Chinese rarely resort to these gestures. Most often, shrugging means they have surprise and ignorance, and waving their hands means helplessness, regret. Calling for attention and silence, worrying and even angry, and we and the Chinese beat our hand on the table. For the Chinese, this gesture expresses also exclamation, eulogy. 3. Gestures with a complete discrepancy of values. In our country, “holding a hand on the throat” has the meaning of the highest measure, the Chinese have suicide; the gesture “to hit the edge of the palm on the neck” the Chinese would understand how to cut off the head. 4. The same values are expressed by different gestures. For example, portraying a proud and haughty man, we jerk our nose up or lift up our nose, and the Chinese say that he holds his legs high, his head thrown back. Sobbing with grief, the Russians are tearing their hair, while the Chinese hit themselves on the chest with their fists and stamp their feet. Comparing the Russian and Chinese meanings of gestures, a few more observations can be made. According to these observations, the Chinese are gesticulating less and less actively than the Russians. And the amplitude of gestures they have is less. Russians often use a nod of the head to indicate a person or a direction, but this is rarely observed by the Chinese, but they often use the index finger or hand, and often lips. The Chinese very rarely kiss and embrace in a public setting. Some Practical Examples. In the following part you can find examples of students’ behavior in class. The lectures who shared their examples are: Sizova T.F., lecturer of the Department of Russian as a Foreign Language, St. Peterburg National Research University of Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics; Prilukova E.G., Doctor of Sciences (Philosophy), Associate professor, Professor of the Department of International relationship and foreign regional studies, Institute of Linguistics and International communication, South Ural State University (national research university), Lenin Avenue, 76, 454080,Chelyabinsk, Russian Federation; Andrienko N.I., lecturer of the Foreign Languages Department Pyatigorsk Medical and Pharmaceutical Institute 11 Kalinina prospect, Pyatigorsk 357532 Russia; Doronina E.G. SUSU 23

1. Chinese students as well as Vietnamese students tend to call their lecturers as “teacher, professor, lecturer etc” and do not call them by names. For example: “Teacher, may I go out/ may I come in?" And this is not because they do not remember your name. Be sure, they remember it quite well. Calling you by your position they show you their respect. This comes from their old tradition. Teachers are very respected there. 2. One more unusual feature for Europeans is a tradition to bow (sometimes really low) when Chinese students greet their teacher, thus again, showing great respect. They may also bow when saying good-bye. 3. Time is one of the fundamental bases on which all cultures rest and all activities revolve. But the meanings of specific time and the ways in which cultures handle time vary greatly between cultures. During lectures, seminars and practical classes Chinese students “are not in a hurry”. They do everything (write down, come to the blackboard, read or answer teacher’s questions) rather slowly. And even after the break they leave the classroom rather slowly, which sometimes takes the whole break. The lecturer should not be surprised if this happens. The cultural aspects of time should also be kept in mind to fully understand the situation. 4. Another characteristic feature of recent years is that students from Arabic countries as well as from Turkmenia and Tadzikistan do not sit at one desk with the Chinese students. There is usually a distance of 2 or 3 desks between them. 5. Chinese students are quiet in class. They seldom ask questions, not to mention to challenge the teachers’ opinions. Chinese students and trainees usually present themselves as an attentive, respectful, and above all, passive audience. They arrive, they listen, they take notes, they depart. Even when invited to make comments or ask questions, they are reluctant to speak. This behavior of being quiet in class is viewed as a sign of respect to the teacher. If they misunderstand something they may sometimes ask their Chinese group mates to help them. It may be difficult for a lecturer to get a feedback from them and understand that he / she may start a new topic. The same can be said about Korean students. They will never show emotionally or in words that the topic was difficult and they did not understand it. 6. And the situation with the Arab students is absolutely different. They start asking questions immediately if they misunderstand something. They do not even try to find or read anything for themselves. “They come to the class and after the end of the lecture the must know and understand the topic” 7. Teacher-student relationship. The Chinese program in which American participants are studying routinely invites Chinese scholars from China to teach Chinese courses in different domains. Therefore, it is an ideal opportunity to observe intercultural communication between Chinese teachers and American students. Most of the teachers participating in this study were new to the U.S., so they needed ample assistance in their daily lives, especially during the time after their arrival. Usually their American students were the convenient resource available for them to ask for help. Most American students in this study said that they understood this but were still confused with the way their Chinese teachers ask for assistance. The American student Daniel mentioned that his Chinese teachers often approached him directly without advance notice when they needed help. They seldom checked whether or not he was available at that moment. Additionally the way Chinese teachers asked for help often came off more like a demand. Most students had the feeling that they just don’t have the option to say no to their Chinese teachers’ request. They felt that Chinese teachers did not care much about students’ feelings, took this kind of help for granted, or considered this help to be part of the students’ duties. American students said their American teachers would almost never bother students with their personal issues. If American teachers do have an emergency, they ask for their students’ assistance in a very polite and considerate manner which implies the students’ option to refuse. Students are always free to say no when they really cannot help. At the same time, those American students found that their Chinese teachers really cared about their study and life. Many examples were recorded in their cultural journals: if the Chinese teachers 24

noticed that a student looked sad in class, they would ask about what happened to him or her; when a student was sick, they might even bring medicine for him or her; they often invited students to their home for dinner; their office hours were not fixed and they were always available if students needed extra help in their studies. Most American students agreed that they seldom had such a close relationship with their American professors. When the Chinese teachers were interviewed, one common feeling among them was that American students did not respect and cared for their teachers as Chinese students would do. One Chinese teacher mentioned that these American students seldom offered help voluntarily which meant she was usually left in the uncomfortable position of having to ask for it. She explained that her Chinese students are more sensitive to teachers’ needs and more willing to help their teacher. Misunderstandings reflect different concepts and expectations of teacher-student relationship between the two cultures. 8. For Arab students, logic, strict consistency and argumentation are not as important as imagery and diversity, which should be considered when making up a lesson plan. Often, students may have questions that are not related to the topic, either directly or indirectly. In such a situation, there is no need to avoid the answer; it is better to switch, which will help to maintain interest in the topic of the lesson and concentration of attention. At the stage of getting used to a new language, it may be correct to give obviously simple tasks. While doing such exercises students will have an opinion that they already know something and they will be able to feel themselves relatively confident. 9. Arab students are very sensitive to criticism, it makes them vulnerable and turns the teacher into the enemy in the student's eyes. During the control in the lessons of Russian as a Foreign Language, students should not be strictly critisized. Excessive criticism can cause fear of communication in the target language, reduce the level of motivation among students. 10. Students from Arab countries are very emotional, self-confident and hot-tempered, they have an internal conflict and a heightened sense of justice. The task of the teacher is to smooth the situation, mitigate the conflict. You should not succumb to provocations and act as an opponent, it is better to try to present the situation from a different angle, without undermining the authority of students, especially for the male half, since the respect of men in Islamic culture must remain unshakable. In addition, Arab students have a good sense of humor and can try to turn misunderstanding into a joke. 11. The characteristic features of the Arabs are evasiveness and non-linearity, they avoid categorical formulations and try not to embarrass the interlocutor, although they may completely disagree with the current circumstances of the cases. In this regard, from time to time it is worthwhile to be interested in the preferences of students, to consider their opinion when organizing the educational process. The teacher in the Arab group needs to be aware of the peculiarities of the mentality and national character of the students and use specific features in the right direction. Intercultural communication, intercultural interaction will be successful if the teacher shows a positive attitude, optimizes the cognitive process to the needs of a specific audience. 12. Individuals vary in the amount of space they want separating them from others. Arabs and Latin Americans like to stand close to people they are talking with. If Europeans or Americans, who may not be comfortable at such close range, back away from an Arab, this might incorrectly be taken as a negative reaction. 13. One more interesting fact about Arabs is that it is futile to set exact meeting times, because getting from one place to another may take minutes or hours depending on the traffic situation. Showing indignation or impatience at such behavior would astonish an Arab, Latin American or Asian. 14. One more group of students is from Africa. And here we can observe two absolutely different types of students. The first: always come on time, try to be active at the lesson, always come with their homework and are self-organized and highly motivated about their study. The second type is vice versa. They do not prepare for their classes, usually have 1 copy-book for all the 25

subjects, they are not motivated in their study and not organized at all. When the lecturers try to find out what is the reason of such low motivation, they came to a conclusion that those students who can study well came from rather good and expensive schools in their native countries. But another group with low motivation did not have good conditions of study in their native countries. And even if such students show their certificate of secondary education, it turns out that they never studied some of the subjects. 2.5. Comprehension check Answer the following questions: 1. What does internationalization in education involve? 2. Give examples of Asian and European traditions in education. 3. In what cultures do teachers often have a closer relationship with their students? 4. Name the cultures where family ties are very strong and several generations live together. 5. Will you suggest an umbrella to an African in a heavy rain? 6. What are the “Muslim-type of culture” students like? 7. Prepare a report on peculiarities of students of a certain nationality: Arabic students, Chinese students, African students, Vietnamese students, Afghan students. 2.6. Practical task 1. Project: get ready to speak (presentation) on one of the following topics: “Intercultural communication”:  Academic staff experience.  International students experience.  Russian students experience. 2. Read the descriptions of academic discussion situations in the UK below and decide if each is the same in Russian or not. Share your opinion with your colleagues. Academic discussion situations:  Lecturers, professors, tutors or supervisors often meet students individually or in small groups and encourage discussion of the topics that they have been studying, researching and/ or writing about (for example in regular tutorials).  The Q&A session of a presentation sometimes turns into a discussion of the points raised (rather than just questions and answers), for example if a professor thinks that you haven’t thought deeply about the issues or if someone has very different views on the topic.  Academic discussions can have many different levels of formality, from very formal/ polite to very informal/ casual.  Only experts take part in panel discussions, so most people will never take part in a panel discussion (although they might be in the audience of one).  People tend to avoid discussion of academic topics during social occasions like parties. Active listening:  Even in academic discussions, It’s normal to respond to everything that the other person says in some way (= active listening) rather than listening in silence.  We hate repeating in English, so each active listening phrase should be different (“Mmm hmm”, “Sure”, “Of course”, “Right”, “Really?”, “No kidding”, “You reckon?”, etc). Repeating the same active listening phrase (“Mmm hmm, mmm hmm, mmm hmm”, etc) makes it sound like you aren’t really listening and/ or aren’t interested in what is being said.

26

Turn taking:  Silence in a discussion is always negative and makes people feel uncomfortable, so it’s better to talk over each other, respond before you have really thought about what you want to say, etc than it is to be silent.  Because we often speak before we have thought about what we want to say, no one expects academic discussions to be like academic writing or academic presentations (so people rarely say “There are three main reasons for my opinion”, “I am going to speak about…”, “I will look at the two sides of the argument in turn”, etc).  The first few words of a sentence often have no meaning but are simply to fill silence while we think of what we want to say (“I guess I would probably say that…”, “That’s a really interesting question”, “What do I think about that? Well,…”, etc).  Because we often speak before we have planned what we want to say, it’s normal to later modify what we have said (“Sorry, what I meant to say was…”, “No, that’s wrong. What I should have said is…”, “Sorry, that wasn’t very clear. To put that another way,…”, etc).  Even in academic discussions, conversations tend to consist of many short turns (not a long speech followed by another long speech). This is often “volleyball style”, meaning commenting on what the other person has said, adding something, then giving the turn (back) to someone else (“Absolutely. In fact, I’d even say that… Or wouldn’t you go that far?”, “That’s interesting. My own experience is different. I… I’m not sure whose experience is more typical”, etc).  In academic discussions, the best way of interrupting is usually with something positive such as (partial) agreement and then your own point (“Absolutely. What’s more…”, “Good point, but…”, etc). Checking/ clarifying:  If you can’t follow someone’s point, it’s normal to interrupt after a sentence or two to ask for clarification (“Sorry to interrupt, but…?”, “Before you go on,…?”, “Sorry,…?”, etc).  Most checking/ clarifying phrases are requests (“Can you explain…?”, “Can I just check if you mean…?”, “Can you spell that for me?”, “Can you say that another way?”, etc). Giving opinions:  There is a clear difference between strong opinion phrases (“I strongly believe that…”, “I’m pretty sure that…”, “It seems clear to me that…”, etc) and weak opinion phrases (“I’m not sure, but…”, “I guess…”, “I suppose…”, etc).  Pronunciation can make an opinion phrase stronger or weaker (“I believe…” vs “I believe…” vs “I beliiiiiiiieve”).  There are phrases which can soften the negative impact of a strong opinion by warning the other person that a strong opinion is coming (“To be frank,…”, “Not many people will agree with me, but…”, etc).  In academic discussions, you should avoid stating your opinion without supporting what you say (so you have to say “I’m sure that… because…”, not just “I’m sure that…”, etc).  The best ways of supporting your arguments include quoting data and trends (“Recent statistics from… show that…”, “There has been a 300% increase in…”, etc), quoting other people’s opinions and experiences (“Chomsky says that…”, “All the speakers at a conference I went to last year agreed that…”, etc), knocking down opposing arguments (“Although many people believe that…”, “It could also be said that…, but this doesn’t mean that…”, etc), and logical arguments such as cause and effect (“This would inevitably lead to…”, “The result of this is likely to be…”, etc).  Direct disagreement phrases are rare in academic discussions (so we don’t often say “I disagree”, “I don’t agree”, etc). The most common way of disagreeing in academic discussions is with a positive statement then “but” (“I see what you mean, but don’t you think…?”, “That’s a good point, but it could also be said that…”, “I used to feel that way, but recently I read that…”, etc). 27

Instead of disagreeing directly, in academic discussions it’s common to ask the other person to expand on their views (“Hmmm, what makes you say that?”, “What are you basing that on?”, “Do you have any data on that?”, “Can you unpack that for me?”, etc). 

Hedging and generalizing:  In academic discussions (as in academic writing), we need to be very careful not to overgeneralise (so don’t say just “Japanese people think…”, “It is thought that…”, etc).  To not overgeneralise, in academic discussions we often add information on how many or how much something matches our statement, for example how many people something is true for (“almost everyone”, “the vast majority of people”, “most people”, “many people”, “a considerable/ substantial number of people”, “some people”, etc).  So that we don’t overgeneralise, in academic discussions we often add information on how likely something is to be true or to happen (“almost certainly”, “very probably”, “probably”, “possibly”, “conceivably”, etc). 2.7. References for module 2 1. Баронин, А.С. Этническая психология / А.С. Баронин. – Киев: Тандем, 2000. – 156 c. 2. Шишова, Н.В. Культурология / Н.В. Шишова и др. – Ростов н/Д: Феникс. 2001.– 161 с. 3. Цзинь, Ли. Культурные основы обучения. Восток и Запад / Л. Цзинь. – М.: Издательский дом Высшей школы экономики, 2015. – 440 с. 4. Academic Discussions Cultural Differences and Useful Phrases. – https://www.usingenglish.com/files/pdf/academic-discussions-cultural-differences-and-useful-phrases.pdf

28

Module 3. BARRIERS TO INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION 3.1. Intercultural barriers: definition and type Intercultural communication in its most basic form refers to an academic field of study and research. It seeks to understand how people from different countries and cultures behave, communicate and perceive the world around them [2]. The research in this field is often referred to “real life” situations. Groups of people, coming together, are sometimes with enormous differences in cultural backgrounds, beliefs, lifestyles, economic resources and religions. And this fact illustrates that intercultural communication does not happen in a vacuum. And it’s but natural that, misunderstanding takes place from time to time. These are the four main barriers in intercultural communication A. Ethnocentrism B. Stereotyping C. Prejudice D. Discrimination Intercultural communication may involve groups whose members differ in terms of gender, age, ethnicity and physical ability among other things. Ethnocentrism is a belief that one’s own culture or group is superior to all other groups or cultures. Ethnocentrism becomes a barrier when it prevents people from even trying to see another’s point of view through another’s “perception lens”. It is the largest problem that occurs during intercultural communication in which people bring an ethnocentric perspective to the interaction. If somebody observed and judged the rest of the world from his own culture’s perspective he is known to be ethnocentric. To some extent, each of us operates from an ethnocentric perspective but problems arise when we interpret and evaluate other cultures by the norms and standards of our own. Generally, a lack of interaction with another culture fosters high levels ethnocentrism and encourages the notion that one culture is somehow superior to other. Ethnocentrism can create defensiveness on the part of the person who is being treated as if he or she is somehow deficient or inferior. Solution: It can be very difficult to see our own ethnocentrism often; we see it best when we expand extended time in other cultural group. However, ethnocentrism can be avoided by judging another person’s culture by his own context which is called cultural relativism. Stereotyping. Another barrier to intercultural communication is stereotypes. A stereotype can be defined as a generalization about some group of people that over simplifies their cultures. Stereotypes are widely held beliefs about a group of people. Stereotyping becomes troublesome in communication when people make assumptions about an individual on the basis of simplified notions about the group to which he or she belongs. In fact, our assumptions get us in trouble when we apply to individual what we guess to be true of a group. Such stereotypes are injurious to individuals and groups [3]. 29

Kinds of Stereotypes:

 Negative Stereotypes. Sometimes teachers assumes that students don’t want to study to much but that they won’t to know what type of tests and quizzes would be given to them. These generalizations, mental shortcuts help the teachers know how to interact with students. However generalizations become harmful to stereotypes when they are held rigidly. Thus if they thought that all students were lazy or unwilling to study on their own, and they interacted with students based on this belief they would hold a negative stereotype.  Positive Stereotypes. Stereotypes also may be positives for example some people hold the stereotype that all attractive people are also smart and socially skilled. Even positive stereotype can cause problems for those stereotyped. Attractive individuals may feel excessive pressure to fit the stereotype that they are competent at something they are not, or they may be hired on the basis of their appearance and then find out they cannot do the job. Hence when somebody meets an attorney, doesn’t assume that she is shady. When somebody needs an Asian, doesn’t assume that he is good at mathematics. Similarly when somebody meets a beautiful blond doesn’t assume that she is empty headed. Why do we hold stereotypes? One reason is that stereotypes help us know what to expect from and how to react to others however stereotypes once adopted is not easily discarded. In fact, people tend to remember information that supports a stereotype and not to retain information that contradicts the stereotypes. We pick up stereotypes in different ways e.g. a) The media tend to portray culture groups in stereotypic ways. Sometimes stereotypes persist because the media choose to not pass along information that would contradict stereotypes. b) Stereotypes can also develop out of negative experiences. If we have unpleasant contact with certain people we may generalize that unpleasantness to include all members of that particular group, whatever group characteristic we focus on (race, gender, sexual orientation). Solution. Since stereotypes often operates at unconscious level and are so persistent, people have to work consciously at rejecting them. This process involves several steps. a) Recognizing the negative stereotypes (we all have them). b) Obtaining individual information that can counter act the stereotype. Prejudice. Prejudice is a negative attitude towards a cultural groups based on little or no experience. It is a sort of pre-judgment. Whereas stereotypes tell us what a group is like, prejudice tells how we are likely to feel about that group. Why are people prejudiced? Firstly, it might be that prejudiced some social functions. One such function is the adjustment function, whereby people hold certain prejudices because it may lead to social rewards. People want to accepted and liked by their culture groups and if they need to reject members of another group to do so, then prejudice servers a certain functions. Another function is the ego-defensive function, whereby people may hold certain prejudices because they don’t want to admit certain things about themselves e.g. an instructor who doesn’t feet successful as a teacher they may find it easier to blame students and hold prejudices against them then to admit short comings as a teacher. Secondly people hold some prejudices because they help to reinforce certain beliefs or values which is called the value expressive function, e.g. part of belonging to some religious groups might 30

require holding certain prejudices against religious groups. Prejudices also may arise from a personal need to feel positive about once own group and negative about others, or from perceived or real threats. These may be genuine threats that challenge a group existence economic or political power or symbolic threats in the form of inter group value conflicts and the accompanying anxieties. In addition if someone has already had negative intercultural contact and is anxious about future contact, particularly if there are inequalities and perceive threats, prejudices likely will develop. Solution. Like stereotypes, prejudices, once established, is very difficult to undo because it operates at subconscious level that is we often aren’t really aware of this fact, there has to be very explicit motivation to change our ways of thinking. Discrimination. Discrimination is the behavior that results from stereotyping or prejudice. It means to overt actions to exclude, avoid or distance oneself from other groups. Discrimination may be based on racism or any of the other “isms” related to belonging to cultural groups e.g. sexism, ageism, nationalism or elitism. One way of thinking about discrimination is that power and prejudice combine together to give rise to an “ism”. It means it one belongs to more powerful group and hold prejudices towards another, less powerful, group, resulting actions towards members of that group are based on an “ism” and so can be called discrimination. 3.2. Culture shock. Stages of adaptation It’s common to experience culture shock when you're transplanted into a foreign setting. This is a normal reaction to a new environment where you are no longer in control as you have been at home. You may experience a range of emotions when adapting to a foreign culture, from excitement and interest to frustration, depression and fear of the unknown. Culture shock is a term used to describe what happens to people when they encounter unfamiliar surroundings and conditions [4]. Symptoms of culture shock. People differ greatly in the degree to which culture shock affects them, but almost everyone is affected by it in one way or another. Symptoms vary, but can include:  boredom  withdrawal (e.g. spending excessive amounts of time reading; avoiding contact with host nationals)  feeling isolated or helpless  sleeping a lot or tiring easily  irritation over delays and other minor frustrations  suffering from body pains and aches  longing to be backhome  unduly criticizing local customs or ways of doing things Stages of culture shock. The five stages of culture shock are: 1. the Honeymoon Stage – You are very positive, curious, and anticipate new exciting experiences. You even idealize the host culture.

31

2. irritability and Hostility – You start to feel that what is different is actually inferior. The host culture is confusing or the systems are frustrating. It's a small step from saying that they do things in a different way to saying that they do things in a stupid way. You may blame your frustrations on the new culture (and its shortcomings) rather than on the adaptation process. 3. gradual Adjustment – You feel more relaxed and develop a more balanced, objective view of your experience. 4. adaptation of Biculturalism – You feel a new sense of belonging and sensitivity to the host culture. 5. re-entry Shock – You go home and it isn't what you expected it to be. Tips for dealing with culture shock:  Talk to other international students who can give you practical advice.  Decorate your room with objects that remind you of home.  Make a list of things you want to accomplish while you are here and follow through with them. As you are settling in to life in Canada, remind yourself to be patient. Don’t expect perfection. Keep an open mind and try not to be judgmental!  Stay in touch with family and friends.  Establish simple goals and celebrate each success.  Give yourself time to adapt, and allow yourself to feel sad about the things you have left behind.  Get out there! Make friends and try to meet locals.  Take up a hobby that will help you learn more about Canada.  Volunteer in community activities that will allow you get involved and perhaps practice your English.  If there's something you did at home to help relieve stress, keep doing it!  Find ways to live with the things that don’t satisfy you 100%.  Try not to be too hard on yourself and stay confident–most of all, keep your sense of humour! 3.3. Direct and Indirect communication style Look at the picture and name the types of direct and indirect communication, give examples.

32

Cultures can have an indirect communication style or a direct communication style. This communication style effects how they communicate what they are thinking to others. “Direct communication is when the speaker clearly relays his thoughts and opinion in his verbal message”. While indirect communication is defined as gathering information from more than the words spoken by the communicator. Both direct and indirect communication styles are important in understanding how a message should be interpreted in a given culture. Read the information in the table 5 carefully and discuss the differences in communication styles. Table 5 Comparing direct and indirect communication styles Direct communication style Direct communicators tend to say what they think. Their message is conveyed primarily by the words they use, and they depend on the literal interpretation of these words.

Indirect communication style In indirect communication, common in high-context cultures, the meaning is conveyed not just by the words used but by non-verbal behavior such as pauses, silence, tone of voice, implication, understatement, and a widely shared understanding of the context of the communication.

The overall goal of communication is getting The overriding goal of communication is maintaining or giving information. harmony and saving face. Indirect communicators seek to avoid conflict, tension and uncomfortable situations. Direct communications is common in low- Indirect communication is in high-context cultures, context cultures, which are usually more which maybe relatively homogeneous and tend to culturally heterogeneous and tend to emphasize independence and social relationship. emphasize individualism, independence and self-reliance. Tell it like it is. The facts speak for If you don’t have anything nice to say, don’t say themselves. anything. Tell someone what you think they want to hear. The squeaky wheel gets the grease.

The nail that sticks out gets hammered back in.

Honesty is the best policy.

Being polite is more important than being honest.

It’s Okay to say no.

Avoid saying no, say “maybe” or “possibly”, even if you mean “no”.

The truth is more important than sparing If the truth might hurt, soften it. someone’s feelings. Don’t beat around the bush. Say what you mean and mean what you say. Read between the lines. Take communication at face value.

Handle communication to save face.

Time is money. Get to the point.

Small talk before business is important.

It’s okay to disagree with your boss at a Criticism of others, especially people with more meeting. authority, should be unspoken or careful and veiled.

33

3.4. Strategies of conflict resolution in different cultural environments What is conflict? The process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party. Conflict is competition by groups or individuals over incompatible goals, scarce resources, or the sources of power needed to acquire them. What is culture? For the purposes of the crosscultural workplace conflict, culture is defined as the shared patterns of behaviors and interactions and cognitive constructs that are learned through a process of socialization. These shared patterns identify the members of a culture group while also distinguishing those of another group. In the 21 st century, successful interactions with people of different cultures than our own demands consideration of cultural differences and respect for these differences, at least in order to find a common ground upon which to build relationships and interactions. Thus conflict that occurs across cultural boundaries is especially susceptible to problems of intercultural miscommunication and misunderstanding. These problems exacerbate the conflict, no matter what the root causes of it [2]. In this sense culture is an important factor in many sorts of conflicts that at first may appear to be exclusively about material resources or negotiable Interests. Constructive vs. destructive In constructive conflict, people take opposing or competitive actions or viewpoints that usually involve divergent interests, ideas or concepts. Unlike destructive conflict, constructive conflict does not generally include aspects such as anger or intensely loud arguing and voices. Constructive conflict resolution Constructive conflict resolution features are similar to that of creative thinking methods. Creative thinking can involve the motivation to problem-solve and develop conditions that allow for the presence of concurrent diverse ideas and flexibility. Intercultural conflict resolution styles. One of the most relevant approximations to understand how people manage intercultural conflicts is the theoretical model proposed by Mitchell Hammer. From his perspective there are four main intercultural conflict resolution styles. This model is based on based on two core dimensions (as showed in figure 5):  Direct versus Indirect approaches to dealing with disagreements  Emotionally expressive versus Emotionally restrained patterns for dealing with the affective dimension of conflict interaction

Hammer’s theory states that people need to understand and recognise that there are differences in conflict styles across cultural communities, and with that awareness we must learn how to understand from each other and how to face and resolve intercultural conflicts [1].

Figure 5. Model for intercultural conflict resolution styles 34

The four main conflict resolution styles are:  Discussion style. It involves the use of a verbally direct path: “say what you mean and mean what you say”. Within this style, when talking about the disagreement, people tend not to throw in their own personal feelings in the discussion. Examples of cultures that typically use this communication style are Northern European cultures and white North Americans.  Engagement style. This style is confrontational and verbally direct using strong verbal and non-verbal communication. In the engagement style, sincerity is judged by the intensity with which each party conveys emotion. Russian and Greek cultures can be used as examples of this communication style.  Accommodation style. It emphasizes ambiguity in language use in order to help ensure that a conflict does not “get out of control”. That is, maintaining emotional calm and reserve is essential to this style for enabling interpersonal harmony to counter relationally damaging disagreements among the parties. Southeast Asian and Japanese cultures are traditionally related with the use of this communication style.  Dynamic style. This style uses indirect language which is often communicated through third party intermediaries, showing more emotion during a conflict. The credibility of each party in the dispute is gauged by how emotionally expressive and intense they are. Arab cultures are representative of this communication style. Discussions and controversial situations due to cultural differences at the workplace. Conflict is a form of social interaction in which substantive disagreements arise between two or more individuals which gives rise to an affective or emotional reaction, often based on a perception of threat or interference by one or more other parties to the disagreement [2]. Conflicts in the workplace can arise because of the cultural differences in values and norms of behaviour of people from different cultures. People usually act according to their cultural values and norms. The interaction with colleagues and co-workers with a different worldview (cultural differences) might make them to interpret behaviours from an opposite standpoint. These situations create misunderstanding and can lead to cultural conflicts in the workplace. Discussions and controversial situations among colleagues and with employers are common responses to conflicts based on cultural differences. These situations are usually interpreted on the basis of patterned responses, in terms of personal characteristics. But actually, during a conflictual interaction, individuals adapt their responses toward negotiating disagreements and dealing with emotional upset. That is, individuals respond not to personal patterns but to behavioural orientations based on cultural characteristics. They use interpretive frames within which individuals make meaningful messages, and behaviours arise from interaction with the other party. From this perspective, cultural differences at the workplace can be faced by means of providing colleagues and co-workers with the appropriate frame to interpret own and others behaviours. That is, facilitate the right tools to understand the manner in which contending parties communicate with one another around substantive disagreements and their emotional or affective reaction to one another. Successful conflict resolution comprises three aspects: 1 Desire and necessity for the conflict to be resolved 2 Understanding of possible barriers to the resolution of the conflict 3 The choice of method of conflict resolution. 3.5. Comprehension check Answer the following questions: 1. How do you understand the term “intercultural communication” in its most basic form? 2. Why do people hold stereotypes? 3. Can you give any examples of positive and negative stereotypes? 4. What is the difference between stereotypes and prejudice? 35

5. What symptoms of cultural shock do you know? 6. How can people avoid ethnocentrism? 7. What are the main barriers to intercultural communication? 3.6. Practical task Task 1: Dealing with Differences: Speak about the differences in direct and indirect styles. What strategies in conflict resolution do you know? Task 2: Roleplay  Group 1 – Do two role plays in which you discuss productivity problems with a worker. Use direct communication in the first role play and an indirect communication in the second role play. “How to improve your productivity at work”  Group 2 – Do two role plays in which you are trying to recruit a candidate. Use direct communication in the first role play and an indirect communication in the second role play. “RecruitmentandSelection”  Group 3 – Do two role plays in which you are trying to convince your boss for the need for computer training (Office) for new employees. Use direct communication in the first role play and an indirect communication in the second role play.  Group 4 – Do two role plays in which you are trying to warn a candidate about using racist terms at the workplace. Use direct communication in the first role play and an indirect communication in the second role play. “College student suspended for photo showing racial slur”  Group 5 – Do two role plays in which you are trying to get a worker to wear his safety helmet on a construction site. Use direct communication in the first role play and an indirect communication in the second role play.  Group 6 – Do two role plays in which you are trying to convince the boss that the company should use an enhanced health insurance plan versus the current plan. Use direct communication in the first role play and an indirect communication in the second role play.  Group 7 – Do two role plays in which you are trying to convince the boss widget production for your company should not be outsourced. Use direct communication in the first role play and an indirect communication in the second role play. 3.7. References for module 3 1. Hammer, M. The Intercultural Conflict Style Inventory: A Conceptual Framework and Measure of Intercultural Conflict Approaches. / M. Hammer. – IACM 17th Annual Conference Paper, 2004. – 39 p. https://ssrn.com/abstract=601981 2. Landis, D. (Ed.). Handbook of intercultural training. – Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2004. – XII, 515 p. ISBN: 0-7619-2332-2 3. Morrisson, T. Kiss, bow, or shake hands. / Т. Morrisson, George A. Borden – Yarmouth: Intercultural Press, 1994. – 440 p. ISBN: 0140095365 4. Storti, C. Cross-cultural dialogues: 74 brief encounters with cultural difference. – Yarmouth: Intercultural Press, 1994. – 140 p. ISBN: 1-877864-28-5 5. Landis, D. (Ed.). Handbook of intercultural training. – Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 2004. – XII, 515 p. ISBN: 0-7619-2332-2

36

Module 4. BRIDGES TO INTERCULTURAL MUTUAL UNDERSTANDING A lingua franca is a language or mixture of languages used as a medium of communication by people whose native languages are different. It is from the Italian, "language" + "Frankish" and also known as a trade language, contact language, international language, and global language. The term English as a lingua franca (ELF) refers to the teaching, learning, and use of the English language as a common means of communication for speakers of different native languages [4]. 4.1. English as a lingua franca (ELF) The status of English is such that it has been adopted as the world's lingua franca for communication in Olympic sport, international trade, and air-traffic control. Unlike any other language, past or present, English has spread to all five continents and has become a truly global language [7]. The term lingua franca is usually taken to mean 'any lingual medium of communication between people of different mother tongues, for whom it is a second language' [4]. In this definition, then, a lingua franca has no native speakers, and this notion is carried over into definitions of English as a lingua franca, such as in the following example: ELF is a 'contact language' between persons who share neither a common native tongue nor a common (national) culture, and for whom English is the chosen foreign language of communication [same]. "Even though everybody around the world speaks English sort of in their dealings with American media and business, politics, and culture, the English that is spoken is a lingua franca, a Bodysnatched English to be carefully scrutinized as to its meanings when it is used by a foreign culture." [4]. "Clearly, the role of English as the chosen foreign language of communication in Europe is an extremely important one, and one that is on the increase... It is important to note that this means that both in Europe as well as in the world as a whole, English is now a language that is mainly used by bi- and multilinguals, and that its (often monolingual) native speakers are a minority"[2]. Globish as a lingua franca. Let’s draw a distinction between a language which is spread while growing up, a mother tongue, and a language that is spread through recruitment, which is a lingua franca. As Robert McCrum writes, “a lingua franca is a language that you consciously learn because you need to, because you want to. A mother tongue is a language that you learn because you can't help it. The reason English is spreading around the world at the moment is because of its utility as a lingua franca. Globish is a simplified version of English that's used around the world. It will be there as long as it is needed, but since it's not being picked up as a mother tongue, it's not typically being spoken by people to their children” [6]. 4.2. Retrospective development of the phenomenon Throughout the course of geographic history, exploration and trade have caused various populations of people to come into contact with each other. Because these people were of different cultures and thus spoke different languages, communication was often difficult. Over the decades though, languages changed to reflect such interactions and groups sometimes developed lingua francas and pidgins.

37

A lingua franca is a language used by different populations to communicate when they do not share a common language. Generally, a lingua franca is a third language that is distinct from the native language of both parties involved in the communication. Sometimes as the language becomes more widespread, the native populations of an area will speak the lingua franca to each other as well. A pidgin is a simplified version of one language that combines the vocabulary of a number of different languages. Pidgins are often just used between members of different cultures to communicate for things like trade. A pidgin is distinct from a lingua franca in that members of the same populations rarely use it to talk to one another. It is also important to note that because pidgins develop out of sporadic contact between people and is a simplification of different languages, pidgins generally have no native speakers. The “early” lingua franca. Arabic was another early lingua franca to develop because of the sheer size of the Islamic Empire dating back to the 7th Century. Arabic is the native language of the peoples from the Arabian Peninsula but its use spread with the empire as it expanded into China, India, parts of Central Asia, the Middle East, Northern Africa, and parts of Southern Europe. The empire’s vast size exhibits the need for a common language. Arabic also served as the lingua franca of science and diplomacy in the 1200 s because, at that time, more books were written in Arabic than any other language. The use of Arabic as a lingua franca and others such as the romance languages and Chinese then continued worldwide throughout history as they made it easier for diverse groups of people in different countries to communicate. For example, until the 18th Century, Latin was the main lingua franca of European scholars as it allowed easy communication by people whose native languages included Italian and French. During the Age of Exploration, lingua francas also played an enormous role in allowing European explorers to conduct trade and other important communications in the various countries in which they went. Portuguese was the lingua franca of diplomatic and trade relations in areas like coastal Africa, portions of India, and even Japan. Other lingua francas developed during this time as well since international trade and communication was becoming an important component to nearly every area of the globe. Malay, for instance, was the lingua franca of Southeast Asia and was used by Arab and Chinese traders there prior to the arrival of the Europeans. Once they arrived, people like the Dutch and British used Malay to communicate with the native peoples. 4.3. Modern lingua francas The pidgin. In order to create a pidgin, there needs to be regular contact between the people speaking different languages, there needs to be a reason for communication (such as trade), and there should be a lack of another easily accessible language between the two parties [4]. In addition, pidgins have a distinct set of characteristics that make them differ from the first and second languages spoken by the pidgin developers. For example, the words used in a pidgin language lack inflections on verbs and nouns and have no true articles or words like conjunctions. In addition, very few pidgins use complex sentences. Because of this, some people characterize pidgins as broken or chaotic languages. Regardless of its seemingly chaotic nature though, several pidgins have survived for generations. These include the Nigerian Pidgin, the Cameroon Pidgin, Bislama from Vanuatu, and TokPisin, a pidgin from Papua, New Guinea. All of these pidgins are based mainly on English words. From time to time, long-surviving pidgins also become more widely used for communication and expand into the general population. When this happens and the pidgin is used enough to become the primary language of an area, it is no longer considered a pidgin but is instead called a creole language. An example of a creole includes Swahili, which grew out of Arabic and Bantu languages in eastern Africa. The language Bazaar Malay, spoken in Malaysia is another example. 38

Assimilation. Assimilation, or cultural assimilation, is the process by which different cultural groups become more and more alike. When full assimilation is complete, there is no distinguishable difference between the formerly different groups. Assimilation is most often discussed in terms of minority immigrant groups coming to adopt the culture of the majority and thus becoming like them in terms of values, ideology, behavior, and practices. This process can be forced or spontaneous and can be rapid or gradual. Yet, assimilation does not necessarily always happen this way. Different groups can blend together into a new, homogenous culture. This is the essence of the metaphor of the melting pot – one often used to describe the United States (whether or not it is accurate).And, while assimilation is often thought of as a linear process of change over time, for some groups of racial, ethnic, or religious minorities, the process can be interrupted or blocked by institutional barriers built on bias. Either way, the process of assimilation results in people becoming more alike. As it proceeds, people with different cultural backgrounds will, over time, increasingly share the same attitudes, values, sentiments, interests, outlook, and goals. Theories of assimilation. Theories of assimilation within the social sciences were developed by sociologists based at the University of Chicago at the turn of the twentieth century. Chicago, an industrial center in the U.S., was a draw for immigrants from eastern Europe. Several notable sociologists turned their attention to this population in order to study the process by which they assimilated into mainstream society, and what variety of things might impede that process. Sociologists including William I. Thomas, Florian Znaniecki, Robert E. Park, and Ezra Burgess became pioneers of scientifically rigorous ethnographic research with immigrant and racial minority populations within Chicago and its environs. Out of their work emerged three main theoretical perspectives on assimilation [2]. 1 Assimilation is a linear process by which one group becomes culturally similar to another over time. Taking this theory as a lens, one can see generational changes within immigrant families, wherein the immigrant generation is culturally different upon arrival but assimilates, to some degree, to the dominant culture. The first-generation children of those immigrants will grow up and be socialized within a society that is different from that of their parents' home country. The majority culture will be their native culture, though they may still adhere to some values and practices of their parents' native culture while at home and within their community if that community is predominantly composed of a homogenous immigrant group. The second-generation grandchildren of the original immigrants are less likely to maintain aspects of their grandparents' culture and language and are likely to be culturally indistinguishable from the majority culture. This is the form of assimilation that can be described as "Americanization" in the U.S. It is a theory of how immigrants are "absorbed" into a "melting pot" society. 2 Assimilation is a process that will differ on the basis of race, ethnicity, and religion. Depending on these variables, it may be a smooth, linear process for some, while for others, it may be impeded by institutional and interpersonal roadblocks that manifest from racism, xenophobia, ethnocentrism, and religious bias. For example, the practice of residential "redlining" – whereby racial minorities were intentionally prevented from buying homes in predominantly white neighborhoods through much of the twentieth century – fueled residential and social segregation that impeded the process of assimilation for targeted groups. Another example would be the barriers to assimilation faced by religious minorities in the U.S., like Sikhs and Muslims, who are often ostracized for religious elements of dress and thus socially excluded from mainstream society. 3 Assimilation is a process that will differ based on the economic standing of the minority person or group. When an immigrant group is economically marginalized, they are likely to also be socially marginalized from mainstream society, as is the case for immigrants who work as day laborers or as agricultural workers. In this way, low economic standing can encourage immigrants to band together and keep to themselves, in large part due to a requirement to share resources (like housing and food) in order to survive. At the other end of the spectrum, middle-class or wealthy

39

immigrant populations will have access to homes, consumer goods and services, educational resources and leisure activities that foster their assimilation into mainstream society. How assimilation is measured. Social scientists study the process of assimilation by examining four key aspects of life among immigrant and racial minority populations. These include socioeconomic status, geographic distribution, language attainment, and rates of intermarriage. Socioeconomic status, or SES, is a cumulative measure of one's position in society based on educational attainment, occupation, and income. In the context of a study of assimilation, a social scientist would look to see if SES within an immigrant family or population has risen over time to match the average of the native-born population, or whether it has stayed the same or declined. A rise in SES would be considered a mark of successful assimilation within American society. Geographic distribution, whether an immigrant or minority group is clustered together or dispersed throughout a larger area, is also used as a measure of assimilation. Clustering would signal a low level of assimilation, as is often the case in culturally or ethnically distinct enclaves like Chinatowns. Conversely, a distribution of an immigrant or minority population throughout a state or across the country signals a high degree of assimilation. Assimilation can also be measured with language attainment. When an immigrant arrives in a new country, they may not speak the language native to their new home. How much they do or do not learn over the subsequent months and years can be seen as a sign of low or high assimilation. The same lens can be brought to the examination of language across generations of immigrants, with the ultimate loss of a family's native tongue being seen as full assimilation. Finally, rates of intermarriage – across racial, ethnic, and/or religious lines–can be used as a measure of assimilation. As with the others, low levels of intermarriage would suggest social isolation and be read as a low level of assimilation, while medium to higher rates would suggest a great degree of social and cultural mixing, and thus, of high assimilation. No matter which measure of assimilation one examines, it's important to bear in mind that there are cultural shifts behind the statistics. As a person or a group assimilated to the majority culture within a society, they will adopt cultural elements like what and how to eat, the celebration of certain holidays and milestones in life, styles of dress and hair, and tastes in music, television, and news media, among other things. How assimilation differs from acculturation. Often, assimilation and acculturation are used interchangeably, but they mean rather different things. While assimilation refers to the process of how different groups become increasingly similar to one another, acculturation is a process through which a person or group from one culture comes to adopt practices and values of another culture, while still retaining their own distinct culture. So with acculturation, one's native culture is not lost over time, as it would be throughout the process of assimilation. Instead, the process of acculturation can refer to how immigrants adapt to the culture of a new country in order to function in everyday life, have a job, make friends, and be a part of their local community, while still maintaining the values, perspectives, practices, and rituals of their original culture. Acculturation can also be seen in the way that people from the majority group adopt cultural practices and values of members of minority cultural groups within their society. This can include the uptake of certain styles of dress and hair, types of foods that one eats, where one shops, and what kind of music one listens to. Integration versus assimilation. A linear model of assimilation–wherein culturally different immigrant groups and racial and ethnic minorities would become increasingly like those in the majority culture–was considered the ideal by social scientists and civil servants throughout much of the twentieth century. Today, many social scientists believe that integration, not assimilation, is the ideal model for incorporation newcomers and minority groups into any given society. This is because the model of integration recognizes the value that lies in cultural differences for a diverse society, and the importance of culture to a person's identity, family ties, and sense of connection to one's heritage. Therefore, with integration, a person or group is encouraged to maintain their

40

original culture while they are simultaneously encouraged to adopt necessary elements of the new culture in order to live and full and functional life in their new home. 4.4. Dynamic relationship between understanding and misunderstanding If understanding someone or something is a journey on an ongoing dynamic continuum, a person’s understanding of something or someone is always changing. It is therefore common for people to “discover” afterwards that their previous understanding was actually a misunderstanding. In the field of communication, there actually exists a tremendous distortion in meaning as we try to communicate with one another. Hall in 1977 stated that the job of achieving understanding and insight into mental processes of others is much more difficult and the situation more serious than most of us care to admit [5, p. 29]. We must never assume that we are fully in control of what we communicate to someone else. From no-understanding-at-all to totally understanding, to some extent one will never really reach the end. We are always on the way to approaching full understanding. Conversely, there is no way to totally avoid misunderstandings in cross-cultural communication. Understanding is an ongoing dynamic process through misunderstandings. When we say that understanding is an ongoing dynamic process through misunderstanding, two-fold meanings can be inferred: 1) understanding keeps changing as time goes on; 2) it takes time to come to an understanding through misunderstanding. First of all, our understanding to the same object keeps changing as time goes on. Think about our experience of reading the same book repeatedly. Every time we read it, we gain some new information from the text, from our personal situation, and our understanding changes. Therefore, an individual’s understanding always lies on one point along the continuum from no understanding to complete understanding. Understanding in cross-cultural communication is subject to degrees too. A learner will deepen his understanding to the target culture with a gradual and spiral progress. And it is a life-long career to learn a foreign culture. As Hall [5, p. 222] observed, there are two incorrect assumptions, 1) an outsider can, within a matter of months or even years, adequately understand, explain, and describe a foreign culture; 2) and that he can transcend his own culture. For example, it took one American professor several years to find out that yanjiuyanjiu does not mean “we will think about it” as it is indicated in the words literally, rather, it is a Chinese rhetorical device for denying a request without explicitly stating the refusal. He learned this after he had encountered these “empty promises” many times in China [1]. First, he took the phrase as a promise of a subsequent discussion of the matter, then he took it as a misrepresentation that an individual or type of individual would make, then he decided that Chinese people are dishonest, after that he recognized it as a way to refuse a request without having to refuse directly, finally he learned to say this phrase rather than refusing a specific request outright. Secondly, it takes time to recognize a misunderstanding since it is a retrospective recognition that one person’s intention was not “read” accurately. Every time we reach a new understanding, it turns our previous understanding into a misunderstanding. In other words, every time we identify a misunderstanding, we get closer to the full understanding along the continuum. Coming to an understanding cannot be achieved in one action. It takes time and the time needed varies from case to case. According to Dascal [3], most misunderstandings are detected immediately after it occurs (second turn), and successfully repaired in the third or fourth turn [3, p. 754]. This might be true for misunderstandings occurred at the referential level or linguistic level. As for misunderstandings at the cultural level, however, many are not detected right away, not to mention to be corrected, and some will take a longer time to be recognized, or even never so recognized. 41

This is because misunderstanding is the subjective judgment between speaker’s intention and the hearer’s interpretation. We cannot look inside people’s heads to see whether their interpretation matches our intention. When there is actually a misunderstanding, usually no one considers it to be a misunderstanding. The speaker says something and expects the hearer will interpret it as he thought (otherwise, he won’t say it). The hearer, then, gives an interpretation according to the information he perceives. As Taylor in 1992 [10] pointed out, nobody will check constantly whether others catch his meaning. When something unexpected occurs, people usually will not attribute the uneasiness or hurt they feel in a situation of conflict to an erroneous interpretation on their part. Instead, they will attribute this difficulty to the other’s inherent characteristics. In cross-cultural communication, interlocutors who do not have much cultural awareness or training usually behave in the way that is natural to them, i.e., they follow the patterns of their base culture. When their respective natural behaviors do not coincide, they have the tendency to attribute the conflict to the cultural stereotype rather than take it as a misunderstanding. Misunderstanding leads to understanding. Misunderstanding is not always a bad thing. First of all, misunderstanding is the start point for understanding because misunderstanding reveals the problems or difficulties that are usually covered under seeming understandings. Second, misunderstanding helps improve our cultural awareness and recognize the cultural differences. Humans are cultural beings and products of their own environments [5]. However, most of us are not aware of this fact since “culture is internalized as patterns of thinking and behaving that are believed to be ‘natural’ – simply the way things are” [5]. The rules and regulations of a culture cannot be realized until they are violated. And misunderstandings in cross-cultural communications are just those moments, as Hall in1977 and Morain in 1986 [5, 7] stated, “The part of man’s nervous system that deals with social behavior is designed according to the principle of negative feedback…The only time one is aware of the control of system is when things don’t follow the hidden program. This is most frequent in intercultural encounters” [5]. Lastly, people are afraid of or dislike failing to understand; when this happens, people desire to overcome such difficulties. The best way to do it is to start studying intercultural communication. At the same time, a host of revealing affective responses will arise, such as amusement, apprehension, anger, contempt, curiosity, embarrassment, frustration, exasperation, self-doubt, and sympathy, which stimulate learners to figure out the underlying reasons and better form a memory of the experience. Thus, often misunderstandings lead to a better understanding. Ways to accelerate the process from misunderstanding to understanding. Most crosscultural practitioners hope to cross the cultural barrier and avoid misunderstandings. However, it can be seen from what is mentioned above that misunderstandings in cross-cultural communication will always exist and it takes a long time, maybe forever, to come to an understanding through misunderstanding [9]. For decades researchers have come up with different ideas to solve this puzzle, cultural capsule, culture cluster and culture assimilator are among the numerous solutions. Unfortunately, none of them works. There is no shortcut to jump to the understanding to another culture. Those who succeed in cross-cultural communications share similarities in terms of their behaviors when interacting with people from the target culture. Their experience can be summarized as follows: to reach understanding in the target culture, one should be an acute observer, a deep analyst, and an earnest participant. Being an observer is the first stage for one to understand another culture, at which he “knows something exist” [8], no matter whether their understanding is right or not. To observe another culture first requires one to get rid of the cultural that leads one to believe one’s own culture is the number-one. Then it is possible for one to stretch his consciousness to meet the other culture and create a new cultural frame to interpret the world.

42

To experience a different cultural group is to understand and accept the way their minds work. This is much more difficult than one would expect. But, as Hall says, it is the essence of cultural understanding [5, p. 213]. Secondly, observation should be beyond the cultural differences on the surface and reach to those deep discrepancies between the two cultures. The entire systems of cultural behavior are made up of hundreds of thousands of details. When first entering into another culture, usually people will notice some obvious cultural differences like how people dress or other behaviors. When people from Europe come to China, the first time they go by bus or subway, how freely they are touched by strangers makes them extremely uncomfortable. Every time they bump into someone their immediate response is to apologize, which leads to some very strange looks. It is as though people are more confused by a complete stranger apologizing to them for accidentally bumping into or touching them than they are by the actual action. In Russia, bumping into or touching someone without apologizing can lead to angry exchanges, but in China it appears to be accepted as a way of life because there are so many people living so closely together. People recognize these differences much more easily because these behaviors are apparently different from those in their native culture. However, misunderstandings, more often than not, come from things with familiar exteriors. As Hall describes, there are taxis, hotels with hot and cold running water, theatres, neon lights, even tall buildings with elevators and a few people who speak English [5, p. 36]. But pretty soon the American discovers that underneath the familiar exterior there are vast differences. When someone says “yes” it often doesn’t mean yes at all, and when people smile it doesn’t always mean that they are pleased…the longer he stays, the more enigmatic the new country looks, until finally he begins to learn to observe new cues that reinforce or negate the words people are saying with their mouths [5]. To recognize the differences underneath the superficial similarities, careful examination and observation is needed. Without careful examination of the new environment, especially those similar to their native culture, they will miss or misunderstand a lot of significant information the context is telling them. To be more practical, lacking of observation might put one’s life in jeopardy, not to mention achieve successful communication. For instance, when crossing the street, people look for the crosswalks in Russia as well as in Europe or the U.S. with the assumption that drivers will stop and not hit pedestrians in crosswalks. However, in China, one cannot assume the drivers will yield to him. He has to be prepared to get out of the way quickly. Therefore, what one looks for is not the crosswalk but an intermission in the freight flow which allows him to cross the street quickly in China. It is very likely to be hit by a car if walking in China while following Russian’s, European’s or America’s traffic rules. The key to be an acute observer is to always keep cultural awareness. When first entering into another cultural community, one will recognize lots of things interesting and thought provoking, specially those which are different from his native culture. However, if one has been to that community several times, he often stops taking notice of these cultural differences. 4.5. Comprehension check Answer the following questions: 1. What is the difference between lingua franca and globish? 2. What is the difference between lingua franca and pidgin? 3. What are the three main theoretical perspectives on assimilation? 4. How did E. Hall explain the process of understanding through misunderstanding? 5. What are the two incorrect assumptions according to E. Hall about understanding a foreign culture? 6. Whose cultural pattern will the interlocutors follow in case of misunderstanding in crosscultural communication? 43

7. What is the starting point to understanding in cross-cultural communication? 8. What can be done to reach understanding in the target culture? 4.6. Practical task: writing Analyze foreign students’ behavior. Study the schedule of the events with foreign students at SUSU. Choose one or two events, visit them and then write your reflection about students of a particular national group. Do you agree with some general characteristics (you have already studied in module 2).

4.7. References for module 4 1. Ли, Цзинь. Культурные основы общения. Culture Foundation of Learning: Восток и Запад./ Цзинь Ли. – М.: Издательский дом Высшей школы экономики, 2015. – 443 с. 2. Cole, N. L., "How Different Cultural Groups Become More Alike." Thought Co, Aug. 22, 2019, https://www.thoughtco.com/assimilation-definition-4149483. 3. Dascal, M. Two modes of understanding: comprehending and grasping / M. Dascal, I. Berenstein. – Language and Communication, 7(2), 1987. – P. 139–151. 4. Dovring, K. English as Lingua Franca: Double Talk in Global Persuasion / K. Dovring. – Praeger, 1997. – 472 p. 5. Hall, E. T. Beyond Culture / E. T. Hall. – Garden City, N.Y., 1977. – 294 p. 6. McCrum R. My Bright Idea: English Is On the Up but One Day Will Die Out. The Observer, October 31, 2010. – P. 165–182. 7. Morain, G. Kinesics and Cross-cultural Understanding. Culture Bound: Bridging the Cultural Gap in Language Teaching / G. Morain. – Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. – P. 64–76. 8. Shepherd, E. Eat Shandong. National East Asian Languages Resource Center, the Ohio State University. 2005. – 161 p. 9. Stewart, E. C. American Cultural Pattern: A Cross-cultural Perspective / E. C. Stewart, M. J. Bennett. – Boston: Intercultural Press, Inc. pr., 1991. – 487 p. 10. Taylor, T. J. Mutual misunderstanding: scepticism and the theorizing of language and interpretation. Durham: Duke University Press. 1992. – 347 p.

44

APPENDIX Additional resources You can use the following websites and videos for your practical tasks Websites: 1. The Centre for Intercultural Communication offers services and programs designed to address the challenges faced by organizations and individuals in international and multicultural settings: www.cic.cstudies.ubc.ca/index. html 2. Intercultural Communication Homepage: This site is intended for those studying intercultural communication as part of career preparation, and contains recommended reading and other resources: www.soc.hawaii.edu/com/resources/intercultural/Intercultural. html 3. The Integrated Resources Group provides solutions to cross-cultural problems utilizing project-specific and context-appropriate resources, for example resources for expatriates and repatriates: www.expat-repat.com 4. The Web of Culture: a consulting firm and website which seeks to educate its visitors on the topic of cross-cultural communications online today: www.webofculture.com SIETAR: Society for Intercultural Education Training and Research: www.sietar-europa.org 5. The Intercultural Communication Institute is designed to foster an awareness and appreciation of cultural difference in both the international and domestic arenas by educational means: www.intercultural.org Films: 1. East is east / Regie: Damien O'Donnell. – Grossbritannien, 1999. – 96 Min. 2. ID Swiss / Regie: Fulvio Bernasconi, Christian Davi, Nadia Fares, Wageh George, Kamal Musale, Thomas Thümena, Stina Werenfels. – Schweiz 1999. – Produktion: Dschoint Ventschr Filmproduktion. – 90 Min. 3. Just a kiss / Regie: Ken Loach. – Grossbritannien, 2004. – 104 Min 4. The virtual team : managing culture and technology / ed. by bigworldmedia. – USA, 2002. – 20 Min

45

Учебное издание

Евсина Елена Валерьевна INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION IN MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT OF TERTIARY EDUCATION Учебное пособие Под редакцией К.Н. Волченковой

Техн. редактор А.В. Миних Дизайн обложки А.В. Коноваловой Издательский центр Южно-Уральского государственного университета Подписано в печать 13.07.2020. Формат 6084 1/8. Печать цифровая. Усл. печ. л. 5,58. Тираж 50 экз. Заказ 212/448. Отпечатано в типографии Издательского центра ЮУрГУ. 454080, г. Челябинск, проспект Ленина, 76. 46