Intelligent Transportation Systems: Concepts and Cases 1527591247, 9781527591240

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Intelligent Transportation Systems

Intelligent Transportation Systems: Concepts and Cases By

Sundaravalli Narayanaswami

Intelligent Transportation Systems: Concepts and Cases By Sundaravalli Narayanaswami This book first published 2023 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2023 by Sundaravalli Narayanaswami All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-5275-9124-7 ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-9124-0

ýēɉĭúĭŊİɋÿĭċĭĮć One who moves, understands the path

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Exhibits .......................................................................................... ix List of Figures............................................................................................ xi List of Tables ............................................................................................ xii Preface ..................................................................................................... xiv Module 1 Trends, Challenges and Opportunities 1.1 Overview and Challenges ..................................................................... 2 1.2 Purpose of ITS Deployment ............................................................... 16 1.3 Determinants of ITS ........................................................................... 31 Module 2 Anatomy and Framework of Development 2.1 Role of Information and Communication Technology ....................... 44 2.2 Big Data Processing and Storage ........................................................ 51 2.3 ITS: Operational Framework .............................................................. 67 2.4 ITS: Automation and People Framework ........................................... 76 2.5 ITS: Policy Framework ...................................................................... 88 2.6 ITS: Business Framework .................................................................. 92 2.7 ITS: Innovation Framework ............................................................. 104 Module 3 Integrating Requirements Planning, Design and Development 3.1 Technological Elements of ITS ........................................................ 122 3.2 Building Blocks of ITS ..................................................................... 133 3.3 System Design .................................................................................. 145 3.4 Capacity Planning ............................................................................. 160 3.5 Operations Planning and Control...................................................... 170 3.6 Transit Signal Priority ...................................................................... 185 3.7 ITS Project Management .................................................................. 193 3.8 Fleet and Commercial Vehicle Operations ....................................... 209 3.9 Connected Vehicles .......................................................................... 220 3.10 Operational Safety Applications ..................................................... 259

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Table of Contents

Module 4 ITS: Business and Policy Perspective 4.1 Strategic Business Planning.............................................................. 270 4.2 Pricing and Revenue Management ................................................... 284 4.3 Sustainability of ITS Operations ...................................................... 293 4.4 Role of State and Regulatory Bodies ................................................ 302 4.5 Public-private Partnerships in ITS .................................................... 309 4.6 System Security and Privacy ............................................................ 319 4.7 Prospects of Advanced Technology Infrastructure ........................... 331 4.8 Emerging Trends .............................................................................. 346

LIST OF EXHIBITS

Exhibit 1.2.1 ITS User Services ............................................................... 26 Exhibit 1.2.2 Dallas Area-Wide ITS Plan Area ........................................ 26 Exhibit 1.2.3 Dallas Area Transportation Problems and User Service Solutions ............................................................................................. 28 Exhibit 1.3.1 Showing Agency ITS Funding, Budget Trends in the US by Agency Type, 2010 ........................................................................ 39 Exhibit 1.3.2 Showing Key Transportation Legislation Funding Bills ..... 40 Exhibit 1.3.3 Percentage of Metropolitan Areas in Which Incident, Travel Time, and Travel Speed Information Were Disseminated to the US Public in 2007 ..................................................................... 41 Exhibit 2.1.1 Components and Mechanism in Service Innovation ........... 49 Exhibit 2.3.1 The Location of Poznan, Poland ......................................... 72 Exhibit 2.3.2 a Black Box for an Automobile .......................................... 72 Exhibit 2.3.2 b Working of a Black Box .................................................. 73 Exhibit 2.3.3 ITS Poznan Project Implementation ................................... 74 Exhibit 2.3.4 Total Funds Earmarked for Investments in ITS Projects .... 75 Exhibit 2.4.1 Paris Subway Driving Cabin ............................................... 82 Exhibit 2.4.2 Various Grades of Automation ........................................... 83 Exhibit 2.4.3a Map Showing the Cities with Automated Metro Lines, as of 2013 ............................................................................................ 84 Exhibit 2.4.3 b Graph Showing the Kilometers of Automated Metro in 2013, by City .................................................................................. 85 Exhibit 2.4.4 The Project Timeline........................................................... 86 Exhibit 2.4.5 Pictures of the New Line 1 Trains ...................................... 87 Exhibit 3.1.1 Arterial Road Selection Criteria ........................................ 130 Exhibit 3.1.2 Non-intrusive and Intrusive Technologies: Data Collection, Advantages, and Disadvantages........................................................ 131 Exhibit 3.2.1 Project Management Plan Goals ....................................... 142 Exhibit 3.2.2 Capital Cost and Cash Flow Summary ............................. 143 Exhibit 3.2.3 Implementation Schedule of the Congestion Management Plan Program..................................................................................... 144 Exhibit 3.4.1a Location of Tiger Brennan Drive and the Surrounding Areas ................................................................................................. 166 Exhibit 3.4.1b A Zoomed-in Image of the Location ............................... 167 Exhibit 3.4.2 Data Analysis .................................................................... 168

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List of Exhibits

Exhibit 3.4.3 Images of Tiger Brennan Road ......................................... 169 Exhibit 3.5.1 Goals Developed for Each Functional Area of ITS .......... 177 Exhibit 3.5.2 Matrix of Strategic Plan Goals and Market Packages ....... 179 Exhibit 3.5.3 Cost Summary for Projects by Fiscal Year ....................... 180 Exhibit 3.5.4 Cost Summary for Projects by Highway District .............. 181 Exhibit 3.5.5 Map Showing the Twelve Kentucky Highway Districts ... 182 Exhibit 3.5.6 ITS Organizational Structure in Kentucky, as of April 2000 .................................................................................................. 183 Exhibit 3.7.1a Five Key Phases in a Project ........................................... 200 Exhibit 3.7.1b Detailed Explanation of the Tasks under Each Phase ..... 201 Exhibit 3.7.2 List of Key Stakeholders along with Their Descriptions .. 202 Exhibit 3.7.3 A Flow Chart Showing the Implementation Strategy ....... 203 Exhibit 3.7.4 A Flow Chart Showing the Components of Mysore ITS .. 204 Exhibit 3.7.5a Images Showing KSRTC Online Portal in Two Languages, i.e., English and Kannada ................................................................. 205 Exhibit 3.7.5b Images Showing Various Technologies and Initiatives Used in the Mysore ITS .................................................................... 206 Exhibit 3.7.6 The Cycle Showing the Entire Mysore ITS ...................... 207 Exhibit 3.7.7 Highlights of Mysore ITS ................................................. 208 Exhibit 3.8.1 Freight Transportation Information................................... 219 Exhibit 3.9.1 CV Pilot Deployment in Downtown Tampa ..................... 240 Exhibit 3.9.2 Accident on Corridor I-80 Wyoming Corridor ................. 242 Exhibit 3.9.3 Wyoming I-80 Corridor CV Map ..................................... 244 Exhibit 3.9.4 Wyoming 511 App Interface............................................. 246 Exhibit 3.9.5 RTIS: Signages and Boards .............................................. 249 Exhibit 3.9.6 RTIS: Probe Vehicle Data ................................................ 250 Exhibit 3.10.1 Different Categories of Responses for Security Violation on Transportation Systems ................................................................ 265 Exhibit 4.1.1 Spokane Valley, Washington ............................................ 276 Exhibit 4.1.2 Goals and Objectives ........................................................ 277 Exhibit 4.1.3 Detailed Assessment of Needs .......................................... 278 Exhibit 4.1.4 Recommended ITS System Components .......................... 279 Exhibit 4.1.5 Detailed Cost Estimates for the Identified Projects........... 281 Exhibit 4.1.6 The City’s Physical Architecture Subsystems, and Related Equipment Packages ......................................................................... 282 Exhibit 4.4.1 Government’s Long-term Goal and Contribution of ITS.... 307 Exhibit 4.4.2 Role of New Zealand Transport Agency in ITS Development ..................................................................................... 308 Exhibit 4.5.1 BRTS Network in Ahmedabad ......................................... 316 Exhibit 4.5.2 PPP Responsibility Matrix ................................................ 317 Exhibit 4.5.3 Budget Details: Ahmedabad BRTS .................................. 318

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.2.1 Big Data, IoT and Cloud Computing ................................... 52 Figure 2.2.2 ITS Traffic Flow Model ....................................................... 55 Figure 2.2.3 Big Data Architecture for ITS .............................................. 60 Figure 2.2.4 Hadoop and Spark Ecosystem .............................................. 62 Figure 2.2.5 Framework of Apache Spark Using Hadoop Database ........ 63 Figure 2.6.1 Value Proposition for ITS .................................................... 96 Figure 3.3.1 Relationships between Framework, Regional Architecture, ITS Standards, Projects ..................................................................... 146 Figure 3.3.2 Process of Creating ITS Architecture ................................. 147 Figure 3.3.3 Architecture Overview ....................................................... 151 Figure 3.3.4 Illustration: ITS Architecture Relationship ........................ 153 Figure 3.3.5 Systems Engineering Vee Diagram for ITS Projects ......... 155 Figure 3.3.6 Customized Service Package for New York City RTPIS Program............................................................................................. 158 Figure 3.9.1 Concept of Connected Vehicles ......................................... 221 Figure 3.9.2 Illustration of V2X ............................................................. 226 Figure 3.9.3 Illustration of a CV-technology-equipped Vehicle ............ 228 Figure 3.9.4 Location of Three Pilot Test Sites across the United States ................................................................................................. 231 Figure 3.9.5 Timeline and Phases of Project Development .................... 232 Figure 3.9.6 NYCDOT Deployment ...................................................... 234 Figure 4.2 1 A Singapore ERP Gantry ................................................... 289 Figure 4.2.2 On-Board Unit (OBU) Fixed inside a Car .......................... 289 Figure 4.7.1 EV Sales Penetration Trend (2020-2030)........................... 336 Figure 4.7.2 The EV Value Chain and Ecosystem in India .................... 341 Figure 4.8.1 A MaaS Schematic ............................................................. 350 Figure 4.8.2 MaaS Topologies: With and Without Bundling ................. 352 Figure 4.8.3 Sydney Trail Timeline ........................................................ 362 Figure 4.8.4 Plans Provided by CRC Consortium .................................. 363 Figure 4.8.5 Interaction of Key Players within MaaS Ecosystem .......... 366 Figure 4.8.6 MaaS Governance Models ................................................. 368 Figure 4.8.7 MaaS Regulation Framework: A Schematic ...................... 374 Figure 4.8.8 Key Contribution at Each Level of MaaS .......................... 376

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1.1 Countries and ITS Implementation .......................................... 3 Table 1.1.2 Inherent Challenges Present in the Indian Transportation System................................................................................................. 12 Table 1.1.3 Reasons for the Inapplicability of Various ITS Techniques in the Indian Context........................................................................... 12 Table 1.2.1 Key Requirements of a Sustainable Transport System .......... 18 Table 2.2.1 Big Data Source and ITS Characteristics .............................. 57 Table 2.2.2 Big Data Approaches and ITS Applications .......................... 58 Table 2.2.3 Comparison of Hadoop and Spark Features .......................... 64 Table 2.6.1 Projects and Funding Sources................................................ 94 Table 2.6.2 Benefits of Traveler Information ........................................... 99 Table 2.6.3 Benefits of Traffic Control and Management ...................... 100 Table 2.6.4 Benefits of Public Traffic Management............................... 101 Table 2.6.5 Benefits of Enforcement ...................................................... 102 Table 3.2.1 Goals and Objectives of the Proposed Congestion Management Plan ............................................................................. 136 Table 3.5.1 Approved Market Packages ................................................. 173 Table 3.5.2 List of Projects Recommended for Implementation in Kentucky ....................................................................................... 174 Table 3.9.1 SAE Levels and Connected Vehicles .................................. 222 Table 3.9.2 Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) and Automated Driving Functions .................................................... 224 Table 3.9.3 Applications Deployed on the NYC Vehicles ..................... 235 Table 3.9.4 Applications Deployed on the Tampa, FL, Vehicles ........... 238 Table 3.9.5 Applications Deployed on the Wyoming Vehicles .............. 245 Table 3.9.6 Details of a Few ITS Projects under C-ITS Initiative Post 2015 in Europe .................................................................................. 253 Table 4.2.1 Different Road Pricing Types .............................................. 286 Table 4.2.2 Fee Collection Methods ....................................................... 287 Table 4.6.1 ITS Security and Privacy Issues .......................................... 320 Table 4.6.2 Security Attacks, Classification, Countermeasures, and Advantages ................................................................................. 327 Table 4.7.1 List of Cities in the EVI Global EV Pilot City Program...... 332 Table 4.7.2 FAME II Incentives—Investment Rollout Plan (FY20 to FY22) ................................................................................ 335

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Table 4.7.3 Status of E-Vehicles’ Adoption in the Indian States ........... 337 Table 4.7.4 Challenges in E-Vehicles’ Adoption in India ...................... 342 Table 4.7.5 Smart Charging Systems ..................................................... 344 Table 4.8.1 Information and Service Availability in the MaaS Platform ............................................................................................ 354 Table 4.8.2 Routing Data by Transport Services Integrated in a MaaS Platform ............................................................................................ 355 Table 4.8.3 Booking Processes and Data in the MaaS Platform............. 355 Table 4.8.4 Worldwide MaaS Service Providers .................................... 357 Table 4.8.5 Whim Subscription Packages .............................................. 359

PREFACE

Intelligent transportation systems (ITS) are sometimes referred to as smart transportation. In recent times, this is one of the most intriguing topics, and is equally discussed by academics, practitioners, and policy makers. Academia finds it interesting because the field is emerging and there is good scope for advanced technology and research. Practitioners find it interesting because there is a strong belief that the field has enough potential to enhance productivity and, thereby, improve profitability. Policy makers find it interesting because most ITS are based on emerging technologies and innovative models that can help achieve national goals and priorities, if well utilized. However, it is worthwhile to realize that there is a huge gap between the technology-driven research, practice, and policy facets of ITS. Most of the available texts and literature on ITS focus on these facets in silos, neglecting the interdependencies of each other; understandably so, as each of these facets is held by stakeholders that may not have a comprehensive perspective and purview of ITS. An academic, or a research, organization works only on the prospects of advanced technologies, with little consideration of implementation challenges and policy directives. A corporation, or a practitioner, focuses more on productivity and commercial gains for the organization rather than the wholesome goals that the state may aim for. Governments, as stakeholders, are concerned about framing policies that address equity, sustainability, and national development; their reliance on the research and corporate world is high and, in turn, the policies framed by the governments impact what research and practice can deliver and contribute to the state goals. Through various chapters in this text, it is argued that ITS are demonstrations of Industry 4.0 standards in the transportation service sector. Management philosophers have popularly termed the industrial revolution as four phases of milestone development and growth. The current stage is Industry 4.0, where systems productivity is enhanced through information and communications technology (ICT) and the internet of things (IoT). In that context, there are discussions on scope and possibilities through advanced technologies in the transportation sector.

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ICT enables communication between three entities—vehicle, infrastructure, and systems—in any transportation domain. It helps in informed decision making for all the stakeholders. The socioeconomic development of a country is directly dependent on the transportation system. Typically, most discussions on ITS provide a systemic perspective that covers the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Advanced Traffic Management Systems (ATMS) Advanced Traveler Information Systems (ATIS) Advanced Vehicle Control Systems (AVCS) Commercial Vehicle Operations (CVO) Advanced Public Transportation Systems (APTS) Advanced Rural Transportation Systems (ARTS)

This book focuses on the synergies of all three facets of ITS, based on the managerial and business perspectives of ITS. The coverage is comprehensive and relevant to all types of stakeholders of ITS. 1. 2. 3.

Financial viability of the project Social aspect of the project (technically safe and secure systems) Policy making aspects

The essence of the text deals with the application of technology in a local context. The focus will be on the feasibility of these technologies in different cities. For instance, a particular technology can be applicable in Mumbai but not in Patna.

Challenges of ITS ITS require people who are highly skilled in areas such as finance, engineering, securities, data science, etc. How people engage together makes it interesting. Another aspect to ponder is the need for a particular technology. Do we really need to have intelligent systems? Resoundingly, yes. Intelligent systems are safer and have fewer emissions. They also help in reducing congestion in the system. One of the main areas of study will be that of congestion; in this textbook, congestion is analyzed from a supply–demand perspective. Why are cities congested? Demands for better mobility choice have consistently increased around the globe but resources have not kept up the pace with the growing demand. Reasons vary from poor urban planning, poor infrastructure, and lack of pace in developing infrastructure to meet the current and future

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demands. The bottom line is that the civil infrastructure is unable to meet and keep up with the pace in which mobility demands increase. What can the government do to reduce congestion? By and large, the onus of providing good mobility solutions lies with the state authorities. Despite the governance and administrative constructs in different nations, challenges on the ground are real and large; however, urban congestion and reasonable mobility service in sparsely populated regions are common across the globe. Approaches to tackle the situation might be different and should be relevant to the context. A long term and sustainable solution lies with better urban planning designs, such as a hyper-local model. Not every city has been able to develop such urban designs, as city growth in many developed cities is organic and driven by various forces. Shared mobility systems, inducing behavior changes, and e-commerce are driving the urban mobility systems in completely different trajectories. State-level policies attempt to regulate such developments and enforce laws that help enhance trust and security in systems. State-level decisions happen at multiple levels: policy, strategic, tactical, operational, and real-time. What kind of considerations go into decision making? The cost of congestion, time taken to build infrastructure, cost of building infrastructure, streamlined integration of existing infrastructure with newer developments (Greenfield Project vs Brownfield Project), safety and security of assets, and people are primary considerations in state decisions. There are other objectives, too, such as growth and planning of industries, and socioeconomic needs, that contribute to ITS development. Most decisions involve a longterm vision and national priorities dictated by governance structures. ITS are considered to address and resolve issues that arise in real time in a dynamic environment, which is very distinct from civil infrastructure-based transportation systems. Hence, ITS begin where civil infrastructure fails.

ITS: The Elephant in the Room While transportation-related challenges are prevalent across the globe, solutions are poorly planned and implemented—the elephant is in the room. However, since ITS are multidisciplinary, the scope and possibilities of what ITS can offer to alleviate transportation challenges are understood independently rather than holistically. This is metaphorically paralleled with blind men trying to identify an elephant by touching and feeling the animal. Professionals, based on their own expertise, perceive and classify ITS under their own domains: i) civil engineers understand ITS as construction, ii) computer science graduates ascertain ITS as a software-

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based solution for transportation, iii) transportation engineers consider ITS as a vehicular technology, iv) legal professionals see ITS as a matter of the law, v) HR and OB professionals perceive ITS from a people–behavior perspective, vi) business management professionals look at the finance and management aspects of ITS, vii) operations research professionals handle ITS as model development, and viii) policy planners treat ITS as state intervention for transportation. None of these is complete and comprehensive, but only a partial and narrow view of the larger problem. This is one of the fundamental aspects of ITS. To develop meaningful solutions for real-world problems, it is necessary for decisionmakers from various backgrounds to work together to develop solutions that are contextually relevant and adoptable in a local ecosystem. Are developed nations better off? Unfortunately, no. In fact, developed countries are less enterprising in experimenting with novel solutions for various reasons. Risk-awareness and stake of safety and security are more significant in developed countries. Hence, developing countries are usually the proponents of innovative solutions. The usability of a novel system cannot be evaluated unless it is deployed in a real-life setting. Developing countries are more amenable to experimentation and trials. Therefore, no country leads or lags in terms of real ITS that totally resolve all their local problems. This textbook, Intelligent Transport Systems: Concepts and Cases, is organized into four modules; multiple chapters are included in each module, with each chapter focused on a specific theme with illustrated cases from across the globe. The first module is on ITS trends, challenges, and opportunities; an overview of ITS is presented, followed by the challenges in ITS development, the purpose of ITS deployment, and a final chapter on determinants of ITS. The second module covers the anatomy and framework of ITS development; the role of ICT, big data processing, storage, and analytics are discussed in this module. A framework for ITS development—comprising operations, technology, policy, business, and innovation—is also presented. Each topic is substantiated with brief reallife illustrations. The third module is on integrating requirements— planning, design, and development; here, most of the operational challenges, and scope for addressing these challenges using innovative technologies and models, are covered. The chapters in this module are ITS technology elements, building blocks, system design, capacity planning, operations planning, maintenance and control, signaling and priority, project management, fleet and commercial vehicle operations, safety, and security. The last module presents the business and policy perspectives of

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ITS: strategic business planning, pricing and revenue management, sustainability of ITS operations, role of state and regulatory bodies, PPPs in ITS development, e-vehicles and their impacts, and emerging trends. This book is an outcome of my personal academic experience in understanding and teaching the topic to various cohorts of students. I have known and learnt a lot from my audience; much more than what I, personally, was able to teach my students. Several academic projects done by my students, over the years, have enriched my knowledge with newer aspects. Priyanshu Raj, Lavanya Chintagunta, Harsh Gupta, and Arpit Kanv supported me with background research. Harshad Parmar, IIM Ahmedabad handles all my administrative tasks and I count on his support, as ever. Meenakshi read the first draft and helped me with the first round of proof reading and several suggestions to improve the language flow. Ms Lorna Pierce did the cumbersome task of a final professional editing and proofreading the full text; my gratitude to both of them. Adam Rummens was an excellent support from the publishing team, and it was a pleasure to interact with him. The Research and Publications division of my employer, the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad, provided some funding support for this work. I am immensely thankful to all. I owe a lot to my family, my parents, two most beautiful daughters, husband, and my brother who have stood by me through thick and thin. They are very precious to me, and I am extremely grateful to have them in my life. My students are the constant source of my energy in my professional space. I am also thankful to them.

MODULE 1 TRENDS, CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

CHAPTER 1.1 ITS: AN OVERVIEW AND CHALLENGES

Introduction Efficiency and safety of transport systems in developed economies have long leveraged the potential of information and communication technology (ICT). Developing economies often lack a good quality transport infrastructure that can i) support the deployment of intelligent transportation systems (ITS), and ii) harness the full potential of advancements of ICT applications. Fast-paced deployment of ITS in developing countries is largely influenced by the socioeconomic and environmental safety requirements. Developed nations, like the United States, Japan, and regions like Europe, had created a well-established network of transport infrastructure by the 1990s and are, since, implementing ITS to further improve the network’s efficiency and safety. Today, such countries have reached the real-world trial and implementation of advanced ITS applications. Interestingly, traffic congestion continues to plague these countries, mainly due to ever-growing mobility demands and the inability of the civil traffic infrastructure to cater to the increasing demands; despite the availability of technologically advanced transport systems solutions, rigid government policies and norms reduce the implementation pace. Developing countries stand at an advantage of procuring advanced traffic and ITS technologies from them, in addition to gaining a better clarity of the pros and cons of such advanced technologies. However, the fundamental challenge is to create design transformations of the systems to suit the contextual relevance and functional requirements that are locally unique. There are fundamental geographical, technological, practical, and cultural factors that make the exact replication of western ITS standards and system architectural practice difficult for developing nations, including India and China. For instance,

Overview and Challenges

3

භ uncoordinated spatial and infrastructural development භ diversity in the types of vehicles and range of vehicular velocities (pedestrian, bicycle, LMVs, HMVs, animal carts, etc.) භ lack of lane discipline, mostly due to contrast in cultural practices භ high population density භ insufficient legislations, weak enforcement of rules and regulations Table 1.1.1 represents an overview of a study that presents the number of countries that are grouped region-wise and the percentage implementation of ITS applications in those countries, based on the International Monetary Fund report of 2018. Developing countries (regional groups) Middle East (including Egypt) Emerging and developing Asia Developing countries in Europe Latin America North Africa (excluding Egypt) Sub-Saharan Africa

Number of countries

Percentage of ITS applications

15

35 %

19

27 %

10

19 %

17

12 %

6

8%

48

7.5 %

Table 1.1.1: Countries and ITS Implementation Source: El Mokaddem, Jawab and Saad (2019)

Types of Challenges ITS implementation in developing nations is very complex. Some challenges are consistent while others are unique to a country or region. The characteristics and prospects of ITS services and applications are distinct from those of conventional transport applications. These challenges are often based on the prerequisites for the deployment of the subsystem. Some challenges are technical in nature, due to the inherent characteristics of the ITS subsystem; some are contextual to a region and others may be application specific. For instance, whole ITS systems usually have high budget requirements while certain subsystems, like automatic vehicle identification (AVI) and automatic vehicle location (AVL), are not only capital intensive but also require public endorsement. Furthermore, it is also

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Chapter 1.1

essential that each subsystem complements the other. A good example would be the use of CCTV. Despite the lack of legal regulations and discipline, CCTV-based video capturing can be deployed for data collection for motorized traffic on a road. In developing countries, there is a lot of unorganized traffic penetration, which is cumbersome to track and regulate. In other words, ITS development challenges are technical, managerial, financial, legal, social, and political; this makes ITS studies engaging and meaningful for researchers and practitioners to use to develop pragmatic systems and solutions. Technical barriers can be classified as inadequate knowledge about i) artificial intelligence (AI) operations, ii) capabilities of big data storage, analysis, and techniques, and iii) the absence of standards and protocols that support interoperability to complement effective and streamlined transport network operations. Non-technical barriers relate to the sociopolitical and legal aspects, such as poor enforcement of rules and regulations, and weak governance mechanisms. The overall challenges of ITS in developing nations can be broadly classified into the following categories: 1. Lack of Legal Structures, Regulatory, and Governance Mechanisms One of the most fundamental requirements and characteristics of ITS is data collection, access, and analysis. Additionally, data collection and processing are required to be real-time and secure for all stakeholders. It is imperative to establish data regulation policy and governance structures that ensure transparency in user data collection and sharing. Most developing countries lack a regional-level framework, such as the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in the European Union, or a state-level framework, like the City of Los Angeles Department of Transportation’s (LADOT’s) Mobility Data Specification (MDS), to create a favorable environment for ITS deployment. 2. Lack of Institutional Will Public transport authorities play a crucial role in the deployment and maintenance of ITS. There is a need to create a synergy between the public and private sectors, which, in turn, requires the restructuring of the institutional framework and ensures the overall capacity building for the operation and management of ITS. Setting up of a unified transport authority at a state level and developing a national ITS data repository can help mitigate implementation delays and eliminate the multiplicity of decision-making agencies at various levels.

Overview and Challenges

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3. Inadequate Infrastructure and High Implementation Cost ITS are considered technology-driven systems that can enhance transport network efficiency through informed decision making by various stakeholders for the optimal utilization of the existing infrastructure. Developing nations have a weakly coordinated spatial and infrastructural development, resulting in poor traffic services. Apart from transport network infrastructure, ICT infrastructure, like data storage units, enhanced wireless networks, etc., should also be well established to ensure efficient operations. Huge funds might be required to design, develop, deploy, and operate ITS. 4. ITS Technology Readiness and Maturity It is very crucial to understand that regional context impacts the specifications of the deployed ITS. Any outsourced technology/component needs to be calibrated and customized to match the local setting. Homogeneity of the deployed components is also essential to avoid issues related to system nonconformity and interoperability with the existing systems. As ITS include multiple stakeholders and technologies from various sectors, like the automobile industry, transport agency, equipment manufacturers, etc., the interpretation of ITS differs for each stakeholder; interfacing among the many ITS subsystems can be a huge challenge. 5. User Behavior and Transport Professionals’ Awareness User acceptance plays a crucial role to ensure proper trust and collaboration. It is essential to ensure knowledge sharing, with respect to new ITS technologies and initiatives, among different stakeholders. Most of the drivers in the public transport sector or logistics sector are not matured; there is a huge gap in education, training, and skill development for operating ITS equipment onboard and on transport practices. It is also essential for transport sector professionals to remain aware of regional characteristics—like the challenges faced due to the presence of informal transportation—before implementing best practices from other countries.

Indian Context and the Current State of ITS in India The growth rate is one of the highest in the world, when compared to other cities in the developing world. The high rate of urbanization results in high daily demands for citizen mobility for their occupational requirements, which results in a high number of private vehicles in urban areas throughout

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Chapter 1.1

the country, owing to a subpar public transport system. With the increase in per capita GDP, there has been a significant rise in the income levels of people, which results in high vehicular traffic and demand for better transport infrastructure. Apart from all these, the high amount of rural to urban migration also plays a prominent role in vehicular demand increase and, thus, the transportation infrastructure. Indian urban areas are not equipped enough to sustain the escalating number of vehicles and, as a result, many cities face heavy traffic congestion. This has become a universal problem that needs to be addressed by policy makers and urban authorities. As per the Government of India data, the transportation sector is a major contributor to the GDP. Currently, its share is around 6.7 %, which is expected to reach around 12 % in 2026 (Rawal 2015). It would be one of the biggest employment-providing sectors. As per the World Bank data, currently, around 32 % of the population resides in urban areas, which is expected to grow to 40 % by 2030. There will also be a contribution of around 75 % of the GDP by the urban population. Over the past few decades, India has experienced an enormous growth in vehicular traffic, as the number of registered vehicles has surged from 0.3 million, in 1951, to 142 million, in 2011, with a CAGR of 9.9 %, between 2001 and 2011 (Rawal 2015). Monetary damages suffered due to congestion and poor roads are as high as $6 billion a year in India (World Bank). The main reason behind traffic congestion in India is the fact that road capacity and other transport infrastructure have not kept pace with increasing demands and vehicular traffic. Traffic-related challenges in a developing country, such as India, are mainly due to i) failure of civil infrastructure development, proportionate with growing demands, and ii) lack of regulation. Successful application of ITS can help achieve an efficient, effective, satisfactory, and sustainable multi-modal transport system that will integrate vehicles and management systems through well-established technologies. The purpose behind the deployment of ITS projects in India is to i) provide multiple choices for mobility, and ii) analyze and integrate new emerging technologies to achieve sustainable, reliable, affordable, and efficient transportation that provides public safety and conserves time and energy. The Indian government has invested about €1.6 million (§ $1.6 million) to implement ITS, which resulted in improved traffic regulations, a reduction

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of road accidents and congestion by 52 %, and an increase in new road infrastructure, by 26 %, and road upgrades, by 17 %. (Sengupta 2014). At present, there are no fully developed ITS applications with traffic management centers in India. However, a few small-scale ITS applications have been implemented in India in some metropolitan cities like Bengaluru, Pune, New Delhi, and Chennai. Most of these projects are pilot projects, curated for future large-scale implementation of ITS projects. These are stand-alone projects, which focus on limited functions of ITS, like traffic signal management, public transportation management, organized parking management, and highway toll collection. The ITS program in India mainly focuses on stand-alone deployments of area-wide signal control, advanced public transportation, parking information, etc. Some of the existing applications of ITS are given below: 1. Advanced Traffic Management System (ATMS) The first trial of an ATMS in India was introduced in the city of Chennai, Tamil Nadu, in 2009; this involved a trial run of the fully automated traffic regulatory management system (TRMS), involving the usage of surveillance cameras. Automatic number plate reader (ANPR) cameras were installed, while pan tilt zoom (PTZ) cameras were deployed in ten out of twelve busy junctions identified. Traffic police also planned to install forty CCTV cameras at various junctions. 2. Advanced Public Transportation System (APTS) One application implemented in the APTS areas is the GPS vehicle tracking system in public transport buses (Bengaluru, Chennai, and Indore) to monitor vehicle routing and frequency so that passengers’ waiting time for buses is reduced and there is less uncertainty and frustration. Display boards with high quality LEDs in wide-view angle are provided at bus stops so that passengers can read the information easily. It displays the number and destination of the approaching bus, expected time of arrival, and messages of public interest. 3. Automated Traffic Control (ATC) ATC has been set up in many cities in India, including Delhi, Pune, Mumbai, and Chennai. The ATC project of Mumbai focused on synchronizing major junctions with financial aid from the World Bank. Similarly, the Chennai traffic police set up the city’s first ATC system at twenty-six major traffic signals around the new secretariat complex. The

8

Chapter 1.1

system monitors and regulates traffic without any manual intervention and helps police regulate VIP routes. 4. Automatic Traffic Information Service (ATIS) The main objective of implementing ATIS is to inform road users of latest traffic updates and better management of traffic through SMS, the internet, and radio. A few cities, like Bengaluru (through the internet and SMS), Hyderabad (through the internet and SMS), Chennai (through FM radios) and Delhi (through the traffic people), have initiated technology-enabled traffic information systems. 5. Bus Rapid Transport System (BRTS) In India, the cities that have been selected for implementing BRTS include Ahmedabad, Bhopal, Rajkot, Pune, Jaipur, Indore, Vijayawada, and Vishakhapatnam. Pune was the first to experiment with a BRTS but the Ahmedabad BRTS is the earliest and most successful rapid transport system in terms of public adoption. In 2009, the Ahmedabad BRTS became India’s first fully featured BRT service with median stations, central control, level boarding, signal priority, vehicle tracking, and automatic fare collection. 6. Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) The ETC is designed to detect if a vehicle is registered in a toll payment program. It alerts enforcers to toll payment violations and debits the exact fee from the user account. The technologies used in ETC are automatic vehicle identification (AVI), automatic vehicle classification (AVC), video enforcement system (VES), and vehicle positioning system (VPS). ETC systems are deployed in the cities of Kharagpur (NH 6 Toll Road), Ahmedabad-Mumbai Highway (RFID-based), Chandigarh (pilot project on Chandigarh), Parwanoo (NH 5), Delhi (Delhi–Gurgaon Expressway), and Chennai (IT Corridor). 7. Advanced Parking Management System (APMS) The first parking management system was set up by the New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) at Palika Parking, in Connaught Place, having a capacity of 1,050 cars and 500 two wheelers, with electronic parking guidance and VMS smart card. This system permits vehicle users to be guided by a wide range of sensors, lights, signboards, and directional displays to the closest vacant space existing in the parking lot and to identify

Overview and Challenges

9

the vehicle’s location at the time of exit. Also, automated multi-level parking in Sarojini Nagar Market was established. 8. B-TRAC Bengaluru B-TRAC refers to the Bangalore Traffic Improvement Project, 2010. The five-year project began in 2010. The project was initiated by Bengaluru traffic police in the central area of Bengaluru city. The objective was to reduce traffic congestion by 30 %, reduce accidents by 30 %, achieve a significant reduction in pollution, achieve substantial compliance with traffic laws, and to set up an effective trauma care system. The development and deployment of ITS is a strenuous task in all parts of the world. On the technology side, they have accurate and comprehensive real-time traffic data as their input. Various traffic detectors are commonly used all over the world, including sensors based on radar, magnetic, infrared, inductive, laser and video, AVI, VPS, and AVL. Even though these are proven and are widely accepted data collection technologies for traffic conditions, it is possible that they might not work for Indian traffic conditions due to various reasons such as inconsistency of vehicle types and the absence of lane discipline. It should be noted that for any data collection technique to be adopted in India, it must consider the heterogeneity of the users, the large number of pedestrians, the absence of lane-based traffic, and the synchronicity of Indian roads, which consists of two-, three-, four-, and multiple-wheel vehicles. Sometimes, even stray animals on the streets are to be considered.

Issues and Challenges in ITS Development in India The rapid growth of the Indian economy has resulted in an enormous increase in the use of personal vehicles. In 2007–08, alone, 9.6 million motorized vehicles were sold in India and, during the same period, the cumulative growth of the passenger vehicles segment in India was 12.7 % (Venajakshi, Ramadurai and Anand 2010). A World Bank study states that almost 600 million people will inhabit Indian cities, while only about twenty cities, with an overall population of about half a million, are expected to have an organized public transport system. It is expected that India will surpass China as the fastest growing car market within the next few years. The economy-induced automobile growth is coupled with extensive ruralto-urban migration, making the situation more critical and leading to a greater demand for transport infrastructure. In 2001, India had thirty-five cities with a population of more than one million, which has been increasing

10

Chapter 1.1

continuously, indicating a need for urgent attention towards the improvement and management of the transportation system through the application of ITS in Indian cities. Several small-scale ITS projects have already been introduced in various cities in India and a few are underway, but most of these are single-city pilot projects focused on isolated deployments. To date, there is no fully developed comprehensive ITS application in India. It shows that much more needs to be done towards the adoption and implementation of ITS projects in India. As per the study conducted by the World Bank, the deployment of ITS in the developing world (including India) faces some significant complications that must be addressed if ITS are to be widely applied. However, the lack of adequate research as well as concern for cost effectiveness are still global challenges (Krishnan, Winnie and Diehl 2015). The following are the core reasons behind the lack of ITS development in India: 1. Interoperability: In multi-agency projects, the various client agencies may not have any mandate to share data, and, even if exchanged, it may not conform to standardized formats. 2. Data analysis: Even when data systems are integrated and standardized, the capacity of agencies in developing countries, like India, is often challenged by the task of analyzing raw data, which yields useful results. 3. Documenting effectiveness: The relationship between ICT and transport benefits has not received enough systematic research. Some of the main issues facing the deployment of ITS in developing countries, like India, are an underdeveloped road network, explosive urbanization and growth, lack of resources for maintenance and operation, severe budget restrictions, less demand for automation, lack of interest among government decision makers, and lack of users’ awareness; a list is presented in table 1.1.2. There are some inherent challenges and threats present in the Indian transportation system that need to be addressed before making any further way for implementing ITS in urban areas (Grant Thornton 2016).

Overview and Challenges

Inadequate and inefficient public transport infrastructure Inadequate and insufficient public transport. Traffic and road congestion.

Transport emissions and air quality

11

Inadequately implemented ITS

Emission of greenhouse Inadequate setups for gases. electronic toll collection and traffic India is still following monitoring. BS IV as opposed to EURO 6, implemented Very few ITS and in European countries, multi-level parking which is equivalent to systems. BS VI. Table 1.1.2: Inherent Challenges Present in the Indian Transportation System Source: Authors’ compilation ITS have a very wide range of applications but in the Indian context the challenges of traffic sensing applications emerge as the priority. The ITS technique of traffic sensing can be broadly classified into two categories: 1. Fixed sensor-based techniques This technique uses various sensors that are mounted on the roadside infrastructure. These sensors are often referred to as roadside units (RSUs). The two main techniques under this are: Dual-loop detector-based congestion detection In this method, a pair of inductive loop detectors are used, which re-identify the vehicles based on their length. It measures the time taken by the reidentified vehicle to travel between two detectors, which, in turn, gives an estimate of the congestion present on the road section. This technique requires a large number of detectors to be installed along the road, resulting in extensive capital investment. Furthermore, the algorithm of these systems is often developed with the assumption that consecutive vehicles maintain a lane-based approach for a long distance, which becomes an unrealistic assumption in the Indian context, where over taking and random halting of public vehicles is a common scenario. Image sensor-based congestion detection This method uses image-processing techniques, based on the feeds from CCTV deployed, to measure the amount of congestion. The level of

Chapter 1.1

12

congestion is identified by the time duration taken for an image to change. With constant advancement in technologies, various deep learning algorithms are being implemented in this method to improve its effectiveness. Yet, there are challenges in terms of placement and distribution of cameras to capture the disorderly traffic on the Indian roads. 2. Probe vehicle-based techniques Probe vehicles refers to vehicles that are installed with various sensors, like GPS, accelerometer, gyroscope, etc., to measure traffic conditions, road situations, etc. It usually employs two methods: a predictive approach and a localization approach.

Techniques Dual-loop detector-based congestion detection Image sensorbased congestion detection Travel time prediction for freeways Cellphone-based travel time prediction Kalman filtering technique (KFT)based bus arrival time prediction

Installation cost

Lane system assumption

Freeway traffic assumption

Low variation in vehicle speed assumption

High

Yes

No

No

High

Yes

No

No

Low

No

Yes

Yes

Low

Yes

Partial

Yes

Low

Yes

No

Yes

Table 1.1.3: Reasons for the Inapplicability of Various ITS Techniques in the Indian Context Source: Sen et al. (2009) Table 1.1.3 is a tabulation for the reasons for the inapplicability of various ITS techniques in the Indian context. The traffic condition in India is highly uncertain, chaotic, and faces heavy congestion. The deployment of conventional ITS techniques, prevalent in developed nations, requires

Overview and Challenges

13

assumptions, such as uniform speed of vehicular traffic, presence of freeways, and lane-based vehicle movement, which do not hold true in Indian scenarios. Moreover, the fixed sensor technique requires huge investment in terms of installation and maintenance, due to which it cannot be deployed. Therefore, some of these techniques need to be modified and curated to match the characteristics of Indian roads. Historical trends of ITS in India show that the country is capable and has a high potential for the ITS market. Most of the ITS technologies in developed nations are successfully adopted, implemented, and functional; however, implementing these ultra-modern technologies in India is quite challenging. Some of the challenges are listed below: 1. Indian traffic conditions, such as heterogeneity in vehicle types and lack of lane discipline, are major obstacles in implementing any data collection technology for traffic conditions. 2. No single organization is in charge of transport infrastructure in urban or rural areas, because of this, there is an overlapping of responsibilities and an absence of coordination between the horizontal and vertical levels of authorities, or organizations, in transportation services management. This is one of the major reasons for the failure of transportation projects. 3. Vehicle ownership is still low, compared to other countries, even though it has been growing exponentially over the past few decades. The number of vehicles present on the streets of India is expected to outnumber those in China in a couple of years. 4. Public transit is completely lacking or overloaded in most of the cities; at the same time, new public transit projects are in progress in major cities, with weakly prepared designs, as per users’ needs and requirements. 5. There are no standards adopted for ITS in the Indian context; there is no single governmental organization that oversees ITS standards development. 6. There are a huge number of mobile phone users in India. More than one billion people use mobile phones, but the number of smartphone users and people with internet connectivity is too low. 7. There is a lack of well-defined policies, guidelines, and regulations on ITS, and procedural compliance on ground-level implementation of ITS projects is poor, at times. 8. Development of a nation-wide ITS data archive is, yet, incomplete. 9. ITS development in India is less likely to be successful than in other countries because of geographical, cultural, and practical differences,

14

Chapter 1.1

and the user characteristics and existing infrastructure make it infeasible to directly adopt ITS models of other countries. 10. The high cost of ITS safety systems is a major barrier for implementing them on a wide scale. However, there is an inherent resistance among a large section of the urban population for paying additional charges. Apart from these challenges in developing ITS in India, there are a few limitations for implementing ITS in the Indian scenario, like availability of inadequate real-time data, lack of dynamic traffic prediction models, improvised information strategies, ineffective utilization of network capacity, disjointed implementation, and lack of empathy for user needs and requirements. In the last few decades, efforts have been made for the engagement of ITS in various cities of India, as discussed earlier. The current scenario of ITS in India indicates that there is a need for a systematic approach to developing better quality ITS. The benefits of ITS can only be realized if the projects are fully developed and functional at a city- or network-level, and implemented on a larger scale; but not as pilot projects or small-scale projects or corridor/street-level projects. ITS developments hold a huge potential in many countries, including India. The steps that can help in overcoming the issues in ITS implementation in India can be the evolution of national ITS standards for various elements and application; formulation of single ITS regulatory authority to monitor, regulate, and document ongoing and upcoming ITS projects in India with detailed design and costbenefit aspects of the project; setting up fully functional traffic management centers; involving multiple stakeholders and interaction between academia, government agencies and industries for a better and more effective decisionmaking process and successful implementation of ITS; evolving a set of methodologies for automatic data collection techniques, while considering the characteristics of Indian users, roads and traffic patterns; developing a national ITS data archive; improving current infrastructure for successful functioning of ITS; developing models and algorithms suitable for ITS development and implementation. Advanced technologies can be procured from developed countries and can be customized to Indian needs. The need for the hour is the state support and stake-holder’s endorsement.

Overview and Challenges

15

References El Mokaddem, Y., F. Jawab and L. E. Saad. 2019. “Intelligent Transportations Systems: Review of Current Challenges and Success Factors: The Case of Developing Countries.” International Colloquium on Logistics and Supply Chain Management, LOGISTIQUA 2019, 12– 14. https://doi.org/10.1109/LOGISTIQUA.2019.8907308. Grant Thornton. 2016. Smart Transportation—Transforming Indian Cities. New Delhi: Exhibitions India Group and Grant Thornton. Krishnan, R., W. Winnie and A. Diehl. 2015. Advances and Challenges in Intelligent Transportation, The Evolution of ICT to address Transport Challenges in Developing Countries. World Bank Group. Rawal, T. 2015. “Intelligent Transportation Systems in India—A Review.” Journal of Development Management and Communication 2 (3). Sen, R., V. Sevani, P. Sharma, Z. Koradia and B. Raman. 2014. “Challenges In Communication Assisted Road Transportation Systems for Developing Regions.” Third ACM Workshop on Networked Systems for Developing Regions (NSDR’09), a Workshop in SOSP’09, Big Sky, Montana, USA, 11 Oct 2009 (May). Sengupta, Dibyendu. 2012. Intelligent Transport Systems in India. New Delhi, India: European Business and Technology Centre (EBTC). Venajakshi, L., G. Ramadurai and A. Anand. 2010. Intelligent Transportation System in India, Synthesis Report on ITS. IIT Madras, Department of Civil Engineering, Chennai: Centre of Excellence in Urban Transport, Transportation Engineering Division.

CHAPTER 1.2 PURPOSE OF ITS DEPLOYMENT

Introduction With rapid urbanization, transport infrastructure often fails to meet the evergrowing daily mobility demands and infrastructure development is not in pace with demand rise, especially in the large urban centers. Increasing land prices force citizens to move and reside in peripheral regions; for occupational reasons, citizens are compelled to commute to the commercial localities, which are in the city centers. The United Nations has projected that two thirds of the world’s population will be urbanized by 2050—or an increase of 2.5 billion in current urban communities. One in eight people currently live in one of the twenty-eight so-called mega-cities that hold over ten million inhabitants (ETSI). With an unprecedented growth in urban sprawl over the last two decades, the issues of road congestion, user safety, inefficient public transports systems, poor services, inadequate parking spaces, and increased environmental pollution have driven the urgent development of ITS and services. ITS combine various ICTs to optimize urban mobility by reducing the need for extensive investment in physical infrastructure, increasing user safety, enabling controlled flow of vehicular movement on the streets, mitigating congestion scenarios, and decreasing the demand for private vehicles in the cities. ITS are synonymous with sustainable mobility and transport systems as they eliminate the key challenges of information, management, and services in the transport sector, by providing secure, faster, convenient, efficient, and environmentally friendly solutions. ITS development is also a key feature of smart city development. Vehicles are an essential component of smart cities; smart cities should be able to sense objects and events in the environment and respond appropriately—they not only assist in vehicle traffic management but also represent a tool for capturing real-time, relevant information used in resource management (Meneguette, De Grande and Loureiro 2018). The United States of America, Japan and also European nations, which are in an advanced stage of ITS implementation, are more focused towards aspects of vehicle-centric safety and transport efficiency (like V2V or V2C technologies), while the priority of nations such as China and India is to

Purpose of ITS Deployment

17

leverage technology advancements to mitigate traffic congestion and enhance system efficiency. In this chapter, ITS deployment at the national level (China) and the regional level (Dallas, TX) is discussed in detail.

Benefits and Applications of ITS Transportation is a complicated service delivery process. The ITS applications are broadly based on three basic elements apart from numerous evolving algorithm and operation technologies. They are: 1. Data collection technologies: The performance of ITS are dependent on the amount of quality data that is generated. The data needs to be accurate and comprehensive. The key data collection technologies are either infrastructure-based, like CCTVs, sensors, inductive loops, etc., or probe-vehicle-based, like GPS, user cell, or other ICT equipment on board the vehicle. 2. Communication technologies: The collected data from different sources needs to be transferred and processed for an in-depth analysis, which is made possible, today, only because of advancements in technologies. Huge amount of data needs to be collected in a dynamic and real-time environment. Data storage requirements are large; processing and communication need to be very rapid and immediate. The communication methods differ in terms of requirement, price, and working process. With fast-paced development of ICT, the use of telephone lines for communication has become obsolete and is, to a great extent, replaced by advanced technologies like GPRS (2G, 3G) or 5G. One of the most preferred communication technologies that is widely popular in wireless communication among vehicles is vehicular ad hoc NETworks (VANETs). 3. Data storage and management system: The relay of huge amounts of real-time data needs to be stored together and processed and provided to the user almost in real-time. This data also needs to be stored to make predictions like the most congested time of the day on the road network, amount of daily traffic, etc.

Chapter 1.2

18

Table 1.2.1 shows the key requirements of a sustainable transport system and which ITS category and applications cater to those requirements. Requirement for sustainable transport

1.

Reliable transport system

ITS category Advanced Traveler Information System (ATIS)

Reduction in rate of accident occurrence 2. to ensure safety of vehicles, drivers and nearby pedestrians.

Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS)

To increase the 3. efficiency of traffic management

Advanced Transportation Management Systems (ATMS)

Economical public transport system and 4. efficient revenue collection and monitoring

ITS-Enabled Transportation Pricing Systems (ITSETPS)

Coordination and service operation 5. enhancement of public transport

Advanced Public Transportation System (APTS)

Specific ITS applications භ Real-time traffic information and route guidance system භ Navigation systems and rerouting assistance භ Roadside weather information systems භ Cooperative collision warning භ Slow vehicle indications භ Vision enhancement and automated vehicle operations භ Lane change messages, speed control, reverse parking assistance, and intersection collision warnings භ Traffic operations centers and traffic control භ Dynamic traffic signs භ Incident detection and traffic law enforcement භ Variable message signs භ Electronic toll collection භ Usage-based fee systems like Vehicle Miles Travelled (VMT) system භ Congestion pricing and fee based (HOT) lanes භ Variable Parking Fees භ Real-time status information for public transit system භ Automatic vehicle location භ Demand-responsive transport management and shared transport management භ On-trip public transport information and trip reservation, personal information

Purpose of ITS Deployment

Reduction in vehicle 6. accidents and fatality

Emergency Management System (EMC).

7. Smart systems

Advanced Vehicle Control Systems (AVCS) / Fully Integrated Intelligent Transportation (FIIT)

Enhanced operational 8. capabilities of commercial vehicles

9.

Connecting urban centers with suburbs

Commercial Vehicle Operations (CVO)

Advanced Rural Transportation System (ARTS)

භ Fatigue monitoring systems භ Overspeed warning systems, භ Automatic crisis response alert to authorities: eCall system භ Collision warning for vehicles, Intelligent Speed Adaptation, and other applications under Vehicleto-Infrastructure (V2I) and Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) integration භ Vehicle administrative process භ Automated roadside safety support භ On-board safety monitoring භ Commercial fleet management භ Automated diagnostic systems Provide information about connectivity options and remote road conditions and other safety enhancement information for the user

Table 1.2.1: Key requirements of a sustainable transport system Source: Author’s compilation Thus, ITS performance can be measured based on the following criteria: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

19

Enhanced mobility Reduced traffic congestion Environmental impact mitigation Reduced accident severity and fatality rate Transport infrastructure management Reliability and predictability of transport network Improved security Operational efficiency of user and operator

Chapter 1.2

20

ITS Development in China The development of ITS in China has a history of over thirty years. China started the research and development of ITS in 1980 with the Highway Toll Collection System. China established the National Engineering Technology Research Centre of ITS in 1999. National strategies in China, like the Tenth Five-Year Plan (2001–2005) and the Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2006–2010), focused on key ITS development, like the establishment of operation and management, integrated information service, dedicated short-range communication and standard specification intelligent traffic management, dynamic guidance technology, large-scale complicated traffic data integration access management technology, trans-regional networked electronic toll collection technology, and transport monitoring technology, etc. The Traffic Management Command and Control System, set up for the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games, and the Electronic Toll Collection System (ETC), in Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei Region, showcase that ITS development in China from 2006 to 2010 was focused on solving the key issues and aspects like agent-based and vision-based technologies; traffic modelling, control, and simulation; communication- and location-based services; and driving safety and assistance, etc. The ITS development in China is focused on the following aspects: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Active vehicle safety and intelligent vehicles Vehicle road network synergy Integrated traffic management and emergency systems Cooperative driving for platoons Intelligent transportation management

The presence of cloud computing technologies, wide coverage of wireless networks, huge market potential, and wide-scale trails, serving as research and advanced experimental platforms since 2001, have assisted China in achieving a sustained growth in the areas of intelligent vehicle, smart infrastructure, and driver behavior.

ITS Deployment in the Dallas Region Dallas is the fourth most populous metropolitan area, and a major city, of the US state of Texas. The city ranks ninth in the US and third in Texas in terms of population. As per the US Census 2010, the city had a population of 1,197,816. The city is the largest economic center of the twelve county DFW metroplex metropolitan areas. In 2014, the metropolitan economy

Purpose of ITS Deployment

21

surpassed Washington, DC, to become the fifth largest economy in the US and tenth largest economy in the world. Dallas is the largest inland metropolitan area in the US and lacks any navigable link to the sea. The construction of the interstate highway system strengthened Dallas’ eminence as a transportation hub, with four major interstate highways converging in the city and a fifth interstate loop around it. Dallas developed as a strong industrial and financial center, and a major inland port, due to the conjunction of major railroad lines, interstate highways, and the construction of Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport, one of the largest and busiest airports in the world. After successful completion of the interstate highway systems, the focus of the officials at the federal level has shifted from constructing new roadways to achieving more efficient use from the existing transportation system. The passing of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) gave a new direction to the approach for transportation development. It emphasized the integration of existing transportation systems with modern technology and methods to improve the regional transportation system. It provides funding for the state and local transportation authorities to begin developing and implementing ITS. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) has identified twenty-nine user services for potential implementation through state and local transportation agencies to achieve better utilization of the existing transportation network (see Exhibit 1.2.1 for the list of identified user services).

Background The ITS Plan for Dallas started long before the project was officially initiated. Two committees, the Transportation Management Team (TMT) and the Mobility Technical Committee (MTC), had been meeting, monthly, to address specific transportation problems, such as safety and operational problems, in the Dallas area. These two committees basically comprised of transportation professionals who had an interest in emerging ITS applications. A subcommittee with representatives from both the TMT and MTC groups was constituted for advanced research on ITS development and to explore additional funding possibilities to improve transport services in the Dallas region. Several cities already have centrally managed traffic signal management systems, but an area-wide approach had never been considered. In the early 70’s, a few small-scale and specific efforts had been tested and implemented

22

Chapter 1.2

in Dallas but, for various reasons like funding and reconstruction of major freeways, they were unable to develop large-scale, integrated regional ITS. So, when the opportunity for the FHWA’s early deployment ITS Planning funds came up, the ITS subcommittee moved quickly to develop a proposal for the Dallas area. This quick response from the subcommittee, regarding the development of ITS, reflected their vision for Dallas transportation system, and it showed that the planning for developing ITS was already initiated, even before the project was officially rolled out. For the purpose of developing area-wide ITS for Dallas, the planning area was taken to be Dallas County and the municipalities that directly touch the county to the north, south, and east of the county boundaries. The area comprises approximately 2,600 sq km with a population exceeding two million. There are nearly 500 km of freeways in the Dallas area-wide ITS plan area, with 200 km in Dallas and the remaining distributed among twenty-four other cities (See Exhibit 1.2.2 for the Dallas area-wide ITS development plan area). Complementing the ongoing ITS efforts in Dallas, the project-planning staff also established close contact with the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) personnel to coordinate their work in successful ITS implementation for the Dallas region. As the Fortworth urban area is in a different highway district, it was excluded from the project and a separate plan for transportation management centers was proposed for the Fortworth region; however, the two transportation management centers of Dallas and Fortworth will be interlinked.

Purpose of ITS Deployment in Dallas The transportation problems faced by Dallas were not very different from the problems that existed in other American cities. The Dallas area faces the transportation problems typical of a large urban area: traffic congestion and its associated problems of increased travel time, vehicle emission, environmental degradation, air pollution, fuel consumption, and the potential for traffic accidents are not unique to this area. Apart from these problems, lack of mobility, disconnects between transportation modes, budgetary constraints, and traffic fatalities were also some of the challenges that needed to be addressed. Traffic congestion was the biggest problem not only in Dallas but in the entire USA. The Texas Transportation Institute estimated that, in a single year, the nation wasted approximately 4.2 billion hours stuck in traffic and burned 2.8 billion gallons of gas. Public agencies have two choices while facing this dilemma of unmet needs: add more pavement or look for smarter

Purpose of ITS Deployment

23

alternatives that use existing systems more efficiently. It was realized that the region’s highways had reached their capacity, money and room for major expansion are hard to come by. ITS was undoubtedly the most viable solution for all these transportation problems to some extent, and the city of Dallas was ready for this transformation. Without undertaking any major construction projects, the Dallas area-wide ITS plan was determined to address those problems and to propose resources to mitigate them (Exhibit 1.2.3 shows the problems facing the Dallas area and the approaches to mitigate them). During the development stage of the proposal for the ITS plan project for the Dallas area, a steering committee representing Dallas County, area cities, TxDOT, and other transport-related public undertaking agencies was created to formulate the goals and objectives of the ITS plan for the Dallas area. Working with the steering committee, the following goals were established for the Dallas area: 1. Reduction of congestion caused by freeway accidents 2. Reduction of general congestion and the resultant delay, emissions, and fuel consumption 3. Deployment of seamless transportation systems 4. Promotion and support of multi-modal transportation and of high occupancy vehicles 5. Reduction of vehicle miles travelled The stated objectives, as defined in the proposal for the ITS plan project for Dallas area: 1. Set up a steering committee at the broader level, including representatives of the responsible transportation agencies in the Dallas area, as well as transportation-oriented business, whether goods movement, passenger or information services. 2. Assess the existing transportation management and communication linkages in the region and within the Dallas area and explore the potential of existing ITS technology to bring improvements to the Dallas transportation system, both short-term, and long-term. 3. Identify technical, physical, legal and institutional barriers to cooperation, communication, and coordination, and, accordingly, provide the recommendations to resolve them, which will facilitate the implementation of ITS.

Chapter 1.2

24

4. Formulate an implementable, integrated, area-wide, multi-modal, multi-jurisdictional ITS Plan for Dallas under the guidance of the steering committee, including the private sector as a partner and facilitator of the development process, and maintain sufficient flexibility to incorporate emerging trends and technologies in the development plan. 5. Identify projects for implementation, prepare methodology and proposals, refine costs, and identify private and public funding mechanisms and sources. 6. Define criteria for project evaluation, cost-benefit analysis of the project, priority areas, and implementation plans at each stage.

Existing Dallas Area-Wide ITS Deployment 1. Traffic Signal Systems There are around 2,200 signal locations within the Dallas planning area, out of which 55 % are in the city of Dallas. TxDOT primarily maintains and operates approximately 210 signals in smaller cities. Approximately 75 % of the existing traffic signals in the area are in coordinated subsystems. Signal management by the central system is only possible at approximately 45 % of the signals in the area. The cities of Richardson, Plano, Garland, Farmers Branch, Irving, Carrollton, and Addison have closed-loop systems with central control by a personal computer, and Dallas has a central computer system. 2. Closed-Circuit Television Monitoring Presently, only three cities (Richardson, Plano, and Garland) have the capability to monitor traffic with closed-circuit television, via their community access television (CATV) system, which is basically a cable television. A few more cities, like Carrollton, Mesquite, Dallas, Farmers Branch, and Grand Prairie, have committed funding to install surveillance cameras in the coming future. TxDOT has cameras planned for installation at fourteen locations on the US 75 (North Central Expressway) to be installed, as part of the US 75 reconstruction, and at ten to twelve locations on the IH 635 north, as part of the High Occupancy Vehicle Lane construction.

Purpose of ITS Deployment

25

3. Courtesy Patrols / Mobility Assistance Patrols Monday through Friday, from 6:00 AM to 10:00 PM, five patrol vehicles on freeways, countywide, are presently being operated by TxDOT. In addition, two patrol vehicles on freeways, countywide, on weekends from 4:00 PM to midnight, are also operated by TxDOT. 4. Changeable Message Signs Twenty-six changeable message signs (CMS) on freeways, or on major streets approaching freeways, are currently operated by TxDOT. Out of these twenty-six CMS, thirteen are permanent and the rest are all portable signs provided by the US 75 construction contractors. 5. Control Centers TxDOT’s Dallas District Headquarters, in Mesquite, controls the CMS. Control center hardware, including CCTV monitors and controls, will be installed in a transportation management satellite building, near the interchange of US 75 and IH 635, with CCTV and other equipment being installed. The Dallas Area Traffic Management Centre (DATMC) for all freeway corridors is to be installed and operated at a central site. Cities with the traffic signal management system will establish a communication link with TxDOT’s transportation management satellite and, ultimately, TxDOT’s DATMC.

26

Chapter 1.2

Exhibit 1.2.1: ITS User Services; Source: Author’s compilation Type of Service Public Transportation Management

Travel and Traffic Management

Electronic Payment

Commercial Vehicle Operations

Emergency Management

Advanced Vehicle Safety Systems

Individual User Services Public Transportation Management En-Route Transit Information Personalized Public Transit Public Travel Security Pre-Trip Travel Information En-Route Driver Information Route Guidance Ride Matching and Reservation Traveler Services Information Traffic Control Incident Management Travel Demand Management Emissions Testing and Mitigation Electronic Payment Services Commercial Vehicle Electronic Clearance Automated Roadside Safety Inspections On-Board Safety Monitoring Commercial Vehicle Administrative Processes Hazardous Materials Incident Notification Commercial Fleet Management Emergency Notification and Personal Security Emergency Vehicle Management Longitudinal Collision Avoidance Lateral Collision Avoidance Intersection Collision Avoidance Vision Enhancement for Crash Avoidance Safety Readiness Pre-Crash Restraint Deployment Automated Vehicle Operations

Purpose of ITS Deployment

Exhibit 1.2.2 Dallas Area-Wide ITS Plan Area

27

Chapter 1.2

2. Traffic accidents, injuries, and fatalities

1. Traffic congestion

Problem

භ Improve safety

භ Reduce demand

capacity (vehicular throughput) භ Increase passenger throughput

භ Increase roadway

Solution

(increase radius of curvature, widen lanes, etc.) භ Remove road obstacles to improve sight distances භ Traffic signals, protected lefthand turns at intersections භ Fewer at-grade crossings භ Driver training භ Sobriety check points භ Lighten dark roads to improve visibility / better lighting භ Reduce speed limits and post warnings in areas prone to adverse conditions

භ HOV lanes—Car pooling භ Fixed-route transit භ Flex-time programs භ Improve roadway geometry

භ New roads භ New lanes

Conventional Approach

Exhibit 1.2.3: Dallas Area Transportation Problems and User Service Solutions

28

personal security

භ Emergency vehicle management භ Incident management

භ Emergency notification and

භ En-route transit information භ Public travel security භ Travel demand management

භ Traffic control භ Incident management

ITS User Services

6. Vehicle-based air pollution and fuel consumption

4. Disconnected transportation modes 5. Transportation following emergencies

3. Lack of mobility and accessibility

transportation system efficiency, reduce travel and fuel consumption

භ Increase in vehicles

භ Regulations

භ More efficient conventional

emergency plans

භ Review and improve existing

භ Improve disaster

response plans

භ Static inter-agency agreements

paratransit services භ Radio and TV traffic reports

භ Expand fixed-route transit and

භ Improve intermodally

access to quality transportation services

භ Provide user-friendly

Purpose of ITS Deployment

භ Incident management

notification

භ Hazardous material incident

භ Pre-trip travel information භ En-route transit information

භ Pre-trip travel information භ En-route transit information භ Public transportation management

29

30

Chapter 1.2

References Carvell, J. D., E. J. Seymour, C. H. Walters and T. R. Starr. 1996. Dallas Area-wide Intelligent Transportation System. Texas: Texas Transportation Institute. Ory, D. T., W. R. Stockton and C. M. Walton. 2000. ITS IN TEXAS: DEPLOYMENT SUMMARY AND CASE STUDY OF DEPLOYMENT METHODOLOGIES. Texas: Texas Department of Transportation. Seymour, E., et al. 2014. TXDOT ITS STRATEGIC PLAN 2013. Texas: Texas A & M Transportation Institute. Meneguette, R., E. De Grande and A. F. Loureiro. 2018. Intelligent Transport System in Smart Cities. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-93332-0.

CHAPTER 1.3 DETERMINANTS OF ITS

“The history of ITS was greatly influenced by specific champions who pushed the branding of ITS and created a much-needed consciousness of what ITS can do.” —Scott McCormick, President of the Connected Vehicle Trade Association

Introduction The increasing mobility and safety challenges in the US transportation system have become a big concern for the agencies managing the transportation system. According to a recent study, it has been estimated that the cost of traffic congestion in US cities for 2005 was $78 billion, with 4.2 billion hours of delay and 2.9 billion gallons of fuel wasted (Shrank, David and Lomax 2007). During the same year, there were 5.4 million crashes and fatalities on US highways increased to 43,443 (FHWA Safety 2007). In 2006, the public transportation systems provided 10.1 billion trips, the highest in forty-nine years (American Public Transportation Association n.d.). Freight volume on US highways is expected to increase to 22.8 billion tons by 2035, up from 11.5 billion tons in 2002 (US DOT 2006). In most of the US cities, financial resources available to fund all the transportation projects that are needed to improve the transportation system are insufficient. The states are not capable of providing enough fund to these projects. Apart from the funding constraints, there has been a growing concern towards the negative impacts associated with the construction and use of the transportation system. This has led to efforts by the government and transportation agencies to find alternative mobility solutions that are environmentally sustainable and economically feasible, resulting in developing strategies for the efficient utilization of the existing transportation systems. Over the past few decades, technological advancement and growth of information and communication technology have redefined the approach to improve urban transportation systems. Integration of advanced technologies

32

Chapter 1.3

in both the existing transportation infrastructure and in vehicles has been one of the most important and successful strategies for improving the efficiency and safety of the existing transportation system. The US has developed a national architecture that provides guidance, to states willing to implement an ITS, of what functions and communications technologies are necessary to be compatible with other such systems. Despite all the efforts made by the government, public agencies, and private companies, the US still lags in developing and deploying nationwide, efficient ITS. In this chapter, the determinants that shaped the development of ITS in the US and why it lags among the global leaders in ITS deployment, despite being the most powerful nation in the world, are discussed.

Why ITS? ITS improve transportation mobility and safety, enhance productivity, and reduce negative environmental impact through the integration of advanced technologies into the existing transportation system’s infrastructure and the vehicles themselves (ITS Overview). ITS are basically sets of tools that facilitate connected, integrated, and automated transportation systems that are information-intensive for better customer centricity and better responsiveness to the needs of users and operators. They provide a proven set of strategies for addressing the existing challenges of transportation systems, while accommodating the growth in transit ridership and freight movement. The transportation problems faced by cities in the US—like traffic congestion and its associated problems of increased travel time, vehicle emission, environmental degradation, air pollution, fuel consumption, and the potential for traffic accidents—are similar to the problems existing in other cities of developed nations. Apart from these problems, lack of mobility, disconnects between transportation modes, budgetary constraints, and traffic fatalities are also some of the challenges that need to be considered. Traffic congestion was the biggest problem in the US. The Texas Transportation Institute estimated that, in a single year, the nation wasted 4.2 billion manhours and burned 2.8 billion gallons of gas, while getting stuck in traffic. The government, public agencies, and private investors have two choices while facing this dilemma of unmet needs: add more pavements or look for smarter alternatives that use existing systems more efficiently. It was realized that in most of the urban areas, highways had reached their capacity for major expansion. While many thought that improving

Determinants of ITS

33

transportation systems solely meant repairing aging infrastructure or building new roads, the future of transportation lies not only in these efforts, but also in the deployment of ITS technologies. ITS are perceived as the most suitable solution in the US for all these transportation problems, and the government of the US was determined to improve transportation services.

Determinants of ITS: The US Developing and deploying ITS faces a range of challenges, including system interdependency, funding, scale, network effect, institutional, political, and other challenges. Some challenges are inherent in all countries, others are specific challenges in the context of the US. Despite being the most powerful nation in the world, the US lags behind global leaders—particularly Japan, Singapore, and South Korea—in ITS deployment, in terms of real-time traffic information by transportation agencies, progress on vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vehicle to vehicle (V2V) integration, adoption of computerized traffic signals, and maximizing the effectiveness of its already installed system. This has been mainly because of two key factors that prevailed in the context of the US: a continued lack of adequate funding for ITS and lack of the right organizational system to drive ITS, particularly the lack of a federally led approach. For developing and deploying ITS, every state has its own approach that has prevailed to date. Implementation of ITS in the US varies enormously by state and region, thus, tending to be irregular, isolated, incremental, and not connected to a nationally integrated ITS. In the specific context of the US, a few of the major determinants that shaped the present state of the ITS environment are listed: 1.

Socioeconomic Environment

The early 2000’s recession caused a decline in economic activity, mainly in developed countries. The recession affected the US to a large extent, which shifted the focus to making the most efficient use of the highway system and vehicle fleet. During the same period, advancement in communication and information technology systems and applications was happening at a rapid rate. All these factors, ultimately, led to innovative research initiatives and an explosion of new transportation apps with improved geographic location and mapping systems, in the form of user-friendly mobile and invehicle user interfaces. Primarily, ITS applications were considered in the context of automated purposes and connected vehicles (CVs).

34

2.

Chapter 1.3

Funding, Procurement and Partnership

Financial resources available to fund all the transportation projects are limited. The states are not capable of allocating enough funds to these transportation projects. Considering today’s volatile economy, the capability of an agency to sufficiently fund projects is a dichotomy. Changes in existing process may be viable or new methods or improvements might need to be considered to deliver timelier and quicker ITS deployment when there is a projected technological and cost-effective advantage. With respect to how agencies can manage ITS funds and budgets prudently, a survey of ITS deployment by the Research and Innovative Technology Administration was conducted in 2010; it indicated that many states still maintain separate budgets for ITS deployments and related costs (see Exhibit 1.3.1 for budget trends in the US). Apart from public-sector funding, the ITS development in the US has attracted many private investors and companies. In most of the states, ITS is being developed on the public-private partnership (PPP) model and technical support is provided by private companies. 3.

ITS Policy Development in the US

There are various transportation legislation bills in the US (see Exhibit 1.3.2 for a list of transportation legislation funding bills prevailing in the US). Back in the day, federal activity regarding ITS began with the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) of 1991. This act established a federal program to research, develop, and operationally test ITS and promote their implementation. ISTEA originally authorized $659 million to ITS for the fiscal years 1992 to 1997 (US Department of Transportation, Research and Innovative Technology Administration, “The Federal ITS Program Mission”). After that, the Transportation Efficiency Act for the twenty-first century (TEA-21), passed in 1998, authorized a similar amount ($1.3 billion) through the 2003 fiscal year. Again, in 2005, Congress enacted the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU). It ended the ITS deployment program at the close of the 2005 fiscal year but continued ITS research at $110 million annually through to the 2009 fiscal year. Since ending the ITS deployment program, the federal ITS effort has been much more focused on research than on a deployment role. The US Department of Transportation estimates that states and localities annually invest $500 million to $1 billion in ITS projects in the US (USDOT 2006).

Determinants of ITS

35

The ITS Management Council (a corporate style board of directors) develops and directs federal ITS policy. As of May 2006, the Research and Innovative Technology Administration (RITA), within the USDOT, took responsibility for the strategic direction and management oversight of the DOT’s ITS program. Activity is coordinated through the ITS Joint Program Office (JPO), which is comprised of program managers and coordinators of DOT’s multi-modal ITS initiatives. The focus of the USDOT’s ITS program is on intelligent infrastructure, intelligent vehicles, and the creation of ITS through integration with and between these two components. The federal ITS effort focuses on Cooperative Intersection Collision Avoidance, Integrated Vehicle based Safety Systems, Integrated Corridor Management Systems, Clarus (roadside weather condition monitoring), Emergency Transportation Operations, Mobility Services for all Americans, and Electronic Freight Management. On July 6, 2012, President Obama signed MAP-21 into law. It funded surface transportation programs at over $105 billion for fiscal years 2013 and 2014. MAP-21 continued support for the ITS program by restoring the ITS research budget to $100 million per year and establishing a Technology and Innovation Deployment Program for $62.5 million per year. MAP-21 changed the focus of ITS activities by directing the Secretary of Transportation to encourage the deployment of ITS technologies that will improve the performance of the national highway system. 4.

Provision of Real-time Traffic Information

The US notably trails other world leaders in the provision of publicly available, real-time traffic information to citizens (see Exhibit 1.3.3 for the percentage of metropolitan areas in the US disseminating real-time information to the public). In 2005, after realizing that real-time traffic information can be used to improve traffic flow and congestion, Congress enacted a legislation requiring the USDOT to establish the Real-time System Management Information Program to provide states the capability to monitor traffic and travel conditions on major highways, and share that information. The Federal Highway Administration issued a rule proposing requirements for states to make certain traffic information available, specifically travel speed, travel time, and incident notification, on major highways, maintaining the data quality standards, including standards for timeliness, accuracy, and availability of that traffic information.

36

5.

Chapter 1.3

Vehicle Infrastructure Integration in the US

Over the past fifteen years, a primary focus of US ITS policy has been an initiative initially called Vehicle Infrastructure Integration (VII). The objective of the VII initiative was to deploy and enable a communications infrastructure that supports V2I, as well as V2V, communications for a variety of vehicle safety applications and transportation operations (Intelligent Transportation Society of America). At the end of 2007, the USDOT announced the VII program would undergo a full reassessment. The DOT opened every aspect of the VII program—from providers, technologies, and wireless communications methods to business models and public-private partnerships—to re-evaluate it and implement it more effectively at a broader level. 6.

Research and Technological Advancement

The CV safety pilot model deployment occurred from 2012 to 2013. It was the largest real-world test of CV technology to date, with over 2,700 participating vehicles using wireless safety technology. After analyzing data from the pilot program, the US implemented V2V technology across the nation. A major success in the world of CVs occurred in 2015, when the USDOT announced the selection of three CV deployment sites as participants in the CV pilot development program. In August 2010, Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) launched the Active Traffic and Demand Management (ATDM) system to reduce collisions associated with congestion and blocked lanes. The USDOT’s Application for the Environment: Real-time Information System (AERIS) research program develops advanced vehicle applications that reduce transportation’s impact on the environment. It employs a multi-modal approach and encourages the development of technologies and applications that reduce fuel use and resulting emissions. There is also an emerging trend for private companies to invest in automation. In the race to automation, traditional automobile companies are joined by tech giants like Google and Apple. The Apple iGo car sharing service concept is one of the most successful examples. Google’s self-driving car project is another widely known initiative in the automated vehicle space.

Absence of Nationwide Integrated ITS The US has pockets of regions with strong ITS applications, including the use of variable rate highway tolling, electronic toll collection, certain advanced traffic management systems, such as ramp metering, and an active

Determinants of ITS

37

private sector market in telematics and travel information provision. There are many factors that are responsible for the efficient development and deployment of ITS in the US. Despite being the most powerful nation in the world, the US still lags behind the global leaders in terms of ITS because of financial, technical, and institutional constraints. Some major reasons are listed below. 1. There is a huge lack of coordination between different public transportation agencies and jurisdictions, because of which there is no proper sharing of resources and the roles of individual agencies are being threatened. 2. There is a lack of financial resources to fund all the transportation projects, mainly due to economic considerations and lobbying by vested interest groups. 3. Every state has its own approach to developing and deploying ITS, because of which there is no successful implementation of integrated ITS nationwide. 4. US still lags behind global ITS leaders in terms of technological advancement. The US needs to buy the advanced technologies used in ITS from other countries. 5. The organizational structure for ITS development and deployment is not clearly defined. 6. There is a need to develop ITS stakeholder policies to ensure efficiency, consistency, and interoperability in deploying integrated systems. 7. Operations management programs, as well as maintenance programs, are ineffective and inadequate in ITS deployment. 8. There is no formal data-sharing policy and data archiving systems are inadequate among traffic managers. 9. There is no proper consideration of PPP-based unique financing methods as ways to cover costs for transportation projects. 10. There is no rigorous testing prior to deployment of an ITS project, which results in the needs of the users and customers not being met. 11. There is an exclusion of the rural environment from ITS development planning and a lack of utilization of national ITS architecture. 12. There is a lack of public participation in the planning process.

38

Chapter 1.3

Conclusion Every country has unique problems and challenges in transportation systems management and some of them are common across countries, but many issues are local and specific to each country. Over the past few years, deploying ITS is an emerging trend worldwide and is a proven solution to address several transportation problems. ITS in the US are, certainly, not too successful, but are a good demonstration of systemic development and of how an ITS environment is designed and planned. Transportation problems prevailing in the US are not very different from other developed countries. Like the rest of the developed nations, the US also chose to develop ITS to find a solution, to its existing transportation systems, that could be environmentally and economically sustainable. Despite having the national architecture for ITS, the US has not been able to develop advanced, integrated nationwide ITS. There is no coordination between state transportation agencies, every state has its own problem and its own approach to develop and deploy ITS. At the apex level, there is no exclusive policy or act regulating the development of ITS; responsibilities of agencies regarding ITS deployment are not clearly defined. Lack of funding for transportation projects is also one of the major reasons that ITS have not been implemented at the desired and required scale. The US still lags behind Japan, Singapore, and South Korea in terms of technological advancement in ITS. As the US is moving towards a more intelligent and connected transportation system, it is important to reflect on the history of the field, adopt best practices, identify trends and their historical implications, and benchmark both the positive and negative outcomes of the evolving status of ITS.

Determinants of ITS

39

Exhibit 1.3.1 Number of Various Agencies and Their Budget Trends for ITS Components as of 2010 ITS Funding and Budget Practices

Freeway Management Agencies

Toll Collection Agencies

Transportation Management Centers

Arterial Management Agencies

Transit Management Agencies

Separate budget for ITS

83

39

134

76

26

Track budget separately for ITS deployments

59

30

88

46

18

74

23

98

45

13

64

29

87

56

2

Track budget separately for ITS operations and maintenance Track budget separately for traffic management or operations center

Source: Research and Innovative Technology Administration (RITA), US

40

Chapter 1.3

Exhibit 1.3.2 Showing Key Transportation Legislation Funding Bills

Source: US Department of Transportation

Determinants of ITS

41

Exhibit 1.3.3 Percentage of metropolitan areas in which incident, travel time, and travel speed information were disseminated to the US public in 2007 Type of Information

Freeways

Arterial Roads

Incident

87%

68%

Travel Time

36%

19%

Travel Speed

32%

16%

References American Public Transportation Association. n.d. Public Transportation Ridership Statistics. Auer, A., S. Feese and S. Lockwood. 2016. HISTORY OF INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM. Washington, DC: US Department of Transportation, Intelligent Transportation Systems Joint Program Office. Barbaresso, J., G. Cordahi, D. Garcia, C. Hill and K. Wright. 2014. USDOT’s Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) ITS Strategic Plan 2015-2019. Washington, DC: US Department of Transportation, Intelligent Transportation Systems, Joint Program Office. Ezell, S. 2010. Explaining International IT Application Leadership: Intelligent Transportation Systems. The Informatition Technology & Innovatition Foundatition. Maccubin, R. P., B. L. Staples, F. Kabir, C. F. Lowrence, M. R. Mercer, B. H. Philips and S. R. Gordon. 2008. Intelligent Transportation Systems Benefits, Costs, Deployment, and Lessons Learned. Washington, DC: US Department of Transportation. Schrank, David, and T. Lomax. 2007. Urban Mobility Report. Texas: Texas A & M University, Texas Transportation Institute. US DOT Federal Highway Administration, Office of Safety. 2007. FHWA Safety. US DOT Federal Highway Administration, Freight Management and Operations. 2006. Freight Facts and Figures 2006. US DOT, ITS Joint Program Office. n.d. ITS Overview.

MODULE 2 ANATOMY AND FRAMEWORK OF DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 2.1 ROLE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Introduction In the twenty-first century, information and communication technology (ICT) is rapidly evolving and playing a huge role in our everyday lives. Now, it is globally accepted that ICT can be a great tool for development. It can improve economic opportunities, governance, delivery of services, and benefit social change. The low costs and high functionality of ICT systems have a deep effect in increasing the population of internet users and nurturing the growth of e-commerce. In the transportation field, the use of ICT is crucial in the quest to achieve a sustainable urban transport. With advancement in ICT, the popularity of smart mobile devices, and developments in cloud technology have increased public demands for real-time traffic information updates, transport-related internet and mobile applications, and integrated transportation data. ICT is a great influencer in people’s mobility and travel choices as well as travel experience. ICT-based monitoring infrastructure is a major player for traffic management and traveler information services. The primary goal of ICT in the transport sector is to use all available data to depict an accurate picture of the live traffic situation, especially congestion. Broadly, connected ICT infrastructure consists of three dimensions: i) systems for collection of data such as monitoring and positioning systems, ii) systems and protocols for communicating data (e.g., between traffic control centers and to and from vehicles), and iii) quality of the data such as accuracy and timeliness. ICT infrastructure is a prerequisite for the deployment of Intelligent Transport Systems’ (ITS) services, providing relevant and high-quality data from systems that monitor the road’s status. ITS integrate functions with the ICT industries to make transportation services more convenient, safe, and efficient. ITS—like car navigation systems and vehicle information and communication systems (VICS), which provide drivers with traffic information—have begun to find their way into private vehicles. In

Role of Information and Communication Technology

45

commercial vehicles, it is now easy to track the location, as well as the condition, of vehicles and freight and to apply such information to optimize travel routes and freight arrival times. In addition, there is a great potential for the use of electronic tags (RFID) and Dedicated Short Range Communication (DSRC) systems, such as the ETC system used to collect highway tolls, and the integrated fair mechanism and parking fees collection.

Taipei Smart City Taipei is the capital city and a special municipality of Taiwan, officially known as the Republic of China (ROC). Taipei is the economic, political, educational, and cultural center of Taiwan, and one of the major hubs of the Chinese-speaking world. Considered to be a global city, Taipei is a part of a major high-tech industrial area; railways, high speed rails, highways, airports, and bus lines connect Taipei with all parts of the island. Taipei is one of the smartest cities in the world. The government of Taipei city is determined to provide a convenient mobility service to its citizens. They released a comprehensive long-term plan for city development, as seen in metropolises like Seoul, Tokyo, London, and Amsterdam. Today, Taipei’s service innovations have established it as one of the smartest cities in the world. Several services use various ICT to make the citizens mobility comfortable, safe, and sustainable. Taipei has installed various ICT-based programs, such as triple play in telecommunication to enhance municipal cloud services, an intelligent traffic system, and a public safety program. Public transport systems account for a substantial portion of different transport modes in Taipei city. Taipei Station serves as the comprehensive hub for the subway, bus, conventional rail, and high-speed rail. A contactless smartcard (Easy Card) can be used for all modes of public transit as well as several retail outlets. The Easy Card is read via proximity sensory panels on buses and in MRT stations.

Role of ICT in Development of Taipei ITS The idea of smarter transport systems in Taipei is not something new; ITS are globally recognized to improve urban transportation systems by integrating smart technologies. ITS typically integrate communications, sensing, traffic management, information technology, and control, thereby,

46

Chapter 2.1

improving coordination between different transportation systems and enhancing safety, efficiency, and passenger comfort. The major functions of the complete ITS in Taipei include i) the traffic surveillance and information center, ii) the transportation system’s vision system, iii) intelligent traveler and information and safety assistance, iv) audio machine interface, v) intelligent vehicle control and safety assistance, vi) advanced communication network, vii) automated smart car driving, viii) intervehicle video conference, and ix) smart agent-based travel information. There are various ICT components in Taipei ITS (see Exhibit 2.1.1 for components and mechanism of ICT in service innovation). Using these ICT components, for an ICT-enabled service innovation in a smart city area, the following are achieved. 1. Ubiquitous Deployment It is a mechanism that contains basic ICT components. The government of Taipei has deployed a city-wide ICT-based mechanism. Free Wi-Fi, monitoring cameras, smart payment using Easy Card, self-service stations for rental bikes, MRTS, RFID tags, and readers for security, in addition to the manual keys, are implemented throughout the whole city. 2. On-time Resource Control This ICT-based mechanism ensures that all resources in the smart city work reliably and on time. This mechanism enables citizens to have better decision making and better mobility planning for an easy, safe, and comfortable commuter experience. The system manages by tracking road conditions, number of vehicles, and estimated mileage. Real-time data collection and analytics are employed for dynamic estimation of real-time scenarios, and to propose changes in road conditions, to enhance customer experience. 3. Data Value Development Data value development deals with the design and development of complementary applications to support smart city management. It allows developers in the smart city to open data access of all ITS-related data, and also to allocate application program interfaces (APIs) for developers.

Role of Information and Communication Technology

47

4. Behavioral Pattern The concept of smart city is a dynamic process—once the city becomes smart it then focuses on becoming smarter by using ICT components appropriately. A smart city can never cease to upgrade their services. Understanding behavioral patterns of users plays a key role in understanding the system and helps in further development or improvement of services. The city of Taipei also focused on the same details. By analyzing the citizens’ travel patterns and usage of services, improving the quality of services became much easier. 5. Navigation Control The objective of this mechanism is to control all kinds of vehicles, including public transport and commercial vehicles. To fall under the category of smart city, it is important to use technologies like digital maps and GPS to analyze real-time traffic volume for reducing congestion. Undoubtedly, congestion is one of the major problems and a common issue in a densely populated city like Taipei. The city has already deployed GPS in all the public transport vehicles with automatic announcement of the approaching stations. The system relates to alert system using LED text displays. The city also has an advanced vehicle control and safety system (AVCSS), such as the anti-collision warning system, which has been installed in all the public transport, personal, and commercial vehicles. Also, they have audio signals at every intersection, and they recently developed a vulnerable individual protection service (VIPS) system with separate bike and pedestrian lanes. 6. Information Center The information center is one of the most important components of any smart city, and Taipei has a well-networked and high-technology information center: through several internet-based media, such as websites, mobile applications, social media accounts, social media platforms and cloud storages, real-time information is communicated to all stakeholders. 7. Service Monitoring In order to maintain the quality of services, sustainable monitoring becomes very important. By using real-time information systems and other ICTbased systems, Taipei monitors all services to ensure the quality of services and to make continuous improvements. YouBike is a mass transportation service in Taipei that uses back-end management to properly run the service.

48

Chapter 2.1

8. Management Control Management control generally refers to the mechanism that monitors and controls the transportation systems. It allows the city to maintain the quality of public transportation services and makes it more stable and efficient. This mechanism also makes it feasible for upgradation. To address transportrelated issues, environmental impacts and pollution, the city promoted the use of bicycles and non-motorized transportation. An integrated ICT has been established in the city of Taipei by coupling bicycle manufacturers, system platform operators, and logistics and maintenance providers; 24/7 rental stations have been set up throughout the city. To make this initiative successful and get public endorsement, user registration and rental procedures have been simplified, and a smart bicycle management system has been set up through back-end cloud computing.

Conclusion Advancement in ICTs has an enormous influence on today’s transportation systems. The transportation systems around which the modern world has been built are on the verge of an extraordinary transformation based on recent advancement in ICT and other technologies; this may save billions of dollars by facilitating far better utilization of existing transportation infrastructure. Governments need to assume an active leadership role to deploy such emerging technologies. Smart cities of the future will only be those that embrace and integrate ITS in their existing systems. As depicted through the case of Taipei city, an ICT-based interconnected and integrated mechanism is important for developing ITS in any city. ICT acts as the backbone and heart of ITS; it provides a supporting environment to develop ITS. It is representing an emerging infrastructure platform—making driving and traffic management better and safer for everyone—from which a whole host of new products and services are likely to emerge, many of which can barely be imagined today.

References Alamsyah, N., T.-C. Chou, T. D. Susanto. 2016. “ICT-MECHANISMS OF INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM IN TAIPEI CITY AS A SMART CITY.” International Journal of Computer Science & Information Technology (IJCSIT) 8 (3). doi:10.5121/ijcsit.2016.8305 Executive Yuan, R.O.C. (Taiwan). 2017. Government Plans to Develop Intelligent Transportation Systems.

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http://english.ey.gov.tw/News_Hot_Topic.aspx?n=4635A87F2197A89 5&sms=3E25961B493A668D. YOSHIMOTO, R., and T. NEMOTO. 2005. “THE IMPACT OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY ON ROAD FREIGHT TRANSPORTATION.” THE COMPUTERIZATION OF TRANSPORTATION 29 (1). Exhibit 2.1.1: Components and Mechanisms in Service Innovation ICT Components Internet connection, ubiquitous Wi-Fi, wireless communication, cameras, vehicle sensors, self-service station, smart payment cards, RFID tags, and RFID readers. Traffic behavior statistical analysis, district closed-circuit television cameras (CCTV) systems, monitoring of specific road sections, and analysis of commuting time. Open data and API for developers. Data mining, data visualization, and GPS data traces of human movement. Digital maps, GPSs, and real-time traffic analysis.

ICT-Enabled Mechanism

Service Innovation

Ubiquitous Deployment Service Development

On-time Resource Control

Data Value Development Behavioral Pattern Navigation Control

Service Integration

50

Cloud guide system, official website, social media, and mobile apps. Real-time information system, voice-call service, and back-end management.

Chapter 2.1

Information Center

Service Monitoring

Control center, Management Control logistics, and maintenance management. Source: Alamsyah, Chou and Susanto (2016)

Supportive Service Innovation

CHAPTER 2.2 BIG DATA PROCESSING AND STORAGE

Introduction Processed data in the digital age is termed as “information.” With largescale digitization of our everyday activities and ICT advancements, the amount of transportation and mobility data generated by human activities is far more than the storage capacity and computational ability of systems to process it on a real-time basis. The high penetration of smartphones, sensors, and the internet has resulted in massive amounts of data generation. Smart transport infrastructure systems generate and acquire huge quantities of real-time data from different sources like road sensors, cameras, GPS, mobile, radio frequency identification readers (RFID), etc., to be processed, stored, managed, interpreted, aggregated, and analyzed to enhance user experience and assist transport service providers in the decision-making process. This huge amount of structured and unstructured data sets generated from various sources poses great challenges in processing using traditional data processing tools; owing to their huge volume and complexity, such data is termed as big data. As the ITS produces highvolume, -velocity, -value, -variety, and -veracity data, storing, processing, and visualizing it has become a key challenge in ITS development. Due to issues like data inconsistency, redundant and obsolete data, harmonizing large volumes of data coming from multiple sources makes data processing a difficult task. Every component in ITS behaves like a data provider and consumer. Current levels of ITS deployments have limited functionality in terms of data monitoring and analysis. There is a requirement to develop innovative applications and processes to collect, clean, interpret, process and transform these real-time data into information to better support decision making and efficiency in transport systems. Traditional data retrieval and management techniques like SQL and other technologies like Hadoop and MapReduce are further developed as NoSQL-distributed processing models. Moreover, predictive analysis techniques are a compounding factor in big data analysis, so as to assist data collection, pattern deduction, processing, and analysis to make useful interpretations in addressing and resolving transportation issues. From a transportation

52

Chapter 2.2

perspective, big data handling not only provides solutions to resolve conventional challenges, such as traffic congestion, increased accident risks, etc., but also provides an opportunity to develop a safer, cleaner and more efficient transport. Traffic management is one of the scenarios where data has played a crucial role, even before the introduction of the big data concept. The increased spatial-temporal resolution of traffic data due to advanced computational processes and big data technologies has resulted in better traffic management than with traditional systems. IOT, cloud computing and big data have become the key technological components of data-intensive services and applications in ITS, and the interdependency is illustrated in Figure 2.2.1.

Figure 2.2.1: Big data, IoT and Cloud Computing Source: Torre-Bastida et al. (2018)

Big Data and ITS The concepts of data mining, data harvesting, data warehouse, and data analytics have been common practices in the past few years but big data techniques are comparatively new. The principles of distributed computing (PARAM from C-DAC) were conceived long before big data; however, big data has offered size and magnitude to data processing within budgetary constraints. The concept of predictive modelling has also evolved with

Big Data Processing and Storage

53

emerging big data technologies. Many businesses have built data warehouses and analytical platforms based on their historical and transactional data sources to support sales and distribution and improve logistics but big data has enabled these businesses to manage data as a new kind of business potential. Use of big data technologies in ITS is hoped to enable efficient sharing of geographic vehicle monitoring, and traffic data across various agencies and across nations. Big data is pertinent to three major issues with respect to transportation data: data storage, data analysis, and data management. Distributed data architecture in big data systems has the inbuilt ability to handle the expanding volume of data. Since data is stored and replicated on different nodes, a single large task is divided into several smaller tasks and processed in parallel; agility and fault tolerance play a key role in such data processing as the amount of data is massive and diverse in nature (structured, semi structured or unstructured). (Mounica and Lavanya 2019). The analytical models of big data can be broadly classified into three categories: 1. Descriptive Analytics: Attempts at condensing and extracting useful information from the data set and discarding irrelevant data from the big data cluster. Typical approaches include pattern recognition and statistical distribution methods to deduce useful patterns and make useful inferences. These techniques are broadly used in traffic monitoring, safety systems, and vehicle detection for automated vehicles. 2. Predictive Analysis: Applied on a regulated data set where learning algorithms are applied to establish a relationship between a target variable and previously observed patterns or features. Learning models, over time, can learn to infer and predict new target variables for new input data, which might not be similar to any of the previous examples over which the model was built. Such models are very widely used in ITS, particularly by ride sharing platforms, such as Uber, and traffic forecasting systems. 3. Prescriptive Analysis: Utilizes the information gained from both descriptive and predictive analytics. It uses optimization techniques to make informed decisions from a range of possibilities using operational research, computational intelligence and mathematical programming. Prescriptive analysis is widely used in active traffic management, logistics optimization, and user-driven passenger information systems.

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Chapter 2.2

The Application of Big Data Technology in Intelligent Traffic Big data technology provides the technical ability to collect, analyze, and process the transport data for development and application of ITS. Big data applications can be broadly classified: 1.

Traffic Flow Prediction for Better Planning and Management

The key requirement for effective traffic management and planning is accurate and updated information related to the traffic flow. Big data provides insight in terms of customer needs and demand on various routes in the network. The monitoring and processing of real-time data and previously stored data can be used to predict the traffic flow in real-time. This will help the transport providers to better allocate their resources to improve the planning of efficient routes, schedules, and frequency of transportation modes. This data can also be used by the transport app developers to help the user select the most efficient route with shortest possible travel time. With the advancement of technologies, AI methods are also used to undertake planning and demand modelling. Figure 2.2.2 represents the typical process flow for a traffic-flow prediction method (Zhu et al. 2018). To obtain the effective data set, the original ITS data is first pre-processed. With the pre-process data, a traffic-flow model is created using a chosen data mining or analytic approach. The traffic-flow model assists traffic management authorities in making decisions and receives input from actual traffic flows in order to regularly calibrate the model.

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Figure 2.2.2: ITS Traffic-flow Model Source: Torre-Bastida et al. (2018) Canaud et al. offer a real-time traffic-flow prediction model based on probability hypothesis density filtering. Antoniou et al. offer a data-driven computational method for local traffic flow condition prediction. Lu et al. use the simulated annealing genetic method and fuzzy c-means (SAGAFCM) to create a traffic-flow condition grouping model. 2.

Public Transport Operation Efficiency and Predictive Maintenance

Big data analytics can help to better streamline public transport services planning to meet the demands of the user. The data can be used to predict the daily OD trip patterns to understand travel behavior. In Istanbul, Turkey, operational big data from automated fare collection (AFC) systems is used for transportation planning management. Various research works in MIT also highlight how data from London AFC can be used to enhance the rail transport planning and operation. This data, combined with other data sets from users, will help transportation apps to create an integrated travel

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planning and booking interface, including rail, buses, private cars, and other FMLM modes like bicycle, e-scooter, etc. By lowering travel time, traffic congestion, pollution, and greenhouse-gas emissions, big data analytics in these transportation apps produces significant economic advantages. For example, the opening of TfL data has resulted in the development of over two hundred travel apps, creating a value proposition of fifteen to fifty-eight million pounds per year. Furthermore, the data from on-board units and other sensors installed on the vehicle can be used to predict the optimal maintenance schedule for the vehicle components like brakes, tires, and exhausts, etc. It will assist in taking pre-emptive measures before the failure point is approached and minimize maintenance costs. This will increase vehicle reliability and reduce breakdown incidents during operations. Data from the probe vehicle can also help in assessing infrastructure conditions of the route like pavement degradation, track geometry, etc. Additionally, using historical and aggregate traffic data, the overall operation efficiency of the transport system can be enhanced by better traffic predictions and techniques like congestion-based toll pricing. 3.

Event Response Management and Safety Improvements

Efficient traffic data analyses can help authorities to take proactive steps to draft policies and take measures to prevent and mitigate life threatening accidents. Analysis of big data can improve emergency response time to a huge extent. It can assist in predicting accident-prone areas and help create user awareness while traveling on a particular route. It can help authorities to effectively respond and make informed decisions to questions regarding alternate means of transportation in the event of any disruptions. Big data analysis will assist transport planners to create transport systems and infrastructures that are resilient. Various studies have been undertaken to show the efficiency of big data analytics in traffic accident analysis. Bédard et al. determined the respective effect of driver, crash, and vehicle characteristics to the fatality risk of drivers by using a multivariate logistic regression algorithm. Results indicated that seat belt use, vehicle speed reduction, and decrease in the number and severity of driver-side impacts could prevent traffic accidents. Using measured traffic-flow data, Golob and Recker studied the relationships between weather, lighting conditions, traffic flow, and urban freeway accidents, with a multivariate statistical model. Xiong et al. introduced classification and regression trees (CART), logistic regression, and multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS) to perform analytical operations on motor vehicle accident injury data. Lee and

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Mannering presented a method that uses zero-inflated count models and nested logit models to analyze run-off-roadway accident frequency and severity on a 96.6 km section of highway in Washington State. They highlighted certain measures that can be taken to decrease the frequency of run-off-roadway accidents (Zhu et al. 2018). Table 2.2.1 represents the big data sources and their characteristics in ITS. Source Smart cards GPS

Medium Smart cards used in metros, buses and parking etc. Vehicle GPS, apps using GPS like google maps

Video

Traffic surveillance camera

Roadside sensor

Induction loops, equipment on toll plaza, LIDAR, microwave radar, road tubes

Floating car reader Wide area sensors Connected and automated vehicles

On board units, transponders, license plate readers Airborne sensors, cellular device tracking Multiple sensors supporting CAV operations

Passive applications Other sources

Social media, mobile phone Smart grid, smart meters

Data characteristics OD flow, travel time Vehicle position, travel time, vehicle speed, vehicle density Vehicle position, travel time, vehicle speed, vehicle density, vehicle classification Vehicle position, travel time, vehicle speed, vehicle density, vehicle classification OD flow, travel time, vehicle position OD flow, travel time Travel time, coordinate speed, vehicle speed, vehicle acceleration, safety data Travel time, OD flow

Vehicle location, vehicle details Table 2.2.1: Big Data Source and ITS Characteristics Source: Author’s compilation

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Table 2.2.2 represents the big data approaches used for various applications in ITS. Category

Application

Year

Driver assistance and instrumented vehicles

Multi-sensor data fusion for instrumented vehicles Efficient vehicle design

2012

Driving data fusion techniques RDMP framework for ADAS Driving tendency recognition method Behavior and vehicle dynamics risk analysis

2016

Mobile agents for data management in vehicular network Big Data schemes in social transportation system Guidelines to pioneer public transport Roadway control environmental footprint Traffic congestion on limited access roadways Road traffic operation Traffic-flow prediction based on deep learning

2017

Traveler information Roadway operation and management Traffic management

Transit management

2015

2016 2016 2016

2016 2016 2016 2016 2016 2015

RC evolution patterns

2015

OD matrix generation

2017

Route-planning services optimization Bus planning

2016 2016

Big data approach Big data fusion Big data analytics Big data fusion Big data platform Big data analytics Big data framework and policies Vehicular networks Big data social Transportation Big data services Big data analytics Big data analytics Big data Big data predictive analysis Big data realtime analysis Big data analytics Big data analytics Big data analytics

Big Data Processing and Storage

General traffic planning using IoT Safety analysis based on simulation Pedestrian planning

Emergency and incident management

Transport modes

Measuring and monitoring transit system performance Detection of incidents into public infrastructure Predict safety risks over rail incident data Resilience of taxi and subway trips Assessment of external force acting on ship Condition-based maintenance railway system

2016 2016 2017 2017 2016 2016 2016

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Big data analytics Big data Big data analytics Big data fusion and analysis Big data social sensor data Big data analytics Big data

2013

Big data fusion and analytics 2015 Big data streaming analysis Railway risk analysis 2015 Big data visualization Table 2.2.2: Big Data Approaches and ITS Applications Source: Torre-Bastida et al. (2018)

Big Data Architecture for ITS Big data is collected from different sources as structured data, like JSON and XML, and as unstructured data in the form of images, sound, and videos. These varied kinds of data are distributed in different systems to make dynamic decisions. Due to the data’s characteristics, specific big data architecture for ITS is used to analyze and store the process. Collected data is converted into a homogenous format and subjected to a type of data integration process known as extract, transform, load (ETL). The architecture of big data analytics in ITS, as illustrated in Figure 2.2.3, can be divided into three layers: 1. Data collection layer: This forms the fundamental base of the big data architecture for ITS. It consists of data from sources such as induction loop detectors, video surveillance systems, remote sensing

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applications, radio frequency and microwave radars, identification data, and GPS, GPRS, etc. 2. Data analytics layer: This layer forms the core computing layer of the architecture system. This layer is largely responsible for acquiring data from the collection layer and then implementing different big data analytics techniques and platforms to undertake data storage, harvesting, mining, analysis, management, and dissemination. 3. Application layer: This is the uppermost layer of the architecture system. This layer categorizes and generates structured information for different transport requirements, like traffic-flow prediction, traffic guidance, signal control, and emergency rescue, etc., based on the deduction from the data process results from the analytics layer.

DATA COLLECTION LAYER Roadside sensors Floating car sensors Smart card Video surveillance RFID GPS Social media

DATA ANALYTICS LAYER Data storage Data management Data mining Data harvesting Data analysis Data sharing

APPLICATION LAYER Traffic-flow prediction Public transport planning Asset maintenance Signal control Traffic guidance Traffic anomaly detection Operation management

Figure 2.2.3: Big Data Architecture for Intelligent Transport Systems Source: Torre-Bastida et al. (2018)

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The data collection layer transfers structured, unstructured, and mixed data to the data analytics layer. Once the data analytics layer receives the data, it categorizes the data, removes redundancies, clears the data, and distributes the useful data in a structured manner. Once this is done, various mathematical computation techniques, including descriptive analysis and predictive analysis, are used to extract underlying details and probable patterns. Using this analysis, the application layer then provides the final output, specific to user demands, like identifying high traffic congestion areas, predicting volume of traffic flow at different hours of the day, highlighting accident prone areas, implementing traffic control, etc., to assist in efficient traffic management. The collected data in ITS is usually stored in the NoSQL database. These databases are compatible with a distributed database system and ideal for big data architecture as they offer faster read-based query processing than SQL databases. To allow rapid data processing, the big data platform makes use of a distributed file system and parallel computing capabilities. NoSQL works on the fundamentals of CAP theorem, which states that a distributed database cannot provide certainty on more than two of the following: capability, availability, and partition tolerance. This means that the database needs to satisfy either i) CA capability and availability, ii) AP availability and partition tolerance, or iii) CP capability and partition tolerance. There are four distinct categories of the NoSQL database: 1. Key-value-based: It is a non-relational database that assigns simple key values to the stored data. The data in the tables retrieved is based on the unique identification key value pairs of each record. Examples are Redis and Riak. 2. Document-based: This is usually used for data that is semi-structured or unstructured. Xml or Json is used to store the data in the form of documents. By employing the same document-model format as their application code, document databases make it easier for developers to store and query data. However, as the data is saved in document form, reading of data is a time-consuming process. Examples are MongoDB, CouchDB. 3. Columnar-based: These databases are ideal for aggregate functions, online processing websites, and data collection based on timestamps. This data is stored in columns and related columns are grouped under one family. To refer data from any single column each row will have a row ID. This database significantly reduces the amount of data to be loaded from a fisk and reduces the overall I/O requirements of the

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disk. This database is suitable for data warehousing and big data processing. Examples are Cassandra and Hbase. 4. Graph-based: It addresses the limitations of the relational databases. This database represents and stores data in the form of graphs with nodes, edges, and attributes to undertake semantic searches. An example is Neo4J. Big data architecture has two popular open-source software framework ecosystems: Hadoop and Spark. Hadoop Ecosystem: This ecosystem is ideal for analyzing data from sources like GPS, smart card, sensors, social media, etc., in ITS and it is illustrated in Figure 2.2.4. It is preferred where there is a requirement for batch processing and data lakes. It applies ETL (extract, transfer, load) methodology using tools such as HIVE, PIG and SQOOP. Transformation rules are applied to the extracted data depending on the technical and functional requirements of the user. This aggregated data is then hoarded in the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS). Spark Ecosystem: This ecosystem is effective for applications that have real-time data processing requirements like vehicle speed detection, vehicle identification, real-time warning, etc. Spark adapts well to machine-learning tasks as it allows data by the user to be loaded and queried repeatedly into a cluster memory. The Spark ecosystem works with stream processing and in-memory computing competence, along with resilient distributed dataset (RDD), for high-speed execution (Ranjani and Sridhar 2016).

A) HADOOP ECOSYSEM

B) SPARK ECOSYTEM

Figure 2.2.4: Hadoop and Spark Ecosystem Source: Ranjani and Sridhar (2016)

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Real-time data processing is a key requirement of ITS to be fulfilled by the big data processing platform. The Hadoop system proves to be inefficient in transport data management for applications like dynamic toll management where real-time decision making is required. Thus, a combination of both Hadoop and Spark will provide more efficiency in selection and analysis of data sets.

Figure 2.2.5: Framework of Apache Spark Using Hadoop Database Source: Ranjani and Sridhar (2016) Figure 2.2.5 shows an example of a typical framework of Apache Spark using a Hadoop database. The real-time processing of data is executed by the Spark streaming process while the Hbase (Hadoop database) increases the efficiency of data retrieval by performing high-level feature extraction and creating indexes for massive data sets. Spark Core has distributed computational potential to carry out offline tasks. Apache SQOOP is a widely used data injection system that is used to transfer data between mainframes and big data process systems. A comparison of the Hadoop and Spark system is presented in Table 2.2.3.

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Features Data processing Stream engine Data flow Performance Memory management line of code Machine Learning SQL support

Hadoop Supports batch processing Supports large data sets in batches Supports chain of stages, one output of a stage is input for the next stage Performance is slow because of batch processing Configurable memory management Higher number of lines of code.

Cost

Depends on external tools like Apache Mahout Apache Hive helps to run SQL queries Hand code required for each operation Compatible with Spark eco-system Less expensive hardware

Processing speed

Because of map reduce processing is slow

Easy to use Compatibility

Spark Supports batch processing and stream processing Supports micro batches Supports DAG (Direct Acyclic Graph) Better performance because of stream processing Automating memory management 90 % less lines of code than Hadoop It has own machine learning library MLIB Spark SQL helps to run SQL queries Easy to program because of high-level operators Compatible with Hadoop ecosystem Expensive because it requires more RAM to run in-memory In-memory processing is fast

Table 2.2.3: Comparison of Hadoop and Spark Features Source: Mounica and Lavanya (2019)

Challenges in Big Data for Transportation Systems 1. Data collection: The accuracy of the big data process output is dependent on the reliability of the gathered data. In ITS, the collected data may be inaccurate or incomplete at certain times, for instance, not all vehicles are equipped with GPS or other techniques to provide real-time location data. Thus, big data in ITS tends to be less controllable in terms of accuracy and quality. The requirement in terms of accuracy is also

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dependent on the service requirement. For example, an accident management application requires more accurate data compared to services like predictive rerouting. The solution to this issue is to invest in new data collection technologies and increase data capturing automation to reduce manual data entry errors. 2. Data Privacy: Another challenging concern related to data is privacy. There is a high potential that the data related to personal privacy might be leaked during data storage, transfer, or usage. Security concerns include identity theft, user location tracking, excess data trace collection, etc. There is a need for the government to develop holistic data privacy laws to prevent unauthorized access to user data, including standard guidelines related to the type and scope of data that can be published, principles of data distribution, extent of data availability, etc. To enhance data security, transportation agencies should rigorously control personal data definitions, improve data security certification management, and integrate more advanced algorithms. 3. Data Storage: The ability of existing infrastructure to store big data is highly limited. Traditional methods are unable to cope with the large volume of incoming complex data sets. There is a need to design a more suitable and expandable data storage architecture. One such architecture could be the usage of cloud big data services. Multi-cloud storage and hybrid storage are developing as significant areas for big data storage as the major public cloud storage providers, such as Google and Microsoft, continue to expand their services with integrated big data capabilities. Smart management systems that can give integrated analytics, along with storage, are in high demand among businesses. 4. Data processing: Real-time processing is a crucial aspect of ITS applications, this includes services like pre-processing of traffic data, traffic state identification, real-time traffic control, dynamic route guiding, and real-time bus scheduling. Traffic data, which comes in a variety of forms from many sources, must be compared to previous data and processed quickly. Thus, to process real-time outputs with such a large and diverse data set is a key challenge for the application of big data in ITS.

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References Liu, Y. 2018. “Big Data Technology and Its Analysis of Application in Urban Intelligent Transportation System.” Proceedings—3rd International Conference on Intelligent Transportation, Big Data and Smart City, ICITBS 2018 (January): 17–19. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICITBS.2018.00012. Mounica, B., and K. Lavanya. 2019. “Big Data Architecture for Intelligent Transport Systems.” International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering 8 (9): 1281–86. https://doi.org/10.35940/ijitee.i8119.078919. Ranjani, A. C. Priya, and M. Sridhar. 2016. “Spark– An Efficient Framework for Large Scale Data Analytics.” International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research 7, 2 (February): 401–05. Torre-Bastida, A. I., J. Del Ser, I. Laña, M. Ilardia, M. N. Bilbao and S. Campos-Cordobés. 2018. “Big Data for Transportation and Mobility: Recent Advances, Trends and Challenges.” IET Intelligent Transport Systems 12 (8): 742–55. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-its.2018.5188. Zhu, L., F. R. Yu, Y. Wang, B. Ning and T. Tang. 2018. “Big Data Analytics in Action.” 266–94. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-7609-9.ch009.

CHAPTER 2.3 ITS: OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK

Introduction Poznan lies on the Warta River in west-central Poland, in the Greater Poland region. It is the capital and largest city of the Poznan province. See Exhibit 2.3.1 for the location of Poznan. It covers an area of 261.3 sq km and has a population of about 550,000. Poznan is an important cultural, industrial, and business center, and one of Poland's most populous regions with many regional customs. It hosts a major international trade fair and has a strong position in the field of academic education. The city has an extensive public transport system, mostly consisting of trams. The city lies at the intersection of two busy highways, between Berlin and Warsaw, and Gdansk and Wroclaw, which run through the heart of the city. This has led to high levels of traffic with heavy goods vehicles. Suburbanization has caused significant changes in transport behavior. Like all the other larger cities in Central Europe, the traffic in Poznan has also been increasing rapidly since the city moved towards a market economy. Rising transport needs and growing motorization have caused congestion problems. The authorities, therefore, decided to introduce an intelligent transportation system and implement the best innovative solutions to further support transport-related developments and increase the efficiency of public transportation.

Previous Projects To reduce the issues of congestion and pollution in the center of the city, the CITYMAN Poznan project was introduced, in October 1996. With an aim to solve these problems, a consortium was formed, which included a leading Dutch supplier and the Polish consultancy firm PolTraffic. They gained €1 million of support for a traffic management project from the Dutch Government, through the international EUREKA program (a European funding and support program, which specifically dedicates funds to research-performing SMEs), in 1996. As a part of the project, a signal controller upgrade plan was developed by the consortium for a pilot area of Poznan. The pilot area also includes an arterial road. The signal controller

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upgrade plan included the development of a generic (single board computer) black box device. The black box device locks on to and takes over the control function of the existing controller, enabling traffic-responsive control, central control and network optimization. Exhibit 2.3.2a shows black box and Exhibit 2.3.2b shows the working of a black box. A highlevel library of control functions was also adjusted to local conditions and regulations. This facilitated a fast creation of easily adaptable controller software with advanced dynamic functionality. The arterial road experienced a 30 % increase in capacity. The result of the project was the fulfilment of the identified objectives, satisfaction on all sides and commercial continuation of the project. Poznan has ordered over forty more black boxes. The project sets a good example of public-private co-operation. The challenges were met through a combination of professionally and commercially motivated commitment (Traffic Management and Control System for the City of Poznan).

Project: ITS Poznan The ITS Poznan project was developed for the Wielkopolskie Voivodeship within the area of the city of Poznan. The location of the ITS Poznan project implementation is given in Exhibit 2.3.3. The main aim of the project was to provide an integrated intelligent traffic management system. This included design, delivery, implementation, and start-up in the road traffic of Poznan on ITS-based solutions, particularly in the area of traffic control. The project was mainly implemented in the part of the city located between the following streets: Dąbrowskiego, Ğw. WawrzyĔca, ĩeromskiego, Dąbrowskiego, Roosevelta and Gáogowska—the border of the city of Poznan. The level of integration between the various components of the system reflects the project innovativeness. Each of the components exchanges data and information with the other components through a common IT platform. The main assumption of the system is its openness, i.e., the capability of working out program solutions that allows for building new modules. It is to facilitate achievable solutions and expansion of the system operation without the need to create new databases and tools to obtain information. The ITS Poznan provided a foundation for an innovative ICT system that supports not only transport management in the city but also the management of the other processes relating to key areas of city management. Firstly, all the users are provided with real-time traffic data obtained from the measuring stations. Then, the system helps in planning a journey through

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the city on public transport. It makes use of the actual location of a given public transport vehicle and estimated arrival or departure times. In addition, special software will make it possible to book a place at buffer car parks and automatically detect incidents that can have an adverse impact on traffic conditions. An important factor is that the users of the system (i.e., residents of the city and users of transport infrastructure) experience both social and economic benefits. Another important advantage is the savings made due to lower costs and shorter travel times for the users. The openness of the applied solutions and system architecture contributed to system scalability. An agreement on the implementation of the “ITS for the City of Poznan” project was signed on May 27, 2013. The first implementation stage of the project was from May 27, 2013, to March 31, 2015. The ITS Poznan project cost a total of PLN 96,151,121.83.

Objectives of ITS Poznan To develop the traffic management system in Poznan, both the car transport and public transport were improved through the following (Republic of Poland 2014): 1. Monitoring of vehicle traffic on the road network and reducing road network congestion. 2. More effective use of the existing road and transport infrastructure. 3. Improved travel conditions. 4. Speeding up the public transport, particularly trams. 5. Increased demand for public transport. 6. Making current information available to drivers and passengers during their journeys. 7. Improved road user safety. 8. Monitoring and protection of the natural environment. These objectives were achieved through the fulfilment of several more detailed and interrelated tasks. These tasks included i) the development of existing infrastructure, ii) the design and implementation of the IT platform, iii) the development and implementation of a traffic model, and iv) the enabling of dynamic and tactical management.

Proposals of ITS Poznan The proposals of the ITS Poznan project are given below (Republic of Poland 2014):

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1. Development of a traffic management system based on the existing infrastructure. 2. Development of the existing MPLS (multiprotocol label switching is a type of data-carrying technique for high-performance telecommunications networks) backbone network, and design and execution of optical fiber access network ETHERNET. It ensures the transfer of all digital data between elements, including camera images, data collected by traffic light control systems, passenger information, location of means of public transport, etc. 3. Development of the urban broadband wireless communications network by adding subsequent wireless nodes necessary for the operation of the ITS in the full range of its functionality. 4. Design and implementation of an open IT platform integrating ITS elements to ensure data exchange between the elements through open communication protocols. 5. Construction of a server room and operations room together with equipment for operator workstations, adaptation of premises in the building that houses the traffic control center to the needs of system use and operation. 6. Implementation of a traffic model in the transport network and a technologically advanced traffic management system making shortterm predictions of traffic flow in the network and intelligent traffic management possible. 7. Execution of a system of displays and variable message signs that provide vehicle drivers with important information. 8. Development of priority systems for trams and buses in order to speed up public transport. 9. Equipping vehicles with devices that enable communication with road infrastructure and provision of in-vehicle passenger information. 10. Delivery and implementation of a public transport fleet management system that monitors the transport service punctuality, on-line presentation of location on a digital map, travel time prediction, and provision of passenger information. 11. Design and implementation of a passenger information system, including information displays at passenger stops and on the internet portal. 12. Delivery and installation of elements of the road safety system: video detection, including vehicle registration recognition, development of the video surveillance system, and delivery and installation of sensor stations.

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13. Replacement of elements of traffic light control systems as well as support structures and streetlamps. The total amounts earmarked for investments in the area of ITS are given in Exhibit 2.3.4.

Challenges in ITS Poznan Several challenges were identified during the implementation of the project. Firstly, there was a shortage of staff qualified in the area of information and communications. They had very little experience or skills to work in the municipal office to implement the project. This was overcome by cooperation with scientific and research institutions as well as the support of ICT entities from the private sector. Secondly, there was the issue of interoperability of the new systems and systems already in place, to gain synergy. This was important because there were several projects being implemented at the same time. It was necessary to avoid the use of different systems and on-board computers in each project. In order to prevent this risk in the future, it was crucial to ensure the openness of communications protocols. Finally, delays in the construction of hard infrastructure and key nodes also caused some difficulties. This needed proper and flexible managing, and good organization (Intersessional Panel of the United Nations 2016).

Conclusion The project aimed to improve and optimize the existing traffic system of the city. The ITS improved the existing network of streets and tramways by giving higher priority to public transport. The project increased the transport efficiency, traffic flow, and its efficiency in Poznan. It has reduced the number of individual car users by making better and more efficient public transport. This has, subsequently, lowered the traffic congestions. It gave necessary information to users of public transport as well as individual drivers, thereby, incising traffic safety. Additionally, it contributed to environmental protection by reducing fuel consumption and emission of car exhaust fumes. The project also created and provided many applications for mobile devices. It created applications, even, for differently abled persons. Without the development of the project, it is unlikely that Poznan could have

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made such quick progress in upgrading to a traffic-responsive, centrally connected network. Exhibit 2.3.1: The Location of Poznan, Poland

Source: http://www.poznantours.com Exhibit 2.3.2 a: Black Box for an Automobile

Source: Telematics.com

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Exhibit 2.3.2 b: Working of a Black Box

Source: www.globaltruth.net

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Exhibit 2.3.3: ITS Poznan Project Implementation

Source: Republic of Poland (2014). Exhibit 2.3.4: Total Funds Earmarked for Investments in ITS Projects Year

Expenditure on ITS in PLN

Total City Expenditure on Infrastructure Investments in PLN 87,259,833,202 94,538,303,368 59,459,596,842 49,971,903,802

2010 23,373,100 2011 107,247,018 2012 191,853,431 2013 628,518,337 2014 (until 20 May 679,667,305 2014) Note: 1 PLN = 0.27 US Dollar; 1 PLN = 17.25 Indian Rupee Source: Data from Republic of Poland (2014).

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References “INTERSESSIONAL PANEL OF THE UNITED NATIONS COMMISSION ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT (CSTD).” 2016. Budapest, Hungary, 11-13 January 2016. Republic of Poland. 2014. Warsaw: Ministry of Infrastructure and Development, 72. Traffic Management and Control System for the City of Poznan. n.d. Accessed June 26, 2017. http://www.transport-research.info/project/traffic-management-andcontrol-system-city-poznan.

CHAPTER 2.4 ITS: AUTOMATION AND PEOPLE FRAMEWORK

Overview: The Paris Subway The Paris Subway is a rapid transit system in the Paris Metropolitan Area. It is the second busiest subway system in Europe, after the Moscow Metro. It is mostly underground and is 214 km long. It has 303 stations and sixteen lines, numbered one to fourteen, with two further lines. It is among the world’s oldest subways because thirteen of its lines were developed between 1900 and 1935. Line 1 was the first metro line ever run in Paris, in 1900. It goes from East to West and serves many business districts as well as most historical places and tourist spots within the city of Paris. The Metro is operated by the Regie Autonome des Transports Parisiens (RATP), founded in 1948 as a state-owned company. It is a public transport authority that also operates part of the RER (Reseau Express Regional) network, bus services, light rail lines and many bus routes. By 2001, RATP had expanded and modernized the subway, bus lines and developed a tramway line. All the Parisian subway lines were equipped with traffic lights and cameras during the same year. Most of the driving on all subway lines was done by the automatic pilot (Line 10 was an exception). It maintained a constant speed and helped the drivers to stick to the speed limits. If the automatic pilot was deactivated, the driver had to drive the train manually with a device that allows the person to accelerate, decelerate and stop the train. See Exhibit 2.4.1 for a picture showing a subway driving cabin. The train traffic was controlled by the chefs de regulation (heads of regulation) at a centralized command-andcontrol center. The other positions at RATP included chefs de manceuvre (heads of movement), chefs de depart (heads of departures), station agents, ticket controllers, security agents, cleaning staff, maintenance employees, salespeople, managers and drivers. Recently, in 2016, it had been ranked as the best public transport system in the world by ITDP (The Institute for Transportation and Development Policy) with 100 % of people in Paris having easy access to rapid transportation.

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Metro Automation In metro systems, the term automation implies that the responsibility for operation and management of the trains is transferred from the driver to the train control system. There are various degrees of automation, depending on the basic functions of train operations. These are shown in Exhibit 2.4.2 in the form of a picture. The picture also shows the different types of train operations with respect to each grade. Technical progress has made train control systems capable of supervising, operating, and controlling the entire operational process. The key elements for this are automatic train protection (ATP), automatic train operation (ATO), and automatic train control (ATC). ATP has equipment which avoids i) collisions, ii) red-signal overrunning, and iii) exceeding speed limits by applying brakes automatically. ATO ensures partial or complete automatic train piloting and driverless functionalities. It also performs all the functions of the driver, except for door closing. ATC performs normal signaler operations, such as route setting and train regulation, automatically. The ATP, ATO, and ATC functions are performed by on-board and wayside equipment, which exchange data (UITP 2012).

Global Experience Unattended Train Operation (UTO) has many benefits and beneficiaries: customers, operators, funding authorities and staff. UTO means that there is no driver in the front cabin of the train, or no accompanying staff, assigned to a specific train. It is a widespread solution and thirty-two cities have already opted for automated metros in four continents. The highest usage is in Europe (32 %) and Asia (40 %). See Exhibit 2.4.3a for a map showing the cities with automated metro lines, as of 2013. Four new lines joined the UTO club: i) U Line (Uijeongbu) and EverLine (Yongin), both in South Korea, and ii) Line 5 (Milan) and Line 1 (Brescia), both in Italy. There are currently 674 km of automated metro in forty-eight lines that, together, serve 700 stations. Some of the longest metro lines in the world are automated. See Exhibit 2.4.3b for a graph showing the kilometers of automated metro in 2013, by city (World Atlas Report 2013).

Benefits of Automation There are many benefits associated with UTO. Some of the benefits are listed below (UITP 2012).

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1. Increase in quality of service: Enhanced reliability of trains because of better predictability of operations. 2. Greater flexibility in operation: Offers a more tailored service coverage; frequency of trains can be modified accordingly, as per the demands (peak and off-peak hours). 3. Impressive safety records: Reduces the human-risk factor and dangers, such as over speeding, driver fatigue, etc., are minimized. Platform screen doors prevent technical incidents and accidents. 4. Financial feasibility: Automation costs are relatively low for new lines. The majority of the costs are for the rolling stock, the signaling and control systems, and platform and track protection system. However, metro is also affordable for smaller cities. 5. Operational cost factors: Staff and energy gains. Automated lines halve the operational costs as staff costs are reduced. Even in the cases of line conversion, staff are likely to be retained and deployed to other functions. Acceleration and deceleration patterns can be adjusted to reduce energy consumption and maximize energy recovery, thus, reducing the energy costs. 6. Holistic efficiency and organization opportunities: The introduction of a sophisticated computerized system and operation control center (OCC) helps in reviewing most operation processes and assess their improvement. Maximum benefits from installed data processors are extracted for better performance at optimized costs.

Overview of RATP RATP manages the Paris Transportation System, made up of fourteen subway lines, two fast train lines (RER), three hundred buses, and two tram lines. When Bailly was RATP’s CEO, in 1994, he worked on the development of a new subway line, which was supposed to be Paris’ first driverless and automatic subway line (Line 14). Inaugurated in 1998, Line 14 was 8.5 km long and had 242 employees, which was the most highly staffed line of the network. The line had no drivers but had several employees to manage the public and supervise the trains. Line 14 also became a marketing tool for RATP. During the same year, in order to expand its international presence, RATP also created a subsidiary, RATP International. It overlooks foreign transportation networks. RATP owns two other subsidiaries: i) RATP Engineering provides consultancy services, and ii) RATP France manages public transportation networks in other French cities.

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The organizational structure of RATP includes a CEO, an executive committee of seven members, and an administrative board. The administrative board comprises twenty-nine members, which include the executive committee members, as well as representatives from the French state, public figures, and nine representatives elected by the employees. The RATP Group’s activities were performed by several departments. RATP has a decentralized structure; each department has a director and is an independent company. There were eight trade unions at RATP, to organize elections and to take important decisions related to economic change, organization, and even dismissals.

Modernization of Line 1 Line 1 has a rail length of 16.6 km, twenty-five stations, and fifty-two trains in circulation, in 2001. It serves sixteen of the fifty most heavily charged metro stations, as well as five major interchange nodes. It was the oldest and first line of the metro. It was also the first line to install the centralized command center, in 1967, and adopt the automatic plot, in 1972. Line 1 was the most used metro line of the network, with twelve million trips per month. The line served business districts of the city, along with many tourist places. This resulted in unpredictable traffic peaks and led to difficulties in managing the line. Trains were congested with travelers and this caused delays. Therefore, Line 1 was chosen for automation due to the difficulty of adapting supply to demand (Anteby, Corsi and Billaud 2013). Reasons for automation: Automatic lines increased passengers’ safety by ensuring control of the trains’ speed and eliminating accidents caused by human error. Besides safety improvements, the automatic lines allowed trains to run shorter intervals of time. This increased train circulation and reduced the passengers’ waiting times. Full automation also allowed the operator to anticipate variations in demand and adjust supply accordingly. Moreover, the rails and equipment of Line 1 were getting old and in need of maintenance. The last reason was that, if the project was to become successful, it could promote RATP’s image in France and abroad. Implementation: The automation project was a key element of the modernization plan as well as an important marketing tool for RATP’s expansion. The work of automation began in 2007, after convincing the employees and trade unions. The project ended in 2011 with a total cost of €629 million. The project timeline is given in Exhibit 2.4.4. Most of the costs were for acquisition of new trains, while nearly €150 million was spent on infrastructure. On November 2, 2011, the first eight automatic trains

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were circulated. See Exhibit 2.4.5 for pictures of the new Line 1 trains. Out of fifty-two old trains, forty-nine trains were replaced; the new ones could circulate faster and transport five times the passengers as the old ones, for a capacity of 722 passengers per train. The system chosen by RATP is based on CBTC (communication based train control) radio communication and a virtual block signaling system. This allows train headways to be cut to as little as 85 seconds; the earlier ones were 105 seconds. RATP has fitted halfheight platform screen doors to all Line 1 platforms, which are vital for assuring that there are no passengers or staff on the tracks. By 2012, RATP had grown into an international group with revenues, in 2011, of €5 billion. It became the fifth largest operator of public transportation in the world. RATP had its presence in twelve countries and forty French cities through its subsidiary, RATP development (Anteby, Corsi and Billaud 2013). Improvements made: After the successful operation of Line 14 for seven years, the Automatic Train Operation System (ATOS) of Line 1, made the following improvements: i) a reduced adhesion function considering the environmental conditions (wet/dry track) in open air sections, ii) the possibility of parking and starting trains in fully automatic mode at any place on the line, and iii) treating audio-visual facilities, signaling equipment, and platforms’ screen doors separately. The command control of trains is developed in techniques of the common control command program used in the modernization of the Paris Metro Network. Stakes and Challenges: Transforming a subway that was built in 1900 into an automatic line was quite challenging. The main stakes and challenges of this project are shown (Systra 2013): 1. Modification and upgradation without disturbing the line operation, while guaranteeing passenger and staff safety. 2. Renewal of Line 1 old equipment and systems. 3. Platform screen doors installation. 4. Interaction between the new and old systems, operating together and in transition, with a progressive commissioning of the driverless system.

Conclusion Line 1 is the oldest, fastest, and most crowded line of the Paris Metro Network. It is heavily loaded during rush hours, off-peak hours, weekends, and holidays. Paris has proved that conversion is feasible, even in complex and critical lines. Conversion projects are ever-increasing, mainly to

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modernize signaling systems and the rolling stock. The project for automating Line 1 comes within the range of RATP’s sustainable development policy with feasible expenditure. Higher operating speeds cut passengers’ travel times. Additionally, serious passenger accidents can be minimized, and energy consumption is optimized. Automation inevitably leads to high levels of complexity due to the required integration of multiple subsystems. However, the advantages of an automated transport system motivate the creation of new and sophisticated project management tools. The Line 1 Conversion Project is an illustration of people management skills and negotiations along with the deft use of technology to transition. The success of this endeavor has vouched for the viability of such complex upgradation projects, hence, encouraging them further.

References Anteby, Michel, Elena Corsi and Emilie Billaud. 2013. Automating the Paris Subway (A). Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing. Anteby, Michel, Elena Corsi and Emilie Billaud. 2013. Automating the Paris Subway (B). Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing. Systra. 2013. Paris Metro—Line 1 Automation, France. France: Systra. UITP. 2012. Metro Automation Facts, Figures And Trends. Belgium: The International Association of Public Transport. World Atlas Report. 2013. Observatory of Automated Metros . London: UITP.

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Exhibit 2.4.1: Paris Subway Driving Cabin

Note: 1. Brake Traction Manipulator, 2. Speed Indicator, 3. Door Closure and Closing, 4. Radio, 5. Closing the Doors (left or right). Source: Braida, Aurelien. 2017. “Circulations des Metros et Reseau RATP.” Le transport ferroviarie en images. Post on blog. Accessed June 29, 2017. http://sncf.ratp.free.fr/circulationsratp.htm.

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Exhibit 2.4.2: Various Grades of Automation

Source: UITP. 2012. Metro Automation Facts, Figures and Trends. Belgium: The International Association of Public Transport. http://metroautomation.org/automation-essentials/what-is-metro-automation.

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Exhibit 2.4.3 a: Map Showing the Cities with Automated Metro Lines, as of 2013

Source: World Atlas Report. 2013. Observatory of Automated Metros. London: UITP.

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Exhibit 2.4.3 b: Graph Showing the Kilometers of Automated Metro in 2013, by City

Source: World Atlas Report. 2013. Observatory of Automated Metros. London: UITP.

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Exhibit 2.4.4: The Project Timeline

Project Timeline Dec-02 Launch of feasibility studies Apr-04 Report presented to RATP Board Oct-05 Main contracts are awarded Jul-07 Line works Begin Dec-07 Signature of agreement with transport unions Oct-08 Reception of the first MP05 at Valenciennes Mar-09 Installation of the first platform screen doors May-10 Service launch of the new centralized control command Completion of platform screen door installation and works Apr-11 on the line First MP05 in automated mode is injected in the line during 08-Jul-11 daily commercial service, without passengers on board 03-Nov-11 Service launch of the first eight MP05 automatic shuttles Source: UITP. 2012. Metro Automation Facts, Figures and Trends.

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Exhibit 2.4.5: Pictures of the New Line 1 Trains

Source: http://forum.skyscraperpage.com/showthread.php?t=133751&page=11, https://www.railengineer.uk/2012/02/28/paris-metro-line-1-a-newbeginning/, https://soundlandscapes.wordpress.com/tag/paris-metro-line1/, all access

CHAPTER 2.5 ITS: POLICY FRAMEWORK

Introduction In today’s world, traffic congestion has become a huge problem in most of the urban areas around the globe. Increasing traffic congestion is limiting urban mobility, impacting road efficiency, the environment, safety, and cost, and contributing to an unsustainable economic environment and social environment. The emerging concept of Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS)—a combination of communications and real-time data, maps, databases, and information processing—aims to provide solutions that alleviate the aforementioned negative effects of traffic congestion. Deployment of ITS has a wide range of benefits. It enables i) infrastructure owners and operators to improve the quality, safety, and management of the transport network, ii) individual travelers, drivers, transport operators, and authorities to make better informed journey decisions, iii) network operators and thirdparty service providers to supply advanced information services, increasingly on a multi-modal basis, to all types of travelers, and iv) road users to drive safer and smarter vehicles. However, the lack of supportive policy frameworks limits the deployment of ITS.

The Transport Policy Objective UK Government transport policies largely reflect the ambitions discussed in the European Commission’s (EC)’s white paper, Transport Policy for 2010: Time to Decide. Similarly, European transport policy highlights network management, road safety, and tackling congestion along with sustainable mobility and economic policies. To make technology-related initiatives the heart of the policy agenda, the EC has published an ITS Vision and Policy. The vision incudes the goal to implement Galileo (the European Union’s Global Satellite Navigation System, also called European GPS)—under the “e-Europe” (an ambitious program aimed at making information technologies as widespread as possible) banner—as a complementary GPS, alongside the existing GPS system. It also encourages greater deployment of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)

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technologies that use location referencing to support many ITS services. Furthermore, it provides an additional policy support for advanced ticketing and vehicle-related ITS, called e-Safety initiatives. The Trans-European Road Network (TERN) aims to improve the internal road infrastructure of the European Union, unlock barriers, and encourage more effective crossborder transport. It supports demonstrations of harmonized ITS deployment through its Multi-Annual Indicative Program. Other funding is available through the European Framework Research Programs. Seven policy dimensions, where ITS applications play a crucial role for road transport and travelers, are listed below. 1. Improving road network management, including road pricing. 2. Improving road safety, by reducing collisions, casualties, and deaths. 3. Better travel and traveler information, helping to match supply and demand by providing better information so that travelers can make informed choices on when and how to travel. 4. Better public transport on the roads, supporting more reliable, safer, more accessible, and more efficient services. 5. Supporting the efficiency of road freight efficiency. 6. Reducing negative environmental impacts. 7. Supporting security, crime reduction, and emergency planning measures. It is important to understand that the true potential of ITS rests in their ability to resolve multiple issues simultaneously along with supporting costeffectiveness and efficiency. Also, greater co-ordination, convergence, and interoperability of ITS must be ensured, both technologically and administratively.

The European Policy Framework for Deployment of ITS The EU has launched various initiatives to address existing and future challenges in road transport systems, with a focus to overcome the slow and fragmented uptake of ITS for the road sector. The EC’s ITS Action Plan and the ITS Directives (Directive 2010/40/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council adopted on July 7, 2010) are some dedicated EU legislation on ITS across Europe. These supporting elements, coupled with other necessary existing tools, foster ITS deployment to a new era, where integrated, interoperable systems, and unified transport services become the norm for Europe’s road transport system.

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The EC’s ITS Directives demonstrate the first EU-wide legislative basis for the coordinated deployment of ITS for the road sector. It aims to establish interoperable and seamless ITS services and promote harmonization. It sets out priorities and principles for ITS deployment while leaving EU member states the freedom to decide which systems to invest in. However, it should be noted, the directives do not oblige member states to deploy ITS on their territory. The directives are an important instrument for ITS implementation, bolstering the measures adopted in the ITS Action Plan with a set of enforceable legal provisions and helping to accelerate the deployment of innovative transport technologies in the road transport system. The ITS Action Plan mainly focuses on the following six action areas where the government can play a major role by providing policy and institutional support. 1. Optimal use of road, traffic and travel data (real-time traffic and travel information; optimized collection and provision of road, traffic and travel data; availability of accurate public data for digital maps; and promotion of multi-modal journey planners and traffic safety information services). 2. Continuity of traffic and freight management ITS services on European transport corridors and in conurbations (continuity of ITS services; e-Freight; ITS framework architecture; and electronic road tolling). 3. Road safety and security (promotion of advanced driver assistance systems and safety-related ITS; e-Call; safe on-board humanmachine interfaces; vulnerable road users; and services for safe and secure truck parking places). 4. Integration of the vehicle into the transport infrastructure (open invehicle platform; cooperative systems; I2I, V2I, V2V communication; and standardization mandate). 5. Data security and protection, and liability issues (data security and data protection; liability). 6. European ITS cooperation and coordination (legal framework: Directive 2010/40/EU; a knowledge tool for decision makers; funding ITS; and expert group on urban ITS). Within seven years of the formation of the ITS Directives, the EC is to adopt specifications to address the compatibility, interoperability, and continuity of ITS solutions across Europe. The specifications cover technical, functional, organizational, and service-provision issues in several areas. The first priorities are traffic and travel information, emergency systems, and intelligent parking for all commercial vehicles. The specifications should be

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followed diligently during the deployment of ITS in EU member states. The commission consulted experts and other stakeholders regarding existing standards and conducted an impact assessment with cost-benefit analysis. The European ITS Committee and the ITS Advisory Group will assist the EC in the implementation of the ITS Directive. The European ITS Committee is composed of representatives of the EU Member States and the ITS Advisory Group consists of representatives of stakeholders such as industries and service providers. The primary task of the ITS Committee is to advise regarding standardization mandates and possible guidelines, while that of the Advisory Group is to support the EC on the technical and business aspects of ITS deployment. Additionally, these two bodies will be able to give useful input for the framing of specifications under the ITS Directive.

Conclusion A transformation of the European transport system will only be possible through a combination of manifold initiatives at all levels. ITS is a technology-driven solution for the broader agenda of achieving a better public transportation system. The success of ITS deployment is determined by a combination of a perception of the value of ITS and a strong European Union ITS industry. To build an inclusive ITS model, the government’s role becomes crucial. Governments can pave the road to a successful ITS system by i) being the regulator, by framing ITS-related policies and regulations, and ii) creating a supportive environment for establishing ITS. It is crucial that governments provide a policy, institutional, and regulatory framework to enable speedy and proper development of ITS.

References Department for Transport. 2005. Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) The Policy Framework for the Roads Sector. doi:PPU3617/ES. Directorate General for Mobility and Transport. 2011. Intelligent Transport System in Action. Luxembourg: European Commission. doi:10.2832/44199. Lin, S. S. 2003. AN INSTITUTIONAL DEPLOYMENT FRAMEWORK FOR INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering.

CHAPTER 2.6 ITS: BUSINESS FRAMEWORK

Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) provide various operational, social, and environmental benefits to the transport system. These benefits are based on leveraging the ever-evolving technological developments and communication standards of the ICT industry. Service standard and accessibility is dependent on the quality of physical transport infrastructure and ICT equipment. Most of the ITS applications require huge capital expenditure (investment) with longer return periods for procurement and installation. Despite the presence of technology and tools, the lack of cost-effective integration of systems hinders large-scale deployment of ITS. Most applications and ideas fail to develop beyond trial stages, mainly due to the lack of an effective business model that is contextually relevant, commercially sustainable, and socially/politically acceptable. During the 2015 to 2020 period, the ITS’ market grew at a steady pace all over the world. A recent market study shows that, in the projection period of 2021 to 2028, the ITS market is anticipated to develop at a pace of 18.2 %. Under the Intelligent Transport Systems Directive 2010/40/EU, the European Commission decided to create the European Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) Advisory Group (2011/C 135/03), in 2011. The advisory group is responsible for technical and business aspects to facilitate wide-scale ITS deployment across Europe. The group consists of twenty-five members representing ITS service providers, user associations, transportation and infrastructure operators, the manufacturing industry, social partners, professional associations, municipal governments, and other relevant stakeholders.

Funding Mechanisms The funding mechanisms for ITS projects can be broadly classified into three categories: 1. Public funding 2. Private funding 3. Public-private partnership (PPP) model

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The huge capital investment makes public funding an essential requirement for the deployment of ITS. Private funding is usually available for research projects and trial runs and is often provided by industry players and OEMs. Various PPP funding sources and opportunities are also provided by national and regional governments. The European Union has laid multiple structural funds and programs to support the development of ITS. Even though some project aspects are subject to public tender in many situations, the method of financing remains public. Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T) development is supported through three main sources of funding: the Connecting Europe Facility (CEF), the Cohesion Fund, and the European Fund for Regional Development. These sources have a budget spread over a tenure of seven years under the European Multiannual Financial Framework for 2014 to 2020. The CEF, with a total budget of €23.7 billion for the period 2014 to 2020, supports the implementation of ITS corridors and the deployment of harmonized ITS services across the EU. The Innovation and Networks Executive Agency (INEA) is responsible for managing €22.4 billion of funding provided by the CEF. It is also responsible for managing a €6.3 billion fund, provided under Horizon 2020 between the period of 2014 to 2020. The financial support under the CEF is delivered in the forms of direct grants from the EU budget and/or support for the application of innovative financial instruments, developed in cooperation with trusted financial institutions such as the European Investment Bank (EIB), Marguerite Fund, Loan Guarantee Instrument for Trans-European Transport Network Projects (LGTT), and Project Bond Initiative (Nikolova 2018). The European Commission, European Investment Bank, and European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) created a Joint Assistance to Support Projects in European Regions (JASPER). It helps in the absorption of funds available under the CEF and the Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA) and, thus, acts as another source of funding for ITS projects in Europe. The European PPP Expertise Centre (EPEC) was created, in 2008, by the European Commission, to support the public sector across Europe in delivering better PPPs. The Loan Guarantee for TEN-T Projects (LGTT) is used for ITS deployment as part of the PPPs under the TEN-T investment program. LGTTs are used as PPPs for the construction of e-toll systems and charging for rail infrastructure. A list of ITS projects and their funding sources is presented in Table 2.6.1.

Chapter 2.6

94 PROJECT NAMES

SOURCE OF FUNDING

Digital Road for Evolving Connected and Automated Driving (DiREC), Driving Automated Vehicle Growth on National Roads (DRAGON)

Conference of European Directors of Roads

C-ROADS, Connected Corridor for Driving Automation (CONCORDA), Interoperable corridors (InterCor)

EU: Connecting Europe Facility (CEF)

PRYSTINE, AutoDrive

EU: Electronic components and system for European leadership (ECSEL)

I-AT, Sohjoa Baltic

The European Regional Development Fund (ERDF)

5G-Blueprint, 5G-CARMEN, 5G CrossBorder Control, AUTOPILOT, C-Mobile, CARAMEL, CoEXist, Drive2TheFuture, ENSEMBLE, ICT4CART, L3Pilot

EU H2020

C The Difference, Ride2Autonomy

EU Tender

Aurora - The Intelligent Transport Cluster project, Data for Road Safety, Future Mobility Campus Ireland. (FMCI), Dutch Automated Vehicle Initiative (DAVI), Urban ICT Arena, Smartwayz

PPP

Cruise4U, Bertha Benz Drive, Robopilot, TIC-IT, FLOURISH

Industry (Automobile manufacturers and OEMs)

@CITY, 5Stars, ACCORD, Autonomous and Connected Vehicles for Cleaner Air (ACCRA), Autoconduct, AUTOMOST, CAPRI, CO-existence Simulation Modeling of Radars for Self-driving, (COSMOS (UK)), Digibus Austria, Effects of Automated Systems on Safety (EASY), Integrated Cooperative Automated Vehicles (i-CAVE), MultiCAV

Multi stakeholders (Research, Academia, Private, etc.)

Table 2.6.1: ITS Projects and Funding Sources Source: Author’s compilation

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Sustainable Business Model The implementation cost of ITS services is a key facet, which must be addressed to ensure public acceptance and large-scale deployment. The cost benefit analysis carried out for the 2016 Cooperative Intelligent Transportation Systems (C-ITS) Deployment Study in Europe, by Ricardo (2016), has shown that the potential benefits of C-ITS strongly outweigh the costs. However, these benefits will take time to manifest, are largely societal benefits that are difficult to be quantified in monetary terms for institutions and companies, and rely heavily on coordinated and rapid implementation. The main benefits, like increased safety, traffic time reduction, lower fuel consumption, etc., go directly to the users and society at large, while the upfront investment on deployment, operation, and maintenance needs to be borne by service providers, road operators, vehicle manufacturers, and other such decision-makers. Given the public-oriented benefits of ITS, transferring these upfront costs to the public (i.e., the users) is a key challenge; there is a requirement for a clearly defined business model. A business model provides a link between the vision of the organization and its approach to its process to create value. Most of the study on ITS has been focused on technological aspects and implementation challenges pertaining to rules and litigation related to ITS deployment. Such studies have widely explored the economical evaluation of ITS projects using cost-benefit analysis (CBA) as a tool and ignoring the aspect of creating a robust business case. The lack of focus on exploring a sustainable business model has created major challenges in translating technological possibilities into real-world benefits to providers, users, and society. One of the recent works discussing a business case of ITS (Zografos et al. 2008) uses a multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) method-developed business model framework for demand responsive transport (DRT) targeting elderly and differently abled people in Helsinki. The study has suggested a methodology for identifying and ranking the most feasible business model, based on criteria such as legal and regulatory framework, market opportunities, and business vision and mission. The business models in ITS are dynamic as they need to consider the divergent, unique, and transforming nature of the transport sector. Osterwalder and Pigneur (2001) defined a holistic approach to develop a business model based on four main pillars: a) products and services, b) infrastructure and network of partners, c) relationship capital, and d) financial aspects. In addition to the abovementioned pillars, credibility of stakeholders is another aspect that needs to be considered to ensure a successful business model.

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1. Products and Services: The quality of products and services provided in ITS is the driver of revenue generation and societal value enhancements. Value creation starts with ITS component providers like smart vehicle manufactures, ICT component manufacturers, smart infrastructure providers, etc. These products are then provided to the users to generate value propositions in terms of safety, reduced travel time, reduced congestions, etc. Direct benefits generate user interest and create a willingness to pay for these services, resulting in a rolling economy. This, in turn, creates new opportunities for companies to enter the market as service providers. The topmost level creates external benefits, like reduced road congestion, decreased private vehicle usage, reduced noise and air pollution, less travel cost, etc., that enhance the overall social, environmental, and economic conditions of the region. ECONOMY AND SOCIETY Saving on state budget, reduced pollution, decreased rate of accident, social inclusion, etc.

ITS USER Safety, reduced travel time, congestion management, travel experience enhancement, etc.

ITS PROVIDER Smart vehicle and infrastructure Figure 2.6.1: Value Proposition for ITS Source: Giannoutakis and Li 2011 2. Infrastructure and Network of Partners: This aspect focuses on leveraging intelligent infrastructure and ICT components to enhance service delivery and net value gained. ITS stakeholders consist of governments, funding bodies, transport groups, automobile companies,

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communication technology companies, the energy sector, road users, etc. It is essential to create a synergy in this multi-stakeholder environment and identify key partners, their responsibilities, incentives expected, and the nature of potential partnerships. While discussing the business case, the challenges of compatibility between ITS infrastructure and vehicles also needs to be addressed. 3. Relationship Capital: This aspect addresses the challenges related to user concerns, customer relationships, and the ascertaining of users by an ITS service provider. One of the key concerns with ITS is user data collection and storage. ITS service providers need to gain trust from users to supply their services. 4. Financial Aspects: This refers to the generation of profits and revenue for the service provider by the usage of pricing models and various tangible and intangible assets. Financial success is highly dependent on the success of the aforementioned aspects. ITS require hefty initial investments with a long returns period. A successful ITS business model is one that has satisfactory returns and benefits to the investors, along with the creation of a self-financing environment after a stipulated duration. 5. Stakeholder Credibility: Beyond financial viability, the long-term success of ITS is dependent on the support of all major stakeholders. Stakeholder trust is a critical criterion for different interest groups to avail possible advantages along with achieving broader gains at the societal level. A clear business model is needed for deploying ITS, as they cannot solely rely on public funding, and requires the involvement of different industries as well as public-sector stakeholders. It is essential to create a level-playing (commercially sustainable) field for all the potential market actors to keep them competitively ahead in designing innovative business models. The value proposition for ITS is illustrated in Figure 2.6.1.

ITS Cost-Benefit Evaluation Methods The prioritization of investment in ITS without a meaningful business case is bound to face huge losses after deployment. Despite a possibly good implementation, unpredictable circumstances—like driver and citizen behaviors—may create problems.

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There are various methods to evaluate the socioeconomic impact of an ITS project, such as i) traditional cost-benefit analysis (CBA), ii) multi-criteria analysis (MCA), iii) sketch-planning, iv) before-and-after studies, v) simulation studies, vi) “willingness-to-pay” analyses, vii) case-based reasoning techniques, and viii) hybrid real options (HRO) methodologies. CBA is a structured approach to determine the benefits and costs of multiple investment options from a socioeconomical point of view. CBA is the most used evaluation method for transport-sector stakeholders; it is used to conduct at least 80 % of feasibility studies (Mans et al. 2011). Despite its wide usage, CBA is criticized by researchers for a number of reasons; one criticism is that forecasting, and handling of future uncertainties, is difficult (Shapiro 2011). The method was first used in the transport sector for the UK motorway project for the M1, in 1960. CBA is also used in Canada and the US, by both federal and state transport departments (Transport Canada 1994; US Federal Highway Administration 2003). MCA is also known as the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The key difference between MCA and CBA is that priority is given to investment efficiency rather than to cost to benefit ratio in MCA. Notably, MCA allows the evaluation of criteria that are difficult to quantify in terms of money. Some disadvantages include the subjectivity of decision makers and variations by case, thus, stifling transferability (Leviäkangas et al. 2002). Sketch-planning is a GIS-based technology that generates estimates of transportation and land-use demand, and their implications on an order-ofmagnitude scale. Sketch-planning has been incorporated in a Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) evaluation to determine the environmental benefits of ITS (Hadi et al. 2008). Two applications that are typically utilized in ITS sketch-planning are Screening for Intelligent Transportation Systems (SCRITIS) and the ITS Deployment Analysis System (IDAS). The “countdown” real-time information system on London transit has been evaluated using “willingness-to-pay” studies. HRO is a relatively new evaluation framework, introduced in the early 2000s by joint research from Neufville, MIT Technology and Policy, James E Neely III, and consultancy firm Booz-Allen and Hamilton Inc. (Neely and Neufville 2001). The method is widely used in academic research but not in practice. HRO has been applied to different investments where uncertainty is a large component, such as product platforms, risky R&D projects, and large-scale infrastructure investments (Jiao 2012; Houge and Westlie 2011).

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The following tables, 2.6.2, 2.6.3. 2.6.4 and 2.6.5, represent key benefits of ITS that contribute positively in ITS cost-benefit analysis.

Benefits of Traveler Information Specific component of the information system

Measured benefits

Reported improvement

References European Commission 2013 European Commission 2013

Integrated system in Europe

Reduction of fatal crashes

2.7 %

Integrated system in Europe

Reduction of injury crashes

1.8 %

Integrated system in Tucson, Arizona

Reduction of incident-related delay

70 %

Ezell 2010

Integrated system in Tucson, Arizona

Fuel saving

11 %

Ezell 2010

Pre-trip information

Changing route leading to time savings, reduced driver frustration

30 %–60 %

Khattak 1996; Jou 1997

Pre-trip information

Reliability

5 %–16 %

Variable message signs Variable message signs

Changing route leading to time savings Travel time reduction

30 %–40 % 7 %–22 %

Table 2.6.2: Benefits of Traveler Information Source: Tomecki, Yushenko and Ashford (2016)

US DOT 2015a Benson 2001; Bertini 2005 Nielson 2003

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Benefits of Traffic Control and Management Specific component of traffic control and management Advanced signal control Incident management Incident management Incident management Ramp metering

Measured benefits

Ramp metering

Travel time saving Reduction in incident duration Reduction in incident duration Reduction in crashes Reduction in crashes Travel time saving Speed increase

Parking management

Time to find parking

Ramp metering

Reported improvement

References

8 %–20 %

Nielsen 2003

40 %

Bertini 2005

77 min to 33 min 41 %

Pretrov et al. 2002 Bertini 2005

27 %–50 %

Bertini 2005; Nielsen 2003 Bertini 2005; Nielsen 2003 Kang and Gillen 1999 DfT 2015

65 % 55 km/h to 75 km/h 50 %

Table 2.6.3: Benefits of Traffic Control and Management Source: Tomecki et al. (2016)

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Benefits of Public Transport Management Specific component of public transport management Vehicle location and dispatch Vehicle location and dispatch Real-time pre-trip information Signal pre-emption Signal pre-emption Signal pre-emption Integrated ticketing Integrated ticketing Integrated ticketing

Measured benefit

Reported improvement

References

On-time arrival Reliability improved Traveler satisfaction Variability of travel time Reduced delay Reduction in stops Patronage increase Revenue increase Benefit– cost ratios

78 %–83 %

Hu 2002

35 %

Bertini 2005 Bertini 2005 Bertini 2005

42 % 29 %–59 % 5s/intersection

7.5 % annual

Bertini 2005 Bertini 2005 Booz 2009

10 %

Booz 2009

5.6–7.8

Paddington 2011

50 %

Table 2.6.4: Benefits of Public Traffic Management Source: Tomecki et al. (2016)

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Benefits of Enforcement Specific component of the enforcement system Speed enforcement Speed enforcement Speed enforcement Speed enforcement Red-light cameras Red-light cameras Red-light cameras Red-light cameras

Measured benefits

Reported improvement

References

Reduction of violations Crash reduction

3 %–7 %

FHWA 2006

85 %

FHWA 2006

Noise level reduction Emission reduction

3db (A)

Reduction in violations Crash reduction

20 %–60 %

Chen and Miles 1999 Chen and Miles 1999 Chen and Miles 1999 Bunch 2011

Injury crash reduction Fatal crash reduction

44 %

15 %–25 %

44 %–54 %

67 %

Baththana and Durdin 2014 Baththana and Durdin 2014

Table 2.6.5: Benefits of Enforcement Source: Tomecki et al. (2016)

References Giannoutakis, K. N., and F. Li. 2011. “Developing Sustainable e-Business Models for Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS).” In Building the eWorld Ecosystem. I3E 2011. IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology, vol. 353, edited by T. Skersys, R. Butleris, L. Nemuraite and R. Suomi, 200–11. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. Nikolova, Christina. 2018. “Entrepreneurial Environment for Intelligent Transport Systems Deployment.” Ostenwalder, A., and Y. Pigneur. 2002.An eBusiness Model Ontology for Modeling eBusiness. Bled, Slovenia. Tomecki, A. B., K. Yushenko and A. Ashford. 2016. Considering a Costbenefit Analysis Framework for Intelligent Transport Systems February 2016. Retrieved from www.nzta.govt.nz.

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Zografos, K. G., K. N. Androutsopoulos and T. Sihvola. 2008. “A Methodological Approach for Developing and Assessing Business Models for Flexible Transport Systems.” Transportation 35 (6): 777– 95.

CHAPTER 2.7 ITS: INNOVATION FRAMEWORK

Introduction In the modern world, technological advancement highly influences our personal choices, how we communicate, and even where we live and work. It is a rapidly changing society and economy. A substantial increase in inexpensive computing power, especially the advanced development in ICTs, is radically changing access to information and services. The effects of new technologies and different models of transportation service delivery are extensive and likely to transform the movement of people and goods in the near future. Modern technologies have given a new meaning to the urban transportation system, with new innovative transportation technologies constantly evolving and making their way into the mainstream. These emerging technologies, driven in part by communication systems, have redefined transportation as we know it. Over the past few decades, the automobile and technology (especially information and communication) industries have marked a huge success in bringing computerization and wireless capabilities into motor vehicles; technologies that allow sensors and software to replace some or all of the functions in driving is commonplace now. Emerging vehicle technology, infrastructure, communication, and roadway technology have significant positive prospects in improving urban transportation systems. Understanding these emerging trends and opportunities, and their potential ramifications on the urban transportation sector, is important to consider. Additionally, the range of impacts of transportation investment should be considered when forming federal, state, and local transportation policies. Innovative products like driverless cars, developed by Google and Hyperloop Transportation Technologies, currently being tested in Dubai, have a great potential to change the future of the urban transport system. Proper research, investigation, review, and adaptation of emerging trends and capabilities is an important part of the US Department of Transportation’s (USDOT) mission to ensure a fast, safe, efficient, accessible and convenient

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transportation system in the United States. The San Diego Association of Governments (SANDAG) serves as the forum for regional decision-making for the San Diego region, under the umbrella of USDOT. SANDAG has deployed several ITS model programs, systems, and regional communications networks that have transitioned from implementation to pilot or normal operations. San Diego County along with the six other Southern California counties have collectively been designated by Congress as a national ITS demonstration corridor. SANDAG administers the demonstration project on behalf of twenty-two agencies that make up this important multiregional effort to build a Southern California Transportation Systems Management (TSM) Network. The TSM Network includes subsystems to better manage the region's freeways, roads, transit, incidents and emergency response, special events, commercial vehicle operations, and traveler information.

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) ITS are the application of technologies to existing transportation systems, including vehicles, road infrastructure, traveler information, transit, bikes and pedestrian networks, and payment systems, to maximize the efficiency of those services. It offers the potential for more effective and efficient transportation operations and service delivery. Emerging ITS technologies can greatly influence transportation choices across all modes of travel. SANDAG already has a regional ITS program in place, which provides a solid foundation to incorporate emerging technological advancement in the transportation system. The program mainly focuses on planning, implementation, operation, and deployment of ITS technologies. Emerging technologies should be well integrated into a transportation system to determine their improvement capabilities. The progress and benefits of existing and planned project investments should be thoroughly assessed.

Latest Developments in ITS The way we make our daily travel decisions is set to change dramatically over the next twenty years. One of the key drivers of this change will be technology. Over the years, technological advancement has changed the transportation scenario. We can classify the developments in the transportation sector into five key components, namely, i) communication technology (internet, broadband, Bluetooth, wireless network, signaling systems, etc.), ii) computational technology (software applications, geospatial devices, GPS, maps, etc.), iii) data processing technology (cloud storage and processing of VLDBs, etc.), iv) vehicular technology

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(Hyperloop, driverless cars, AGVs, etc.), and v) infrastructure development (bridges, flyovers, tracks, roundabouts, etc.). 1. Communication Technology This includes automatic data collection systems including automatic vehicle location systems, automatic passenger counting systems, advanced passenger information systems, and electronic fare payment and ticketing systems. These are becoming ubiquitous in large networks as they have a substantial impact on the availability, quality, and controlling of information for the planning of services and operations. In a modern transportation system, communication technology plays a crucial role. The entire system is hugely based on the communication system, either vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) or vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communications. Most components—such as the traffic system, control system, traffic-control system, surveillance, and operation center—work on communication technology through the internet and other networks. 2. Cooperative Vehicle Highway Systems The emerging innovative aspect of cooperative vehicle highway systems (CVHS) is that they involve vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) and vehicle-tovehicle (V2V) communications. CVHS communicate information dynamically between each vehicle and to the infrastructure. The goal is to advise and take actions with the objective of improving sustainability, safety, comfort, and efficiency. The scope of CVHS is wide; it ranges from driver-warning mechanisms to taking control in dangerous/critical situations. The scope excludes two conditions: i) vehicle-based systems that receive non-dynamic information from the infrastructure, such as temporary speed limits, and ii) applications where the driver is taken out of the loop under some or all normal driving conditions. Much of the recent research has focused on the interoperability of CVHS and a common platform for the various applications of it. The European project, Pre-Drive C2X, defined three different types of CVHS application: traffic efficiency, safety, and infotainment/business/deployment. 3. Computational Technology Recent advancements in vehicle technology have permitted using fewer but more powerful computer processors in vehicles. These microprocessor modules, with hardware memory management and real-time operating systems, are more expensive. The new system allows a more sophisticated software implementation, including model-based process control, artificial

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intelligence, and ubiquitous computing. It tries to improve the safety, mobility, and sustainability of the transport system by taking advantage of ICT and ubiquitous computing. Geospatial devices and high-quality maps are very crucial for advancements in vehicular technology. With the application of geospatial devices and maps, vehicles locate other vehicles, infrastructure, and routes, and, accordingly, find the most suitable route. An increasing number of vehicles are equipped with GPS systems, that have two-way communication with a traffic data provider. Position readings from these vehicles are also used to compute vehicle speeds, and to determine traffic signal priority. 4. Data Processing Technology Data processing is the collection and manipulation of vast quantities of traffic data to produce meaningful information. Recent development in data processing technology has made it possible to collect and analyze huge volumes of traffic data, with fast processing to produce real-time required information to the user as well as to the traffic control center. With the evolvement of cloud storage, it is possible to safely store and maintain large databases online, which can be shared with users as well as with transport agencies. In cloud-based computing, data, applications, services, and infrastructure are provided through the cloud, hosted on remote infrastructure, available anywhere. The advantages are that i) all users can access the latest data, ii) terminals and user devices can be of lower computing power, iii) there is no need for large capital outlay or specialist IT skills, iv) the cloud operator handles back-ups and software upgrades, and v) implementation is highly scalable. Advancements in data processing technology have made it possible for emerging technologies, like self-driving cars, to collect and process data very fast and take real-time actions automatically. Fast data processing technologies are integrated with the system to make it quicker and smarter. With such a large, wide range of traffic data, it is important to have advanced data processing technology in order to achieve intelligent transport systems. 5. Vehicular Technology Every day, automobiles equipped with increasingly sophisticated autonomous driving technologies are coursing onto the world’s roadways. There is a remarkable amount already known about the capabilities of these technologies, even in the face of unpredictable driving situations. But, in

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addition to the road, these systems must interact with something far more complex: the driver, who is gradually becoming a part-time passenger in their own car. Tesla’s and Volvo’s semi-autonomous systems, which allow drivers to relinquish control of their vehicles for periods of time, represent, perhaps, the leading wave of the single greatest shift in vehicle automation since the introduction of automatic transmission. Google Car and Hyperloop are other models that promise great potential in revolutionizing automated transportation. Other advanced driver assistance systems, such as automatic emergency braking, adaptive cruise control, and lane-keeping assistance, are rapidly becoming standard features. Soon, such technology will likely become the norm across the vehicle fleet. 6. In-Vehicle Warning and Control Systems / Advanced Driver Assistance Systems At different levels of development and deployment, there is a wide range of in-vehicle warning and control systems. These systems are considered to be a level below a fully autonomous vehicle. They support drivers by giving warnings, providing information, and taking over specific elements of vehicle control. Intelligent Speed Adaptation (ISA) ISA is a driver-assistance system that applies real-time information from the road to assist vehicle speed control. ISA can take three broader forms: i) advisory/informative displays give real-time information to the driver regarding speed limits on the road taken and is useful in cases like driving through foreign countries and during road works; ii) optional/voluntary ISA limits the vehicle speed according to the speed limit on the road taken and can be overruled by driver; iii) mandatory ISA limits the vehicle speed as per the speed limit on the taken road and cannot be overruled by the driver. Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV) AGV is a mobile robot that follows markers or wires in the floor, or uses vision, magnets, or laser for navigation. AGV is most often used in industrial applications to move materials around a manufacturing facility or warehouse. Real-time wireless communications enable intelligent navigation technology to modify AGV movement based on constantly varying surroundings. This means that AGVs are not constrained to a defined path. Properly positioned access points define the accessible work area; depending on the size of the work area, the application could require as little as a single access point or an entire network of access points. Data is

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transferred between the control system and vehicles via industrial point coordination functions (IPCF) or industrial point coordination functionmanagement channels (IPCF-MC). Standard data, such as transport orders, status messages, and fail-safe communication, can run in parallel on the same connection. For this purpose, every vehicle is equipped with an industrial ethernet client module that is connected to the vehicle controller. Because there is no wired connection, communication between the control system and the battery-operated vehicles, and between the vehicles themselves and their surroundings, must run on a reliable and robust wireless network. Driverless Cars and Other Autonomous Technologies During the last few years, driverless cars / autonomous technologies have marked a great development. An autonomous car is a vehicle that can sense its environment and navigate without human input. There has been an interest in driverless cars, particularly in the military sector. The main benefit of driverless cars in the military is that the cars could be deployed in war zones with attenuated risks to service personnel. Various vehicle manufacturers and research organizations have recently developed driverless vehicle demonstrations. These vehicles work using a combination of many technologies such as lasers, video detection, radar, GPS, odometry, computer vision, and wheel sensors. An advanced control system interprets sensory information to identify appropriate navigation paths, distinguish between different cars on the road, as well as obstacles and relevant signage. Some examples include Google Car, GM Driverless Car, Stanford “Junior,” Tesla, Uber Driverless Car, Volvo Drive Me Project and Volkswagen GolfGti Automatic. To date, the automated cars permitted on public roads are not yet fully autonomous. They all require a human driver who is ready at a moment's notice to take control of the wheel. Some anticipated benefits of automated cars are i) a potential reduction in traffic collision caused by human driver errors, ii) reduced labor costs, iii) higher speed limits, iv) smoother rides, v) increased roadway capacity and reduced traffic congestion, vi) improved ability to manage traffic flow (less need of traffic police, insurance, or even road signage), vii) reduced car thefts, and viii) enhanced mobility for the young, elderly, differently abled, and low-income people. In spite of the various benefits to increased vehicle automation, some challenges persist, such as i) disputes concerning liability, ii) time needed

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to convert from existing non-autonomous vehicles to autonomous, iii) people’s hesitance to forfeit control of their cars due to risks, and iv) implementation of legal framework and regulations for self-driving cars. Possible technological obstacles for autonomous cars are i) software reliability, ii) current road infrastructure and design, iii) requirement of high-quality, specialized maps, iv) conflicts on the radio spectrum, and v) AI’s inability to accurately function in complicated environments. There are many potential disadvantages of autonomous vehicles as well. Wide-spread adoption of autonomous vehicles leads to the loss of drivingrelated jobs in the road transport industry. There is also the potential risk of hacking, terrorist attacks, and loss of privacy. Research shows that drivers in autonomous vehicles have a lagged reflex in critical situations, compared to manual driving. In the US, state vehicle codes do not envisage, but also do not necessarily prohibit, highly automated vehicles. To clarify the legal status and regulate such vehicles, several states have enacted, or are considering, specific laws. In 2016, seven states, Nevada, Florida, Michigan, California, Hawaii, Washington, and Tennessee, along with the District of Columbia, enforced laws for autonomous vehicles. After the first fatal accident by Tesla's autopilot system, revising laws for autonomous car is being heavily discussed globally. Driverless cars are a potentially revolutionizing technology. These emerging innovations still exist as models for demonstration. They could benefit a wide range of the population in terms of safety, efficiency, and reliability, especially the elderly and differently abled people who can’t drive. In the urban environment, it is important to have a properly supporting zoning regulation, pricing mechanism, urban design, policies, and regulatory framework to make it commercial and available. Platoons / Car-following Technologies / Automated Road Trains Platoons are groups of automated vehicles following each other, typically with much smaller headways than usual. Benefits of such systems include better fuel efficiency, increased road user safety, increased traffic throughput, as well as convenience for the driver. Hyperloop Technology The world is ready for a new mode of transportation that will change the way people live. Hyperloop is a new way to move people and goods at

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airline speeds for the price of a bus ticket—like broadband for transportation. It is on-demand, energy efficient, and safe. The Hyperloop design uses a combination of magnetic acceleration and low air pressure; a custom electric motor accelerates and decelerates a levitated pod through a low-pressure tube. The vehicle glides silently for miles with no turbulence. The concept was proposed by inventor Elon Musk—CEO of the aerospace firm SpaceX and the guy behind self-driving car manufacturer Tesla—as an alternative to the California Highspeed Rail System from Los Angeles to San Francisco. Musk’s Hyperloop consists of two massive tubes extending from San Francisco to Los Angeles. Pods carrying passengers would travel through the tubes at speeds topping out over 700 mph. For propulsion, magnetic accelerators will be planted along the length of the tube, propelling the pods forward. The tubes would house a low-pressure environment, surrounding the pod with a cushion of air that permits the pod to move safely at such high speeds. Given the tight quarters in the tube, pressure buildup in front of the pod could be a problem; the tube needs a system to keep air from building up. Musk’s design recommends an air compressor on the front of the pod that will move air from the front to the tail, keeping the pod aloft and preventing pressure rise by air displacement. A one-way trip on the Hyperloop is projected to take about 35 minutes, which is almost three times faster than flying and twelve times faster than a car, while it produces its own electricity from solar power. Conventional means of transportation, whether road, air, water, or rail, tend to be a mix of expensive, slow, and environmentally harmful. Particularly, road transportation is much more problematic, in terms of carbon emission and energy consumption. As the environmental effects of energy consumption continue to worsen, mass transit is a germane solution. Mass transit modes like conventional railways are energy efficient and offer the most environmentally friendly option. However, they are too slow and expensive to be massively adopted. Hyperloop aims to make a costeffective, high-speed public transportation system to use for moderate distances, making a clean and self-powering system. In addition to its wide range of benefits, there are, of course, drawbacks to this technology. Most notably, it offers an unpleasant and frightening experience. Riding in a narrow, sealed, and windowless capsule that is subjected to significant acceleration forces, inside a sealed steel tunnel, could be unpleasant; high noise levels due to air compressed and ducted around the capsule at near-sonic speeds, and the vibration and jostling could be a major discomfort. At high speeds, even a minor deviation from the straight path may add considerable buffeting. In addition to these, the

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management of issues such as equipment malfunction, power cuts, accidents, and emergency evacuations is unclear. There has also been concern about the technology’s resilience to natural disasters, like earthquakes, and terrorist attacks. 7. Infrastructure Development With emerging technologies and continuous transformation of vehicle systems, complementary infrastructure development becomes crucial. Specific innovations require specific infrastructure for their functioning. With continuously evolving technologies, existing infrastructure may not be able to support them. For example, Hyperloop requires exclusive construction of steel tubes, and BRTS requires road widening and separate corridors. In some situations, it is not possible to address traffic demands solely by introducing smart technologies, and major infrastructure construction is the only option. An example would be finding that the only viable and efficient alternative for smooth movement of traffic is by the construction of flyovers.

Emerging Trends in San Diego Transport System 1. Autonomous and CV Technology Autonomous and CV technologies form an integral part of the future of transportation technologies. The CV is a vehicle that has a wireless communication technology—to wirelessly communicate with other (connected) vehicles—which provides additional safety features to the driver as well as the vehicle. The vehicles cooperate on the roads to reduce congestion and fuel. In critical situations, like collision between two vehicles, vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication can be very helpful; it can detect threats hundreds of yards from other vehicles that are not visible, where on-board sensors do not suffice. Autonomous or automated vehicles operate independently from other vehicles and rely on internal sensors to survey and respond to the surroundings. At least some safety control functions, such as steering, throttle, or braking, occur without direct driver input. Autonomous vehicles use cameras, GPS, sensors, and telecommunication to obtain information to make judgments and act accordingly. It should be noted that the vehicles that provide safety warnings but do not perform a control function are not automated, even if they have all the advanced technologies of automated vehicles. It is expected that driverless cars (fully autonomous vehicles) have

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the potential to replace conventional cars. This transformation from conventional to fully autonomous vehicles would require infrastructure investment, which could include the development of dedicated autonomous lanes along with necessary communication network enhancement. Driverless taxis could be a revolution, as it would enable users to hail safe rides through their smartphones, and such autonomous vehicles would enable ride-hailing companies to seamlessly reposition vehicles to match demand better. These emerging technologies offer an even wider range of possible benefits apart from the safety. Vehicle control systems that automatically accelerate and brake with the flow of traffic can conserve fuel more efficiently than the average driver. They can reduce fuel consumption and increase the productivity of vehicle and the user by eliminating plausible accidents and consequent congestions. This, in turn, leads to reductions in greenhouse gas emission. Additionally, there is the option of choosing the better route, based on traffic and weather conditions, detected by the vehicle’s communication systems. Autonomous vehicles have opened new doors for differently abled people who cannot drive themselves. 2. Alternative Fuel Vehicles The development and deployment of alternative fuel infrastructure, such as fueling stations and electric vehicle chargers, have been considered in planning the region's transportation network. Recognizing the need for it, the SANDAG board included several recommended actions in the 2050 Regional Transportation Plan, adopted in 2011, to begin planning for an increase in alternative fuel vehicles. 3. Zero Emission Vehicle Readiness Corridor electrification should be addressed to decrease i) impacts to the electric grid, ii) greenhouse gas emission, and iii) economic costs for charger installations and access to adequate power. There are electric vehicle supply equipment options that can be combined with solar canopies and energy storage to create electric vehicle charging stations powered completely by the sun. Some possible designs of this combination are i) a solar canopy that provides enough solar electricity for a level 2 charger and shade for one parking space, ii) a large solar canopy that provides enough electricity for a DC fast charger and shade for eight parking spaces. These electric vehicle chargers can be operated 100 % off the electric grid and by

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multiple drivers every day. This technology was first demonstrated by the San Diego County Regional Airport Authority, in November 2013. 4. Solar Roadway This is the utilization of the public transport infrastructure for energy generation, storage, and distribution system. It generates wind, solar, or geothermal energy, using the existing transportation infrastructure facility. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) has undertaken research and development of such technologies. One such pilot project in the pipeline is the construction of a road using solar panels as road material. These solar roadways have great potential to generate, store, and distribute electricity that can be used for road applications, or put into the grid for future energy consumption. 5.

Multi-Modal System Management

Development and implementation of real-time multi-modal modeling and simulation applications are an emerging technology within multi-modal system management. These applications are designed to simulate and evaluate traffic patterns and multiple/cross-jurisdictional operational strategies, simultaneously, and produce results in minutes. They have the potential to forecast traffic patterns and recommend operational changes to minimize delays and congestion. Forecasting and real-time analysis allow transportation system managers to take proactive measures, like modifying traffic signal timing and ramp meters, providing travelers with precise transit information or route information, and travel options during recurring congestion or incidents, as well as analyzing and developing new transportation system management strategies and multi-modal action plans. Multi-modal system management is also beneficial in terms of improved situational awareness, enhanced response and control, and improved corridor/system performance. 6. Smart Parking Smart parking utilizes emerging technologies to deliver a parking inventory management system that provides the ability to broadcast real-time parking availability information to the public and use such information to maximize the use of parking facilities. It monitors and collects information about available parking spaces and provides that information to people either before they start a trip or at key decision points along their trip. Using such information, people can make informed decisions according to the available parking spaces at the destination, such as departure time, transit service, and

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route choice. This concept is a key transportation system management strategy as it focuses on the precise tracking of existing parking facilities’ usage and future parking facilities as well. 9. Parking Guidance There have been significant improvements in parking guidance and parking management systems. An emerging technology is the combination of personal technology, such as smartphones, with real-time parking inventory data to guide transportation users to available parking. It will help in improving efficiency and reducing wasted fuel by using sensors, new meters, and real-time parking data feeds. It will enable users to quickly and efficiently locate, reserve, and secure a parking spot, thus, helping optimal utilization of parking spaces and a decrease of vehicle carbon emission. 10. Mobility Hubs Mobility hubs are transportation centers that are located at major transit stations that can provide an integrated suite of mobility options, amenities, and urban design enhancements that can bridge the distance between transit and an individual’s origin or destination. Mobility hubs can include bike/car share, neighborhood electric vehicles, bike parking and support services, dynamic parking strategies, real-time traveler information, wayfinding, real-time ride sharing, and improved bicycle and pedestrian connectivity. 11. Unified Transportation Payment (UTP) Unified transportation payment is the consolidation of all forms of public transportation payment, including transit fares, municipal parking, and toll collection. Unified transportation payment aims to create a single platform that links and coordinates all multi-modal transportation-related activities, such as parking, tolls, smart cards, transit passes, bank issued IDs, transponders, smartphone, license plates, etc., in one open payment account system, to make a seamless and convenient commuting experience. The goal is to i) influence shifting from a single occupancy commute to a transit ride, ii) facilitate mobility on demand, and iii) reduce inconveniences that inhibit commuters from using transit systems. Unified transportation payment also gives incentives/reward-credits based on the usage of a travel mode like car sharing or public transport.

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12. Transit Signal Priority (TSP) Based on bus route schedules and real-time traffic data, along with the use of GPS, TSP sets up priority at specific intersections, as necessary. For example, if a transit vehicle is running behind its schedule time, then the TSP system will give it priority at equipped intersections to manage the service. It achieves this by giving the vehicle an extended green light or a shortened red light at a particular intersection. 13. Transit/Pedestrian Collision Warning During the last decade, fatal collisions between buses and pedestrians have grown significantly. The causes for the increase are varied, but one primary reason identified is the use of cell phones while walking. To analyze the motion of vehicles during turns, gyroscopes, GPS signals, and accelerometers can be integrated onboard. These sensors, along with other sensor technologies, such as sound and laser detectors and conventional cameras, can be used to provide better detection and distance estimation of nearby pedestrians. 14. Bicycle-assist Technologies Bicycle-assist technologies, such as bike lift systems or bike electrification, can make bicycles more accessible to a wide range of the population, particularly the older and very young demographics. Electric bikes have a range of technologies that can be employed under certain conditions, such as climbing hills. Additionally, bike lift systems are a measure to make certain roads or streets more accessible to all types of self-powered bicycles. A bike lift system installed on a steep roadway can have a bike attached to its transmission, for the duration of the lift, to make hill-climbing easier. These bicycle-assistance technologies provide greater accessibility to a wide variety of areas, as well as to transit station areas, that can help facilitate longer distance multi-modal trips. 15. Virtual Workplace Continued advancements in ICT, virtual reality, and 3D printing could make remote working the norm. In the presence of such advanced technologies, teleworking has become a viable option. In such an environment, we can imagine a future where there will be a team of workers collaborating in much greater ways beyond just sharing files and conferencing over the internet. People can physically interact with objects over distances.

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Advancements could further lessen the need for additional transportation infrastructure investments and reduce travel demand. 16. Traveler Information Traveler information systems have had marked significant advancement, over the past years, with real-time and predictive data delivered directly to a user's smartphone in a user-friendly format on an interactive map. Such technology has a greater depth of information and can alert travelers prior to commute start, or en-route, to increase travel reliability and reduce overall congestion. The SANDAG has completed a border wait times study and market assessment to identify commercially available ITS technologies capable of automatically measuring, monitoring, and reporting border crossing wait times of commercial vehicles. It should be noted that personal data could be much more than just the mode or route choices. It can also include other data such as availability, cost, travel times, and energy consumption. 17. Shared-Use Mobility “Shared-use mobility” refers to the shared ownership of a service as opposed to individual ownership, such as an individual car or bike ownership. Car sharing, bike sharing, scooter sharing, electric vehicle sharing, shuttle services, real-time rider sharing, and ride-hailing services— like Uber, Lyft, and Sidecar that provide on-demand ride services availed through smartphone applications—are all shared-use mobility. Shared-use mobility is a convenient alternative for closing the first or last mile. This service reduces congestion and energy usage. 18. Personal/Wearable Technology In the last few years, there have been major advancements in personal/wearable technologies like smartphones, tablet computers, watches, etc. Advanced computing power, coupled with high-speed data communication, has enabled the seamless delivery of traveler and other service information, which has greatly impacted travel demand. SANDAG and local governments should support open data access, telework options, high network connectivity, and appropriate usage of travel-specific applications and programs.

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19. Policies and Investments The following policies and investments, initiated by San Diego, take advantage of emerging technologies to reduce travel demand and energy consumption, along with ensuring the safety of the transportation network of San Diego. Transportation Demand Management (TDM) The TDM program for the San Diego region, managed by SANDAG, is iCommute. TDM refers to the programs and strategies that manage and reduce traffic congestion by encouraging the use of transportation alternatives to driving, such as car and bike sharing, walking, taking transit, teleworking, and working flexible schedules. These programs aim to reduce overall vehicle miles travelled, make optimal use of the existing transportation network, and maximize the movement of people and goods. Technology plays a key role in delivering TDM solutions, such as software for hailing ride-pooling services, parking reservation and guidance systems, reservation, and payment for shared-use vehicles, etc. Smart growth development can play a vital role in reducing the need for vehicle travel for daily trips, available parking supply, and pricing; it can encourage the use of an alternative mode of transport. Apart from these benefits of TDM, its inclusion in the local planning and development process offers a wide range of economic, environmental, and public health benefits. TDM maximizes returns on infrastructure investments, reduces parking demand, helps meet environmental and air quality goals, and is adaptable and dynamic. Active Transportation SANDAG is committed to planning a broad active transportation program, including Safe Routes to School, a regional bike network, Safe Routes to Transit, and Safe Routes to Highway interchanges. This can be achieved by enhanced detection at intersections for bicycles, pedestrians, or other forms of non-motorized transport (NMT). Using advanced detection systems, specialized signal treatment can be given, such as queue jumping, for cyclists or pedestrians. This would eventually help to maximize investments in transit and highway infrastructure by augmenting safety and access to transit. Open Data In the last several years, there have been significant efforts to shift government-developed propriety management systems to open data

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platforms. The main advantages of open data are i) the promotion of competition for transportation technology systems, and ii) easier upgradation once transportation systems reach their end of life. By adopting open data standards, agencies such as SANDAG move towards managing data rather than developing applications; this allows private industries to use the available information, take benefits and provide robust publicly available applications. One very good example of this emerging trend is in the General Transit Feed System, developed by Google. Publishing of timetables, by third parties like Google, helps reach a wider audience with world-class user-experience, while the proprietary technologies of various transit agencies are being phased out. As per the Government Open Data Consortium, SANDAG can adopt open data principles. Parking Management Toolbox The primary objective of the parking management toolbox is to assess the effectiveness of various parking management strategies, which were made for addressing specific uses. The toolbox will feature a wide range of case studies that provide best practices from around the world for managing parking in a variety of urban and suburban settings. The toolbox will be developed into an interactive, web-based resource that will assist interested jurisdictions with designing customized parking management strategies. To maximize available locations’ utilization, the toolbox could be leveraged to develop regional and subregional parking policies. Emerging technologies can be used to provide better access to available parking spaces and if payment is also a part of the transaction it can be made a part of a universal transportation account. Conclusion The last two decades have witnessed major transformations in the field of transportation. The focus of the world is shifting from infrastructure development to the optimal use of the infrastructure available. To achieve that, ITS are being explored and utilized. Innovative technologies, like Hyperloop and driverless cars, have massive potential to dramatically change the way people move in cities. Applications of ITS have already improved the transportation system in terms of safety, security, reliability, and efficiency. Deft use of communication and other available technologies can make traveling more comfortable, secure, and user friendly, while minimizing environmental impact to improve the overall quality of life to a significant extent.

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References Auer, A., S. Feese and S. Lockwood. 2016. HISTORY OF INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM. Washington, DC: US Department of Transportation, Intelligent Transportation Systems Joint Program Office. Ball, S. 2011. Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS)—latest developments and the use of micro-simulation assessment. Costain: Transport Research Laboratory and Bill Hewlett. San Diego Forward. 2014. The Regional Plan, Emerging Technologies White Paper. Singh, B., and A. Gupta. 2015. “Recent Trends in Intelligent Transportation Systems: a Review.” Journal of Transport Literature: 30–34.

MODULE 3 INTEGRATING REQUIREMENTS PLANNING, DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 3.1 TECHNOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF ITS

Introduction A fundamental tool for road management and urban development is to classify roads into different groups based on the services they are intended to provide. Road classification helps in protecting against the adverse effects of motorized traffic in neighborhoods, along with meeting the needs of communities in transportation services. They also reduce the travel time and cost of transporting people. Arterial roads are important because they carry high-speed and high-volume motor vehicles. Sidewalks and bicycle lanes are provided along arterial roads for the safety of cyclists and pedestrians. Traffic conditions in arterial roads scale up travel costs and other woes of the traveler, especially with peak congestion. Congestions due to unpredictable consequences are difficult to alleviate. Application of Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) to arterial road systems will increase their operation efficiency and improves traffic mobility. There are many techniques and technologies—such as traffic surveillance, sensing technologies, traffic signals, and communication systems—that can be used to monitor, manage, and enhance traffic operation efficiency on arterial roads.

Benefits of Arterial ITS Elements Implementing ITS on arterial roads is beneficial to travelers and transportation agencies as it improves traffic operations and safety. It results in the efficient management of traffic, leading to lesser accidents. The information collected by the traffic surveillance devices will help in regulating the traffic flow on arterial roads, which are always used by highspeed vehicles. They communicate important information about travel conditions to travelers using technologies such as dynamic message signs (DMS) or highway advisory radio (HAR). Arterial ITS devices can be used to monitor critical transportation infrastructure and improve natural disaster evacuation for security purposes. These technologies reduce the travel times, number of stops, delays, fuel costs and environmental costs. They

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increase travel time reliability and vehicle throughput in the transport network. Sometimes, in metropolitan areas, arterial roads are used as an alternative to highways because of the insufficient capacity on highways. Hence, by using arterial ITS infrastructure, the performances of both arterial roads and highways can be improved, including the overall system improvement. This is also known as the interplay between freeway management and arterial management. To select an arterial road for implementing ITS elements, a series of selection criteria are needed. Exhibit 3.1.1 tabulates these criteria, which explain the urgency, feasibility, and suitability for arterial ITS deployments. This exhibit is useful as a guideline to identify and prioritize arterials for ITS implementations.

Arterial ITS Elements Effective use of arterial management elements can efficiently reduce congestion and manage traffic on arterial roads. According to the definition given by the USDOT (United States Department of Transportation) ITS Joint Program Office, there are six categories in arterial management systems (USDOT ITS Joint Program Office 2009): 1. Surveillance, which includes traffic surveillance and infrastructure surveillance 2. Traffic control, which can be used for transit signal priority, emergency vehicle anticipation, adaptive signal control, advanced signal systems, variable speed limits, bicycle and pedestrian, or special events 3. Lane management, which can be used for high-occupancy vehicles/transit (HOV/HOT) facilities, reversible flow lanes, pricing, lane control, variable speed limits, and emergency evacuation 4. Parking management, which includes data collection or parking information dissemination 5. Information dissemination, which may use data management systems (DMS), in-vehicle systems (IVS), and Highway Advisory Radio (HAR) 6. Enforcement, which can be used for speed enforcement or stop/yield enforcement

ITS Technologies and Solutions for Arterial Management Technologies can be in-built in the vehicles or on the road infrastructure. Surveillance systems built on these technologies can be classified as non-

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intrusive and intrusive. Non-intrusive technologies—with a detector installed above or on the sides of the road infrastructure, causing negligible disruption to traffic flow—capture information about an arterial system. Intrusive detection technologies have detectors installed within or across the pavement on roads and bridges (Martin et al. 2003). Non-Intrusive Technologies: Traffic surveillance technologies can be classified based on their installation requirements. Various non-intrusive technologies are active infrared detection, passive infrared detection, microwave detection, ultrasonic detection, passive acoustic detection and video detection technologies. These systems use state-of-the art signal processing techniques. They are discussed further below. Active Infrared Detection: They can capture stationary and moving vehicles’ presence, count, speed, length, and queue. In an active system, detection zones are recognized using infrared energy. Energy reflects from the vehicle travelling through the detection zone and the system then records relevant information. Active infrared detectors can be installed at the same intersection without interference from transmitted or received signals (Klein, Mills and Gibson 2006). Passive Infrared Detection: These detectors do not transmit energy of their own. They identify energy emitted by other sources like vehicles, road surface, and other objects that are in their view. These detectors capture volume, speed, class measurement, occupancy, and presence. They also detect pedestrians. Energy captured is then converted into signals that are interpreted as the presence of main vehicles. (Klein, Mills and Gibson October 2006). Microwave Detection: Microwave sensors are also called Doppler detectors. They use a Doppler radar signal to bounce microwaves off an object and measure the frequency of the returning microwaves. These technologies operate at frequencies of 1 GHz to 10 GHz. When an object is moving in the sensor’s field, the microwave’s collision with the object alters its frequency to a higher or lower value. When reflected to the detector, it identifies the change and, thus, detects the object. The detection device works in all weather and traffic conditions and is reliable even at high converging distances (Martin et al. 2003). Ultrasonic Detection: Ultrasonic detectors can detect vehicle count and presence. It is also known as an active acoustic detector. This detector transmits sound waves to the detection zone between frequencies of 20 KHz

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to 300 KHz. The detector, then, identifies the waves reflected from the vehicle. However, this method is susceptible to disturbances by nonvehicular objects in motion. Ultrasonic detection is normally used in combination with other technologies to obtain a wide array of traffic data. Passive Acoustic Detection: Detection using acoustic or ultrasonic detectors can be passive or active. The detection is done using a sensor that is generally fixed to roadside structures. A traffic system is monitored using the detector by identifying the acoustic signals that vehicles generate and emit while operating. A passive acoustic detector does not emit a signal whereas an active detector emits a signal (Martin et al. 2003). They can capture vehicle classification, count, occupancy, presence, and speed. The technology has the advantage of detecting both static and dynamic vehicles and can also monitor five lanes of traffic. Video Detection: A wide range of data can be captured using video technology. It can capture traffic volume, presence, occupancy, density, speed, and vehicle classification. They can be used for origin-destination information, incident detection, and vehicle identification. Based on the experience of the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT), for standard signalized intersections, the mounting height of cameras should be closer to twenty-five to thirty-five feet, sometimes forty feet if mounted on extensions from polearms or at the top of the signal poles. Intrusive Technologies: These technologies have been in use for the past few decades. The main drawback for these technologies is that traffic flow must be interrupted for their installation, operation, and maintenance. In certain roadways, there have been cases where high failure rates have been observed while using these technologies. Three types of intrusive detection technologies are discussed below. Inductive Loop Detection: Inductive loop detectors are widely used detection technologies. If a vehicle passes over a loop or stays in a loop area, the loop inductance reduces, and the oscillator frequency increases. A vehicle is identified when the change in frequency is more than the set threshold in the device Martin et al. 2003). Faulty loop detectors can cause road surface problems prematurely, due to replacement processes. Piezoelectric Detectors: Piezoelectric detection is a well-tested detection technology. It is an electromechanical system that reacts based on changes in compression. They are insensitive to any fields or radiation, and temperatures. It is a metal strip placed on or near the road surface. These

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detectors are mainly used for vehicle detection, count, or classification, and are often seen in weigh-in-motion applications for trucks. The main drawback is that they cannot detect static objects. The detectors are often used in combination with inductive loop detectors to capture traffic data (Martin et al. 2003). Magnetic Detection: A magnetometer is used for magnetic detection. It is an in-road sensor that identifies magnetic disturbances in the earth’s field as a vehicle (ferrous metal) passes over the detector. The detector is typically used to identify vehicle presence, but also capture vehicle classification, count, occupancy, presence, and speed. However, two units are needed to capture vehicle classification and speed. The detectors are often used on bridges where inductor loops cannot be installed due to lack of pavement depth (Martin et al. 2003). Signal Priority: Signal priority captures both transit signal priority and emergency vehicle anticipation. This system gives priority to emergency or transit vehicles at signalized intersections. Transit vehicles are given priority as the need is critical or the occupancy is higher, thereby, increasing passenger throughput and prioritizing the movement of emergency vehicles. There are two types of traffic signal priorities (TSP): active priority and passive priority. Active priority takes place when a vehicle is detected as it approaches the intersection, and the signals change; active priority-based TSP is more common and effective. Passive priority is used where traffic control devices are adjusted according to bus schedules along the route. This can be done using a combination of fixed-time and schedule-based control strategies. The advantage of passive priority is that the cost of implementation of passive priority is less, however, the effectiveness is also less. (Li et al. 2008). Exhibit 3.1.2 discusses the advantages and disadvantages of various technologies under non-intrusive and intrusive technologies.

The Case of Austin Austin is the capital of the US state of Texas. It is the fastest growing large city in the United States. It is the fourth most populous city in Texas and eleventh most populous in the US. Central Austin lies between the Interstate Highway (IH) 35, to the east, and Loop 1 (Mopac Expressway), to the west. US Highway 183 runs from north-west to south-east, and State Highway (SH) 71 crosses the southern part of the city from east to west, completing a rough “box” around the central and north-central city. US Route 290 enters

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Austin from the east and merges into IH 35. Since 2006, three toll roads surrounding the Central Texas Turnpike System have opened in the Austin region. These include segments of Loop 1, SH 45, and SH 130 (Capital Area Metropolitan Planning Organization (CAMPO), TxDOT Annual Traffic Counts, and City of Austin Traffic Counts 2009). The objective is to identify and respond to changes in traffic conditions effectively and systematically. Usage of advanced ITS technologies brings considerable improvements in traffic flow, safety, reliability, and environmental effects.

Current ITS Technologies Used Traffic monitoring of the city is done by the Operations Control Center, Toomey Road. Features of the ITS implementation are the following: 1. Traffic detection and data collection systems: Loop detectors, surveillance cameras, and calibrated cameras are in use. They collect data related to vehicle presence and directional volume. 2. Traffic signal controller system: Coordinated signal system is used. Semi-actuated control strategies are in operation on most arterial roads. 3. Transit operation system: Public service is severely constrained and impaired in current transportation systems as there are no transit signal priority (TSP) systems and emergency vehicle anticipation systems in operation. 4. Managed lane system: The toll lane systems are run by TxDOT. There are no high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) or express lanes in place. 5. Accident response system: Surveillance cameras are used on arterial and highway sections, and accidents are coordinated in the traffic management center.

Critical ITS Technologies and Their Applications Arterial road networks are prioritized for ITS deployment as congestion in Austin is a consistent issue. Travel time and travel-time index are two quantities used to assess congestion. Travel-time index is the time taken for a trip during peak periods compared to the travel time of the same trip during normal conditions. Therefore, to improve traffic mobility and mitigate congestion, arterial ITS applications, such as advanced traffic detection, coordinated signal control, dynamic vehicle routing, and traveler information dissemination, are to be implemented. These technologies

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reduce arterial traveler delay, fuel consumption, and air pollution; they improve traveler speeds and route decision-making. Austin focuses on three ITS technology groups: traffic detection, traffic control, and information dissemination. The case study looks at an integrated technology system that uses i) traffic detection systems, for monitoring traffic condition changes / congestion, ii) dynamic vehicle routing strategies, for optimizing vehicle routing based on real-time traffic data analysis, iii) traffic information dissemination systems, for broadcasting information, and iv) arterial signal control coordination strategies, for adaptive signal timings, to address non-recurrent traffic congestion efficiently (Walton 2009). A simulation model was developed to measure the impact of the proposed technology. The traffic detection systems monitor and ascertain conditions (congestion) instantly. Then, analysis of the traffic data is performed to identify possible traffic re-routing options. Traffic information dissemination systems, like dynamic message signs (DMS) or radio broadcasting systems, transmit such information to travelers. A calculated amount of traffic is diverted to connecting signalized arterials, and signals are controlled to handle the unprecedented traffic flow. These new ITS elements have improved TxDOT’s capability to manage and monitor its arterial systems.

Summary The two goals that TxDOT wanted to address are making transport systems efficient by using innovative ITS deployments, and maximizing the benefits from existing and new arterial ITS deployments. Arterial ITS applications can reduce travel time, fuel, and environmental cost, and increase reliability and vehicle throughput. These benefits are achievable because ITS deployments, like signal optimization and traveler information systems, can improve traffic operations on arterials and change driver behavior. A case study was also demonstrated to see the impact of ITS technologies on arterial road networks. There was a change in handling congestion in Austin’s roads after the implementation of ITS technologies; various technologies helped in dealing with the city’s traffic congestion effectively. Detection technologies, coordinated signal control, and information dissemination are key components in an ITS system for arterial road management and play an important role in responding to both recurring and non-recurring congestion efficiently. The use of systems that combine all three of these technologies can help save considerable time for travelers. ITS technologies are highly dependent on each place and situation. If

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funding is regulated and scarce, arterials must be carefully selected and prioritized so that the desired ITS benefits can be achieved.

References “Capital Area Metropolitan Planning Organization (CAMPO), TxDOT Annual Traffic Counts, and City of Austin Traffic Counts.” 2009. Austin. Klein, Lawrence, Milton Mills and David Gibson. 2006. “Traffic Detector Handbook: Third Edition-Volume I.” Federal Highway Administration. Li, Yue, et al. 2008. “Transit Signal Priority Research Tools.” US Department of Transportation. Martin, Peter T., Joseph Perrin, Bhargava Rama Chilukuri, Chantan Jhaveri and Yugi Feng. 2003. “Mountain-Plains Consortium.” Adaptive Signal Control II. Accessed June 11, 2017. http://www.mountain-plains.org/ pubs/html/mpc-03-141/disclaimer.php. “USDOT ITS Joint Program Office.” 2009. Arterial Management Systems. Accessed June 11, 2017. http://www.itsoverview.its.dot.gov/AM.asp. Walton, C. Michael, Khali Persad, Zhong Wang, Kristen Svicarovich, Alison Conway and Guohui Zhang. 2009. Arterial Intelligent Transportation Systems—Infrastructure Elements and Traveller Information Requirements. Technical Report, Texas Department of Transportation, Austin: Center for Transportation Research at The University of Texas, 272.

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Exhibit 3.1.1: Arterial Road Selection Criteria S.No 1 2

Arterial Selection Criteria Arterial traffic and geometric characteristics Current level of service

3

Benefits and beneficiaries

4

Existing ITS infrastructure

5

ITS implementation costs

6

Funding opportunities

7

Potential expansibility

Sub-criteria Traffic characteristics Geometric characteristics Travel time between intersections Control delay at intersections Average travel speed for through vehicles LOS determination Improve safety and security Improve traffic operation efficiency Provide better traveler routing decisions Reduce fuel consumption and pollutant emissions Increase economic productivity Traffic surveillance and detection systems Travel information dissemination systems Signal control system Managed lane systems Enforcement systems Video detection system Emergency vehicle preemption Advanced parking information systems Management information systems Automatic ramp rollover systems Truck speed warning system Electronic payment systems ITS work zone system Funding sources from public sectors Funding sources from private sectors Connections with other major arterials Connections with other major freeways

Source: Based on the data from Walton et al. 2009.

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Microwave Radar: Doppler and True Presence

Ultrasonic Detection

Passive Acoustic Detection

Video Detection

3

4

5

6

x x x x

Operates over multiple lanes Easy installation Easy installation Wireless option available Non-intrusive Insensitive to precipitation Provides up to five lanes of dual-loop detection Operates over multiple lanes/zones Easy modification of detector zones Captures variety of data Provides a wide area detection

x Good in most weather conditions x Directly measures speed x Operates over multiple lanes

Passive Infrared

2

x x x x x x x

x x

x x x

Vehicle classification, count, occupancy, presence, speed Vehicle classification, count, occupancy, presence, speed x Affected by bad weather, shadows, day to night transition, vehicle/road contrasts, water and other external environmental factors

Vehicle classification, count, occupancy, presence, speed Vehicle classification, count, occupancy, presence, speed Vehicle count, presence

Vehicle classification, count, speed

Data Collected

x Affected by snow, extreme cold, acoustic noise, wind, light and low traffic volume

x Temperature change and extreme air conditions affect performance

x Cannot detect stopped vehicles x Doppler sensors perform poorly at intersections as volume counters

Advantages Disadvantages Non-Intrusive Technologies Unlimited data rates x Detectors affected by snow and rain Variety of communication channels x Short wavelengths cannot penetrate Non-interference with metalized windshields x Undercounts if background Detectors not affected by weather changes occur Produce no energy signal x Best used only when trends in the counts are known

Active Infrared

Technology

1

S.No

Exhibit 3.1.2: Non-intrusive and Intrusive Technologies: Data Collected, Advantages and Disadvantages of All Types of Technologies

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Piezoelectric Detection

Magnetic Detection

Signal Priority: TSP and EVP

1

2

3

4

Source: Based on the data from Walton et al. 2009.

x Less disruption to traffic flow than induction loops x Less susceptible to traffic stress x Can be used where loops are not feasible x Improved schedule adherence and reliability x Reduced travel time for buses x Increased transit quality of service

x Works well in all-weather types x Coordinates with other detectors too

Inductive Loop Detection

x Delays to non-priority traffic

x Pavement must be cut, and lanes closed for installation x Detection zones are small x Cannot detect stopped vehicle

x Implementation causes traffic interruption x Detectors fail if poor road surfaces exist x Multiple detectors are required x System susceptible to stress of traffic and temperature x Decreases pavement lifetime x Routine maintenance required x Pavement must be cut for installation x Cannot measure static objects

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x Established technology x Lower cost compared to nonintrusive detectors x Operates in sub-optimal weather conditions x Flexible design

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Vehicle classification, count, occupancy, presence, speed

Vehicle classification, count, speed

Vehicle classification, count, occupancy, presence, speed

CHAPTER 3.2 BUILDING BLOCKS OF ITS

Introduction The most populous city in Canada is Toronto and it is also the provincial capital of Ontario. It is the fourth most populous city in North America. It is an international center for business, arts, and culture. Toronto is a central transportation hub for road, rail, and air networks in Southern Ontario. There are many modes of transport in the city of Toronto, including highways and public transit. The Toronto Transit Commission (TTC) operates the main public transportation system in Toronto. The backbone of its public transport network is the Toronto subway system. Toronto also has a wide network of bicycle lanes and multi-use tracks and paths. Major eastwest arterial roads are almost parallel with the Lake Ontario shoreline, and major north-south arterial roads are almost perpendicular to the shoreline. Several municipal expressways and provincial highways serve Toronto and the Greater Toronto Area. Particularly, Highway 401 divides the city from west to east, bypassing the downtown core. It is the busiest road in North America, and one of the busiest highways in the world. The Greater Toronto Area suffers from severe traffic congestion problems, and Toronto has the second worst traffic congestion in Canada, after Vancouver.

Need for Congestion Management Travel demand grows with Toronto’s increasing urbanization. The situation is so dire that even the proposed road infrastructure cannot handle growing travel demands. Traffic congestion occurs when the travel demand exceeds the capacity of the transportation network. Some areas are affected by construction, parking, and stopping; others, due to the limited nature of infrastructure capacity; some other parts are affected by traffic signals, which are not coordinated based on the traffic flow; other parts are impacted by unpredictable conditions like bad weather or accidents. Estimates, from 2006 for the Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area (GTHA), suggest that congestion costs as much as $3.3 billion, annually, to commuters in terms of delays, environmental harm, and vehicle operating costs; the cost to the

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Gross Domestic Product was an additional $2.7 billion, due to lost economic output and accompanying job loss (Costs of Road Congestion in the Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area; Impact and Cost-Benefit Analysis of the Metrolinx Draft Regional Transportation Plan 2008). On an average, a commuter experiences nearly eighty-one hours of delay, each year, during the peak period.

Benefits of Managing Traffic Congestion There are many benefits of managing traffic congestion, in terms of safety, mobility, efficiency, productivity, energy and environment, and customer satisfaction. Some safety benefits are improved personal safety and security, and lower collision rates and collision severity. Managing congestion lowers transit wait times and improves service frequency. In terms of productivity, congestion management leads to lower operating costs and, therefore, improved customer satisfaction.

Congestion Management Plan The city of Toronto started many initiatives to manage congestion in the city. Based on the successes of previous initiatives, the Toronto Congestion Plan was introduced for the period from 2014 to 2018. It was an objectivedriven and performance-based approach to manage congestion. Some proposed initiatives were 1. To manage traffic on arterial roads actively and complement traffic management measures on city expressways 2. Implementing the latest technology to manage traffic and congestion, including shifting from wireless communication to advanced sensors and social media 3. Providing a “toolkit” of measures, which can be used as reference for different situations 4. Improving efficiency and coordination of the city’s transportation network by strengthening partnerships and information sharing

Design and Planning Process The Toronto Congestion Management Plan for Toronto City was prepared over a six-month period, in 2013. It began with a review of existing activities and projects for congestion management, and by conducting research on trends and best practices in other areas of North America

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through literature reviews and telephone interviews. The next step was to develop a vision, a mission, and objectives for the plan, after which vendor selection and refinement of recommended initiatives was done. The staff from the City of Toronto’s Traffic Management Centre and regional traffic control centers were involved throughout the development of the plan, through regular meetings, workshops, and oneဨonဨone consultations. The plan was a component of the City of Toronto’s overall transportation planning process, which focused primarily on operational activities. Other strategies of managing traffic congestion in the city of Toronto, such as revision of plans and strategies, demand management, promotion of multimodal transportation and active (non-motorized) transportation, and improvements in transportation network infrastructure.

The Vision of the Plan Through innovation and technology, maximize the efficiency, safety, reliability, and sustainability of the transportation network for all users while reducing the impact on the environment. This was the vision of The Toronto Congestion Management Plan. It addressed the needs of all travelers—pedestrians, cyclists, and public transit users—as well as freight carriers and emergency services. The focus is on promoting innovative technologies that improve the efficiency, safety, sustainability, and reliability of all transportation networks.

Goals and Objectives The vision statement is supported by a series of goals. Each goal is then further supported by a series of objectives, which help in measuring success (City of Toronto Congestion Management Plan 2014–2018 2013). It is presented in Table 3.2.1.

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S.No

Goals

1

Maximize the transportation system efficiency and reliability

2

Improve the safety of the transportation network

3

Improve the City of Toronto’s ability to detect and respond to incidents, events and changing traffic conditions

4

Improve the availability and reliability of information for the public

5

Reduce the impact of transportation on the environment

Objectives Increase throughput Reduce delays Reduce travel time variability Reduce vehicle operational costs Reduce traffic collisions Reduce collision severity Reduce duration of traffic incidents and events through increasing reductions in detection, response and clearance times Reduce traveler frustration Increase use of all modes of transportation Reduce greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) Increased fuel savings

Table 3.2.1: Goals and Objectives of the Proposed Congestion Management Plan Source: Author’s compilation

Recommended Projects and Activities There were some projects that were recommended for managing traffic congestion in the city of Toronto. These projects have been grouped under eight technical elements or strategies. The eight technical elements or strategies complement and intersect one another and, collectively, produce a comprehensive approach to manage the issue of traffic congestion. Each of the eight technical strategies is explained, below, along with their associated projects, in detail. 1. Intelligent Transportation System: ITS use communication technologies to monitor and manage transport networks. There are a few projects under this category, which will help in strengthening the ITS system, mentioned below:

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x Replacement of Advanced Traffic Management Software (ATMS): This project provides a new ATMS to improve the capability of the software to monitor and manage the city’s arterial streets and highways. It also improves information communication to the traveler and manages road restrictions. x Enhanced Signal Control Modes: In the existing systems, signal changes are set beforehand. It was, then, proposed to use sensors to collect real-time data to alter the traffic signal intervals adaptively. x Arterial Closed-Circuit TV (CCTV) Cameras: This helps in monitoring traffic operations, detecting incidents, illegal lane occupancies, etc. x Arterial Network Monitoring: In this project, unusual conditions/incidents are identified to ramp up response speed, which will reduce the overall incident durations. x Update and Expand the City’s Communications Networks: This project evaluates the performance of wireless communication technology to ensure dependability in emergency situations. x Hardware Replacement: It is to replace ageing equipment, like CCTV cameras, to ensure that the system is up to date and efficient. These projects help in managing traffic congestion by improving monitoring capabilities, coordination of traffic signals, increasing the quality of traffic information, ensuring equipment robustness, and increasing efficiency of communication between traffic signals and the city’s network of computers. 2. Congestion and Engineering Studies: The primary focus is to maintain Toronto’s signaling systems and traffic management strategies with the latest modern tools available in the industry. The identified projects are x Auxiliary Signal Timing Plans: These are to develop additional signal timing plans for different scenarios that occur regularly, like road closure, bad weather, etc. x Update Corridor Coordination Studies: These are done to regularly review corridor operations and related signal timing plans. x Active Traffic Management Feasibility Study: This is to explore the need and benefits of active management strategies. x Integrated Corridor Management Feasibility Study: This is to review the need and possible benefits of implementing integrated management of transit and vehicle movements parallel to arterial and highway corridors. These projects will help in managing traffic congestion by improving traffic operations, maintaining coordination among new traffic signals,

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identifying technological and innovative solutions, and exploring integrative approaches to optimize traffic flow across corridors. 3. Incident and Event Response: The City of Toronto’s Traffic Operations Center detects collisions and other incidents in highway corridors, coordinates emergency responses, and informs travelers. The main aim of this strategy is to reduce the disruption by incidents and minimize congestion that can result, and complement increased monitoring capabilities. The identified projects are x Traffic Incident Management Team Procedures x Service Patrols x Steer It—Clear It Signage Program x Universal Fire Station Pre-emption (Non-vehicle) These projects will help in managing traffic congestion by strengthening relationships among important agencies, so that coordination and safety can be improved along with reduced response times. Congestion can also be reduced by educating the travelers to move out of the traffic flow immediately after a minor incident. 4. Construction Coordination: Construction activities and lane occupancies always have a significant impact on traffic. Construction activities can be building a new road or developing a new building. The number of new developments across the City of Toronto is an indication of positive economic development, but also creates issues in traffic management. The identified projects are x Smart Work Zones x Lane Occupancy Permit Management x Lane Occupancy Permit Review x Work Zone Performance Management and Monitoring These projects will help reduce congestion by encouraging contractors to participate in minimizing the impact of work zones on traffic and by improving the information available to travelers. Increased coordination and management of construction work zones will also reduce traffic congestion. 5. Curb-side Management: The downtown core area has large amounts of on-street parking. It is filled with taxis, couriers, delivery trucks, and private vehicles competing for available curb space. The streets in these areas are narrow with limited road width and high-traffic demand, thus, adding to the complexities. x Parking Charge Review: It is the use of an increasing parking charge scale, where rates increase based on the time period for which the vehicle is parked.

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x Develop Parking Strategies: The strategies include studying parking, restricting business deliveries to certain times of the day, with allowance for private vehicle parking in the remaining time periods, or strict parking restrictions in some corridors during peak hours. x Smart Park: It involves using technology such as smartphone apps, electronic message signs, and other tools to monitor parking usage and inform motorists regarding real-time parking information. These projects will help in managing congestion by applying innovative parking solutions and by reducing illegal parking that is affecting the traffic flow. By reducing the parking search time and providing legal parking, managing the issue of congestion will be a bit easier. 6. Support for All Modes of Transportation: This is mainly to encourage people to use modes other than private vehicles. The City of Toronto actively promotes all modes of transport—walking, cycling, public transport—through its official laws and initiatives. The identified projects are x Transit Signal Priority x HOV-Bus Lane Review x Bicycle Facilities Expansion x Corridor Renewal for Sustainable Transportation These projects will help in managing congestion by improving the effectiveness and coordination of traffic management activities involving public transit vehicles, and exploring creative street design standards and engineering techniques to provide balanced use of the road right-of-way. 7. Traveler Information: This is to provide convenient access to traveler information. Reliable traveler information allows them to decide trip routes, mode, and timings. The identified projects are x Traveler Information Strategy x VMSs including Display of Travel Times x Event Database x City Website Improvements x Social Media x Mobile Apps These projects help in managing congestion by strengthening data sources and networks to give accurate information about the traffic conditions and increasing the speed of communication. Improving the amount of information available to travelers will allow them to make best decisions regarding route and other factors.

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8. Traffic Operations Centre (TOC): The TOC is the City’s main center for traffic and congestion management, monitoring traffic conditions and coordinating traffic control field devices twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week. This technical element focuses on coordination and cooperation amongst the various agencies in order to maximize the efficiency of transportation network operations. x Traffic Operations Centre Improvements x Coordination with Emergency Services x Coordination with Transit x Coordination with External Agencies x TOC Operations Coordination These projects will improve traffic congestion by improving incident detection and transport network monitoring, allowing TOC operators to respond to changes in traffic conditions, therefore, strengthening a regional approach to traffic and congestion management. Exhibit 3.2.1 tabulates the projects and goals, if the goals are achieved, and if they are primary or secondary goals.

Capital and Operating Costs The proposed Toronto Congestion Management Plan, for five years, is expected to have a capital cost of $57.25M. For effective traffic management on arterial roads and highways, there is a need for additional staffing to monitor and respond to changes in traffic conditions. The estimated cost for the additional staff is $1.1M. The marginal additional cost required to maintain the proposed additional ITS infrastructure is $8M for five years. Additional ITS infrastructure can be both software and hardware. To implement the capital projects outlined in this plan, the Capital Projects Delivery Group was formed. This group is dedicated to the planning, designing, and implementation of the capital projects. Exhibit 3.2.2 shows the capital cost and cash flow summary of the five-year (2014–2018) program cost estimates.

Monitoring and Evaluation First, a process is set to monitor and evaluate the performance of the various projects and to make sure that the goals are met. For performance evaluation, the performance criteria need to be identified. Common transportation network performance indicators include travel time, average speed, total delay, travel time index, and the buffer time index. However, these criteria do not represent performance variance over time and space.

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So, other methods should be explored for monitoring. The next step is to continuously review and upgrade the plan, along with Toronto’s transportation planning and environmental review processes, to ensure that it addresses the needs and priorities of Toronto’s transportation. Exhibit 3.2.3 displays the implementation schedule of the Congestion Management Plan for each project over a five-year period.

References City of Toronto Congestion Management Plan 2014-2018. 2013. Transportation Division, Toronto: Delcan and Lura Consulting. Costs of Road Congestion in the Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area; Impact and Cost-Benefit Analysis of the Metrolinx Draft Regional Transportation Plan. 2008. Final Report, Transportation, Greater Transportation Auhority, Toronto: HDR Corporation Decision Economics.

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Exhibit 3.2.1: Project Management Plan Goals

Source: City of Toronto Congestion Management Plan 2014–2018 (2013)

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Exhibit 3.2.2: Capital Cost and Cash Flow Summary

Source: City of Toronto Congestion Management Plan 2014–2018 (2013)

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Exhibit 3.2.3: Implementation schedule of the Congestion Management Plan Program

Source: City of Toronto Congestion Management Plan 2014–2018 (2013)

CHAPTER 3.3 SYSTEM DESIGN

The complexities of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) increase with the number of interconnected subsystems through multiple telecommunication technologies. The increase in the number of subsystems affects the overall effectiveness, conformity, tenability, extendibility and refurbishment time, and cost of the deployed ITS. It is essential to have a defined system architecture to fully exploit the potential synergies of interoperable systems and prevent incompatibility between multiple subsystems. The concept of ITS architecture ranges from a relatively simple definition of a single telematics system to a “broad” definition of a complex telematics system described using several viewpoints of the system, together with its deployment plan, process and object-oriented procedures, cost benefit analysis, etc. (BČlinová, Bureš and Jesty 2010). An ITS architecture is the conceptual design that defines the structure and/or behavior of an integrated ITS. There are two basic concepts of ITS architecture that are used: high-level and low-level ITS architectures (Böhm and Frötscher 2010). A high-level architecture provides an overall description of the functionality of the ITS service and the communication components needed for a particular ITS implementation. A low-level ITS architecture describes the detailed design of the components and the communications that are needed for ITS implementation. It can, therefore, be concluded that high-level ITS architecture is a prerequisite to low-level ITS architecture. High-level architecture is technology independent and represents its functionality in the form of the “component specifications” required to deploy the ITS services, while the “communication specification” establishes the way different components link and communicate with each other. A low-level architecture is usually differentiated using a particular technology as the functionality described in the “component specifications”, and “communications specifications” may be achieved using either hardware, software, or a combination of the two. The relationships between framework and regional architectures, ITS standards, and ITS projects is illustrated in Figure 3.3.1.

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The European ITS Framework Architecture, also known as Framework Architecture Made for Europe (FRAME), and the National ITS Architecture of the US are the two widely referred to use cases for the development of a high-level ITS architecture. The fundamental differences of the approaches adopted by the two regions lies in the nature and flexibility of their use. The European Framework architecture allows the creation of regional or national architecture based on the requirement of individual member states and acts as a reference architecture. As the FRAME Architecture is intended to be used within the European Union, it conforms to the principle of subsidiarity, and, thus, does not mandate any physical or organizational structure on a member state. It provides a functional view and need not be used in entirety, thus, enabling the user to create a subset that aligns with their requirements. In contrast, the US has a fixed architecture, which needs to be followed by the states to receive federal support for ITS deployment.

Figure 3.3.1: Relationships between Framework and Regional Architectures, ITS Standards, and ITS Projects Source: Robert S. Jaffe. ADB European ITS Framework Architecture The development of the European ITS framework architecture was initiated during the Fourth Framework Program (FP) of the European Commission, in 1998, with the KAREN project (Keystone Architecture Required for European Networks) and was first published in October 2000. The framework architecture was created to assist the national, regional, and project-specific architectures within Europe that are consistent for various ITS systems and services. It covers user needs and functional viewpoints of

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the ITS services. Figure 3.3.2 represents how the FRAME architecture assists in the creation of ITS.

Figure 3.3.2: Process of Creating ITS Architecture Source: FRAME FORUM Many nations across the EU have created their own national and regional ITS architecture, consulting the FRAME architecture. French National Architecture (ACTIF, Architecture Cadre pour le Transports Intelligents en France) and Italian ITS Architecture (ARTIST) were the first two national ITS architectures formulated in compliance with FRAME. The French ITS Architecture (ACTIF) has been used for the implementation of a national speed-limit enforcement system. The use of FRAME architecture reduced the development and deployment time of the service by up to six months. The Road Traffic Management Implementation Project (VIKING), in Northern Europe, SAFESPOT, CVIS and COOPERS (Cooperative Systems for Intelligent Road Safety) have also used the development of a high-level architecture for cooperative systems using the FRAME method. Austria (TTS-A), Czech Republic (TEAM), Hungary (HITS) and Romania (NARITS) are a few other nations that have developed ITS architecture based on FRAME. The UK has also undertaken certain regional and project ITS architecture in line with FRAME. There has been a fragmented approach in the creation and maintenance of the FRAME architecture. A

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number of ITS architecture projects are being undertaken to extend the FRAME architecture, within the priority areas of the ITS directive (Directive 2010/40/EU). The notable projects are KAREN, FRAME-S, FRAME-NET, E-FRAME and FRAME NEXT. After KAREN, the FP5 was provided by FRAME-NET and FRAME-S as support activities, followed by E-FRAME in FP7 that had FRAME version 4. The FRAME forum was set up at the end of FRAME-S and FRAME-NET for promoting the use of the European ITS Framework Architecture, and for leading its future development. The FRAME forum is co-financed by the European Union and funding from some member states. FRAME NEXT, having current FRAME version 4.1, is the latest project for extending the FRAME architecture and includes project partners from ten active EU member states and Norway that share best practices and recent development with relevant stakeholders. The FRAME architecture covers the following areas of ITS: 1. Electronic fare collection and management 2. Emergency notification and response—roadside and in-vehicle notification 3. Traffic management—urban, inter-urban, parking, tunnels and bridges, maintenance and simulation, together with the management of incidents, road vehicle based pollution, and the demand for road use 4. Public transport management—schedules, fares, on-demand services, fleet and driver management 5. In-vehicle systems and support for host vehicle services—includes some cooperative systems 6. Traveler assistance—pre-journey and on-trip planning, travel information 7. Law enforcement support system 8. Freight and fleet management 9. Provide support for cooperative systems—specific services not included elsewhere, e.g., bus lane use, freight vehicle parking 10. Multi-modal interfaces—links to other modes when required, e.g., travel information, multi-modal crossing management Two basic tools are used for the distribution of FRAME architecture. The first tool is “Browsing Tool,” which is used to browse the overall structure of the FRAME architecture and explore the details at different levels along with a description of each element. The second tool is “Selection Tool,” which assists users to select a uniform subset of FRAME architecture and

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create physical views of this subset for regional, national or project ITS architecture.

US National ITS Architecture The development of national ITS architecture was initiated by the US Department of Transportation (US-DOT) on the recommendation of ITS America. The key concern that led to the development of the ITS architecture in the US was interoperability. There was a need to define key interfaces for standardization. If systems are developed without standardization across the nation, then vehicles might be unable to interact effectively with the infrastructure and other vehicles beyond their regional boundaries, leading to an ineffective ITS network. The initial edition of the US National ITS Architecture was provided to the US-DOT, in 1996, as a comprehensive and content-rich set of documents by a consortium under contract. The National ITS Architecture provides a definitive and consistent framework to guide the planning, definition, deployment, and integration of ITS. The program facilitates collaborative operations and learning best practices from various regional approaches to tackle transportation challenges. The US National ITS Architecture is now known as the Architecture Reference for Cooperative and Intelligent Transportation (ARC-IT), which is a unified framework that covers all ITS, including all connected vehicle (CV) applications, the scope and content from Connected Vehicle Reference ITS Architecture (CVRIA) Version 2.2 and the National ITS Architecture Version 7.1. The current version is 9.0 and was launched in June 2017. ARC-IT 9.0 comprises interconnected components that are structured in four views: enterprise, functional, physical, and communications. An illustration is presented in Figure 3.3.3. Enterprise View displays the relation between stakeholder organizations and their role within the ITS environment. User needs are defined in this context, as ITS is driven by the stakeholder organizations’ requirements, their constituents, and customers. Functional View displays ITS from a functional perspective and provides an analysis of abstract functional elements and their logical interactions. Processes and data flows offer functions and interactions in a logical order that supports the ITS users’ requirements. Physical View displays the physical elements (systems and devices) of the ITS. Within each physical object, functional objects execute the required actions of the ITS.

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Communications View displays how physical objects communicate. It specifies how information may be safely and securely transferred between physical objects by defining communications standards and profiles that are integrated into communication solutions. These four views focus on four different architectural perspectives. Furthermore, there are 150 service packages that showcase slices of the architecture to demonstrate how ITS could be used to solve real-world transportation problems. Service packages are the most popular way to get accustomed with ARC-IT, since most users are likely to subscribe to a single service; a vertical slice of ARC-IT that covers all four views for a given ITS service is easy to use. The reference architecture does not mandate any implementation but rather provides a common base for engineers and planners to conceive, design, and implement systems while accommodating their specific concerns. ITS standards developers can use the National ITS Reference Architecture to identify standards that will meet the requirements of the users. ITS planners can use these ITS standards to integrate regional ITS elements and achieve interoperability goals. ITS deployers can choose ITS standards to mitigate deployment risks and streamline overall costs and schedules.

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Figure 3.3.3: Architecture Overview Source: https://www.arc-it.net/

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USDOT also developed a regional ITS architecture in order to ensure regional integration, and organized and coordinated planning and deployment of the ITS. Title 23 (Highways), Chapter I, Subchapter K, Part 940 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) (23 CFR 940) on Intelligent Transportation Systems Architecture and Standards first defined the concept of a regional ITS architecture. ARC-IT is used as a template and provides the fundamental building blocks—physical objects, interfaces, service packages, user needs, and functions—to create customized ITS architectures that reflect the envisioned regional transportation system. A region usually contains multiple transport authorities lying under different jurisdictions. Regional integration allows regional transportation networks to share information and coordinate actions in order to function efficiently and effectively. Over the last two decades, regional architecture is developed in all fifty US states and are updated and maintained by state Departments of Transportation (DOTs) or Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) or Council of Governments (COGs) for a region, district, or state, to ensure that the architecture is aligned with the current plan for development of ITS in a region. The ITS architecture relationship is illustrated in Figure 3.3.4.

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Figure 3.3.4: Illustration: ITS Architecture Relationship Source: https://www.standards.its.dot.gov/LearnAboutStandards/NationalITSArchi tecture The Regional Architecture Development for Intelligent Transportation (RAD-IT) and Systems Engineering Tool for Intelligent Transportation (SET-IT) are two supporting tools to update ARC-IT content and create need-based regional ITS architectures. RAD-IT focuses on the regional-

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level development of ITS operations and provides high-level enterprise and physical views, whereas SET-IT is project-specific; the latter is applied to fulfil specific system requirements and high-level design to achieve the project scopes as defined in the regional architecture. SET-IT is a graphical tool that integrates drawing and database tools with the ARC-IT to provide visual feedback to the user. Users can create project architectures for pilot deployments by i) modifying service packages, ii) creating physical and enterprise diagrams, iii) developing communications stack templates, iv) specifying standards at all protocol layers, and v) exporting the information in a variety of forms and formats. RAD-IT relies heavily on stakeholder consensus. Hence, the deployed ITS services are mostly used by transport planners and system integrators, both in the public and private sectors. In contrast, SET-IT is more useful to systems engineers for developing predesign documentations and defining subsystems’ functionality.

Systems Engineering for ITS Systems Engineering Process (SEP) follows a top-down approach to developing the functional and physical requirements as defined in the project objectives of the system. SEP can simplify complexities and attenuate severity of errors in ITS deployment. It focuses on riskmanagement during the design, deployment, and maintenance of complex interacting elements throughout their life cycles. SEP also ensures adherence to budget and time constraints while accomplishing the intended objectives of the project. Figure 3.3.5 represents the Vee diagram for a generic ITS project. It depicts the sequence of steps from a regional plan to a deployed system, from left to right. The left section of the Vee diagram is called the “decomposition” side as it starts with a broad overview of the ITS in the regional ITS architecture. With each step, there is a breakdown of the high-level objective into precise system requirements and technology specifications to create a detailed design for the ITS. The right section is called the “recomposition” side as the individual hardware and software components are integrated and tested together to form a unified ITS. The gap between the two subsequent processes represents traceability analysis. The traceability analysis step validates that the next level of analysis, design, or build fulfils all of the preceding step's objectives, criteria, or specifications. Traceability analysis and testing ensures that the defects are detected at the early stages, when repairing them is relatively less expensive.

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Figure 3.3.5: Systems Engineering Vee Diagram for ITS Projects Source: US Department of Transportation et al. (2007). Systems Engineering for Intelligent Transportation Systems. Washington, DC.

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1.

Regional Planning

The first step in SEP for ITS projects is to identify the requirements and objectives of the region. A regional ITS architecture is, then, developed to specify the ITS services that accomplish the stated objectives. The regional ITS architecture facilitates the integration of services by various stakeholders and specifies the open standards of the ITS elements. 2.

ITS Analysis

It includes feasibility studies and operations analysis while using the regional ITS architecture as a reference. Detailed cost and benefit estimates, and high-level technology choices are thoroughly evaluated. 3.

Specification Development

It includes outlining the system requirement and developing high-level and detailed designs to fulfil those requirements. The former includes the functional, performance, and environmental requirement of each ITS service, validating the system expectations. Once the system requirements are validated, the high-level design is developed by choosing the right technologies. The next step is detailed design that specifies the full-scale deployment of the chosen technologies. The ITS modules (integrating the software and hardware) are then tested for compatibility and functional verification. 4.

Implementation and Testing

It involves procurement of hardware and software for field deployment, verification of subsystems, and overall system validation. The installed components are commissioned, validated, and verified. 5.

Manage, Operate, Maintain

Finally, the systems are managed, maintained, and upgraded as and when required.

New York City The New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT) region 11 operates, monitors and controls many of the regions’ limited-access highways, along with the three transport stakeholders in the region: (i) New York City Department of Transportation (NYCDOT) is responsible for

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managing ITS equipment at the non-limited access roadways and the East River bridges; (ii) MTA Bridges and Tunnels is responsible for all major toll bridges and tunnels in New York City; and (iii) MTA Transit operates the bus systems and subway in New York City. The New York City regional ITS architecture covers all modes of surface transport and is called the New York City sub-regional ITS architecture (NYCSRA). It was formed and administered by the New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT). All ITS initiatives in New York City are based on the NYCSRA project's conceptual design. One such project is the Real-Time Passenger Information (RTPI) program, wherein the NYCDOT undertakes replacement of the standard bus stop poles with Real-Time Passenger Information (RTPI) poles to display real-time location and arrival information of the buses along with their routes. These poles are also linked to the “NYC Link NYC'' kiosk to facilitate such real-time information access to even those who are not present at the bus stops. The bus information is also available in audible format to assist visually impaired passengers. The RTPI program acquires real-time transit schedule information from the servers located at the Transit Management Centre, operated by MTA NYC Bus, through the MTA-INFO website. The customized service package for the New York City RTPI program is illustrated in Figure 3.3.6.

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Figure 3.3.6: Customized Service Package for the New York City RealTime Passenger Information Program Source: NYC Subregional ITS Architecture. http://www.consystec.com/nycsra2018/web/spinstance.htm?id=TI01-02

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References http://www.arc-it.net/ https://frame-next.eu/about-page-builder/ List of service packages under ARC-IT 9.0 Source: https://www.arc-it.net/html/servicepackages/servicepackagesareaspsort.html

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CHAPTER 3.4 CAPACITY PLANNING

Overview Tiger Brennan Drive is a major arterial road in the western suburbs of Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia. The road travels southeast to the east, starting from Darwin CBD toward Darwin's eastern suburb of Berrimah, then continues to a connection with the Stuart Highway at Palmerston. Exhibit 3.4.1a shows the location of Tiger Brennan Drive and the surrounding areas. Major roads intersecting Tiger Brennan Drive include Amy Johnson Avenue, Woolner Road, Berrimah Road, and Tivendale Road. Most of the major operations on Tiger Brennan Drive (TBD) are controlled by traffic lights. As the Stuart Highway is busy, the Tiger Brennan Drive provides the most direct route for freight coming to and from the East Arm Port. The East Arm Port Access Route was a three-stage project. The single carriageway underwent a major extension, in 2010, and was upgraded to dual carriageway standard. The aim of the project was to ease traffic congestion, improve safety, and reduce travel times between Darwin and Palmerston. In late 2012, work commenced on further upgrades to widen the 12 km section between McMinn Street, in the Darwin CBD, and Berrimah Road to four-lane-dual-carriageway standard. The Project The project was one of the single largest projects in the Northern Territory and the territory’s largest ever road and bridge project. The project was built in three stages. Stage one of the project included the improvement of Berrimah Road (between TBD and Wishart Road, as seen in Exhibit 3.4.1), along with the creation of dual turning lanes to ease congestion. It was valued at $10 million and was completed in February 2009. The second stage of the project involved the extension of TBD from Berrimah Road to the Stuart Highway (Exhibit 3.4.1b shows a zoomed-in image of the location. The red line shows the extended TBD) and was valued at $89 million. It includes 7.5 km of four-lane freeway and a grade-separated interchange at the junction of the Stuart Highway, Roystone Avenue, and

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TBD extension. Stage three of the project was to construct the Berrimah Road Railway Overpass and was valued at $11 million. The case study focuses on stage two of the project, which is the TBD extension. The government of the Northern Territory (NT) has chosen the early contractor involvement (ECI) procurement method to deliver the project. ECI contracting is a process where the designer and constructor work together from the beginning, in a contractual relationship with the client, to scope and price a project in the first stage and, then, to design and construct a project in the second stage. Part one of the project was to plan and design the project, which included service relocations and ordering of long-lead items. Part two was the construction stage. The reasons for selecting this method according to the Infrastructure Planning and Delivery: Best Practice Case Studies (2010) are given below: 1. The opportunity for the contractor to bring their own experiences to the project during the detailed design stage of the contract. 2. Synergies arising from the participation of a high-performance design and construction team working in cooperation with the principal. 3. Better integration of specific construction methodologies into design aspects. 4. It provides greater flexibility and time allocation for planning the project. 5. Possibility of early allocation and acquisition of critical construction materials. 6. Negotiated apportionment of risk.

Objectives The largest and the most significant section of the East Arm Port Access Route was the extension of the TBD. The main aim of the project was to improve the traffic flow to East Arm Port from rural areas and Palmerston. It aimed to improve road safety, reduce travel time, and ease traffic congestion. It was predicted that there will be 92,500 vehicles travelling along the same route in 2031. This extension will help in meeting this predicted demand efficiently. The project objectives were 1. To enhance freight capacity 2. To improve corridor capacity between Darwin and Palmerston and rural areas

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The port is the only important port on Australia’s north coast, which exports live cattle and is also significant for offshore and onshore oil and gas projects. The rapid growth in exploration, mining, oil, and iron ore, as well as gas projects, have increased the demand for the port. As the demand grows, the bottlenecks to and from the port should be addressed, including the issues concerning the safety of road trains mixed with commuter traffic. The extension of the TBD has been designed to allow for road train access to the port.

Benefits from the Project As there was continuous development in the East Arm Port Route, there was a need for increased capacity on the TBD. Therefore, the project was designed to cater for long-term growth. The benefits attained from the TBD extension are listed below: 1. Capacity: It provided an efficient two-lane, dual carriageway road for the freight traffic, extending Tiger Brennan Drive to the Stuart Highway, including a grade-separated interchange. It increased the capacity to cater for future growth, reduced the travel time, and improved the reliability and efficiency of the road. 2. Safety: It provided a high-level of operational safety as well as safety for construction workers, and vehicular and pedestrian traffic during construction, operation, and maintenance. It also improved the functionality of existing intersections and access. Exhibit 3.4.2 shows the data analysis of the TBD extension. 3. Cultural Heritage and Environmental Impact: It safeguarded cultural heritage and environmental values by minimizing community and environmental impacts, and by building safeguards into the design. 4. Targeted Community Consultation: It engaged the community to make sure that relevant local issues were understood and addressed in design and construction projects, particularly the issues relating to traffic management. 5. Job Creation: It created jobs during construction. Since an ECI procurement method was implemented on the project, it tendered several small contracts and provided an opportunity for local business to get involved.

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Policy and Planning The East Arm Port Access Route had been in the pipeline for over twenty years. In the 1970s, strategic planning for the Darwin to Palmerston corridor identified the need for continual development of the arterial network linking the Stuart Highway and TBD to the northern suburbs, and to provide direct access to the new East Arm Port for freight entering and exiting Darwin. In September 1987, the Department of Transport and Works Road division released the Darwin Arterial Roads—Tiger Brennan Drive Planning Statement. The Statement was, “to provide an arterial network to effectively connect Palmerston and the Darwin Central Business District as well as providing satisfactory levels of access along the corridor for freight and commuter traffic.” The East Arm Port Access project responded to this need outlined in the statement. The bilateral agreement between the NT and the Australian Government relating to the National Land Transport Plan (AusLink Investment Program) outlined upgrade works to Tiger Brennan Drive/Berrimah Road-East Arm access. Auslink is a former Australian Government land transport funding program that operated between 2004 and 2009. The TBD project is a part of that agreement (Infrastructure Planning and Delivery: Best Practice Case Studies 2010).

Reasons for Initiating the Project The development of an alternate access route to the port had many reasons. Increased traffic on the corridor into the city and the port was one of the reasons to develop the project. The investment in the port, and the growing demand from the mining sector for the port supported the business case to construct the TBD extension. The growing demand from commercial and passenger vehicles supported the need for the project to go ahead. A project proposal report (PPR) for scoping and developing the two stages was prepared in September 2007. The PPR outlined the status of planning the project and detailed the proposed expenditure for preconstruction, planning, investigations, preliminary design, and contract documentation. It also outlined the strategic fit, risks, governance and contractual arrangements, scoping, environmental, cultural and social issues, timing, design and construction features, demand forecasts, and safety, and referred to a costbenefit analysis. The analysis in the PPR suggested that the project would result in net economic benefits. The aim of the TBD extension was to minimize the blockages and ensure value for money. The final design of the TBD extension included bridges,

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interchanges, and traffic lights that allowed for traffic to continuously flow. Exhibit 3.4.3 shows images of the TBD.

Environmental Approvals The DPI (Department of Planning and Infrastructure) was responsible for the delivery of the project. It submitted the project to the Department of Natural Resources, Environment, the Arts and Sports (NREATS). A joint environmental management plan (EMP) was developed, where one was done by government proponents and the other by the contractor, to set out the responsibilities of all parties. The Project Environmental Management Plan was completed in September 2009. According to the Infrastructure Planning and Delivery: Best Practice Case Studies (2010), the aims of the EMP were to 1. Capture all environmental issues associated with the TBD extension project 2. Develop environmental mitigation measures to minimize the potential impacts associated with the construction phase of the project 3. Incorporate the environmental mitigation measures identified, into a comprehensive framework to facilitate and ensure their proper management through the construction stage of the project

Project Management There was a collaborative approach during the design stage of the project, between the client (the Department of Planning and Infrastructure), the project manager (the Department of Construction and Infrastructure), the contractor (Macmahon) and the contractor’s designers (SKM). By establishing detailed planning, preliminary design, risks and pricing of the works, each party worked together to deliver the outcome. Several workshops facilitated the collaborative approach. The two groups that were responsible for the delivery of the construction of the TBD extension were the Project Management Group and Project Leadership Group. The Project Management Group investigated the day-to-day management of the project delivery, and it reported to the Project Leadership group, which has senior representatives. The Northern Territory Government aimed at achieving better outcomes in the delivery of the TBD extension through early engagement with the contractor and constant collaboration between the departments and the contractors.

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Conclusion The strategic plans of Darwin city considered the need for a link between two major transport nodes. It also focused on the retail and commercial employment activities of Palmerston and Darwin. The project was executed to address increasing traffic flows, capacity issues, and delays between these two areas and to the East Arm Port. Now, the Tiger Brennan Drive provides an alternative primary route between Palmerston and the Darwin CBD, running to the south and roughly parallel to Stuart Highway. The project also, in turn, supported the business case that would help to relieve these capacity constraints and improve the efficiency and connectivity to the East Arm Port. One significant feature of this project is that there was good coordination among different departments, which is necessary for any project to be successful. The interaction between the delivery agency, the Department of Construction and Infrastructure, and the client (the Department of Lands and Planning) were well coordinated. They ensured well-informed decision making and day-to-day management. Finally, having all relevant parties involved in regular project meetings reduced the time required to make decisions.

References Bennett, John. 2015. Traffic Impact Assessment: 2015 Workforce and Construction Activity Update. Australia: Jacobs Group (Australia) Pty Limited. Infrastructure Planning and Delivery: Best Practice Case Studies. 2010. Australia: Department of Infrastructure and Transport.

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Exhibit 3.4.1a: The location of Tiger Brennan Drive and the Surrounding Areas

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Exhibit 3.4.1b: A Zoomed-in Image of the Location

Source: Google Maps

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Exhibit 3.4.2: Data Analysis Tiger Brennan Drive to Stuart Highway 2005 to 2010 2009 to 2014 Total Number of 25 16 crashes Angle Most common crash Rear End Collision type (36%) (44%) Crashes at minor 13 (52%) 11 (69%) intersections Crashes at mid-block 12 (48%) 5 (31%) Most common time 12pm – 3pm 6am – 9am interval day (32%) (38%) Crashes with alcohol 1 (4%) 0 (0%) present Source: Based on the data from Bennett (2015)

Difference -9 changed -2 -7 changed -1

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Exhibit 3.4.3: Images of Tiger Brennan Road

Source: Infrastructure Planning and Delivery: Best Practice Case Studies (2010).

CHAPTER 3.5 OPERATIONS PLANNING AND CONTROL

Introduction The application of advanced electronic and communication technologies, along with management strategies, in an integrated manner to provide a traveler with all the necessary information and ensure the safe, reliable, and efficient use of transportation systems are known as Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS). These systems mainly consist of drivers, passengers, managers, vehicles, and operators, which interact with each other and the environment. These elements are linked to complex infrastructure systems, which will help in sensing, communication, computation, and control, and this improves the safety and capacity of transport systems. The transmitted information indicating actual road conditions is precise and timely with minimal human errors. Dynamic control systems will be continually responding to the interaction of vehicles and the roadway. The future mobility of Kentucky can be enhanced by ITS because of the rapidly developing electronic technologies and control systems. A significant role is performed by these systems in efficiently accommodating and managing increasing travel demands.

Benefits of ITS Program Application of ITS has many benefits, where it can improve safety, reduce congestion, and improve mobility, while minimizing environmental effects. Various measures of effectiveness can be used to quantify ITS benefits. ITS programs improve the safety and mobility of the traveler, the efficiency of the system, productivity of transportation providers, and conservation of energy and the environment. Current problems can be addressed using ITS tools to meet the future demands through proper planning and management of transportation systems. By the effective integration of advanced technologies for the communication and processing of information into transportation systems, direct benefits can be recognized. Preparation of an inclusive and well-developed plan by including ITS concepts and technologies

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into Kentucky’s transportation planning process will offer significant benefits to the whole transportation system.

Purpose of ITS Business Plan This paper presents a business plan for the state of Kentucky, located in the east-central region of the United States. The ITS business plan is prepared by referring to the goals outlined in the strategic plan; it will mention the estimated costs and optimal implementation schedule. The business plan addresses infrastructure requirements to enable state-wide ITS deployment. It has been verified that the business plan prepared is compatible with the Kentucky Transportation Cabinet’s Six-Year Plan of proposed projects. The purpose of the prepared plan is to identify projects for deployment that will accomplish the goals given in the strategic plan over the next six years. It sets an objective, briefly describes the project, calculates the cost, identifies the location, and prepares a schedule for each identified project. The business plans will be re-evaluated and updated every two years.

Current ITS Deployment in Kentucky Kentucky started using ITS in 1982 with the implementation of a computerized traffic signal system, a closed-circuit cameras system in Lexington, and vehicle detection loops. The state-wide fiber-optic network helps with communication between the state’s ITS systems; it is a shared resource project with one or more telecommunication providers, where the fiber is installed along the right of way of major roadways throughout the state. Substantial infrastructure for commercial vehicle operations (CVO) has also been implemented by Kentucky for the Commercial Vehicle Information Systems and Networks (CVISN) program. Road Weather Information Systems (RWIS) are implemented in eight different areas around the state for providing information to a centralized location. Automatic vehicle identification (AVI) readers are equipped for six different weigh stations, which allow electronic identification and mainline screening of transponder-equipped commercial vehicles. All of Kentucky’s weigh stations have been connected to a wide area network (WAN), which allows high-speed data communication and internet access. To covertly monitor commercial vehicle traffic from a remote location by the enforcement personnel, a remote monitoring system (RMS) has been installed in Northern Kentucky. Presently, there are many ITS-related projects that are in operation or development throughout the state, involving public transportation, CVO, traffic management, and traveler information.

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For the system to function as intended, most of the ITS technologies require infrastructure like electric power and a communications connection. Electric power is needed to power the equipment, whereas the communications connection helps on-site equipment to send/receive information from other systems. Solar power can be a valid option for some technologies with low power requirements. Based on cost-benefit analysis, the best communication option is selected for each project, since there are many options for communications infrastructure. The internet has been identified as an attractive option for communications, especially in rural areas. For this option, each area will need a phone line and an account with an internet service provider. The infrastructure components placement depends on a project-by-project or site-by-site basis.

Development of ITS Business Plan The process of developing the ITS business plan began with the ITS strategic plan, which was completed and published in 2000. A twenty-year vision for Kentucky was given, along with the identification of key goals for each of the six functional areas of ITS. The six functional areas are advanced public transportation systems (APTS), advanced rural transportation systems (ARTS), advanced traffic management systems (ATMS), advanced traveler information systems (ATIS), advanced vehicle safety systems (AVSS), and CVO. The goals were specifically prioritized and established for each functional area (Exhibit 3.5.1 shows the goals developed for each functional area of ITS).

National ITS Architecture The National ITS Architecture was used in the development of the business plan. It is a blueprint that guides ITS implementation in the United States. A framework for ITS deployment is provided, which specifies how the various systems will interface and exchange data, and how the necessary functionality will be allotted to various system elements. This helps in ensuring that there is interoperability among systems, a continuous flow of information, regulation of equipment, multiple vendors for technology, and maximum benefits from early lessons learned. ITS is described by the national architecture in terms of thirty-one user services, which are broken down into sixty-three market packages (market packages help solving realworld transportation problems to meet specific needs). The first step is to develop a list of projects for the business plans. For this, a matrix was prepared where the goals defined in Kentucky’s ITS Strategic Plan were

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“mapped against” the market packages in the national architecture to decide which market packages were appropriate for meeting Kentucky’s goals. Exhibit 3.5.2 shows the matrix of strategic plan goals and market packages. Through this process, it was found that fifty market packages were required to implement all the goals within the strategic plan. The Kentucky Transportation Center (KTC) project staff simplified the list by eliminating the market packages that are to be implemented by the private sector or different divisions of the state government, and those that could not reasonably be implemented within a six-year time frame. After the shortlisting, the remaining market packages were prioritized based on factors like stakeholder input, engineering judgment, and the number of goals met by each market package. A list of thirteen primary market packages, three secondary market packages, and three additional user service areas for consideration were presented to the Study Advisory Committee (SAC) by the KTC project staff. The SAC, then, discussed and finalized a list for the business plan. The three user service areas were not included in the proposed market packages. Market Packages Approved for Inclusion in the Business Plan ATIS 1 Broadcast Traveler Information ATIS 2 Interactive Traveler Information ATMS 1 Network Surveillance ATMS 2 Probe Surveillance ATMS 3 Surface Street Control ATMS 6 Traffic Information Dissemination ATMS 8 Incident Management System ATMS 13 Standard Railroad Grade Crossing ATMS 18 Road Weather Information System EM 1 Emergency Response CVO 3 Electronic Clearance CVO 4 Commercial Vehicle Administrative Process CVO 7 Roadside CVO Safety CVO 10 Hazardous Material Management APTS 1 Transit Vehicle Tracking AD 1 ITS Data Mart Table 3.5.1: Approved Market Packages Source: Author’s compilation Note: Highlighted market packages will be included as a part of the business plan

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The approved list of market packages (as given in Table 3.5.1) and the inputs from the SAC were used by the KTC project staff to develop a list of projects for the business plan. That list was revised after consulting the staff from the KTC’s ITS Branch. The list of projects recommended for implementation in Kentucky over the next six years is given in Table 3.5.2. S.N o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Project Title 511 Deployment ARTIMIS Commercial Vehicle Electronic Credentials Commercial Vehicle Electronic Screening Detailed Reference Market Expansion Detour Route Development I-75 Incident Detection and Probe Surveillance Informational Course on ITS for Law Enforcement Agencies Informational Kiosks Lexington Traffic Management and Traveler Information Systems Road Weather Information System Expansion Rural Incident Management Systems Signal Coordination Statewide Road Reporting System Strategic Planning and Implementation in Rural Kentucky Transit System Improvement TRIMARC Virtual Weigh Station Work Zone Safety

Table 3.5.2: List of Projects Recommended for Implementation in Kentucky Source: Author’s compilation The total estimated cost was nearly $80M. Cost estimates, by fiscal year, for these projects are given in Exhibit 3.5.3. The spent money and on-going maintenance costs have not been included as part of the estimates. The

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source of funding for these projects is anticipated to be local agencies. The state is divided into twelve highway districts, by the KTC, to optimize building, accountability, and maintenance of transportation systems present within the state. Exhibit 3.5.4 shows a summary of costs for the twelve highway districts. The highway district map is given in Exhibit 3.5.5. Kentucky’s ITS Business Plan is updated every two years to reflect variations in needs and priorities that may occur.

ITS Marketing There are many factors that oppose the successful implementation of ITS. These include inherent human resistance to change, a natural dislike towards risk-taking, a high level of comfort with traditional methods, and the fear of unknown approaches. While implementing ITS technologies, both technical and marketing aspects are taken care of. Broadly, three types of stakeholders are involved in ITS, each with different motivations and objectives. The first stakeholder group are the “decision makers,” who establish organizational goals and priorities, and allocate funds based on the capabilities and benefits of ITS. The second set are the “commuters” or end users. Their endorsement is pertinent for a successful and sustainable ITS implementation and, therefore, their requirements drive and influence systems developed by the decision makers. There is also a need to educate users on the types of technologies, the effectiveness of the system, and their benefits, as the users need to have some knowledge of these technologies to properly utilize them. The final target group is the “implementers and operators.” They are the people within the public/private sector agencies, who implement, operate, and maintain the systems. It is important to gain the acceptance and buy-in of all the stakeholders for a successful implementation of ITS. Therefore, ITS technologies and systems should be appropriately marketed to all stakeholders. Awareness must be created of the innovative ITS applications among the stakeholders. ITS marketing should help complete information dissemination to all stakeholders and assist in framing stakeholder-centric plans and strategies. Stakeholder consultation sessions should be held to help clarify their concerns, address their queries, and plan the systems, as per their requirements. Kentucky’s ITS program was considered very effective in marketing the state ITS initiatives to all stakeholders.

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Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Challenges Challenges in the O&M of systems must be meticulously addressed. Some of the significant O&M challenges related to ITS technologies are discussed below: 1. Existing systems and agencies must be well integrated in sophisticated and advanced ITS operations. 2. The O&M personnel are burdened with the responsibilities of deploying the new systems; roles, responsibilities, and accountability of tasks should be established. 3. Since the O&M of advanced systems require new skills and capabilities, there will be a need to train existing personnel or engage new personnel. Therefore, new ITS projects should completely plan the O&M of the system, to optimally allocate roles and responsibilities, outline capacity building, plan training requirements, select suitable maintenance approaches, and enforce standardization requirements. All the activities should involve all groups of stakeholders and their buy-in must be ensured.

ITS Organizational Structure Understanding the organizational mission, administrative contexts, managerial challenges, and planning resources impact the ITS organizational structure, in 1999, the Transportation Cabinet formed a separate section for ITS, within the Department of Highways’ Division of Operations, constituted exclusively of ITS staff. Within the KTC, two departments (Highways and Vehicle Regulation) have been regularly and actively engaged in ITS developments. In addition, the Division of Information Technology (part of the Department of Administration within the Transportation Cabinet) provides constant support for most of the CVO projects. The unprecedented amount of interdepartmental coordination and multidisciplinary characteristics of ITS projects imposes a huge challenge in system development. The organizational structure can be seen in Exhibit 3.5.6. The various ITS projects developed through partnerships and diverse teams illustrate the complexity levels of Kentucky’s transportation projects.

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Enhance state-wide emergency response capability Improve connectivity between rural public transportation systems Implement efficient traffic management practices for incidents and construction activity Promote communication and information sharing among agencies Improve signing and traveler information resources Develop advanced vehicle safety systems Reduce congestion resulting from roadway hazards and adverse weather conditions by improving traveler awareness Improve the response time and increase the availability of emergency services Enhance traffic information and management services by integrating them on a regional basis Increase the attractiveness of public transit by using better transit information systems Increase tourism travel through better dissemination of information Improve driver performance by using traveler information systems Improve and streamline CVO Continuation of Kentucky’s leadership role in CVO Conduct paperless CVO operations with timely, current, accurate and verifiable electronic information, while maintaining security and privacy Enhance CVO productivity, safety, and efficiency by eliminating unsafe and illegal operations and providing incentives for improved performance Integrate and coordinate ITS operations and empower Kentucky Create a CVO system that is self-sufficient, uses multiple vendors, and is user-friendly

Exhibit 3.5.1 Goals Developed for Each Functional Area of ITS

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Develop a statewide ITS plan and an ITS architecture that identifies the needs, goals, and plans for Kentucky Identify and allocate available funding for ITS projects Advanced Traffic Resolve issues regarding public policies and laws Management Systems Develop a state-wide traffic operations center for collection and dissemination of (ATMS) traffic information Integrate and coordinate incident management response Provide ITS training and education Improve safety at highway-rail crossings 5 Increase funding opportunities for public transit systems Increase the efficiency and convenience of transit services by developing statewide coordinated transit system Advanced Public Improve the level and quality of service of transit systems to make them convenient Transportation Systems and attractive (APTS) Improve safety for transit operators and passengers while onboard transit vehicles and at boarding and transfer stations Increase public awareness and improve customer service 6 Establish proper standards and specifications to ensure compatibility, interoperability, and conformance to minimum requirements for all systems Educate drivers on proper use of AVSS Determine the appropriate cost responsibility for deployment of AVSS Advanced Vehicle Safety Provide adequate funding for research Systems (AVSS) Reduce crashes Regulate use of potentially distracting technologies while driving Determine how best to resolve the older driver issue Start early planning at the state level Source: Based on the data from Walton et al. 2000.

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Exhibit 3.5.2 Matrix of Strategic Plan Goals and Market Packages

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Exhibit 3.5.3: Cost Summary for Projects by Fiscal Year

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Exhibit 3.5.4: Cost Summary for Projects by Highway Districts

Source for Exhibits 2, 3 and 4: J.R. Walton, J.D. Crabtree, M.L. Barrett, J.G. Pigman. INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS BUSINESS PLAN FOR KENTUCKY (FINAL REPORT). Research Report, Kentucky: KENTUCKY TRANSPORTATION CENTER, September 2001.

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Exhibit 3.5.5: Map Showing the Twelve Kentucky Highway Districts

Source: Kentucky’s Long-Range Statewide Transportation Plan: Planning to Make a Difference in America’s Tomorrow. 2014.

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Exhibit 3.5.6: ITS Organizational Structure in Kentucky as of April 2000

Source: Walton et al. 2000.

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References Kentucky’s Long-Range Statewide Transportation Plan: Planning to Make a Difference in America’s Tomorrow. 2014. Kentucky: Kentucky Transportation Cabinet. Walton, J. R., J. D. Crabtree, M. L. Barrett, J. G. Pigman. 2001. INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS BUSINESS PLAN FOR KENTUCKY (FINAL REPORT). Kentucky: KENTUCKY TRANSPORTATION CENTER. Walton, J. R., et al. 2000. Intelligent Transportation Systems Strategic Plan (Final Report). Final Research Report, University of Kentucky, Kentucky: Kentucky Transportation centre, College of Engineering.

CHAPTER 3.6 TRANSIT SIGNAL PRIORITY

Overview The City of Zurich is the historic, administrative, and cultural center of northeast Switzerland, and is located at the north end of Lake Zurich. Zurich is the largest city in Switzerland, with a population of nearly 335,900. It has many recreational and cultural opportunities. Zurich, like many European cities, provides a high level of transit service to its citizens; it has an extremely high degree of transit usage for a relatively small city. The story of the transit priority program in Zurich started in the years following World War II, when major transportation problems were caused by the increasing use of private vehicles due to the increasing population. There was a lot of interest in transit priority techniques, from the early 1970s, and designs were oriented towards speeding up transit. For the successful implementation of a transit priority program, it is essential to provide high-quality transit service. An important feature of the Zurich’s transit system is that it is safe and many young children independently use the system. It is an excellent network, where passengers can get from anywhere to anywhere, almost any time of the day, throughout the year. Most of the transit priority improvements in the city are simple and inexpensive.

Transit Priority Transit signal priority (TSP) is a set of operational improvements. They use technology to reduce dwell time at traffic signals for transit vehicles by holding green lights longer or shortening red lights. There is an important distinction between TSP and signal pre-emption. Signal priority changes the normal signal operation process to better accommodate transit vehicles, while pre-emption interferes with the normal process for special situations, such as an approaching emergency vehicle. Transit priority improvements are generally a range of techniques that are designed to speed up public transit service. Speeding up transit is important because travel time acts as a determining factor for the customers to choose a means of transport. They improve the system’s overall efficiency and help in reducing conflicts and

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accidents on the roads. Transit priority is extremely cost effective, provides faster and more reliable services; it is important as it enables transit operations at higher frequencies with the same resources, and the attraction of more passengers.

Types of Transit Priority Improvements Transit priority improvements generally include physical improvements, operation changes, and regulatory changes (Nash and Sylvia 2001). The transit priority improvements are categorized into four types: 1. Roadway Improvements or Traffic Regulations: This includes minor changes to roadways, relocation or reduction in the number of transits stops, and traffic regulations designed to reduce transit vehicle delays. The types of traffic improvements include turn restrictions, traffic islands, and parking restrictions. The impact of these individual improvements is generally small and requires different departments to carry out the projects. So, interdepartmental collaboration is necessary for project implementation. 2. TSP: This includes traffic signals that reduce delays to transit vehicles by giving green light signals when they approach. The main goal was to provide transit priority at traffic signals without impacting traffic flow. The traffic signal control system provides continuous information on the location of transit vehicles. 3. Transit System Operations: This includes changes to the operation of the public transit system designed to reduce delays, including measures like low-floor buses, proof of payment, and system control centers. The Transit Operations Center helped the city’s transit system improve its effectiveness and efficiency. Zurich’s transit system operates with a proof-of-payment fare collection. The region’s transit operators use well designed buses and trams that make transit faster. These vehicles have lots of space around the doors, and there are three wide double-doors in most of the standard forty-foot buses. 4. Separate Right of Way: Sections of roadway are designated for the exclusive use of transit vehicles, allowing transit to bypass congestion. Zurich redistributed a large amount of road space to construct a major network of exclusive transit lanes. Zurich has implemented all the four types of transit priority improvements. One of the most important factors in the success of a transit priority program

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is to carefully plan and design improvements. Zurich has had more than thirty years of experience in implementing its transit priority program.

Importance of Transit Priority Improvements Rail transport can provide an attractive and eco-friendly transit system. But it is feasible only in major corridors where there is high ridership and large capital investment. It is also difficult to find funding for these expensive projects. In the cost-benefit analysis, transit priority improvements are less expensive and well-rationalized. Therefore, transit priority improvement is an important method for improving transit services. The overall effectiveness of the transit network can be improved by transit priority improvements where large capital investments are viable. High-investment transit projects, such as light-rail lines, can be implemented with more confidence due to the demand built by transit priority improvements. Today, many cities are facing the issue of traffic congestion and are trying to restructure their transit networks. They have two main choices. One is to construct an entirely new transit network, or line, which is an expensive and long process, and the second choice is to focus on improving the existing network by implementing transit priority techniques. Zurich chose the second option, which is a relatively unique choice in the age of major transit projects. This has resulted in creating one of the world’s best transit systems.

Implementation of Transit Priority Techniques Transit priority programs are most efficient and effective if they cover the entire network. The city of Zurich has done this over the past thirty years. The planners evaluate each aspect of the program systematically and scout for ways to maintain and upgrade it. According to Nash and Sylvia (2001), the implementation of transit priority improvements can be categorized into four levels: 1. Limited Implementation: Transit priority techniques are implemented individually in various locations in the transit network, as in individual roadway improvements. Roadway changes are traffic regulations, minor physical improvements, and changes to transit stops. 2. Route-level Implementation: Transit priority techniques are implemented along the entire route, such as building exclusive transit

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lanes; exclusive transit lanes are lanes used solely by public transit vehicles. 3. Area-wide Implementation: Transit priority improvements are implemented in a particular area, such as transit malls. Transit malls are sections of the street, generally located in a city center, where many different transit lanes operate with little or very limited private traffic. 4. Comprehensive Implementation: Transit priority improvements are implemented in all transit routes and operational changes are made comprehensively, such as proof-of-payment fare collection. Proof of payment, also known as self-service fare collection (SSFC), relieves transit drivers from the hassles of fare collection and automates door operations for safe and convenient boarding and deboarding.

Difficulties in Implementing Transit Priority Improvements Zurich is extremely successful in implementing a comprehensive transit priority program. However, implementing TSP is not an easy task; prioritizing transit necessitates releasing capacity from other roadway users. The concept of TSP is relatively simple, but execution must be in real-time, which makes it both complex and critical. Some of the difficulties associated with the implementation process are 1. Low technical competence and lack of expertise on transit priority techniques and implementation 2. Lack of support or direct opposition by different agencies or departments 3. Difficulties of coordination between agencies and departments 4. Pressure by automobile users 5. Poor public understanding of the benefits of transit priority 6. Opposition to change, by businesses and residents These obstacles are hindrances to transit agencies and departments for implementing TSP. Political and state support is essential to overcome these obstacles, which is evidenced by the case of Zurich. In 1973, the people of Zurich started an initiative to improve operations of the existing surface transit network, mainly by providing funding and political support for implementing transit priority improvements.

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Transit Priority in Zurich Zurich implemented all four types of transit priority improvements throughout its network. It designed and built a unique citywide TSP system that provides transit priority without disturbing other traffic. Traffic volumes in the city are controlled by this sophisticated system, to prevent congestion and improve livability. The city adopted system-operating techniques, such as proof-of-payment; to maintain schedule reliability and service quality, a high-tech systems operations center was created. All the priority transit vehicles had new traffic regulations and roadway changes on all the city routes. The city implemented improvements, which were designed to reduce the amount of through traffic and traffic speeds in the neighborhoods. Exclusive right of way was constructed by redistributing road space from mixed traffic to transit only. If the construction of exclusive lanes was not possible, then traffic signals were creatively provided for transit priority. The city’s public interest in the transit system was heightened by the efficiency and quality of service. Zurich’s regional transit system directly feeds the city’s tram and bus system. A two-level transit system was developed to meet the transportation needs of a major urban region. Through systematic implementation and by increasing the number of stations, Zurich improved the efficiency and speed of the surface transit network.

Implementation Lessons from Zurich Like all other modern cities, Zurich also faces problems related to traffic congestion, high automobile ownership and demographical changes. Zurich’s primary reasons for success were continued public support and effective political leadership. Successful implementation of a transit priority program needs a comprehensive, long-term approach to improve the transit system. Zurich already had a well-connected public transit network, which only needed upgradation and expansion. The lessons and strategies that can be learnt from Zurich are given below: 1. Obtain and Maintain Strong Public Support: One of the most important elements in implementing any government program is to gain public support. In Zurich, the public played an active role in compelling the city administration to implement transit priorities comprehensively. A group of citizens presented a plan for implementing transit priority improvements throughout Zurich’s

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existing transit system instead of creating a new rail transit line, which would have been expensive. Gain Elected Official Support: Obtaining elected officials’ support is not easy, but the public’s endorsement of policies decided by the officials is essential for implementing a transit priority program. Elected officials move government bodies to undertake long-term and challenging city-wide programs. Use Smart Implementation Techniques: Government officials implemented high-impact, effective programs to sustain public support; they also publicized the benefits of the projects. Zurich designed its TSP system in a way that the movement of other vehicles was not disturbed by providing only the least amount of time required for transit priority. Zurich also sped up transit and improved neighborhoods by providing good bus stops, pedestrian spaces, and turn restrictions to avoid delays and unwanted traffic. Organize Government to Effectively Deliver Program: Many departments get affected by the implementation of transit priority improvements. Zurich addressed this concern by creating two task forces. One was the executive council, which develops transit priority improvements and provides the needed political support. The other task force was the actual implementors, consisting of planners and heads of different departments. It allows interdepartmental collaboration for developing specific transit priority improvements. Finally, the traffic police had the responsibility of making changes to roadway systems including signs, traffic signals, and road construction. Careful Traffic Engineering and Technology: The lesson from Zurich is that opposition to transit priority techniques can be minimized by using sophisticated traffic engineering. Sophisticated traffic engineering techniques like channelization and traffic signal placement allow private vehicle operations while still providing transit priority. The city of Zurich had staff members who were operations research specialists; they took a systems approach to transit priority and worked closely with other departments to understand problems. Technical implementation issues should be resolved and new technologies should be developed to solve problems. Implement Complementary Programs: Transit priority alone will not create an excellent transit system. The other basic requirements are safety, good service, and efficiency. In addition to this, there are other complementary programs that can further support and improve

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the transit system. Some complementary programs were planning land uses to support transit, reducing traffic volume, and regional transit coordination. The conventional land use planning techniques include increasing density with zoning and development agreements and providing good access to mobility at places to live, work, and visit. Smoothing traffic flow, reduction of roadway capacity, and parking controls were the three approaches to reduce traffic volume on the roads. Strong ridership and public approval exist for Zurich’s transit system. 7. Use Capital Investments to Leverage Institutional Change: As a part of funding the project to construct the S-Bahn (fast train), the canton of Zurich was asked to create a new agency for regional coordination. The Canton’s funding helped to establish coordination between the public and private transit operators. 8. Think from the Systems Level: Zurich adopted a hybrid transit system. Surface streetcars and buses for local transit and high-speed commuter rail for regional transit was an appropriate solution to Zurich’s transportation needs. There are significant cost savings and transit service benefits. The two-level system reduces transfers through a meticulous implementation of system-level decision choices (Nash and Sylvia 2001).

Conclusion Zurich is one of the most livable cities in the world and is famous for the quality of its public transit system. The system is easy to use, fast, convenient, reliable, and inexpensive. Understandably, Zurich has one of the highest rates of transit usage. The most important quality of Zurich’s public transit system is that it functions as a network. Zurich created its excellent transit system by implementing a comprehensive transit priority program designed to speed up transit. Improving a surface transit system that can operate with transit priority has many advantages over an underground system. A surface system is simple to operate and is designed to fit well into the urban environment. The transit priority techniques used in Zurich can be implemented in other countries to improve their own transit systems. Cities with less-developed transit systems might not achieve the same results as quickly as Zurich, but Zurich’s approach remains an excellent model to follow.

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Reference Nash, Andrew Butler, and Ronald Sylvia. 2001. Implementation of Zürich’s Transit Priority Program. Mineta, US: Final Report, US Department of Transportation, Mineta Transportation Institute, 150.

CHAPTER 3.7 ITS PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Background The historic city of Mysore is in the state of Karnataka, in India. The Mysore Urban Development Authority (MUDA) is responsible for the growth and expansion of the city, along with developing new layouts and roads. Mysore was facing severe problems related to road transportation. such as congestion and increasing pollution. Commuters experienced delays in buses due to lack of information and frequency. There was mismanagement of traffic with high levels of pollution and increasing traffic density. As a result, there was a need for an efficient and sustainable public transport system in the city. The Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) pioneered the implementation of ITS in providing a dynamic solution to the increasing road congestion. It encouraged the use of public transport by reducing the use of personal vehicles. This, in a way, protects the environment from heavy pollution and eases congestion. A good-quality and passengerfriendly service is achievable only through ITS, which improve accessibility, safety, traffic and energy efficiency, and economic output. ITS also reduce the waiting time, travel uncertainty, fuel consumption, emissions, operating costs, and traffic congestion. To ensure that all the services are delivered without any interruption, ITS must be maintained and managed efficiently.

Objectives of Mysore ITS The core objectives of deploying ITS in the city were conceptualized with the aim of providing safe, efficient, and eco-friendly public transport. The objectives are 1. To provide effective, safe, environmental, and commuter-friendly solutions to the public transport buses

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2. To track, monitor, and communicate the movement of buses on a real-time basis at the bus stops to enable through modern GPS/GPRS technologies 3. To use a decision support system to effectively manage the transport system by collecting, organizing, and storing information on a realtime basis using communication technology 4. To get instant access to real-time information related to bus schedules, ETA, ETD, bus stops, fare details, etc., at bus stops, bus terminals, within the buses, and through SMS, internet and IVRS 5. To issue passes daily, weekly, and monthly for commuters and epurse facilities through smart cards 6. To effectively monitor disruptions and obtain relevant information 7. To facilitate timely management of accidents 8. To establish instant two-way interaction facility between driver and central control station 9. To effectively divert traffic in case of emergency (Ramasaamy, Subhashini and Pathak 2008) Like any typical project management, Mysore ITS was implemented in a phased manner with five key phases: i) initiating, ii) planning, iii) executing, iv) controlling, and v) closing. These phases are illustrated in Exhibit 3.7.1a. The tasks under each phase are carried out using appropriate techniques and methodologies to fulfil all the stakeholders’ requirements in a timely manner. A detailed explanation of these tasks is given in Exhibit 3.7.1b.

Key Stakeholders in the Project The essential criteria for ITS are availability, accessibility, assessment and acceptance. These ensure the acceptance and endorsement of the ITS by all stakeholders (Ramasaamy, Subhashini and Pathak 2008). The involvement of multiple stakeholders at various levels is required for the successful implementation of ITS. The Government of India (GOI) implemented the Sustainable Urban Transport Program (SUTP) in partnership with the Global Environment Facility (GEF). The KSRTC is responsible for the overall management of the public transport system in the city. There were two key ministries of GOI that were involved in this initiative. One is the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD), which formulates policies and conducts programs in coordination with state and central ministries. The other is the Ministry of Environment, which designs planning and implementation from an environmental perspective. The World Bank

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supports the SUTP and The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) provides training in ITS to Mysore’s officials. The IBI group, in coordination with Computer Maintenance Corporation (CMC) limited, focused on the physical development of cities like planning, design, implementation, operations analysis, and development of the transportation networks and intelligent systems. The list of key stakeholders along with their descriptions is given in Exhibit 3.7.2.

Implementation Strategy The KSRTC overlooks the implementation of ITS in Mysore. The Mysore City Transport Division (MCTD) is a division of KSRTC, which operates a fleet of 400 buses from three depots. This initiative started in 2012 with a total number of 105 selected bus stops, which was later extended to all the bus stops. The integrated approach in KSRTC helps in efficiently controlling the ICT tools and services based on GPS-enabled navigation systems. Technologies Used: The core systems used in Mysore ITS are the vehicle tracking system, real-time passenger information system, central control station, global positioning system (GPS), electronic display systems, digital display units (for displaying details of arrival and departure of buses, in the local language, Kannada, and English), and a vehicle-mounted unit (VMU). A VMU updates the location information and sends it to the central server through the general packet radio service (GPRS, a wireless data connection). The bus stop information is tracked using VMU and is displayed in real-time inside the buses. ITS are also supported by a two-way voice-communication facility for enhanced operations and monitoring of the bus transport system. This allows the drivers and the central control station to interact with information on accidents or emergencies. The bus drivers are provided with communication headsets and a keypad interface for voice communication. By the end of the day, daily reports are generated about the delays in arrivals, performance of drivers, and number of bus stops skipped. A flow chart showing the implementation strategy is given in Exhibit 3.7.3.

Components of Mysore ITS There are many crucial components of ITS, which provide sustainable solutions to the ever-growing demands of urban transport. Exhibit 3.7.4

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shows the list of components of Mysore ITS. The components are explained below: 1. The digital display unit, installed at the bus stops, displays the information in English and Kannada, and gets updated by the central server through GPRS. It displays information like route number, terminal, origin and destination, expected time of arrival (ETA) and expected time of departure (ETD). 2. The in-bus display system shows information about the upcoming bus stop and the current stop, which are tracked and communicated through the central control stations and updated through GPRS. 3. To ensure inclusivity of traffic management, an audio announcing system is placed in the buses. 4. Geographic information system (GIS) maps help in tracking the status of a bus and the ETA. 5. The SMS system gives real-time bus information and scheduled bus availability. 6. An IVRS facility, under the Mysore ITS, provides answers to telephonic queries, in both English and Kannada. 7. To track KSRTC vehicles online, there is an online portal in both the languages. This is integrated with GIS to help commuters. An illustration is provided in Exhibit 3.7.5.a. Exhibit 3.7.5 b is an illustration of various technologies and initiatives used in the Mysore ITS and Exhibit 3.7.6 is a systemic representation of the Mysore ITS. The devices present inside the buses send signals and information to the communication towers, which are then sent to the central control station through the GPPRS gateway. The communication towers send the information related to arrival and departures to the bus stops and bus terminals. The bus depots send information to the central control station, which is also displayed in the bus terminals. Therefore, the passengers are well informed about the real-time information of buses.

Resources Utilized The investment related to infrastructure is partly financed and supported by the World Bank-GEF grants. The estimated cost of deploying ITS in Mysore is Rs. 19.13 crore. The Mysore ITS technology framework covers wireless communication, sensing technologies, inductive loop detection, video vehicle detection, electronic toll collection, GPS, and displays and other information systems. Technology infrastructure contains a data center with

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various types of servers like communication, database, and application. Other technical components include a central control station, like a video wall in the control room, dispatcher workstations, and access control. Core applications include GIS and ITS and commuter-friendly applications, including SMS, IVRS, and a commuter portal in Kannada and English. About 1,439 crew members, along with depot managers and traffic inspectors, were trained as part of the initiative. The training included classroom training, in-bus demonstration, and a visit to the control room. Users of KSRTC services were also trained in the use of various devices and technologies deployed in the ITS. A team of instructors, from the three training institutes of the KSRTC, was put together to provide training on ITS as a part of the implementation strategy.

Benefits of the Project There are many benefits to be obtained from the implementation of ITS in Mysore: 1. Safety improvements: ITS helps in minimizing the number of crashes and fatalities by monitoring vehicle speed and location. 2. Reduction in delays: A major goal in ITS is reduction of delays. Deployment of ITS helps manage the variability of travel time in transit and increases the reliability of vehicle arrival time. 3. Effective capacity improvements: Effective capacity is the potential rate at which vehicles may pass through a network under typical roadway conditions. ITS implementation optimizes the use of existing facilities by reducing the need for new investments. 4. Greater commuter satisfaction: A well-implemented ITS results in good quality of service (reliability, etc.), more mode choices, and lesser complaints. Surveillance of bus-drivers and conductors also ensures good in-bus service quality. 5. Low energy and environmental impacts: ITS projects reduce vehicle congestion on roads and, hence, reduce energy consumption per capita and vehicular pollution. 6. Encouraging use of public transport: Displaying real-time information about the buses and increasing reliability leads to overall customer satisfaction, hence, inducing people’s preference for public transport. 7. Reducing travel uncertainty: ITS helps in reducing travel uncertainty by smoothing the traffic flow and communicating real-time information, which helps the public plan their trips efficiently.

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8. Reliability and punctuality: ITS generates real-time data about vehicle performance, which are useful for the operators to make informed decisions on the management of the fleet, schedules, and executions. 9. Reduction in traffic congestion: ITS can help ease congestion by suggesting alternate routes and keeping travelers well informed. Reduction in congestion improves mobility at lesser per capita fuel (Ramasaamy, Subhashini and Pathak 2008).

Key Challenges The integration of VMU and weak connectivity of GPRS were some obstacles faced in the implementation of ITS. Prediction of exact arrival times with accuracy was challenging since the system works to provide time-based delivery of services. For the successful implementation of ITS, it is important to make GPRS signals available throughout the city to get real-time information from buses. Another challenge was the insufficient in-house domain knowledge and resultant dependence on consultants, along with multi-level monitoring and coordination. For the long-term effectiveness and sustainability of a project, financial management plays a major role; while Mysore ITS had brought in many funding agencies, it lacked an efficient financial management body. Varying formats, norms, and financial flows made the process even more challenging. The large scale of operations and consolidation of information networks was a complicated process, which also led to other challenges like resolving customer queries. Finally, after the deployment of ITS, it was another challenge to ensure regular maintenance of ITS equipment and uninterrupted power supply at bus stops.

Replication of the Project With the help of community support and the sustainability of ITS, KSRTC was successful in expanding its services all over Mysore. The same system is getting implemented for 2,000 buses within the Karnataka state. Other places, like the state of Andhra Pradesh and Bengaluru city in Karnataka, are keen on imitating this system. The eco-friendly and user-friendly approach in ITS is one of the main reasons for replication. But there are few considerations to be made during replication; one is financial viability, which is an important factor for the implementation of the project. The other is to prepare a detailed tender process and a financial plan; cost-benefit analysis of investments in using high-end technologies and other equipment

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will be required. For any initiative to be replicable, the end-users of the system should be considered. The Mysore ITS has proven to be an effective tool in improving the access and efficiency of public transport.

Conclusion The main vision of Mysore ITS was to implement a user-centric urban transportation solution instead of promoting the use of personal vehicles. This was done using real-time information communication. The smart initiative made public transport user-friendly and helped the commuters to plan their trips efficiently by providing frequent, real-time updates. It also improved safety, reduced congestion, delays, and pollution, and increased commuter satisfaction. A well-planned and deployed ITS system in buses will majorly improve the urban transport scenario in Indian cities, especially when the needs of the users are prioritized. Implementation of ITS was a pioneering effort by KSRTC to solve critical issues with modern technologies, without subjecting the government or public to the inconvenience of construction and infrastructure development. The highlights of the Mysore ITS project are presented in Exhibit 3.7.7.

References NITI Aayog. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2015. “Intelligent Transport System: Improving Urban Public Transport in Mysore.” In Social Sector Service Delivery: Good Practices Resource Book 2015. Ramasaamy, N., G. Subhashini and M. M. Pathak. 2008. Intelligent Transport System for KSRTC, Mysore—Detailed Project Report. Pune: Central Institute of Road Transport.

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Exhibit 3.7.1a: Five Key Phases in a Project

Source: Project Management Institute, A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, (PMBOK® Guide), Fifth Edition. Project Management Institute, Inc., 2013, Figure 3-2, Page 51.

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Exhibit 3.7.1b: Detailed Explanation of the Tasks under Each of the Phases

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Exhibit 3.7.2: The list of Key Stakeholders Along with Their Descriptions

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Exhibit 3.7.3: A Flow Chart Showing the Implementation Strategy

Source: One World Foundation India 2014

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Exhibit 3.7.4: A Flow Chart Showing the Components of Mysore ITS

Source: One World Foundation India 2014

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Exhibit 3.7.5a: Images Showing the KSRTC Online Portal in Two Languages, i.e., English and Kannada

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Exhibit 3.7.5b: Images Showing Various Technologies and Initiatives

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Exhibit 3.7.6: The Cycle Showing the Entire System of Mysore ITS

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Exhibit 3.7.7: Highlights of Mysore ITS

Source: NITI Aayog 2015.

CHAPTER 3.8 FLEET AND COMMERCIAL VEHICLE OPERATIONS

Introduction For any country, freight plays a crucial role in the economy. For a better socioeconomic growth and quality of life, the effective management of freight transportation is essential. Providing cost-efficient and structured freight transportation systems encourages industries to compete effectively in local as well as global markets. Application of information and communication technology (ICT) is an important tool that enables safe and efficient operations in freight transportation, improves visibility with better responsiveness, and enhances supply chain performance. There is a wide range of ICT that has been used to improve the performance of transportation networks. Using ICT, carriers and shippers can automate and integrate a broad range of billing and data entry by electronic data interchange (EDI). It has also allowed carriers to enhance their transportation services by providing real-time information to track cargo, vehicles, equipment, and inventories. During the last few decades, various concepts, such as intelligent/smart transportation, intelligent highway, intelligent vehicle, intelligent freight, etc., have been introduced to apply advanced ICT that can be used for the management of logistics, transportation, and materials handling operations. Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) are not only about improving urban transport in terms of the mobility of people; it can enhance the exchange of information (e.g., real-time status updates) regarding various business operations in different modes of transportation and, hence, improve the logistics operations. As far as freight transportation is concerned, the goal of ITS is to integrate individual transportation elements into a single system using ICT. Advanced ITS collect a huge amount of data regarding operations of the transportation system and communicate it in different formats, which can be used by the authorities, carriers, and other operators of the transportation networks. It provides the opportunity to increase the

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use of existing transportation infrastructure and generate additional capacity from it. The primary objective of integrating ITS into commercial vehicle operations (CVO) is to improve their efficiency and safety while reducing negative environmental impacts. Application of ITS involves many services such as commercial vehicle electronic clearance, automated roadside safety inspection, onboard safety monitoring administration, hazardous material incident response, freight mobility, etc.

Intelligence in Transport Logistics Improvements in warehousing activities and customer services, and various economic benefits—including reduced costs of logistics operations—can be achieved by the effective application of ICT. Increased and enhanced collaboration between the various actors and stakeholders of supply chains results in improved safety and efficiency in freight transport operations. Furthermore, ICT in freight transport can support the integration of intermodal transportation in supply chains. On a broader level, ICT can contribute to three main functions of freight transport: resource management, tracking and tracing, and operations management of ports and terminals. The core concept of ITS is tracking systems, collecting data, processing, and communication of information for better use of the transportation system, infrastructure, and services. It is important to examine freight ITS according to the scope of the system; this can be classified into two broad classes. First, is CVO for system-wide, regional, national, or continental applications; the second is advanced fleet management systems (AFMS) dedicated to the operations of a particular firm or group of firms. Both the categories have different advanced technology requirements, which are also used for the e-business activities of the firm. Because of automated and efficient operation, and labor management supported by EDI, it became very popular in inter-modal facilities and container terminals. Commercial vehicles having EDI capability helps AFMS to communicate between dispatchers in control centers and vehicle operators in the field, and ensure real-time, accurate data flow.

Freight Transportation Information Types The following are the types of freight transportation information that can be used in freight ITS. Each type listed, below, can provide various data (Exhibit 3.8.1 shows data provided by each information type).

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

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Traffic and infrastructure information Vehicle and freight location information Freight condition information Freight positioning information Warehouse operations and inventory information Cargo information Vehicle identity information

Over the years, the increasing volume of commuters and vehicles in transportation operations has resulted in complex logistics networks with a high demand for an efficient flow of information between users and systems. ITS applications ensure information flows more efficiently and effectively between users, monitor involved activities in a better manner, and increase freight visibility and interactions with logistics infrastructure. Currently, ITS are being used in different areas of freight transportation, including controlling the position, condition, placement, and identification of freight and vehicles, fleet management and control, and city logistics. There is also a significant potential for creating value-added services for businesses and consumers.

Freight Intelligent Transport Systems Freight ITS can broadly be applied to transportation operations, which can be categorized into nine systems. The contribution of each system to the improvement of the different performance dimensions of transportation, such as effectiveness, efficiency, safety, security, and environmental performance, along with the use of each system to support the functions of transportation, is described below. 1.

Traffic Control and Monitoring Systems

The motive behind creating a traffic control and monitoring system is to control and manage traffic flow by providing information regarding traffic situations, such as congestion, traffic flow speed, accidents, and vehicles on the road, to be used by the authorities or by logistics service providers. This information is mainly used for ensuring better efficiency, safety, and security of logistic operations. Such a system is developed using a range of different advanced technologies, such as variable traffic signs, smart traffic lights, cameras, speed measurement, and sensors. This decreases the transportation time and results in a more harmonized traffic flow.

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2.

Weight-in-Motion (WIM) Systems

The motive behind creating WIM systems is to control and assess vehicles to ensure transportation safety and reduce the damages caused by overweighted vehicles. They can reduce the risk of accidents caused by overweighted vehicles, reduce damages to the infrastructure, and save time for both vehicles and agencies. Some of the major applications of such systems are the legislation, regulation, and administration of the transportation. They can improve the performance of commercial vehicles by eliminating the stop times of the vehicles on static weight control systems. 3.

Delivery Space Booking Systems

These systems provide bookings for a parking space for a specific vehicle to load or unload freight during a specific period. The application of these systems can reduce the total number of vehicle trips during a particular time period, which contributes to environmental safety and maximizes the utilization of the available parking spaces, which results in the improved efficiency of transportation infrastructure. 4.

Vehicle Location and Condition Monitoring Systems

These systems transmit information via satellite and provide real-time information regarding the position of vehicles on the map, using the internet. Real-time information, regarding the status of the freight during shipment, can be determined by installing sensors on the vehicle containers and can be controlled at any point of time, regardless of whether the container’s door is locked or unlocked. Such systems ensure improved fleet management, and tracking and tracing of goods and vehicles. These systems also allow drivers to identify safe and unsafe parking zones, leading to the improved safety and security of transportation systems. For better transportation resource management and logistics management, the application of integrated vehicle tracking systems becomes crucial. With the help of realtime information about the location of vehicles, the waiting time of the vehicles during clearance can be minimized. 5.

Route Planning Systems

These involve the planning of the transportation routes according to realtime road situations. By doing so, the possibility of delays is reduced, which leads to more eco-friendly operations, cost effectiveness, a better quality of services to customers, and the increased effectiveness of operations. Such systems directly lead to better resource planning for transport operators.

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6.

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Driving Behavior Monitoring and Control Systems

The primary role of such systems is to provide feedback for improving driving by analyzing the speed and acceleration of drivers during transportation operations. They support transportation resource management through reducing the fuel consumption of vehicles and lead to more ecofriendly operations. They also contribute to a significant improvement in the safety of operations and the reduction in accidents by using advanced technologies for improving the concentration and management of drivers on routes. 7.

Crash Preventing Systems

These systems use sensors to reduce the probability of accidents. Sensors installed on the vehicles can warn drivers when they get close to an object, and provide information regarding the probability of accidents. Such systems increase the safety of transportation operations by reducing the probability of accidents. These types of systems can be very helpful in the detection of pedestrians at night and the avoidance of accidents. 8.

Freight Location Monitoring Systems

The application of radio frequency identification (RFID) tags for scanning vehicles has a major positive impact on transportation operations. This allows freight movement to be automatically controlled and recorded in the database, and has provided new capabilities, such as reading many tags at once with reduced inaccuracies, regarding inventory management and manual data entry. These systems also enable the easy location of items in big warehouses, terminals, and ports. Using such systems can help in better resource management by decreasing the loading and unloading time, and improving the accuracy of cargo information. These systems improve the safety and security of transported items by increasing the visibility of freight location, preventing theft or fake items by using auto-identification technologies. Better environmental performance can also be achieved by using such systems for waste management. The application of such systems for warehouse operations leads to improved working efficiency, reduced operations cost, and time savings in resource management activities. 9.

Freight Status Monitoring Systems

Improvements in transportation operations can be successfully achieved by the application of different sensors that can measure the physical attributes of goods, such as humidity, temperature, impact level, light level, and

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vibration level. A combination of sensors, along with automatic identification technologies such as RFID, opens a new window for better control and monitoring of the flow of material between different actors in supply chains. Using such systems to control the shipment of explosives, chemicals, and other dangerous goods can lead to safer, efficient, and more eco-friendly transportation operations.

ITS for Commercial Vehicles in Europe In Europe, the transport sector alone accounts for about a quarter of greenhouse gas emissions; the road sector accounts for around 70 % of the total transport-related greenhouse gases. A huge emphasis has been given to deploying ITS for commercial vehicle operations, especially for road transportation. European car, bus, and truck industries (OEMs), and their representative association, the European Automobile Manufactures' Association (ACEA), face difficulties in reducing the carbon footprint of vehicles and improving the performance and safety of road transport. Hence, there is motivation to implement ITS. An integrated approach has been adopted—working with different stakeholders and using advanced technologies/applications in the vehicle and the infrastructure—to make road transport eco-friendly, safe, and more efficient.

On-Board ITS Applications in Commercial Vehicles 1.

Navigation and Travel Information

Navigation systems for vehicles are maps provided to aid the driver. Dynamic navigation integrates real-time traffic information along with some specific information, such as estimated fuel consumption, combined with eco-driving support. This is also called eco-routing or eco-navigation. This has a major effect on departure time choice and route choice. Such applications in freight transport can improve the efficiency of vehicles, allowing vehicles to be re-routed to achieve maximum capacity utilization and to reduce vehicle distance driven. 2.

Driver Behavior and Eco-Driving (Vehicle-Based, Including Automation)

Eco-driving is driving in an efficient manner to minimize fuel use and emissions. It can help drivers to adopt and maintain an eco-friendly driving style by using real-time data about the road type and the level of traffic congestion from maps and sensors. It can also store trip records of the driver

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to give feedback and suggestions for improvement. This feedback has more relevance in CVO; using such feedback, the fleet manager can analyze the performance of drivers and fuel consumption, and take decisions accordingly. Using such systems also has significant safety benefits along with reduced fuel consumption. Predictive powertrain control uses vehicle, topographic, and infrastructure data to anticipate a fuel-saving driving style. Systems currently focus on the topography, using slope data ahead of the vehicle to generate a predictive speed profile to optimize the control of the powertrain. Such systems help in reducing fuel consumption and enhance safety. Cooperative adaptive cruise control (C-ACC) is an enhancement to adaptive cruise control (ACC) systems that can optimize a vehicle's speed profile by communicating with other vehicles and infrastructure. It influences speed, headway, and driving dynamics for improved operations and a reduction in fuel consumption. It can help in maintaining a safe distance from other vehicles and prevent accidents. It can also influence the infrastructure capacity by minimizing the headway and aligning the speed. Platooning or automatic guidance of vehicles can improve safety and efficiency of road transport. Platooning refers to the electronic coupling of vehicles to exchange information; they still require the presence of drivers to steer the vehicles and manage entering/leaving the platoon. The leading vehicle is driven conventionally, and the following ones are temporarily in autonomous mode. Platooning has the potential to increase road capacity and reduce congestion, due to closer spacing of vehicles, with a significant reduction in carbon emission. Automation beyond platooning, i.e., full automation, has attracted a lot of attention with advances in driverless cars. However, there have been a few isolated prototypes in the heavy vehicle sector, like Daimler Trucks. 3.

Safety and Emergency Systems

In-vehicle road hazard warning systems monitor and analyze the road in front of the vehicle and warn the driver when a risk of collision is detected. They can detect other vehicles on the road, along with pedestrians and animals. These systems improve the safety in transport operations to a great extent. Lane departure warnings (LDW) and advanced emergency breaking systems (AEBS) rely on sensors and lane markings, and, accordingly, warn the driver when the vehicle begins to move out of its lane. AEBS monitor

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the proximity of vehicles ahead, detecting situations where speed and distance indicate a possible collision. LDW are mandatory for heavy vehicles in the Europe. Emergency breaking can, then, automatically be applied following a warning phase of three seconds before the expected collision. Electronic stability control/program (ESC/ESP) is also known as vehicle stability control. It improves the directional stability during cornering, giving enhanced protection against vehicle roll-over. It detects and reduces skidding by automatically applying the brakes to individual wheels to help steer the vehicle in the direction intended by the driver. Like LDW and AEBS, ESC is now also mandatory on new heavy vehicles.

Infrastructure and Back-Office-Based ITS Applications Impacting Commercial Vehicles 1.

Traffic Management and Control

Traffic signal control, using online actuation based on traffic information collected by detectors or provided by central computer, has the potential to increase infrastructure capacity, reduce congestion, and influence driving dynamics. To reduce congestion in port areas or other locations with a high proportion of freight movements, traffic signal priority can be given to other vehicles. A variation of traffic signal control is ramp metering to ensure smoother traffic flow on motorways. This is widely deployed but not measured purely in terms of the benefits for heavy duty vehicles (HDVs). Vehicle monitoring performs incident or risk management of goods, particularly hazardous goods. It can offer traffic management and safety benefits. It uses remote vehicle and infrastructure monitoring technology, and advanced communications between different actors. 2.

Driver Behavior and Eco-Driving (Infrastructure and Back-OfficeBased)

Intelligent speed adaptation (ISA) assists the driver in keeping the speed limit. There are many advisory systems that warn the driver when the vehicle is faster than the allowed limit. In such a case, the system directly intervenes to make over-speeding difficult or impossible. Driver behavior monitoring is a tool that collects and analyzes data regarding speed, headway, and driving dynamics to study the driving

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behavior to allow effective measures to be taken to improve efficiency, effectiveness, and safety, and to reduce emission. The data can also be used by the fleet operators to monitor performance and make the required improvements. 3.

Logistics and Fleet Management

Intelligent truck parking (ITP) has the main objective of providing drivers with dynamic and reliable information about available capacities and facilities, and support management of parking areas, via different means, including cross-border seamless, consistent information and forecasts on available parking places, regardless of the organization responsible for the network or parking operations. It provides an online information system about parking and secure parking sites for high-value cargo, which leads to improved efficiency in CVO. ITP is recognized by the European Commission as an important tool for minimizing infrastructural problems, achieving the optimum use of existing capacity, providing seamless crossborder services on trans-European routes and information to commercial vehicle drivers to help them follow traffic and driving regulations, and, hence, improving safety and security. Delivery space booking and real-time urban delivery space management are variations of intelligent truck parking that comprise online information and booking. Fleet management and routing, also known as a tour planning system, is a type of pre-trip ITS application that concerns routing. It delivers information on suitable routes and relevant key figures, like distance, traveltime, costs, or emissions of alternative transport modes, for strategic or tactical transport planning. Cargo optimization services encompass all operations from vehicle acquisition to disposal to satellite positioning and data communication to back-office applications. Electronic freight services (E-Freight) involve paperless, electronic flow of information for a simple and coordinated procedure to support the flow of goods in an effective and efficient manner. It includes various functions for tracking cargo and tracing its movements, irrespective of the combination of transport modes. It can also incorporate information on permissive load and unload times in different areas of a city.

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Conclusion The primary goal of freight ITS are to improve efficiency and effectiveness, increase safety, and reduce environmental impacts of freight transportation, to optimize the entire supply chain. They have been more popular in international shipments and urban freight movements. They mainly use different types of information on infrastructure, vehicles, and transported freight to improve the transportation operations by supporting different transportation functions and by enhancing different performance dimensions. To date, European countries have more emphasis on freight ITS, compared to any country in the world. The importance of ITS in CVO should be understood by different stakeholders in the transportation logistics sector, and more emphasis should be given to supply chain management and, in turn, to supporting the economic development of nations.

References “An Overview of Freight Intelligent Transportation Systems.” 2013. International Journal of Logistics Systems and Management 14: 473– 89. Ranaiefar, F. 2012. Intelligent Freight Transportation Systems. INSTITUTE OF TRANSPORTATION STUDIES. Winder, A. 2016. ITS4CV—ITS for Commercial Vehicles. ERTICO-ITS Europe.

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Exhibit 3.8.1: Freight Transportation Information Information Type Data Items x Location of roads x The status of roads (e.g., road quality or temporary Traffic and construction on the roads) infrastructure x Types of vehicles that can utilize the road information x Limitations and congestion x Real-time information, e.g., congestion, accident x Location of the freight through the transportation network between the actors Vehicle and freight x The arrival of the freight location x Loading and unloading information information x Location of the freight in the warehouses, terminals, and ports x Physical attributes of the product during the Freight transportation (in a warehouse or through shipping) condition x Real-time information regarding the temperature, information pressure, impact, humidity or the level of light in the vehicle during transportation x Placement and sequencing of the products when they are stored or being shipped Freight positioning x The positioning of the products in warehouses, information presented in three axes of x, y and z x Placement of the containers in the Ro-Ro ships x Number of items in the warehouses Warehouse x Customers’ orders for different items operations and inventory x Loading and unloading times for different orders information x Contents of different warehouses, types of items stored in the warehouses x Types of shipped items and attributes (quantity, model, class, size, color, weight, price, ID number and Cargo other types of data depending on the type of items) information x Sender information x Receiver information Vehicle identity x Type and class of the vehicle, registration number information Source: Ranaiefar (2012)

CHAPTER 3.9 CONNECTED VEHICLES

Overview The evolution of ICT has established ICT as promising solutions to address the multiple challenges of the transportation system. Innovations in ICT applications in the transport sector have led to the enhanced performance of transport networks through informed decision-making and optimal usage of vehicles and transport infrastructure. The foundational aspects of connected vehicles (CV) are electrification, which is already widely implemented across the globe; communication, which is slowly gaining pace; and automation, which is still in its nascent stages and highly dependent on the successful and matured implementation of electrification and communication. A CV is one that is equipped with advanced communication technologies and can interact, over wireless networks, with any other vehicle, device, or infrastructure in its surroundings to establish bi-directional communication to exchange data sets for safe mobility and better user satisfaction. CV technology is a sophisticated element of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS), indicating maximum leveraging of the internet of things’ (IoT) capabilities. An illustration is provided in Figure 3.9.1. The fundamental notion of the CV environment lies in the strength of wireless communication. With advanced traffic management systems, sensors, cameras, RFID readers, and other infrastructure and technology supporting smart cities and ITS elements, the CVs will resolve and enhance solutions to the overall traffic safety and mobility issues. Currently, there are two approaches to the future of CVs: i) the Google approach, where CVs are viewed as fully automated, also called autonomous vehicles (AV), utilizing connectivity to drive themselves; and ii) the US Vehicle Manufacturers approach, where CVs still possess manual vehicle control while utilizing continuous real-time connectivity amongst vehicles and infrastructure (Jadaan, Zeater and Abukalil 2017).

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Figure 3.9.1: Concept of Connected Vehicles Source: Digi

Concept of CVs Deployment of advanced systems for CVs is still in its nascent stages but, with continuous research and pilot initiatives around the globe, the range of capabilities of CVs is rapidly expanding. CVs consist of various communication devices, which can be embedded or portable. Research, development, and deployment of CVs is carried out by collaborations between car manufacturers, ICT companies, government bodies, and research institutes. Some notable examples are BMW with Intel and Mobileye, NuPort Robotics and NVIDIA, General Motors with Lyft, FCA with Waymo, and PSA Groupe with nuTonomy. Currently, the vehicles that include SAE Level 1 and 2 features—also termed interactive advanced driver-assistance systems (ADASs) and cooperative intelligent transport systems (C-ITS)—and can be regarded as connected; ADASs can also be termed as the rudimentary stage of automated vehicles. The classifications (as presented in Table 3.9.1) most used to describe the degree of automation of a vehicle are from the standards by the International Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). The concept and technologies of CVs are the fundamental units of automated driving.

NAME

NARRATIVE DEFINITION

0

Human driver monitors the driving environment No The full-time Automation performance of the human driver of all aspects of the dynamic driving task, even when enhanced by warning or intervention systems. 1 Driver The driving modespecific execution by a driver assistance system of either steering or acceleration/deceleration, using information about the driving environment, and with the expectation that the human driver performs all remaining aspects of the dynamic driving task.

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Human driver

Human driver

Human driver and system

Monitoring of driving environment

Human drive

Execution of steering and acceleration/ deceleration

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Human driver

Fallback performance of dynamic driving task

Some driving modes

n/a

System capability (driving modes)

Partial Assistance Automation

The driving mode-specific execution by one or more driver assistance systems of both steering and acceleration/deceleration using information about the driving environment and with the expectation that the human driver performs all remaining aspects of the dynamic driving task. Automated driving system (“system”) monitors the driving environment 3 Conditional The driving mode-specific Automation performance by an automated driving system of all aspects of the dynamic driving task with the expectation that the human driver will respond appropriately to a request to intervene. 4 High The driving mode-specific Automation performance by an automated driving system of all aspects of the dynamic driving task, even if a human driver does not respond appropriately to a request to intervene.

2

Human drive

System

System

System

System

System

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System

Human driver

Human drive

Some driving modes

Some driving modes

Some driving modes

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Full Automation

The full-time performance by an automated driving system of all aspects of the dynamic driving task under all roadway and environmental conditions that can be managed by a human driver.

System

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System

All driving modes

x x x x x x x

Forward Collision Warning Park Sensor Lane Departure Warning Blind Spot Detection Driver Monitoring Driver Drowsiness Detection Tire Pressure Monitoring

WARNING (SAE LEVEL 1) x x x x x x x

ASSIST (SAE LEVEL 2) Cruise Control Park Assistance Forward Collision Assist Lane Keep Assist Pedestrian Protection System Intelligent Speed Advice Traffic Sign Recognition

x x x x x x x

AUTOMATION (SAE LEVEL > 2) Highway Chauffeur Traffic Jam Chauffeur Truck Platooning Autonomous Valet Parking Highway Autopilot Traffic Jam Autopilot Urban Autopilot

Table 3.9.2: Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) and Automated Driving Functions Source: Levels of Driving Automation by SAE International’s New Standard J3016 (SAE 2014).

x x x x x x x

AID (SAE LEVEL 1) Automotive Night Vision Rain Sensor Rear Camera Satellite Navigation System Adaptive Light Control Surround View System Anti-Lock Braking System

In Table 3.9.2, advanced driver assistance systems and automated driving functions are presented for different SAE levels.

Table 3.9.1: SAE Levels and Connected Vehicles Source: Levels of Driving Automation by SAE International’s New Standard J3016 (SAE 2014).

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The interaction mechanisms of CVs are classified under the following categories: Vehicle-to Vehicle (V2V): These are the interactions between vehicles through exchange of data. This helps vehicles navigate obscured paths (blind intersections and non-line of sight (NLOS) roads) and make predictions. Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I): This is the exchange of data between vehicles and infrastructure. It helps vehicles send and receive data related to infrastructure conditions and, therefore, helps drivers make informed decisions based on congestion or road incidents. 1. Vehicle-to-Pedestrian (V2P) or Vehicle-to-Device (V2D): These refer to the interactions between vehicles and pedestrians by exchanging data through smartphone applications, wearables, and other supporting gadgets. These are to communicate the intent of pedestrians to make the vehicles aware and take precautions at pedestrian crossings and when lane changing. 2. Vehicle-to-Cloud (V2C): This refers to the interaction between vehicle and traffic management centers / operations control center facilities through data exchange. V2C communication supports and provides information on real-time traffic conditions, security, firmware maintenance, updates, information, and entertainment services. Collective use of these technologies and interaction mechanisms enables vehicles to communicate with almost anything in their vicinity, thus, giving birth to the concept of Vehicle to Everything (V2X), as illustrated in Figure 3.9.2. Such vehicles can interact with their surroundings to enhance driver comfort and traffic performance and reduce accident risks.

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Figure 3.9.2. Illustration of V2X Source: Mahmood, Zhang and Sheng (2019)

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Most of the CV projects in the US and other countries generally use a 5.9 GHz frequency—known as dedicated short-range communications (DSRC), a concept like Wi-Fi—to interact with safety systems, as it is fast, secure, reliable, and operates on a dedicated spectrum, eliminating latency and disturbances. Other applications and systems may communicate through different types of Non-DSRC technologies, like radio frequency identification (RFID), wireless technology (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth) or cellular networks (3G/4G/5G mobile telecommunications technology). Figure 3.9.3 is an illustration of a CV-technology equipped vehicle.

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Figure 3.9.3: Illustration of a CV-technology-equipped Vehicle Source: Mahmood, Zhang and Sheng (2019)

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Need of CVs The development and advancement of CVs will play a significant role in the transitioning of the landscape of mobility. The automotive industry and transport sector continue to leverage technological advancements to unlock the true potential of CVs. The key impact of CVs can be broadly classified under three categories: 1.

Safety

CVs can avoid, or drastically decrease, millions of accidents. According to the WHO, road traffic collisions claim the lives of around 1.3 million people every year; road accidents are a leading cause of death, around the world, for children and young adults aged from five to twenty-nine years. Around 94 % of serious crashes are due to human error. CV technology alerts users, anticipating the road’s situation, and gives drivers the ability to avoid or maneuver them, thereby, compensating for any lapses in driver attention. Drivers will be notified of impending collisions via in-car alerts in scenarios like merging lanes, vehicles on the driver's blind side, or when an adjacent vehicle stops unexpectedly. Drivers will be notified when they reach a school zone, if there are road works, and with predictions of traffic signal changes by connecting with roadside infrastructure. 2.

Mobility and Management

Increased mobility is one of the prime benefits of CVs. CV applications enable users to make informed and real-time, condition-based choices to minimize the travel time between two locations. Transport planners can better plan the transport network and infrastructural requirements, based on the data generated from the vehicle on the road and sensors embedded in the infrastructure; the need for new infrastructure can also be minimized by enhancing the capacity of existing infrastructure and reducing maintenance costs. Traffic management centers can analyze the data generated in realtime and traffic can, hence, be redirected from the congestion; dynamic route planning can be provided to the user to decrease travel-time delays and improve the travel experience. Predictions of travel time for multiple routes in the journey will help users efficiently plan their journey beforehand.

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3.

Environment

The transport sector is a major contributor of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In 2019, 29 % of GHG emissions, in the US, were from the transportation sector. Surface transportation exhausts nearly four billion gallons of fuel, each year, due to traffic congestion. The presence of CV technologies can decrease congestion and enable better traffic flow, allowing vehicles to break the “stop-and-go” system when stuck in traffic; “stop-and-go” leads to more GHG emissions compared to free flow traffic. The presence of CVs can help establish “eco-lanes” on highways, which are similar to high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) carpool lanes but can be exclusively focused towards high-occupancy, low-emission vehicles, and, thus, minimize environmental impact. CV data also helps users to plan their journey based on the environmental impact of each travel mode/route.

Global Pilot Projects North America The US has started conceptualizing CVs from the design stages to real-life, practical applications on roads. While cities like Wyoming, Tampa, and New York City have seen real-world deployment of some projects, the states of Michigan, Florida, and Virginia already have CV testing centers that are rapidly expanding their testing abilities for wide-scale implementation, immensely contributing to the development of CVs in their regions. Though multiple state transport authorities are running trials and projects, the initiatives are not completely decentralized. The US Department of Transportation's (USDOT’s) Intelligent Transportation Systems-Joint Program Office (ITS-JPO) is leading the development, implementation, and promotion of this promising technology. The ITSJPO’s role is to coordinate federally sponsored research conducted across the USDOT’s agencies and programs. USDOT has largely focused on V2V communications-based technology for dedicated short-range communications (DSRC) technology. The USDOT has granted three pilot sites (as indicated in Figure 3.9.4)— New York City, Wyoming, and Tampa—and a total of $45 million in cooperation agreements to develop a portfolio of connected car apps and technology customized to each region's specific transportation requirements. In the beginning phase, after twelve months, each site created a comprehensive deployment concept, considering the characteristics of the specific region to ensure efficient deployment of CVs.

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Figure 3.9.4: Location of Three Pilot Test Sites across United States Source: USDOT The sites then established a twenty-four-month timeline to design, build, and test the deployments of integrated wireless inter-vehicle communication, mobile device support, and communications with roadside technologies, as illustrated in Figure 3.9.5. By Fall, 2018, the project entered the third phase of its deployment, where the tested CV systems were to be operated and monitored for a minimum duration of eighteen months, based on the predefined “key performance indicators.” This phase of the project was impacted by the onset of Covid-19 and is ongoing.

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Figure 3.9.5: Timeline and Phases of Project Development Source: USDOT

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New York City (NYC) DOT Pilot The USDOT’s vision to improve the safety of travelers and pedestrians in the cities and motorways across the US is possibly being achieved by the NYDOT, through the deployment of V2V and V2I CV technologies. The pilot deployment of CV testing, by the NYCDOT, is one of the largest CV technology deployments to date to assess CV technology and applications in tightly spaced junctions typically present in a crowded urban transportation system. The NYCDOT CV Pilot Deployment Project area, illustrated in Figure 3.9.6, encompasses three distinct areas in the district of Manhattan and Brooklyn: 1. A four-mile stretch of Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) Drive, in Manhattan, in the regions of the Upper East Side and East Harlem. 2. Four one-way corridors in Manhattan. 3. A 1.6-mile stretch of Flatbush Avenue in Brooklyn.

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1.

2.

3. Figure 3.9.6: NYCDOT Deployment Source: http://www.its.dot.gov/pilots/pdf/02_CVPilots_NYC.pdf The initial plan for the technology deployment of NYDOT is focused on the stability and resilience of the roadside unit (RSU) platform and robustness of the onboard unit (OBU) platform to enhance over-the-air (OTA) software updates and data gathering. The deployment of CV technology on many fleets that serve a particular area is planned. Six V2I/I2V safety measures, six V2V safety measures, two V2I/I2V pedestrian measures, and one

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mobility application will be implemented. The size of the targeted fleet is approximately 8,000 vehicles, with five distinct vehicle types that include 3,200 taxis, 700 Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) buses, 700 NYCDOT fleet vehicles, 170 New York City Department of Sanitation (DSNY) vehicles and 3,200 Department of Citywide Administrative Services (DCAS) vehicles. Table 3.9.3 shows details of the applications deployed on vehicles. SN 1

Category V2I/I2V Safety

Application Speed Compliance Curve Speed Compliance Speed Compliance / Work Zone Red Light Violation Warning Oversize Vehicle Compliance

Emergency Communications and Evacuation Information

Remarks Alerts the driver when exceeding the posted regulatory speed limit. Alerts the driver when approaching a curve and exceeding the posted regulatory speed limit. Alerts the driver when approaching a designated work or school zone and exceeding the speed limit. Alerts the driver of impending red-light violations. Alerts the driver of restricted roadways and impending heightrestricted infrastructure such as bridge or tunnel clearance. Alerts the driver of New York City’s emergency and evacuation traveler information obtained from the Traffic Management Center, Office of Emergency Management, Office of Emergency Response, and National Weather Service.

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2

V2V Safety

Forward Collision Warning (FCW) Emergency Electronics Brake Lights (EEBL) Blind Spot Warning (BSW) Lane Change Warning/Assist (LCA) Intersection Movement Assist (IMA) Vehicle Turning Right in Front of Bus Warning

3

V2I/I2V Pedestrian

Pedestrian in Signalized Crosswalk Mobile Accessible Pedestrian Signal System (PED-SIG)

Alerts the driver in the event of an imminent rear-end crash with a remote vehicle ahead. Alerts the driver of stopped or hard-braking vehicle(s) ahead in time to safely avoid a crash. Alerts the driver when a remote vehicle is in the adjacent lane in the same direction of travel to avoid a side-swipe crash. Alerts the driver during a lanechange attempt when a remote vehicle is in the adjacent lane in the same direction of travel to avoid a side-swipe crash. Alerts the driver attempting to cross or turn when it is not safe to enter the intersection. Alerts the bus operator if a remote vehicle attempts to pull in front of the bus to make a right turn. Alerts the bus operator if a remote vehicle attempts to pull in front of the bus to make a right turn. Informs the visually impaired pedestrian of the pedestrian signal status and provides orientation to the crosswalk to assist in crossing the street.

Table 3.9.3: Applications Deployed on the NYC Vehicles Source: USDOT

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Only IEEE 802.11p dedicated short-range communication (DSRC) technology is used in the New York City pilot, with six of the seven channels being used. This project will serve as a demonstration for the spectrum space’s usage to improve overall transportation safety. The implementation will comprise of roughly 310 signalized junctions for V2I technology using DSRC. Tampa-Hillsborough Expressway Authority Pilot The Tampa-Hillsborough Expressway Authority (THEA) owns the Selmon Reversible Express Lanes (REL) and is responsible for their operation. REL is a first-of-its-kind facility that uses concrete segmental bridges, reversible express lanes, and electronic tolling to address urban congestion. During rush-hours, commuters face considerable delays, which often result in rearend accidents and collisions by flouting red lights. As the lanes are reversible, it is possible for drivers to enter from the opposite direction. Multiple V2V and V2I applications will be implemented by THEA during the pilot to ease traffic congestion, reduce accidents, and prevent wrongway entrance at the REL exit. CV technologies will also be able to improve pedestrian safety measures, expedite bus operations, and decrease conflicts among public and private vehicles and pedestrians along the road, which caters to high volumes of mixed traffic. THEA has established a CV task force whose primary task will be to support the infrastructure deployment for CVs on a region-wide scale. The task force will ensure interoperability and coordination among the three governing institutions of the region, namely the City of Tampa (COT), the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) and the Hillsborough Area Regional Transit (HART). A task force helps to make use of the assets and capabilities of different institutions to undertake studies and, hence, constantly enhance the CV environment, undertake administrative activities, and provide necessary funding. The collaborative approach will ensure financial security, and good implementation and management of projects in the longer run. Exhibit 3.9.1 illustrates the CV pilot deployment in Downtown Tampa.

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Table 3.9.4 shows the details of the application deployed on the vehicles. SN 1

Category V2I/I2V Safety

Application End of Ramp Deceleration Warning (ERDW) Wrong Way Entry (WWE) Pedestrian Collision Warning (PCW)

2

3

V2V Safety

Mobility

Forward Collision Warning (FCW) Emergency Electronic Brake Lights (EEBL) Intersection Movement Assist (IMA) Vehicle Turning Right in Front of Transit Vehicle (VTRFTV) Intelligent Traffic Signal System (ISIG) Transit Signal Priority (TSP)

Remarks Alerts the driver when reaching the end of the ramp way/curve with speed safety warning. Alerts the driver about potential and actual wrong-way entry or one-way entry. Alerts the driver when approaching dangerously near a pedestrian or with the possibility of conflict at a crowded junction of pedestrians. Alerts the driver in the event of an imminent rear-end crash with a remote vehicle ahead. Alerts the driver of stopped or hard-braking vehicle(s) ahead in time to safely avoid a crash. Alerts the driver attempting to cross or turn when it is not safe to enter the intersection. Alerts the bus operator if a remote vehicle attempts to pull in front of the bus to make a right turn. Adjusts signal timing to ensure optimal flow in combination with PED-SIG and TSP. Allows transit vehicle to request and receive priority at a traffic signal.

Table 3.9.4: Applications Deployed on the Tampa, FL, Vehicles Source: USDOT The pilot run includes one thousand and one hundred private vehicles, ten Hillsborough Area Regional Transit (HART) buses, eight TECO line streetcar trolleys, and the deployment of forty-four roadside units. The

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overall performance of the pilot will be evaluated by the resulting decrease in congestion, rate of accidents, fuel consumption, emission, travel time, and reliability of predictions. The THEA has, now, collaborated with Honda R&D Americas, LLC, Hyundai America Technical Centre, Inc., and Toyota Motors North America to deploy vehicles with pre-installed CV technology. The THEA has undertaken a very creative approach to voluntary stakeholder participation by offering rebates to volunteers in the pilot. To undertake wide-scale public engagement and knowledge dissemination, the THEA encourages people to associate with them as a “fan” member and take civic pride in being at the forefront of the landscape of automotive testing and advancement. The map shows different application locations of the CV pilot deployment in Downtown Tampa.

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Exhibit 3.9.1: CV Pilot Deployment in Downtown Tampa

(Source: Interactive Map – THEA Connected Vehicle Pilot (theacvpilot.com))

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Wyoming DOT Pilot The Wyoming corridor is a vital freight corridor that plays a crucial role in the transportation of products throughout the US as well as with the adjoining regions of Canada and Mexico. The corridor is highly affected by weather conditions. The interstate (I-80) in southern Wyoming is the selected stretch for the implementation of the pilot project. The stretch is most affected during the winter season when the winds blow over 35 mph, up to 65 mph, leading to truck blow-overs, resulting in road closure for hours. Thus, the pilot, here, focuses on reducing accident-related delays and improving safety along the corridor to address the needs of commercial vehicle operators.

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Exhibit 3.9.2: Accident on the I-80 Wyoming corridor

Source: KOWB News and Pa News https://kowb1290.com/massivepileup-on-i-80-caught-on-video-video/, https://www.pahomepage.com/top-stories/crews-working-on-clearingscene-of-deadly-car-pile-up-on-i-80/

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V2I and V2V applications are used to assist dynamic route information and guidance, layover and parking notifications, roadside alerts, and various other advisories throughout the corridor. The Wyoming Department of Transportation (WYDOT) deployed seventy-five roadside units (RSU) and around four hundred test vehicles—including both fleet vehicles and commercial trucks—out of which, around one hundred and fifty are heavy trucks that frequently use the stretch. All the test vehicles are equipped with on-board units (OBUs). In addition to these vehicles, the WYDOT also deployed a fleet size of one hundred units, consisting of snow ploughs and highway patrol vehicles, each attached with on-board units and mobile weather sensors. The developed system will support the operation of CV technology along the entire stretch of 402 miles of the I-80. Exhibit 3.9.2 illustrates an accident on the Wyoming I-80 corridor. Exhibit 3.9.3 illustrates the Wyoming I-80 corridor CV map.

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Exhibit 3.9.3: Wyoming I-80 Corridor CV Map

Source: USDOT

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Table 3.9.5 shows the details of the application deployed on the vehicles. SN 1

Category V2I/I2V Safety and Mobility

Application I2V Situational Awareness

Work Zone Warnings (WZW)

2

V2V Safety

3

V2I and V2V Safety

Spot Weather Impact Warning (SWIW) Forward Collision Warning (FCW) Distress Notification (DN)

Remarks Alert the driver regarding forthcoming road conditions, weather situation, speed restrictions, accidents on the route, parking availability, road closures, and vehicle restrictions. Extended version of I2V situational awareness provides prior information regarding obstructions in the vehicle’s travel lane and lane closures due to snow or other conditions, lane shifts, speed reductions, or vehicles entering/exiting the work zone. Provides localized information about the probable dangerous road situations like patches of icy road. Alerts the driver in the event of an imminent rear-end crash with a remote vehicle ahead. A self-alert system that sends a distress support alert whenever the vehicle sensor detects a situation that might require support.

Table 3.9.5: Applications Deployed on the Wyoming Vehicles Source: USDOT The Wyoming 511 App (shown in Exhibit 3.9.4) and the Commercial Vehicle Operator Portal (CVOP) currently use the data generated by the test fleets and roadside units to provide drivers with dynamic travel information and updates along the stretch.

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Exhibit 3.9.4: Wyoming 511 App Interface

Source: Connected Vehicle Monitor (wyoroad.info)

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Europe The European Union has been a pioneer in the automobile industry and at the forefront of vehicle technology advancement, making continuous updates in its legislation and policies to support the development of ITS. The executive branch of the European Union, The European Commission, funds most of the projects in the region, which are coordinated through the European Road Transport Telematics Implementation Coordination Organization (ERTICO-ITS EUROPE). Though automated vehicles are not yet ready to be deployed without human supervision, the European Union has always adopted a holistic approach to connected and automated mobility. Today, deployment of ITS to support the large-scale implementation of connected and automated vehicles is one of the key agendas of the European transport policy. Most of the projects and pilots fall under the purview of establishing Cooperative ITS (C-ITS) across Europe. The C-ITS strategy's goal is to enable the convergence of investments and regulatory frameworks throughout the EU, so that mature C-ITS services may be deployed in 2019 and beyond. The services are identified as DAY 1 and DAY 1.5; DAY 1 services are mature and ready for deployment from 2019, while DAY 1.5 services are mature but not yet ready for a large-scale quick deployment due to lack of sufficient support infrastructure, and specifications or standards. These services will be deployed in Phase II from 2025 onwards. The EU funding for CVs was introduced in the Sixth Framework Program and has since been boosted. Under “Horizon 2020”—the EU program that focuses on research and innovation—, € 300M has been allocated for the research and development of connected and automated vehicles. The budget supports the large-scale deployment of pilot projects of CVs in urban areas across Europe. As projects are funded under various EU programs and cover multiple nations, most of the projects are trans-border initiatives, and are being implemented and tested under a collaborative approach of the involved member states of the EU. Europe largely focuses on the following: භ Creating interoperable standards and standardization of services to make them reliable and compliant for creating a coordinated and secure CV environment. භ Implementing a large-scale test project to assess the impacts and challenges for wider deployment. භ Follow a common methodology of pilot implementation, system architecture implementation, and data sharing.

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භ Sharing the learnings with other ongoing and upcoming projects across Europe to increase efficiency. Cooperative ITS Corridor One of the most notable C-ITS initiatives in the deployment of V2X technology is the tri-nation cooperation among the German, Dutch, and Austrian transport ministries. The first route for deployment of the services is a highway corridor, extending from Rotterdam (Netherlands), via Frankfurt (Germany), to Vienna (Austria). The first two services to be provided on the stretch are 1.

Road Work Warnings (RWW)

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Exhibit 3.9.5: RTIS: Signages and Boards

Source: www https://itscorridor.mett.nl/.its

249

250

2.

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Improved Traffic Management through Vehicle Data / Probe Vehicle Data Services

Exhibit 3.9.6: RTIS: Probe Vehicle Data

Source: www https://itscorridor.mett.nl/

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Both the services use short-range communication—DSRC (ITS-G5, Wifi 802.11p, 5.9GHz) and the cellular network (3G, 4G) for interactions between the vehicles and infrastructure. Another supplementary service for collision risk-warnings is also being implemented in the Netherlands. Exhibit 3.9.5 illustrates the RTIS signages and boards and Exhibit 3.9.6 illustrates the RTIS probe vehicle data. InterCor (Interoperable Corridors) The InterCor project can be viewed as an extension of the C-ITS corridor. The project aimed to connect i) the C-ITS corridor of NetherlandsGermany-Austria, ii) the C-ITS initiatives of Belgium and United Kingdom, and iii) the corridor in France (defined under the SCOOP project) to achieve a continuous and sustainable network of C-ITS corridors that served as a test bed for initial (Day 1) services and beyond. The project commenced in September 2016 and was completed in February 2020, with a total project cost of €30 M. Services defined under DAY 1 of C-ITS are 1. Hazardous Location Notifications භ Emergency brake lights භ Emergency vehicle approaching භ Slow or stationary vehicle භ Traffic congestion warning භ Road work warning (RWW) භ Weather conditions 2. Signage Applications භ In-vehicle signage (IVS) භ In-vehicle speed limits භ Probe vehicle data භ Shockwave damping භ Signal violation / intersection safety භ Priority signals for specific vehicles භ Green light optimal speed advisory (GLOSA) Multiple tests and pilots provided insights on methods of technical evaluations to be adopted, impact assessment processes, and user acceptance of the services. The project served as a benchmark for pilot operations of C-ITS initiatives. It also provided insights on common

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upgraded specifications for ITS-G5, hybrid communications, PKI, and related security protocols. The following were evaluated and analyzed by InterCor: 1. Interoperability / cross-border interoperability 2. Communications performance 3. Applications and services: x IVS: Speed advice and lane guidance x Road work warning (RWW) x Green light optimal speed advisory (GLOSA) x Truck Parking; multi-modal cargo transport optimization (MCTO); tunnel logistics 4. User acceptance and attitudes to the services 5. Objective impact of the services on driver behavior (speed adaptation) 6. Consideration of the wider benefits including traffic efficiency and safety Details of a few ITS projects under the C-ITS initiative, post 2015, in Europe, are listed in Table 3.9.6.

Focused on developing an interoperable and connected corridor for operation of connected and automated vehicles. CONCORDA will integrate 802.11p and LTE-V2X connection without interfering with existing services in terms of disturbance and interoperability. This will

CONCORDA

C-ROADS

SCOPE The project is focused on developing a 5Gsupported corridor to undertake cross-border pilots for connected V2X communication. It targets interoperability and explores the potential of hybrid networks using LTE and C-ITS technologies. The project also investigates four applications—cooperative maneuvering situation awareness, video streaming, green driving, targeting automation levels, ranging from SAE L0 to L4. A platform to undertake pilots and share the insights for a harmonized C-ITS deployment in Europe. The project is a joint initiative of European Member States and road operators for testing and implementing (vehicle-tovehicle or V2V) or between vehicles and infrastructure (vehicle-to-infrastructure or V2I) and C-ITS services to facilitate crossborder harmonization and interoperability.

Name 5G-CARMEN

Location Trials across a corridor spanning 600 km of roads, connecting three European countries (Italy, Austria, and Germany) Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain Austria, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Netherlands, Spain 2017– ongoing

2016– ongoing

Start date 2018– ongoing

https://ertico.com/concorda/

https://www.c-roads.eu/pilots.html

More details https://5gcarmen.eu/

Details of a Few Relevant Projects under the C-ITS Initiative, Post 2015, in Europe

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NordicWay NordicWay 2 NordicWay 3

L3Pilot

ICT4CART

254

ensure a backwards approach to create interoperability of C-ITS service with CROADS services in real-world traffic scenarios. Based on a hybrid communication approach, the project focuses on developing ICT infrastructure for connected and automated road transport to ensure a resilient and smooth transition towards a higher level of automation. Standardization and interoperability are also the key agenda of the project. One of the most unique large-scale pilots focused on enhancing connected automation and SAE level 3 functions on the European roads. The data from this pilot will be shared with other stakeholders and parties outside the consortium. The data will be evaluated in terms of technical standards, user acceptability, traffic and travel behavior, and societal value enhancement. NordicWay was the first large-scale predeployment pilot to assess the technical feasibility proof of concept for probe data collation and other C-ITS services for both passenger and freight traffic in four countries (Finland, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark). The pilot significantly bridged the gap between C-ITS research and wide-scale deployment. The project ended in 2017 followed by the sister Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden

Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Sweden, U.K.

Austria, Germany, Italy and cross-border (A22 AustriaItaly)

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2015– ongoing

2017– ongoing

2018– ongoing

https://www.nordicway.net/

https://l3pilot.eu/

https://www.ict4cart.eu/

5GCroCo

Data for Road Safety

AURORA

project NordicWay 2, in the same year, which focused on developing interoperability and assessing the feasibility between Day 1 and Day 1,5 CITS services and mapping the readiness of the supporting infrastructure. The project was further extended as NordicWay 3, in 2021, involving more cities of the region. Aurora, the Intelligent Transport Cluster project, is a 10 km intelligent road segment to test intelligent transportation systems and related technologies for CAV/CAD/CCAM in challenging weather conditions, especially during winters. The test area is open to use for all interested stakeholders and is equipped to even support the development of road services and asset management. The Finnish Transport Agency has provided open access to all the generated data. The project was undertaken by the members of the European Data Task Force (DTF) as a twelve-month proof of concept to improve road safety by exchanging data generated by vehicles and infrastructure across nations and manufacturers. The 5G cross-border initiative is testing advanced 5G features to create innovative use cases for cooperative, connected, and 2019–2020

2018– ongoing

France, Germany,

2019– ongoing

Belgium, Finland, Germany, Netherlands, Spain

Finland

Connected Vehicles

https://5gcroco.eu/homepage/overview. html

roundtable-dtf.eu

https://www.snowbox.fi/

255

automated mobility. It consists of a consortium of European automotive and mobile communications industries supported by their respective countries' transport authorities and governments. It is currently conducting tests for three use cases, namely, tele-operated driving, generation and distribution of highdefinition map, and anticipated cooperative collision avoidance. The C-ITS pilot project is a live traffic app project under the C-ITS pilot project that enables drivers to adopt and make decisions based on the real-time traffic conditions and infrastructure. The pilot showcases the feasibility of multi-brand CACC (cooperative adaptive cruise control) on public roads, with trucks. The V2V protocol is further developed under the ENSEMBLE project. The project is a consortium of an independent research organization, TNO, six European truck manufacturers (DAF, DAIMLER, IVECO, MAN, SCANIA and VOLVO Group and ERTICO), ITS Europe, along with OEM suppliers and CELPA, to implement and demonstrate multi-brand truck platooning across Europe. 2016–2018

2017–2019

France, Netherlands

Sweden

Luxembourg, Spain

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https://platooningensemble.eu/project

http://c-thedifference.eu/

Table 3.9.6: Details of a Few ITS Projects under the C-ITS Initiative, Post 2015, in Europe Source: Author’s compilation

Sweden 4Platooning/ENSEMBLE

C The Difference

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Challenges Concerning Public Value Privacy A CV provides a wide range of services, as discussed above. It also provides users with the freedom to use their smartphone through the dashboard, while driving, to play music, and use apps and other features. Thus, the sharing of data among devices and surroundings is essential for a CV to function optimally. This raises concerns regarding the protection of the consumer's personal information. Critical data that can be leaked during a privacy breach: 1. Details of vehicle owner and passenger 2. User location and travel patterns 3. Data collected by sensors like camera, voice recognition, and control system 4. Data collected by third parties CVs include systems and components from an ecosystem of diverse service providers, which includes part manufacturers, software providers, service integrators, and other entities, who collect a specified set of data, ranging from technical, diagnostic, or performance-based, to enhance user experience and the performance of CVs. Privacy is a top concern to both the public and private sectors. The public sector is concerned with the potential misuse of data, which could preclude deployment if they are considered as threats; once a system is deployed, misuse of data could undermine the system (Persad et al. 2007). It is essential to establish rules and regulations to ensure transparency and security in data collection and distribution.

Security Another important aspect that needs to be addressed is the ability of hackers to capture the collected data and alter it. The adversaries can collect sensitive information and even threaten human life by breaching the security of the network that facilitates communication between vehicle control systems like brakes, sensors, camera, odometer, etc. The automated vehicles work on complex software that uses machine learning and computer vision algorithms to learn and stay aware of the vehicle surroundings during operations. Machine-learning models are subject to possible adversarial threats, which are intended to deliberately mislead the model into giving an erroneous output, such as misclassifying an item (altering traffic signs, etc.);

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this could mislead the vehicle navigation system, and other systems, causing the vehicle to behave dangerously.

Governance and Ownership of Data The accountability of the collected data has been a significant point of discussion. When considering the advantages and drawbacks of involving the public and private sector in the collection and management of ITS data, perhaps the most important predictor of how the data will be treated is not whether the organization is public or private, but rather what its goals and operating characteristics are (Briggs and Walton 2000).

References Coppola, P., and F. Silvestri. 2019. “Autonomous Vehicles and Future Mobility Solutions.” In Autonomous Vehicles and Future Mobility. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817696-2.00001-9. Jadaan, K., S. Zeater and Y. Abukhalil. 2017. “Connected Vehicles: An Innovative Transport Technology.” Procedia Engineering 187: 641–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.04.425. Mahmood, A., W. E. Zhang and Q. Z. Sheng. 2019. “Software-defined Heterogeneous Vehicular Networking: The Architectural Design and Open Challenges.” Future Internet 11 (3). https://doi.org/10.3390/fi11030070.

CHAPTER 3.10 OPERATIONAL SAFETY APPLICATIONS

While all terrorist attacks cannot be prevented, the technologies of Intelligent Transportation Systems can offer great promise for preventing attacks. (A statement taken from the National Intelligent Systems Program Plan: A Ten-Year Vision: a report prepared on security in New York State in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.)

An important aspect for the socioeconomic health of a nation is transportation. It binds communities, connects residents to work or schools, and enables commerce through a network of highways, railways, streets, and bus routes. One of the best road systems in the world can be found in the US, but the problem of safety remains a serious problem. Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) offer potential solutions for the growing challenges. Due to the presence of an integrated system in ITS, the surface transportation system can be managed as an intermodal, multijurisdictional body (National ITS Program Plan Five-Year Horizon August 2000). ITS can address the aggravating urban problems, along with anticipating and addressing future demands through a coordinated approach to transportation.

Background The United States Department of Transportation defines ITS as “wellestablished technologies in communications, control, electronics, and computer hardware and software to improve surface transportation system performance.” ITS have many benefits, like reducing congestion, improving personal safety, preventing the environmental effects of transportation systems, enhancing energy performance, and improving productivity. There are four categories of ITS technologies (Peyrebrune 2002): 1. Sensing: The ability to note the position and speed of vehicles using infrastructure. It helps in monitoring systems and identifies the potential threats. 2. Communicating: The ability to send and receive information between vehicles, between vehicles and infrastructure, and between

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infrastructure and centralized transportation operations and management centers. It is a critical aspect of security in terms of preventing incidents and effectively dealing with crises when they occur. 3. Computing: The ability to process large amounts of security information, which are collected and communicated, to draw conclusions and make assessments. 4. Algorithms: The ability of computer programs to process information gathered by ITS and develop operating strategies for transportation facilities. In other words, algorithms help in detecting patterns and optimizing solutions (Peyrebrune 2002).

Security Applications of ITS in New York Though the applications of ITS were being implemented extensively all over the country for over a decade, the security applications of ITS increased following the 9/11 attack. It was the day when nineteen hijackers took control of commercial passenger jets flying out of the east coast of the United States. Two of the planes were flown into the towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. The attacks resulted in extensive death and destruction, triggering major initiatives worldwide to combat terrorism. For a successful deployment of all ITS operations, it is critical to have communications between various information systems along with the users of the system. This led to the synergy between ITS and Homeland Security (which ensures that the nation’s safety is not compromised). Apart from the surveillance of commercial and passenger vehicles, there are many other transportation-safety technologies that were utilized by the transportation and security officials of New York state: 1. Smart card: This card, which resembles a credit card, has a microprocessor and memory chip embedded in it, which allows manipulation of data in the card. Sometimes, only a chip is embedded in the card, which allows pre-defined operations to occur. Smart cards make the use of public transportation solutions easier, and are typically for making payments. 2. Biometrics: This helps in identifying individuals based on biological characters. Retinal or iris scanning, fingerprints, and facial recognition are some of the examples of biometric technologies. 3. Automatic vehicle identification: This technology identifies vehicles as they pass specific points. This does not require any action by the driver.

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4. Map databases: These databases can be used for many purposes, like traffic and incident analyses. 5. Vehicle classification sensors: These sensors automatically detect and classify the vehicles that move past them. 6. Technologies adopted in bus transit systems: These include two-way radios with panic buttons, on-board video surveillance, cab enclosures, police and security on-board, and destination signs with messages activated by panic buttons. 7. Weigh-in-motion technology: When trucks are moving at regular highway speeds, this technology allows them to be weighed. If trucks are found to be crossing the weight limit, the authorities are immediately notified. 8. Spatial geo-location: Specific locations of vehicles can be identified using this technology. Additionally, there are also technologies that enable security personnel to detect the contents of vehicles without any disruptions. This will help in identifying hazardous substances, explosives, or drugs present in the vehicles. There are technologies to match a specific vehicle with a specific operator and cargo. If a mismatch is found, then the vehicle is prohibited to traverse further. Many personal vehicles have technologies to remotely control the ignition of the vehicle, which may be useful in preventing thefts and hijacking. Similarly, to enable the timely flow of information, increase the flexibility of systems to accommodate emergency traffic, and to decrease emergency response times, there are several technologies, like automated signal systems, signal priority systems, moveable lane barriers, variable message signs, automated incident detection systems, mayday systems, and public safety response systems. These technologies can aid in the aftermath of an attack (Peyrebrune 2002).

ITS Homeland Security ITS America formed the ITS Homeland Security Task Force. They mainly assess the current and future ITS technologies. The ITS Homeland Security has identified a few technologies that have security and disaster-response applications: 1. Automated vehicle location (AVL) systems, which locate vehicle or freight movement and delivery. These vehicles can detect and monitor the transportation of hazardous material. Many transit agencies use AVL in combination with on-board cameras.

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2. Advanced traffic management systems, which monitor, control, and moderate the traffic flow. 3. Universal transponders on commercial vehicles, which track vehicles as they pass through electronic weigh stations. 4. License plate-reading technologies are deployed at borders, parking facilities, and certain domestic checkpoints. 5. Wireless enhanced 911 can provide automatic location information. 6. Real-time interoperable communications links between transportation and public safety agencies (Peyrebrune 2002).

Some Caveats There were some important caveats, with respect to ITS deployment in the nation. First, the nation was more concerned over the security aspects of the aviation industry. However, there were ongoing efforts to improve security, using ITS, in all modes of transportation. Second, the exact amount of information that should be made available for public use, for national and state security, was unclear. By providing public access to the critical information from transportation systems, there remains a threat to safety; the information could be misused by criminals. Therefore, the sharing of data should be vigilantly controlled. Third, remote sensing technologies were only in their test phases. The actual implementation depended on feasibility and financing. According to Pearce (2002), the response actions to terrorist attacks on transportation are reviewed in six categories: i) advance preparations and planning, ii) institutional coordination, iii) communication, iv) use of advanced technologies, v) redundancy and resiliency, and vi) operating decisions (Transportation Security Against Terrorism 2009). Advance preparation is important to crisis management. The governor and his state personnel have to be prepared and practiced before a crisis. Coordination among different departments is necessary for successful security applications. No department can work in isolation with respect to these matters. The six categories are explained, along with their uses and functions, in Exhibit 3.10.1.

Potential Issues New York has a long history of planning and dealing with major incidents. Owing to that, and the experience in managing the 9/11 attacks, New York

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leads state agencies in matters relating to security. However, there are issues related to ITS and security that should be addressed: 1. Improved communications or enhanced wireless 911: This is one of the most important aspects in managing incidents. It was assumed that the terrorist attacks were due to some failures in the communication systems of New York. Insufficient wireless network capacity, lack of information exchange, and use of different technologies by wireless message carriers, which restricted the transmission of information, were some of the issues. It is important to establish the same level of emergency services that exist for wire lines for wireless phones. The Federal Communications Commission requires wireless providers to make enhanced wireless 911 available everywhere. Enhanced 911 is completely dependent on longitudes and latitudes to gauge position. However, there are obstacles, such as funding, surcharge revenue, routing, technology, training, and caller rights. 2. Privacy and the availability of public information: Providing too much information publicly could possibly risk safety and lead to privacy breach. A line has yet to be drawn in terms of public access to information regarding transportation security systems. 3. Appropriate methods for monitoring and gathering information on highway systems: One of the methods that is commonly used to gather information on transportation systems and conditions is visual reconnaissance, e.g., traffic helicopters. But after the attacks, only specific helicopters were allowed to resume services. The use of sensors and video surveillance fiber optics is effective but costly. The feasibility of using remote sensing technologies was also to be determined. 4. Taking advantage of key opportunities for funding: As a result of decreased federal gasoline and other transportation user fees, up to 25 % of the federal funds for transportation are estimated to decline significantly during the next round of reauthorization. However, it is clear from reviewing the activities at the national level that considerable sums of money will be used in developing and deploying ITS technology for homeland security, which can present several opportunities for New York (Peyrebrune 2002).

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Conclusion Transport infrastructure is a key component of a nation’s critical infrastructure, and also includes physical assets like railway and mass transit networks, ports, and traffic control systems, which are also the frequent targets for terrorist attacks because of their importance in many aspects. Physical transportation networks provide services to a huge number of people, hence, carrying the risk of a high number of casualties. A unique feature is that transportation infrastructure can be both be the target and the preventor of an attack. Efficient and coordinated action, along with advanced planning and rehearsal, is required during a crisis. Emergency planning enables agencies to have pre-determined responses, clear and reasonable chains of command, accessibility of appropriate supplies, and better identification of weaknesses in the emergency response. Coordination between agencies and organizations is important for a successful emergency response, which allows many to contribute their strengths and skills. New York made several efforts at the federal, state, and the local levels to improve transportation security by using ITS. There were many initiatives taken by USDOT following the attack, including the creation of committees and administrations, which mainly focus on the security aspects of transportation and the free movement of people and goods. Many organizations and associations representing transportation interests have taken collaborative research efforts. As detailed crisis-response plans are developed, systems can be controlled at higher degrees, and, hence, better response operations can be run.

Operating Decisions

Role of Advanced Technology

3

4

• During unusual operating decisions, during an event, agencies make the quick and accurate decisions required during the incident. • Helps agency personnel to obtain information on which they can make better decisions as events unfold.

• Can coordinate with representatives of other partner agencies to prepare, handle, and evaluate emergencies.

• It increases the effectiveness of emergency response. • Allows individuals and agencies to work collaboratively and efficiently.

Advanced Preparations and Planning

Institutional Coordination

USES

CATEGORIES

2

SL. NO 1 Have an emergency response plan. Make plans that are specific and detail-oriented. Plan in concert with other agencies. Rehearse emergency response plans. Review emergency plans after an event. Consider the emergency needs of both people and equipment. Insulate emergency response capacities from disruption and compromise. Plan for all types of emergencies. Conduct a collaborative post-incident review. Practice cooperation during normal times. Cooperate across agencies to share resources and equipment. Establish emergency procedures that will be easy and efficient to implement. Be aware of the importance of individual relationships. Utilize technology to enhance institutional coordination. Allow for a multi-agency response to any type of emergency as a part of an emergency response plan. Consider cross-border coordination. Prepare for emergencies in advance to make impromptu decisionmaking easier. Empower the relevant skilled staff to make decisions.

• Establish reliable backup power to maintain normal ITS functions. • Consider ITS functionality that could be particularly useful during an emergency.

•

• •

• • •

• • • • •

• • • • • • •

FUNCTIONS

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6

• Allows agencies to coordinate responses better with other agencies. • Allows agencies to collect and distribute real-time information so that they can make decisions. • Gives accurate information to agency officials and allows them to make good decisions during allocation of resources and setting of priorities in response to an emergency. • Helps in having backup systems in place in case of primary system fail, which is important in the everyday management and operations of a system. • • •

•

• • • • •

Have backup power. Test and maintain backup systems. Connect backup power to the right systems. Maintain a variety of old and advanced communications options. Assess the needs of an extended loss of the primary system versus a temporary interruption. Be cautious when relying on neighboring agencies and contractors for redundancy. Locate redundant facilities remotely. Consider the failure of even quadruple redundancy. Adopt a mindset of resiliency.

• Maintain reliance on “old technology,” such as the “plain old telephone system” (POTS) and portable radios. • Communicating with the public should be easy.

• Allocate ample resources for the restoration of traffic signals and other communications devices.

Chapter 3.10

Source: Author’s compilation from DeBlasio et al. (2004).

Exhibit 3.10.1: Six Different Categories of Response Actions that Should Be Taken during the Impact of Terrorists on Transportation Systems

Communications

5

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Operational Safety Applications

267

References DeBlasio, Allan J., Terrance J. Regan, Margaret E. Zirker, Katherine S. Fichter and Kristin Lovejoy. 2004. Effects of Catastrophic Events on Transportation System Management and Operations. Final Report. Cambridge, Massachusetts: US Department of Transportation, Research and Special Programs Administration. National Intelligent Transportation Systems Program Plan. 2002. Washington D.C.: Intelligent Transportation Society of America. National ITS Program Plan Five-Year Horizon. 2000. New York: US DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION ITS JOINT PROGRAM OFFICE. Peyrebrune, Henry P.E. 2002. Security Applications of Intelligent Transportation Systems Management. New York: NYU Wagner Rudin Center for Transportation Policy. Transportation Security Against Terrorism. 2009. Amsterdam: IOS Press.

MODULE 4 ITS: BUSINESS AND POLICY PERSPECTIVE

CHAPTER 4.1 STRATEGIC BUSINESS PLANNING

Introduction Spokane Valley is a city in Spokane County, Washington, United States. It is the seventh largest city in the state. Spokane Valley is named after the valley of the Spokane River, in which it is located. Spokane Valley’s population is 90,210. The Iဨ90 and Pines Road (SR 27) interchange is a critical junction of major regional roadways within the city’s boundaries. These routes are major arterials and are used as alternate routes during congestion or emergencies. The purpose of the Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) strategic plan, prepared for Spokane Valley, is to establish the need for ITS investments in the region, to identify relative priorities to direct ITS investment, to define the framework and specific technology, and to identify specific projects to be deployed to address the Spokane Valley’s precise needs. Advanced technology is incorporated into traffic management and operation facilities in an ITS strategic plan, by installing or upgrading signal control, vehicle detection, traffic monitoring, and computer equipment. Deploying ITS in a strategic manner will use advanced technologies and management techniques to improve mobility, efficiency, and safety on the roadways. ITS technologies provide additional information and services while enhancing the performance of the existing functions. The ITS strategic plan significantly impacts infrastructure and vendor development, and funding opportunities. Exhibit 4.1.1 shows the location of Spokane Valley, Washington.

ITS Vision of Spokane Valley To document the desired outcomes of the ITS implementation for Spokane Valley, an ITS vision was developed. The city’s mission is: “Our mission is to develop and maintain a safe and appropriate transportation system within our community…” Based on the ideas described in the mission, the ITS vision of the city was developed. The ITS strategic plan uses available ITS technologies and applies them to Spokane Valley’s vision to develop an appropriate program. Exhibit 4.1.2 shows the

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respective goals and objectives in the form of a table. The strategic plan was developed based on the ITS deployment plan and objectives framed in the national and regional ITS architecture. Five fundamental components to the ITS vision were identified (Spokane Valley Strategic Plan 2011), which are given below: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Improve the safety and security of the transportation system Improve the efficiency of the transportation system Provide improved traveler information Optimize the use of transportation infrastructure Integrate ITS projects with local and regional partners

Connection with Other Agencies The Spokane Regional Transportation Management Center (SRTMC) is Spokane County’s interagency traffic management center, which is funded by the Cities of Spokane and Spokane Valley, Spokane Transit Authority, Spokane County, Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT), and the Spokane Regional Transportation Council. The SRTMC is active in controlling the devices that are used to monitor and control traffic including closedဨcircuit television (CCTV) cameras, dynamic message signs (DMS), traffic data stations, and traffic signals; the aim for the future is to reduce the city’s dependence on the county for these services. In the strategic plan developed, it is assured that Spokane Valley plays an integral role in the various ITS initiatives in the region.

Existing ITS Status The transportation system is the backbone of an economy and a key determinant of economic success. As the primary industries of Spokane Valley are retail and industrial manufacturing, it is important to recognize the importance of freight movement to the economy of Spokane Valley. Improving the mobility of trucks and rail will ensure the efficient flow of goods and services, helping strengthen Spokane Valley’s economy. Major transportation routes within Spokane Valley include the Iဨ90, Pines Road (SR 27) and Trent Avenue (SR 290), making Spokane Valley accessible to the region. The city’s roadway system consists of a good street network that provides access to residential and business areas, as well as throughmovement of vehicle trips originating and ending outside the city’s boundaries. Their current ITS system consists mainly of traffic signals, limited video detection, CCTV cameras, and one DMS. The existing ITS

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infrastructure that is currently deployed in the city of Spokane Valley includes the traffic signal system, communication infrastructure, closedcircuit television (CCTV) cameras and traffic detection. An overview of the existing ITS infrastructure within the city limits is given below (Spokane Valley Strategic Plan 2011): 1. Traffic Signals: There are ninety-nine signalized intersections within the city. WSDOT owns and operates fourteen of the signalized Iဨ90 ramp intersections within the city limits. It also maintains eleven city-owned signals along the Pines Road (SR 27) and Trent Avenue (SR 290) corridors. All WSDOT signals in the area are synchronized using timeဨbased coordination. The remaining signal controllers are maintained and operated by Spokane County. There are three components needed for a coordinated corridor: signal controller, communication between signalized intersections, and signal management software. 2. Communications Infrastructure: This is one of the most critical components in the deployment of ITS infrastructure because it is essential for local agencies to monitor, control, and operate traffic management devices from remote locations to efficiently manage the movement of passengers and goods. Currently, Spokane Valley consists of a variety of media such as fiber-optic cables and a wireless ethernet network. There are twenty-eight traffic signals within the city, which communicate through a combination of fiberoptic and wireless ethernet radios where one end of the wireless system is connected to the Iဨ90 fiber-optic backbone. 3. CCTV Cameras: CCTV cameras with pan tilt and zoom (PTZ) capabilities are used to monitor traffic conditions. Realဨtime video streams are transmitted by CCTV cameras using fiber-optic transceivers in the field. The video stream is then connected to a fiber-optic receiver at the SRTMC, where it is encoded for control and viewing. 4. Traffic Detection: The most common way to detect traffic on the roadway is loop detection. Traffic detection is used for stopping-bar presence and advanced pulse detection for signal operations as well as system data collection. Spokane Valley mainly uses loops with video detection at a few selected intersections for stop-bar detection purposes. The city also uses video detection as a temporary method of stop-bar detection on approaches where loops require maintenance. 5. DMS: The city owns a DMS that was installed as part of the Appleway ITS Phase 2 project. The DMS provides travelers with

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advance warnings regarding traffic conditions and freeway incidents prior to their commute. Currently, WSDOT provides for the maintenance of the DMS device, and it is controlled at the SRTMC. 6. Traffic Management Center: The SRTMC facility is used to manage and coordinate responses to incidents. Currently, the SRTMC utilizes the i2TMS (Integrated Interagency Traffic Management System) software, which enables communication to signal controllers, CCTV cameras, and DMS signs. This central system software facilitates traffic operators in monitoring congestion, adjusting signal parameters, and displaying traveler information to strategically manage traffic in the region. Dispatchers in the traffic management center post messages on the dynamic message signs and update the traveler information web page. The center also has access to video streams and images from cameras deployed throughout the region.

Assessment of Needs It is important to understand the needs and concerns of the stakeholders who use the city’s transportation services on a daily basis. Therefore, the inputs from the public works and signal maintenance groups were considered during the development of an ITS strategic plan. The assessment of current and future transportation user needs provides a backbone for the development and evaluation of potential ITS projects for the city of Spokane Valley. Exhibit 4.1.3 displays a detailed assessment of needs in the form of a table. A range of ITS applications were also identified based on consultations with representatives of the city. The following are the core ITS components and devices required (Spokane Valley ITS Strategic Plan May 2011): 1. Communication Systems: To allow remote monitoring of the traffic signals and ITS devices, there is a need for infrastructure that allows interconnection between field devices. With the amount of ITS equipment that will be used by the communication system, enough computational capacity and speed (bandwidth) to allow for satisfactory monitoring and data collection are required. 2. Traffic Monitoring: CCTV cameras provide monitoring of the roadway by allowing the city staff to move the camera, as needed, to observe traffic flow, incidents, and conflicts. This monitoring will allow real-time observation and adjustments.

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3. Real-time Data/Traveler Information: With upgraded equipment and software, traffic data can be collected continually for analysis and for traveler information on real-time congestion. Any future ITS device that helps in disseminating information should also be accessible at the SRTMC or the regional i2TMS system, allowing key operators to post relevant information about the roadway network conditions. 4. Data Sharing: Data, like traffic volume, occupancy, speed, and flow, can be shared between agencies to develop a network traffic map in the region. This is to inform travelers about the traffic conditions. Data sharing should also involve local emergency responders and road maintenance crews to improve incident response times and help in effectively communicating roadway disruptions. 5. Central System Workstation: With the current i2TMS workstation at City Hall, the city staff can manage select signal controllers, perform traffic surveillance via CCTV cameras, and provide insights to the county on the quality of operational changes. Regular communication with the surrounding agencies is needed to ensure that the central system’s hardware and software implemented at the SRTMC is up to date. The ITS system components presented in Exhibit 4.1.4 are potentially capable of generating feasible, extensible, and interoperable systemic solutions for urban regions.

Deployment Plan It is assumed that there is a ten-year implementation timeline for the installation of a fiber-optic communication network for the ITS strategic plan. It is a phased approach and separates the city into eleven ITS corridors for balancing the ITS device locations with the communication network. The plan was developed to identify the types and locations of ITS applications that are needed to be implemented in the city. The identified projects propose future ITS upgrades that are consistent with the Spokane Regional ITS Architecture Plan to fulfil the objectives below: 1. Provide access to transportation information 2. Provide access and control of ITS devices 3. Provide decision support to implement and coordinate incident management strategies 4. Communicate information to the stakeholders, including commuters

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The administration’s vision ensures that ITS expenditure is prioritized and falls entirely under their jurisdictions. Preliminary cost estimates were prepared for each project. Project costs fluctuate over time and the cost estimates presented in Exhibit 4.1.5 provided the city with planningဨlevel information to use for budgeting and grant application purposes. The specific components of each cost estimate, along with the identified projects (corridors), are detailed in Exhibit 4.1.5. Funding is more readily allocated to projects that encourage alternative modes of transportation, especially transit.

Implementation The ITS projects can be implemented in two ways, depending on funding: either on a corridor-by-corridor basis or as part of a system implementation process. The implementation plan presents projects planned along eleven corridors, which are the city’s main arterials, that incorporate the infrastructure necessary for ITS applications. Spokane can move ahead in a comprehensive manner by completely funding all projects identified or it may choose to isolate aspects of the identified projects at any time, depending on funding and timing. The city’s physical architectural subsystems, and related equipment packages, are described in detail in Exhibit 4.1.6.

Conclusion ITS are a combination of technical tools, concepts, software, hardware, and advanced communication technologies, which are implemented in an integrated manner with infrastructure, to achieve the desired improvements in the transportation network. It is a cost-effective method to improve the safety and efficiency of traffic flow. A strategic ITS plan is critical to solve various concerns and to implement future upgradations on an existing roadway. This plan will assist in coordinating with surrounding agencies to provide an integrated regional transportation improvement plan. The city of Spokane Valley efficiently used ITS technologies in their transportation network; the traffic departments leveraged those technologies to improve traffic mobility and enable quicker responses to varied traffic conditions that occur within the roadway network.

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Exhibit 4.1.1: Map Showing the Location of Spokane Valley, Washington

Source: http://www.spokanevalley-realestate.com/map.gif

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Exhibit 4.1.2: Goals and Objectives Goal Improve the safety and security of the transportation system

Objectives Reduce frequency, duration, and effects of incidents Reduce emergency response times Reduce recurrent congestion Coordinate incident/security response with other local and regional agencies Provide redundancy for operations Improve the Improve travel time for vehicles efficiency of the Reduce travel time variability transportation Reduce fuel consumption and environmental system impacts Provide database for systems evaluation and future improvements Provide Provide information about construction activities improved Provide incident information traveler Provide realဨtime road condition information information including closures, speed and/or delay, and weather information Provide one location where customers can access all regional and local traveler information Optimize use of Deploy systems that fit in with future transportation improvements infrastructure Deploy systems that maximize the use of existing infrastructure Deploy systems that minimize need for maintenance and operational support Integrate deployments with other local and regional projects Integrate ITS Share resources between local and regional projects with agencies local and Continue to coordinate and integrate projects with regional partners other agencies Source: Based on the Data from the Spokane Valley Strategic Plan (2011)

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Exhibit 4.1.3: A Detailed Assessment of Needs Traffic operations and management

Traveler information

Interagency users

General needs

Needs Assessment Upgrade the cityဨwide traffic signal system Expand traffic monitoring and system detection Upgrade the central system workstation for active control of systems Integrate systems between local transportation and emergency agencies Coordinate traffic signals to alleviate congested freeway offဨramps Develop an incident response program Monitor high accident locations for incidents Develop an emergency/incident response plan including all response agencies Expand SRTMC map to include Spokane Valley arterial roadways Provide travelers with information about incidents, congestion, construction, or any other event that will increase travel times Provide congestion information along major roadways Provide realဨtime traveler information at freeway onဨramps Keep “realဨtime” information current (i.e., DMS, 511, HAR) Interface and share resources with the National Weather Service Provide more camera images for visual verification of conditions Post information in locations that will not be obstructed by truck traffic Standardize message sets for DMS Disseminate emergency information (i.e., amber alert) Disseminate evacuation route information Develop a city-wide fiber-optic communications infrastructure Implement a ringဨtype fiber network topology to create failure redundancy Link to surrounding agencies Install citywide CCTV cameras, data stations and additional DMS Use common standards throughout the region to enhance integration Integrate the communications system between transport and emergency management agencies to improve response times Identify funding sources for safety improvements and interagency coordination projects Research and test communications systems prior to implementation to ensure ease of use and regional functionality Deploy ITS projects that improve a traveler’s available choices Facilitate coordination between agencies

Source: Based on the Data from the Spokane Valley Strategic Plan (2011)

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Exhibit 4.1.4: The Recommended ITS System Components ITS Equipment and Materials Signal controller

ITS Function Traffic management (flow and control)

Minimum Recommendation Phased replacement of all Peek 3000E controller to Eagle M52 with ethernet communications IPဨbased camera, highဨdefinition video, industry standard video compression MPEGဨ4 and H.264

CCTV camera

Video surveillance and monitoring

DMS

Traveler information

NTCIP communication support (national standard protocol)

Vehicle detection

Intersection detection, system detection, collection, and incident management

Induction loops for intersection detection Initiate softwareဨbased traffic data acquisition pilot project

Highway advisory radio (HAR)

Traveler information

Hardened AM band transmission devices and digital recorder modules

Fiber-optic backbone

Communication infrastructure

24ဨ72 strand SMFO in existing 2” conduits, new

Potential Benefits x Improve signal management and operation efficiency x Improve interagency integration x Reduce data transfer rate x Reduce video storage size x Improve safety and security x Improve interagency video sharing x Improve city ITS system integration, interagency integration and traveler information dissemination x Enables strategic traffic management in the region x Allows traffic data archiving for future planning and signal timing adjustment x Improves intersection operations and traveler information dissemination x Improve traveler information dissemination and roadway safety in the region x Ease of future communication expansion.

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4” conduit, or two 3” conduits Ethernet switches

Communication between field equipment and traffic management centers

Managed and industrial switches with gigabit speeds for all field installed devices At least six RJဨ45 ports and two fiber ports

Central system workstation

Traffic management

Maintain current versions of all software on the central system workstation to ensure consistency with SRTMC

x Provide cityဨowned communication system for improved manageability x Ease of future communication expansion x Improve manageability and operation for maintenance personnel x Improve data transmission rates x Improve city ITS system integration x Improve interagency cooperation and data sharing

Source: Based on the Data from the Spokane Valley Strategic Plan (2011)

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Exhibit 4.1.5: Detailed Cost Estimates for the Identified Projects

Source: Based on the Data from the Spokane Valley Strategic Plan (2011)

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Exhibit 4.1.6: The City’s Physical Architecture Subsystems, and Related Equipment Packages

Source: Based on the Data from the Spokane Valley Strategic Plan (2011)

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References Spokane Valley ITS Strategic Plan. 2011. Washington: Transpo Group, Inc.

CHAPTER 4.2 PRICING AND REVENUE MANAGEMENT

Pricing and revenue management in ITS is a key instrument for maximizing revenue by increasing usage and ridership. A huge amount of data is generated in ITS; this data helps operators to analyze, predict and understand traveler preferences and needs. It is also possible to generate probable distributions of future trips, and, thus, help transport planners to decide on optimal pricing strategies for commercially viable and sustainable management of ITS systems. Electronic toll collection systems, dynamic charging, road pricing, and congestion charging are examples of some applications of dynamic pricing and revenue management in ITS. While applications like electronic toll collection systems and dynamic charging have a reasonable acceptance, congestion charging often faces social reluctance. With the deployment of ITS, administrative revenue leakage in transport sector has significantly reduced over time. Revenue management is a critical process and is vulnerable to tampering and manipulation if not managed well; often, revenue-related complaints have a huge social and political implication. In a conventional transport system, common causes for revenue leakage are 1. Human error of the driver or conductor in public transport operations, e.g., failure to issue the ticket, intentional discrepancy in farebox collection, issuance of under-valued ticket, etc. 2. Fare avoidance by passengers/users, e.g., avoiding tolls, using expired or invalid tickets while travelling, etc. 3. Third party manipulation: selling of tampered or forged tickets 4. Errors or malpractice at higher levels of transport authority The application of ITS tamper-proofs revenue collection and management by establishing automated fare collection techniques and using dynamic pricing techniques.

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Dynamic Pricing Transport resources, such as public vehicles, road infrastructure, and parking spaces, face the common issue of high demand and low supply caused by increasing population. ITS provides value added services and solutions to meet the demand and supply imbalance, necessitating the use of dynamic pricing, surge pricing, demand pricing, or time-based pricing. The user pays a fee for every service/infrastructure, including roads and highways, parking lots, public transportation, charging stations for EVs, congestion control, travel comfort and security, etc. It is essential that the pricing and revenue management of ITS is appealing to both the commuter and the administrators; the fare needs to be attractive and optimal so that ridership is not affected, but also commercially viable. Dynamic pricing is determined by various factors, such as present and past traffic volumes, and their respective pricing. These parameters vary with time, demand, weather conditions, and culture. As a result, assessing and developing suitable pricing policies is critical. Areas of dynamic pricing in ITS are 1. Congestion-pricing: Road-pricing is the automatic charging of users for usage of a particular road or a road network in a specific region. Congestion-pricing, toll-pricing, and crowd-pricing are subcategories of road-pricing schemes. Road-pricing reduces traffic on specific roads and restricts vehicles, ensures average flow of traffic, promotes carpooling and public transportation, generates revenue, and balances cost between payer and payee. Toll-pricing helps in generating revenues for infrastructure construction and maintenance, and managing congestion at toll gates. Congestionpricing, at present, is used only in a few cities and on a few major highways. Electronic road pricing in Singapore, the London congestion charge, the Stockholm congestion tax, Milan area C, and high-occupancy toll lanes in the United States are noteworthy examples. 2. Parking Pricing: It i) minimizes time-loss by giving easy access to parking spaces, ii) ensures safe and secure parking spaces, iii) prioritizes commercial usage, iv) reduces accidents, energy consumption and pollution, and v) encourages the usage of public transportation. 3. Electricity-charging Pricing for EV: It provides the convenience of charging to EV owners at appropriate pricing. It addresses the

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challenges of peak/non-peak loading, demand variability, powerprice fluctuations, and intermittency of renewable energy generation. Evaluation criteria of dynamic pricing for ITS are based on revenue generation, travel time, delay time, cost of travel, number of users in a specific time period, computational complexity, demand, operational cost, environmental factors, and traffic flow and ridership. Table 4.2.1 is a tabulation of different road pricing types and Table 4.2.2 illustrates the different fee collection methods. TYPE Road toll (fixed rates) Congestion pricing (timevariable) Cordon fees Highoccupancy toll lanes Distancebased fees Pay-as-youdrive insurance Road space rationing

DESCRIPTION A fixed fee for driving on a particular road. A fee that is higher under congested conditions than uncongested conditions. Intended to shift some vehicle traffic to other routes, times, and modes. Fees charged for driving in a particular area. A high-occupant vehicle lane that accommodates a limited number of low-occupant vehicles for a fee. A vehicle-use fee based on how many miles a vehicle is driven. Prorate premium by mileage so vehicle insurance becomes a variable cost. Revenue-neutral credits used to ration peak period roadway capacity.

Table 4.2.1: Different Road Pricing Types Source: Author’s compilation

Pricing and Revenue Management

Type Toll Booths Pass

Electronic Tolling

GPS

Description Motorists stop and pay at a booth Motorists must purchase a pass to enter a cordoned area An electronic system bills the user as they pass a point in the road system Track vehicle location and data is automatically transmitted to a central computer that bills users

287

Equipment Costs High

Operating Costs High

User Inconvenience High

Price Adjustability Medium to high

Low

Low

Medium

Poor to medium

High

Medium

Low

High

High

Medium

Low

High

Table 4.2.2: Fee Collection Methods Source: Pricing Methods—Four Road Pricing—Congestion Pricing, Value Pricing, Toll Roads and HOT Lanes, TDM Encyclopedia, Victoria Transport Policy Institute

Area Licensing Scheme (ALS) in Singapore Singapore, also known as the Garden City, the Lion City or the Little Red Dot, is an island city-state in Southeast Asia. It has an area of 640 km sq with a population of 5.75 million. It is a global commerce, finance, and transport hub. It is one of the four newly industrializing economies in Asia, the other three being Hong Kong, South Korea, and Taiwan. With a vibrant economy, a small land area, and a large population, there have been high demands on Singapore's roadways. Private cars became more prevalent with per-capita income rise. This led to increased traffic congestion, particularly in the city center. The government has since framed policies to control the number of private cars on the road to control pollution and congestion. Road pricing was introduced in Singapore, for the first time in the world, in 1975, in the form of an area license system (ALS). The system has been consistently upgraded, from a manual system to a high-tech digital system. The ALS was replaced by electronic road pricing (ERP), in 1998, which

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digitally manages traffic by way of road pricing. Road charging has been implemented in many cities (e.g., Oslo, San Francisco, Paris, Dubai, and Cambridge) around the world, either manually or electronically. The ALS in Singapore was first in the series of multiple stringent strategies adopted by the Singapore government to ease traffic congestion in the central business district (CBD) of Singapore. Park-and-ride schemes and carpooling are alternative schemes, implemented along with ALS. The Road Transport Action Committee (RTAC) was set up in January 1974, including members from the ministries of National Development, Communications, Home Affairs and Finance. RTAC created the ALS with the objective peak-hour traffic reduction in the city by 30 %. Under the scheme, the CBD was marked as a restricted zone during peak hours; all vehicles entering the CBD during these hours had to obtain a special area license costing S$3 per day or S$60 per month. The scheme was refined multiple times in terms of operations and pricing. ALS was replaced by the electronic road pricing (ERP) system, after being operational for twentythree years. Though ALS was very useful in traffic management, operators found it cumbersome, labor-intensive, and inflexible; it was replaced by an automatic dedicated short-range communication (DSRC) system called the ERP scheme, in 1995. An ERP-controlled point uses two overhead gantries, 15 m apart and 6 m above road level. Figure 4.2.1 shows an image of a Singapore ERP gantry. Each gantry has two microwave beacons per lane. The passage of vehicles is detected by the optical sensors on the second gantry. Two cameras cover each lane on the first gantry and photograph the rear license plates of vehicles without payment equipment (Walker May 2011).

Working of ERP A cash card is inserted into the on-board unit (OBU) or in-vehicle unit (IU). The OBU is fixed permanently in the vehicle and is powered by the vehicle battery. Figure 4.2.2 shows an image of an OBU. When a vehicle passes an ERP gantry, a charge is deducted. After the charge is deducted, the remaining cash is shown on the OBU for ten seconds. If a vehicle owner does not have sufficient value in their cash card when passing through an ERP, the owner receives a fine by post within two weeks. The electronic systems can dynamically vary the prices, based on traffic conditions, vehicle type, time, and location. All vehicles are charged except emergency vehicles. In 2005, the coverage of ERP expanded the gantries around Singapore CBD, major arterials, and expressways. The system is upgraded

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each quarter to keep them efficient. After ALS had been replaced with the ERP system, traffic congestion levels decreased by 15 %. About 65 % of the commuters now use public transport, which is an increase of nearly 20 % (Sustainable Cities 2014).

Figure 4.2 1: A Singapore ERP Gantry Source: images.allsingaporestuff.com

Figure 4.2.2: Images Showing On-Board Unit (OBU) Fixed Inside a Car Source: http://ivyidaong4.blogspot.in

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The Pricing Model The primary objective was to minimize vehicles on roads, and not profit generation. The initial cost of installation for the ERP, in 1998, was approximately S$115M. In 2003, the annual revenues from the ERP were about S$45M, which balanced out the annual operating costs of S$9M. In 2010, annual revenues from the ERP rose to approximately S$90 million, with a daily collection of more than S$15,000 (CITY CLIMATE LEADERSHIP AWARDS Singapore Climate Close-Up 2013). The cost of managing and maintaining the ERP system has increased over the years, along with the increase in the number of gantries and IUs; however, the cost remains at 20 %–30 % of the total revenue collected. The ERP is an “active” system; the charges are deducted from a smart card in the IU, and the central computer system does not keep track of the vehicle’s movements as a record of all transactions are stored on the driver’s smart card. In addition to making the payments easier, the ERP enables consistent, reliable, and efficient data collection. Analysis of this data helps communicating information that is useful to the drivers.

Insights from Best Practices One major lesson from Singapore is to establish flexible, agile, and adaptive schemes that target specific groups contributing to traffic congestion. The speeds on road sections are always monitored and the charges are adjusted up to six times a year. The pricing is dynamic depending on traffic flow— higher with low congestion and vice versa. There was also the provision of quality public transport choices, including mass rapid transit and light rail. Most importantly, there was a wide-spread public acceptance of ERP. The authorities in Singapore also stress that congestion pricing is not the only solution to urban traffic congestion; travel demand could be better managed by land-use planning, the right policies on decentralization, parking, car ownership (vehicle quota system), and effective public transport. Effective crisis management, optimizing available road capacity, and prioritizing road network capacity can also manage traffic demand. Furthermore, the country's small size and island boundaries helped make implementation efficient. Their single-tiered governance and administration made decisionmaking easier and implementation faster. In summary, Singapore’s transport system is among the best, with efficient pricing policies and the development of a well-connected public transport system.

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London Congestion Charging Scheme Congestion charging is often resisted by the public. Cities like Hong Kong and New York could not expand their congestion pricing schemes beyond trial runs due to social rejection. London launched the London Congestion Charging Scheme (LCCS) in February 2003. With an initial investment of £162M, the LCCS was technically more advanced than Singapore’s ALS, despite a similar daily licensing charging scheme. LCCS initially covered an area of 22 km sq—which was doubled by 2007—and generated a net revenue of £122M in the 2005 to 2006 financial year. A clear communication strategy, and the well-defined roles and responsibilities of Transport for London (TfL) are the key factors for its success. The number of private vehicles entering the London urban area dropped by 39 % between 2002 and 2014. More than 18,000 private rental vehicles, like taxis (Uber, etc.) and minicabs, are entering the congestion-charging zone daily. The TfL is faced with a financial challenge as these taxis and minibuses are exempt from paying the congestion charge price. Congestion charging schemes or area licensing schemes raise two primary concerns: i) it is not equitable, as fees maybe inconsistent with the usage, and ii) impaired usage, to ensure the value for money (for the users), which fails the basic purpose of reducing congestion.

Pricing Project in Stockholm and Milan From January 2006 to July 2006, Stockholm conducted a trial run of a congestion pricing scheme, where toll charges were levied at eighteen points that controlled the entry and exit to the inner zone of the city. The toll rate was based on a time-differentiated technique similar to ERP. The maximum toll charge for each vehicle in a day was fixed at 60 SEK. The highest toll rate occurred during the morning and evening peak hours; from 6:30 AM to 6:30 PM, the toll charge varied from 10 SEK (around $1.3) to 20 SEK. The eco-pass road pricing scheme in Milan was implemented in January 2008, with the primary objective of improving the air quality of the city while managing congestion effectively. The pricing cordon operates from 7:30 AM to 7:30 PM and covers an area of 8 sq km, located in central Milan. The toll pricing is not time-variable, unlike Stockholm and Singapore, as the primary focus is to reduce emission rather than congestion. The toll rates are based on the five different emission levels of the vehicles; the highest charge is €10 and the lowest is free of charge.

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References CITY CLIMATE LEADERSHIP AWARDS Singapore Climate Close-Up. 2013. LONDON: C40 CITIES, SIEMENS. Sustainable Cities. 2014. Accessed June 24, 2017. http://www.dac.dk/en/dac-cities/sustainable-cities/allcases/transport/singapore-the-worlds-first-digital-congestion-chargingsystem/. Walker, John. 2011. The Acceptability of Road Pricing. London: RAC Foundation.

CHAPTER 4.3 SUSTAINABILITY OF ITS OPERATIONS

Introduction In the modern economy, transport is fundamental to citizen mobility and socioeconomic development. Well-connected, sophisticated mobility choices are substantive to a sustainable environment and pollution control. Ninety-five percent of transport energy is derived from fossil fuels; this is the main contributor to most of the air pollution from the transportation sector around the world. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), in 2012, transportation accounted for 22 % of energy-consumptionrelated CO2 emission, with 74 % of the total CO2 emissions in transportation coming from road traffic. Therefore, tackling air pollution and attempting to reduce non-renewable energy consumption will have an adverse impact on mobility. It is expected for the situation to exacerbate without sufficient governmental policy support and technological interventions. For improved social welfare and public good, government policies should encourage environmental friendliness and sustainable development; it will be productive to explore transportation options that are environmentally benign and use clean energy. Urban areas have little to no scope for establishing an eco-friendly transportation infrastructure network; this is due to high population density and the rigid space limitations of existing infrastructure. Characteristically, urban transport infrastructure development is a brown-field project; congestion levels are usually very severe, mobility demands continue to increase, and since real-estate is expensive, residential regions shift to peripheral locations, whereas commercial establishments are concentrated in the city center. Therefore, citizens’ daily commute for livelihood reasons is necessitated; all these burden the already constrained urban infrastructure, reducing the overall mobility service quality. Quality deterioration becomes evident in terms of reduced safety, increased accidents and casualties, increased pollution (noise, air, and emissions), increased congestion, reduced reliability, and so forth.

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Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) are hoped to improve roadway safety, reduce traffic congestion, and enhance mobility. In addition to that, ITS also help reduce energy consumption and mitigate environmental effects. In the recent years, several ITS programs have emerged that are specifically designed to minimize the environmental impacts of transportation, such as Milan’s road-pricing system. Such environmental ITS programs have been shown to curb emissions by up to 15 % (Barth, Wu and Boriboonsomsin 2015).

Traffic Problem in the US According to a recent study, it has been estimated that the cost of traffic congestion in US cities for 2005 was $78B, with 4.2 billion hours of delay and 2.9 billion gallons of fuel wasted (Shrank and Lomax 2007). During the same year, there were 5.4 million crashes and fatalities on US highways (FHWA Safety 2007). Population growth and the resulting increase in vehicles and vehicle miles travelled (VMT) are the leading causes of roadway congestion in the United States. According to the report by the Federal Highway Administration, in 2013, annual VMT increased 8 % after the 2008 financial crisis and reached 2.97 trillion miles in the US in 2011. These data points corroborate the poor condition of the US transportation system and stress the urgency of government and transport agency intervention. Consequentially, environmental impacts from the US transportation network are also colossal and detrimental.

ITS and Their Impact on Transportation Energy and Emissions As described in the US National Intelligent Transportation System Architecture, ITS consist of a wide variety of technologies and applications. In general, ITS can be broadly categorized into three major areas, vehicle systems, traffic management systems, and travel information systems. The environmental benefits of these areas are briefly discussed below. 1.

Vehicle Systems

By taking advantage of advanced technologies like modern control systems, faster processors, and wireless communications, vehicle performances have been enhanced to a great extent. This has many environmental benefits in terms of reduced energy consumption and GHG emissions. Examples of such emerging vehicle systems are discussed below.

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Longitudinal Assistance Systems Longitudinal Assistance Systems aim to prevent rear-end and front-end collisions. These systems constitute sensors and computer vision technology, which monitor headway between vehicles and reduce the chances of collisions. These sensors are also being used for adaptive cruise control (ACC) systems that allow a driver to travel at a consistent speed for a specific distance. ACC can evolve into cooperative adaptive cruise control (CACC) by integrating wireless communication systems; CACC vehicles communicate with each other to coordinate headway distance, speed, acceleration, and deceleration, etc. Lateral Assistance Systems Lateral assistance systems guide vehicles during lane changes, merges, or any turning movements. They provide lane departure warnings by using computer vision technology and other sensors to warn drivers of impending lateral collisions. Wireless Communications Systems These systems are incorporated in vehicles as cellular communication devices and dedicated short-range communication radios. These systems enable V2V, V2I, and I2V communications to ensure safety. They can minimize environmental impacts by reducing fuel consumption, improving efficiency and safety. Longitudinal and lateral control systems coupled with wireless communication systems establish a fully or partially automated vehicle. 2.

Traffic Management Systems

Over the last several decades, road congestion in urban areas has risen severely. Since it may not be feasible to construct infrastructure to manage increasing travel demand, ITS-based traffic management systems can potentially mitigate the problem. Some of these systems are discussed below. Traffic Monitoring Systems Traffic monitoring systems comprise sensors, communication channels, and information processing technologies. They provide real-time information to manage traffic. Advanced data processing techniques are being developed to estimate traffic-flow, density, and speed, as well as other traffic parameters.

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This real-time data can be used by drivers for choosing alternative routes, helping to reduce congestion. Traffic Incident Management Traffic incident management can reduce congestion on roads by coordinating with traffic monitoring systems. This technique can be an important tool for early detection of incidents and rapid clearance from accident sites, so normal traffic can resume as quickly as possible. Integrated Corridor Management Integrated corridor management is a set of methods, which work together to help keep traffic flowing as smoothly as possible through the corridor. Some innovative solutions include ramp metering for freeway access, and advanced signal timing algorithms on arterial networks, which reduce idling time and, hence, reduces congestion. Travel Demand Management Travel demand management aims to reduce the number of vehicles on a congested road by diverting the traffic volume through demand-pricing and other initiatives. The main goal of traffic management is to utilize the existing road infrastructure to its full capacity and maintain a smooth traffic flow. It can reduce energy consumption and GHG emissions by large extents as it minimizes time stuck in congestion. Travel Information Systems Travel information systems aim to make things convenient for travelers by efficiently communicating relevant information. Recent developments in these systems are discussed below. Route Guidance Systems Route guidance systems generally include on-board, off-board, and smartphone-based systems. These navigation systems use geographic and real-time traffic information to find optimal routes with minimum traveltime, congestions, and even GHG emissions in a roadway network. Geo-Location Systems Geo-location systems are generally coupled with route guidance systems to allow users to find specific locations, hence, decreasing extra driving, such

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as searching for gas stations, parking spaces, etc., which, in turn, leads to reduced fuel consumption and, hence, reduced GHG emissions. Electronic Payment Systems Electronic payment systems are becoming extremely prevalent, especially since the onset of the COVID-19 Pandemic. They enable automatic toll and other payments without disrupting the vehicle, which helps in maintaining the smooth flow of traffic, leading to environmental benefits. The ITS implementations discussed above can directly or indirectly reduce GHG emissions through improvements in safety, mobility, energy consumption, and efficiency. Other than reducing GHG emissions and energy consumption, all these systems also enhance traveler convenience. However, actual GHG emission reductions will vary significantly, depending on factors such as vehicle fleet mix, traffic volume and dynamics, and the type of roadway network and infrastructure. In the US, a variety of these ITS applications have been designed, developed, piloted, and implemented in different locations.

Recent Environmental ITS Programs in the United States The US Department of Transportation (USDOT) has initiated a variety of environmentally-focused ITS research programs. Many of these are part of the Federal Highway Administration Exploratory Advanced Research program. One of the research initiatives focuses on connected vehicles (CV), of which an environmental aspect is the Applications for the Environment: Real-time Information Synthesis (AERIS) program. Using V2V, V2I, and I2V communications, the AERIS program aims to design ITS applications that reduce energy consumption and GHG emissions. Several AERIS operational concepts have been developed, including: i) Eco-Signal Operations, ii) Eco-Lanes, iii) Dynamic Low Emissions Zones, iv) Support for Alternative Fuel Vehicle (AFV) Operations, v) Eco-Traveler Information, and vi) Eco-Integrated Corridor Management (ICM). The main AERIS applications are the Eco-Traffic Signal Operations, including the applications of Eco-Approach and Departure at Signalized Intersections, Eco-Traffic Signal Timing, and Eco-Traffic Signal Priority, as well as EcoLanes Operations, which includes the applications of Eco-Speed Harmonization and Eco-Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control. These applications are described in further detail below.

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Eco-Traffic Signal Operations

These operations use ITS technologies to decrease fuel consumption and GHG emissions on arterial roadways by reducing idling, number of stops, and unnecessary accelerations and decelerations at signalized intersections. There are a few other signalization strategies that use V2I/I2V communications, three of which are described below. • Eco-Approach and Departure at Signalized Intersections: This application uses wireless data communications sent from the traffic signal controller to CVs to encourage “green” approaches to signalized intersections. It is intended for the vehicle to change its speed to stop at or cross a traffic signal energy-efficiently. The systems include broadcasting signal phase and timing (SPaT) data and geographic information description (GID) data. Vehicle status messages, sent from nearby vehicles using V2V communications, are also incorporated by the application. Upon receiving this information, an on-board processor can calculate the optimal speed to approach, pass through, and depart from a signalized intersection. This speed information is communicated to the driver through a human-machine interface, or directly to the vehicle’s longitudinal controller (such as the ACC system). The AERIS program has found 2 % to 7 % energy savings for all vehicles and that the application is less effective when the corridor is congested (AERIS Report 2014). • Eco-Traffic Signal Timing: This is similar to the adaptive traffic signal systems; however, eco-traffic signal timing’s objective is to optimize traffic signals for the environment. The application collects data from vehicles, such as vehicle location, speed, GHG and other emissions using CV technologies. This data is then processed to develop signal timing strategies that are aimed at reducing fuel consumption and overall emissions at an intersection, along a corridor, or for a region. This approach evaluates traffic and environmental parameters at each signal in real-time and adapts to serve traffic demands while minimizing the environmental impact. The AERIS program has shown 1 % to 5.5 % energy savings, and that the application is effective in most conditions other than full saturation (AERIS Report 2014). • Eco-Traffic Signal Priority: Eco-traffic signal priority allows approaching transit and freight vehicles to request signal priority. It considers the vehicle’s location, speed, vehicle type, and its emissions to determine whether priority should be granted. Information collected from vehicles approaching the intersection,

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such as the transit vehicle’s schedule or passengers onboard may also be considered in granting priority. If priority is granted, the traffic signal attempts to facilitate the transit/freight vehicle to pass-through the intersection without stopping. This application does not allow signal pre-emption, which is reserved for emergency response vehicles. The AERIS program has shown 1 % to 4 % energy savings for all freight vehicles and 1 % to 2 % savings for transit vehicles (AERIS Report 2014). 2.

Eco-Lanes Operations

Eco-lanes use CV technologies to decrease vehicle fuel-consumption and emissions by reducing congestion, unnecessary accelerations/decelerations, and improving traffic flow. This could occur either on a single lane or across multiple lanes on a freeway. It can consist a few different applications that are specifically set up for a freeway: • Eco-Lanes Management: This application supports the operation of dynamic eco-lanes, including establishing qualifications for using the lanes, defining activation periods, or geofencing the eco-lanes’ boundaries. • Eco-Speed Harmonization: Eco-speed harmonization assists in smoothing traffic flow, reducing unnecessary stops and starts, and maintaining consistent speeds, thus, reducing fuel consumption, GHGs, and other emissions on the roadway by implementing variable speed limits. • Eco-Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control: Eco-cooperative adaptive cruise control allows individual drivers to take advantage of adaptive cruise control capabilities along with V2V communications designed to minimize vehicle accelerations and decelerations for reducing fuel consumption and vehicle emissions. • Eco-Ramp Metering: The eco-ramp metering application determines the most environmentally efficient operation of traffic signals on ramps to manage the rate of vehicles entering a freeway. • Connected Eco-Driving: Connected eco-driving provides customized real-time driving suggestions to drivers to adjust their driving characteristics (e.g., speed of travel, acceleration and deceleration rates) to save fuel and reduce emissions. • Multi-modal Traveler Information: The multi-modal traveler information provides pre-trip and en-route multi-modal traveler information to encourage environmentally friendly transportation choices.

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In the US, the AERIS program’s eco-lanes modelling implemented the ecospeed harmonization and eco-cooperative adaptive cruise control application. Using a sophisticated set of simulation modelling tools, it was shown that under the assumption of 100 % penetration rate, eco-speed harmonization could result in up to 12 % in energy savings, but with an 8 % reduction in mobility. However, after modifications to ensure that mobility was not affected, energy savings were around 5 %. On the other hand, eco-cooperative adaptive cruise control was shown to provide upwards of 30 % in energy savings for a generic freeway segment. When applied to a regular freeway with on and off ramps, the savings were around 15 % (Barth, Wu and Boriboonsomin 2015).

Conclusion For the last several decades, many ITS applications, including vehicle systems, traffic management systems, and traveler information systems, have been utilized to improve safety and reduce congestion, with the secondary goal of reducing fuel consumption and GHG emissions. Based on the discussions, in this chapter, on the US, it is inferred that environmental benefits can be maximized through the implementation of a combination of environmentally-friendly ITS technologies. To date, the mobility and safety impacts of environmental-ITS programs are not very clear; as more of these ITS programs are deployed, comprehensive impact assessments of their environmental, mobility, and safety performance are needed. In conclusion, traffic management can be done in two ways: one is to augment capacity and the other is to control and manage changes in demand, such as with appropriate pricing policies.

References AERIS—Applications for the Environment:Real-Time Information Synthesis Report. 2014. Washington, DC: US Department of Transportation. Barth, M., G. Wu and K. Boriboonsomsin. 2015. Intelligent Transportation Systems for Improving Traffic Energy Efficience and Reducing GHG Emissions from Roadways. California: National Center for Sustainable Transportation. FHWA Safety. 2007. US DOT Federal Highway Administration, Office of Safety. Freight Facts and Figures 2006. 2006. US DOT Federal Highway Administration, Freight Management and Operations.

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Grant-Muller, S., and M. Usher. 2013. “Intelligent Transport Systems: The Propensity for Environmental and Economic Benefits. Technological Forecasting & Social Change: 149–66. Public Transportation Ridership Statistics. n.d. American Public Transportation Association. Schrank, David, and T. Lomax. 2007. Urban Mobility Report. Texas: Texas A & M University, Texas Transportation Institute.

CHAPTER 4.4 ROLE OF STATE AND REGULATORY BODIES

Introduction Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) use information and communication technologies (ICT), that support and optimize all modes of transport by costeffectively improving their individual and cooperative operations. Information, communication, data processing, and sensor technologies are used in synergy with the infrastructure, vehicles, and operations and management centers to make the transportation system efficient for all stakeholders. ITS are overarching, multi-disciplinary transport management systems that can make existing networks of all transport modes safer, and more efficient, reliable, resilient, sustainable, and flexible to address existing as well as future needs. To some extent, ITS technologies are already widely used across all modes of transport and are developing at a rapid pace. The government of New Zealand is keen to capitalize the several benefits that ITS technologies offer; it has formulated an action plan to utilize them safely, efficiently, and effectively in New Zealand’s transportation system to provide better transport services to its people.

Background New Zealand is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. Geographically, it comprises two land masses, the North Island and the South Island, and around 600 smaller islands, and is mostly isolated from the rest of the world. The government of New Zealand is committed to boost its economy and improve the quality of life of citizens. The economy of New Zealand mainly depends on trade and services such as tourism. For delivering these goods and services to develop its economy, a safe and efficient transport network becomes critical. When compared to many other countries, the geographical isolation of New Zealand puts the nation at a competitive disadvantage in exporting. To compete in the global market, the country needs its transportation network to be as efficient as possible. ITS

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are already contributing, to some extent, to the improved efficiency of supply chains in New Zealand, but need to develop at a wider scale for an efficient and sustainable supply chain management. The integration of ITS can ensure road safety and help discard the need for excessive investment in new physical infrastructure. The government recognizes the transport sector as a priority area for socioeconomic development and growth. Through ITS implementation in New Zealand, the government also set a target for making vehicles more fuel efficient and reducing GHG emissions. The government’s vision is for an integrated, effective, safe, secure, responsible, efficient, accessible, and resilient transport system that supports the growth of the country’s economy, provides a better quality of life, and delivers greater prosperity, security, and opportunities to all citizens. To support these long-term objectives, transport agencies have adopted four long-term goals for transport in New Zealand and outlined how ITS can help achieve these goals (Exhibit 4.4.1 shows the government’s long-term goal).

Key Participants in ITS Deployment The central, state, and local governments, and central and state-owned transport agencies and enterprises have a key role to play in development and deployment of ITS technologies in New Zealand. The Ministry of Transport, the NZ Transport Agency, the Civil Aviation Authority, Airways New Zealand, the Aviation Security Service, Kiwi Rail, Maritime New Zealand, Land Information New Zealand, and the Met Service are the involved agencies from the central government. Other government departments involved are the New Zealand Police and the New Zealand Customs Service. Some other participants involved are vehicle manufacturers, transport users, and technology providers. Establishing an effective and productive collaboration between these entities is one of the most important determiners of ITS New Zealand’s success.

The Role of the Government The government understands the potential of ITS technology and has made significant investments in ITS for all transportation modes. The government is determined to support the development and deployment of ITS to ensure a better transport network in New Zealand. Apart from the government, the New Zealand Transport Agency (NZ Transport Agency) plays a major role in the initiative (Exhibit 4.4.2 displays the role of the NZ Transport

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Agency). The main responsibilities of the government in development and deployment of ITS are listed below: 1.

Strategic Leadership, Aims, and Collaboration

Strategic leadership, collaboration between multiple modes in an integrative ITS environment, coordination of central and local governments, funding agencies, developers, vendors, and operators are key to the development of ITS. The Ministry of Transport, with the government, ITS stakeholders, and multi-modal end user representatives, proposes to establish an ITS leadership forum to develop ITS-specific long-term plans, policies, and a strategic vision. It has also proposed to establish an ITS Technology Working Group to guarantee coordination of actions across all stakeholders. The Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) of New Zealand, in collaboration with Airways NZ and other stakeholders, shall finalize and implement the National Air Navigation Plan (NANP); the plan outlines ITS priorities in air navigation and airspace, including system investment and airspace management. The NZ Transport Agency proposes to draft an ITS framework that includes land transport, network operations, assetmanagement, and smart transport choices. 2.

Providing a Supportive Regulatory Environment

A supportive regulatory environment, a meticulous enforcement policy, an open market approach (including for standards development), managing safety risks of new technology, and rapid development and deployment are mandatory ITS features for superior public benefit. The Ministry of Transport and the CAA proposed to draft aviation rules for implementing NANP, and for operating remotely piloted aircraft systems. It is intended to identify unnecessary barriers and redundancy and to eliminate them. Legislation pertaining to advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and semiautonomous vehicles is to be reviewed. In addition, to mandate electronic stability control, the Ministry of Transport, and the NZ Transport Agency, will develop a road vehicle standards map and land transport rules and regulations. The transport agencies of New Zealand will review the relevance of international standards to the local conditions to ensure compatibility and interoperability with existing systems. Radio spectrum allocation for ITS applications is also under the purview of the Ministry of Business, Innovation, and Employment. The Ministry of Transport endeavors to contribute to international ITS standard development processes.

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Funding and Procuring Infrastructure or Services

Elements such as transport and navigation infrastructure, Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) coverage and three-dimensional digital mapping, facilitating, or piloting technologies are crucial for ITS deployment in New Zealand and should be provided by the government. The NZ Transport Agency and the Ministry of Transport and Police will formulate a comprehensive action plan to review ITS technologies and their operations. As the major investor in land-based ITS, the NZ Transport Agency proposes to publish planning and investment signals to inform suppliers about its vision for the delivery of ITS infrastructure and services. Land Information New Zealand (LINZ) will scout for investments in a national real-time positioning service to support ITS applications. In conjunction with the CAA, the LINZ and the Ministry of Transport will review and analyze the costs and benefits of providing a national real-time positioning service that could improve reliability, safety, and security. In consultation and coordination with the road controlling authorities, the NZ Transport Agency and LINZ will develop a business case for a coordinated and authenticated national land transport network dataset. This could include a centrally managed road speed limit map for New Zealand. Also, the LINZ, the Ministry of Transport, and Maritime New Zealand propose to amend the Maritime Rules, as per the International Maritime Organization requirements. Border Security agencies plan to introduce the next generation of Smart Gate technology to streamline commuter movements. The Ministry for Primary Industries will conduct trials of improved biosecurity systems for passengers and cargo. 4.

Efficient Communication about ITS

The government plays the crucial role of information disseminator and influencer; the government can influence various agencies to assist in deploying ITS, and various other stakeholders to endorse the use of ITS. The transport agencies of New Zealand will facilitate the sharing of resources, management of information, and planning of investment. The working group, established by the Leadership Forum, will oversee the collection, communication, availability, and protection of information. The NZ Transport Agency, supported by Maritime New Zealand, will set up a Data Security Centre of Expertise. Given the role of the government in the establishment of ITS, developing a strategic vision for ITS in New Zealand becomes crucial to set clear priorities for policy-framing and investments. ITS technologies are planned

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for commercial viability, and driven by consumer demand. The government plays the role of regulator, owner, operator, enforcement agency, and is a beneficiary of the multi-modal system.

Summary The government plays a major role in creating a supportive regulatory environment, facilitating effective coordination between authorities, and establishing proper mechanisms for developing and deploying ITS. The government, transport agencies, and other stakeholders should work in collaboration, with the unified goal of implementing efficient ITS systems. New Zealand managed to successfully create such an environment, and the many benefits of the ITS systems are, hence, achieved.

References Intelligent Transport Systems Technology Action Plan 2014-18. 2014. Ministry of Transport, Government of New Zealand. Retrieved from newzealand.govt.nz NZ Transport Agency Position Statement on Intelligent Transport Systems. 2014. Wellington: NZ Transport Agency (NZTA).

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Exhibit 4.4.1: The Government’s Long-term Goal and the Contribution of ITS

Source: Intelligent Transport Systems Technology Action Plan 2014–18 (2014)

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Planning and investment partner Invests in ITSrelated assets to make their benefits a reality. Not the lead investor Sets standards and governance mechanisms to hold the sector to account for compliance

Regulator Steps in proactively to facilitate sector alignment. Has no formal governance authority, but informally adopts the leadership role to deliver the best possible mix and benefits of ITS technologies.

Facilitator Proactively influences sector practice and behavior to deliver the best possible mix and benefits of ITS

Influencer

Source: NZ Transport Agency Position Statement on Intelligent Transport Systems (2014)

Main provider of the investment needed to make the benefits of intelligent transport systems a reality. May choose to invest directly, or indirectly with or through others.

Investment lead

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Stays informed of progress and developments— reacts to market.

Follower (reactive)

CHAPTER 4.5 PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS IN ITS

“Ahmedabad’s Janmarg chosen by the UN as a showcase project to demonstrate that addressing climate change is not a burden but an opportunity to improve people’s lives.” (Goswami 2012)

Introduction About two third of the nation’s GDP is generated in Indian cities; they are the engines of economic activity. With economic success and a poor public transportation system, there has been a steep rise in the use of private vehicles. This has resulted in severe congestions, deteriorating air quality, accidents, and other mobility-related issues. Several agencies are involved in planning and managing urban transport in India; however, they lack the proper coordination and collaboration, at several fronts, to improve public transit. If left unchecked, the impacts of these problems could be aggravated. Therefore, several cities are proactively working towards mitigating mobility issues.

Transport System in Ahmedabad Ahmedabad is a walled city on the eastern banks of river Sabarmati, the commercial capital, and the largest metropolis in the state of Gujarat. It has an area of 466 sq km and a strong industrial base, which attracts large investments. It also has one of the largest informal sectors. It is a compact city with mixed land uses, high density development, and a balanced street network system. It is projected that the urban area will increase up to 1,000 sq km, by 2035, and this growth can only be sustained by developing an efficient rapid mass transit system. The traffic on the streets of Ahmedabad is dominated by the two-wheelers, both motorized and bicycles. The total road length is about 2,400 km. To connect the eastern part to the western part of the city, there are seven bridges across the river Sabarmati. All buses and auto rickshaws in the city are operated on CNG (compressed natural gas), which is relatively less polluting. There is a steady increase in the share of cars, which often leads the city into a grid lock. To achieve the goal of a

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sustainable city and good quality of life, continuous efforts are being made to improve public transport, promote non-motorized vehicles and introduce demand management measures (National Institute of Urban Affairs 2011).

Reason for BRTS Adoption During the year 2005, Gujarat’s Department of Urban Development undertook various initiatives to address issues like traffic management and enhancement of the city transport system. Therefore, the Gujarat Infrastructure Development Board (GIDB), Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC), and Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority (AUDA) jointly drafted a comprehensive urban mobility plan, which included the implementation of a bus rapid transit system (BRTS). During the same time, the Government of India (GOI) announced the flagship mission, called the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), for urban development. The AMC had, then, submitted the proposal for a BRTS to the GOI, which was the first of its kind in the country. On approval, the BRTS project was designed and developed in a phased manner. The urban mobility plan provides various mobility choices to the people, such as the Ahmedabad Municipal Transport Services (AMTS), BRTS, and informal transport (auto-rickshaws), which complement each other.

Goals of the Project Ahmedabad captioned its vision “Accessible Ahmedabad.” It was to redesign the city structure and transport systems towards greater accessibility, safety, affordability, efficient mobility, and a lower carbon future. Main objectives of the project were as follows: 1. Reducing the need for travel 2. Reducing the length of travel 3. Reducing automobile dependence The main concept of the project was to ensure that more people use the public transit system. The focus was on moving people and not on moving vehicles. The concept of BRTS is about equal access and equal sharing of road space for people. A dedicated corridor is provided for the BRTS vehicles, which can carry a greater number of people to the destination in less time compared to single occupancy vehicles such as cars, two-wheelers, etc.

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Project Description Janmarg-BRTS Ahmedabad is a fast, reliable, secure, high-capacity service, which has its own identity. The system has been in operation since 2009. The project consisted of developing 217 km of routes and was undertaken in three phases. A network of 90 km was planned under Phase I and II of the BRTS; subsequent phases consisted of complex corridors. About 1.13 lakh passengers are carried daily by a fleet of 118 buses. Stations are provided on the median that are accessible through signalized zebra crossings. All BRTS stations are provided with ticketing, display, audio systems, and other support infrastructure. Extensive use of intelligent transport management system applications, such as automatic vehicle tracking system (GPS/GPRS-based), electronic fare collection, traffic signal management, real-time passenger information, and area traffic control systems (ATCS), provide useful data for effective monitoring, operations and maintaining the service quality of the BRTS. All of the above stated services are managed by Ahmedabad Janmarg Limited (AJL)—a special purpose vehicle (SPV). The BRTS project opted for a total of nine PPP agreements to ensure its smooth development and efficient operation. The gross cost model has been implemented for bus procurement and operational maintenance, with the rate per kilometer retained by the operator. Exhibit 4.5.1 shows the image of the BRTS network in Ahmedabad.

Expected Outcomes of the Project 1. Origin-destination connectivity: The BRTS network connects important transit points like railway stations, bus terminals, residential areas, commercial hubs, and recreational public spaces. The objective is to provide accessibility and better mobility to all parts of the city. The aim was to connect the busy public destinations and not the busy roads. 2. Catalyst for area development: The corridor passes through many vacant mill lands on the eastern part of the city; these lands had scope for future development. When the transformation of urban space began, the BRTS acted as a catalyst for future development. 3. Low income and low accessibility zones: The corridor provides connectivity to the low-income group (LIG) housing areas and increases accessibility for the lower- and middle-income groups. 4. Availability of right of way (RoW): The availability of RoW and ease of implementation takes utmost priority in the BRTS. The

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different RoWs available on the Ahmedabad BRTS roads are 60 m, 45 m, 40 m, 36 m, 30m, 24 m and 18 m.

Highlights of the Project There are many salient features of the project. First, it is a closed BRTS, with median bus stations. It has specially designed buses with right-handside doors, and uniform heights of the bus floor and bus station platform. There has been a complete revamp of the RoW to include cycle tracks and pedestrian facilities. A commercial speed of 25 kmph enabled faster commuting. There was a system of off-board fare collection. Several innovations in the planning and designing of the system were made by Janmarg, which included a fully “pedestrian and transit” only street section at one location and a one-way bus lane to manage a narrow RoW. Janmarg also has some special features, ranging from buses with GPS-enabled facilities with two-way voice communication, a passenger information system, e-ticketing, and extensive application of the ITS, that make it a cut above the rest. The bus stations are equipped with the latest technology and there are low floor buses with large central doors on both sides, making it accessible to people with special needs (Narendra Modi 2012).

Stakeholders of the Project An SPV was established, known as AJL. It was established under the Companies’ Act, 1956, and is chaired by the municipal commissioner. A dedicated urban transport fund was set up and a parking policy is now also in place. The main roles played by AJL are the planning of services, selection of operators, monitoring of service quality, fare revisions, coordination with relevant departments, and the future BRTS expansion. CEPT University was assigned the work of preparing a detailed project report (DPR) for the implementation of the project. AJL signed a total of nine PPP arrangements to ensure efficient operations of the BRTS. The PPP responsibility matrix is given in Exhibit 4.5.2; it shows nine different components and the aspects related to them. The aspects are design/station, operations, maintenance, management, and construction/supply. The gross cost model has been implemented for bus procurement and operational maintenance. The gross cost contract (GCC) route is considered as a better alternative because the ownership rights remain jointly with the government and private player, and the operation is controlled by the government. Urban local bodies (ULBs) preferred GCC, where the ULBs paid the bus operator

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on a per-kilometer basis and, hence, ULBs assume the revenue risk and get a better service quality. The nine PPP arrangements are 1. Bus Procurement, Operations and Maintenance. 2. Integrated Information System, including Automatic Ticketing and Vehicle Tracking System. 3. Supply and Service Contracts for Bus Station Sliding Doors, Turnstiles. 4. House Keeping and Cleaning of Bus Stations. 5. Management of Pay and Park facilities. 6. Lease of Advertisement Rights. 7. Development of Foot Over Bridges on DBFOT. 8. Development and Maintenance of Landscape. 9. Maintenance Contracts for Bus Stations (Civil Works), Lighting of Bus Stations and Corridors, Signage. Janmarg has various departments with specific roles and responsibilities. All of these departments are placed under three main divisions, i.e., operation, maintenance, and finance/administration. The operations division ensures reliable, safe, and affordable transportation services to the people. It manages the operational control center (OCC), with a huge manpower. The planning department is the heart of the system; it focuses on demand management, conducts passenger surveys, and compiles and analyzes demand data on all modes in the city. The maintenance division is responsible for the maintenance of the vehicles and the facilities of Janmarg. The administration and finance division is responsible for making all payments based on the information it receives from the operations management cell, employment, employee services, testing, training the workforce, contracts, and marketing and advertising of Janmarg services. It is also responsible for revenue and general accounting, smart cards and fare mechanisms, organization budget, grants, and financial reports.

Benefits of the Project Ridership increased by 28 % between 2011 and 2012. The speed increased to 24 kmph during peak hours. All the buses recovered an operating cost up to 95 %. The earning per kilometer operated is Rs. 40. Reliability increased—83 % of buses arrive on time, and punctuality and customer satisfaction improved with the use of the BRTS network. There were only three to four minor accidents in Ahmedabad involving BRTS buses during the two-year operation. The BRTS network effectively reduced carbon

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dioxide emissions by 15 %. It also succeeded in keeping the trip length short by distributing the traffic. The air quality has remained under permissible norms along the BRTS corridor, despite the increase in the number of vehicles. This was due to the change in the composition of vehicles. From a social perspective, there has been an increase in the ridership of women. Overall, the Janmarg BRTS is known nationwide for its success (Best Practices in Urban Transport September, 2013).

Budgetary Implications The project has been sanctioned in two phases, under the JnNURM project. About 35 % of the funds came from the central government, under JnNURM, and 15 % was shared by the state government. The remaining 50 % was borne by the local body. The first phase of construction of the BRTS cost Rs. 49,332 Lakhs. The second phase cost Rs. 48,813 Lakhs. The major revenue is from fare box. Advertisement rights on BRTS stations and corridor, the urban transportation fund (which includes advertisement hoarding revenue across the BRTS corridor and a premium of FSI collected across the BRTS corridor), and pay and park facilities are non-fare-box revenue sources. The total operations and maintenance (O&M) cost in 2011–2012 was Rs. 5.13 crore (Best Practices in Urban Transport September, 2013). Exhibit 4.5.3 tabulates the project cost, O&M cost, and sources of revenue.

Awards of Excellence The project has received national and international recognition for its successful implementation of a BRTS network. In 2009, it got the Best Mass Transit Award, given by the MoUD. In 2010, the Janmarg BRTS was given the 2010 Sustainable Transport Award, at the Annual TRB (Transportation Research Board) conference, in Washington, for visionary achievements in sustainable transportation and urban livability. It was also awarded the Daring Ambition Award, in 2011, by the UITP and ITF. The MoUD awarded the best ITS project to the Ahmedabad BRTS network, in 2011. The BRTS project in Ahmedabad was also awarded the Momentum for Change, 2012, by the UN, at Doha, Qatar. It was also recently awarded the UITP India Political Commitment Award and Design Award for BRTS, in 2013, in Geneva. The HUDCO Award for best practices to improve the living environment was given in February 2014, in New Delhi. It was also one of the finalists for the Public Transport Strategy Award (UITP Award), conducted in Milan, Italy, in June 2015.

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Project Replication There has been a considerable shift of passengers from other travel modes to BRTS. The statistics show that nearly 23 % of the two-wheelers, about 3 % of the car owners, and more than 25 % of the auto rickshaw users have switched to BRTS (Institute of Urban Transport [India] 2013). After the success of the Janmarg BRTS network in Ahmedabad, Indore started its trial operations, in May 2013, for a pilot corridor of 11.5 km. Indore was inspired by the design of bus stations and junctions used by Janmarg. Surat, Pune, and Pimpri Chinchwad also used the Janmarg model of median bus lanes with median stations. Hubli-Dharwad, Vadodara, and Bhubaneshwar are also at various stages in planning, designing, and executing BRTS.

Summary Providing quick, comfortable, and affordable transport to the people of Ahmedabad, the city’s BRTS is a wonderful case study of innovative transformation of urban transport; Janmarg was created by adopting best practices from the world. Partnerships between the communities, and public and private sectors have been a critical part of the Ahmedabad BRTS project. The Ahmedabad BRTS is a PPP-based project. The public sector is represented by an SPV, i.e., AJL, which runs and operates BRTS buses for the citizens of Ahmedabad. The reason for the success of the Ahmedabad BRTS is mainly due to its good institutional structure. It maximizes the quality of service, public benefits from public sector investments, and opportunities for private investment to cash in on private sector enterprise. It also minimizes the cost of service. Moreover, the software (regulatory structure, management and business model) and hardware (infrastructure and rolling stock) used for the project makes it successful and sustainable. Janmarg has demonstrated the success of BRTS in India as a backbone of urban public transportation.

References Goswami, Urmi. 2012. The Economic Times. November 26, 2012. Accessed on June 17, 2017. http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/transportation/shipping/-transport/un-climate-change-negotiations-2012-ahmedabads-busrapid-transit-system-to-be-showcased-by-unitednations/articleshow/17221928.cms.

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Institute of Urban Transport (India). 2013. “Best Practices in Urban Transport.” (September): 101. Narendra Modi. 2012. Accessed June 17, 2017. http://www.narendramodi.in/ahmedabads-brts-chosen-as-lighthouseproject-as-part-of-uns-momentun-for-change-initiative-4890. National Institute of Urban Affairs. 2011. “Urban Transport Initiatives in India - Best Practices in PPP.” (March): 185. Exhibit 4.5.1: BRTS network in Ahmedabad.

Source: Narendra Modi (2012)

Public-private Partnerships in ITS

Exhibit 4.5.2: The PPP Responsibility Matrix

Source: National Institute of Urban Affairs (2011)

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Exhibit 4.5.3: Budget Details: Ahmedabad BRTS Project Details Project Phase Date of Sanction Cost in Rs Lakhs Stretch1 of first phase construction of a stretch of 11th August 2006 8,760 network 12 km in length Stretch2 of first phase construction of a stretch of 6th October 2006 40,572 network 46 km in length BRTS Phase 2 19th August 2008 48,818 Construction of a network 300 19th August 2008 48,818 km in length Total Rs. 98,145 Lakh Cost of Infrastructure Figures (Rs in Expenditure Percentage (%) crore) Cost to central government 343.7 35 Cost to state government 147.3 15 Cost to city (AMC) 491 50 Total 982 100 Revenue by SPV Monthly (Rs in Expenditure Percentage (%) crore) Passes/tickets 2.71 89 Others (advertisements/royalty) 0.32 11 Total 3.03 100 Operation and Maintenance Cost (as in 2011–2012) Expenditure Rs in crore Percentage (%) Total O&M cost of 3.64 71 infrastructure/buses Staff cost 1.08 21 Material cost including software 0.38 7 and maintenance cost Other costs, including passenger 0.03 1 tax Total 5.13 100

Source: Based on research data (Institute for Urban Transport [India] 2013)

CHAPTER 4.6 SYSTEM SECURITY AND PRIVACY

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) enhance ease of mobility, overall comfort, user safety, and system efficiency by integrating sensing techniques, control mechanisms, data analysis, and communication technologies into travel infrastructure and transportation modes. Government and other private sector players enhance the reliability of the public transport system by the continuous introduction of new technologies and wide-scale research and development in ITS. The introduction of this range of novel technologies and increasing connectivity has exposed various privacy, safety, and security of data considerations in ITS. Any compromise in data-handling processes can have adverse impacts. Considering such potential harm, it is critical to have effective security mechanisms in place to resolve and eliminate system vulnerabilities that ITS systems and subsystems may face.

Challenges Many of the challenges of ITS security are similar to those of the internet of things (IoT) and Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs); there are additional challenges concerning transport operations. These challenges are 1. Heterogeneity: The presence of numerous technologies and components with unique functionalities and purposes makes ITS heterogenous systems. Absence of uniform standards and designs further complicates achieving a cohesive and synergetic system. 2. Scalability: The security solutions of ITS must provide seamless compatibility, even on very large ITS deployments; any distribution method or intrusion detection system must be reasonably effective. Furthermore, as technology evolves, security solutions should effectively adapt to the changes without requiring major alterations. 3. Complexity: ITS are similar in characteristics to a complex adaptive system (CAS); component systems work in collaboration to produce a desired output, which may not be possible with their independent efforts. Analysis and control of such synergies is often complicated

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and intractable. (Mitchell 2009). Furthermore, much like the IoT, the interaction of sensors and computational units is not managed through a central system, but, rather, through a distributed network architecture, which also increases the complexity of such systems. 4. Cost and Resource Constraints: ITS projects are cost intensive; they are often implemented in phases. Partial implementation, covering a limited area in the urban space, impedes the efficiency and realization of the full potential of the ITS capability; safety and security can also be compromised. Developers face challenges in justifying investments for subsequent phases as realized benefits are nominal. 5. Delay Sensitivity: ITS services need to be responsive to real-time incidents; therefore, fast computation of large amounts of data is essential. If technological resources are limited, then there may be exposure to safety and security threats. Behzadan (2017) discusses the real-time limitations of the autonomous vehicle, where myopic decision-making leads to transfer of vehicle control to an adversary by short-term evasive maneuvers. ITS security and privacy issues are tabulated in Table 4.6.1. ITS SECURITY AND PRIVACY ISSUES SECURITY AND SECURITY FEATURES SECURITY AND PRIVACY REQUIRED PRIVACY ATTACKS CHALLENGE Node capture Trust Sybil attacks establishment Confidentiality of user data Wormhole attacks Identity privacy / Availability of services to user identity Malicious scripts the authorized user always verification Replay attacks Access control Behavioral privacy Spoofing attacks Authentication and Location privacy identification Malicious code injection attack, ITS vehicles Integrity of ITS system to authentication avoid tampering of Denial of service (DoS) information ITS data privacy False data injection Nonrepudiation to ensure Scalability Phishing attacks communicating entities are Latency in service Sinkhole attacks unable to refute the prior Computation and Cryptanalysis and side conversation. communication injection Dynamic security cost Interference and eavesdropping

Table 4.6.1: ITS Security and Privacy Issues Source: Author’s compilation

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Intelligent transport system stations (ITS-S) with wireless communication systems are a new and rapidly developing area of study aimed at reducing traffic accidents, congestion, and inefficiency. ITS-S comprise vehicles, roadside units (RSUs), and servers. An on-board unit (OBU) is mounted in each of the ITS-S (vehicles). The OBUs enable the ITS-S (vehicles) to communicate with other ITS-S (vehicles or RSUs). According to the European Telecommunications Standards Institute, the communication architecture of ITS-S is composed of a facilities layer, networking and transport layer, and access layer. The ITS-S’ reference architecture is presented in Figure 4.6.1. The overall structure, in particular the facilities layer, is similar to that of the US architecture and adopted in the EU standard (ETSI) from the US standard (SAE); however, ETSI TC ITS architecture includes more functionality at the network layer to support additional communication scenarios, such as multi-hop forwarding. The three layers of ETSI TC ITS are vulnerable to various attacks. The access layer is responsible for exchanging messages. It is vulnerable to the following attacks: i) node capture attacks, ii) malicious code injection attacks, iii) false data injection attacks, iv) replay attacks, v) cryptanalysis, and vi) side channel attacks and interference and eavesdropping. The networking and transport layer transmits data between ITS-S (vehicles or RSUs). The security threat to this layer can be severe, due to the wireless nature of ITS. Attacks specific to this layer are i) denial of service (DoS) attacks, ii) spoofing attacks, iii) sinkhole attacks, iv) wormhole attacks, v) man in the middle attacks (MIMA), and vi) sybil attacks. The third layer is the facilities layer, which is responsible for providing users the requested services. The threats on this layer include i) phishing attacks, ii) malicious virus/worms, and iii) malicious script. Denial-of-service attacks can occur in a variety of ITS technologies or functional surfaces, whereas eavesdropping attacks may occur only in communication networks.

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Figure 4.6.1: ETSI TC ITS Architecture Source: ETSI (2010)

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Various entities are involved in the ITS environment. The drivers, or the users, i.e., OBUs, are important stakeholders, and commuter safety is the system priority. The functioning of OBUs and roadside units (RSUs) can be classified as providing intended or malicious services. Third-party entities, like the transportation regulatory agencies and the vehicle manufacturers, usually ensure the security certificate management. The attackers in ITS can be classified as follows: 1. Active and passive: Active or internal attackers are authorized to operate within the network and distribute malicious contents to other parts of the network to damage and alter the functionality. Passive or external attackers spy on communications between different nodes to gather sensitive information that can be manipulated or misused. 2. Malicious and rational: Malicious attackers usually have no specific target and strive to damage the entire network. They are usually adaptive, based on system configuration and set parameters. Rational attackers target a location and produce a higher level of threat as they are unpredictable.

Classification of Security and Privacy Issues The security issues can be classified in the following categories: 1. Confidentiality: Maintaining confidentiality in ITS often proves challenging due to the presence of a wide variety of equipment, ranging from smart phones and smart vehicles to simple IoT devices with minimal computational abilities. Confidentiality makes vehicle identities and data completely anonymous; it allows ITS components to transfer data and establish a secure communication with each other over an unsecured channel while preventing disclosure of exchanged information to the third parties and possible antagonists. For example, smart vehicles may relay proximity information with each other while travelling in a lane to ensure a safe distance from each other. Confidentiality is essential for V2X technology to prevent a range of passive and active attacks on the sensitive information in V2X communications. Encryption serves as an effective cryptographic solution to ensure confidentiality. 2. Integrity: To ensure effective functionality of ITS it is imperative to maintain integrity across messages and computations between different on-board units and roadside units. The manipulation and tampering of data by a malicious user can alter the functionality of key safety features. In attacks like masquerading, the vehicle deploys

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a valid network identifier to pose as an emergency vehicle and create disturbance in the traffic flow. GPS spoofing is another attack on the integrity of data where the attacker transmits false GPS data to force the traveler to diverge from their preferred route. In attacks like data playback, the malicious vehicle rebroadcasts obsolete messages from the archive to create false vehicle positions on the network. However, work in sensor fusion has been shown to offset incorrect information from corrupting computations beyond acceptable bounds (Jo, Chu and Sunwoo 2012). These techniques are now widely used in ITS. 3. Availability: Denial-of-service is a common attack on the availability of ITS services and its components. To maintain the safety of the travelers, ITS devices and servers must continuously communicate. The attack on the availability of the services poses high threats because most of the ITS components and services are required to function in real-time. Information exchanged should be processed and made available in real-time, demanding the use of low overhead and light cryptographic methods. The attack distorts the communication and increases interference by transmitting noise signals on the physical channels, rendering services unavailable. Signature-based authentication and proof-of-work have emerged as a successful countermeasure against denial-of-service attacks. 4. Authentication and identification: It is essential to ensure proper identification of the user accessing and communicating with the ITS services and components. It can be divided into three subrequirements: i) user authentication to ensure the user is legitimate and registered, ii) source authentication to verify that messages were broadcasted by authorized ITS stations, and iii) location authentication to guarantee the accuracy and relevance of the data received. Attacks, such as falsified entities and cryptographic replication attacks, compromise vehicle authentication and authorization. Falsified entities attack the user and take their network identity to broadcast bogus messages. Cryptographic replication generates uncertainty at the receiver’s end during the verification process; the attacker constructs fake sensor certificates and keys. Authentication and identification are usually ensured by message authentication codes (MACs) or challenge response protocols, but both of these solutions require computational overhead to the system process. The excessive strain may compromise the real-time efficiency or infringe the resource limits of these devices. To enhance the privacy of the vehicular ad hoc network (VANET),

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pseudonym-based privacy schemes are now preferred in place of vehicle identifiers. While processing safety messages within ITS, the pseudonym-based privacy schemes lead to computational overhead as the pseudonym must first be verified by a trusted authority. 5. Non-repudiation: A non-repudiation feature is mostly significant in the case of VANETs and V2V communication, where nonrepudiation ensures that the members of the communicating systems cannot deny any malicious action or previous communication. Most non-repudiation activities use the help of a third party to confirm the real-world identity of pseudonyms widely employed in VANETs. User privacy is another crucial aspect of ITS. Article 12 of 1948 United Nations (UN) human rights universal statement says that: “No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home, or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.” Privacy issues can be categorized: • Privacy of identity (identity privacy): It refers to the privacy of all the details that act as an individual’s identity in the real world. It includes first and last name, government identification numbers, personal vehicle registration number, house address, phone number, identification cards, etc. Pseudonym-based privacy schemes have shown to provide promising results in tackling this issue, especially in VANET systems. In this, a pseudo identity is used to establish a link with the vehicle rather than using the authentic real-world identity of the user. This process has its own challenges; recent research has shown that there is still a possibility to track specific vehicles that use basic pseudonyms. Privacy-enhancing attribute-based credentials allow users to get authenticated so that users are not linkable between authentication events and reveal only the attributes that are relevant to the verifier. (Behzadan and Munir 2017). However, attribute-based credentials have high resource requirements and necessitate the creation of shared secrets/attributes for all desired services. In short, there is a tradeoff between preserving privacy of ITS participants and providing the security service of non-repudiation, which is needed to correctly identify users of the system in cases of vehicular accidents and/or crimes. (Hahn, Munir and Behzadan 2021) • Privacy of behavioral pattern (behavioral privacy): It refers to the privacy of such data that can help a malicious user make inference about user habits and behaviors based on the pattern of

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their actions in the ITS. ITS collect data, with respect to movement patterns of the individual, which can be analyzed to retrieve the behavioral profile of the user; the system can, then, provide customized services. For example, based on user origindestination data and travel-pattern data, collected over a period of time, the attacker can predict the individual’s locations and the amount of time they spend there. To ensure behavioral privacy, a system must be able to anonymize, and safeguard acquired user data from disclosure, as well as hide typical ITS user behavioral patterns. • Privacy of location (location privacy): Location data possesses a crucial significance in providing the efficient functionality of many ITS services. Most of the ITS services use GPS-based navigation systems, which always provide accurate user information that can put user security at risk. Location cloaking techniques are used to alter the user location by providing a generalized area of user presence rather than pinpointing the exact location.

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Masquerading, data playback, data alteration Sybil, malware, spamming, black hole, grey hole, sink hole, worm hole, falsified entity, cryptographic replication Worm hole

SECURITY ATTACK EXAMPLES Eavesdropping, data interception

Integrity

Authentication

Non-repudiation

Active

Active

Confidentiality

Passive

Active

CLASSIFICATION

TYPE

Link message to sender

Verification of sender

Challenge-response protocols

Digital signatures

Verification of sender

Low computation overhead Symmetric key distribution Secure information sharing Verification of message contents

ADVANTAGES

Message authentication codes

Message authentication codes

Encryption (Symmetric key cryptography) Encryption (Asymmetric key cryptography) Steganography

APPROACH/ COUNTERMEASURE

Difficult in pseudonymous systems

Challenge-response verification time requirement Computation overhead

Additional computation overhead

Key distribution challenges High computation overhead High computation overhead

DISADVANTAGES

Table 4.6.2 illustrates the various security attacks, their classification, countermeasures, advantages, and dis-advantages.

System Security and Privacy

Identity privacy

Active

Location privacy

Behavioral privacy

Availability

Active

Location cloaking

Public-key cryptography

Differential privacy

Attribute-based credentials

Pseudonym

Signature-based authentication Pseudo-random frequency hopping Proof-of-work

Chapter 4.6

Integrable with hardware Personalized privacy

Disguise true identity Restrict access to information based on shared secrets Limit privacy exposure

Avoids unnecessary signature computations Prevents false message flooding

Table 4.6.2: Security Attacks, Classification, Counter Measures, and Advantages Source: Compiled from various literature and Hahn et al. (2021)

Denial of service (DoS), timing attack, Jamming, flooding Sybil, malware, spamming, black hole, grey hole, sink hole, worm hole GPS spoofing / position faking, variants of DoS (greedy, black hole, grey hole, sink hole, worm hole, malware, masquerading spamming, tunnelling)

328

True user-level privacy of single data records still challenging Computationally intensive Requires additional infrastructure

Vulnerable to pattern analysis Require shared secrets for all desired services

Additional computation overhead

Requires additional infrastructure and rekeying scheme

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Security and Privacy Measures in ITS ITS systems are always vulnerable to privacy attacks and data breach; effective measures need to be deployed to rapidly identify the breach and ensure minimal, or no, loss of privacy of the users. It is essential to consider ITS privacy issues in the design of ITS, like using low overhead and cryptographic algorithms to transfer data within the latency requirements. Modern automobiles should have secure electronic control units (ECU) architecture. Solutions like public key cryptography are used for secure generation of security keys. Hardware-based security approaches, such as physically unclonable functions (PUFs), can be used to create secret keys on-the-fly, instead of keeping them in non-volatile memory, to minimize the corruption of secret key storage. Resource constraints create multiple security and maintenance issues. Sehgal et al. (2012) have explored the requirements of IP-based network management protocols for use in resource constrained devices. Finally, integration of security primitives in hardware architecture can also help in meeting security requirements of devices with limited resources, while adhering to the real-time requirements of ITS agents (Poudel and Munir 2018). Privacy-preserving computing has emerged as a viable option for maintaining data privacy while computing on the vast quantities of data collected in ITS. Adaptive security frameworks can dynamically modify security settings at run time, based on service and application requirements, without compromising with the security and achieving the required quality of service. Hardware security modules (HSM) or trusted platform modules (TPM) are also being proposed and tested to establish secure V2X communications. Along with various system security measures, legislations in terms of data governance and minimumsecurity standards for ITS components are required to be formulated.

References Ali, Q. E., N. Ahmad, A. H. Malik, G. Ali and W. ur Rehman. 2018. “Issues, Challenges, and Research Opportunities in Intelligent Transport Systems for Security and Privacy.” Applied Sciences (Switzerland) 8 (10): 1–24. https://doi.org/10.3390/app8101964. Behzadan, V. 2017. Cyber-physical Attacks on UAS Networks—Challenges and Open Research Problems. ArXiv Preprint, arXiv:1702.01251. Behzadan, V., and A. Munir. 2017. “Vulnerability of Deep Reinforcement Learning to Policy Induction Attacks.” Proc. Int. Conf. Machine Learning and Data Mining.

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ETSI. 2013. “EN 302 663 Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS); Access Layer Specification in the 5 GHz Frequency Band.” Etsi 1: 1–24. ETSI. 2010. “EN 302 665 Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS); Communications Architecture.” Etsi 1: 1–44. Hahn, D., A. Munir and V. Behzadan. 2021. “Security and Privacy Issues in Intelligent Transportation Systems: Classification and Challenges.” IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Magazine 13 (1): 181–96. https://doi.org/10.1109/MITS.2019.2898973. Jo, K., K. Chu and M. Sunwoo. 2012. “Interacting Multiple Model Filterbased Sensor Fusion of GPS with In-vehicle Sensors for Real-time Vehicle Positioning.” IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst. 13 (1): 329–43. Mitchell, M. 2009. Complexity: A Guided Tour. London: Oxford Univ. Press. Poudel, B., and A. Munir. 2018. “Design and Evaluation of a Reconfigurable ECU Architecture for Secure and Dependable Automotive CPS.” Proc. IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing. Sehgal, A., V. Perelman, S. Kuryla and J. Schonwalder. 2012. “Management of Resource Constrained Devices in the Internet of Things.” IEEE Commun. Mag. 50 (12): 144–49.

CHAPTER 4.7 PROSPECTS OF ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY INFRASTRUCTURE

Introduction The transport sector contributes to more than 25 % of the energy-related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It is also the prime source of air pollutants, contributing to seven million premature deaths, annually, around the globe. Over the years, there has been a growing preference for the adoption of electric vehicles (EV) to support decarbonization goals in the mobility sector and achieve the targets laid by the Paris Agreement. As per the Global EV Outlook Report 2020, of the International Energy Agency (IEA), between the years 2011 and 2019, the global EV sales grew at a rate of 40 %, annually, while the sales of EVs reached 2.1 million, globally, in the year 2019. Ambitious long-term policies, including zero-emission vehicles, mandate fuel economy standards, along with direct subsidization, have accelerated the uptake of EVs. EVs were first introduced in the nineteenth century, as a preferred energy source for vehicles, but, with the introduction of the internal combustion (IC) engine, the use of EVs decreased. There are three main categories of EVs: i) battery electric vehicles (BEVs), which have a rechargeable battery as the only means of energy generation, ii) plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), which recharge through plugging into an external power source and regenerative braking, and iii) hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), which can operate both on an IC engine, through conventional fuel, as well as through electric charging. Implementation of electric mobility requires building a comprehensive ecosystem between the transport and power sectors, which were otherwise independent. The ecosystem requires an environment of trust and collaboration between the key stakeholders: i) the government is responsible for formulating the guiding policies and regulations, ii) OEMs and suppliers are responsible for the design and manufacture of vehicles, iii) DISCOMS are responsible for electricity generation, transmission and distribution, iv)

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city-level bodies support the setting up of charging infrastructure by energy operators / charging solution providers, and, finally, v) end consumers. Cities around the globe take various initiatives, to accelerate the pace of EV adoption, along with supportive policies. A few of the key global initiatives are 1. The Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI), launched in 2010, under the Clean Energy Ministerial (CEM) 2. EV 100, launched in 2017 3. C40—Fossil Fuel Free Streets Declaration, 2017 4. Global Fuel Economy Initiative (GFEI), 2009 5. TUMI E-Bus Mission, 2019 In 2018, the Global EV Pilot City Program was launched, at the Ninth Clean Energy Ministerial, which aimed to build a network of one hundred cities, to promote electric mobility, over the next five years. The EVI Global EV Pilot City Program is jointly managed by The IEA and the Shanghai International Automobile City (SIAC). Table 4.7.1 presents a list of cities in the EVI Global EV Pilot City Program. COUNTRY Canada Chile China Columbia Finland Germany India Japan Netherlands New Zealand Norway Sweden Thailand United Kingdom United states

CITIES Calgary, Halifax Regional Municipality, Montréal, Stratford, Surrey, Richmond, Winnipeg, York Santiago de Chile Beijing, Rugao, Shanghai, Shenzhen, Yancheng Medellín Helsinki, Espoo, Oulu, Tampere, Vantaa Offenbach am Main Pune Aichi, Kanagawa, Kyoto, Tokyo Amsterdam, the Hague, Rotterdam, Utrecht and Metropolitan Region Amsterdam Christchurch, Hauraki Oslo Stockholm Betong, Nonthaburi Coventry, Dundee, London New York City

Table 4.7.1: List of Cities in the EVI Global EV Pilot City Program Source: Author’s compilation

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Electric Mobility in India The Indian transportation industry emits an estimated 142 million tons of carbon dioxide per year, with the road transport segment, alone, accounting for 123 million tons. Before the onset of COVID-19, India expected to have an annual demand of ten million passenger vehicles, 2.7 million commercial vehicles, and thirty-four million two-wheelers, making it the third largest vehicle market in the world. As the nation largely depends on oil import to meet its energy needs, the increase in vehicle demand will also increase the financial burden, making the need for a fast-paced EV adoption more crucial. India’s EV market is estimated to grow to nearly US$206 billion (INR 1,442,200 crore) by 2030, with investments of over US $180 billion (INR 1,250,000 crore) needed for vehicle production and charging infrastructure to meet the country’s EV ambitions. (Pratap Singh, Chawla and Jain 2020) Policymakers and government agencies have been actively involved in increasing the market share of EVs, which currently represent 1 % of the overall market. To achieve its commitment to the Paris Climate Agreement, India is pushing to transition to e-mobility. India is a member of the EV30@30 Campaign, a Clean Energy Ministerial initiative that aims for the sales share of EVs to reach 30 % by 2030. As per the database of the Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM), India recorded domestic sales of 21.5 million vehicles, in FY20, compared to 26.2 million, a year earlier. The two-wheeler EV segment dominates the sales of EV in India, comprising 0.9 % of all two-wheeler sales in 2019. In contrast, electric fourwheeler sales remained around 0.1 % of all four-wheeler sales. The main reasons for low electric four-wheeler sales are lack of choices, insufficient charging infrastructure, high prices, and low range and performance of the batteries. A smooth transition to e-mobility requires consistent revision of strategic policies and private-sector participation to support market development, infrastructure deployment, and a sustainable financing model. The Government of India has a range of policy initiatives, both at the central and state level, to support the EV ecosystem in India. The implementation of the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles (FAME) schemes (I and II), capping of EV tariff for charging infrastructure, reducing the Goods and Services Tax (GST) on EVs to 5 %, and an income tax exemption of up to INR 150,000 on interest payments for EV loans are a few government EV initiatives. This policy initiative is broadly focused on two categories: i) demand side, which targets the end users and

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consumers by reducing the upfront cost of EV adoption, and ii) supply side, which provides incentives to EV manufactures and OEMs. In 2015, the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles (FAME- I) scheme was launched, with a total demand incentive of about INR 970 crore ($130 M). FAME II, with a total outlay of INR 10,000 crore ($1.4 B), was launched in 2019, and is extended until March 2024. The two-wheeler and three-wheeler segments account for 50 % of the overall subsidy expenditure and 96 % of the total number of vehicles targeted under the FAME-II plan. In January 2020, under the FAME II scheme, the Department of Heavy Industries sanctioned a total of 2,636 charging stations (1,633 fast charger and 1,003 slow charging stations) across sixty-two cities, as presented in Table 4.7.2. India is expected to reach 30 % EV sales penetration by 2030, due to the existing policy, as stated by the Global EV Outlook 2020. As of January 2021, seventeen states in India have either drafted or notified state EV policies, as presented in Figure 4.7.1.

500,000

50,000

2,500

Rs. 10,000 per kWh; Maximum cap on incentives of 20 % of total cost of vehicles

1,000,000

20,000

2,000

Rs. 15,000 per kWh; Maximum cap on incentives of 20 % of total cost of vehicles

E3WHEELERS

Rs. 20,000 per kWh; Maximum cap on Incentives of 40 % of total cost of vehicles

525

150,000

35,000

E4WHEELERS

26

13,000

20,000

HYBRID-4WHEELERS

Table 4.7.2: FAME II Incentives—Investment Rollout Plan (FY20 to FY22) Source: Department of Heavy Industries

Number of vehicles Incentive per vehicle (INR) Total incentive (INR Cr) Demand incentives

E2WHEELERS

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3,545

5,000,000

7,090

EBUSES

1,000

2,700 charging stations

CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE

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Figure 4.7.1: EV Sales Penetration Trend (2020–2030) Source: NITI Aayog (2019)

NOTIFIED

STATUS

YEAR NOTIFIED /DRAFTED 2017

2018

2018

2019

2019

STATE

KARNATAKA

MAHARASHTRA

ANDHRA PRADESH

KERALA

UTTAR PRADESH

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Incentives for first one hundred fast chargers INR 310 billion investment 55,000 jobs created Tariff rates of INR 4.85/kWh for EV charging INR 250 billion investment 1 lakh jobs created Increase EV registration to 5 lakhs INR 300 billion Investment 60,000 jobs created 100 % electrification of bus fleet 10 lakh EV deployment by 2024 Tariff rates of INR 6.95/kWh for EV charging 1 lakh slow and fast charging infrastructure by 2040 Government vehicles, including corporations, boards and government ambulances, to be electric by 2040. 1 million EV by 2022 1,000 e-buses to be deployed by 2030 70 % public transport to be electrified 50,000 new jobs 100 % electrification of autorickshaws, cabs, school buses/vans, etc., in five cities: GB Nagar, Lucknow, Kanpur, Varanasi and Ghaziabad by 2030 200,000 slow and fast charging infrastructures 25 % capital subsidy for first one hundred charging stations

KEY TARGETS

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2019

2019

2019

TAMIL NADU

MADHYA PRADESH

UTTARAKHAND

100 % waiver on vehicle registration fees across all vehicle categories during policy period and 100 % road tax exemption for electric twowheelers and 75 % for other EVs for first 100,000 buyers 20 % subsidy to institutes providing training on EV and battery repair, maintenance INR 500 billion investment 150,000 jobs created 100 % refund of State GST (SGST) for EVs made and sold in Tamil Nadu until 2030 Capital subsidy of 15 % and 20 % for investments in EV manufacturing and battery production, respectively, until 2025 15 % subsidy on the cost of land for EV or parts production project in the state’s industrial parks 25 % of all new vehicle registration to be electric Registration fees exemption for 22,500 EV two-wheelers or total EV twowheelers in five years 100 % waiver in parking charges at all Urban Local Body run parking stations for five years 1 % motor vehicle tax for first 15,000 EVs/total EV two-wheelers in five years, whichever less Exemption of vehicle registration fees for 7,500 shared e-rickshaw / total e-rickshaws in five years, whichever less Providing term loan to in the range of Rs.100 million to Rs.500 million to MSMEs interested in EV manufacturing Developing green highways in Dehradun, Haridwar, Rishikesh, Halwani, Rudrapur and Kashipur

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2020

2018 2019 2019 2019 2020 2020

DELHI

ASSAM BIHAR GUJARAT PUNJAB GOA HARYANA

Table 4.7.3: Status of E-Vehicle’s Adoption in the Indian States Source: NITI Ayog (2019)

DRAFTED

2020

TELANGANA

339

100 % exemption of permit for commercial vehicles for first 100,000 vehicles 100 % exemption on Motor vehicle tax for first 100,000 buyers INR 290 billion investment 120,000 new job creation 100 % electrification of bus services operating in intracity intercity and interstate by Telangana State Transport Corporation 25 % of all new vehicle registration to be electric by 2030 Electrification of 50 % of the public transport by 2023 Incentive of Rs. 5,000/kWh of battery capacity / vehicle, maximum up to Rs. 30,000/vehicle All new home/workplace to have 20 % EV holding capacity (with supporting infrastructure) 100 % grant for purchase of charging equipment for first 30,000 charging points 100 % of net SGST accrued to Government shall be provided as reimbursement to the energy operators

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Each state EV policy has a different set of objectives and targets, though the priorities of the policies are oriented towards public transport, paratransit, and job generation. The validity period is also varied for different states; for instance, the states of Tamil Nadu and Telangana have a duration of ten years, while Delhi’s EV state policy has set a vision for only three years. To overcome the consumer barrier of higher capex, lack of charging infrastructure and limited range, the consumer is provided with various purchase and operation incentives. Maharashtra and Kerala provide subsidies based on the purchase cost of the vehicle, while states like Delhi and Bihar use battery capacity to define the subsidy limit. Except Punjab, all of the states provide tax exemption. The states of Delhi, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Bihar, Uttarakhand, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Punjab provide exemption to EVs from paying road taxes for a particular period. Electric two-wheelers receive a subsidy of INR 5,000/kWh and an additional INR 7,500/kWh for the first one lakh EVs registered in Delhi. For scrapping and de-registering obsolete and extremely polluting twowheelers, Delhi provides a maximum incentive of INR 30,000 per vehicle. Operational incentives are provided in the form of priority or permit fees, parking incentives, and toll fee waivers. Punjab offers a 100 % exemption on permit fees for all electric commercial vehicles, while Kerala and Madhya Pradesh do not levy parking charges on EV. The government has laid out reasonably progressive standards and guidelines on the charging infrastructure, and has proposed the installation of a public charging station at every 40–60 km span on the national highway and within a grid of 3 km by 3 km in the city. For setting up EV manufacturing plants in six states, OEMs are eligible for state GST refunds and capital interest subsidies, ranging from 15 %, in Tamil Nadu, to 50%, in Punjab. Table 4.7.3 lists the status of the adoption of EVs in the Indian States and Figure 4.7.2 illustrates the EV value chain and ecosystem in India.

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Figure 4.7.2: The EV Value Chain and Ecosystem in India Source: Soman, Ganesan and Kaur (2019)

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The main challenges in the Indian context are presented in Table 4.7.4. CATEGORIES Technical Barriers

CHALLENGES Limited range due to limited battery capacity, performance and life Lack of evidence on reliability and performance due to disjointed or limited marketplace

Social Barriers

Lack of knowledge of EVs Lack of environmental awareness regarding EVs Consumers’ limited understanding of the product quality of EVs

Economic Barriers

High capital expenditure Battery replacement cost Higher electricity price for charging Lack of credit access / financing options for EVs, despite fiscal incentives like FAME II by government

Infrastructure Barriers

Lack of charging stations

Policy Barriers

Absence of scrapping and recycling policies of EV components

Lack of repair and maintenance workshops and skilled manpower, both in private and public sectors

Lack of clarity in defining responsibility of ownership between State Transport Undertaking (STUs), vehicle manufacturers and private operators No domestic industry Table 4.7.4: Challenges in the Adoption of EVs in India Source: Author’s compilation

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Overview of Smart Charging At the beginning of 2019, 5.6 million EVs were sold, with China and US having the largest market share with 2.6 million and 1.1 million EVs, respectively. With increasing EV penetration, the burden on the power sector is likely to increase. An unregulated EV-charging environment will contribute to overloading, necessitating massive upgrades at the distribution and transmission levels. A distinctive application of ITS in the e-mobility ecosystem is providing energy efficiency by providing smart charging solutions and battery management techniques like vehicle-to-grid (V2G), vehicle-to-everything (V2X), off-grid charging, etc. Smart charging solutions can make EVs a decentralized electric storage system, capable of supporting the grid during peak hours; this could also reduce the requirement of massive investments to upgrade the power sector. Table 4.7.5 presents some details of smart charging projects. The current concept of smart charging solutions is based on the following: 1. Uncontrolled time-of-use tariffs: encourages user to avoid charging during peak hours. 2. Unidirectional Controlled Charging (V1G): where vehicles or charging infrastructure adjust their rate of charging. It helps in better management of the grid. 3. Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G): the vehicle is connected to the smart grid, which controls vehicle charging. V2G solution enables a bidirectional flow where it returns electricity from the EV battery to the grid during the time of high demand and charging during off peak times. It provides a high level of flexibility in terms of power storage capacity to manage peak demand on a large scale. 4. Vehicle-to-Home/-Building (V2H/B): vehicles act as supplementary power suppliers to buildings/homes during emergencies. It can reduce the demand on grid capacity.

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Type of charging Uncontrolled time-of-use tariffs Basic control

Unidirectional controlled (V1G)

Bidirectional vehicle-to-grid (V2G)

Bidirectional vehicle-to-X (e.g., V2H)

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Examples of projects China, Germany, Japan, UK, US My Electric Avenue, Scottish and Southern Energy Power Distribution and led by EA Technology, UK (100 households testing Esprit system) Pepco, Maryland, US (200 households) United Energy—Victoria, Australia (2013) Green eMotion project, EU (2015): reduction of grid reinforcement cost by 50 % Sacramento Municipal Utility, US: reduction of grid upgrade expense by over 70 % eVgo and University of Delaware project, US, with transmission system operator PJM Interconnection— commercial operation Nuvve, Nissan and Enel, in England and Wales, with transmission system operator National Grid— operating pre-commercially Nuvve, DTU, Nissan, PSA and Enel project in Denmark, with transmission system operator energinet.dk (“Parker project”) —operating trial Nuvve, The New Motion, Mitsubishi project in the Netherlands, with transmission system operator TenneT—commercial trial Jeju, Republic of Korea project developing fast and slow V2G; Toyota city project with 3,100 EVs Renault, Elaad NL and Lombo Xnet project, Utrecht, the Netherlands, AC V2G ELBE project, Hamburg ElaadNL and Renault, Utrecht, the Netherlands: 1,000 public solar-powered smart charging stations with battery storage around the region in the largest smart charging demonstration to date, although not all of them are V2X chargers. Increase of self-consumption from 49 % to 62 %–87 % and decrease of peak by 27 %–67 %. DENSO and Toyota intelligent V2H (HEMS and V2G integrated model), Nissan (V2B)—all Japan

Table 4.7.5: Smart Charging Systems Source: International Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA] (2019)

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References Bureau of Energy Efficiency, Government of India, Ministry of Power. “EMobility.” https://beeindia.gov.in/content/e-mobility. International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). 2019. Electric-Vehicle Smart Charging Innovation Landscape Brief. Retrieved from www.irena.org. International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). 2019. Innovation Landscape Brief: Electric-vehicle Smart Charging. Abu Dhabi: International Renewable Energy Agency. NITI Aayog. 2019. India’s Electric Mobility Transformation: Progree to date and future opportunities. 56. Retrieved from http://niti.gov.in/writereaddata/files/document_publication/NITI-RMIReport.pdf. Pratap Singh, V., K. Chawla and S. Jain. 2020. “Financing India’s Transition to Electric Vehicles.” CEEW Centre for Energy Finance, (December). Retrieved from https://cef.ceew.in/solutions-factory/ publications/financing-india-transition-to-electric-vehicles. Soman, A., K. Ganesan and H. Kaur. 2019. “India’s Electric Vehicle Transition: Impact on Auto Industry and Building the EV Ecosystem.” Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) (October).

CHAPTER 4.8 EMERGING TRENDS

MaaS: Mobility as a Service With widespread access to digital technologies and the advancements of ICT, the world of transport and mobility is evolving at an unprecedented pace. Cities are struggling to keep up with the expansion of their transportation networks as the world continues to urbanize. Urban mobility, today, faces high levels of traffic congestion, environmental pollution, increased fatality rates, and inequity. Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is an innovative concept that has the potential to dramatically enhance consumer options, cut travel costs, expand network capacity, and transport sustainability while also mitigating negative social and environmental effects. The concept of MaaS was first publicly presented in the Tenth ITS European Congress, organized by a non-profit organization known as ITS Finland, in June 2014. The, then, CEO of ITS Finland, Sampo Hietanen, who later became the founder of MaaS Global, is credited for the introduction of the concept of MaaS. Providing an integrated and a seamless door-to-door mobility solution is regarded as one of the key functionalities in the futuristic vision of the transport sector. Users access a range of various transport modes through MaaS platforms, which cover the individual's mobility demands. MaaS is a user-centric mobility distribution model that integrates different modes of transport and provides a single, digital interface for the planning, booking, and payment for an entire journey. Considering the wide scope and functionality of MaaS, there are multiple definitions of MaaS. Kamargianni and Matyas (2017) and MaaSLab (2018) describe MaaS as “a user-centric, intelligent mobility management and distribution system, in which an integrator brings together offerings of multiple mobility service providers and provides end-users access to them through a digital interface, allowing them to seamlessly plan and pay for mobility.” Most of the definitions used to describe MaaS are from the perspective of market players and academic institutions. Users may access a range of various transport modes through MaaS platforms, which cover the individual's mobility demands.

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Some commonly used definitions of MaaS, as described by prominent market players, are listed. 1. Cubic: MaaS is a combination of public and private transportation services, within a given regional environment, that provides holistic, optimal, and people-centered travel options to enable end-to-end journeys paid for by the user as a single charge and aims to achieve key public equity objectives. 2. The European Metropolitan Transport Authorities (EMTA): With MaaS, customers fulfil and manage all their mobility needs on demand, based on their general preferences and journey-specific needs. The service is based on the seamless integration of all different public and commercial modes of transport and is delivered via a digital interface. The service must enable multi-modal travel possibilities and, thus, allow for the planning and booking of multimodal journeys, supporting on-the-go payments as well as modifying the planned journey. MaaS also generates insights into demand, needs, and travel behavior for cities and authorities, allowing for more targeted and effective services. 3. MaaS Global: MaaS brings all means of travel together. It combines options from different transport providers into a single mobile service, eliminating the hassles of planning and one-off payments. MaaS is a simple, environmentally sound alternative to private vehicle ownership. It works out the best option for every journey— whether that’s a taxi, public transport, a car service, or a bike share. 4. MaaS Alliance: MaaS is the integration of various forms of transport services into a single mobility service, accessible on demand. To meet a customer’s request, a MaaS operator facilitates a diverse menu of transport options, be it public transport, ride, car or bike sharing, taxi, or car rental/lease, or a combination thereof. 5. UITP: MaaS is the integration of, and access to, different transport services (such as public transport, ride-sharing, car sharing, bike sharing, scooter sharing, taxi, car rental, ride-hailing and so on) in one single digital mobility offer, with active mobility and an efficient public transport system as its basis. This bespoke service recommends the most appropriate solution, based on the user’s travel needs. MaaS is available anytime and offers integrated planning, booking and payment, as well as en-route information to provide easy mobility, eliminating the need for a private vehicle. 6. iMove Australia: “MaaS is a framework for delivering a portfolio of multi-modal mobility services that places the user at the center of the offer. MaaS frameworks are ideally designed to achieve sustainable

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policy goals and objectives. MaaS is an integrated transport service brokered by an integrator through a digital platform. A digital platform provides information, booking, ticketing, payment (as PAYG and/or subscription plans), and feedback that improves the travel experience. The MaaS framework can operate at any spatial scale (i.e., urban, or regional, or global) and cover any combination of multi-modal and non-transport-related multiservice offerings, including the private car and parking, whether subsidized, or not, by the public sector. MaaS is not simply a digital version of a travel planner, nor a flexible transport service (such as Mobility on Demand), nor a single shared transport offering (such as car sharing). ‘Emerging MaaS’ best describes MaaS offered on a niche foundation. This relates to situations where MaaS is offered on a limited spatial scale, to a limited segment of society or focused on limited modes of transport. The MaaS framework becomes mainstream when the usage by travelers dominates a spatial scale and the framework encompasses most of the modes of transport.” Sochor et al. (2017) proposed a topology where MaaS is classified into five levels (level 0 to level 4), based on the level of integration. A MaaS schematic is presented in Figure 4.8.1. 1. Level 0 represents no integration. It refers to independent operations of all modes. Different modes of transportation have their own services and each service can be accessed by their respective portal, site, or app to make payment and booking. 2. Level 1 represents integration of information. At this level, the user is provided with information regarding the schedule of the transport service, frequency, route, and other relevant data required to plan a journey. Providers of level 1 MaaS are not responsible for the quality of service during the journey. E.g., Google Route Search and NAVITIME. 3. Level 2 represents integration of booking and payment. At MaaS level 2, the user can plan, book, and pay for their journey. The level 2 operator is responsible for providing one unified mobility service with accurate travel information and schedule details, valid tickets, booking, and purchase of the ticket. A level 2 MaaS operator might not be directly responsible for the actual travel services but strives for user satisfaction with the intermediary service. E.g., Moovel (Germany), myCicero (Italy), Tuup (Finland), NaviGoGo(Scotland), iDPASS (France), smile (Austria).

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4. Level 3 represents integration of all levels of mobility services. At level 3, MaaS does not cater to an individual journey from point A to B but it provides a customized solution for “n” number of journeys taken over a particular duration. The MaaS operator provides different services (including public transport, bike sharing, car sharing, taxi, DRT, valet service, self-drive vehicles, etc.) bundled as a subscription. The subscription is in addition to the Pay-As YouGo basis and can be weekly, monthly, quarterly, or yearly, with various discounts and incentives. Level 3 MaaS provides an alternative to a private vehicle. E.g., SHIFT(USA), UbiGo (Sweden), Whim (Finland), ZIPSTER (Singapore), YUMUV (Switzerland), the Sydney MaaS trial (Australia). 5. Level 4 represents integration of societal goals and mobility services. Level 4 MaaS is not yet implemented in the real world. Level 4 MaaS extends beyond the demand and supply of mobility solutions and provides incentives to influence user-travel behavior and mobility patterns across a region. A level 4 MaaS operator provides economic incentives for choosing environmentally sustainable modes of transport, and changing travel times to off-peak hours, etc.

350

Figure 4.8.1: A MaaS Schematic Source: CITIESFORUM

Chapter 4.8

Emerging Trends

351

Levels 1 to 3 optimize mobility services, while level 4 optimizes social services as well. MaaS deployment is dependent on the socioeconomics and sociodemographic conditions of the region as well as other factors such as ICT infrastructure, urban geography, trip pattern, and coverage of the public transit system. The value proposition and expectations from the MaaS ecosystem varies among different stakeholders. With the introduction of new mobility services and user-demands, to have a customized, door-todoor, on-demand service, the MaaS ecosystem has become a dynamic and constantly evolving paradigm. Figure 4.8.2 presents the MaaS topologies: with and without bundling.

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Figure 4.8.2: MaaS Topologies: With and Without Bundling Source: Hensher et al. (2021) The key characteristics of a MaaS ecosystem are 1. User Centricity: Current transport designs are customer-focused, or service focused. The MaaS ecosystem provides a user-centric approach that focuses on public value enhancement.

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353

2. Flexibility: The MaaS ecosystem provides users with a wide and flexible range of services, as per user requirements. The integration of multi-modal transport allows users to choose and integrate the most convenient travel modes for a particular commute. Further, the user is provided with flexible payment options and the freedom to choose between Pay-As-You-Go or subscription-based products. 3. Convenience and Accessibility: MaaS provides convenience to the user in terms of providing physical and digital access to the transport services in the region. It has the potential to improve physical and financial accessibility to various transport modes, for all classes of the society. Further, the MaaS ecosystem modifies the frequency of mobility, service-quality, overall transport network coverage and accurate travel information to the user. 4. Data Sharing and Information Availability: An active MaaS ecosystem requires a huge amount of data from different sources to provide a better quality of service. Presence of relevant, accurate, and useful transport insights on the mobility patterns of users help make better mobility policy decisions. There are concerns for data security and safety, which need to be addressed to ensure user acceptance of MaaS. 5. Integration: Apart from multi-modal integration, MaaS provides a single system for planning, booking, and payment for a journey, making it an effective future mobility solution. 6. City Mobility Management: The MaaS ecosystem can significantly help demand and supply management of city transport services and infrastructure. MaaS assists in effective implementation of congestion and emission pricing and subsidies, structuring datadriven polices and multi-modal optimization to promote societal goals. With the advent of MaaS level 4, public agencies will become capable of influencing commuter behavior, even in a multi-modal setting; thus, helping to achieve societal goals such as lowering transportation climate impacts, controlling congestion, and extending equal access to mobility. The features discussed, above, are realized through the following functionalities of a MaaS Platform: 1.

Information and Service Availability

MaaS platforms provide both static and dynamic information to the users. Static data refers to the pre-planned route and schedule of public transport, presence of multi-modal hubs, and interchange stations, etc., while dynamic

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data refers to real-time availability of seats in public transport, service delays, availability of shared vehicle or on-demand mobility, surge pricing schemes, real-time traffic information, etc. This provides users all the necessary details required to seamlessly plan a journey. This information is provided by different mobility providers operating in the MaaS ecosystem via various application programming interfaces (APIs)1. A brief discussion is presented in Table 4.8.1. Mode of transportation General data regardless of mode of transportation Car/bike/scooter sharing Public transport Ride sharing Ride hailing Car/bike/scooter renting Taxis Demand-Responsive Transport (DRT) Parking and charging

Information Third-party information about services with locations Location, vehicle information (type, engine, fuel/charge state), station details, availability, price schemes Routes, trips, stops, arrival and departure times, service intervals, real-time incidents and delays, tickets Locations, vehicle and driver info, price schemes Locations, vehicle and driver info, price schemes Locations, hours, available vehicles, additional info (e.g., pricing, insurance) Locations, vehicle and driver info, pickup and arrival times, price schemes Locations, vehicle and driver info, pickup and arrival time, price schemes Car and parking lot location, capacity, availability, price schemes

Table 4.8.1: Information and Service Availability in the MaaS Platform Source: Fluidtime (2018) 2.

Routing and Planning

A MaaS platform provides multi-modal options and alternative routes that can be taken for a particular trip. MaaS platforms use data from external

1 An API (Application Programming Interface) is a software intermediary that makes

it possible for application programs to interact with each other and share data.

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routing providers to approximate travel-time and fares for a specific mode of transport; a brief note is presented in Table 4.8.2. Mode of transportation General data regardless of mode of transportation Car/bike/scooter sharing Public transport Ride sharing Ride hailing Car/bike/scooter renting Taxis Demand-Responsive Transport (DRT) Parking and charging

Information Third-party info—weather, traffic, etc., comprised in route results Third-party info—weather, traffic, etc., comprised in route results Routing information (routing and monitor service), trips, stops Pick-up and arrival times Pick-up and arrival times Routing based on these transport modalities Pick-up and arrival times Vehicle, driver and pick-up point are route-specific Lot location is considered for routing, i.e., walk to the car park

Table 4.8.2: Routing Data by Transport Services Integrated in a MaaS Platform Source: Fluidtime (2018) 3.

Booking, Ticketing and Payment

A MaaS platform facilitates booking and payment for different mobility services through a single interface. Bookings are made using standardized APIs. These are tabulated in Table 4.8.3. Mode of transportation General data regardless of mode of transportation Car/bike/scooter sharing Public transport Ride sharing

Information Third-party information about services with locations Booking, cancellation, access service, tariff scheme, pricing Booking/ticketing (reservation and cancellation), tariff schemes, lists of provided tickets Booking, cancellation, tariff scheme, pricing, booking info

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Ride hailing

Booking, cancellation, tariff scheme, pricing, booking info Car/bike/scooter renting Booking, cancellation, tariff scheme, pricing, booking info Taxis Booking, cancellation, tariff scheme, pricing, booking info Demand-Responsive Booking, cancellation, tariff scheme, Transport (DRT) pricing info Parking and charging Booking, cancellation, tariff schemes, pricing Table 4.8.3: Booking Processes and Data in the MaaS Platform Source: Fluidtime (2018) 4.

Reporting

The logging and reporting framework of a MaaS platform allows data processing and in-depth analysis to make useful inferences. These inferences can be used by investors, public authorities, and transport operators to streamline the service delivery to enhance user experience.

Global MaaS Initiatives The first real-world implementation of MaaS was in Europe, in 2016, as “Whim.” The European Commission focuses on compatibility, interoperability, and continuity in the ITS policy. For more than a decade, the European Commission has promoted ITS and multi-modal travel planners across the EU, which is one of the main reasons behind the rapid advancement of MaaS in the region. Development of relevant policies and physical infrastructure, supported by strong political will, has laid the groundwork for rapid MaaS adoption. To date, there are more than one hundred MaaS service providers in Europe, the UK, the US, China, and Japan. Now, there are more than forty cities in Europe that have existing or pilot MaaS platforms. The Worldwide MaaS service providers and their key aspects are presented in Table 4.8.4.

Turku region, Finland

Hannover, Germany Montpellier, France

Tuup

Hannovermobil

EMMA (TaM)

iDPASS

Dundee and Northeast Fife region, Scotland, UK France

Operational (2015–)

Hamburg and Stuttgart, Germany Italy

Car sharing, taxi, urban PT, regional PT. Bike sharing, car sharing, urban PT, parking.

Operational (2014–) Operational (2014–)

Operational (2016–)

Car renting, taxi, valet parking. Car sharing, bike sharing, taxi, urban PT, DRT.

Urban PT, regional PT, international PT, parking, permit for urban congestion charging zones. Car sharing, taxi, urban PT, regional PT.

Car sharing, taxi, urban PT, regional PT.

Modes

Operational (2017–)

Operational (2017–)

Operational (2015–)

Status

Place

NaviGoGo

myCicero

Name of the initiative moovel

Emerging Trends

Level 2

Private-led

Level 2 (partial, payment integration) Level 2 (partial, payment integration, ticketing integration to come in 2018) Level 2

Public Private Partnership Public Private Partnership

Private-led

Private-led

Private-led

Level 2 (partial, payment integration)

Level 2 (partial, payment integration)

Governance model Private-led

Type of mobility integration Level 2 (partial, payment integration)

357

Vienna, Austria

Las Vegas, USA

Gothenburg, Sweden

Helsinki, Finland

Switzerland

Singapore

WienMobil Lab

SHIFT

UbiGo

Whim

YUMUV

ZIPSTER

Operational (2019–)

Operational (2020–)

Pilot (2013–2014), version 2.0 in preparation Operational (2016–)

(2013–2015)

Operational (2017–)

Pilot (2014–2015)

Table 4.8.4: Worldwide MaaS Service Providers Source: Author’s compilation

Vienna, Austria

Smile

358 Bike sharing, car sharing, taxi, urban PT, regional PT, parking. Bike sharing, car sharing, taxi, urban PT, parking. Bike sharing, car sharing, taxi, collective DRT, valet parking. Bike sharing, car sharing, car renting, taxi, urban PT. Bike sharing (car sharing to come), car renting, taxi, urban PT, regional PT. Bike sharing, car sharing, car renting, taxi, urban PT, regional PT. Bike sharing, car sharing, car renting, taxi, urban PT, regional PT.

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Public Private Partnership Public Private Partnership

Level 3

Private-led

Public-led

Private-led

Public-led

Public-led

Level 3

Level 3

Level 3

Level 3

Level 2

Level 2

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Whim—Helsinki (Finland) MaaS global was the first commercial start-up to develop a MaaS subscription service, known as Whim. The service was launched in late 2016, followed by a full commercial launch in November 2017. The application integrates public transport, taxis, car rental, car sharing and bike rental, and allows users to combine, plan, and pay for different modes as per their convenience. The app provides three service tiers: Whim to Go, Whim Urban and Whim Unlimited, which are presented in Table 4.8.5. Tier

WHIM TO GO

WHIM URBAN

WHIM UNLIMITED

Subscription Fee:

€0

€49 per month (€99 for extended Helsinki Region)

€499 per month

Benefits

• No monthly free • Pay as you go • Public Transport tickets, taxi rides, and rental cars can be all bought from Whim App

• Unlimited number of public transport tickets • All taxi trips within 5 km radius for max 10 € • Fixed 49 € daily rental car fee • Unlimited city bike trips up to 30 minutes at a time

• Unlimited number of public transport tickets • Unlimited number of taxi rides within 5 km radius • Unlimited rental car use • Free to use city bikes for 30 minutes at a time

Table 4.8.5: Whim Subscription Packages Source: Ertico (2017) A dense public transport network is a key enabler of MaaS, which was observed in Helsinki, where 95 % of the Whim user trips were made using public transport and 68 % of the total trips took place in areas with the highest public transport access. The use of taxis in the MaaS ecosystem was 2.4 times higher than the Helsinki average. In 2007, the Ministry of Transport and Communications (LVM) initiated extensive reforms to the passenger transport legislation. The Finnish Ministry of Transportation established a long-term strategy (TRANSPORT

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2030), in 2007, for transport in Finland, which was upgraded in the following years. In Finland, communications and transport are governed by the same ministry, which enables the Finnish government to make structural links between transport and ICT. A key success factor of Whim was due to the legislation passed by the Finnish Ministry of Transportation, which was influenced by the liberalization of their telecommunications industry, requiring public transportation to make their APIs and ticketing systems available on vendor platforms. Phase one of the legislation was implemented in July 2018, in which regulations related to road transports have been unified, ensuring interoperability of data and information systems; phase two was implemented in January 2019. Open access to crucial data to all the interested stakeholders has been given, since January 2018. The Transport Code aims to create a level playing field for public and private mobility operators. The code requires public and private mobility providers to have an open application programming interface (API) so that “all can be integrated into one seamless travel chain that can be paid by one mobile system and all transport modes can be integrated into one holistic system” (Ertico 2017). Finland has also initiated the development of a national MaaS framework, which is to be embedded within the national transport policy.

Hannover Mobility Shop—Hannover, Germany Launched in 2016, the Hannover Mobility Shop is the first fully operational MaaS service provided by a public transport operator. The service, run by Üstra and the Greater Hannover Transport Association, offers a multi-modal platform for the planning, booking and payment of trips integrating public transport, taxi and car sharing. In 2019, the public transport company BVG, in Berlin, launched the Jelbi app, developed by Trafi. It includes all the public transport and shared mobility services in Berlin.

The Sydney MaaS Trial The Australian National Centre for Research and Development of Transport and Mobility, iMOVE, undertook a MaaS trial project in November 2019. The trial was an iMOVE Cooperative Research Centre project that had SkedGo as the MaaS app developer/operator. The Institute of Transport and Logistics Studies (ITLS, The University of Sydney) was responsible for the study, design, data collection and analysis, and overall project management. The consortium included Insurance Australia Group (IAG), the mobility broker who was responsible for procuring and offering MaaS products to

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the end users. The Sydney MaaS trial is the world’s first trial that aims to achieve MaaS level 4 and provide quantitative evidence on MaaS bundle uptake and induced changes in travel behavior due to MaaS. The objectives of the trial, a timeline of which is presented in Figure 4.8.3, were as follows. 1. Identify suitable transport service combinations and the nature of subscription plans desired by the MaaS user. 2. Understand user willingness-to-pay for MaaS and assess the impact of designed mobility subscription bundles on user travel behavior. 3. Identify opportunity of commercialization based on first-hand user experience of MaaS. 4. Structure documentation of the experience in designing, planning, and undertaking a MaaS trial. The trial ran for a duration of six months; Pay-As-You-Go service was only available to the user in the initial two months through a specifically customized app—Tripi. Users were then provided with a subscription package for the remaining four months, in which a new mobility bundle was made available each month. Each subscription package had built-in incentives to discourage the usage of private vehicles and assessed the user choice between using MaaS as a Pay-As-You-Go user or a monthly subscriber. The trial also introduced two initiatives: GoGet, in January 2020, and the CO2 buster challenge, in March 2020, that provided financial incentives for reducing the user’s carbon footprint and using alternatives to their private car. The plans provided by the CRC consortium are provided in Figure 4.8.4.

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Figure 4.8.3: Sydney Trial Timeline Source: The Australian iMOVE Cooperative Research Center (CRC) consortium

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Figure 4.8.4: Plans provided by the CRC Consortium Source: The Australian iMOVE Cooperative Research Center (CRC) consortium

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Notable findings from the trial are as follows (Hensher et al. 2021). 1. Most of the people that signed up for the trial were frequent users of both public transport and private vehicles. This supports the notion that multi-modal travelers are more interested in MaaS than others and debunks the opinion that MaaS does not appeal to private vehicle owners. 2. Although 82 % of the people that registered interest for the trial had daily access to private vehicles, 17 % of the participants reported that the trial changed their view of car ownership, and 82 % would have purchased the trialed offerings, if they were actually available. This indicates that the trialed service has the potential to reduce car ownership; inducing travel behavior was limited. 3. The desire to make the transportation system more sustainable was the main motivation for signing up for the trial, followed by a curiosity about MaaS and its overall effects. 4. Many participants struggled to get accustomed to all the features of the Tripi app. They appeared to value the support and feedback functions more than the actual functions included in the trialed app, such as the multi-modal travel planner and the mobility wallet. This indicated that MaaS should include a set of subscription plans to make it fully effective. 5. Those who have access to a large pool of customers are in a better place to work with MaaS (as an intermediary facilitator). 6. Sustainable goals may not be achieved without adequate financial incentives. It might be productive to provide a bundled subscription plan, incorporating multi-modal services for different market segments. 7. PAYG, by itself, is unlikely to make a difference in achieving sustainable outcomes; it is bundle subscribers that decrease their car usage and are more interested in continuing service usage than PAYG subscribers. 8. Without a (monetary) incentive, travelers appear to see very little value in MaaS compared to existing apps that are upgraded regularly (such as Opal Connect, Apple Pay, Google Pay, and improved technical platforms that facilitate payment in addition to searching and planning). However, niche, it is difficult to make a MaaS product scalable in the current context. 9. While a MaaS app (and, hence, technical actors) is important, it is only one of the many factors that we need to structure a successful MaaS program / product offer. Other key factors are customer service, data analysis capability, marketing, sales, and billing.

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10. A breadth of different mobility service providers is fundamental, and a good suite of bundle offers should be ensured. 11. An open-minded core team with complementary skills (business development, research, app development) that is committed to quality and open to piloting new ideas pragmatically is essential. 12. Building relationships and trust between mobility providers, customers, digital platform developer and provider, the broker, and regulators is possibly the most challenging part of the MaaS delivery program. All seem to have different and, sometimes, conflicting objectives. 13. The trial was too short to be able to test the business case and, hence, there was no evidence of a sustainable business model without subsidy. Commercial claims to date have not been proven. Profitability is dependent on scalability, without which, MaaS is unlikely to gain traction, unless it is driven by financial support from the government or other non-mobility sources. The backbone of MaaS is public transport, which is heavily subsided and, hence, a profitable business model for MaaS requires cross-subsidization and/or scalability to achieve a reasonable profit margin. 14. As with other studies, this trial has several limitations. The sample was limited and not representative of the general population and was confined to the Greater Sydney area. 15. The duration of the trial was impacted by COVID-19; however, posttrial evaluation suggested growing interest in MaaS. 16. Subtle changes to either service design, target group, and/or context were found to significantly alter the users’ perception and experience with MaaS and this needs further research.

MaaS Ecosystem Multiple players are involved in the creation of the MaaS ecosystem. Building strong partnership, collaboration and trade-off among different agencies is a relevant for MaaS development and operation. Consumers, MaaS operators, and transit agencies evaluate multiple considerations across travel market sectors to overcome the failures of conventional transportation services. The stakeholders in the MaaS ecosystem are 1. 2. 3. 4.

MaaS user MaaS operator Data provider Transport operator

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The interaction of the stakeholders within the MaaS ecosystem is illustrated in Figure 4.8.5.

Figure 4.8.5: Interaction of Stakeholders within the MaaS Ecosystem Source: CITIES FORUM

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MaaS Governance Governance in MaaS is not as commonly discussed as technological and transport solutions. It is essential to not only address the challenges of MaaS but also quantify its direct and indirect impact on the overall transport network and urban setting. In MaaS, it is essential to safeguard the integrity of societal public value. Though a collaborative approach is required for the constructive paradigm shift, the role of government is the apex influencer to maximize public value. An early collaboration with stakeholders and mobility market players is critical to ascertain the specific roles and responsibilities of the government and private bodies. An unregulated MaaS ecosystem, encompassing various mobility services, may negatively impact the public transit system and create unorganized service standards and congestion. Thus, it is essential to create a model framework where the role of the government is evaluated depending on the region. The government will have crucial regulatory responsibilities for setting performance indicators for vendors and monitoring compliances. The role of the government in the MaaS ecosystem should be based on

1. Trust and collaboration

2. Public value

3. Current condition of the transport system and flexibility to change The capacity of MaaS to integrate many services makes it unsuitable for following one stringent governance model. The different services of MaaS appeal to different sectors of the mobility market, due to which defining one set of regulations will undermine the efficacy of the other. The concepts, service provided, and the outcome expected are dependent on the various

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mobility markets. The regulations should also consider the value-chain assessment of the current mobility system and future potential models. Therefore, to select a lucid and effective governance model, each city and region should consider the following aspects: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Market penetration and local transport scenario Relationship between public and private sector Customer orientation / usability Integration of local mobility providers Presence of open data policy Threat of a private monopoly in the long term Alignment with public policy goals Neutrality of the model

The four possible scenarios of governance are 1. 2. 3. 4.

commercial / private integrator; public transporter/ local authority as the integrator; open back-end platform / open ecosystem; coexistence.

Figure 4.8.6: MaaS Governance Models Source: Cities Forum and UITP

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Scenario 1: Commercial / Private Integrator

In this scenario, MaaS services are developed and provided by mobility service providers like Uber/Ola/Meru or a separate MaaS operator. These commercial players have the potential to provide quality MaaS services as they have a large customer base at their disposal. In such a model, the role of the government is mainly the facilitation of the market by providing access to relevant transport data and system logics (e.g., reservation and ticketing). It is based on a marketplace-oriented agreement between the MaaS provider and public transport. Benefits: The model has a great potential to target different segments of the market, eventually providing users better choices. It is customer-oriented and encourages innovative solutions. A commercial integrator has operations over large regions; thus, it also allows for high potential for geographical scalability. Challenge: The model leaves little room for justified treatment to the public transport provider and ensuring social equity. There is a risk of MaaS failing to prioritize societal goals when given a free and unregulated market to private players; in this case, they may steer user interest towards services with the highest margins. In the long run, there is the possibility of private monopolization. Private integrators are likely to limit competition, control sharing of data, and restrict access to public authorities, hampering the overall service quality. Regulations to overcome challenges: Regulatory policies should be based on market dynamics and targeted sectorial development. Seamless datasharing among MaaS operators, mobility service providers, and the public authorities should be ensured to assist interventions and enhancements in transport services, traffic management, and mobility planning. An open data policy law, applicable to both private and public transport providers, that makes data sharing obligatory, should be imposed. 2.

Scenario 2: Public Transporter / Local Authority as the Integrator

Governments have the highest stakes to develop and implement a successful MaaS platform, if profitability is ensured. The MaaS platform can be indigenously developed or it can be leased/licensed through a private operator for a specific time period. In the urban areas, public transport should remain the backbone of mobility, and other modals should be complementary, for gaining greater acceptance. This model will ensure a better end-mile connectivity.

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Benefits: Ownership lies with the public authority, and, hence, citizen endorsement is likely to be high. Mobility service providers are likely to trust the impartial and stable operating environment. The model will have public values at the core, thus, ensuring social inclusivity and personal privacy. MaaS will act as a tool to make informed decisions and implement the city’s mobility policy with ease as authorities will have unrestricted access to the mobility data. Challenge: The biggest challenge is investment risks by the local authorities, particularly in India. Publicly procured apps may have trouble competing in the mobility marketplace with consumer software built by private companies. Further, the public service providers are often less usercentric, due to which the service offered might not be aligned to the preferences of the customers who are not users of public transport. If due consultations with private stakeholders are not taken while formulating legal clauses, then it will make them create MaaS services without integrating public transport. The model is less likely to unleash its full potential due to challenges in providing inter-regional coverage and scalability, as different regions fall under different jurisdictions. Regulation to overcome the challenges: The jurisdiction issues among authorities can be regulated by establishing a unified transport authority at a state level. Different cities might have different MaaS initiatives with different MaaS providers, thus, co-investment between the cities and private players aiming to have an integrated MaaS solution should be focused on. The private providers often do not allow price comparison in a third-party app, thus, rendering the MaaS provider incapable of providing the full extent of service. There should be an emphasis on sharing data and creating public APIs of various commercial service providers that are available to the MaaS provider API to compare, book and make payment for the selected service. 3.

Scenario 3: Open Back-End Platform / Open Ecosystem

While other MaaS frameworks focus on coherence of features, this model provides an open ecosystem of MaaS implementation; its success is largely dependent on interoperability. It demands a presence of open data standards and open public APIs. An open back-end platform is setup by a public body, in line with the rules of the authority. The platform serves as an open infrastructure that facilitates different MaaS providers to build their own MaaS solution. The public sector regulates and ensures non-bias standards of data sharing. All the mobility service providers in the region are obligated

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to open their APIs so they can be integrated into the platform. Standards like the general transit feed specification (GTFS) and general bikeshare feed specification (GBFS) do not cover the process of booking and paying for a trip; they require an app which is built on these standards and can make booking and payment due to which this model has the potential to integrate services from multiple providers. Benefits: The open back-end platform model is the most scalable solution in terms of services; it provides an opportunity to local and international mobility service providers to operate and compete in the market to create a larger customer base. The public sector enjoys more control and provides a level playing ground for all the stakeholders. Since the infrastructure is public, the private mobility players can also compete in the market and enjoy non-discriminatory access to integrated data and systems. As the public sector has complete access to data, it can help them to enhance the regulation of the market from time to time and upgrade infrastructure as required. Challenges: This model faces a major hurdle in coping with the evolving technology and data-standards. Since the financing and operations of the back-end platform lie with the public sector, the fiscal and technological upgradation process is likely to become slow and bureaucratic. Regulation to overcome the challenges: The open data policy should be well defined; a data sharing cell, under the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, should be formed to decide the standards and regulations on mobility data sharing for interoperability and to protect citizens’ privacy. The body should also ensure keeping up with the fast pace of technological advancements and establish cooperation with technology organizations to ensure the agile management of the upgradation process. 4.

Scenario 4: Coexistence

In a diversified country like India, a coexistence model of the first three governance scenarios can serve as a potential solution, as one model might not suit all scenarios. However, to achieve this model, data standardization and the interoperability of the government and private mobility operator’s platform is the key.

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Future of MaaS Governance in India The heterogeneity in the MaaS model is an aspect that makes it attractive, with immense potential, and complex at the same time. Consensus building among multiple stakeholders of the public and private domain is an arduous task. It is imperative to develop an open mobility data platform and a flexible regulatory mechanism. Based on the case studies and learnings from the successful MaaS models around the world, a collaborative MaaS governance model between public and private providers, which is based on the strengths of the above-mentioned MaaS governance models, is required. Currently, in India, the service providers (public or private) interact directly with the customers. On one hand, some market-led models act as a single integrator of information—having bilateral agreements and APIs to process the services. On the other hand, certain public integrators incorporate all booking and payment services as one bundle, and share only nominal routing, scheduling, and ticketing information to external MaaS providers. This makes it possible to define two roles for easy management of a MaaS ecosystem: 1. A MaaS integrator who congregates data of all service providers. 2. MaaS providers who bundle service options for the end-user. The role of MaaS integrator and provider can be mutually decided by the government and the private entities, based on the organizational capabilities, future aspirations for the region, and market aims. Irrespective of the role of the government, the following must be ensured: 1. Ability to make regulatory changes in the market ensuring public value and benefit through data protection, security, and necessary incentives. 2. Ensuring cross-market investment, enhancing public-private collaboration, and providing supportive policies to sustain private business models. All the governance models are illustrated in Figure 4.8.6.

Regulatory Requirements To enhance the value proposition and successful implementation of MaaS, establishing standard policies and regulations that are flexible and adaptive

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is the key. Considering the multiplicity of stakeholders, both in the private and public sector, legal and regulatory instruments must be realigned and restructured to the institutional framework, for a less complex and attractive MaaS ecosystem. The regulations should not dictate, control, or coordinate the market; they should encourage innovation and eliminate destructive behaviors that threaten public value. Different stakeholders of urban mobility have different objectives: i) the user strives for value for money, less travel time, and comfort in their commute, ii) a mobility service provider focuses on market share and a viable and sustainable business model, and iii) the public authorities focus on data accessibility to better plan the mobility landscape and improve efficiency, coverage, and social service. Thus, it becomes the responsibility of the government to act as a facilitator and protector while regulating the entire MaaS ecosystem. There is no one size fits all approach when it comes to defining and facilitating regulatory frameworks for MaaS. Cities and governance stakeholders should proactively engage with private entities, citizens, market partners, and public entities of the region to define the regulations. The role of the government in creating the balance in the MaaS ecosystem is critical. The public sector access to data and regulatory control should make It commercially attractive for the private players. The key regulatory areas in the MaaS ecosystem are 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

privacy and data security; open data standards; third party ticket sales; access and availability of market for new mobility services; competition regulation; subsidization of transport.

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Figure 4.8.7: MaaS Regulation Framework: A Schematic Source: Author A schematic of the MaaS regulation framework is shown in Figure 4.8.7. The regulations should also include factors that influence behavioral changes, such as limited parking for private vehicles, subsidizing fleet services, etc. The regulations should clearly define the passengers’ rights and ensure that both mobility-service providers and MaaS operators are liable for their actions. Fragmented institutional framework is another factor that creates considerable regulatory challenges. Since MaaS depends on multi-modality, different governing regulations and responsibilities for the transport modes may fail to coordinate. The current institutions should either set standard regulations or establish an institution to collate all urban mobility services into mobility agencies. Regulation for MaaS is quite complex and depends on multiple sectors, jurisdictions, and technology usage. Satisfying the user needs and ensuring market sustainability requires iterative modifications in the framework, based on local context. Stringent regulation can sometimes create barriers to private involvement, leading to an inefficient business model. The objectives, complexity, flexibility, and enforcement procedure during noncompliance must be independently considered for every market before comprehensive structuring of the MaaS environment. As private players’

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motivations may not lie with public interests, the government cannot be the sole regulatory authority. Industry stakeholders should be consulted—to ascertain their motivations and shortcomings—to mutually decide certain terms and conditions for providing appropriate services.

Role of Data in MaaS Data plays a crucial role in efficient functioning of MaaS. The MaaS system depends heavily on data from different mobility providers, open APIs, and the interoperability of the system. Data is critical for the long-term success of MaaS, as it increases public benefit and public transportation usage, while creating a level playing field for privately held mobility services to prosper. Some main challenges related to data are 1. 2. 3. 4.

quality and inconsistency of data; lack of data standardization; lack of data portability; lack of data interoperability.

Figure 4.8.8 represents the key contribution of mobility data in each level of MaaS. Most data standards, protocols, and algorithms have been formulated in the US and Europe. Europe has a strong focus on standards and is largely supported by authorities, while the US has fewer formal standards, enabling an agile and responsible approach.

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Figure 4.8.8: Key Contribution at Each Level of MaaS Source: Populus

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Standards Developed in the US The first significant step towards data standardization was the introduction of the general transit feed specification (GTFS); it became the de-facto standard for public transport. It permitted public transit agencies to share their geographic, schedule, fare, real-time, and other data with user applications. In 2015, the general bikeshare feed specification (GBFS) was introduced and officially adopted by the North American Bike Share Association. It defined a standard format to share read-only, real-time data of only the available vehicles in a shared-mobility system. The LA Department of Transport introduced the mobility data specification (MDS), in 2018, which is now managed by the Open Mobility Foundation (OMF). It is a set of APIs that allows cities and private players to share information about operations. MDS and GBFS serve different purposes; while GBFS provides information of only the current status, the MDS includes past trips and vehicle status information.

Standards Developed in Europe The regulation EU 2017/1926, formulated on May 31, 2017, on the provision of EU-wide, multi-modal travel information services, mandates the standardization of formats of all traffic and travel data from all public and private transportation modes. The introduction of the National Access Policy (NAP) has significantly accelerated the adoption of MaaS across the EU. The goal of the NAP is to establish an open library of mobility data and provide access to interested stakeholders, either directly or via links. Some major data standards are NeTEx, SIRI, DATEX II, TAP TSI, and INSPIRE. The NeTEx and SIRI standards will be mandatory for all private and public MaaS in Europe by 2023, enabling open mobility data to support multimodal travel information services. NeTEx allows multiple systems to share data for passengers such as stops, routes, schedules, and prices, as well as associated operational data. NeTEx is intended to be a general-purpose XML, designed for the efficient and modifiable exchange of complex transport data among distributed systems. SIRI is built on Transmodel for public transportation information, just like NeTEx, and consists of a general-purpose model and an XML schema for public transportation information.

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References Ertico. 2017. “Finland’s Transport Code Focuses on Digitalisation of Transport.” [online] http://erticonetwork.com/finlands-transport-codefocuses-digitalisation-transport/. Hensher, D. A., C. Q. Ho, D. J. Reck, G. Smith, S. Lorimer and I. Lu. 2021. The Sydney Mobility as a Service (MaaS) Trial: Design, Implementation, Lessons and the Future.

“The Whole is Greater than the Sum of the Parts.”