Integrity® Indus to Independence - Modern India by Sanjay Nath Jha 9788194918394, 8194918391

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S anjay N ath J ha

Indus to Independence Series: Modern India Copryright © 2021, Sanjay Nath Jha ISBN13: 978-81-94918-39-4 Published by INTEGRITY EDUCATION PVT. LTD.

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Lucknow – 226016, Uttar Pradesh

Phone: +91 98116 66216 (M)

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LONDON

BENGALURU

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Bengaluru, Karnataka

Phone: +44 79507 81817 (M)

Phone: +91 98116 66216 (M)

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Website: www.integrityeducation.co.in

Disclaimer: Information contained in this book has been obtained by Author from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither Integrity Education nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Integrity Education nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that Integrity Education and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. The views expressed in this book are of the author and in no way reflects the views of Government of Uttar Pradesh, in which author is presently working.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. This book is meant for educational and learning purposes. The author(s) of the book has/ have taken all reasonable care to ensure that the contents of the book do not violate any existing copyright or other intellectual property rights of any person in any manner whatsoever. In the event the author(s) has/ have been unable to track any source and if any copyright has been inadvertently infringed, please notify the publisher in writing for corrective action. Author represents and warrants that the Author is the author and proprietor and sole owner of all rights in the work, that the Work is original except for such excerpts from copyrighted works as may be included with the permission of the copyright owner thereof, that the Work does not violate the right of privacy of or libel any person, that it does not infringe any copyright, trademark, patent or any right of others. Printed at Naveen Enterprises @ New Delhi

Humbly Dedicated to

Bahin (My Sister)

BIMLA KUMARI June 14, 1961 - December 18, 2020

thou gS rks ej.k gS ij rqEgsa ejus u nsuk esjk iz.k gS

Preface History of Modern India begins with the advent of Europeans. It mainly deals with British conquest of India, British policies and system as well as structure of administration, and reactions of different socio-politico groups as well as individuals to those policies and system. Socio-cultural movements, popularly known as Indian Renaissance, are guiding milestones for Future India. Modern Indian History is more about India’s varied forms of struggle for Independence and making of an equitable participatory constitutional system for New India. Modern India is also about Makers of Modern India. This book takes the best from all possible authentic sources of history of Modern India and is written in ‘Short Notes Format’ to bring ease to the readers in understanding and retaining information. History is about scientific re-examination of old records as well as unearthing of new ones. Therefore, reconstruction in History is ongoing continuous process. Your valuable suggestions will help in keeping this book ‘always new and beneficial’. With best of wishes, - Sanjay Nath Jha

Acknowledgements l

NCERT text-books

l

Sumit Sarkar: Modern India

l l l l

IGNOU text-books

Bipin Chandra: India’s Struggle for Independence B. L. Grover: Modern Indian History

V. K. Agnihotri (ed.): Indian History and Culture

Table of Contents Third Anglo-Mysore War

Preface Acknowledgements

Third Anglo-Mysore War

Anglo-Maratha Relations

CHAPTER 1: ADVENT OF THE EUROPEANS

The Portuguese The Dutch

The English The French

Other European Companies

Structure and Pattern of European Trade CHAPTER 2: BRITISH CONQUEST AND CONSOLIDATION English and French

First Carnatic War

Second Carnatic War Third Carnatic War

English Occupation of Bengal Battle of Plassey

Significance of Battle of Plassey Battle of Buxar

Anglo-Mysore relations

First Anglo-Mysore War

Second Anglo-Mysore War

3

5

First Anglo-Maratha War

Second Anglo-Maratha War

Policy of Subsidiary Alliances Third Anglo-Maratha War

British Relations with the Sikhs Ranjit Singh

First Anglo-Sikh War

Second Anglo-Sikh War

CHAPTER 3: BRITISH ECONOMIC POLICIES AND IMPACT Period: 1600-1757 Post-1757

1813: New Phase Drain of Wealth

Land Revenue Policy

Permanent Settlement Ryotwari Settlement

Mahalwari Settlement

Impact of Land Revenue Policies

Commercialisation of Agriculture

Transformation of Indian Economy into Colonial Economy

Indian Universities Act 1904

Development of Modern Industries

Sadler University Commission 1917-19

Deindustrialisation

CHAPTER 4: CIVIL SERVICES IN BRITISH INDIA

Government Resolution on Education Policy 1913 Hartog Committee 1929

Phase III: 1906-1938

Why Modern Western Education by the British Weakness of Modern Education System Wardha System of Education Sergeant Plan of Education 1944

Police System

Phase I: 1858-1905

Phase I: Till 1858

Phase II: 1858-1905

CHAPTER 5: POLICE AND JUDICIAL SYSTEM UNDER BRITISH Judicial System

New System of Laws

CHAPTER 8: FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION IN BRITISH INDIA Phase II: 1906-1938

CHAPTER 9: CASTE & TRIBAL MOVEMENTS

CHAPTER 6: ENGLISH UTILITARIAN AND INDIA

Caste Movements

Jeremy Bentham

Nadar Movement

James Mill

John Stuart Mill

Reforms under Influence of Utilitarians Reformism to Conservatism

CHAPTER 7: EDUCATION DURING BRITISH PERIOD Pre-British Period

Islamic Institutions and education Traditional Indigenous Education

Education under British Rule

First 50 Years of Company Rule 1813 Humble Beginning

Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy Lord Thomas Macaulay Woods Dispatch 1854

Hunter Commission 1882-83

Shimla Conference on Education 1901 Raleigh Commission 1902

viii Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Pallis Movement Nair Movement

Ezhava Movement

Aruvippuram Movement SNDP Yogam

Lingayat Movement Justice Movement

Self-Respect Movement

E. V. Ramaswamy Naicker

Satya Shodhak Samaj Jyotiba Phule

Mahar Movement

Gopal Baba Walangakar Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar

Bhaskar Rao Jadhav

Chhatrapati Sahuji Maharaj Kaivartas

Namasudras

Kayasthas

Yadavas

CHAPTER 11: PEASANT MOVEMENTS DURING BRITISH PERIOD

Tribal Movements

19 th Century Movements

Chuars or Bhumij

The Sanyasi Rebellion: 1763-1800

Hos Kols

Khonds

Santhal Hool

Kherwar or Saphahar Mundas Ulgulan

Oraons of Chhotanagpur Khond Rebellion

Savara Rebellion

Rangpur Uprising: 1783

Mysore Rebellion: 1820-21

Moplah Rebellion: 1836-54

Indigo Revolt or Neel Vidroh: 1859 Pabna Revolt: 1873-85 Deccan Riots: 1875

Phadke Uprising: 1879 Kuka Revolt: 1870

No-Revenue Movements

Parliakhamedi Rebellion (Orissa)

Nature of Peasant Movements: 1857-1900

Singphos of Assam

20 th Century Movements

Khasi Rising

Kacha Nagas

Thadoe Kukis

Ahom Rebellion

Heraka or Jadonang Bhils Rising Koli Rising

Naikdas

Rampa Revolt

Chenchu (Forest Satyagraha)

CHAPTER 10: 1857 REVOLT Historical Sources of Revolt

Persons and Their Opinion About 1857 Peasant/Tribal Uprisings and Mutiny Before 1857 Causes of 1857 Revolt

Outbreak of Revolt and Its Suppression Weaknesses of the Revolt Significance of the Revolt

Impact of Revolt on British Attitude

Major weaknesses of 19 th Century Movements

Bijolia or Mewar Movement: 1905-27 Bhil Movement: 1922 Neemuchana: 1925

Champaran Satyagraha: 1917 Kheda: 1918

Kisan Sabha in United Provinces Moplah Revolt: 1921-22

Eka Movement: 1921-22

Bardoli Movement: 1928 Namasudra: Mid 1920s Swami Vidyanand UP Kisan Sangh

Coastal Andhra: N.G. Ranga Praja Party

Unionist Party

Akali Movement

Swami Sahajanand Saraswati All India Kisan Sabha

Contents

ix

Congress and Peasantry

Narayan Malhar Joshi

Telangana: 1946

Shri Ram Bajpai

Tebhaga 1946-47

CHAPTER 12: SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS

Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Debendra Nath Tagore Keshav Chandra Sen

Young Bengal: H.V. Derozio Radha Kanta Deb

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar Bal Shastri Jambhekar Paramhansh Mandali Lokhitwadi

Jyotiba Phule

The Students Literary and Scientific Society Bhatia Community of Gujarat Prarthana Samaj Veda Samaj

Ramakrishna Paramhansh Swami Vivekananda

Revivalist Movement in Maharashtra Arya Samaj

Theosophical Society Radhaswami Deva Samaj

Bharat Dharma Mahamandala Madras Hindu Association R. Venkat Ratnam Naidu Viresalingam Pantulu K.N. Natrajan

Behramji Malabari G.G. Agarkar x

Gopal Krishna Gokhle

Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Hridya Nath Kunzru

Indian National Social Conference Mehtaji Durga Ram Mancha Sir Syed Ahmad Khan Syed Amir Ali

Wahabi Movement

Deoband Movement Shibli Nomani

Muhammad Iqbal

Syed Nazir Hussain

Abdullah Chakralavi Ahmad Riza Khan

Ahmadiya Movement Titu Mir Movement Faridi Movement

Ta’ayuuni Movement Ahrar Movement Akali Movement

CHAPTER 13: CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT DURING BRITISH PERIOD Regulating Act 1773

Bengal Judicature Act 1781 Pitt’s India Act 1784

Supplementary Act 1786 Regulating Act 1793 Charter Act 1813 Charter Act 1833 Charter Act 1853

Government of India Act 1858 Indian Councils Act 1861 1870 Act

1874 Act

Ahmadabad Mill Strike 1918

Indian Councils Act 1909

Truth and Satyagraha

Indian Councils Act 1892 Government of India Act 1919 Simon Commission 1927-28 Nehru Report 1928

Government of India Act 1935

CHAPTER 14: FREEDOM STRUGGLE 1 (1885 - 1916) Predecessors of Indian National Congress 198 Birth of Indian National Congress Theory of Origin

First Session of Congress

Congress Social Composition The Moderate Congress

The Extremists Congress

Moderate & Extremists: An Analysis 209 Early Congress Presidents

Lord Curzon and Nationalists Partition of Bengal 1905

Swadeshi Movement in Bengal: 1905-08 Principal Components of Swadeshi Movement Extremism in Other Provinces Congress Split in Surat 1907 Unity at Lucknow 1916

Home Rule Leagues 1916

CHAPTER 15: GANDHI: ENTRY INTO FREEDOM STRUGGLE AND HIS IDEOLOGY

Influences on Gandhi Non-violence Swaraj

Democracy Sarvodaya

Fasting Women

Untouchability and Castes Gandhi on Education Gandhi and Religion

Gandhi’s Literary Works Word ‘Mahatma’

Title ‘Father of the Nation’

Influence of Gandhi on Important World Leaders

Relevance of Gandhi in Modern Times

CHAPTER 16: FREEDOM STRUGGLE II ROWLETT ACT & NCM Rowlett Act 1919

Rowlett Bills’ Provisions

Inauguration of Satyagraha

Movement: Area wise description Jalianwala Bagh Massacre Impact of Movement

Non-cooperation and Khilafat Movement Background

Khilafat Agitation Gandhi’s Role

Gandhi in South Africa

Non-cooperation and the Congress

Champaran Satyagraha 1917

Regional Variations of NCM

Gandhi in India

Kheda Satyagraha 1918

Social Composition of NCM

Contribution of NCM to National Movement Contents

xi

CHAPTER 17: LEFT MOVEMENT IN INDIA Left Movement



Role of British Communists Politics of Trade Unionism CSP-CPI Tussle

British Government’s Attitude Towards Communists Success of Left Movement Failure of Left Movement Congress Socialist Party

CHAPTER 18: TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN INDIA First Phase: 1850-1903

Second Phase: 1903-1918 Third Phase: 1918-26

Fourth Phase: 1926-32 Fifth Phase: 1933-38

Sixth Phase: 1939-45

CHAPTER 19: REVOLUTIONARY TERRORISM OR EXTREMISM Rise and Growth of Revolutionary Extremism: Factors

Revolutionary Individuals/Groups and their Activities Revolutionary Activities Abroad

Characteristics of Revolutionaries of this phase Ghadar Movement

Revolutionaries from Abroad during World War I Post 1922 Developments Last Phase 1930-34

xii

Participation of Women in Revolutionary Movement

Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Government of India Act 1935 Provincial Elections 1937

Congress Ministries in Provinces Growth of Communalism

Outbreak of World War II and its Effects

August Offer 1940

Individual Satyagraha 1940 Cripps Mission 1942

Quit India Movement 1942

Subhas Chandra Bose and INA Red Fort Trials: 1945-46

Mutiny of Royal Indian Navy 1946

15 August 1947

Wavell Plan 1946

CHAPTER 21: COMMUNALISM AND

Interim Government 1946

Communalism

Cabinet Mission 1946

PARTITION

Attlee’s Declaration: February 1947

Rise & Growth of Communalism: Factors

Mountbatten Plan: June 1947

Indian Independence Act 1947 Radcliffe Boundary Award

Towards Partition

Why Congress accepted Partition Impact of Partition

Contents

xiii

ADVENT OF THE EUROPEANS

Source: NCERT book 2 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

THE PORTUGUESE  

First among Europeans to reach India

Estado da India: name of Portuguese maritime empire.

l l

Was appointed Second Governor of Portuguese affairs in India in 1509.

l

Vasco da Gama’s Visit l l l l

l

l

From Lisbon to Calicut.

Reached Calicut on May 17, 1498. Time taken – 10 months 14 days.

Received friendly treatment from Hindu ruler of Calicut (who bear the hereditary title of Zamorin). Abdul Majid, a Gujarati, helped him in reaching there.

l



 

l

l

After Cabrel came DINOBA and Lapo Soares.

Lapo Soares burnt Crangnore.

Hostilities with the ruler of Calicut. r

Reason: Portuguese’s involvement in molestation of merchants of other nations (esp. of Arab merchants on whom Calicut prosperity largely dependent).

Portuguese’s alliance with enemies of ruler of Calicut, the chief of whom was the ruler of Cochin.

Capital of Portuguese in India r

r

Initially Cochin (first Portuguese fort was built here). Later Goa

Alfonso de Albuquerque Real founder of Portuguese power in India.

l

Conquered Malacca, Aden, Ormuz.

Gave the Portuguese territorial base in India.

To secure permanent Portuguese population, he encouraged his fellow countrymen to marry Indian wives.

sailing to India on March 9, 1500 in command of a fleet of 13 vessels. Cabrel bombarded Calicut in retaliation against Arabs attack on a Portuguese factory.

In Nov 1510, captured the rich port of Goa, then belonging to the Bijapur Sultanate.

Created regular bodies of trained troops from among Indians.

l

r

l

l

Vasco’s Second Visit: in 1502.

Pedro Alavarez Cabrel l

l l

First came to India in 1503 as the commander of a squadron.

One serious drawback of his policy – persecution of Muslims.

Maintained friendly relations with Vijaynagar. (Vijaynagar controlled Bhatkal and Hannover on the coast).

Tried to secure goodwill of Bijapur. (initially Portuguese allied themselves with TIMOJA, powerful pirate chief on the coast).

Francisco de Alameda (1505-1509) l l l

l l

First Governor.

Built a fort at ANJADIVA.

Settled a question of succession to the throne of Cochin. Initiated ‘BLUE WATER POLICY’.

Battle with combined Muslim fleet: r r r

r

Muslim combination included Egypt, Turkey, Gujarat. First Battle at Chawl (January, 1508): Muslim won.

Second at Diu (February, 1509): Portuguese won.

This victory “Turned Indian Ocean for next century into a Portuguese sea” Advent of the Europeans

3

Nino da Cunha l

Captured Diu & Bassein (1534).

l l l

l

l

Established San Thome near Madras and Hughli in Bengal. Thus developed commerce on Eastern coast.

l

Organized Portuguese Indian Church.

l Converted

to Christianity: Paravars (Fishermen tribe on the Coromandal) and Mukkuvas (Fisherman on the Malabar).

Decline of Portuguese Power

Shifted his capital from Cochin to Goa (1530).

l

Satagaon (Porto Piqueno, little port) and Chittagong (Porto Grande, great port) had Portuguese factories by 1534.

l

Helped Bahadur Shah of Gujarat against Humayun.

Later Hugli became Porto Piqueno.

Garcia de Noronha l

Succeeded Nino da Cunha.

Portuguese Settlements l

l



Goa, Diu, Daman, Salsette, Bassein, Chawl and Bombay, Cochin, San Thome (Mylapore) near Madras and Satgaon, Chittagong and Hugli in Bengal.

Their authority extended to major ports of Ceylon. Main reasons for Portuguese success: r r

Mughals reluctance in developing a strong navy.

Southern ports of India – outside the direct territorial influence of Mughals.

Cartaze System l

A system of license or pass, in which, captains of all those Indian ships sailing to a destination not reserved by the Portuguese, were obliged to buy passes from Viceroy of Goa.

l l

l



Jesuit saint Francis Xavier arrived in India in 1542 with Portuguese Governor Martin Alfanso De Souza. After 1540, Portuguese Government came to be dominated by Priests (Dominicans, Franciscans and Jesuits).

4 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

By the First decade of 17 th century – much of Portuguese empire in East collapsed. Many of them took to robbery and piracy.

In course of time, lost most of these, except Diu, Daman and Goa till 1961.

l

Qasim Khan captured Hugli in 1631 during Shahjahan’s reign. Marathas captured Salsette and Bassein in 1739.

Causes of Portuguese Decline l l l

l

l

l l l

Their religious intolerance.

Their clandestine practices in trade.

Discovery of Brazil drew the colonizing activities of Portugal to the west. Their failure to complete with the other European companies. Portugal’s attachment to Spain, which was on the way to decline. Portugal’s internal development. Dominance of aristocracy.

No social influence of merchants.

Signs of Decline l

St. Francis Xavier



After Governor Dom Joao de Castro, Portuguese fortunes began to decline.

Decline in number of ships leaving Lisbon for Goa. Period

No. of Ships

1500-49

451

1700 – 50

l

1750 – 1800

112 70

Their ‘feitorias’ – remained ‘trading outposts’ lacking adequate manpower and political will to carve out a territorial empire.



Portuguese Monopoly of Indian occan remained unbroken till 1595.

l

Battle of Swally (near Surat) in 1615: English Vs. Portuguese. English Captain Best defeated Portuguese.

l

l

FIRST to rebel against Portuguese – Sri Lanka in 1580.

DUTCH l

First voyage successfully reached East Indies was that of Cornelius Houtman in 1596. r

With Mughals on Eastern coast r r

Shahjahan destroyed their Hooghly settlement in 1631 – 32.

Shaista Khan, Mughal Viceroy, swept away the Portuguese pirates operating from Chittagong in 1665.

He was inspired for such voyage from the book of Huyghen Van Linscholen (who had come to Goa in 1583, lived there till 1589).

l

Dutch undertook several voyages from 1596.

l

United East India company of Netherlands – formed on March 20, 1602.

l

Between 1595 and 1601 – 15 expeditions to East.

Right to Trade for 21 Years

l

PORTUGUESE CONTRIBUTION TO INDIA Brought Tobacco. Set up FIRST PRINTING PRESS at Goa in 1556. FIRST scientific work on Indian Medicinal Plants by a European writer was printed at Goa in 1563.

l l l

Dutch States General - the Dutch Parliament - gave a charter in 1602.

Dutch name of company: ‘Vereenigde Oost Indische Compaigne (VOC)’. Main interest in the beginning: To get control over spice markets in Indonesian archipelago.

Their attention to India: prompted largely by a good demand of Indian cloth in South – East Asia: r

Indian cloth was an essential exchange commodity in that area.

r

Main production region of cotton cloth in India:

r

In return, Indians demanded pepper and spices.

t

t

Gujarat region in West.

Coast of Coromandel in East, which was described as ‘left arm of Moluccas’ by Hendrick Brouwer, who later became Governor General of Dutch settlements in East India. Advent of the Europeans

5

Dutch Settlements in India l

In 1606 - obtained a Firman from the King of Golconda to set up a factory at Masulipatam – Sultan fixed duty at 4 percent.

l

l

l

After 1690: Nagapattanam replaced Pulicat as Chief Seat of Dutch on Coromandel. Van Reede transferred the seat of government to Nagapattanam.

Rivalry with the English

Settlements were all UNFORTIFIED, except Fort of Geldria at Pulicat.

l At

l

l

Pettapoli (Nizampatnam).

Devanampatanam (Tegnapatam) or (Fort St. David, as it came to be called under English). Tirupapuliyar, i.e. Southern Pataliputra.

In Bengal, first factory at Pipli and then at Balasore. Fort Gustavus at Chinsura.

In Malabar: only port settlement at Vengurla, north of Goa.

Trade with India l

l

l

Goa was blocked by Dutch in trading seasons in 1639.

l

Colombo conquered in 1655-56.

l

Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat and Coromandel they exported raw silk, textiles, saltpetre, rice and Gangetic opium. Chief export item from Coromandel ports: textiles.

Credit for making Indian textiles the premier export goes to Dutch.

6 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Malacca captured in 1641.

l After

1661, Cannanore.

captured

Cochin

and

l

More bitter than that of Portuguese.

l

In 1667, English gave up all claims to Indonesia while Dutch agreed to leave alone the English settlements in India.

l

War between Dutch and English began in 1654.

l During

1672-74, Dutch frequently obstructed communications between Surat and the new English settlement of Bombay and captured 3 English vessels in Bay of Bengal.

l In

At Surat, the Dutch were supplied with large quantities of Indigo, manufactured in Central India and Jumna Valley.

l From

l

Porto Novo - centre for cotton weaving.

Rivalry with Portuguese

Factories

l

l

Chief items of import to Coromandel: Spices, sandalwood and pepper; Copper from Japan; tatenaq and textiles from China.

Important settlements: Pulicat (1610), Surat (1616) Bimlipatam (1641), Karaikal (1645), Chinsura (1653), Cassimbazar, Baranagore, Patna, Balasore, Nagapattanam (1658), Cochin (1663) and also Agra, Cambay, Broach.

Dutch

l

l

l l

1698, Dutch chief of Chinsura complained to Prince Azim-us-Shan, when he visited Burdwan, that while his company paid a duty of 3.5 percent on their trade, the English paid only Rs. 3000 per annum and asked that the Dutch might be granted the same privilege as the English. Commercial rivalry acute till 1759 when in a Battle at Bidar (Biderra), English defeated Dutch.

By 1795, the English had expelled the Dutch from their last possession in India.

r

ENGLISH The English East India Company (EIC) l

l

l l l

l

Formed on December 31, 1600.

Through a Charter granting it the Exclusive privilege of trading with the area East of Cape of Good hope for 15 years. Before expiry of the first charter, King James I granted it the monopoly of trade for an indefinite period in 1609.

EIC original name: “The Governor And Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies”. Popularly nicknamed as the ‘John Company’.

In 1599, some English merchants formed a company named ‘Merchant Adventurers’ which later became East India Company.

Early Voyages l

Concentrated on the spice trade, mainly pepper with Indonesia and the spice islands. Its rate of profit: nearly 20% per year in first 12 years.

l Several l

Voyages (1611-15) yielded a profit of 214 percent on original investment.

l

Surat merchants too opposed English settlement.

l

Under the command of Sir Henry Middleton, the British decided to act against the Red Sea trade of Surat merchants.

l

l l l l

l l

l

r

Could speak Turkish.

r

Received a mansab of 400 and a Jagir and title of ‘Khan’.

Alarmed by this, the latter admitted to Surat two English vessels under Captain Best in 1612.

Under Best, the English defeated a Portuguese naval squadron at Swally Hole near Surat in 1611 and again in 1614. Jahangir issued a Firman permitting English to establish a Permanent Factory at Surat early in 1613.

An English factory had already come up at Masulipatnam in 1611. Later, allowed to open factories at several places on west coast. Sir Thomas Roe: r

Was an ambassador to Mughal court.

r

Objective: to obtain royal favours

r

Captain William Hawkins:

Was sent to the court of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir.

both

Duration of stay – end of 1615 to end of 1618.

r Roe

EIC realized the importance of Indian goods, especially textiles, as a barter commodity for spice trade.

r

English reprisal policy against Portuguese and Surat merchants.

r

John Mildenhall, a merchant adventurer, arrived in India in 1603 by the overland route.

Entry into India l

After a short stay (1609-11) in Agra, Hawkins had to leave as a result of Portuguese intrigue.

l

succeeded in securing several privileges particularly the permissions to erect factories in all part of the Mughal empire.

Before Roe left India in February 1619, the English had established factories at Surat, Agra, Ahmadabad and Broach.

All these factories were under the control of the President and Council of Surat Factory. Thus, EIC’s ‘FIRST PRESIDENCY’ in India was Surat. Advent of the Europeans

7

English vs. Portuguese Naval Battle between Portuguese and English in 1620. Portuguese influence and power received severe jolt.

l Hostilities

between Portuguese English came to an end in 1630.

English Factories l l

l

l

l

and

Broach and Baroda – started with object of purchasing at first hand the goods manufactured in the localities.

Agra – in order to sell broad-cloth to officers of the Imperial Court and to buy indigo: the best quality of which was manufactured at Bayana. First English factory to be fortified was Madras.

r

Largely traded in DIAMONDS.

Object: to purchase locally woven piece-goods for export to Persia and Bantam (in Java).

l

Armagaon, a few miles north of Dutch settlement of Pulicut: factory in 1626.

l

The influence of Company steadily rose after 1630.

l

l l l

In 1632, Sultan of Golkunda issued a Golden Farman allowing English to trade freely at the ports belonging to Golkunda Kingdom on payment of 500 pagodas a year. In 1634, terms repeated in another Farman. Balasore in 1633.

Hariharpur in Mahanadi delta (1633).

Hughli in 1651: under Mr. Bridgeman.

In 1639, the English Francis Day managed to obtain Madras on lease from local Raja of Chandragiri. Terms: English to pay half of custom revenue to Raja. In return, they procured the right to fortify it and also to mint their own coins; set up a Factory and built Fort St. George.

Bombay

Principal articles of English trade in Bengal during Mughal period

r

l

Silk, Cotton-goods, saltpetre, sugar.

l

Through a series of Farmans in 1651, 1656 and 1672, they were exempted from payment of custom duties in return for fixed sums to be paid by the Company.

r

In 1662, King Charles II received Bombay as dowry on marrying Portuguese Princess Catherine of Braganza. English crown transferred it to the Company in 1665 at an annual rental of £ 10.

r In

l

Factory in 1611.

r

l A l

r

r

1687, Bombay superseded Surat as the Chief Settlement of English on West Coast. First Governor of Bombay: Gerald Aungier (1669-1677).

Masulipatnam r

The Principal Port of Kingdom Of Golkunda.

8 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

l

l

l

l l l

Patna and Cassimbazar.

In 1658, all the establishments of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Coromandal Coast were brought under the control of Fort St. George, Madras.

They were subjected to many tolls and custom duties.

Farmans issued in 1651 and 1656 by Sultan Suja: fixed payment was 3000 rupees (£350). Farmans issued in 1672 by Shaista Khan.

In 1680, Aurangzeb, after levying Zaziya on the company, issued a Firman that the company’s trade was to be customs free everywhere except Surat.

l

For this the company spent Rs. 50,000 to bribe the Mughal officers.

l

Company at last decided to protect itself by force.

l

l

However, local custom officers continued to make demands on the company.

Bernier, a traveler who visited India during Aurangzeb’s reign, wrote – “The kingdom of Bengal has 100 gates open for entrance but not one for departure”.

l

Company’s exports from Bengal more than £50,000 a year.

l

Bengal goods comprised nearly 60 percent of British imports from Asia in early 18 th century.

l

In 1680, annual investment of Company in Bengal turned to £1,50,000.

l

l

l

l

l

l

Started when the English sacked Hugli in 1686; also Hugli and Mughal fortifications at Balasore were stormed by English. English were repulsed from Hugli.

English Agent Job Charnock opened negotiations which ended in securing permission for the English to return to Sutanuti in the autumn of 1687. Hostilities renewed in 1688, when a fresh naval force was sent from London under Captain William Heath with orders to seize Chittagong. Heath failed and retired to Madras.

l President l l

and Council of Bombay intervened and Concluded a Peace with the Mughal emperor in 1690.

Aurangzeb allowed the English to resume trade on the condition of payment of Rs.150,000 as compensations. Job Charnock returned to Bengal in August 1690 and established an English factory at Sutanuti.

Hostile activities of British under Sir John Child on the west coast: r

Seizure of Mughal ships.

r

Aurangzeb, then, ordered that the English should be treated as enemies, and the Abyssinian Siddis should blockade and capture Bombay.

r

l

Hostilities between Company and Mughals (1685-90) l

Under the orders of Mughal Emperor, Ibrahim Khan, successor of Shaista Khan, Governor of Bengal, issued a Firman In Feb 1691 granting the English exemption from the payment of custom duties in return for Rs. 3000 a year.

l

Harassment of Haj Pilgrims.

Owing to the rebellion of Sobha Singh, a zamindar in the district of Burdwan, the English got an excuse to fortify their factory in 1696 and in 1698. They were granted the zamindari of three villages of Sutanuti, Kalikata (Kalighata) and Govindpur on payment of Rs. 1200 to the previous proprietors. In 1700, English factories in Bengal were placed under the separate control of a President and Council in a New Fortified Settlement Called Fort William.

Position of Company in Bengal l l

First President of Fort William: Sir Charles Eyre.

Dual source of authority: owed its authority over English subjects to English Laws and Charters, but over the Indian inhabitants as a zamindar.

Developments in England l

In 1694, the House of Commons passed a resolution to the effect that all the subjects of England had an equal right to trade in India.

l

In 1698, a Bill was passed into Law establishing a new company, called ‘General Society’. Advent of the Europeans

9

l About

l

1698, a larger number of other subscribers were incorporated into another joint stock Company under the title of ‘English Company of Merchants’. This new company sent Sir William Norris as an ambassador to the Court of Aurangzeb to secure trading privileges for itself. But mission failed. Under some pressure from the ministry, the two companies resolved upon amalgamation in 1702, which came into effect under the Award Of The Earl And Godolphin in 1708-09.

l New

name for these amalgamated companies was “United Company of Merchants of England Trading to East Indies".

l

l

East India Company sent an embassy to Mughal Court in 1715. Those included were: John Surman assisted by Edward Stephenson, William Hamilton accompanied it as a surgeon and an Armenian named Khwaja Serhud as an interpreter. Hamilton succeeded in curing Emperor Farrukh Siyar of a painful disease.

Farman of 1717 l

Pleased with this, Farrukhsiyar issued a Farman in 1717 granting some privileges which were: r

r

r r

Confirmation of old privilege providing British trading right in Bengal free of all duties, subject only to annual payment of Rs.3000 per annum.

Permission to rent additional territory around Calcutta. Old privilege of exemption from dues throughout the province of Hyderabad was retained.

Required to pay existing rent for Madras.

10 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r r

Exemption from all customs and dues at Surat hitherto paid by them, in return for an annual sum of Rs. 10,000.

Coins of Company minted at Bombay allowed to have currency throughout Mughal kingdoms.

l

In Bengal, Murshid Quli Khan opposed the grant of additional villages to English.

l

Calcutta’s population in 1735 was 1 lakh.

l

l l

Orme described the Firman of 1717 as ‘Magna Charta of the Company’. Company’s shipping at the port during 10 years following the embassy of 1715 amounted to 10,000 tons a year. For about 18 years after the Firman of 1717, trade of EIC on western coast suffered due to quarrels between Marathas and Portuguese and the ravages of Maratha sea-captains, notably Kanhoji Angria, who dominated the coast between Bombay and Goa from two strongholds Gheria (Vijay durg) and Suvarna durg.

Charles Boone’s period (1715-22) l l l l

A wall built around Bombay and armed ships of Company increased.

After these 18 years, company’s trade in Bombay began to increase. Bombay’s population - 70000 in 1744.

Maratha sea captions were finally crushed till 1757.

Treaty between English & Marathas – 1739 l

l l l

l

In alliance with Peshwa, attacked Angrias.

Suvarna durg - captured by commander James in 1755. Angrias capital, Gheria was captured in 1757 by Clive and Watson.

In 1717, British possessed 5 towns near Madras which Thomas Pitt, Governor of Madras (1698 to 1709) had originally obtained from Nawab of Carnatic in 1708.

In 1734, they got Vepery and four other hamlets.

FRENCH l l

Last of the European power to compete for commercial gains in East. French East India Company: r Name: r

l l

l

l

r

‘Compagnie des lndes Orientales’

formed in 1664 at Colbert’s instance Created and financed by the State.

First French factory in India: at Surat by Francois Caron in 1668. Another factory at Masulipatnam in 1669 by Marcara by obtaining a patent from the Sultan of Golkunda. In 1672, seized San Thome, Madras.

In 1673, French admiral De la Haye was defeated by a combined force of Sultan of Golkunda and Dutch and was forced to surrender San Thome to Dutch.

Foundation of Pondicherry l

l

l

In 1673, Francois Martin and Bellanger de Lespinay obtained a little village from Muslim Governor Sher Khan Lodi of Valikondpuram.

Thus the foundation of Pondicherry was laid.

Francois Martin, who took charge of this settlement in 1674, developed in into an important place.

Factory at Chandernagore in Bengal l

Nawab Shaista Khan granted a site to French in 1674, on which they built the famous French factory of Chandernagore in 1690-92.

Rivalries between French and Dutch (supported by British) l l

adverse effect on French in India.

Pondicherry captured by Dutch in 1693 and was handed back to French by the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697. But place was not actually handed over till 1699.

l l

French lost factories at Bantam, Surat, Masulipatnam by the beginning of 18 th century.

Five Governors of Pondicherry between 1707 and 1720.

Reconstitution of Company in 1720 l l

Financially, French company exhausted till 1720. Reconstituted as ‘Perpetual company of the Indies’.

l Administrator: l

l

l

Lenoir between 1720 and 1742.

and

Dumas

French occupied Mauritius in 1721, Mahe and Yanam in 1725 and Karaikal in 1739.

Till 1742, motive of French was purely commercial. After 1742, with the arrival of Duplex the political motive began to overshadow the desire for commercial gain.

OTHER EUROPEAN COMPANIES Swedish East India Company l l

In June 1731.

Confined exclusively to China.

Danish l l

Arrived in India in 1616. First Settlement at Tamilnadu) in 1620.

l In l

Tranquebar

(in

1676, at Serampore (Danish Headquarters in India) in Bengal. Sold all their settlements to British 1845.

Ostend Company

in

l

By merchants of Flanders in December 1722.

l

Brief carrier in India.

l

A chartered trading company in Austrian Netherlands (currently Belgium). Advent of the Europeans

11

l Established

l

two trading posts in India: Cabelon (modern Covelong) on Coromandel Coast and Banquibazar (Ichapore) in Bengal.

Despite profitability, was ordered to close down in 1731.

l Its

disestablishment was made precondition for the ‘Treaty of Vienna’.

l l

a

r

r

l

In decade 1680-87, it was as much as 87 percent.

In the later part of 18th century, with the advent of industrial revolution, trend started reversing. r

r

r

Evident from EIC exports of gold and silver between 1660 and 1699 – 66% of total exports.

In first half of 18th century, English sent silver worth 270 lakhs and other goods worth only 90 lakhs to India.

Between 1760 and 1809 silver worth 180 lakhs was exported while value of other goods rose to 485 lakhs.

r

l l

French company’s activities much smaller in scale and size as compared to the English and Dutch.

In 16 th and 17 th century: spice particularly pepper dominated.

12 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r

It was a barter commodity.

It was famous for its range variety and quality.

l

Bengal and Coromandal produced cloth of different varieties.

EIC’s demand stood at 12000 pieces of textiles in 1614.

In 1664, it imported a total of over 750,000 pieces and their value accounted for 73% of entire trade of the company. By last decade of 17 th century, it jumped to 83%. In England, protectionist regulations passed in 1700, 1721 and 1735.

Raw silk also established itself in the market in 2 nd half of 17 th century. Saltpetre:

r

A heavy and bulky commodity.

r

Used in manufacture of gunpowder.

r

Commodity Structures l

Regularly demanded by English and Dutch from second decade of 17 th century.

r Gujarat,

Initially, balance of trade in India’s favour.

r

r

r

Balance of Trade r

Indian Textiles

r

STRUCTURE AND PATTERN OF EUROPEAN TRADE l

Towards end of 17 th century: cotton textiles, silk, saltpeter rose in importance.

r

Could be used to stabilize the ships by acting as ballast material. Patna: major centre of Saltpetre trade.

Indigo – used for blue coloring in Europe.

RECAP: IMPORTANT FACTS First Portuguese fort was built at Cochin. 'Feitorias' were name of trading outposts of Portuguese. Tirupapuliyar (Tamilnadu) is known as Southern Pataliputra. 'John Company' was the nick name of East India Company. First English Factory at Masulipatnam. Masulipatnam was famous for trading in DIAMOND. First English factory fortified: Madras. Aurangzeb levied Jeziya on East India Company in 1680. Sir William Norris was an ambassador to the Court of Aurangzeb. First French Factory was at Surat. Pondicharry was founded by Francois Martin and Bellanger de Lespinay in 1673. First Danish Sattlement at Tranquebar.

Advent of the Europeans

13

NOTES

BRITISH CONQUEST AND CONSOLIDATION

ENGLISH AND FRENCH South India



Nature of origins: r

r

 

English Company - a private corporation founded and maintained by individual enterprise – not dependent in any way on the state. In fact, State was in its debt.

French Company – the offspring of State patronage whose revenues were largely drawn from monopoly of tobacco trade.

Pondicherry was a rival to Madras – but could not match the latter in extent and variety of commerce.

Chandernagore in East proved no Challenge to English settlement in Calcutta.

Fortunes of French EIC



Declined in the beginning of 18 th century.



Revival of French after 1720 when the reconstitution of company took place under new name ‘Perpetual Company of India’.

 Factories







Expansion of British in south India was basically the outcome of the hostilities between English and French East India Companies.

South India – main arena for French activities. Pondicherry – their capital

French wielded greater influence in neighbouring Princely States like, Hyderabad and Mysore.

Strengths and Weakness of English and French in India 

English Company had a vastly superior infrastructure with much larger fleets.



English Company: wealthier body and conducted more frequent voyages.



French were deficient even in their knowledge of commerce.

16 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

at Surat, Bantam Masulipatam had to be abandoned.

and



French naval power improved; a base being established at Mauritius.



In 1740, England was involved in European war known as War of Austrian Succession (1740 – 48).

Relations between the Two in Europe

 

  

France and England took opposite sides and fought in the Netherlands for nearly 8 years. Outbreak of war placed the two mercantile companies in India technically in state of war.

French authorities, both in Europe and India at first tried hard to maintain neutrality in this country.

Dupleix, Governor of Pondicherry, opened direct negotiations with English authorities in India. English authorities declined to accept any proposal.

FIRST CARNATIC WAR (1746-1748) 

Hostilities started when English Navy under Barnett captured French ships.



So on Dupleix appeal, Admiral La Bourdonnais, Governor of Mauritius, reached the Indian seas with 8 ships.





French had no fleet in Indian waters.

Course of war changed in French favour

r r r

Commander of English ships sailed to Hughli leaving the whole Madras coast at the mercy of French squadron. French besieged Madras both by land and sea.

Within a week Madras surrendered to French.

Role of Nawab of Carnatic l

Anwaruddin, newly appointed Nawab of Carnatic, was not a silent spectator.

l

When French besieged Madras, English sought the protection of the Nawab. French refused to accede to his request.

l

l

l l

l

l

At the outbreak of hostilities, Dupleix appealed to the Nawab to protect the French ships; but English did not respect his authority.

Nawab felt that he could teach the French a lesson. Dupleix sought to pacify Nawab by diplomacy, telling that he was taking Madras only to place it in his hands. But, Nawab French force.

sent

an

army

against

Battle of San Thome between Nawab and French r

On the bank of Audiyar river (October 24, 1746).

r Nawab’s

troops suffered defeat.

r

Nawab was forced to retire to San Thome.

r

An eye opener for the Europeans in India.

Repercussion of defeat:

r

It revealed that even a small disciplined European force could easily defeat a much larger Indian army.

Defiance of Dupleix by French Admiral l l

l l l

Initial seizure of Madras was helped by Admiral La Bourdonnais’ fleet from Mauritius.

Admiral refused to co-operate with Dupleix since he felt that he held independent charge and took orders only from French Government. Despite Dupleix’s opposition, Admiral struck a deal with the English. Madras to be returned on the payment of a ransom of £400,000.

After a prolonged quarrel, Dupleix seemed ready to submit, when Hurricane caused severe damage to the French fleet and forced La Bourdonnais to retire with his ships from Indian seas.

Renewal of Conflict with English l

Dupleix denounced the treaty which La Bourdonnais made with the English.

l

Took English prisoners to Pondicherry.

l

Made a fresh attack on Madras in September 1746.

l Attacked l l

l

Fort St. David, a minor English possession (south of Pondicherry). French besieged the fort for 18 month but failed to capture it.

In June 1748, a large squadron under Rear Admiral Boscawen was sent from England to take revenge of the capture of Madras.

English besieged Pondicherry, both by land and sea. British Conquest and Consolidation

17

l

l

l

l

But with the arrival of the monsoon in October, Boscawen was forced to raise the siege.

Before he could renew the siege, the War of Succession in Europe had been concluded by the Treaty of La-Chappelle in 1748.

l l

Dupleix Intervention Carnatic

r

l

r

Madras restored to English.

Boscawen sailed back to Europe.

First phase of struggle ended without any territorial gain on either side, but showed superiority of French in first Carnatic war.

l

Carnatic A province under Subedar of Deccan i.e. the Nizam of Hyderabad. Was ruled by a governor – the Nawab.

l Headquarters: l

l

l

l

Arcot.

Nawab practically enjoyed independent power, since Subedar of Deccan was usually busy with his own affairs – tackling the Marathas and other forces in Northern India.

In 1740 i.e. before the first Carnatic war, Marathas invaded Carnatic and killed Nawab Dost Ali and took his son-in-law Chanda Sahib as prisoner to Satara. Nizam then came to Carnatic in 1743 and appointed Anwar-ud-din as the Nawab. This appointment worsened the political situation especially after 1748 when Chanda Sahib was set free after seven years of captivity.

Hyderabad l

In 1748 Asaf Jah Nizam ul Mulk, the Hyderabad Nawab, passed away.

18 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Dupleix concluded a secret treaty with Chanda Sahib and Muzaffar Jang with a view to placing them on the thrones of Carnatic and the Deccan respectively. Battle of Ambur (South-east of Vellore): r

On August 3, 1749.

r

Anwar’s son Muhammad Ali fled to Trichonapaly.

r

Succession rivalry in Carnatic and Hyderabad

l

Muzaffar Jang, grandson of Nizam ul Mulk, claimed the throne on the ground that Mughal Emperor had appointed him as the Governor of Deccan.

Terms of Treaty:

SECOND CARNATIC WAR

l

He was succeeded by his son Nasir Jang.

r

The three allies defeated and killed Anwaruddin. Chanda Sahib became Nawab of Carnatic.

l

Chanda Sahib, in return, rewarded the French with grant of 80 villages around Pondicherry.

l

British with Nasir Jang, the Nizam of Hyderabad and Muhammad Ali tried to organize an effective confederacy against the one headed by Dupleix.

Hyderabad

l

Battle with Nasir Jung: r

Nasir Jung was ultimately killed in December, 1750.

r

Muzaffar rewarded the service of his French ally:

r

Muzaffar Jung, who had been kept prisoner, was set free and proclaimed Subedar of Deccan.

t Appointed t

Dupleix as Honorary Governor of all the Mughal territories south of Krishna River.

Ceded to Dupleix, territories near Pondicherry as well as on the Orissa coast, including famous market town of Masulipatnam.

Gave a sum of Rs. 5 lacs to the company and another Rs. 5 lacs to its troops.

l

In return, Dupleix placed his best officer Bussy with a French army to the service of Muzaffar.

l

t

r

t

Dupleix received Rs. 20 lacs and a jagir worth Rs. 1 lac a year.

Settlement with Muhammad Ali l

l l l

l

l

l

l

To complete his success, Dupleix sent force to strong Fort of Trichonapaly, where Muhammad Ali had taken refuge. But its energy was wasted. Dupleix tried to woo Mohammad Ali through diplomacy.

British position changed with the appointment of Saunders as Governor of Madras in September, 1750.

In 1751, he decided to go to the assistance of Muhammad Ali. On the advice of English, Mohammad Ali kept up the negotiations opened by Dupleix, simply to gain time till the English were in a position to send effective assistance to him.

Dupleix did not realize this till May, 1751. When a British detachment actually set out towards Trichonapaly, he then sent a French army under Law to capture the place, but Law failed.

By the end of 1751, the rulers of Mysore and Tanjore and the Maratha chief, Morari Rao joined Muhammad Ali and the English. To prevent the fall of Trichonapaly, Robert Clive, a civilian employee in Madras and later joined the army, proposed an expedition against Arcot, capital of Carnatic, for Chanda Sahib was sure to divert an effective part of his army to the protection of his capital.

l

l

l l l

Chanda Sahib sent a force from Trichi to recapture his capital.

For 53 days Clive defended the city till the besieging forces withdrew (September – October 1751).

Law, the French General in charge of the siege to Trichi, took refuge on the island of Srirangam. Robert Clive besieged the island.

Dupleix sent reinforcements, but they surrendered to English on June 9, 1752.

On June 12, 1752 – Law and his troops became prisoners of the English. Chanda Sahib surrendered & was beheaded.

l

After this English prestige enhanced.

l

Won over Morari Rao and the ruler of Mysore to his side.

l

Renewed the siege of Trichi on December 31, 1752.

Dupleix Fresh Strategy

l

l

Secured the neutrality of Raja of Tanjore.

Minor military engagements throughout 1753 with alternate success and failure on both sides.

Recall of Dupleix l l l

l l

Greatly concerned at the discomfiture of French troops and heavy financial losses, French Government decided to recall Dupleix.

Fear of serious repercussions in America also prompted the French to suspend hostilities in India. Godeheu: New French Governor General appointed on August 1, 1754.

Opened negotiations with the English and concluded a treaty in 1755. Terms of Treaty: r

Both English and French agreed not to interfere in the quarrels of native princes. British Conquest and Consolidation

19

r

Each party was left in possession of territories which it actually occupied at the time of the treaty.

l

Thus French lost almost everything that Dupleix had gained for them.

l

Hyderabad – the only place where Dupleix policy continued to have some impact.

French Influence Restricted to Hyderabad

l l

Bussy, maintained his influence there, despite opposition of the nobility, which favoured the English. Bussy induced Nizam Salabat Jang to grant him the Northern Sircars consists of districts of Mustafanagar, Ellore, Rajahmundry and Chica Cole, yielding annual revenue of more than 30 lacs of rupee.

l

l Similarly l

l

l

Peace established in Carnatic by the Treaty of Godeheu, was again broken by the Seven Years War.

l

l

This division of command hampered the progress of French and ultimately ruined their cause.

l

effect – capture of Chandernagore (Bengal) by Clive and Watson.

Fort St David on June 2.

Seizure of Madras: r

Decided to strike at the root of British power in Carnatic.

r

Lally postponed his plans.

r

News of outbreak of war reached India in November, 1756.

d’Ache refused to sail.

Siege of Tanjore: r

To solve financial problems, forced the Raja of Tanjore to pay 70 lacs of rupees which he owed to the French since the time of Dupleix.

r

Reaction of Chandernagore Capture:

r

Tanjore was besieged on July 18, 1758.

r

Siraj-ud-daula enraged at the behavior of the company.

r

Hearing this news, Lally raised the siege of Tanjore (August 10).

r

This became one of the reasons for war between him and the British.

r

l

Count Lally was invested with absolute power in all civil and military affairs, but had no control over the Naval forces which were under d’Ache.

l Captured

l Immediate l

Count de Lally was sent by French Government to conduct the war.

Lally’s Campaigns

THIRD CARNATIC WAR l

English fleet returned from Bengal under Pocock, who had succeeded Watson after the latter’s death in 1757.

When Chandernagore was besieged, Siraj gave shelter to French captives and refused to drive them away.

In Madras, neither the English nor the French possessed enough military resources to commence hostilities at once. Until 1758, No warlike operations began on a large-scale.

20 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r l

l

Meanwhile, English fleet inflicted heavy losses upon d’Ache’s squadron on August 3, 1758. This inflicted a heavy blow not only to his own reputation but also to prestige of French army.

Problems of French: r r

No spirit of mutual trust between Lally and his men. Lally’s rude and haughty conduct.

Siege of Madras again on December 14, 1758:

r

When English ships left, Lally again besieged Madras.

r

Siege continued for 3 months.

r

This failure practically sealed the fate of French in India.

r

l

was raised on February 16, 1759, when English fleet reappeared.

r

r

Clive sent an army under Colonel Forde against French troops in Northern Sircars. defeated the French and occupied Rajahmundry (December 7) and Masulipatnam (March 6). Forde concluded a treaty with the Nizam Salabat Jang.

English Aggressiveness in Carnatic l English



l

were first defeated near Conjeevaram, but French could not follow up their success.

Reason: discontent among French troops for lack of pay leading to an open mutiny.

Third defeat of d’Ache by Pocock in September 1759; Result: d’Ache left India.

[First defeat of d’Ache – April 28, 1758; Second defeat of d’Ache – August 3, 1758].

Arrival of General Coote in Madras at the end of October, 1759 and English resumed their offensive.

Battle of Wandiwash on January 22, 1760 l

l

l

r

An unwise step of Lally.

r Forde

l

r

Recall of Bussy from Hyderabad: r



r

Near the fort of Wandiwash which Lally was besieging.

Result: French army totally routed.

In course of 3 months, French lost everything except Jinji and Pondicherry.

l

To retrieve his position, Lally tried to make alliance with Mysore ruler Hyder Ali.

Hyder sent a contingent to the aid of French.

Pondicherry closely blockaded both by land and sea. On January 16, 1761, unconditional surrender of Pondicherry.

r English

l

r

destroyed not fortifications but also the city.

only

Jinji and Mahe too went out of French’s hand.

Thus, French lost all their possessions in India.

l

These were restored to them by the Treaty of Paris (1763).

l

was detained in England as a prisoner of war for 2 years.

l

In France, he was imprisoned in the Bastille for more than 2 years and afterwards executed.

Lally’s Tragic End

l

allowed to return to France in 1763 at the end of Seven Year’s War.

Causes of French Failure l

French had no permanent naval presence in India vis-à-vis the British.

l

Lack of resources – (major cause):

l

Discord between commanders of land and sea. r r

Siege of Pondicherry by English in May, 1760 l

Failed to decide on a concerted plan of action, Hyder’s contingent returned to Mysore without fighting a single battle.

l

Insufficient supply from home.

British had an advantage of possessing military and financial resources of Bengal.

French East India Company ended its career in 1769. Thereafter, French crown maintained the factories in India for the benefit of private traders. British Conquest and Consolidation

21

r

ENGLISH OCCUPATION OF BENGAL l

l

l

Period 1757 to 1765: gradual transfer of power from the Nawabs to the British.

The course of events in the 1750s was mainly decided by the commercial rivalry between the British and the Bengal Nawabs. Final collapse of Bengal polity mainly due to degeneration in the administration that started in 18 th century.

Like Deccan l l

Bengal under a Subedar, nominally acknowledged Mughal suzerainty. Bengal lacked any political strength and stability.

r l

l

l

Got the throne in 1740 after a successful revolution against his master Nawab Sarfaraz Khan.

l l

l

r

Peace treaty (May or June 1751).

t

t

Cession of the revenues of a part of Orissa.

l

His Chosen successor: Siraj-ud-daulah, the son of his youngest daughter.

l

Amidst these troubles, Alivardi died on 9 April 1756. Also known as Mirza Muhammad.

Ascended the throne without any difficulty in 1756. Threats: r

r

Internal dissension.

Growing commercial activity of the English.

Removal of internal danger: r

Ghasiti Begum:

t

Removed without any bloodshed.

t

centre of revolutionary conspiracy against Siraj.

t

English supported Shaukat in his attempt of dethroning Siraj.

of Shaukat governor of Purnea:

t

Annual payment of 12 lacs of rupees as Chauth to Marathas.

During last five years of his reign, tried to restore order, but failed.

Siraj also opposed by Jagat Seth, Umi Chand, Rai Durlabh, Mir-Jafar.

r Suppression

Caused untold miseries to empire.

l

l

l

His war with Marathas: r

Shaukat Jang (Nawazish Muhammad) – son of Purnea Governor and grandson of Alivardi.

Siraj-ud-daulah

Alivardi Khan l

Ghasiti Begum: daughter of Alivardi and wife of Dacca Governor; she was supported by her Diwan Raj Ballabh.

t

Uncertainty of succession after his death as Alivardi had no male heir, only 3 daughters.

t

Shaukat relied on banker Jagat Seth and General Mir Jafar.

Shaukat procured the formal sanad for the Subahdarship of Bengal from the titular Mughal Emperor Alamgir II. Siraj marched against Shaukat and defeated and killed him.

Opposition to this decision:

Conflict between Siraj and English

r

Reasons:

Two other sons-in-law, who were governors of Dacca and Purnea respectively, but both died towards the close of Alivardi’s reign.

22 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

l

Jang,

Frequently on trade privileges granted to Company by 1717 Farman of Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar.

l

Siraj’s generosity towards French.

l

Immediate causes:

l

Was considered an element of potential danger by English, so English disliked Siraj. r

English favour to Raj Ballabh, Diwan of Ghasiti Begum:

t

t

r

At the request of Watts, English Agent at Cassimbazar, English agreed to give protection to Raj Ballabh’s son Krishnadeo, who fled to Calcutta with his family and treasure.

This provoked Siraj against the British.

t

Siraj demanded surrender of Raj Ballabh’s family.

t

Fortification was done as a measure of precaution against the French without the permission of Nawab.

Additional fortification of Calcutta:

t

t

t

Also guns were mounted on the old fort.

Siraj wrote a letter to Mr. Drake, the Governor of Calcutta, repeating his orders to demolish additional fortifications. En route to Purnea, at Rajmahal, the reply of Governor Drake reached him, rejecting Nawab’s request in polite language.

Siraj Reactions l

Seized English factory at Cassimbazar on June 4.

l

Governor Drake and many prominent Englishmen left the Fort on June 19 and sought safety on board the ships.

l

Marched against Calcutta on June 5; Reached Calcutta on June 16.

l

Fort William surrendered to Siraj after feeble resistance on June 20, 1756.

l

As narrated by Holwell, 146 English prisoners confined during summer night in a small room (18 feet long 14 feet 10 inches wide), known as Black Hole.

Black Hole Episode

l l

123 died of suffocation, 23 survived. This is more an exaggeration.

After Capture of Calcutta l l

Manik Chand – General of Siraj was put in charge of Calcutta. Siraj returned to Murshidabad.

English Attempt to Retrieve their Position l l l

l

l

After fall of Calcutta, they had taken shelter in Fulta and from this place carried on intrigues.

Supported Shaukat Jang’s attempt to dethrone Siraj.

They won over Manik Chand, Omi Chand, (a merchant of the city), Jagat Seth and other famous leading nobles of the Nawab’s Court. Made appeals to the Nawab to restore their old trade privileges in Calcutta. Nawab was ready to accommodate the English.

l Meanwhile,

Madras Council engaged in war-like preparations.

l Sent l

l

expedition under Clive and Admiral Watson on October 16, 1756 which reached Bengal on December 14, 1756.

Nawab ignorant about this, so were the English at Fulta who did their best to induce Clive to desist from war like operations as Nawab was ready to concede their reasonable demands. Clive did not pay heed to this.

British Conquest and Consolidation

23

l

l

On December 17, Watson wrote to Nawab to restore the old rights and immunities of the Company and also a reasonable compensation for the losses and injuries they had suffered. Nawab sent a pacific reply, but it could not reach Watson.

Expedition to Capture Calcutta l l l

Manik Chand made pretence of war and fled to Murshidabad. Clive recovered Calcutta on January 2, 1757 without any serious fighting.

English plundered Hooghly and destroyed many houses.

l

Treaty of Alinagar – February 9, 1757: Siraj conceded practically all English demands.

l

Treacherous designs of his own officers and apprehension of an invasion from North-west induced him to settle with English at any cost.

Reason for such Pacific Attitude

l

From this time onwards, Siraj displayed a lack of energy and decision at almost every step.

English Attack on Chandernagore l l

Siraj accused them of violating the Treaty of Alinagar, but did nothing to protect the French and Chandernagore.

Clive and Watson easily conquered it in March 1757, though a large force of Nawab under Nand Kumar (Faujdar of Hooghly) was near Chandernagore. It is viewed that Nand Kumar was bribed.

Conspiracy Against Siraj l

Mir Jafar, Rai Durlabh and Jagat Seth joined in the plot.

l

A difficulty at the last moment: Omi Chand, who acted as intermediary, asked for a larger

l

A regular treaty was drawn up (June 10, 1757).

24 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

l l l

l

share of plunder and Clive silenced him by a forged copy of treaty in which his demands were admitted.

Watson refused to sign their treaty and then his signature was forged at the instance of Clive. Nawab displayed lack of decision and energy at this critical moment.

Nawab, on the advice of his treacherous ministers, ultimately agreed to send French Fugitives away. French at the time of their departure warned Nawab about the conspiracy.

Nawab and Mir Jafar l

Nawab paid a visit to Mir Jafar on 15 June.

l

Mir Jafar assured him of his support and Nawab was satisfied.

l

l

made pathetic appeals to him in the name of ‘Alivardi Khan’. Nawab made preparations of war with Mir Jafar as commander of his forces.

Plassey in Map of West Bengal

BATTLE OF PLASSEY l l

Contemporary historian Ghulam Hussain, author of ‘Siyar-ul-mutakherin’, describes the Battle of Plassey in a comprehensive manner.

Battle place: r

Mango Grove of Plassey on the bank of Bhagirathi.

r

On the Nawab’s side: Mir Zafar and Rai Durlabh still stood. Also a small force under Mohan Lal and Mir Madan backed by a French officer.

r

r r

Battle broke out on the morning of June 23, 1757.

After half an hour’s fighting, Clive withdrew his forces behind the trees.

At 11 O’clock, he consulted his officers and it was resolved to maintain the cannonade during day and to attack Nawab’s camp at midnight.

r Unfortunately

Mir Madan was killed.

r Nawab, r r r

r

after this, accepted Mir Jafar’s advice to recall the only troops fighting for him. Mohanlal, who had advanced with Mir Madan, had to retreat after getting repeated order from the Nawab.

With this retreat, the troops’ morale and courage reached the lowest ebb and then plight started.

Siraj, realizing the mistake, also joined the runways himself and after marching the whole night, he reached his palace at about 8 in the morning of June 24.

Tried to collect the forces, but of no avail.

r Then, r

he, along with his wife Lutf-unnisha and one trusted servant, fled.

In a few days, Siraj was captured and was brought back to Murshidabad and was murdered by orders of Miran, son of Mir Jafar.

SIGNIFICANCE OF BATTLE OF PLASSEY Political Paved the way for the British mastery of Bengal and eventually of whole of India. French no longer a significant force in Bengal. Control over Bengal played a decisive role in Anglo-French struggle. Economic Company was granted undisputed right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Company received the zamindari of 24 paraganas near Calcutta. Company received compensation of Rs 17,700,000 for the attack on Calcutta. Bengal to pay the expenses of Madras and Bombay Presidencies. Company’s exports from India to be purchased out of Bengal’s revenue.

British Conquest and Consolidation

25

After Plassey l

Mir Jafar was proclaimed Subedar of Bengal.

l

Clive secured large rewards for himself and his colleagues.

l

Sovereignty of English over Calcutta was recognized.

l

l

l

l



Zamindari of 24 paraganas and a large sum for the company.

Supreme control of affairs in the hands of Clive.

l

British secured the right of keeping a Resident at the Nawab’s Court.

Position of Clive l

was merely a servant of Governor and Council of Madras, when he gained the victory at Plassey.

l In

l l

l

l l l

June 1758, Calcutta Council, on their own initiative, elected him to the Governorship of Bengal – this was legalized by the company towards the end of 1758.

l

Prevented Mir Jafar from ruining some notable Hindu officials like Rai Durlabh the Diwan, and Ram Narayan, the governor of Bihar. Helped Mir Jafar through military service, when Ali Gauhar (later known as Shah Alam II) planned to occupy Bengal and Bihar and laid siege to Patna in 1759.

Thwarted the design of Dutch when Mir Jafar entered into conspiracy with Dutch at Chinsura to supplant British. Maintained supremacy of English Bengal for nearly three years. His departure: February 25, 1760.

in

Came to the fore-front with the death of Miran in 1760.

26 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Reasons:

r Treachery r

Nawab.

and

incompetence

of

Nawab’s failure to make payments due to company.

Holwell, the acting governor:

r

r

Suggested the bold step of taking over the administration of the country, but other members of the Council did not approve of the plan. Then, supported the cause of Mir Kasim, the son-in-law of Mir Jafar.

Vansittart, the Permanent Governor, accepted this proposal. A secret treaty with Mir Kasim:

r On

February 27, 1760.

r Kasim

Exercised an effective control over the actions of Mir Jafar.

Question of Succession l

l

Nawab Mir Jafar made himself distasteful to Company.

r

r

agreed to pay off the outstanding dues to the company and to cede Three Districts of Burdwan, Midnapore and Chittagong.

In return British offered to appoint him Deputy Subahdar and guaranteed his succession to the throne.

British Next Step l

Vansittart & Cailland, the commander of company’s troops, proceeded to Murshidabad.

l

Mir Jafar refused to appoint Kasim as Deputy Subahdar.

l

Nawab Mir Jafar decided to abdicate rather than yield to the demands of the English.

l

l

After a fruitless discussion of Five days, Cailland was ordered to occupy the Nawab’s palace. Mir Kasim was declared Nawab and the revolution of 1760 was effected without any bloodshed.

l

Vansittart handed over Ram Narayan, governor of Bihar, to Mir Kasim who first robbed him and then put him to death.

BATTLE OF BUXAR ON 22 OCTOBER 1764

Mir Kasim vs. English l

Subject of dispute – inland trade.

l

Servants of Company claimed privileges for their private trade.

l

l

l

l

l

l

l l l l

Imperial firman gave the English the right of trading in Bengal without payment of transit duties or tolls.

same

Towards the end of 1762, Vansittart met Mir Kasim at Monghyr, where Nawab had removed his capital, and concluded a definite agreement. The council of Calcutta rejected this.

Thereupon, Nawab decided to abolish the duties altogether, but English were in favour of preferential treatment.

Ellis, Chief of English Factory at Patna, violently asserted the rights and privileges of English, and even made an attempt to seize the city of Patna. Attempt failed and his garrison was destroyed – but events led to the outbreak of war between English and Mir Kasim in 1763.

British army consisting 1100 Europeans and 4000 sepoys under Major Adams.

Nawab’s army had 15000 soldiers, some of which trained and disciplined on European model. English victories at Katwah, Murshidabad, Giria, Sooty, Udaynala and Monghyr. Mir Kasim fled to Patna, and after having killed all the English prisoners and a number of his prominent officials, went to Awadh.

l l

l l

Mir Kasim formed a confederacy with Nawab Shuja-ud-daulah of Awadh and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.

Battle between Confederate army and British fought at Buxar. Confederate army was defeated by English general Major Hector Munro. Shah Alam immediately joined English camp and concluded peace. Mir Kasim fled and led a wandering life till he died near Delhi in 1777.

Aftermath of Battle of Buxar l

Mir Jafar was once more proclaimed as the Nawab by the English.

l

Mir Jafar was in bad health and died shortly on January 5, 1765.

l

Mir Jafar agreed to hand over three districts – Burdwan, Midnapore and Chittagong to English for the maintenance of their army and to permit duty free trade in Bengal (except a duty of 2% on salt).

Treaty of February 20, 1765 l

Between British and minor son of Mir Jafar.

l

Entire management of administration be left in hands of a minister called Deputy

l

Najim-ud-daula,

Nawab to disband most of his army.

British Conquest and Consolidation

27

l

Subedar, who would be nominated by English and could not be dismissed without their consent.

Thus Company gained supreme control over the Nizamat or administration of Bengal.

l Clive l l

regulated the batta or allowances by a definite scheme.

field

White Mutiny at Monghyr and Allahabad. Clive left India in February 1767.

Clive’s arrival as Governor of Bengal for the second time in May 1765 l l

Approached the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam, practically a prisoner of Shuja-uddaulah since 1761, for an agreement. Treaty of Allahabad on Aug between Shah Alam and Clive: r

r

1765

Shah Alam was given Allahabad and the adjoining territories, detached from Oudh. Shah Alam granted the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to Company on August 12.

r Clive

l

restored Awadh to its Nawab on payment of 50 lacs of rupees (August 16, 1765); thus he created the BUFFER STATE of Awadh.

Battle of Buxar firmly established the British were now the paramount European power in Bengal.

Reforms in Internal Administration of the Company by Clive l

Stopped system of accepting presents.

l

Recognized the SALT TRADE with a view to distributing its profits among the civil and military servants of the company.

l

l l

Checked the abuses of private trade.

Directors disapproved of it and the monopoly of salt trade was entirely abandoned.

Cut down the allowances (batta), which military officers enjoying for many years. Vigorous opposition and even threatening of resignation by officers.

28 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Robert Clive Successors of Clive l l

Verelst Cartier (1769) r r



during his time occurred terrible famine of 1770 Richard Bechar, a servant of the Company, wrote to select committee of Court of Directors on 24 May 1769:

“It must give pain to an Englishman to have reason to think that since the accession of company to the Diwani, the condition of the people of this country has been worse than it was before”

ANGLO-MYSORE RELATIONS

FIRST English Attack l

In April, 1767 under the command of Gen. Joseph Smith.

l

But, influenced by Mahfuz Khan (brother and rival of pro-British Muhammad Ali of Carnatic), Nizam deserted English and allied with Hyder.

l

Initially Nizam supported English.

l

Defeat of Hyder and his allies at the Pass of Changama and Trinomali in September 1767.

l

between Hyder and English.

Another Fight l

Hyder defeated the Bombay troops and recovered Mangalore.

TREATY between Hyder and English Hyder Ali

l

l

Initially in the service of Nanjraj Wodeyar, as Dalwai or Prime Minister of Mysore.

l

l

With French help, set up an arsenal at Dindigul.

l

By 1761, Hyder became the defecto ruler.

FIRST ANGLO-MYSORE WAR (1767-69) l l l

l

On April 4, 1769.

Dictated by Hyder.

l A

‘defensive alliance’ as English promised to help Hyder in case he was attacked by any other power.

SECOND ANGLO-MYSORE WAR (1780-84) Background

In 1765, Marathas attacked Mysore (Marathas were the First to attack Mysore).

l

Terms of 1769 Treaty not fulfilled by Madras Government.

Nizam to cede Northern Sircars, consisting of Four districts: Mustafanagar, Ellore, Rajahmundry and Chicacole.

l

In 1779 – a Grand Confederacy formed – against the English.

In November 1766, Agreement between English government at Madras and Nizam.

l

l

No Help from English, when Marathas attacked Mysore in 1771. Party: Nizam, Marathas, Mysore.

In return, English to protect him from Hyder.

Immediate Cause

l

Party – The Marathas, the Nizam, and the English.

War

l

Soon, Marathas were bought off by Hyder.

TRIPLE ALLIANCE – Against Hyder

l

This adjustment survived for a short while.

l

British capture of Mahe, a small French Settlement within Hyder’s jurisdiction.

l

Hyder defeated an English detachment under Col Baillie and captured Arcot in October, 1780. British Conquest and Consolidation

29

l l

l

l

l

Sir Alfred Lyall commented on the then situation – “the fortunes of English in India had fallen to their lowest mark”.

THIRD ANGLO-MYSORE WAR (1790-92)

To reverse the defeat, Warren Hastings sent Sir Ayre Cotte (victor of Wandiwash)

Coote detached Raja of Berar, Mahadji Sindhia, and Nizam from Alliance with Hyder. He defeated Hyder severely at PORTO NOVO in 1781. Meantime, Mysore troops defeated an English force under Col Braithwaite.

Active hostilities contniued between the English on one side, and French and Mysore on the other.

Death of Hyder l l

On December 7, 1782. Cause: Cancer.

Tipu In-charge of War l

On English side, new company commander in place of Coote was General Stuwart.

l

Col. Fullerton captured Coimbatore in Novemebr 1783 and moved to capture Srirangapatanam, but was recalled by Madras Govt.

l

l l

Tipu captured Brigadier Mathews with all his men in 1783.

l

r

Tipu’s Preparation

r

Eager for a peace with Tipu. Sent envoys to his camp.

Neither side capable of overpowering the other, decided to sign the treaty.

l

In March, 1784.

l

Neither side would assist the enemies of the other.

l l

Background of War

Lord McCartney, New Governor of Madras.

Treaty of Mangalore l

Tipu Sultan

l

Treaty of Mangalore was nothing but “a hollow truce”. Renewal of Hostilities inevitable.

l Sought l

support Constantinople.

of

France

Sent envoys to both places in 1787.

Both sides restored all conquests.

Lord Cornwallis Preparation

Warren Hastings did not like the terms of the treaty.

Immediate Cause of the War

This treaty merely postponed the struggle.

30 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

and

of

l

Obtained Guntur in Northern Sircars from Nizam in 1788.

l

Attack on Travancore by Tipu on December 29, 1789.

l

Raja of Travancore: r

An old ally of Company.

r

Raja appealed for help to John Holland, Governor of Madras.

r

r

r

FOURTH ANGLO-MYSORE WAR

According to the Treaty of Mangalore, was entitled to the protection of the English. Madras Govt. paid no heed.

Cornwallis condemned the act of Madras Govt.

Triple Aliance In 1790 l

Party: Nizam (entered into alliance in June, 1790), English, Marathas (entered on July 4, 1790).

Course of War l

Carried on for about 2 years in 3 campaigns.

l

Then under Cornwallis in January, 1791 – February, 1792.

l

l

FIRST under Meadows – did not produce any decisive result. Tipu lost the War.

Treaty of Srirangapatanam (March 1792) l

Ended 3 rd Anglo-Mysore war.

l

Tipu ceded half of his territories to British and its allies:

l

Between Tipu of Mysore and allied forces of English, Nizam, Marathas. r

English got large portion of Malabar – thus access to sea.

r

Nizam: land between Krishna and Pennar rivers.

r

l

r

Peshwa: territory up to Tungabhadra.

Raja of Coorg got independence from Mysore.

Tipu to pay Rs 330 lakhs as warindemnity.

Background l

Tipu and France: r

r

Tried to secure alliance of France against English.

Enlisted himself as a member of Jacobin Club.

r Permitted

Ripaud, a Lieutenant in French Navy, to hoist the flag of recently established French Republic.

r Sent r r

emissaries to Arabia, Kabul, Constantinople, Versailles, Mauritius, Iran and Pegu (Burma).

French governor of Isle of France, Monsieur Malartic welcomed envoys and proposals of Tipu. Some Frenchmen landed at Mangalore in April, 1798. British Conquest and Consolidation

31

l

Lord Wellesley: then Governor General: r r r

r

Realized the intentions of Tipu and was determined to wage war overruling suggestions of Madras Council.

Tried to revive the Tripe Alliance of 1790 (Nizam, Maratha, English). Nizam concluded a subsidiary alliance in September, 1798. Maratha gave vague replies.

Course of War l l

War for very short duration.

Battle at Sedaseer (45 mile west of Srirangapatanam) March 5, 1799. r

Stuart defeated Tipu.

r

Gen Harris defeated Tipu.

r

Tipu died fighting gallantly.

l

Battle at Malvelly (35 m east Srirangapatanam) March 27, 1799.

l

Battle at Srirangapatanam: r

of

Srirangapatanam was captured on 4 May, 1799.

Aftermath of War l

Tipu’s family was made captive at Vellore.

l

Wellesley offered:

l

They were suspected of involved in Sepoy mutiny of Vellore, so deported to Calcutta. r r r

Soonda and Harponelly districts to Maratha who refused to accept.

Districts of Gooty and Gurramkonda and a part of dist of Chitaldurg except its fort to Nizam. Wodeyar Dynasty rule established. Minor ruler Krishna raj III of Mysore accepted subsidiary Alliance treaty.

l Later

Lord Bentinck brought Mysore under direct administration of company.

Reason: Misgovernment. l

Lord Ripon restored the royal family to power.

32 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

l

Mysore settlement by Wellesley – “extended the Company’s domain from sea to sea across the basic of the Peninsula”.

l

In 1800, Nizam transferred his acquisitions from Mysore to Company.

RECAP ANGLO-MYSORE WAR First War: 1767-69 Treaty April 14, 1769 - defensive alliance between Haider & English. Second War:1780-84 Treaty of Manglore March 1784-Non-collusion with enemies of one another. Third War:1790-92 Treaty of Srirangpatnam March 1792. Tipu lost the war. Tipu to cede half of his territories to British and its allies. Fourth War:1799 Three Battles: Sedaseer (March 5) Malvelly (March 27) Srirangpatnam (May 4) Tipe died fighting at Srirangpatnam. Rule of Wodeyar Dynasty reestablished.

ANGLO – MARATHA RELATIONS

l

Driven out of the home provinces, Raghoba appealed for help to English at Bombay.

l

At that time, English were on peaceful terms with the Maratha government of Poona.

l

But, the prospect of acquiring maritime territories adjoining Bombay induced them to espouse the cause of Raghoba.

Treaty of Surat l l

l

FIRST ANGLO – MARATHA WAR (1775-82) Immediate Background l

The succession rivalry among the Marathas.

l Young Peshwa Madhav Rao I expired in 1772. l

l l

His successor was his brother Narayan Rao, an inexperienced youth of frivolous habit.

Madhav Rao’s uncle Raghunath Rao or Raghoba was placed under arrest by Narayan Rao. Raghoba conspired against Narayan Rao with a discontented body of infantry.

l

Narayan Rao was murdered on August 30, 1773.

l

After a few months, Nana Fadnavis, a young Brahmana who had luckily escaped from the battlefield of Panipat, began to counteract his measures.

l

l

Raghunath Rao recognized as the Peshwa.

Nana and his party recognized the posthumously born son to late Peshwa’s wife Ganga Bai, and set up a council of regency in his name.

March 7, 1775: between Raghoba & English.

English agreed to help with force of 2500 men, the cost of which to be borne by Raghoba.

Rao, in turn, to cede to English Salsette and Bassein with a part of the revenues of the Broach and Surat districts, promised not to form any alliance with the enemies of the Company, and to include the English in any peace that he concluded with the Poona govt.

Battle of Arras l

Between Allied forces (Colonel Keating and Raghoba) and Poona troops.

l

Date: May 18, 1775.

l

Result: Defeat of Poona troops.

l

Place: Plain of Arras, between river Mahi and town of Anand.

Reaction of Calcutta Council to Treaty of Surat l

Warren Hastings had no objection to ratifying the treaty of Surat.

l

A few months later sent Colonel Upton to Poona to negotiate a peace with Poona regency.

l

But, other members condemned the action of Bombay Council.

Treaty of Purandara March 1, 1776 l l

l

Between Colonel Upton & Poona Authorities.

Annulled treaty of Surat.

Confirmed English retention of Salsette and revenues of Broach. British Conquest and Consolidation

33

l

l

l

Poona to pay 12 lacs of rupees to English to cover the expenses of the campaign.

English renounced the cause of Raghoba, who was to live at Kopargaon in Gujarat

on a monthly pension of Rs. 25000 from Peshwa’s govt.

This treaty did not take effect. Reasons: Bombay Government did not like the terms. It gave shelter to Raghoba. Poona leaders, too, did not fulfill its terms.

Poona Authorities and French l

l

l

Nana Fadnavis warmly received a French adventurer Chevalier de St. Lubin in 1777

and promised to grant a port in Western India.

Result: suspicion in the minds of Bombay Government.

Court of Directors upheld the policy and action of Bombay Government.

Battle of Telegaon l

l

l l l

A renewal of war between British troops and Poona.

British Army: Initially under Colonel

Egerton, later Colonel Cockburn took over the command due to former’s ill-health in Jan 1779.

Place: Telegaon in Western Ghats. Date: January 9, 1779.

Result: Defeat of British.

Convention of Wadagaon l

Treety signed on January 16, 1779.

l Bombay l

l

to

surrender

territories since 1773.

all

acquired

Withdrawal of force arriving from Bengal.

Sindhia to receive a share of revenue of Broach.

34 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

l

Governor General Hastings repudiated this convention.

l

Army sent from Bengal under Col. Goddard who took possession of Ahmadabad on February 15, and captured Bassein on December 11, 1780.

Hastings Efforts to Retrieve Company’s Prestige

l

l

l

l

In April, 1781, they met with a reverse.

In the meantime, Captain Popham, who was sent to support Rana of Gohad, an old enemy of Sindhia, had captured Gwalior on August 3.

General Camay also defeated Sindhia at Sipri (Modern Sivpur) on February 16, 1781.

Result: Mahadji Sindhia changed his attitude and sought to ally himself with the English.

Treaty of Salbai on May 17, 1782 l

Not ratified by Nana Fadnavis till February 26, 1783.

l

English recognized Madhav Rao Narayan as rightful Peshwa.

l

l

English were confirmed in the possession of Salsette. Raghoba was pensioned off.

l

Sindhia got back all territories west of Jumna.

l

This treaty though did not provide for British ‘any impressive gain’, marked a turning point in history of British supremacy in India.

l

l

Hyder Ali, not a party to the treaty, had to give up the territories conquered from the Nawab of Arcot.

It gave them “peace with the Marathas for 20 years”.

Marathas after Salbai l

l

Maratha Confederacy: weak in character. Reason: mutual distrust intrigues of its members.

and

selfish

l But, l

there existed some important personalities like, Ahalya Bai, Mahadji Sindhia and Nana Fadnavis.

Ahalya Bai was praised by Sir John Malcolm. She died in 1795, thereafter Government of Indore passed into the hands of Tukoji Holkar.

l

Tukoji died in 1797.

l

Maintained in his army a number of Rajputs and Mohammadens.

l l

Mahadji Sindhia l l

l

l

l l

After Salbai, abandoned fighting.

Organized his army on European methods by employing Benoit de Boigne, a French expert in military affairs and other Europeans. Made Mughal emperor Shah Alam II his puppet.

Obtained from Shah Alam II the office of Wakil-i-mutuluq for his nominal master, the Peshwa and himself become the Peshwa’s naib or deputy. Gained command over Imperial army.

In fact, he remained in North India as “the nominal slave but the rigid master of unfortunate Shah Alam”.

For the successful campaign –the Marathas concluded a treaty of alliance with Nizam in July, 1784.

Tipu, apprehending the formation of an alliance between the English and the Marathas, concluded a peace-treaty in April 1787 with Marathas. Terms of Treety – r

Tipu to pay 45 lacs of rupees.

r

Tipu to get back the places which the Marathas had conquered.

r

Tipu to cede the districts of Badami, Kittur and Nargund to the Marathas.

l

This agreement did not last long.

l

The allies had united together only to serve their respective interests against the aggressions of Tipu and not out of any feeling of sincere attachment towards one another.

l

On the outbreak of the hostilities between the English and Tipu (1789-1792), the Marathas and the Nizam formed an offensive and defensive alliance with Cornwallis against Tipu.

l By

Nizam vs Marathas

l

l

l

l

l

1792 Mahadji established his ascendency over the Rajputs and the Jats in Northern India.



the Marathas to the south of the Narmada.

To establish his influence at Poona, where Nana Fadnavis controlled all affairs, Mahadji proceeded in June 1792.

During his absence from the North, his neighbour Tukoji Holkar challenged his authority, but was severely defeated at Lakheri near Ajmer. Sindhia died of fever at Poona on February 12, 1794.

His vast possession and resources were inherited by his 13 year old nephew and adopted son, Daulat Rao Sindhia.

Marathas vs Tipu Sultan l

Collision with Tipu Sultan of Mysore became inevitable, as the Marathas wanted to recover the lost territories of

l

l l

l l l

Nizam was an old foe of the Marathas.

As soon as the danger on the part of Tipu lessened, all the Maratha leaders, the Peshwa, Daulat Rao Sindhia, Tukoji Holkar and Raja of Berar – combined together against Nizam.

Immediate cause for war was the Peshwa’s claim to Chauth and Sardeshmukhi over the Nizam.

Nizam’s troops had been trained by the Frenchman Raymond. Nizam kept “two battalions of female sepoys” who took part in the battle. Nizam appealed to the English for help, but got nothing from them. Battle of Kharda or Kurdla in March 1795. Nizam was defeated by the Marathas. British Conquest and Consolidation

35

SECOND ANGLO-MARATHA WAR (1803-1806)

‘POLICY OF SUBSIDIARY

Background l

l

Victory of Marathas at Kharda enhanced their prestige.

But, it was at Kharda that the Maratha chiefs assembled under the authority of the Peshwa for the last time.

Internal Quarrels l Young l

l

Peshwa Madhav Rao Narayan grew tired of Nana’s dictatorship and committed suicide on October 25, 1795. His successor Baji Rao II, son of Raghoba, was a bitter foe of Nana Fadnavis.

Taking advantages, Nizam recovered the territories ceded after his defeat at Kharda.

Arrival of Wellesley and his “Policy of Subsidiary Alliance”.

l l

Lord Mornington (subsequently Marques Wellesley): became Governor-General on April 26, 1798. Earlier he was commissioner of the Board of Control.

Background of 'Policy of Subsidiary Alliance' l l l

l l

l

Critical political situation in India.

Tipu, the ‘Ancient Enemy of The Company’, had greatly improved his position.

Nizam, reduced in reputation as well as real strength’, had welcomed French support.

Daulat Rao Sindhia’s power had arrived at a most alarming eminence. Rajas of Malabar, EXCEPT the RAJA of COORG, were hostile.

The defence of English Empire formed the keynote of Wellesley’s policy. The policy implied that the Indian powers were to make no wars and to carry on no negotiations with any other state whatsoever, without the knowledge and consent of the British Government. The greater principalities were each to maintain a native force commanded by British officers for the preservation of the public peace; and they were each to cede certain territories in full sovereignty to meet the yearly charges of the force. The lesser principalities were to pay a tribute to the paramount power. In return, the British government to protect them against foreign enemies. First state to sign

Apprehension of an invasion by Zaman Shah, the ruler of Kabul.

Nizam Ali Hyderabad (1798)

French alliance with Tipu and Napoleon’s expedition into Egypt with a view to threatening the British position in India.

Awadh (1801)

l Finances l

ALLIANCES’

of Company unsatisfactory condition.

were

36 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

in

an

Mysore (1799) Tanjore (1799)

Marathas did not agree to sign the Subsidiary Alliance with the British Changing Situations in Maratha Camp l

l

Nana Fadnavis died at Poona on March 13, 1800. r

Colonel Palmer remarked, “With him departed all the wisdom and moderation of the Maratha Government”.

r

His death meant the removal of the barrier that had checked to a great extent the disruptive activities of the Maratha chiefs.

r

r r

r r

Peshwa made matters worse by his incessant intrigues. Peshwa murdered Vithuji Holkar, brother of Jaswant Rao Holkar.

Peshwa Baji Rao II in this helpless situation, applied for protection to Wellesley.

Treaty of Bassein l

Baji Rao II consented to accept the subsidiary alliance and signed the Treaty of Bassein on December 31, 1802. r

Territories To be surrendered:

t

In Gujarat.

t

Between the Tapti and the Narmada.

t

To south of the Tapti.

r

r

Incensed by this, Jaswant Rao attacked and defeated the combined armies of Sindhia and Peshwa at Poona on October 23, 1800. Jaswant Rao placed Vinayak Rao, son of Amrita Rao, adopted son of Raghoba, on the Peshwa’s masnad.

Peshwa also surrendered the city of Surat. A subsidiary force, consisting of regular infantry, field artillery and European artillerymen was to be stationed within the Peshwa’s territory in perpetuity; and for the maintenance, territories yielding revenues worth 26 lacs of rupees were surrendered by the Peshwa. Peshwa not to entertain any European hostile to the English.

r The

Daulat Rao Sindhia and Jaswant Rao Holkar entered upon a fierce fight.

Peshwa took refuge at Bassein.

Near the Tungabhadra.

Terms

r

‘Struggle for supremacy at Poona’:

r

l



r

t

r l

Peshwa agreed neither to commence nor to pursue in future any negotiation with any power whatsoever without giving previous notice and entering into mutual consultation with the East India Company. The Peshwa agreed to give up all claims for chauth on the Nizam’s dominions and also agreed not to resort to arms against the Gaekwad.

The Peshwa agreed to the company’s arbitration in all differences between him and the Nizam or the Gaikwad.

A British force under Arthur Wellesley restored Peshwa to his former position on May 13, 1803.

Analysis of Treaty of Bassein l

Dean Hutton remarked, “It trebled the English responsibilities in an instant.”

l

The British suzerainty over India was certainly not foregone conclusion in 1803.

l

l

Owen remarked, “The treaty by its direct and indirect operations gave the company the empire of India”.

The Treaty of Bassein was, as Arthur Wellesley aptly remarked, “a treaty with a cipher (the Peshwa)”. British Conquest and Consolidation

37

l l l l

The other Maratha leaders saw in it an absolute surrender of national independence. The Peshwa, now repentant of his action, sent secret messages, but the Maratha chiefs could not act together. Sindhia (Daulat Rao) and Raghuji Bhonsle II combined to act.

Holkar retired to Malwa and took the field when it was too late.

r

r

Delhi and Agra were captured.

Sindhia’s Army’s defeated: First, at Delhi, in September and Secondly at Laswari, in Alwar State, in November.

l

The English gained successes in Gujarat, Bundelkhand and Orissa, too.

l

Parties – Bhonsle Raja and the English.

Treaty of Devagaon – on December 17, 1803

Second Anglo-Maratha War (August 1803)

l Bhonsle

l

War was conducted in two main centres and three subsidiary centres.

l

r

l

l

l

l

Gaikwad remained neutral.

Main centres

Deccan – under Arthur Wellesley.

r

North India – under General Lake.

Subsidiary centres in: r Gujarat

r Bundelkhand l

r Orissa.

In Deccan: British Success; r

Ahmadnagar captured on August 12, 1803.

r

Grant Duff described this battle as “a triumph more splendid than any recorded in Deccan history”.

r

Battle of ASSAYE: Victory over combined troops of Sindhia and Bhonsle at ASSAYE (45 miles north of Aurangabad).

r

Burhanpur (October 15) and Asirgarh (October 21) were captured.

r

r

l In

Bhonsle Raja’s forces were completely defeated at ARGAON (50 miles east of Burhanpur) on November 29.

Fortress of Gawilgarh captured on December 15, 1803.

NORTH INDIA: British Success

38 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

l

ceded the province of Cuttack, including Balasore and the whole of his territory west of the river Warda.

English to arbitrate henceforth if he had any dispute with the Nizam or the Peshwa. No European or American or a nation at war with the English or any British subject, was to be entertained without the consent of the British Govt. Agreed to maintain a British Resident at Nagpur. First resident was M. Elphinstone.

Treaty of Surji-Arjangaon on December 30, 1803 l

Parties: Sindhia and the English.

l

To the westward, he ceded Ahmadnagar, Broach and all his territories west of Ajanta Hills.

l

l l l

Sindhia gave all his territories between the Ganges and the Jumna and his forts and territories to the north of Rajput principalities of Jaipur, Jodhpur and Gohad.

Renounced all his claims on the Mughal Emperor, the Peshwa, the Nizam and on the British Government. Agreed not to admit into his service European of enemy countries or British subject without consent of the English.

Sir John Malcolm was appointed Resident.

Another Treaty of February 27, 1804 r

Sindhia entered into a Subsidiary Alliance according to which a defence forces of 6000 infantry to be stationed NOT in Sindhia’s territory, BUT near its frontier.

l l

District south of the Ajanta Hills such as Jalnapur and Gondapur (From Sindhia).

Major Factor for Maratha’s Defeat l

Abandoning the harassing tactics of their predecessors and giving preference to Western methods of fighting for which they had to depend on foreigners.

l l

Advantage to the English.

l British l l l

possessions in Madras and Bengal linked up and expanded in other directions. Titular Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II came under their protection.

l l

l

French – trained Battalions in the service of the Marathas were removed.

l

Commencement of hostilities in April 1804.

War with Holkar l Holkar

pursued Marathas.

l Defeated

the

old

tactics

of

Col. Monson at Mukandara Pass (30 Miles south of Kota) compelled him to retreat to Agra.

City was successfully defended by Lt. Col. Ochterlony.

Treaty with Bharatpur Raja by the English might have given an adverse turn for Holkar, but Wellesley sudden recall and a change in policy saved him for a while.

Wellesley’s aggressive policies had raised the company’s debts from 17 million in 1797 to 31 million in 1806. Lord Cornwallis

r

Appointed Governor General for the second time in July 1805. Before anything could be done to reverse subsidiary treaties, he died at GHAZIPUR on October 5, 1805.

Sir George Barlow became the acting Governor General.

Peace concluded with the Sindhia on November 23, 1805. r

Gwalior and Gohad restored to him.

r

Company pledged itself not to enter treaties with the chiefs of Rajputana.

r

Treaties of Alliance concluded with the States of Jodhpur, Jaipur, Macheri, Bundi and the Jat kingdom of Bharatpur. Nizam and Peshwa fell more under their influence.

Holkar’s reversal: got defeat at Dig; another defeat caused by Lord Lake.

r

Result of Anglo-Maratha 2 nd War l

r r

For his loyalty to the British.

Nizam got all territories to the south of Narnulla and Gawilgarh and west of the river Warda (from Bhonsle).

Besieged Delhi from Octoiber 8, to October 14, 1804.

r

REWARD to the NIZAM l

r

He was to claim nothing north of the river Chambal and the company nothing to the South of it.

l Meanwhile, l

Lord Lake hunted Holkar upto Amritsar. Holkar, sought Sikhs’ help, but denied.

Treaty of Rajpur Ghat (December 25, 1805) l l

Holkar gave up all claims to Tonk, Rampura, Bundi Kooch, Bundelkhand and places north of Chambal.

He got back the greater part of his lost territories. British Conquest and Consolidation

39

l

Further despite protest from Lord Lake, Sir Barlow practically surrendered Tonk and Rampura to Holkar and British protection was withdrawn from the Rajput states.

l

l

Thus the Rajput states were left to be distracted by the Maratha inroads into their territories.

l

r

Political, administrative and economic conditions of all the Maratha states were confused and unsatisfactory.

Jaswant Rao assassinated his brother Kasi Rao and his nephew, Khande Rao.

l

Now the real ruler was Tulsi Bai – deceased Holkar’s favourite mistress.

But the course of events made him mad and he died on October 20, 1811. She had the support of Balaram Seth, Jaswant Rao’s minister, and of Amir Khan, leader of central Indian Pathans.

Sindhia l

l

Under the pressure of scarce financial resources, his soldiers were permitted to collect money on their own account from the districts. Morale of the army deteriorated.

Bhonsle l

Exposed to inroads of the Pindaris and the Pathans.

l

None of the three Maratha chiefs in a position to oppose the English openly; and the Gaikwad of Baroda had no desire to violate

l

r

After second Anglo-Maratha war:

l

l

r

Governor General was Lord Hastings.

Holkar

l

Another Trial of Strength:

r

THIRD ANGLO-MARATHA WAR (1817-1818) l

subsidiary alliance treaty of April 1805.

His territory was in the midst of disorder.

40 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r

r r

Murder of Gangadhar Shastri, Chief Minister of Gaikwad.

Shastri, a friend of English, went to Poona in 1814 to settle some disputes with the Peshwa, but was murdered at Nasik at the instigation of Trimbakji Danglia, favourite of Peshwa Baji Rao II.

On the British demand, Baji Rao surrendered Trimbakji to M. Elphinstone who confined the latter in the fortress of Thane. Trimbakji escaped a year later.

By the year 1817, matters became worse.

Peshwa attempted to organize a confederacy with Pathan chief Amir Khan and the Pindaris.

Treaty of Nagpur (May 27, 1816) l

With the death of Raghuji Bhonsle II, his son Parsoji came to power.

l

The English recognized this on his signing a treaty of subsidiary alliance.

l

Appa Saheb, cousin of Parsoji wanted to secure the regency.

Treaty of Poona (June 13, 1817) l

Dealt a severe blow at the power and prestige of Peshwa

l

to commute his claims on Gaikwad to 4 lacs of rupees and to promise not to make further demands on him;

l

Peshwa had to renounce the headship of the Maratha confederacy

l

to surrender to the English, the Konkan and some important strong holds.

Treaty of Gwalior (November 5, 1817) l l

Daulat Rao Sindhia bound himself to cooperate with the English to suppress the Pindaris. The company got full liberty to enter into engagements with the states beyond Chambal.

of the Maratha chiefs were sincerely reconciled to the loss of their independence, so they made another attempt to throw off the British yoke.

l

Trimbakji was kept in life-long confinement in the fort of Chunar.

l Small

kingdom of SATARA formed out of Peshwa’s dominions and was given to Pratap Simha, a lineal descendent of Shivaji.

l None

Battle with Peshwa

l First, Peshwa sacked and burnt the British

l l

l

l l

Residency at Poona, but was completely defeated by British army under Colonel Burr at Khirki.

Then, Nagpur troops under Appa Saheb were defeated at Sitabaldi on November 27, 1817. Holkar’s forces were routed at Mahidpur by Hishop on December 21, 1817.

Holkar was forced to sign the ‘Treaty of Mandsor’ on January 6, 1818. A permanent British Resident was henceforth stationed at Indore. At Nagpur, a minor grandson of Raghuji Bhonsle II was established as Raja. PESHWA, after his defeat at Khirki, fought TWO MORE battles: r at r at r

r

Koregaon on January 1, 1818 and Ashti on February 20, 1818

Was defeated in both.

His able general Gokhle was killed in the second.

l

Baji Rao II surrendered to Sir John Malcolm on the June 3, 1818.

l

Baji Rao to spend his last days at BITHUR near Kanpur on a pension of 8 lacs a year.

l

‘POLICY OF SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE’ Subsidiary Alliance signed by Maratha chiefs in Chronological order: Peshwa (1802) Sindhia (1804) Gaikwad (1805) Bhonsle (1816) Holkar (1818)

Peshwaship was abolished

British Conquest and Consolidation

41

Source: NCERT book 42 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

BRITISH RELATIONS WITH THE SIKHS

l

Rise of the Sikh Power l

Sikh struggle for Independence from 1708 to 1716. r

Under temporal leadership of Banda Bahadur.

r

Banda tortured to death by the Mughal under Farrukh Siyar.

r

l

r r

r

Twelve (12) in numbers - Bhangi, Kanheya, Sukerchakia, Nakai, Fyzallpuria, Ahluwalia, Ramgarhia, Dalewalia, Karora Singhia, Nishanwala, Shid and Nihang Phulkia.

r This

organization described as “Theocratic Confederate Feudalism”.

RANJIT SINGH

Came to a disastrous end by 1716.

Yet, the military spirit of KHALSA remained alive.

r

Facilitated by the invasion of Nadir Shah in 1739 and the first three Abdali inroads (1746-52). Mughal’s hold on Punjab weakened.

The Sikhs fought Abdali and his men in every way. Their aggressions were aggravated through the inefficiency of the Abdali’s lieutenant in Punjab.

Sikhs occupied Lahore on Febuary 1764.

Amritsar Assembly: r Sikhs

proclaimed their COMMONWEALTH by striking coins to the effect that Guru Govind had obtained from Nanak Degh, Tegh, Fateh (grace, power, and rapid victory).

l

Final retirement of Abdali from India in 1767.

l

Sikhs wrested his Indian conquests from his weak successor Timur Shah.

l

r

Reorganization:

r

l

Formation of Confederacies or ‘MISLS’:

By 1773, Sikh’s control extended from Saharanpur in East to Attock in west and from Multan in south to Kangra and Jammu in North.

l

Born on November 13, 1780 and died on June 27, 1839.

l

At the early age of ten, he was to head a small confederacy.

l

l

Son of Maha Singh, leader of Sukerchakia misl.

Zaman Shah of Kabul: r

Zaman Shah invaded India during 1793-1798.

r

In return, he was appointed Governor of Lahore, with the title of RAJA, in 1798.

r l

Ranjit Singh helped him.

Later, Ranjit threw off Afghan suzerainty and moved towards building up of a strong Sikh national monarchy. British Conquest and Consolidation

43

l

l

Absorbed Trans-Sutlej states into his kingdom.

Holkar and Ranjit: r

Holkar, pursued by Lord Lake, sought Ranjit’s help.

r

Treaty of Lahore (January 1, 1806) between Ranjit Singh and Lord Lake.

r

Ranjit’s NO to Holkar. t

l

Agreed to exclude Holkar from Punjab.

in turn, promised to leave Ranjit free to carry on his conquests north of the Sutlej.

r

Cis-Sutlej: the Malwa territories lying between Sutlej and Yamuna rivers.

t

r

r

r

r

t

invasion of India disappeared owing to his engagement in the peninsular war.

r This

encouraged British not to purchase Ranjit’s alliance at such a high cost.

l

Discords and disorders among Cis-Sutlej states resulted in the establishment of Marathas influence after Mahadji Sindhia’s TREATY of 1785 with Sikhs.

British Military intervention: David Ochterlony was sent with troops.

l

A treaty of “perpetual friend ship”.

l

Cis-Sutlej under British protection.

But quarrels among chiefs still persisted.

North, North-West and West Expedition

Cis-Sutlej political situation: t

r Napoleon’s

between Turkey and England improved after Treaty of Dardenelles in January 1809.

Cis-Sutlej Affairs r

Change in the international political situation:

r Relations

t Lake, l

In return, Ranjit asked for English acknowledgment of his supremacy over all the Sikh states.

Later on, the British drove Sindhia out and brought them informally under their protection.

Ranjit Singh intervened in 1806 on the appeal for help by some chiefs.

This forced some of the chiefs to solicit British help.

British Resident at Delhi Mr. Seton unheeded to their appeal in Mar 1808, but Lord Minto - then Governor-General, took recourse to diplomacy with double object of – resisting Ranjit’s advance and enlisting his friendship against an apprehended French invasion.

Metcalfe was sent to negotiate for an offensive and defensive alliance.

44 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Treaty of Amritsar (25 April 1809) l l

l

Ranjit’s activities confined to right side of the Sutlej. English troops stationed at LUDHIANA.

Ranjit’s ambition for eastern expansion foiled.

l Captured

Kangra

(1811)

Attock Afghans at Haidaru.

(1813)

Gurkhas.

l Captured l Gave l l l

defeating

defeating

shelter to Shah Shuja, Afghan King, at Lahore (1813-14). He took from him the famous diamond ‘Kohinoor’. Shah Shuja escaped in 1815 and took shelter in Ludhiana within British sphere of influence. Captured - Multan (1818), Kashmir (1819), Peshawar (1823)

Zamzama-gun employed at the siege of Multan.

l

Sikhs were at the height of power at the time of Ranjit’s death.

l

Both met at Ropar in October, 1831.

l

Renewal of Treaty of Alliance with British

Lord William Bentinck and Ranjit Singh l

l l

Bentinck wanted to utilize the growing Sikh kingdom as a buffer state against suspected Russian designs on India. On May 6, 1834, Peshawar was captured by Har Singh Nalwa and passed formally under Sikh control.

English checked Ranjit’s further expansion in Afghanistan and Sind.

Ranjit Singh Personality l

l l l

l

l l

l l l

Attack of small pox deprived him of sight in left eye.

Styled himself and his people collectively – The ‘Khalsa’ or Commonwealth of Govind”. Transformed warring Sikh states into a compact monarchy.

r Also l

Set up modern foundries to manufacture canon at Lahore and Amritsar. Ranjit’s Army was along European lines.

Radically changed the feudal forces into an efficient national army. Bulk of his army formed by the Sikhs.

l

l

l l l

r r r

r

Allerd – head of cavalry

Venture – head of infantry

His Civil administration lacked certain features of a well organized administration, like – elaborate laws, a fixed judiciary, or an efficient police.

Manufactures and Trade flourished in his kingdom.

He has apprehended the expansion of British dominion, of which he had a presentiment when he said ‘Sab Lal ho Jayega’.

He chose line of least resistance. His Minister: r r

Fakir Azizuddin Diwan Dina Nath – Finance Minister.

FIRST ANGLO-SIKH WAR (1845-46) Background to War l

l

Assisted by – r

Boron Carl Von Hugel – a German Traveller to his court described his kindness and consideration towards his fallen foes. “Never perhaps was so large an empire founded by one man with so little criminality”.

Possessed the Second Best Army in Asia, the First being the army of East India Company. Employed Muslim gunners.

recruited Gurkhas, Biharis, Oriyas, Pathans, Dogras and Punjabi Muslims.

After Ranjit Singh's death – utter confusion within his dominion.

Rulers who ruled between Ranjit Singh and Dalip Singh: r

Kharak Singh

r

Sher Singh

r

Nao Nihal Singh

Avitabile

l

Quick succession due to weak rulers.

Dalip Singh, A Minor

His artillery, headed by Ilahi Baksh, was very efficient.

l

Was acknowledged as king, with his mother, Rani Jhindan as regent in 1843.

Court

British Conquest and Consolidation

45

l

l

l

l

Collapse of central civil government resulted in ascendency of Khalsa army through its delegates, the Panchayats or Committees.

l

FINAL Battle at Sobraon (February 10, 1846):

To get rid of army trouble, Lahore Darbar devised the plan of inducing it to invade British territory so that it would either be totally destroyed or would exhaust its ‘super-abundant energies’.

l

British occupied Lahore on February 20, 1846.

l

Sikhs to cede all territories south of Sutlej, including Jullandhar Doab (between Sutlej and Beas).

Army became virtual dictator.

Provocative acts of British too brought the conflict imminent: r

Sending troops towards Sutlej.

r During

r

1844-45, preparation for building boats at Bombay with object of constructing bridges across the Sutlej. Troops in Sind for attack on Multan.

Course of War l l

l

l l

l

Governor General Lord Harding issued proclamation of war on December 13, 1845. FIRST battle at Mudki (20 mile south east of Ferozpore). r Sir r

Hugh Gough Vs. Lal Singh.

Sikhs got defeated.

Next battle at Ferozshahar on December 21, 1845. r

Betrayal of General Tej Singh led to Sikh’s Debacle.

r

Half heartedness and treachery of almost all the Sikh generals (except Sham Singh) brought defeat to the Sikhs.

Treaty of Lahore (March 9, 1846)

l

l

l l l l

l l l

War indemnity of 1.5 crore rupees – 50 lakhs to be paid in cash and the balance by ceding the hill districts between Beas and Indus including Kashmir and Hazara. Sikh army’s strength reduced.

Sikhs prevented from employing any European or American without British consent. Dalip Singh was recognized as Maharaja. Rani Jhindan as his regent.

Lal Singh as Chief Minister.

Governor General not to interfere in internal administration. British force to be stationed at Lahore till end of 1846. Henry Lawrence: British Resident.

Kashmir l

Was sold by British to Gulab Singh Dogra, a Sardar of Lahore Darbar in 5 million rupees.

Ranjur Singh Majitha in January 1846, attacked frontier station of Ludhiana. Battle of Buddewal (January 21, 1846):

l

Treaty Of Bhaironwal

r

By a separate Amritsar Treaty with Gulab on November 16, 1846.

l

Revision of Lahore Treaty, December 16, 1846.

l

Transferred the Lahore administration to a Council of Regency of 8 Sikh Sardars,

r

Majitha Vs. Harry Smith British were defeated

Battle of Aliwal (west of Ludhiana) January 28, 1846: r

Harry Smith, this time, defeated the Sikhs.

46 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

l

Reason: insurrection against Gulab Singh at the instigation of Lal Singh.

l

who was to act under virtual dictatorship of British resident.

British force to be maintained at Lahore.

l New

l

l

arrangements to continue till Maharaja attained his majority on September 4, 1854 or till the period as Governor General and Lahore Darbar might think necessary.

British Resident after Henry Lawrence (January, 1848). r r

Sir John Lawrence, for brief period. Sir Fredrick Curie (April 6, 1848).

Lord Harding, the Governor General, also left India on January 18, 1848.

SECOND ANGLO-SIKH WAR (1848-49) l l

Governor General: Lord Dalhousie.

l

l

l

l l l

l

Commander in- Chief: Lord Gough.

l

Sikhs feeling humiliated by the English ascendency in Punjab.

Removal of Rani Jhindan from Lahore on a charge of conspiracy against British Resident added to their discontent.

l l

Diwan Mulraj – governor of Multan, was in financial trouble.

Resigned from his post when Lahore Darbar pressed for payment of 1 m sterling as price of the office. Lahore Darbar, then, appointed Sardar Khan Singh to the post and was sent to take charge in the company of two British officers, named – r

Vans Agnew

r

Both were murdered on April 20, 1848.

r

Lt. Anderson

r

r

continuance of hot weather.

to gauge the strength of Lahore Government.

Meanwhile, British Resident Curie sent Sher Singh, governor of Hazara, to join besieging troops at Multan under Lt. Herbert Edwards. But Sher Singh went over to Multan side.

Thus, Multan revolt assumed the nature of a Sikh national movement.

Sikhs won over to their side the Afghans by giving them the city of Peshawar as bait. Battle at Ram Nagar (November 16, 1848). r

Lord Gough Vs. Sher Singh.

r Indecisive

l

Battle at Chilianwala (January 13, 1849)

l

Battle at Multan (January 22, 1849).

Immediate Cause l

But, followed a ‘wait and watch policy’ instead of immediate attack, due to –

Course of War

Background to War l

British found Mulraj guilty of this.

r

British won with heavy losses.

r

British won.

r

Mulraj, being tried by a military court, was transported for life beyond the seas.

l

British losses at Chilianwala brought criticisms for Lord Gough.

l

Battle of Gujarat (a town near Chenab), February 21, 1849.

l

Court of Directors appointed Charles Napier to supersede him. r Lord r r

Gough led the battle, as Napier had not arrived.

Known as ‘Battle of the Guns’ due to artillery action. Sikhs were defeated.

British Conquest and Consolidation

47

l l l l

On March 12, 1849, Sher Singh, Chhatar Singh and all other Chief laid their arms. Afghans were chased by Sir Walter Gilbert. On March 30, 1849, Dalhousie annexed Punjab by a Proclamation. Those who opposed annexation: r

Sir Henry Lawrence

r

His Cabinet.

r

Lord Ellenborough

l

Dalhousie said – “I firmly believe we shall not succeed in establishing a friendly Sikh power”.

l

Dalip Singh sent to England along with his mother Rani Jhindan with a pension of 5 lakh rupees a year.

l l l

ANGLO-SIKH WAR First War: 1845-46 Battle: Mudki, Feroz Shahar, Buddewal, Aliwal and last Sobraon. Treaty of Lahore (March 9, 1846). Amritsar Treaty (November 1846: Gulab Singh Dogra was sold Kashmir by this treaty). Treaty of Bhaironwal (December 1846).

Dalip ultimately embraced Christianity and lived for a time as land owner in Nor Folk.

Second War:1848-49

Later, Dalip returned Punjab and embraced his old faith.

Battle: Ramnagar, Chilianwala, Multan and last Gujarat (A Town near Chenab River).

Rani Jhindan died in London.

Administration of Punjab l

RECAP

At first constitution of a Board of three. r

r r

l In

Henry Lawrence: President

John Lawrence: Member

Charles Mansel: Member

1853, Board was abolished, and John Lawrence was made FIRST chief Commissioner of Punjab.

48 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Battle of Gujarat is also known as 'Battle of Guns'. Punjab was annexed to British empire by Lord Dalhousie.

British Territory in 1857

Source: NCERT book British Conquest and Consolidation

49

NOTES

BRITISH ECONOMIC POLICIES AND IMPACT

PERIOD: 1600-1757 Role of East India Company l

That of a trading corporation

l

Earned profits primarily from the sale of Indian goods abroad.

l

Encouraged production in India to meet the demands.

l

Tried constantly to open market for Indian goods in Britain and other countries.

Indian textiles became very popular in Britain

l

In 1760, a lady paid a fine of £ 200 for having an imported handkerchief.

l

Despite that until middle of 18 th century Indian silk and cotton textiles had primacy in foreign markets.

l

Except Holland, other European countries also either prohibited the import or imposed heavy import duties on plain cloth.

POST- 1757 (AFTER BATTLE OF PLASSEY) TILL 1813 l Qualitative

change in patterns of commercial relations of Company with India.

r

r

r

Daniel Defoe l



An English Trader and author of famous novel Robinson Crusoe (1719), complained that – “Indian cloth had crept into our houses, our closets and bed chambers; curtains, cushions, chair and at last beds themselves were nothing but calicos or Indian stuffs.”

British manufacturers pressurized the government to restrict and prohibit the sale of Indian goods in England. l

In 1720, laws passed forbidding the wear or use of printed or dyed cotton cloth.

52 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r

r r

r

Company used its political control over Bengal to acquire monopolistic control over Indian trade and production. It utilized revenue of Bengal to finance its Indian exports.

It used its political power to coerce weavers of Bengal to sell their products at cheaper and dictated prices, even at a loss.

Indian labourers were compelled to work for the Company for low wages and were forbidden to work for Indian merchants.

Company prevented Indian or foreign traders from offering higher wages to Bengal handicraftsmen.

Servants of the Company monopolized the sale of raw cotton and made the Bengal weavers pay high prices for it. Thus Bengal weaver lost both ways – as buyer as well as seller. At the same time, Indian textiles had to pay heavy duties on entering England.

­r £ 4.3 million worth of raw cotton.

1813: INTRODUCED NEW PHASE 1813 l

Monopoly of East India Company to trade with India was abolished.

l

Main aim:

l

A policy of free trade or unrestricted entry of British goods was followed. r

r

To transform India into a consumer of British manufactures and a supplier of raw materials. Agricultural India to be made an economic colony of industrial England.

l

l

l l l

l

l

l

Free trade was one-sided, as Indian products were subjected to heavy import duties on entry into Britain.

In 1824 a duty of 67.5 per cent on Indian calicos and 37.5 per cent on Indian muslins levied. Indian sugar to pay a duty 3 times its cost price.

Prohibitive import duties on entry to England, free trade or unrestricted entry into India and cheaper products of British Mills gave a big blow to Indian handicrafts industry. India was now forced to export raw materials like raw cotton and raw silk or plantation products like indigo and tea, or food grains. In 1856 India exported:

r

£ 7.7 lakh worth of raw silk.

£ 1.7 million worth of indigo.

Company promoted sale of Indian opium in China and earned large profits and revenues, when import of opium was banned in China.

1813 after-effects l A

policy of fresh conquests and direct occupations of Indian States to increase the number of purchasers of British goods. For example: r 1813-22 r

Indian handicrafts faced unequal competition with machine-made British products.

Imports of British goods increased from £ 1.1 million in 1813 to £ 6.3 million in 1856.

£ 2.9 million worth of food grains.

r

New British economic relations with India l

r

under Lord Hastings: Maratha and Rajputana states. Conquest of Sind in 1843 and Punjab in 1846.

r 1848-56

l

under Lord Dalhousie: annexation of Satara (1848), Nagpur, Sambhal and Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852) and Awadh (1856).

Westernization of India through modern western education and thought was conceptualized and implemented to create a social class of Indians having a natural inclination for western goods. r

r

r r

Charter Act of 1813 incorporated the principle of encouraging learned Indians and promoting knowledge of modern sciences and directed the Company to spend one lakh of rupees for this purpose. Act of 1835: Lord Macaulay system of education – teaching of western sciences and literature through medium of English language.

Macaulay opinion: “Oriental learning was completely inferior to European learning.” Wood’s Dispatch 1854: Government of India to

asked spread

British Economic Policies and Impact

53

l

education of the masses. Department of Education instituted in all provinces. Universities set up at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1857.

Development of modern means transport and communication:

r r

Means of transport confined bullock-cart and packhorse.

r

of

r

to

These were obstacles for easy flow of British manufactures into India and India’s raw materials to Britain on a large scale.

r Introduced r Started

l

r

r

steamships on the rivers.

r

improving roads. For example, work on GT (Grand Trunk) Road from Calcutta to Delhi started in 1839 and completed in 1850s.

Introduction of Railway:

r

r r

r

r

r

By end of 1869, more than 6000 km of rail network built with private investment. In 1869 Government of India decided to build new railways as state enterprises.

Lack of speedy railway extension again brought change in policy and after 1880 railways were built through Private enterprises as well as State agency. By 1905: 45000 km of railway lines built. Three important aspects development of Indian Railways: t

Entire amount of over Rs 350 crores was invested by British investors; Indian capital only negligible share.

First railway engine designed by George Stephenson put on rails in 1814 in England.

t Government

Steam-driven railways in India was proposed in 1834.

t Primary

of India fixed guaranteed return of 5% on capital invested. This catered the loss of private investors, though the rate of interest on their loans was 3% in 1850 in Britain.

Earliest suggestion to build railway in India was made in Madras in 1831 but wagons to be drawn by horses. It was decided Indian Railways were to be constructed and operated by private companies with Government of India guarantee of 5 per cent on their capital. First railway line between Bombay and Thane opened to traffic in 1853.

Lord Dalhousie, an ardent supporter of rapid railway construction, laid down an extensive programme of railway development creating a network of four main trunk lines which would link interior of the country with big ports.

54 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

of

l

consideration in planning, construction and management of railway was to serve the economic, political and military interests of British Imperialism in India.

Established Modern Postal System and Introduced Telegraph. r

First telegraph line from Calcutta to Agra opened in 1853.

r

He cut down postal rates and charged uniform rate of half an anna for a letter all over the land.

r

Lord Dalhousie introduced postage stamps.

DRAIN OF WEALTH MAIN CONSTITUENTS OF 'DRAIN OF WEALTH' Investments

l

l l

l l

Meant the British exported part of India’s wealth and resources to Britain for which India got no adequate economic or material return. Till 1757, English traders imported bullion into India in return for exports of Indian cotton and silk.

Drain of wealth from Bengal started in 1757 after Battle of Plassey, when Company’s servants sent money or material extorted from Indian rulers, zamindars, merchants and common people to Britain.

Between 1758 and 1765: £ 6 million sent to England; this amount was 4 times total revenue of Bengal in 1765. In 1765, East India Company got diwani rights and thus gained control over Bengal’s revenue.

Drain Amount l

By end of 18 th century: nearly 9 per cent of India’s national income.

l

Constituted nearly 2 per cent of Britain’s national income by beginning of 19 th century.

l

By end of 19 th century: nearly 6 per cent of India’s national income and one-third of its national savings.

With the grant of diwani rights, Company began to purchase Indian goods out of revenues of Bengal and then exported them to Britain. These purchases were known as ‘Investments’. Remittances to England Salaries, Incomes and Savings by English Civil, Military, and Railway Employees. Payments in England by Government of India of pensions and furlough allowances of English officials. Home Charges Purchase of military stores expenditure on India Office Establishment Interest on debts. interest on railway capital investments Non-effective charges of army Pensions and gratuities payable in England to retired civil servants.

British Economic Policies and Impact

55

l

l

1765-1770:

£ 4 million worth of goods or 33 % of net Bengal revenue sent out.

Total

debt of the company i.e. £ 69 million was taken over by the Crown when company rule ended.

l

Rs 47 crores were added to India’s debt as cost of crushing the Mutiny.

l

Annual interest constituted a huge drain.

l l l



r

r

India’s debt kept on rising and stood around £ 884 million in 1939. Britain’s early industrialization owed much to the wealth drained out of India.

John Sullivan, President of Board of Revenue, Madras remarked:

“Our system acts very much like a sponge, drawing up all the good things from the banks of the Ganges, and squeezing them down on the banks of the Thames.”

First exponent of the ‘theory of drain’ in his paper ‘England’s debt to India’.

t

t

Drain was ‘evil of all evils’.

Drain was the ‘cause of India’s poverty’.

From 1867 Dadabhai continuously wrote and propagated the drain theory. His works:

t

Poverty and Un-British Rule (1867)

t

The Wants and Means of India (1870).

t

On the Commerce of India (1871).

Justice M G Ranade:

l

r

l

Exponents of ‘THEORY OF DRAIN’

Delivered a lecture in 1872 and observed ‘one-third of national capital was taken away by the British in some form or the other’.

R.C. Dutt: r

In his ‘Economic History of India’ (1901) pronounced ‘one-half of net revenues flows annually out of India’.

r

Considered the drain more devastating than the loot and plunder of Nadir Shah.

r

Congress proclaimed that the famines in India and poverty of people were the outcome of the continuous drain of wealth going on for years.

Drain theory officially adopted by the Congress in 1896 at its Calcutta session.

LAND REVENUE POLICY l

British did not adopt a uniform land revenue policy.

System of Auctioning the land

Dadabhai Naoroji l

The Grand Old Man of India.

56 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

l Earliest l

land revenue settlement introduced by Warren Hastings in Bengal. Assumption was that all land belonged to the Sovereign.

l l

Auctioning of land to the highest bidders. This system did not succeed: r

r

They became the owners of entire land in their zamindaris.

r

They acted as agents of government in collecting land revenue from the ryots.

r Their

Actual collection did not match the auctioned amount.

r Neither

ryot nor zamindar did anything to improve cultivation when they did not know what next year’s assessment would be or who would be next year’s revenue collector.

r ­

PERMANENT SETTLEMENT



r

r ­

r

Lord Cornwallis

l l l

Introduced in Bengal and Bihar in 1793 by Lord Cornwallis.

Later extended to Orissa, Northern districts of Madras and District of Varanasi. John Shore: the man who planned this settlement. Two special features:

Firstly, zamindars and revenue collectors converted into landlords.

was

The ryots reduced to status of mere tenants and deprived of longstanding rights to the soil and other customary rights like use of pasture and forest lands, irrigation canals, fisheries etc.

Secondly, sums to be paid by zamindars were fixed in perpetuity. r ­

l

right of ownership hereditary and transferable.

Zamindars to give to government 10/11th of rental derived from the ryots, keeping only 1/11th for themselves.

If rental of a zamindar’s estate increased due to extension of cultivation and improvement of agriculture or his capacity to extract more from his tenants or any other reason, he would keep the entire amount of increase. State would not make any further demand.

But zamindar to pay his part of revenue by due date (Sunset Law). According to it, if payment not done by Sunset of due date, the zamindari would be auctioned.

Why Permanent Settlement? l

Need to create political allies: r

Being foreigners British needed local support.

r

Evidently there were large numbers of popular revolts in Bengal during last quarter of 18 th century.

r ­

Zamindars to act as a buffer between British and the common people.

British Economic Policies and Impact

57

r l

Newly created privileged class of zamindars owing their existence to British rule, would support it.

Predominant motive was financial security:

r Before r

1793, Company income, particularly land revenue, fluctuated drastically. Constant engagement in wars of expansion, civil establishment of Bengal, Madras and Bombay, and purchase of Indian goods for export caused severe financial stress.

r ­ Permanent l

Settlement stability of income.

guaranteed

Objective was to increase agricultural production: r

r

r

By 1779, rural economy in Bengal was in crisis - recurrent famines and declining agricultural output.

Official felt that agriculture, trade and revenue resources of State could be increased by encouraging investment in agriculture. It was thought that since land revenue was fixed and would not be increased, zamindars would be inspired to extend cultivation and increase productivity

Critical Appraisal l l

l

RYOTWARI SETTLEMENT

Thomas Munro l

l

Over 75 percent of zamindaris changed hands after the Permanent Settlement.

l Zamindars,

though theoretically landlords, in reality were tenants of East India Company.

58 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Later gradually extended to Bombay Presidencies, portions of Assam & Coorg.

l Features:

r Settlement

Arbitrary fixation of revenue without consulting zamindars. So high and impossible revenue demand. Result: half the zamindari lands were put to sale between 1794 and 1807.

First introduced in parts of Madras at the instance of Captain Reed and Thomas Munro, Madras officials.

r

r

r

directly cultivators (ryots).

with

actual

Ryot was recognized as owner of his land subject to payment of land revenue. Settlement was not permanent.

Revised periodically after 20 to 30 years.

Why Ryotwari? l

Since these regions had no zamindars with large estates, introduction of zamindari settlement would upset the existing state of affairs.

l

Under Permanent Settlement; r ­

r

l

East India Company was a financial loser. Revenue demand was fixed permanently, so no chance of increase in revenue in future.

Critical Analysis l

Ryots soon started feeling that in place of a number of zamindars, one large zamindar in the form of State existed.

l

Ryots were government tenants whose lands were sold if revenue not paid in due time.

l

Ryot’s right of ownership of his land were negated by 3 other factors:

l

Land revenue was RENT and not a tax. r

r r

Land revenue fixed was exorbitant. In Madras, fixed at 45 to 55 per cent of gross production. Same was the situation in Bombay.

Government had the right to enhance land revenue at will, without consulting the ryots.

Revenue was to be paid in distress time like drought or floods, even though crops were partially or wholly destroyed.

MAHALWARI SYSTEM l

A modified version of zamindari settlement.

l

Later on to other parts of Ganga valley, North-West Provinces, parts of Central India and Punjab.

l

l

Two-fold settlement:

­

Payment of land revenue to state was joint and collective responsibility of all peasants of the village.

­ Ownership and occupancy rights reserved for individual peasants and cultivation was to be done by the peasant.

Cultivators were left at the mercy of the Zamindars.

Motive was to ameliorate the conditions of the peasants.

r

l l

r

Under this system, land revenue was periodically revised.

In Punjab, a modified Mahalwari System known as Village System introduced.

Over all analysis of British Land Revenue Policy: r

British created a new form of private property in land.

r

This was done primarily to protect government revenue. In case of nonpayment by ryots or zamindars, government could sell the land and realize its revenue.

r

r

Land was made a commodity, which could be freely sold and bought or mortgaged.

A fundamental change in the nature of ownership of land had shaken the entire structure of rural society.

IMPACT OF POLICIES

LAND

REVENUE

Impoverishment of Peasantry

Introduced first in Agra and Awadh region.

Features: r

Revenue settlement made village by village or estate by estate (mahal) with land lords or heads of families.

British Economic Policies and Impact

59

l

Peasants remained at the mercy of Zamindars in case of Permanent or Temporary Zamindari Settlement and of Government in Ryotwari or Mahalwari Settlement. r r r

Heavy land revenue assessment was the main cause of poverty.

Land revenue demand increased from Rs 15.3 crores in 1857-58 to Rs 35.8 crores in 1936-37. Evil of high revenue demand and rigid manner of collection:

t

Peasant got little economic return.

t

Cunning and deceitful measures of moneylenders put the peasantry under perpetual debt.

t

l

Inability to pay revenue forced them to borrow from moneylenders at high rate of interest and mortgage land to moneylenders.

Peasantry was burden of –

r Government

crushed

under

triple

r Zamindar l

r Moneylender

Result: increase in the incidence of rural debt and famines. r r

r

r

Rural debt in 1911: Rs 300 crores increased to Rs 1800 crores in 1937.

William Digby, a British writer, calculated that over 28 million (2.8 crore) people died due to famine during 1854-1901.

William Hunter, the compiler of Imperial Gazetteer: “Forty million of people of India habitually go through life on insufficient food”. Charles Elliot, a member of GovernorGeneral’s Council, remarked: “half of agricultural do not know from one year’s end to another what it is to have a full meal”.

60 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

MAJOR FAMINES OF INDIA Agra famine: 1837-38 Upper Doab (Agra, Delhi, Hissar region) famine 1860-61 Over 2 lakhs died Orissa, Bihar, Bengal famine 1865-66 20 lakh people died, in Orissa alone Western UP, Bombay and Punjab 1868-70 More than 14 lakh died Rajasthan famine 1869 Bihar famine 1873-74 Deccan (Madras, Mysore, Hyderabad, Maharashtra) and Western UP famine 1876-78 WORST famine till that date. 1896-97 famine caused by drought countrywide Over 45 lakh people died Famine of 1899-1900 Over 25 lakh lost lives Bengal famine 1943 30 lakh died

Growing power and influence of moneylender l

In pre-British times, moneylender was subordinated to the village community. r r

Could not charge usurious rates of interest. Could not seize the land of the debtor.

r Could l

l

l

l l l

l

only take possession of personal effects, like jewellery or parts of standing crops.

British period brought a notable change with the implementation of new land revenue policies by which land was made a commodity which could be bought and sold or mortgaged.

Moneylenders’ role and influence grew due to high revenue demand and the resultant impoverishment and debt-catch of peasantry. New legal system and police system helped the moneylenders. Complicated processes of law advantage to the moneylenders.

were

l

l

l

Thus, moneylenders became the CURSE of the countryside and CAUSE of growing poverty of peasantry.

l l

By 1815 nearly half of the landed property of Bengal transferred from old zamindars to merchants and other moneyed class. Old zamindars had resided in the villages and had a long traditional relationship with the peasants, so they could not become too harsh and ruthless in

This absentee landlordism led to growth of ‘SUB-INFEUDATION’ or intermediaries who were quite ruthless in collecting revenue and had little sympathy for peasants.

Another new development was that subleasers of land ‘further sub-let’ their rights in land. Thus by a chain-process a large number of rent-receiving intermediaries sprang up between actual cultivator and the government. Main factors responsible: r

New land revenue policies and its excessive land revenue demand.

r

Overcrowding of agriculture resulting in sub-division and fragmentation of land.

r

During 1857 revolt, first target of attack by peasantry was the moneylenders and their account books. The heaviness of land revenue and the rigid law of collection worked havoc.

Ruin of Old Zamindars gave birth to new ‘ABSENTEE’ class in rural society in the form of Merchants and other moneyed class, who lived in towns and leased out land at exorbitant rent to eager persons.

Stagnation and Deterioration of Agriculture

r

Ruin of Old Zamindars and Rise of New Landlordism l

extorting revenue from the peasants which in turn failed them to meet the revenue demand of the government and finally loss of their zamindaris.

r

l

l

Growth of landlordism infeudation.

and

sub-

Increasing indebtedness and growing impoverishment of the cultivators. Lack of modernization of agriculture.

Agricultural production fell by 14 per cent between 1901 and 1939.

In England, rich peasants invested capital in their land to increase its productivity. But in India the absentee landlords had no such intention.

Indian agriculture dominated by ‘rentreceivers’ who preferred to increase their income by further squeezing British Economic Policies and Impact

61

l

tenants rather than by making productive investments in their lands.

Even, the Government neglected the peasant and the agriculture. r

r r r

By 1905, Government spent Rs 360 crores on railways, but less than Rs 50 crores on irrigation.

r r

l Commercialization

interests. r

l

l

ordinary centuries old.

implements

In 1951: Iron-ploughs – 9.30 lakh while Wooden-ploughs: 31.8 million

In 1922: only 1.9 per cent of all cropped land was under improved seeds. It rose to 11 per cent in 1938-39.

Indigo Dye Factory in Bengal t

Agricultural education was completely neglected. In 1939 only 6 agricultural colleges with 1306 students.

Commercialization in the beginning was mostly forced one rather self-initiated.

r r r

Indigo plantation in Bengal, Tinkathia system of Champaran (Bihar).

Forceful cultivation of indigo on best land of peasants.

Forced to take meagre amount as advance & enter into fraudulent contracts.

62 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

t ­

Used as a dye in British textile industry.

Introduced at the end of 18th century in India.

Cotton and raw silk: produced for British textile mills.

Tea: to replace the purchase of Tea from China, for which they had to pay in Silver.

Opium: for sale in China, where it was in great demand.

Adverse Impacts l Exploitation

of Indian peasants by planters, merchants and moneylenders. r­

For example:

r

British

were

Main cash crops were indigo, cotton, jute, raw silk, opium, sugarcane, tea, spices etc.

r

serve

Hardly any modern machinery used.

Commercialization meant growing cash crops which could be sold in the markets to earn cash and profit.

r

Indigo

to

No technological intervention took place.

COMMERCIALIZATION OF AGRICULTURE l

Price paid for indigo was far below the market price.

No efforts or measures taken for modernization of agriculture.

r Even r

r

l

This resulted in several protests, riots and revolts. For example, Indigo Revolts of Bengal (1859-60), Deccan Riots (1875), Champaran Satyagraha (1917).

Further impoverishment of peasantry: r Indian

peasantry was already suffering the adversities caused by new land revenue policies.

r ­ Meanwhile,

l

forced growing of commercial crops, which reaped benefits for others, was added misery for them.

Adversely affected by the demand and price fluctuations of World market. r ­

r

l l

Commercialization of Indian agriculture was more export-oriented, so demand and price were dependent on conditions of world market.

For example: Civil war in America in 1862 created demand resulting in rise in cotton exports which brought prosperity to peasants. But, end of civil war in 1864 caused acute depression in cotton exports resulting in fall in prices.

Beneficial to British traders, planters and also to some extent Indian middlemen and moneylenders. Beneficial to Industrial Revolution in England by providing raw cotton, raw jute, raw silk, indigo at very cheaper prices.

TRANSFORMATION OF INDIAN ECONOMY INTO COLONIAL ECONOMY Pre-British Structure l

l

All previous foreign conquests overthrew Indian political powers but made little basic changes in country’s economic structure. Basic economic pattern of self-sufficient rural economy was not disturbed.

British Period l

l

British never became part of Indian life, remained foreigners throughout.

British actions driven by the needs and interests of their economy.

l Therefore

disrupted the structure of Indian economy.

traditional

DEINDUSTRIALISATION l

Means collapse of Urban Handicraft Industry and ruins of artisan and craftsmen.

Reasons l

l

l



l l

1813 Policy of free trade led to invasion of British manufactures into India.

Unequal competition with cheaper and mass-scale machine made products facilitated by Industrial Revolution of England.

Role of Railways: This paved the way for deeper and remotest reach of British manufactures, particularly cotton textiles. D.H. Buchanan, an American writer, remarked – “The armour of the isolated self-sufficient village was pierced by the steel rail and its life blood ebbed away.”

High import duties and other restrictions on import of Indian goods into Britain virtual closing of European markets after 1820.

Oppressive measures by Company and its servants: r r ­ r ­ r r ­

East

India

coerced weavers of Bengal to sell their products at cheaper and dictated prices, even at a loss.

compelled to work for the Company for low wages and were forbidden to work for Indian merchants.

prevented Indian or foreign traders from offering higher wages to Bengal handicraftsmen.

Servants of the Company monopolized the sale of raw cotton and made the Bengal weavers pay high prices for it. Thus Bengal weaver lost both ways – as buyer as well as seller. British Economic Policies and Impact

63

l

Gradual disappearance of Indian rulers and courts who were the main customers of handicrafts.

l

Impact l

ruin of towns and cities, famous for manufacture. r r

l

l

l

Dhaka, Surat, Murshidbad severely affected. By end of 19th century, urban population was only 10 % of total population.

No alternative employment for ruined handicraftsmen and artisans.

Downfall of traditional industries was not accompanied by the growth of modern industries, as was the case in Britain and Western Europe. Destruction of rural crafts broke up the union between agriculture and domestic traditional industry. r r

On the one hand, millions of rural artisans lost their traditional livelihood and became agricultural labourers.

On the other, millions of peasants, who worked part-time as artisans of spinning and weaving, lost this supplemental job and forced to rely solely on agriculture.

l

l l l

l l

l l

already stressed agriculture because of new British land revenue policy, became overcrowded.

r

colony

of

For example, from the largest exporter of cotton goods in the World, India became importer of cotton products and exporter of raw material.

64 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

“The misery hardly finds a parallel in the history of commerce. The bones of the cotton-weavers are bleaching the plains of India.”

MODERN

First Textile Mill: in 1853 in Bombay by Cowasjee Nanabhoy. First Jute Mill: in Rishra (Bengal) in 1855. Cotton Textile Mills: r r

1879: 56 mills employing 43,000.

1905: 206 mills employing 196,000.

Jute Mills: r r

1882: 20 mills nearly 20,000 persons employed. 1901: 36 mills with 115,000 persons.

Coal-mining industry employed nearly 1 lakh persons.

Industries developed during 2 nd half of 18 th and beginning of 19 th century. r

Rice, flour and timber mills

r

Woolen Textiles

r r l

OF

Machine age in India began in 1850s when cotton textile, jute and coal-mining industries started.

r

Census report reveals increasing population pressure on agriculture: 63.7% in 1901 to 70% in 1941.

India became agricultural manufacturing Britain.



DEVELOPMENT INDUSTRIES

r Consequently,

r

William Bentinck, Governor-General of India, remarked in 1834-35:

r

Leather Tanneries Sugar Mills

Iron and Steel Works

Mineral industries like salt, mica and saltpeter.

Industries developed during 1930s: r Cement r Paper r Glass

r Sugar

l

Ownership Industries. r r r

r

r l

and

control

of

l

r

Most of modern Indian industries owned or controlled by British capital. Only in the cotton textile industry Indians have a large share from the beginning.

In the 1930s, sugar industry developed by Indians. Banks mostly dominated by British financiers. In 1914, 70 per cent of all bank deposits in India were held by foreign banks. In many cases, even Indian owned companies also controlled and managed by foreign owned agencies.

Weakness of Indian industrial effort:

r l

r

r

r For r

r

many goods India and neighbours were a ready market.

All help and favours from Colonial Government.

r

Manufacture of Indigo:

r

r

profitable investment opportunities at Home (Britain).

r r

Railway policy discriminated against Indian enterprises. Railway freight rates encouraged foreign imports at the cost of trade in domestic products.

British enterprises had close connection with British suppliers of machinery and equipment, shipping, insurance companies, marketing agencies.

t ­

Invention of synthetic dye led to decline of indigo industry.

t

t

r

Introduced at the end of 18th century in India. Also oppression by indigo planters led to famous revolt in Bengal in 1859 which was portrayed by Dinbandhu Mitra in his play Neel Darpan in 1860.

Tea Industry:

t­

r

European

Used as dye in textile industry.

t

Government favoured British Capital as against Indian Capital.

in

t ­

t

Advantages to British Enterprises r

Almost exclusively ownership. t ­

r Fewer r

India lagged behind in development of electric power.

Plantation industries: Indigo, Tea and Coffee.

its

Many Indian products like tea, jute and manganese had ready demand world over.

First steel in India was produced in 1913.

r

Extremely cheap labour.

Readily available raw materials.

Lack of basic heavy and capital goods industries like iron and steel, metallurgy, machine, chemical and oil.

Growth of Plantation Industries:

Why foreign investment in India? r

l

Modern

t ­

Developed in Assam, Bengal, South India and hills of Himachal Pradesh after 1850. Almost foreign owned.

Helped by government with grant of rent-free lands and other facilities.

Use of tea spread in India.

Also an important item of export.

Coffee Plantations:

t ­

In South India.

t

Hardly any advantage to Indians.

Benefits of Plantation Industry:

t ­

Since foreign owned, so profits went out of India. British Economic Policies and Impact

65

t

Technical staff was foreign and equipments purchased abroad.

t

Only advantage to India: low paid unskilled jobs were for the Indians.

t ­

t l

Products sold in foreign markets and foreign exchange earned was utilized by Britain.

t t ­

But the conditions of the workers were not good: long working hours etc.

Critical Analysis of Growth of Modern Industries. r r

r

Mostly confined:

t ­

t ­

To cotton and jute industries, and tea plantations in 19 th century; by 1946, they accounted for 40% of workers employed in factories. To sugar and cement in 1930s.

In terms of production as well as employment, Indian industrial development was no match to that in European countries of the time.

t ­ t ­ t ­

r

t ­

Exceedingly slow.

Did not address the problems arose out of ruin of Indian handicrafts industries. Had little effects on problems of poverty and overcrowding of land

Number of persons engaged in processing and manufacturing fell from 10.3 million in 1901 to 8.8 million in 1951, though population increased by 40%.

No Government protection to Indian Industry:

t­

In a period of infancy, instead of protection, Indian industries faced

66 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r No

free trade policy for foreign manufactures in India while heavy import duties for its products abroad.

Some tariff protection in 1920s and 1930s given but with discrimination. No tariff protection to Indian owned industries such as cement, iron and steel and glass, while protection to foreign dominated industries like match industry.

British imports given special privileges under system of ‘imperial preferences’.

adequate arrangements technical education.

r

r

for

­t

In 1939 only 7 Engineering colleges with 2217 students.

t ­

Concentrated in few regions and cities.

t ­

Industrial capitalist class and modern working class.

t ­

They represented new system of economic organization and new social relations.

Industrial lop-sided.

development

extremely

Important social consequence: birth and growth of two new social classes. t

t

Both of them possessed all-India outlook.

Though very small part of Indian population, played significant economic and political role.

CIVIL SERVICES IN BRITISH INDIA

Writers Building Kolkata r

PHASE I: TILL 1858 

Civil Service was brought into existence by Lord Cornwallis. r r





r

He enforced the rules against private trade and acceptance of presents and bribes by officials with strictness. He raised the salaries of the Company servants.

Promotion in the Civil Service by seniority.

In 1800, Lord Wellesley established the College of Fort William at Calcutta (Kolkata) for the education of young recruits to the Civil Service.

The directors of the Company disapproved of Wellesley’s action and in 1806 replaced Fort William College with East Indian College at Haileybury in England.

Exclusion of Indians 

Special feature since Cornwallis was complete exclusion of Indians from the Civil Service.

68 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India



In 1793, it was laid down that all higher posts in administration worth £500 a year in salary were to be held by Englishmen.

Why policy of exclusion of Indians? r

r

The belief that an administration based on British ideas, institutions and practices could be firmly established only by English personnel. The ability and integrity of Indians were not trusted.

Example:



r

Charles Grant, Chairman of the Court of Directors, condemned the people of India as ‘a race of men lamentably degenerate and base….’ Cornwallis believed that “every native of Hindustan is corrupt”.

It was a deliberate policy as the consolidation of British Rule in India required the services of the Britishers, and could not be left to Indians.

r

The influential classes of British society were keen to preserve the monopoly of lucrative appointments in Indian Civil Service.

Maximum Age

Year of Introduction

23

1859

21

Charter Act of 1853 

r

Till 1853 – all appointments to the civil service was made by the Directors of East India Company.

 The

Charter Act of 1853 decreed that all recruits to the Civil Service be selected through a competitive examination.



After 1858, unitary control of British Parliament over Indian Administration established. r

r



Indian officials now responsible only to Secretary of State.



1833 Act legalized appointment of Indians even to the highest offices of the State. But, provisions of the Act of 1793 that laid down that ‘none but covenanted servants of Company could hold any office with a salary of more than £800 a year, was not repealed.

r Formerly

r r r

these officers were nominated partly by Directors of the Company and partly by Board of Control. System of OPEN COMPETITION introduced in 1853 and reaffirmed in 1858. Competition was open for all natural born citizens of Her Majesty. Indian Civil Service Act 1861.

1878

In 1870, an Act was passed authorizing appointment of Indians to higher offices Without any Examination.

t ­

Reason: inadequacy of Indians in administration.

t ­

Rules adopted in 1879 says that ‘a proportion not exceeding one-sixth of total number of Covenanted Civil Service appointed in any year by Secretary of State, should be natives in India selected by local government subject to approval of GovernorGeneral-in-Council.

Secretary of State was put in sole charge of India.

Only in 1879, this Act came into effect.

t ­ These

officers were called ‘Statutory Civil service’, recruited from young men of ‘good family and social position’.

Appointment of Indians in public offices: r

19

t

PHASE II: 1858-1905

1866



In 1866, Lord Dufferin appointed a Commission under Sir Charles Atchison as its chairman. r

Recommendation of the Commission: t

Idea of holding simultaneous exam in India rejected.

t

Proposed ‘Provincial Civil Service’ in every province, either by promotion from lower ranks or by direct recruitment.

t

t t

Abolition of Statutory Civil Service.

Terms ‘Covenanted’ and ‘Uncovenanted’ were replaced by “Imperial’ and ‘Provincial’.

Below Provincial Civil Service would be a Sub-ordinate Civil Service. Civil Services in British India

69

r r

 

Recommendation accepted. Henceforth ‘Covenanted Civil Service’ renamed as “Indian Civil Service’ (ICS). In other branches of administration like, Police, Education, Public Works, Medical Departments, similar division into Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate service introduced.

In 1893, the House of Commons passed a resolution in favour of Simultaneous Exam in England as well as India for ICS.

r ­



Lord Lansdowne government in India opposed the resolution.



t ­

25% of post in Superior Civil Service be filled from among Indians partly by direct recruitment and partly by promotion from lower service.

r

Holding of an exam in India for recruitment.

r

Montagu-Chelmsford report 1918: r

r

r

t

All racial distinctions be abolished.

83% of posts in Superior Civil Service be recruited in India. This percentage be increased by 1.5 percent annually until situation revised by the Commission.



For all public services, there must be a system of appointment in India.

From 1922, exam for ICS began to be held in India.

Indianisation perturbed members of Superior Civil Service.

Secretary of State-in-Council introduced a scheme:

70 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

All India officers – ICS, IPS, IFS (Forest) – and Engineers of Irrigation branch be appointed and controlled by Secretary of State-in Council.

r Services

r Recommendation:

 Growing 

r

Lord Islington Commission (1912) – Gopal Krishna Gokhle was its member. t



Lord Lee Commission June 1923;

Recommendation:

PHASE III: 1906-1938 

All India Officers (ICS, IPS, IFS-forest) selected for appointment before 1 January 1920 and not permanently employed, were allowed to retire before completion of normal period of service on a pension proportionate to their length of service.

Indianisation of services:

t ­ t ­ t­

20% from PCS by promotion.

40% from direct recruit Indians.

Rest 40% from direct recruit British.

Establishment Commission"

of

Public

Service

Result – Commission was established on October 1, 1926 with 5 whole time members and Sir Ross Barker as Chairman.

Government of India Act 1935: r Provided

for establishment of Federal Public Service Commission and Provincial Public Service Commission.

r l

in ‘transferred subjects’ be controlled by the Provincial Governments except Indian Medical Service, for which each province was to appoint in its civil medical department, a certain number of officials lent by Medical Department of Army in India.

Two or more provinces might agree that one Commission shall serve or all the provinces shall use one Commission.

On April 1, 1937, Public Service Commission became the Federal Public Service Commission.

POLICE AND JUDICIAL SYSTEM UNDER BRITISH



On the image of police, William Bentinck, the Governor-General, wrote in 1832:

zamindars

l

Thanas were headed by daroga, who was an Indian.



William Bentinck abolished the office of SP. The Collector was to head the police force in district and the commissioner in the division.

POLICE SYSTEM 

Important pillar of British Rule created by Cornwallis in 1791.



Cornwallis modernized old Indian system of thanas.



   

Pre-Cornwallis System: performed police functions.

Post of Superintendent of Police created to head police organization in a district. Indians were excluded from all superior posts.

In Villages: duties of police continued to be performed by village-watchmen, who were maintained by the villagers.

72 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India





Police Commission 1860.

Indian Councils Act of 1861:

r

Created Superior Police Service.

r

Rechristened as Indian Police Service in 1948.

r 

"the shepherd is a more ravenous beast of prey than the wolf."

Later named Imperial Police Service.

1902-03 police commission under Sir Andrew Fraser and Lord Curzon.

JUDICIAL SYSTEM r

r r



 



Cornwallis stabilized the system in 1793. r

Diwani Adalat or civil established in each district.

r

Thus, post of Civil Judge and Collector was separated.

r

r

r

r

court

Such court to be presided over by District Judge, who belonged to civil service. Appeal from District Court lay first to 4 Provincial Courts of Civil Appeal, and then finally to the Sadar Diwani Adalat.

Below District Court were Registrar Courts headed by Europeans and a number of subordinate courts headed by Munsifs and Amins, who were Indians. Civil Courts applied the customary law that had prevailed in any area or among section of people since time immemorial.

Criminal Cases

r Cornwallis

divided Presidency of Bengal into 4 divisions, each having a

Below it, a large number of Indian magistrates to try petty cases. Appeals from Courts of Circuit lay with the Sadar Nizamat Adalat.

Criminal Courts applied Muslim Criminal Law in a modified and less harsh form.

William Bentinck in 1831: r

Abolished Provincial Courts of Appeal and Circuit.

r

Raised the power and status of Indians in Judicial Service.

r Their

Warren Hastings started new system of dispensing justice through a hierarchy of civil and criminal courts. Civil Cases:

Court of Circuit, presided over by civil servants.

work assigned first to Commissions and later to District Judges and District Collectors.

r Appointed l

Indians as Deputy Magistrates, Subordinate Judges and Provincial Sadar Amins.

In 1865, High Courts were established at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay to replace Sadar Courts of Diwani and Nizamat.

NEW SYSTEM OF LAWS l

l l

Traditional system of justice in India largely based on customary law based on shastras and shariat as well as imperial authority.

1833 Charter Act: conferred all law making powers on the Governor-Generalin-Council. Law Commission under Macaulay was appointed in 1833 to codify laws. r Result: r

Indian Penal Code 1860 and Codes of Civil and Criminal Procedure 1861 enacted.

Uniform system of laws and courts prevailed. Police and Judicial System under British

73



r

India judicially unified.

r

In theory, meant rights, privileges and obligations of subjects and State were clearly defined, and not according to personal discretion of ruler.

Rule of Law:

r

r



t

It was a guarantee of personal liberty of a person.

Though in practice, the bureaucracy and the police enjoyed arbitrary powers and interfere with the rights and liberties of the people.

t

r

r

British Indian legal system based on the principle of equality before law.

Similarly class distinctions existed – zamindars and nobles were not judged as harshly as the commoner.

t

Separate courts and laws were for their trial.

74 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

In practice, Justice was costly due to:

v­

v

caste differentiated between high-born and low-born.

exception to this principle was the exclusion of Europeans and their descendents:

t

v

In theory, no discrimination on the basis of caste, religion, race, place of birth or class etc.

r But

Another Type of Legal Inequality: Expensive Justice: Court fee, lawyers fee.

Courts situated in distant towns.

v Cases

r Previously r

Many English officials, military officials, planters and merchants, who behaved badly with the Indians, got lighter or no punishment under this protection.

v

Equality before Law: r

In criminal cases, Europeans to be tried only by the Europeans.

r

v­

dragged for (delayed justice).

years

Complicated laws were beyond illiterate and ignorant.

Hierarchical model of justice from lower to higher court, in cases of appeal, as they became instruments of manipulation for the rich and denial of justice for the poor. Widespread corruption in the ranks of police & judicial system.

Thus, new judicial system though based on rule of law and equality before law, was, in practice, failed to bring justice to the poor.

ENGLISH UTILITARIAN AND INDIA

t



To equip individuals to pursue their material objectives effectively instead of being needlessly bogged down by the curricular of a classical education consisting of literature, language and history.

Utilitarians believed in maxim ‘greatest good’ means ‘greatest happiness to greatest number’.

JAMES MILL

Jeremy Bentham

JEREMY BENTHAM 

English Utilitarians owe their ideas to Jeremy Bentham, which are as follows: r

Utilitarian democracy:

t

Voting rights to all adult men.

t

In order to make the ruling classes responsive to the peoples’ needs, the latter must possess some power to control the ruler’s conduct.

t

r

Political system to recognize each individual as a free citizen.

Progress means: t

Maximization of wealth.

t Freedom

constraints.

t Proper r

from

unnecessary

codification of laws, to make people aware of their obligations as responsible citizens.

Education meant:

76 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

James Mill l

Served in East India Company from 1819 to 1835.

l

Questioned William Jones’ claims that India had achieved a high state of civilization in ancient times.

l

l

l

Wrote a book ‘History of India’.

Condemned Indian culture and found it hindrance to progress.

Classified Indian history into Hindu, Muslim and British periods.

l

l

Prescribed a code of laws that would release individual initiatives from the constraints imposed by tradition and a culture of despotism. Advocated a paternalistic attitude: r

r

India’s ‘enlightenment’ and ‘progress’ under British rule and;

India to be civilized under British rule.

l Showed

no urgency to representative government Because: r

Happiness rather than freedom was the moral ideal.

r Security l

introduce in India.

of

important government.

property was more than participatory

Rejected Indianisation of administrative structure and prescribed modern government under British.

JOHN STUART MILL

l l

l

Son of James Mill;

An ardent campaigner for democratic reform like, women’s suffrage, government supported ‘education for all’ and freedom of speech and expression in England. But, considered India to be unsuitable for political democracy.

REFORMS UNDER INFLUENCE OF UTILITARIANS Land and Land Revenue l

Believed State as the master or owner of land, so had the ‘right to rent’.

l Advocated

abolition of Permanent Settlement and introduction of Ryotwari system based on David Ricardo’s ‘Law of Rent’.

Law l

Lord William Bentinck, influenced by Utilitarian philosophies, brought following changes r r r

r

In 1835, introduction of Western education with English as medium of instruction under Macaulay System. In 1835, introduction of English in place of Persian as language of Higher courts. In 1829, abolition of Sati system.

Other important landmark was the law against thagis (armed robbers).

FROM REFORMISM TO CONSERVATISM l

John Stuart Mill

l

Reformist phase had a brief tenure during the 1820’s and 1830’s.

From 1840’s, the reformist initiatives had begun to peter out. English Utilitarian and India

77

l

l

The end of reformism came after the revolt of 1857.

It convinced the British that much of the Indian reaction in 1857 was due to their disapproval of westernizing measures.

78 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

l l

New schemes of social reform were discouraged.

Missionaries were asked to limit their activities to education and to avoid proselytization.

EDUCATION DURING BRITISH PERIOD

PRE-BRITISH PERIOD Delhi Sultanate Period 



 

Pre-Mughal rulers initiated institutions which imparted religious knowledge.

Scholars such as Nizamuddin Auliya, Moinuddin Chishti became prominent educators and established Islamic monasteries. Students from Bukhara and Afghanistan visited India to study humanities and science. Madrassas and 'Maktabs': r

Islamic institutions of education.

r

Emphasis on the connection between science and humanities.

r



Also taught grammar, mathematics, and law.





t

philosophy,

Made balance between the Islamic scriptures and science.

Firangi Mahal at Lucknow: t Under

Mulla Nizam-al-din.

t

Prescribed a course called the Dars-i-Nizami.

t

Laid emphasis on logic.

t Combined

traditional with modern.

studies

Mughal Period 

Tawarikh of Sayyid Maqbar Ali, a minister of Babar, tells that one of the duties of

80 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r

Always carried ‘a select library with him’.

Changed the pleasure-house built by Sher Shah in the Purana Qila into a library.

Akbar r

Built colleges at Fatehpur Sikri, Agra and other places.

r

Additional courses started: medicine, agriculture, geography.

r r

t Course

r

His favorite subjects were geography and astronomy.

r

Under the supervision of Shah Waliullah. prescribed books on grammar, philosophy, logic, astronomy and mathematics, and mysticism.

r

r Under

Madrasah-i Rahimiyah at Delhi: t

Humayun r

Famous Centres of education in India. r

Public Works Department (Suhurat-i-Am) was the building of schools and colleges.

r

r

Akbar, education system adopted an inclusive approach.

Texts from other languages and religions, such as Patanjali's work in Sanskrit were also taught.

Traditional science in this period was influenced by the ideas of Aristotle, Bhaskar II, Charaka and Ibn Sina. Mughals adopted a liberal approach to sciences.

Established Department of Translation (maqtab-khana).

In later years, arranged for the education of Hindus in madrasas.

 Jahangir: r



Issued a regulation through which property of rich man or traveler without an heir would be escheated to crown and utilized for building and repairing of madrasas.

Shah Jahan: r

r

Founded a college at Delhi.

Repaired the college named Dar ul Baqa (abode of eternity).



Dara Shikoh:

l



Educated Ladies of Mughal Empire:

Traditional Indigenous Education

r

r

Translated Upanishads, Bhagavada Gita, Yoga Vashisht, Ramayana into Persian Gulbadan Begum, Salima Sultana, Nur Jahan, Mumtaz Mahal, Jahanara, Zebun Nisha.

r Zebun-nisha

was an expert in Calligraphy and had a rich library.

TRADITIONAL SCHOOLS PRIOR TO THE BRITISH ERA

l

Was given higher importance from early time to colonial era.

l

Provincial Governors in turn instructed the Collectors to survey the state of education in their districts.

l

l

l

l

Were the traditional schools.

l

Were supported by public donation.

l l

Under the supervision of a guru.

Were one of the earliest forms of public schools.

Overwhelming masses were denied any formal education.

l

l

Gurukuls

Catered mainly to the upper castes of the Indian society.

Court of Directors instructed Provincial Governors to institute inquiries into the indigenous education prevalent in their provinces.

Based on the reports of the various Collectors, the Governors concluded that not only were indigenous schools and colleges widespread in the 18th century, but also the sex and caste composition of the student body was highly egalitarian. John Malcolm Forbes Ludlow wrote:

“In every Hindoo village which has retained anything of its form, I am assured that the rudiments of knowledge are sought to be imparted; that there is not a child, except those of the outcastes (who form no part of the community), who is not able to read, to write, to cipher; in the last branch of learning they are confessedly most proficient.”

Sir Thomas Munro’s Minutes on Native Education in 1822 and 1826:

“Madras Presidency had 11,758 schools and 740 centres for higher education with the exception of a few European missionary schools. The number of students was recorded as 161,667, with 157,644 boys, and 4,023 girls, or approximately 1 in 6 boys of school-age, which was better than 1 in 8 boys identified by a similar exercise in the Bombay Presidency.” Education during British Period

81

l

Adam’s enquiry:

r

“Around 1835, nearly 100,000 village schools existed in the Bengal Presidency, offering an education to 13.2% of boys.”

1791: Jonathan Duncan started a ‘Sanskrit College’ in Varanasi for the study of Hindu law and philosophy.

Decline of Indigenous Education l

l

l

l

Establishment of the British Empire and the pursuit of the colonial economic and political policies in general and the educational policy in particular dealt a death blow to the indigenous system of education from the first quarter of the 19th century. Henry Harding’s policy of giving preference to the English-educated among Indians in government appointments drove the last nail into the coffin of indigenous education.

Destruction of the indigenous system of education would not have been complete without the support of the Indians themselves. Many of the early generation of English-educated Indians reposed faith in English education. Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Mahadev Govind Ranade thought that it heralded an ‘Indian Renaissance.’

The social reformers protested against the establishment of any oriental educational institutions and in fact demanded the expansion of the English system.

l

After the introduction of British education, the numbers of indigenous education institutes decreased drastically.

Jonathan Duncan r

1813: Humble Beginning 

EDUCATION UNDER BRITISH RULE First 50 Years of Company Rule (1765-1813) l

l

Showed little interest in education of Indians. Two Minor Exceptions: r

1781: Warren Hastings set up ‘Calcutta Madarsa’ for the study and teaching of Muslim law.

82 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Both institutions were to provide ‘qualified Indians’ to help the Courts of the Company.

l l

Charter Act 1813: r Incorporated

r

the principle of encouraging ‘learned Indians’ and promoting the knowledge of modern sciences.

Directed the Company to spend Rs one lakh for this purpose.

Till 1823: fund of one lakh rupees not made available by the Company.

Charter Act 1833: British Parliament increased the sum of money to one million yearly from the one lakh in 1813.

Orientalist - Anglicist Controversy l Controversy

was over spending of the Fund:

l

Whether exclusively for the promotion of modern Western studies or along with Western sciences and literature emphasis on expansion of traditional Indian learning.

l Whether

medium of instruction in modern schools and colleges be English or Vernacular languages (Indian languages). r

r

Orientalists led by Dr. H.H.Wilson and H.T. Princep advocated in favour of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian as the medium of education.

He Proposed: l

Oriental learning was completely inferior to Western learning.

l

Western sciences and literature be taught through English medium only.

l

l

Anglicists led by Charles Trevelyan, Elphinstone advocated the imparting of western education through the medium of English.

Lord Thomas Macaulay

Indian languages were not sufficiently developed. Thomas Babington Macaulay laid down:

“We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern; a class of persons, Indians in blood and colour but English in taste, in opinions, in morals and in intellect.”

r

Rajaram Mohan Roy also advocated Western knowledge and English medium.

r r



No prominent Indian of 19 th and 20 th centuries deviated from Raja Ram Mohan Roy's approach. Government of British India in 1835:

Decided to devote limited resources to teaching of Western sciences and literature with English as medium of instruction.

Opened a few English particularly in Bengal.

schools,

r

Downward Filtration Policy:



Education and modern ideas were supposed to filter downwards.

Because of limited allocation of fund on education, British decided to educate upper and middle class Indians who were expected to educate the masses.

Thomas Macaulay

This policy continued till the end of British Rule.

Controversy Settled in 1835

Woods Dispatch 1854

l

l

Lord Macaulay, Law member of GovernorGeneral-in-Council.

Documents dispatched on July 19, 1854 from the Court of Directors. Education during British Period

83

l l

l l l

Popularly known as Woods Dispatch on the name of Sir Charles Wood, then President of Board of Control. Asked Government of India to assume responsibility for the ‘education of masses’. Repudiated ‘downward filtration policy’.

Aims and Objectives of Educational Policy: r

To impart Western knowledge and western culture to the Indians.

r

To promote intellectual development and raise the moral character of young generation.

r

To educate the natives of India so that a class of public servants could be created.

Provision was made for a systematic method of education from primary level to the university level. r

Described as “The Magna Carta of English Education in India.”

r

l

l

r l

Government should always support education for women. Medium of instruction at the primary level was to be vernacular while at the higher levels it would be English.

Effects: r r

Departments of Education set up in all provinces.

Directorate of Public Instruction (DPI) was established in 1854 in Madras. Alexander Arbuthnot was appointed as the First Director in 1855.

To develop practical and vocational skills of Indian people so that more and more articles could be produced and also to create a good market for consumption of those goods.

Recommendations: r

English education will increase moral character in Indian's mind and thus supply EIC with civil servants who can be trusted upon.

r An r

r

Education Department to be set up in every province.

Universities on the model of the London University to be established in big cities such as Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. At least one government school in every district.

r Affiliated

private schools should be given grant-in-aid.

r Indian

natives should be given training in their mother tongue also.

84 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Alexander Arbuthnot r r

Universities set up at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1857.

Bankim Chandra became one of the First Two Graduates of Calcutta University.

r

Introduction of Grant-in-Aid System was a remarkable feature of 1854 Despatch. Object of Grant-in-Aid System was the erection, enlargement or repair of school building.

t

t Upper

r British r

Filtration Theory was replaced by the Theory of Mass Education.

t

Elementary Education was not to be sacrificed at the altar of Higher Education.

r Both

English and Vernacular Languages were encouraged.

r

Hunter Commission 1882-83 

First Indian Education Commission.

l

Terms of reference:

l

Appointed by Lord Ripon. r To

r

enquire implementation of 1854 and to further carrying

particularly into of Woods Despatch suggest measures to out the policy.

l

submitted voluminous report. Recommendations: r

r

r

To suggest ways and means by which the system of grant-in-aid could be extended.

l Commission

700

pages

Indigenous schools should be developed, patronized and admitted into new educational pattern. Secular education should be recognized and encouraged. Primary Education: t

Extension of primary education in backward districts especially the areas inhabited by aboriginal races.

t Entrusting

the District and Municipal Boards with the work of the management of primary education.

District and Municipal Boards were directed to assign specific funds to primary education.

r

and lower primary examinations should not be made compulsory.

Care should be taken not to interfere with the freedom of the managers of aided schools in the choice of textbooks.

Secondary education

t gradual

t

withdrawal of the Government from this field and to transfer secondary education to efficient private bodies by sanctioning grant-in-aid to it.

Establishment of model Government High School in each district.

Women education: liberal grants for girls’ schools, grants to women teachers, facilities in appointment, differentiation of curriculum etc. Muslim education, Religious education and adult education were equally emphasized by the Commission.

Shimla Conference on Education 1901 l

Convened by Lord Curzon.

l

But not a single educated Indian was invited to attend that Conference.

l

To discuss the problems ranging from Primary to University education.

Raleigh Commission 1902 l

Appointed on January, 27, 1902 by Lord Curzon.



Terms of Reference:

l

Chaired by Law member Thomas Raleigh and included Syed Hussain Belgrami and Justice Gurdas Banerjee as members. r

To enquire into the conditions and prospects of the Universities. Education during British Period

85

r

r

l

To consider and report for improving their constitution and working. To recommend such measures to elevate the standard of university teaching and to promote the advancement of learning.

Recommendations: refer mainly to the following topics: r

Reorganisation of University Governance.

r

Imposition of exact conditions of affiliation of colleges.

r

r r r

Strict and systematic supervision of the colleges by the University. Attention to the conditions under which students live and work.

Assumption of teaching functions by the University within defined limits. Substantial changes in curricula, and the methods of examinations.

l Recommendations

were, controversial at that time: r

r

however,

There was a growing nationalist sentiment in British India and a number of colleges and institutions of higher education had risen in metropolitan suburbs which were linked to the major universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.

These set their own curriculum, and the recommendations of the commission were seen as measures to derecognise and regulate indigenous institutions which fell into disfavour of the Raj.

l Despite

strong and sustained opposition from Indian populace, the recommendations were enacted as Indian Universities Act 1904 by Lord Curzon.

Indian Universities Act 1904 Main Provisions: l

r

Universities were given -

86 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

examination

r

Right to appoint teachers to conduct teaching and undertake research.

r

Right to make out plans to bring about discipline among students.

r

l

Right of conducting along with of teaching. Right to manage laboratories and

their

libraries,

Number of the seats in the Senate of the Universities was fixed. r

r

Minimum 50 and maximum number 100. Term - five years.

l

Act introduced the principle of election in the constitution of the Senate.

l

Statutory recognition to Syndicates

l

Territorial jurisdiction of universities: Power vested in Governor- General to fix the territorial jurisdiction of the Universities.

r

20 fellows to be elected in the Universities of Madras, Calcutta and Bombay and 15 in other Universities.

l Made

provision for the adequate representation of university teachers in the university Senate.

Government Resolution on Education Policy 1913 l

Education department declared this new policy on February 21, 1913.

l

Major provisions:

l



It covered primary, secondary, higher and women education. Primary Education r

r

Sufficient expansion of lower primary schools.

Upper primary schools should be opened at the proper places and if necessary, lower primary schools should be raised to the status of upper primary schools.

r r

and management of private schools should be made more efficient.

r Teacher

r



r

should have passed vernacular middle examination and received one years’ training.

Provision for refresher courses for the teachers of primary education during vacations. Number of students under one teacher should generally range between 30 and 40.

Middle and secondary vernacular schools should be increased.

Secondary Education:

r

State should not completely withdraw from the sphere of secondary education.

r Proper

grants-in-aid should be sanctioned to private institutions.



r Improvement

in the mode examination and curriculum.

University Education:

r

r r

r

Maktabs and Pathsalas should be adequately subsidised.

r Inspection

r

r

Local Boards Schools should be established in place of private aided schools.

of

Expansion of university education - existence of 5 universities and 185 Colleges insufficient in view of the vast needs and demands of the country.

Universities and high schools should be assigned distinct spheres of activities. Universities should be relieved of the responsibility of granting recognition to high schools and they should be kept under provincial Governments.





Establishment of teaching universities was suggested.

Inclusion of subjects of industrial importance in the curriculum and provision of facilities to the students desirous of prosecuting research work.

Women Education:

r

r

Special curriculum of practical utility for girls.

Number of women teachers and inspectors also should be increased.

The outback of the First World War in 1914 delayed the implementation of the resolution of 1913.

Sadler University Commission 1917-19 l

In 1917, Government appointed Calcutta University Commission.

l

Other members: Dr. Gregory, Prof. Ramsay Muir, Sir Hartog, Dr. Horniel, Dr. Ziauddin Ahmed and Sir Asutosh Mukherjee.

l

 l

l

the

Also known as the Sadler Commission after the name of its chairman Dr. Michael E. Sadler, the Vice Chancellor of the University of Leeds.

Purpose: to study and report on the condition and workings of the Calcutta University.

Although it was mainly appointed to look into the problems of Calcutta University, it made recommendations on almost all the main issues of secondary and higher education in India. Recommendations: r

Establishment of a separate Board of Secondary Education.

r

Vocational education.

r r

Declaring the mother medium of education.

Three year degree course.

tongue

as

Education during British Period

87

r

Separation of intermediate education from university education.

r

Formation of Executive and Academic Council.

r

Institution of honours courses.

r

Faculties and Board of Studies in universities.

r r l

r

t r

Appointment of a Director in physical education. Full time Vice-Chancellor.

t

r

t

Number increased up to 30 within 1930.

Teaching work also started in different universities.

t

Teaching was the function of degree colleges and there was no provision for post-graduate education.

t

t

t r

Till now, functions of the first three universities established in India - Calcutta, Bombay and Madras - were confined to affiliation, examination and conferring degrees.

After the recommendation of the commission, the number

88 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Academic activities increased in the universities and colleges with the Introduction of Honours Courses. of different languages started.

Indian

Facilities for higher studies and research were also created. Post of professor created in the universities.

t Process

Secondly, teaching work done by the universities:

t

t

t

A number of new universities were opened in the country. Examples: Universities at Patna, Osmania, Aligarh, Dacca, Lucknow, Delhi, Agra, Nagpur, Hyderabad and Annamalai.

Thirdly, development of academic standard:

t

Firstly, increase in the number of universities:

t

Most of the newly established universities were teaching universities.

t Studies

Development of women education and teacher education.

It infused a new life into the educational system of the country. r

of teaching universities and residential universities increased.

Department of Education opened in Calcutta and Dacca universities.

Fourthly, development of internal administration of the universities:

t

t

t

r

of inviting learned faculties from abroad to broaden the academic outlook also started.

Internal administration of the universities improved due to the formation of university court and Executive Council in lieu of previous Senate and Syndicate. Creation of the Academic Council to deal with academic matters, such, as, curriculum construction, examination, research etc. greatly helped in improving the academic standard of the universities. Inter University Board was also set up in 1925 for connection and coordination among the different Indian universities.

Fifthly, provision welfare:

for

students’

t

l

t

For the first time attention of the universities were directed towards students’ welfare. A Board of Students’ Welfare was formed in each university.

The recommendations of the commission have been much more important than those of any previous commission on education.

Hartog Committee 1929 l

Appointed to survey the education in British India.



Primary Education

l







of

r

r

Problem of ‘Wastage’ and ‘Stagnation’ at the primary level.

Wastage means premature withdrawal of children from school at any stage before the completion of the primary course and stagnation means the detention of a student in the same class for more than one academic year.

r

r

standard of the teachers should be improved.

This was a waste of time, effort and energy.

Solutions

r Provision

alternative schools.

should be made for courses in the High

It would help the students to choose the courses of their choice and according to their aptitude.

Salaries and service conditions of the teachers should be improved so as to attract really capable persons into the job. Teachers’ salary should be paid regularly and training facilities of the teachers should also be improved.

r

Establishment of affiliated universities along with unitary universities.

r

Honours course should be of more advanced in nature.

r

r

Economic backwardness, agriculture, barriers of caste, religion and communal feelings - main hindrances in the progress of primary education.

Course should be of four years duration.

r

exam-oriented and the percentage of failures in Matriculation examination was very large.

Suggestions for University Education:

Higher drop-out rate - out of every 100 pupils (boys and girls) in class I in 1922-23, only 18 were reading in class IV in 1925-26.

Policy of consolidation (qualitative development) in place of multiplication of schools.

r More

r

r

r

Improvement Measures suggested:

r

Problems

r

Problems highlighted: r

Secondary education

r

Devoted more attention to mass education than secondary and university education.

r



growth



r



University should appoint teachers in the affiliated colleges. Employment bureau should opened in the universities.

be

Admission to the universities should be restricted. Condition of the library should be improved.

Departmental examinations should be held to recruit graduates in administrative services.

Women Education

r

Equal importance should be given to the education of boys and girls. Education during British Period

89

r

r r l

More primary schools for girls to be established.

t ­

Curriculum should include hygiene, home science and music in secondary schools. Greater attention to be paid towards the training of women for teaching jobs.

Suggestions of the Committee could not be implemented effectively and the educational progress could not be maintained due to worldwide economic depression of 1930-31.

r

l l

l

To use modern education to strengthen the foundation of British political authority.

To reconcile the people of India to British rule as it glorified British conquerors and their administration.

WEAKNESS OF BRITISH MODERN EDUCATION SYSTEM 



To create market for British manufactures among educated Indians.

To economise on the cost of administration by getting a cheap supply of educated Indians to man the large and increasing number of subordinate services.

Neglect of mass education r

Literacy in 1921 hardly better than in 1821.

r

English as medium of instruction

r

Illiterates in 1911: 94% and in 1921: 92%. t

Prevented spread of education to the masses.

90 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

t

Enabled only rich and city dwellers to enrol in schools and colleges

r

No fund was education.

r

Female literacy in 1921: only 2 per cent of Indian women.

allotted

for

girls’

British hardly felt necessity of having female in administration.

Neglect of Scientific & Technical Education r

r



A handicap and great disincentive to masses, particularly rural

Neglect of Girls Education r

WHY MODERN WESTERN EDUCATION BY THE BRITISH? l

Costly Education Fee

t­



Created a linguistic and cultural gulf between educated persons and masses

By 1857: only 3 medical colleges at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.

Only one good engineering college Thompson College at Roorkee (now IIT Roorkee) which was open for Europeans and Eurasians.

Problem of Finance r

By 1886: only ONE crore to education out of net revenue of 47 crore.

WARDHA SYSTEM OF EDUCATION - 1937 All India Education Conference l

Was held in Wardha on 22 nd and 23 rd October, 1937. r Eminent

r r

educationists, Congress leaders and workers along with the Education Ministers of the seven states attended the conference. Gandhiji himself presided over it. Four resolutions passed:

Wardha Ashram t t t

t r r r

Free and compulsory education for children over seven years on a nation-wide scale. Medum of instruction be the mother-tongue.

Process of education should centre around some productive form of manual work with due regard to the environment of the child. System of education will be gradually able to cover the remuneration of the teachers.

Appointment of a Committee of nine members under the chairmanship of Dr. Zakir Hussain. Report of the committee published in March 1938, known as the Wardha Scheme of Education. Approved by Mahatma Gandhi first and then by the Congress at its Haripura Session (March 1938).

Main Features of the Wardha Scheme l l

Free and compulsory education: for all boys and girls between the ages of seven to fourteen. Craft Centred Education: advantages of making craft as the centre of education are as follows: r

r

r r

Psychologically, it relieves the child from the tyranny of a purely academic and theoretical instruction.

Economically, it will increase the productive capacity of our workers and will also enable them to utilise their leisure advantageously. Educationally, knowledge acquired by children through craft will be knowledge related to life.

Basic Craft included: Spinning and Weaving, Carpentry, Agriculture, Fruit and Flower Cultivation, Leather work, Culturing Fish, Pottery, any handicraft Education during British Period

91

l

l l

l

according to the local need and Home Science for girls.

Self supporting Education: basic idea of Gandhi was that if the craft chosen is taught efficiently or thoroughly, it would enable the school to pay the cost of salaries of teachers. At the same time his aim was to accord dignity of labour and ensure modest and honest and livelihood for the student after leaving school.

Medium of instruction: through the mother tongue. Mother tongue is the foundation of all education. Ideal of citizenship: new generation must at least have an opportunity of understanding own problems and rights and obligations.

Flexible Curriculum and free Environment: For the child to perform according to his own capacity.

Text books to be avoided as far as possible.

l

Removal of class and caste distinction:

l

l

Integrated knowledge: Physical environment, Social environment and Craft work.

Subjects covered: Mathematics. Geography, History and Civics, Painting and Music, P.T. Drill and Sports, General Science comprising Physics Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Hygiene and Nature Study.

l

English has not been included as a subject of study.

l

There is no place for religious and moral education in the curriculum.

l l

l

All students must learn Hindi language.

A school of 5 ½ hours of which craft work will have 2 ½ hours.

External examinations to be abolished. Day-to-day work of the student to be the determining factor.

92 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Cleanliness and health, citizenship, play and recreation to be given sufficient importance.

r

r

Basic education is not a class education.

Objective: to create a social order with no unnatural divisions between ‘have’ and ‘have-nots’ and everyone be assured of a living wage and the right to freedom.

Limitations of Wardha Scheme l

l

l Learning

l

by Doing: sums up the educational methods of basic education. Gandhi believed that school must be a ‘doing things’.

l

l

Child’s individuality ignored: r

r

Forcing the child to learn a craft before the age of twelve plus was erroneous.

For child, play is important means for creative energy.

Over-emphasis on craft: r

r

Students spent one-third or half the time for craft work without acquiring any dexterity worth speaking of in any craft.

Students were sometime too tired to take to academic work.

Basic education not suited in an age of industrialization: With rapid industrialization of India, knowledge of science and mathematics became more desirable than skill in handicrafts.

Causes of Failure of Basic Education l After

l

independence, Basic scheme of education made good progress for about a decade but gradually due to several difficulties it failed to become a permanent and lasting feature of our educational system.

Self-supporting aspect of Basic Education r Teachers, r

social leaders and educational administrators had shown an indifferent attitude towards it. School turned into a centre of small scale industry.

r

l

r r

l

l

Teaching through craft had become just a slogan.

Created an imbalance in the educational system between vocational and intellectual education.

Basic education failed to become an integral part of our national system of education. r

l

This had a demoralising effect on teacher-pupil relationship.

Too much emphasis on craft r

l

Teachers had to depend upon the earnings of the students.

r

Basic Education often regarded as inferior type of education meant for the poor villagers.

Urban people usually sent their children to modern type of schools.

Lack of finance and the absence of sound administrative policy

Lack of adequate supply of efficient, trained and sincere teachers r

r

Teacher occupies central position in Basic Education. Suitable orientation and training of teachers was lacking.

Overall view: r The

r

r

fundamental principles of basic education are still valid and fruitful in the context of our present educational reform. They are relevant to be used as guiding principles of modern education.

It needs to be reformed on modern lines.

SERGEANT PLAN OF EDUCATION 1944 l

Sir John Sergeant was the Educational adviser to the Government of India.

l

It was a full-fledged educational plan for the future educational reconstruction in India.

l

l



This plan has a historical importance as it was the first attempt to develop a National System for Education in India. First comprehensive scheme embracing all aspects of education - pre-primary, primary, high school and university education, technical, vocational and professional - all types of education. Attention for the first time in India

r Towards pre-primary education (nursery

schools for 3 to 6 years children).

r Towards education of the handicapped

Implementation: l

In 1945 an Education Department at the Centre was established.

l

Provincial Governments were advised to make five year plans for education. In 1946 these plans were made in some provinces.

l

l l

40 crores of rupees were given to the provincial Governments for implementing certain aspects of the scheme in their areas.

University Grants Committee was constituted in 1945 which later on became University Grants Commission in 1956. All India Technical Education Committee was established in Delhi.

Education during British Period

93

NOTES

FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION IN BRITISH INDIA

PHASE I: 1858-1905 Act of 1858 l

l

l 

Secretary of State-in-Council had the supreme control of financial administration. No expenditure of Indian revenues could be incurred without sanction of India Council, except some discretionary powers of Government of India.

Provincial Governments had no power of spending without sanction of GovernorGeneral-in-Council. Budget introduced in 1860.

First Important Step Towards Financial Decentralization

l

l

l 



Was taken by Lord Mayo on 14 December 1870.

Government of India transferred to the Provincial Governments the financial control of services like jails, registration, police, education, medical services, printing, roads, miscellaneous public improvements, and civil buildings. Each Province was given an annual fixed grant of Rs 4.68 Cr from Central Revenues to carry on these services. Decentralization between 1871 and 1877:

r r

Revenue from land, excise, stamp, forest, registration to be divided between Central & Provincial Governments. Share of each being determined according to the needs of the particular provinces.

Next significant step by Lord Lytton in 1877.

r

r

Certain important ‘heads of revenue’ of provincial character such as land revenue, excise, stamps, general administration, law and justice were transferred to the provinces.

Thus, transferred nearly 20 per cent of Government of India’s revenue to the Provinces.

96 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Import Duty l

On cotton goods yielded an income equivalent to 2/3rd of total income from imports.

l

In 1894, re-imposition of general import duty at the rate of 5% ad valorem.

l

In 1882, all import duties were abolished except in commodities like wine and salt, on which internal tax levied.

l To

l

safeguard interests of English manufacturers of cotton goods, an equivalent excise duty levied on cotton goods manufactured in India. Governor-General-in-Council too protested against this measure, terming it unjust to Indian interest.

Income Tax l

Introduced in 1860 as a temporary measure.

l

Abolished in 1865.

l

l

l l

At first a general levy of 4% on all income of Rs 500 or above and 2% on income between Rs 200 up to Rs 500. Revived in 1867 as a licence tax on trade and profession. General Income tax imposed in 1869, but dropped again.

In 1886, re-imposition of income tax on all incomes other than those derived from agriculture.

Currency l

During early Mughal Period: gold muhars and silver in North India.

l

During later Mughal Period: 994 types of coins of gold and silver prevalent.

l l

Gold principal currency in South India. During East India Company Rule:

r­

Gold muhars disappeared gradually.

r

Price of gold fell owing to discovery of metal in Australia and California in 1848-49.

r­

In 1841 re-introduced.

r l l l

r­

Dalhousie abandoned experiment of 1841. Gold, thus, given up as medium of exchange.

Silver formed the standard of currency in India until 1892. Herschel Committee – first step towards adoption of gold currency. Henry Fowler Committee:

r­

Increased the share of provinces in growing revenues.

r

Silver coinage was abandoned:

Due to relative decline of the value of silver against gold, silver was gradually being globally discarded as a basis of currency, except in three main countries Mexico (a major producer of silver), the United States, and India. Government accepted the recommendations of the commission in July 1899.

Gold Standard Reserve formed in 1900.

Introduced in1904 by Lord Curzon.

Under this system, revenues assigned to Provincial Governments were fixed, and not subject to change by Central Government except under extraordinary circumstances.

Introduction of Famine Insurance Scheme l

l

Measures by Lord Harding’s Government in 1912

l

System of ‘Quasi-Permanent Settlements’ l

No radical change proposed.

Recommended that the official Indian rupee be based on the gold standard.

PHASE II: 1906-1938

l

r

‘Quasi-Permanent Settlements’ were made ‘Permanent Settlements’.

r British l

Royal Commission on Decentralization was appointed in 1908.

l

To examine the currency situation in India.





Ratio of expenses borne by Centre and Province was 3:1.

Appointed in 1898.

r

r­

l

A fixed amount to be transferred from Government of India to the credit of each Provincial Government, which the latter could utilize in case of famine without touching normal resources. In 1917, famine relief expenditure became a ‘divided head’.

l

l

l

Reduced fixed provincial assignments.

But, provincial budgets still required Central Government’s approval.

So, in reality, provinces had no independent powers of taxation nor could they raise loans in the open market.

Montagu-Chelmsford Report (1918) l

A step towards financial autonomy.

l

‘Divided Heads’ were abolished.

l l

Suggested a wider degree of financial devolution. Separation of ‘Heads of Revenue’ between Central & Provincial Governments proposed:

r

r­ r

Centre: subjects given - Customs, Salt, Opium, Income Tax, Railways, Posts and Telegraphs, Currency, Mint and tributes from native states. Provinces were given Land Revenue, Irrigation, Forests, Registration, Stamps and Excise Duties on drugs, narcotics.

Under the Scheduled Tax Rules, the provinces acquired the statutory power to levy taxes listed in Schedule One without previous sanction of Governor-General.

l Impact

of these reforms: provincial governments gained Rs 18.5 Cr. while central government had annual deficit of Rs 9.5 Cr. Financial Administration in British India

97

Meston Award l

Committee under Meston to recommend a scheme of provincial contributions to the Central government.

l Recommendations: r

Provinces to provide relief to Centre in proportion to the gains made by provinces.

r

Provinces to be given a share in Income Tax.

r l

Such relief to be gradually standardized.

Recommendations severely criticized as some provinces were favoured, some not.

Layton Report l

Related to distribution of resources between Central and Provincial Governments.

Government of India Act 1935 l

Division of resources into 4 categories: r

r

r

r

Exclusively Federal: Corporation Tax, Railways, Posts and Telegraphs, Currency and Coinage, Custom duties, and military receipts.

Exclusively Provincial: Stamps and Registration, Sales tax, Land revenue, Irrigation, Excise, Taxes on agricultural incomes, Taxes on luxuries including entertainments and amusements.

Taxes to be levied and collected by the Centre but receipts to be handed over to the provinces: included duties in respect of succession to property other than agricultural land; taxes on railway fares and freights, terminal taxes on goods or passengers carried by railway or by air. Taxes to be shared between the Centre and the Provinces: taxes on income other than agricultural income, Salt duties, Excise duty on Tobacco and

98 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

l

l

l

other goods manufactured or produced in India except alcoholic liquors for human consumption, opium, Indian hemp, and other narcotic drugs, export duties on jute.

Provided for a system of grants-in-aid to certain provinces out of the federal revenues.

Increased the borrowing powers of the provinces, which could now raise loans in the open- market except a foreign loan where previous sanction of Central Government was required. Each province now had its own bank account with the Reserve Bank of India.

Otto Niemeyer Committee l l

Was appointed in 1936 Terms of reference:

r

To inquire into the financial position of the Provinces,

r

Time and mode of distributing the provincial share of income tax and proceeds of the export duty on jute.

r

The special assistance required by each.

r Certain

provinces subventions.

l Recommendations: r

be

given

cash

Granted relief in the form of cancellation of debts to some provinces (Bengal, Bihar, Assam Orissa and North West Frontier Province).

t­

12.5% of Jute tax to be distributed amongst jute growing states.



Reserve Bank Act passed in 1934

t­

Half of income tax to be assigned to provinces. r

Bank operation started in 1935.

CASTE & TRIBAL MOVEMENTS

CASTE MOVEMENTS South India NADAR MOVEMENTS  In

South Tamilnadu.



An untouchable caste of toddy tappers and agricultural labourers.



Developed a mercantile upper stratum and began calling itself Nadar, a term previously confined to the Shanan owners of land and Palmyra trees.







Originally called Shanans.

Its assertion of Temple Entry Rights led to serious riots at Tirunelvelli in 1899. Nadars: r

emerged by the late 19 th century as a prosperous group of traders in towns of Ramnad distric.

r raised r

r



r

community funds for educational and social welfare activities. claimed Kshatriya status,

imitated upper-caste customs and manners and; organized a Nadar Mahajan Sangam in 1910.

The Sanskritization model seems fairly appropriate here. But such upward mobility hardly affected the lowly toddy trappers of Tirunelvelli who still went on being called by the old caste name of Shanans at a time when their successful brethren in Ramnad had appropriated the more prestigious title of Nadar.

100 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

PALLIS MOVEMENT  In

northern Tamilnadu.



A lower caste claimed Kshatriya origin from 1871.



Started imitating Brahmanical mores like the taboo on widow – remarriage.



Began to call themselves Vanniya Kula Kshatriya.

NAIR MOVEMENT 

In the state of Travancore.

l

Social and political domination of the Namboodari Brahmans and the nonMalayali Brahmans (Maratha Deshastha or Tamil in origin)

Causes of the Movement

l

Internal problems of Nairs: r Traditional r r

taravad (matrilineal joint family) unsuited to modern economic conditions.

Many taravads held relatively small bloc of lands and were severely affected by rising prices.

Western education made many Nair social customs appear embarrassing and retrograde, particularly the rule of Nair women having to appear barebreasted before Namboodari visitors and to enter into temporary liaisons (sambandham) with them.

l



Threat from the Syrian Christians who comprised numerous landlords and prosperous traders in north Travancore and were pioneers of journalism.

Note: urban literacy in Travancore in 1901 stood at 36% - a figure higher than Calcutta.

Course of the Movements 



Kerala’s first modern novel, Indulekha of Chander Menon (1889), attacked Namboodari social domination and taravad constraints on romantic love.

l

l

Traditionally lowly tappers and tenders of the coconut palm.

With the expansion of market for coconut products became relatively prosperous segments.

Sri Narayana Guru (1854 – 1928)

r Historical

novel Martand Verma (1891) attempted an evocation of lost Nair military glory through its hero Ananda Padmanabhan.

was the principal organizer of the Malayali Memorial of 1891 attacking Brahmana predominance in state jobs.

Sri Narayana Guru

K. Ram Krishna Pillai r r

r r



Ezhava

C.V. Raman Pillai

r



EZHAVA MOVEMENT

Edited the Swadeshabhimani from 1906 till 1910 and put forward the demands for political rights. Expelled from Travancore.

Had connections with T.M. Nair’s Justice Movement. In 1914 published biography of Karl Malayalam.

the first Marx in

r

Died in 1916.

r

founded the Nair Service Society in 1914.

Mannath Padmanabha Pillai

r

Combined caste aspirations with a measure of internal social reform.

l l

Leader and inspirer.

Also known as Nanu Asan.

Objectives l

To attack Brahman domination.

l

To ‘Sanskritize’ some of their own customs.

l

Demand entry into temples.

Aruvippuram Movement l

Launched in 1888 by Sri Narayana Guru.

l

On the walls of the temple he inscribed the following words:

l



Idol of Shiva installed in a temple at Aruvippuram on Shivratri festival.

“Devoid of dividing walls of caste or race, or hatred of rival faith, we all live here in brotherhood”. Caste & Tribal Movements

101

SNDP Yogam l Full l

name: Sri Paripalana Yogam.

Founded in 1902-03.

Narayana

Dharam

l By l l

Sri Narayana Guru, Dr. Palpu, the first Ezhava graduate, and the great Malayali poet N. Kumaran Asan.

Industrial exhibition organized by it at Quilon (Jan 1905). Nair-Ezhava riots.

l SNDP l

l

Yogam under T.K. established links with Nationalism in the 1920s.

Madhavan Gandhian

T.K Madhavan became secretary of SNDP Yogam in 1927. His acceptance of Sanskritizing ideas and Gandhian leadership was attacked by radical Ezhavas like K. Aiyappan and C. Keshvan.

l

l l

l

Was appointed Inspector General of Education in Mysore State in 1916. Threw open all the schools to Panchama (Scheduled Caste) children. Founder of Andhra Universities in 1926.

He was in Justice Party for a short while.

Founded the State’s FIRST political organization, the Praja Mithra Mandali in 1917.

JUSTICE MOVEMENT 

Launched in Madras around 1915-16.



By numerous prosperous land lords and merchants of intermediate castes:

 By

C.N. Mudaliar, T.M. Nair, and P. Tyagaraja Chetti.

Next generation of the Ezhavas switched over to the Communists.

l In

Nov 1936, Maharaja of Travancore issued a proclamation throwing open all govt. controlled temples to all Hindus, irrespective of caste.

LINGAYAT MOVEMENT 

An anti-Brahman movement.



Lingayat Education Fund Association and a Vokkaliga Sangha emerged in 1905-06.



Roots: In the princely State of Mysore urban Brahman community (3.8% of the total population) held 65% of gazetted posts, while Vokkaligas and Lingayats constituted the dominant rural groups.

C.R. Reddy l l

A Madras based educationist and political thinker.

Principal in the Mysore Maharaja’s College.

102 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r

Tamil Vellalas, Mudaliars, and Chetiars.

r

Malayali Nairs.

r

Telugu Reddis, Kammas, Balija Naidus and



Aim: against Brahman pre-dominance in education, services and politics.



Brahmanas, at times were also big landlords, particularly in Tanjavur and upper-caste taboos on agricultural work and professional activities in towns made them usually absentees.



Figure: Brahmanas, only 3.2% of population in Madras Presidency, held 55% of deputy collector and 72.6% of district munsif ‘s posts in 1912.

SELF-RESPECT MOVEMENT 

Founded in 1925.

l

Leader and founder of Movement.

E.V. Rama Swami Naicker l

Also known as ‘Periyar’.

British –Justice Alliance l l l

l l

Home Rule Agitation of Annie Besant was dominated by Brahmans, which was disliked by non-Brahmins.

This was exploited by British officials, journalists and businessmen. I Earle Welby, editor of the Madras Mail, and spokesman of British business interests in Madras city, violently attacked Montagu’s promise of responsible government and cultivated the emerging Justice party.

Justice Party showed loyalism in the hope of getting more service jobs and special representation in the new legislatures. Non-Brahman Manifesto of 20 Dec 1916 expressed opposition to any move ‘to undermine the influence and authority of the British rulers’.

l Societal

pressure of non–Brahman grievances even forced a pro- nationalist Madras Presidency Association to demand a separate representation.

E.V. Rama Swami Naicker l l

Active in Congress during Non-cooperation movement.

Broke with the Congress in the mid–1920s.

l Developed l

l l l l l l

l

a populist and alternative to Justice Elitism.

radical

Started a journal Kudi Arasu, in Tamil, in 1924.

Advocated weddings without Brahman priests. Forcible temple entry.

Burning of the Manusmriti. Outright atheism at times.

Trip to Soviet Union in 1932.

Thereafter built ‘Stalin Hall’ in Coimbatore.

Early Tamil Communists like Singaravelu and P Jeeva Nandan, co-operated with ‘Periyar’ for a time in the early 1930s. Caste & Tribal Movements

103

CASTE MOVEMENTS Western India r

SATYA SHODHAK SAMAJ 

Founded in 1873 by Jyotiba Phule, member of the lowly Mali (gardening) caste.

r



r

r

Jyotiba Phule 

First to start the anti-Brahman movement in Maharashtra.



Dualism within the Satya Shodhak Movement (revealed by Gail Omvedt’s research).





l

First trend: elite based conservation similar to Justice Movement in Madras. r developed

along ‘Sanskritizing’ lines.

r occasionally r

claimed a origin for the Marathas.

moderate

Kshatriya

from the 1890s received the patronage of the Maharaja of Kolhapur.

104 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

l



Using the Marathi vernacular rather than English.

Attacking caste system rather than merely claiming a higher status within it.

Claiming for the Bahujan Samaj against the Shetji–bhatji (moneylenders and Brahmans).

Leaders like Mukund Rao Patil who from 1910 brought out a paper called Din Mitra from his home village of Taravadi. Its populist character; r r

He wrote a book Ghulam Giri in 1872.

Was openly loyalist and politically divisive, for the British were egging on Kolhapur against Tilak.

Second trend: mass–based radicalism working in villages rather than towns.

r

l

Concentrated on getting more jobs and political favours for elite.

Entire Satya Shodhak literature in Marathi not in English.

1917 annual conference of the Bahujan Samaj – received reports from 49 branches spread over 14 districts and no less than 30 of these local units were in villages less than 2000 inhabitants.

Social base: primarily rich peasant, but certain common interests of the entire peasantry against upper caste Mahajans and landlords brought into its fold.

Tamasha or folk drama: r

The method by which the Satya Shodhak spread its message to villages.

r r

r l

Satara where such tamasha groups were most active.

Tamasha method was used again in the 1940s by the Communists through the Indian People’s Theatre Association.

It later helped to revitalize the Gandhian Congress in rural Maharashtra.

Gopal Baba Walangkar

By the end of the 19 th century he organized the Mahars of Maharashtra.

l

New emphasis on north Indian ‘martial races’ in army recruitment provided the immediate provocation for the beginning of Mahar organization.

l

r 

Separate representation.

Right to use tanks and enter temples.

r Abolition

of the Mahar Watan (traditional services to village chiefs).

FIRST Mahar Political Conference in 1927 r

Some of Ambedkar’s followers had started burning the Manusmriti as symbol of a sharper break with Hinduism.

Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar l

Founded the Depressed classes Institute (Bahiskrit Hitkarni Sabha) in Bombay in 1924.

l

Started in 1927, a Marathi fortnightly Bahiskrit Bharat.

l

In December 1927, led Malad Satygraha to establish the right of untouchables.

An ex-service man.

l

l

r

A peasant rising broke out in Satara in 1919.

MAHAR MOVEMENT

l

l Demands:

Drafted a petition in 1894 claiming Kshatriya origins and more jobs in the army and services for this untouchable caste.

From 1920s, the Mahars developed an autonomous movement under Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar, their first graduate.

l

Established in 1927 the Samaj Samta Sangh to propagate the gospel of social equality among caste Hindus and untouchables.

Caste & Tribal Movements

105

r

Launched in 1930 the Temple Entry Movement.

CASTE MOVEMENTS

BHASKAR RAO JADAV l

Founded a non-Brahman Party.



Bitterly hostile to the Congress.

l

Eastern India

Loyalist to the British.

REFORMS BY MAHARAJA OF KOLHAPUR CHHATRAPATI SAHUJI MAHARAJ

KAIVARTAS l In l l l

l 

Midnapore (Bengal).

Lower caste movement led by some local zamindars and a few Calcutta-based lawyers and traders. Began calling themselves Mahishyas.

Started a Jati Nirdharani Sabha in 1897.

A Central Mahishya Samiti during the 1901 census.

Midnapore Mahishyas later played a prominent part in the national movement.

NAMASUDRAS l

Namasudras in Faridpur (Bengal) were untouchable poor peasants.

l

Got missionary encouragement.

l

Felt upper caste exploitation to be a nearer enemy than the distant British overlord.

KAYASTHAS

l l

Trained non-Brahmans to perform the Vedic ceremonies and rituals.

l

Reserved 50% of the civil service posts in his state for non–Brahmans.

l

l

Invited the Arya Samaj to continue social reform. Organized schools for non-brahmans.

106 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Started an All India Association and Allahabadbased newspaper Kayastha Samachar by 1900.

YADAVAS l l

Agitation in May 1925 in Patna, Monghyr, Darbhanga and Muzaffarpur.

For the improvement of the social status of their caste and pari passu with taking the sacred thread proposed to refuse menial and other services to their landlords.

TRIBAL MOVEMENTS Eastern India HOS

CHUARS OR THE BHUMIJ l Year: l l

1768 and 1832.

Inhabited the Midnapore district of Bengal which then included the Mahals of Manbhum and Barabhum.

l l

The district of Midnapore had passed into British hands in 1760 and the Mahals in 1765. Led by Raja of Dhalbhum, Jagannath Dhal

l

Gathered the Chuars under his banner

l l

l l

r

Rajas of Kailapal, Dholka, and Barabhum joined the revolt.

r

Zamindars of Nawabganj withheld the revenue.

and

Jharia

Disturbed conditions continued for nearly 30 years and then quieted of their own. Led by Ganga Narayan.

l Attacked l

l

l l

r

Followed a scorched earth policy.

Fresh Revolt in 1832 l

In 1820:

r

Chuar Revolt in 1768 l

Period: 1820-22 and again in 1831.

l

government offices in Barabazar. Took possession Barabhum.

of

Took support of the Hos of Singhbhum.

Created a situation so serious as to require military operations.

They continued to resist till Kolhan was occupied by govt. forces.

r

Raja of Porahat had accepted the position of a feudatory of the British to humiliate the Rajas of Kharaswan and Saraikela.

Thereby, subdued the independence loving Ho tribesmen of Chotanagpur and Singhbhum.

He asked for British aid and the British forces entered Kolhan and moved to Chaibasa.

The Hos resisted for 2 years (1820-22) ravaging Dhalbhum and Bamanghati and penetrated into Chotanagpur. They continued to fight till 1827 when they were forced to submit.

Again in 1831 r There

were insurrections in Chotanagpur, Singhbhum, Manbhum and the tribal area, when the Mundas of Chotanagpur rose and the Hos joined them.

KOLS l l

Year of revolt: 1831–32.

Root cause: Kols’ villages were being transferred from Kol headmen (Mundas) to foreign farmers – the Sikhs and the Muslims. Caste & Tribal Movements

107

l

l

l l

l

Leader – Buddho Bhagat

Upheaval started in Ranchi and spread to Singhbhum, H a z a r i b a g h , Palamau and western parts of Manbhum.

Suppression through extensive military operations. Buddho Bhagat died.

In 1852, Dhangar Kols of Sonepur and Larka Kols of Singhbhum fought together in rebellion.

KHONDS l

l

l

l

Years of revolt – 1836, 1846, 1854, 1855. The Khonds occupied the Khondmals, the hilly tract south-west of Angul and surrounded by the tributary state of Baud and the Ganjam district in Orissa.

r

l The

r

In 1854 – Chakra started troubling govt. again but this time forced to

108 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

to

SANTHAL ‘HOOL’ OR UPRISING l

Year of revolt – 1855.

l

Causes:

l The

Santhals had migrated from Hazaribagh and Manbhum into the area between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal, known as ‘Daman-i-Koh’. r Penetration r

r r

r

In 1836: Leader Dora Bisayi; crushed by British forces In 1846 – leader Chakra Bisayi; Raja of Angul, suspected by Bristish as Chakra’s helper, was deposed and his estate was annexed. Chakra went into the hills and remained quiet for six years.

was arrested and sent HAZARIBAGH as a prisoner.

colonial administration also determined to stop HUMAN sacrifices associated with the ‘MERIAH’ sacrifice.

Revolts:

r

In 1855 – Another rising which ended with the TRANSFER of the Khondmals from the jurisdiction of Madras to that of Cuttack.

r Raja

Root cause – In 1815, the Govt. of Madras arrested Dhananjay Bhary, Raja of Gumsur, and confiscated the estate of Khurda. Then in 1835, they took over the administration from Raja, who fled to the hills and sought the support of the Khonds. r

leave Khondmals, and thus, became a fugitive and eventually disappeared.

r

r l

of tribal outsiders the dikus.

areas

by

British legal conceptions of absolute private property eroded traditions of joint ownership, like the Khuntkatta tenure in Chotanagpur. Heavy demands of rents and harsh treatment by the revenue officials.

Oppression by money lenders through usurious interest on loans of money ranging from 50 to 500 percent. Non-payment of wages, in some cases. Abuse and insult to their women.

Moral degradation (stealing, lying, drunkenness) of the dikus and government servants.

The exploiters used two types of measures

r r

Bara ban (big one) – to receive thing from. Chota ban (Small one) – to give things to, Santhals.

l In l l

‘The Calcutta Review’ of 1856, a contemporary writer depicted the condition of Santhals.

Around 1854 stray cases of robbing of zamindars and moneylenders. Tribal leaders called an assembly of nearly 6000 Santhals, representing 400 villages at Bhagirathi on 30 June 1855: r

r r l



l

The Santhals believed that their actions had the blessings of God.

Principal Rebel Leaders: Sidho and Kanhu, claimed blessings of Thakur (God).

Method of mass mobilization:

Organizing huge procession through the villages accompanied by drummers and other musicians – leaders rode at the head on horses and elephants and in palkis. Form of resistance: r

Attacked the mahajans and zamindars and their houses.

r

Helped by a large number of nontribal and poor dikus including gwalas, lohars etc.

r

l

Decision to get rid of outsiders and usher in ‘Satyug’ (The Reign of Truth’ and ‘True Justice).

r

r

l

Period – 1879.

l

Later turned into a campaign against revenue settlement operations.

l

l

r

But later on more than 1500 Santhals killed.

r

r

At first, British force under Major Burrough suffered defeat at the Santhals’ hands. Sidho was betrayed captured and killed in August 1855.

Initially it preached monotheism and internal social reform. Finally suppressed.

MUNDAS ‘ULGULAN’ (REBELLION)

l

Period: 1899 -1900.

l

Causes:

l

Region: south of Ranchi. r

r r

Suppression:

Military campaign against the rebels

Considering the need of a special Administrative system, a separate district of Santhal Pargana was formed.

KHERWAR OR SAPHA HAR MOVEMENT

Attacked symbols of diku exploitation and colonial power i.e. police stations, railway construction sites, the dak (post) carriers.

r

Kanhu arrested in February 1866.

l

r

Erosion of Mundas’ traditional KhuntKatti land system (joint holdings by Khunts or tribal lineages) by jagirdars, thikadars (revenue formers) and merchant money lenders coming from the plains. Unhappiness over recruitment indentured labour by contractors.

of

Dissatisfaction over working of Christian missionaries – Lutheran, Anglican and Catholic which promised help but eventually did nothing about the basic land problem. Imposition of Beth begari (forced labour).

In the early 1890s, the tribal chiefs (Sardars) attempted to fight the alien landlords and the imposition of beth begari in the Courts, through a Calcutta based Anglo Indian Lawyer who seems to Caste & Tribal Movements

109

have cheated them. After this they looked towards their own men as savior.

Birsa (1874-1900)

police stations in the districts of Ranchi and Singhbhum – also attacked the police targets in Jan 1900.

l

Non-tribal poor were not to be attacked.

l

Rebels were defeated at Sail Rakab Hills on January 9, 1900.

l

l

Another Leader – Gaya Munda

Birsa was captured and three weeks later died in jail.

ORAONS OF CHHOTANAGPUR l

Son of a share-cropper.

l

Participated in a movement to prevent village lands being taken over by the Forest Department.

l Received

l l l

l

l l

l

some education from the missionaries, then came under Vaishnava influence in 1893-94.

l l

Year: 1914.

Jatra Bhagat was the leader.

In 1895, Birsa is said to have seen a vision of a supreme God and then claimed to be Prophet with miraculous healing powers. Thousands began flocking to Chalkhed to hear the ‘new word’ of Birsa. Birsa was jailed for TWO years in 1895.

After returning from jail, a series of Night Meeting were held in the forest in 189899; Birsa urged the killing of Thikadars and Jagirdars and Rajas and Hakims and Christians. Under the influence of Sardars, the religious movement soon acquired an agrarian and political content. Birsa began to move from village to village, organizing rallies and mobilizing his followers on religious and political grounds.

Form of resistance: On Christmas eve, 1899, the Birsaites tried to burn down the Churches over an area covering six

110 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r

r

Called for monotheism.

Abstention from meat, liquor and tribal dances.

l

l 

r

A return to shifting cultivation.

Took radical colour in the year as rumours spread of the coming of a savior variously with ‘Birsa’ or a ‘German’ or Baba’.

following imminent identified a ‘Kaiser

This militant rebellion was suppressed. ‘Tana Bhagat’ movement r

r

Survived among the Oraons due to its more pacific nature. It developed links with GANDHIAN NATIONALISM from the 1920s.

KHOND REBELLION l Year: l

l

TRIBAL MOVEMENTS North-Eastern India KHASI RISINGS l

Period: 1829-32.

l

Tirat Singh was ruler.

l

l

Oct 1914.

Area: in the feudatory estate of Daspalla in Orissa.

Began over a disputed succession, but quickly took on a different colour as rumours spread that a war had started and soon there would be no ‘sahebs’ in country and the Khonds would live under their own rule.

Nongkhlao state (then known as Kohima Khatsawphra) in the western Khasi hills. Reason of rising: r

r

r r

The British, who possessed Kamrup on the one side and Sylhet on the other, desired to build a road joining Assam and Sylhet which could be used for transport of troops to Burma. David Scott, the British representative, persuaded Tirat Singh to let him live in Nongkhlao and to allow him to build the road.

But, on pretence of road building, a large number of troops and their followers were inducted into the state. This alarmed the Khasis.

• The British suppressed it by burning Khond villages.

l

In 1829, Tirat Singh and his followers attacked the British party at Nongkhlao.

l In

l

Unequal war could not survive for long.

SAVARA REBELLION

l l

Parliakhamedi region (Orissa).

In 1856-57.

Leader: Radhakrishna Dandasena.

PARLIAKHAMEDI REBELLION (ORISSA)

l l

In 1829-35.

Leader: Jagannath Gajpati Narayana Rao.

l

Khasis were joined by the Garos, the Khampties and the Singphos.

l Tirat l

Singh surrendered transported to Dacca. He died in exile in 1834.

and

was

SINGPHOS OF ASSAM

l

l

Year: 1830 and 1839.

Suppression of revolt in 1830 by Captain Neufville. Caste & Tribal Movements

111

l

Resumption in 1839 with the murder of Col. White, British political agent of Assam.

KACHA NAGAS l

Year: 1882.

l

Target – the Whites.

l l

Area: Cacher (Assam).

Leader: Sambhudan Phonglo claimed that his magic had made his followers immune to bullets.

THADOE KUKIS

l l l

Year: 1917

Area: Manipur Causes: r r

l

r

Jadonang l

British efforts to recruit tribal labour for menial work on the Western front.

l

Government efforts to stop jhum (shifting cultivation)

l

Pothang: tribals being made to carry the baggage of officials without payment.

Form of resistance – Guerrilla war, continued for TWO years.

l l

It turned into a political movement called Jadonang movement led by Haipou Jadonang. Jadonang was arrested and hanged to death in 1931. After Jadonang, Rani Gaidilieu contined that movement. She was arrested in 1932.

Jawahar Lal Nehru met her Shillong Jail in 1937 and gave her the title of 'Rani'.

AHOM REBELLION l

Region: Assam; Time: 1828-30.

l

Peace settled finally in 1830, when British gave some regions of North Assam to Maharaja Purandara Singh.

l

Leader – Gomdhar Kunwar

HERAKA/JADONANG MOVEMENT l

l

Leaders – Jadonang and his niece. Rani Gaidilieu. A socio-religious movement called Heraka (means Pure) to protect traditional Naga Culure.

112 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Rani Gaidilieu

TRIBAL MOVEMENTS Western India BHIL RISINGS l l

Period: 1818-1848 (30 years) Bhils: r

r

l

r

An aboriginal tribe living in Khandesh (Aurangabad district).

Controlled mountain passes between the north and the Deccan.

Showed much loyalty to the Rajput chiefs.

Causes:

r Closing

r

years of 18th century, their region was devastated by Maratha wars, Pindari depredations, misgovernment and famine.

Rebellion lasted for thirty years.

l

It is believed that Trimbakji, rebel minister of Baji Rao II, instigated Bhils against British occupation of Khandesh.

l

Died down because of severe military operations combined with judicious conciliatory measures.

KOLI UPRISING l l

Years – 1828, 1839 and 1844-48. The Kolis: r

Neighbours of the Bhils.

r

By nature turbulent people.

r l

l

By 1850, they were subdued by the govt.

l

Year – 1858-59 and again in 1868.

l

1868 Revolt inspired by Millenarianism (belief in an imminent golden age).

NAIKDAS

l l

Immediate cause – occupation of their country by the British in 1818.



Living in the hills of Sahyadris.

Causes: The Kolis used to be employed to garrison the forts. But, when the forts

were dismantled by the British, they lost employment which caused discontent among them.

Region – Panchmahals (Gujarat).

1858 Revolt under Rup Singh: conclusion of peace between Rup Singh and British in 1859. r r r

Bid to establish dharma raj with Joria Bhagat as spiritual head and Rup Singh as temporal head. Attacked police stations.

Suppression of revolt after the capture and execution of Rup Singh and Joria.

BHILS REVOLTS OF RAJASTHAN l

Year: 1913; Leader: Govind Guru.

l

Movement began as a temperance and purification movement. But in late 1913 developed into bid to set up a Bhil raj.

l

Region: Banswara, Sunth and Dungarpur states (adjoining Mewar).

l

4000 Bhils were assembled on MANGAD hill.

l

Again started in year 1922 under Motilal Tejavat.

l

Movement reached its end with the repressive actions of British forces.

Caste & Tribal Movements

113

TRIBAL MOVEMENTS South India l l l

Hill chiefs (muttadars) had risen against their overlord affecting no less than 5000 sq. miles.

1879-80 Rebellion was led by Tomma Dora, who was hailed by Koyas as ‘king’ of Mal Kangiri. Revolt was suppressed by November 1880 by Madras Infantry.

Rajana Anantayya

REVOLTS IN ANDHRA PRADESH Rampa Revolt or Koya Rebellions l

Year: 1840, 1845, 1858, 1861, 1862 and March 1879 (major one).

l

Tribes – Koyas and Konda Dora.

l l

l

Region: ‘Rampa country of Chodavaram in the hills of Godavari Agency.

Common cause to all revolts – mansabdar oppression since 1813 when a mansabdar family had come to an understanding with the British. Causes of Major revolt of 1879 r r r r

r

Mansabdar efforts to enhance taxes on timber and grazing.

Police exactions

New excise regulations restricting domestic preparation of toddy. Exploitation by low-country traders and money-launders.

Restrictions of shifting cultivation (Podu) in forests.

114 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

l

Year – 1886

l

Rebels called themselves Rama Dandu (Rama’s Army)

l l

Region – Rampa country of Chodavaram.

Rajana Anantayya, one of their leaders, made a ‘proto-nationalistic’ appeal to the Maharaja of Jeypore for assistance of men and arms so as to end the English rule.

Konda Dora l

Year – 1900

l

Leader – Korra Mallaya who gave out that –

l

Region – Vizagapatam r

He was a reincarnation of one of the five Pandava brothers

r

He would drive out the ENGLISH and rule the country himself

r

r

his infant son was the god Krishna

To effect this he would arm his followers with bamboo, which should be turned by magic into guns and would change the weapons of the authority into water

l

Result – the police suppressed the move of the rioters.

r

Rampa Revolt l

l

l l

‘FITURI’ or revolt in 1916. r r

r

‘Melis’ also stands for rebellion.

Revolt in 1922 to 1924 under A. Sitaram Raju Causes: r

Exploitation by moneylenders.

r

Immediate cause – an unpopular Tehsildar Bastian of Gudem tried to construct forest roads with unpaid tribal labour.

laws restricting shifting cultivation and age-old grazing rights.

Leader: Alluri Sitaram Raju

During the rebellion, ‘spoke highly of Mr. Gandhi’.

r But

As a prelude to the major rebellion under Raju in 1922-24.

r Forest

l

r

‘Rampa’: semi-tribal region north of Godavari

had been inspired by Non Co-Operation Movement to start village panchayats and a campaign against drink. considered necessary.

VIOLENCE

as

Damarapalli ambush of 24 September 1922: rebels allowed Indians to pass and then shot down two British officers.

l

Form of resistance – Guerilla war against the British.

l

Raju was captured on 6 May 1924 and was reported shot in an ‘attempt to run away’.

l

Suppression cost Rs. 15 lakhs to Madras Government which took help of the Malabar Special Police and the Assam Rifles.

l Resistance l

finally September 1924.

stamped

out

in

This movement could be called as ‘primitive rebellion with modern nationalism’.

Chenchu (Forest Satyagraha) l

Chenchu, a primitive food gathering tribe.

l

Period of Revolt: during Non- cooperation movement (1921-22)

l

l

r

r

Not a local chief but an outsider.

Wandered among tribal since 1915 claiming astrological and healing powers.

Region – in the Nallamalai Hills of Cuddapah and Nellore (South Andhra) Causes: r r

Traditional rights to forest products being increasingly restricted by the government.

Tightening up of restrictions for conservancy and revenue purposes by a Forest Committee in 1913, directly contributed to a powerful ‘Forest Satyagraha’. Caste & Tribal Movements

115

NOTES

1857 REVOLT

Source: NCERT book 118 Indus to Independence Series: Ancient India

HISTORICAL SOURCES OF THE REVOLT l

Very few records available in the form of proclamations, notifications and letters on the rebels’ point of view. Example - The Azamgarh Proclamation of June 25, 1857.

l Official l

PEASANT/TRIBAL UPRISING AND MUTINY BEFORE 1857

accounts abundance.

are

available

in

Important record of mutiny is pictorial images.

Examples: r ­

r ­ r­

‘Relief of Lucknow’ painted by Thomas Jones Barker in 1859. It celebrates the moment of Campbell’s entry. The siege of Lucknow became a story of survival, heroic resistance and the triumph of British power. ‘In Memoriam’ painted by Joseph Noel Paton in 1859. It does not show the violence, it only suggests it.

Painting of ‘Miss Wheeler’ defending herself against sepoys in Kanpur.

PERSONS AND THEIR OPINION ABOUT 1857 Person Sir John Lawrence

Benjanmin Disraeli

T R Holmes

Vir Savarkar

Opinion about 1857 Sepoy Mutiny

R C Majumdar

Crusade against the Christians Conflict between Civilization & Barbarism Not War Independence

Ferazee Uprising

Moplah Uprising

Santhal Rebellion

Sepoy Mutiny

of

of

Year of Occurrence 1831-32

1831 at Barasat (Bengal) under Syed Ahmad and his disciple Mir Nasir Ali or Titoo Mir

1847 at Faridpur (Bengal) under Deedoo Mir 1849, 1851, and 1855

1852

1855-57

l ­ Reason:

sepoys’ demand for extra allowances for fighting in remote areas had not been met. Battalion

Year of Occurrence

34 NI

1844

38 NI

1852

66 NI

1857 REVOLT

National Revolt

First War Independence

Disturbances Kol uprising

22 NI

James Outram and W. H i n d u - M u s l i m Taylor Conspiracy L R Reez

Peasant and Tribal Uprising

1849 1850

Those against the East India Company 

Ahmadullah Shah: Ex-advisor of Nawab of Oudh.



Rao Saheb: Brother of Nana Saheb.

  

Nana Saheb: Last Peshwa. Tantia Tope: Lieutenant.

Nana

Saheb's

trusted

Azimullah Khan: Another Loyalist of Nana Saheb. 1857 Revolt

119



Laxmibai: Rani of Jhansi.



Feroz Shah: a relation of Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar; raised the banner of revolt in Mandsor. Later joined the forces of Tantia Tope.



Vir Kunwar Singh: Zamindar Jagdishpur in Arrah (Bihar).

of

CAUSES OF 1857 REVOLT 

It began with mutiny of sepoys, but it was more than the sepoy discontent.

Most Important Cause 

Economic exploitation and complete destruction of traditional economic fabric of the country by the British

British land revenue policies and the systems of law and administration l ­

Large number of peasant proprietors lost their lands to traders and money lenders because of non-payment of exorbitant revenue demand.

l ­ New

l l

l ­

Those Assisted British l

Jayajirao Sindhia Dinkar Rao.

and

his

minister

l

Sikander Begum, Begum of Bhopal.

l

Sir Salar Jung, minister of Hyderabad.

l

Sir Jung Bahadur, minister of Nepal.

l

Sikh ruling families: Raja of Patiala, Zind, Nabha, Kapurthala, Faridkot.

l The l

Pathans.

Dost Muhammad Khan, Ruler of in Afganistan.

120 Indus to Independence Series: Ancient India

l

landlords – traders and moneylenders- had little sympathy with the peasants and thus increased rents and evicted them in case of non-payments.

Economic decline of peasantry could be seen in 12 major/minor famines occurred during 1770 to 1857.

Even zamindars lost zamindari lands and rights to new absentee zamindars- the officials, merchants and moneylendersdue to heavy revenue demand.

Corruption of police, petty officials and lower courts made oppression more severe. Growing poverty of the people forced them to join the revolt.

Foreignness of British Rule l

l l

l

British had feeling of racial superiority

So, there was no social link between them and Indian people, even upper class Indians.

Aim of the British was to enrich themselves rather than benefitting Indians. This foreign character created anti-British feeling.

Belief of invincibility of the British shattered l ­ British l ­

l

army suffered losses internationally but in India too.

not

Examples: defeat of British in First Afghan War (1838-42), Punjab Wars (1845-49), Crimean War (1854-56) and Santhal Uprising (1855-56). These encouraged the people that the British rule could be overthrown.

r

l ­ l

Annexation of Awadh in 1856 l

Created an atmosphere of rebellion in Awadh and in the Company’s army.

l

Dissolution of Nawab’s court and his army left many with no jobs.

l

l ­ l ­

l ­

l l ­

This caused unemployment in almost every home. The First Revenue Settlement, known as Summary Settlement of 1856, brought with this assumption that the taluqdars had no permanent stakes in land.

In pre-British times, 67 percent of total villages of Awadh were held by the taluqdars. With the Summary Settlement it reduced to 38 percent.

Confiscation of estates of majority of taluqdars (numbering 21000) made them bitter opponents of the British.

Summary Settlement too did not reduce the revenue demand, rather increased from 30 to 70 percent which adversely affected the peasantry. British repetitive acts of breaking written and oral pledges and treaties with Indian powers.

Examples:

Annexation of Jhansi in 1853.

Refusal to pay pension to Nana Sahib, the adopted son of Bajirao II and the last Peshwa. Humiliation to Mughals: r

r

75000 of Company Sepoys came from Awadh, which was called ‘the nursery of the Bengal Army’.

Policy of Annexation and Subordination l

r

Annexation of Satara (1848), Nagpur, Sambhal and Baghat (1850), Udaipur (1852).

Lord Dalhousie announcement in 1849 that successor of Bahadur Shah to leave the Red Fort and reside at the Qutub.

Lord Canning announcement in 1856 that after Bahadur Shah Mughals would lose the title of Kings and would be known as mere Princes.

Activities of the Christian Missionaries  l ­

Fear of endangerment to Religion, both Hinduism and Islam.

Christian missionaries seen everywherein schools, hospitals, prisons and at market places. r ­

Made attacks on Hinduism and Islam.

l ­

Ridiculed long cherished customs and traditions.

l ­

In 1850, a law was enacted which enabled a convert to Christianity to inherit his ancestral property.

l ­

Had police protection.

Discontent of Sepoys l

Sepoys were part of Indian society.

l

Sepoys themselves had religious or caste grievances:

l ­

Sufferings of their dear ones affected them too. r r

Forbidden to wear caste and sectarian marks- beards or turbans.

Provision of 1856 Act that every new recruit had to serve overseas, 1857 Revolt

121

was against the then prevalent Hindu belief that traveling across sea would lead to loss of caste.

l

Treated with contempt by British officers.

l ­

Order to stop Foreign Service allowance (batta) caused dissatisfaction.

l­

Open Revolt at Meerut on 10 May 1857 t ­

Had little prospect to rise in rank; no Indian could rise higher than subedar.

General Hewitt, the Commanding Officer, took no steps to suppress.

Immediate Cause l­

l

l ­ l

Introduction of new Enfield rifle which had cartridges covered with a greased paper. To load the cartridge in the rifle, the greased paper had to be bitten off first.

Grease was composed of beef and pig fat.

This enraged the sepoys, as they believed that use of greased cartridge would endanger their religion. Belief prevailed that the Government wanted to ruin their religion and convert them to Christianity.

OUTBREAK OF REVOLT AND ITS SUPPRESSION

Source: NCERT book

First Sign of Unrest l l

At Behrampur (Bengal) on 26 February 1857.

At Barrackpur on 29 March 1857 of 34 NI under Mangal Pandey.

Delhi l

l

Proclamation of Bahadur Shah II as Emperor.

l ­

Actual leader of Mutiny was Bakht Khan, an ordinary subedar of artillery.

l ­

l ­

l ­ l

Mangal Pandey 122 Indus to Independence Series: Ancient India

Captured by Mutineers on May 12, 1857.

l

Lt. Willoughby, officer-in-charge magazine, defended it for few days.

of

Bakht Khan led rebellious Bareilly troops to Delhi.

Recovery by the Company by September 1857.

Mutineers were defeated at Badli Sari.

Nicholson were assisted by Sir Archdale

Wilson, Baird Chamberlain. l l l

Smith

and

Neville

r

Nicholson received mortal wound.

City was sacked by the Company Soldiers.

l l

Ghalib was witness to it.

Bahadur Shah II was arrested by Lt. Hudson and deported to Rangoon (capital of Myanmar).

His two sons were shot down by Lt. Hudson.

Kanpur

l Leader: l­

l

l

l

Nana Saheb (original name Dhondu Pant), adopted son of Balajirao II and the last Peshwa. Assisted by Rao Saheb, Tantia Tope and Azimullah Khan

Sir Hugh Wheeler, Commander of station, defended it from 8 June to June 26, 1857.

Nana’s troops massacred the Europeans at Satichaura Ghat and Bibigarh.

Revolt suppressed by Havelock, Neil and finally by Sir Colin Campbell in December 1857.

Lucknow l

Revolt broke out on May 30, 1857.

l

Leader of Mutineers were Hazrat Mahal, Begum of Awadh and Ahmaddullah, exadvisor of Nawab of Oudh.

l

l l ­

r

Battle of Chinhat: June 30, 1857 – Mutineers defeated the Company’s forces.

Begum proclaimed her young son Birjis Kadr as the Nawab of Awadh. Defense of British Residency: r

First by Henry Lawrence, then Chief Commissioner.

r

Then command was given to Brigadier Inglis.

r

Lawrence was killed in a blast.

Gen Neil too died in the process of defense. Havelock and Outram too tried, but final relief came from Sir Colin Campbell who afterwards known as Lord Clyde, on March 21, 1858.

Central India l ­ l ­ l

l ­ l ­

l ­

l ­ l l ­

Tantia Tope, a Maratha Brahmin, joined Nana Saheb with mutinous Gwalior regiment.

Driven out of Kanpur by Campbell in December 1857, he joined Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi.

Sir Hugh Rose defeated Tantia Tope near Betwa river and captured Jhansi and Kalpi. Rani and Tantia reached Gwalior and captured Gwalior from Sindhia, who fled to Agra.

Sir Hugh Rose defeated them at Morar and Kotah and recovered Gwalior. Rani died fighting.

Rani was esteemed as ‘the best and bravest military leader of rebels’ by Sir Hugh Gough.

Tantia was given to the British by Man Singh, a feudatory of Sindhia.

Tantia was hanged on charges of rebellion, and not for the complicity in massacre of Kanpur.

Bundelkhand l

Was

Bihar

the southern most centre.

l Place:

Jagdishpur, Ara.

l Leader: l l

­

Kunwar Singh, 80 year old discontented zamindar of Jagdishpur. Suppression by William Taylor and Sir Vincent Eyre in August 1857. Kunwar Singh died on April 23, 1858. Next Leader was Amar Singh.

1857 Revolt

123

Benaras

WEAKNESSES OF THE REVOLT

l

Suppressed by Col Neil in June 1857.

Allahabad

Limited Reach

l

Fort of Allahabad defended by Captain Brasyer, who was saved by Col Neil.

l ­

Revolt could not embrace the entire country.

l

Khan Bahadur Khan proclaimed himself as Nawab.

l

Madras, Bombay, Bengal and Western Punjab remained unaffected.

Bareilly

l ­

Capture of Bareilly by Campbell in May 1858.

Barout (Uttar Pradesh) l­

l ­

Leader: Shah Mal who belonged to a clan of Jat cultivators of chaurasi-desh. Shah Mal was killed in July 1857.

Faizabad

l Leader: l ­

l

Maulvi Ahmaddullah, a native of Madras who moved to Faizabad in January 1857. He preached armed rebellion. He was defeated during Lucknow revolt.

Ahmaddullah was murdered by Raja of Puwain in June 1858.

l

Not Supported by all the Classes l

l l ­ l ­

Singhbhum (Chotanagpur, Jharkhand) l Leader:

Gonoo, a tribal cultivator.

l

Organized the Kols tribals of the region.

l

Lord Elphinstone preserved tranquility except Mutiny at Kolhapur.

l ­

Kept quiet by George Lawrence.

l

Remained peaceful under Sir John Lawrence.

Bombay Presidency

Rulers like Sindhia of Gwalior, Holkar of Indore, Nizam of Hyderabad, Raja of Jodhpur, Nawab of Bhopal, Maharaja of Kashmir, Ranas of Nepal and rulers of Patiala, Nabha, Jind did not join. A large number of big zamindars gave active help to British

No more than ONE PERCENT of the Chiefs of India joined the Revolt. Governor-General Canning remarked:

‘these rulers acted as breakwaters to the storm which would have otherwise swept us in one great wave’.

l ­

Middle and upper classes were critical of the Revolt.

l ­

Modern educated youth’s belief that the British would usher in modern society, modern economy, modern political institutions and scientific education, kept them away from the Revolt.

l ­

Rajputana

Punjab

Did not spread to South India and most of Eastern and Western India.

Big merchants of Bombay (Mumbai), Calcutta (Kolkata) and Madras (Chennai) supported the British, as their main profits came from foreign trade and economic connections with British Merchants.

l

Except, Hoti Mardan and Naushera.

Those Took Shelter in Nepal

Poorly Organized and Uncoordinated

l

Nana Saheb and ladies of his family: escaped early in 1859.

l ­

l

Begum Hazrat Mahal of Oudh.

124 Indus to Independence Series: Ancient India

l

Did not have common plan of military action. Lacked centralized leadership.

l ­ l

l l

Were suspicious and jealous of one another.

r

Diverse elements were united only by their hatred of British Rule, their grievances and conception of Free India were not the same. Sepoys, though brave and selfless, were ill-disciplined.

Rebels were short of modern weapons and other materials of war.

r Superior



Significance of Revolt l

l l l

First great struggle of Indian people for freedom from British Imperialism.

Impact of Revolt on British Attitude





the

system

of



Control of governance of India passed from the Company to British Crown r

Thus rule of East India Company came to an end by Proclamation of Government of India Act 1858.

r Governor-General

was additional title of ‘Viceroy’.

Army was reorganized: r

r



in

given

For next 50 years ‘idea of division and counter-poise’ dominated the British military policy. Charles Wood, Secretary of State, in 1861: ‘if one regiment mutinies, I should like to have the next regiment so alien that it would be ready to fire into it’.

Preponderance Strategic posts:

of

Europeans

in

all

Attitude towards Indian Princely States changed: r

No more annexation but acceptance of Paramountancy of Crown.

Indian Princes were given even right to adopt.

r A

Served as a perennial source of inspiration in the struggle for freedom

Important Changes administration:

posts in Administration - Police, PWD, Post & Telegraph, Engineering - reserved for British citizens.

r

Paved the way for the rise of modern national movement. Heroes of Revolt became household names

Maximum age for civil service reduce to 19 in 1878 making it dificult for Indians to succeed in Civil Service Examination.

r

Territorial and monetary award to Gwalior, Patiala, Rampur and Jind.

Attitute Towards Social Reforms: r r



special order of Knighthood (instituted in 1861) was conferred on rulers of Baroda, Bhopal, Gwalior, Patiala and Rampur.

British abandoned previous policy of helping social reforms to appease the conservative Indians. Britsh thought that abolition of Sati System, Permission of Widow remarriage etc, - were one of the factors of 1857 mutiny.

Racial Antagonism: r Social

distance from Indians to preserve their authority over them.

r Railway 



compartments, waiting rooms, parks, clubs, etc, reversed for 'Europeans only'.

British Attitude towards Muslims changed in 1870s: Reason: r

Hindu - Muslim unity during 1857 revolt alarmed the British, so decided to divide this unity. 1857 Revolt

125

‘Relief of Lucknow’ painted by Thomas Jones Barker in 1859. Source: NCERT book r 

Rise of nationalist movement posed threat to safety and stability of British Empire.

British Policy of ‘Divide and Rule’: r

r r r

r

Objective: to check the growth of a united national feeling. Started encouraging separatist and communal tendencies.

Tried to win over Muslim landlords, zamindars and newly educated. Treated Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs as separate communities. Encouraged movement Urdu as court language.

to

126 Indus to Independence Series: Ancient India

replace

r Permitted

the propagation of communal ideas and hatred through press, pamphlets, posters and public platform, but suppressed nationalist press and writers.

r Helped

in establishing pro-British Muslim Association in late 19th century.

t t t ­

Muhammadan Literary and Scientific Society founded by Abdul Latif (1863). Anjuman-i (1884-Lahore).

-

Islamia

National Muhammadan Association by Syed Amir Ali.

PEASANT MOVEMENTS DURING BRITISH PERIOD

PRE 1857 - PEASANT MOVEMENTS

r

THE SANYASI REBELLION (1763-1800) 

Mainly in Bengal, also in Bihar.



Social base:



Sanyasi and fakirs were originally peasants, some of whom were evicted from land.

r

Rural poor

r

Disbanded soldiers.

r  

Dispossessed small zamindars.

Technique of attacks was guerilla.

r

Grain stocks of rich

128 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Government officials

 They  



established

Independent

Government in Bogra & Mymen Singh. One

Noticeable

feature:

equal

participation of Hindus and Muslims. Some Important Leaders: r

Manju Shah

r

Bhawani Pathak

r

Target of attack: r

Government treasuries

r

Musa Shah

Debi Chaudharani

Finally, British suppressed them in 1800.

r

RANGPUR UPRISING 1783 

Centres: Rangpur and Dinajpur (Bengal).



Debi Singh: One such revenue contractor who created a reign of terror.









Cause: Heavy revenue and harsh attitude of revenue contractors.



r

Appeal to company officials.

Being deprived of justice from the company, took law in their own hands.

Elected their leader named Dheeraj Narain.

r

Formed their government.



DHING-KHARCHA (insurrection charges) on the peasantry to meet the expenses of rebellion. Both Hindus and Muslims fought side by side. Ultimately suppressed.

r



MYSORE REBELLION (1820-21)



Cause: increasing burden of revenue.



Leader: Sardar Malla – son of a ryot of Kremsi.



Open revolt in the province of Nagar.

MOPLAH REBELLION (1836-54)  Malabar: r

It was ceded to the East India Company in 1792 by Tipu Sultan after his defeat in the third Anglo-Mysore War.

r Cannanore, 

Kozhikode, Palghat and Malappupuram districts of Kerala roughly comprise the former Malabar District.

Moplahs: r

Are descendents of Arab settlers

r Landlord r Position

 Levied 

New land revenue system introduced by the British: established.

Peasants’ initial method of protest: r

Majority of them tenants, landless labourers, petty traders and fishermen.



  



in

land

were

of Hindu upper caste Namboodari and Nair Jenmis enhanced at the cost of Muslim leaseholders (Kanamdars) and cultivators (Verumpattandars).

Roots of discontent clearly agrarian, but social composition of oppressor and oppressed resulted in communal solidarity. Hindu peasants also suffered, but communal tinge to the movement affected their form of resistance which was confined to social banditry.

Main centre: Ernad and Walluvanad talukas of South Malabar. Period: 1836-54: r

22 uprisings between 1836 and 1854.

r

Desecration of temples by small band of Moplahs.

r 

rights

Attack on jenmi property.

Tangals of Mambram near Tirurangadi became prominent as religious cum political heads.

Prominent heads: Saiyyed Alawi and his son Saiyyed Fadl. Large-scale conversion of untouchable Cherumars.

There occurred three serious outbreaks in 1894, 1896 and 1898. The years between 1898 and 1915 were free from Moplah outbreaks. Peasant Movements during British Period

129

PEASANT MOVEMENTS 1857 - 1900 r

INDIGO REVOLT OR NEEL VIDROH (1859)  



Indigo plantations had been set up as early as 1770 in Bengal.

‘Non-cultivation of indigo’ movement began in Govindpur village of Nadia district. Soon spread to other areas and by the spring of 1860 covered all indigo districts of Bengal. Roots of the problem: r

r r r

r



Forceful cultivation of indigo on best land of peasants.

r r

l

l

Initially peaceful – petition-giving, peaceful demonstrations.

First violent resistance in Nadia district under Digamber Biswas and Bishnu Biswas. Peasants refused to take advances and enter into contracts and adopted rent strike.

130 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Digamber Biswas and Vishnu Biswas of Nadia.

r

Rafique Mondal of Malda.



Kader Molla of Pabna.

Support from Intelligentsia: r Contemporary

r

Indigo planters used coercive methods.

Planters mostly Europeans had the support of Magistrates who too were mostly Europeans. A popular saying ‘je rakshak se bhakshak’ (our protector is our devourer).

r

r

Price paid for indigo was far below the market price.

First martyr of indigo revolt was Biswanath Sardar alias Bishe Dakat, who was hanged after show trial.

Leaders: r

Peasants were forced to take meager amount as advance and enter into fraudulent contracts.

Nature of resistance: r

r

In 1860 it encompassed all indigo districts of Bengal.

r

newspaper ‘The Bengalee’ gave due coverage to the movement.

Dinbandhu Mitra wrote ‘Nil Darpan’ in Bengali, highlighting plight of peasants.

Harish Chandra Mukherjee, editor of Hindoo Patriot, supported the ryots cause.

Missionaries also supported the ryots.

Government Response: r

Restrained not as harsh as in the case of civil uprisings and tribal revolts.

r

Government Notification of November 1860:

r

Appointed a Commission in 1860 to enquire into the problems. t ­ t ­

Ryots could not be compelled to grow indigo.

All disputes to be settled by legal means.



Reasons for Its success: r Tremendous r

r

co-operation, organization and discipline of ryots.



Raiyyat resistance r

r

Unity among Hindu and Muslim peasants.

Leaders were well-off ryots, petty zamindars, money lenders and exemployees of planters.

r

PABNA REVOLT (1873-1885) l Storm

centre Bangladesh).

in

r

More than 50% of the cultivators had got occupancy rights under Act X of 1859 which meant cultivators got immunity from eviction.



Flourishing trade centre of jute.

r

r

Zamindari rent increased 7 fold by 1872 since 1793. Prevention of tenants from acquiring occupancy rights under Act X of 1859.

Use of coercive methods by zamindars like forced eviction, seizure of crops.

r Dragging

of tenants litigation in courts.

Agrarian League: r

into

costly

In 1873 peasants of Yusufshahi pargana of Pabna organized an agrarian league to raise funds to meet litigation expenses.

Principal leaders of Agrarian League: r

Isan Chandra Roy

r

Khoodi Mullah (jotedar)

r

Shambhu Pal

r



Pabna agitation was also not anti – British, as the raiyyats wanted to be “the ryots of Her Majesty the Queen and of Her only”.

r Zamindar-dominated

r

Imposition of a variety of abwabs (cesses).

Very few sporadic violent incidents (looting of houses of zamindars, attacks on police stations etc) at Pabna.

Reactions among Bengali Intelligentsia:

r

Causes for unrest:

r

l

(now

A relatively prosperous district.

r



Pabna

r r



was

Primarily legalistic and peaceful.

‘British Indian Association’ was bitterly hostile. Its organ ‘Hindu Patriot’ tried to portray it as a communal agitation.

Dwijendra Nath Tagore, brother of Ravindra Nath Tagore and one of the zamindars adversely affected, urged the government in July 1873 to take stern action. R.C. Dutt’s ‘Peasantry of Bengal’ (1874) took sympathetic attitude.

Indian Association led by Surendranath Banerjee, Anandmohan Bose, Dwarkanath Ganguli campaigned for rights of tenants during discussion on Bengal Tenancy Bill.

Role of Government r r

Intervened wherever violence took place. Remained neutral in case of legal battles between raiyyats and zamindars.

r Lastly

protected the tenants by passing Bengal Tenancy Act in 1885.

DECCAN RIOTS 1875 l

In 1875 in Maharashtra Deccan (Poona and Ahamdnagar districts). Peasant Movements during British Period

131

l

Reason: r

r

Ryotwari settlement: Though land revenue directly settled with the peasants, but high revenue demand and successive bad harvests forced them to take loans from the moneylenders, mostly Marwaris and Gujaratis. Non-payment of loan deprived them of their lands which caused tension between the peasants and the money lenders. Cotton Boom of 1860s

t ­

t t ­

l

Riots:

Civil war in America in 1862 created demand resulting in rise in cotton exports which brought prosperity to peasants.

End of civil war in 1864 caused acute depression in cotton exports resulting in fall in prices.

In 1867 rate of land revenue was hiked by 50% but there had been successive bad harvests. This situation caused widespread indebtedness.

r

Kunbi (cultivator caste), Vani (village moneylender).

r

Initially nature of protest was ‘social boycott’ of ‘outsider moneylenders’.

r r

or mortgage bonds’. Once destroyed or surrendered, no need of further violence was felt. Active phase lasted for 3 weeks. Suppressed by the Government.

l

Poona Sarvajanik Sabha took up the cause of the peasants.

l

Deccan Agriculturists Relief Act, 1879: Provided limited protection to better-off peasants through strengthening judicial procedures and remedies.

l

Deccan riots had very limited objectives. There was not any anti-colonial consciousness.

PHADKE UPRISING (1879) 

Leader: Vasudev Balwant Phadke

r Kunbis

r r r

rose against the Vanis under Patils (village headmen) but target were immigrant Marwari moneylenders. Later it transferred into agrarian riots, which included loot and burning of moneylenders’ houses and shops.

Riots were significantly uncommon in areas where moneylenders were not outsiders (like Khots in Ratnagiri).

Riots were limited to destroying ‘instruments of oppression’ i.e. ‘debt

132 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r

A Chitpavan Brahman and a clerk in Commissariat Department.

r

had intention of establishing “Hindu Raj’.

r

Influenced by Ranade’s lecture on ‘drain of wealth’.

r

Growing Hindu revivalist mood among Poona Brahman intellectuals.

 Reason: r



Band of Forty: r r

 

Experience of Deccan famine of 187677.

Included few Brahman youths and many more low-caste Ramoshis and Dhangars. Raised money through dacoities.

r Instigated

armed revolt through disrupting communications.

This uprising was a type of social banditry with the dacoits given shelter by the peasants. Daulat Ramoshi: r r

Became a leader of Ramoshi dacoit band after Phadke’s arrest and life sentence. Remained active till 1883.

KUKA REVOLT (1870) l

Period: early 1870s in Punjab.

l

Revolt had elements of a ‘messianic movement’.

l

l

Leader: Baba Ram Singh.

It was crushed when 49 rebels of this revolt were blown up by a canon in 1872.

NO-REVENUE MOVEMENTS Another type of rural protest. Assam: l

Kamrup and Darrang district of Assam.

l

New Revenue Settlement of 1893-94: enhanced rates by 50 to 70 percent.

l

Some cases of looting of bazaar and two police firings at Rangiya and Patharughat in January 1894.

l

l

l l

The organization of ‘raij mels’ (mass assemblies of villagers) led by rural elite like Brahmans, Gosains and Dolois, resisted that enhancement.

Jorhat Sarvajanik Sabha supported the movement.

Issue was raised at Imperial Legislative Council by Rash Behari Ghosh. Pusparam Kanhar, a bell-metal artisan of Sarukhetri, was one of plebian militants.

Maharashtra Deccan (1896-97) l

Famine conditions led to looting of grain shops.

l

Poona Sarvajanik Sabha under Tilak sent agents to villages to popularize the legal rights of raiyats in a famine situation.

l

l

Demand for revenue- remissions under Famine Code but demand was rejected.

Area affected: Thane, Kolaba and Ratnagiri district.

Gujarat l In

Surat, Kheda, Ahmadabad district in 1899-1900.

NATURE OF PEASANT MOVEMENTS: 1857-1900 l

Peasants emerged as main force in agrarian movements.

l

Movements had ‘limited and specific objectives’.

l

They fought directly for their demands and against their immediate enemies.

Peasant Movements during British Period

133

l

Movements did not make colonialism their main target.

l

Lacked continuity of struggle. Once objective achieved, movement or organization disappeared or dissolved.

l

l l

l

Territorial limited.

reach

of

movements

was

Peasants did not fight for land-ownership or against land-lordism, but against eviction or rent hike. Movements were often spontaneous and instinctive. Peasants fought for legal rights also through legal means i.e. through courts.

MAJOR WEAKNESSES OF 19 TH CENTURY MOVEMENTS l l

Lack of adequate understanding of colonialism and of colonial economic structure as well as social framework. Lacked new ideology and programme.

l Lacked l l

positive conception alternative society.

of

PEASANT MOVEMENTS

an

Did not look beyond regional boundaries, so could not organize movement on a wider all India plane.

Most of these weaknesses were overcome in 20 th century when peasant movements became a part of wider anti-imperialist national movement.

20 TH CENTURY

BIJOLIA OR MEWAR MOVEMENT l

Bijolia – a big Mewar jagir held by a Parmer Rajput.

l

In 1905 and 1913, the kisans collectively refused to cultivate lands and tried to emigrate.

l

There were 86 different types of cesses on kisans.

l

1913 protest was led by a sadhu, Sita Ram Das.

l

Pathik persuaded a state official Manik Lal Verma to jointly lead a No-Tax movement against Udaipur Maharana in 1916.

l

l l

1915 protest led by Bhoop Singh alias Vijay Singh Pathik. an ex-revolutionary connected with Sachin Sanyal’s group.

Another feature of this movement was peasants’ refusal to contribute to War-loans.

Again in 1927 to fight against fresh cesses and begars. Leaders like Vijay Singh Pathik, Manik Lal Verma and Haribhau Upadhyaya made Gandhian contacts and adopted satygraha method.

BHIL MOVEMENT l l

In Udaipur State of Rajasthan.

Also called 'Eki Movement' or 'Bhomat Bhil Movement.

l By

134 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Motilal Tejawat (An Oswal Bania by Caste) in 1922.

l

Brutally suppressed by the police when it burnt down two whole villages (Bhula and Balohiya) in May 1922.

NEEMUCHANA l In

Alwar state in May 1925 protesting against 50% increase in land revenue.

l A l

massacre of peasants by the police killing 156 and wounding more than 600.

Mahatma Gandhi compared this massacre with 'Jalianwala Bagh Massacre 1919'.

CHAMPARAN SATYAGRAHA l

Champaran: Now Two Districts - East & West Champaran in Bihar.

Problem: l l l

l

l

l

European planter had established indigo farms and factories in Champaran at the beginning of 19 th Century. By 1916-17, a large part of Champaran was held by three proprietors, the Bettiah, Ramnagar and Madhuban estates. Bettiah, the largest state consisting over 1500 villages.

Most of these villages were not managed by landlords but were leased to thikadars or temporary tenure holders, of whom the most influential group was European indigo planters.

Basic issue of trouble: the system of indirect cultivation whereby peasants leased land from planters, binding themselves to grow indigo each year on specified land in return for an advance at the beginning of cultivation season. Tinkathia system: by which a tenant had to cultivate indigo at 3/20 th of his holdings.

l  l

l l

Slight modifications in this system in 1908, yet not material change in degrading conditions of tenant. Demand of Indian indigo in world market was declining due to increasing production of synthetic indigo in Germany.

Loss to planter forced them to put the burden of losses on tenants.

Planter offered to release the tenants from growing indigo, if the latter paid compensation or damages. Apart from this, they heavily inflated the rents and imposed many illegal levies.

Gandhi’s Effort l l l

l

Took no interest in this when discussed at Lucknow session in 1916 on the ground that he knew nothing about the matter. Raj Kumar Shukla, a peasant from Champaran, after continuous efforts prevailed upon Gandhi to visit Champaran.

When reached Motihari, he was served with an order to quit Champaran.

Gandhi disobeyed the order and was arrested, but at the Bihar Government’s stance, was released and granted the facilities for investigation.

l Government l

appointed Champaran Agrarian Committee with Gandhi as one of its members. Recommendations: r

Abolition of Tinkathia system.

r

Reduction in enhanced rates.

r r

Abolition of many illegal exactions. 25% refund, as for illegal recoveries.

l Recommendations l

were included Champaran Agrarian Act 1917. Gandhi’s chief supporters:

in

r Rajendra

Prasad, Gorakh Prasad, Acharya Kriplani, A.N. Sinha, Braj Kishore Prasad. Peasant Movements during British Period

135

r

Middle peasants like Sant Raut, Kedar Rai.

r

few village mukhtars (attorneys).

r r

l

School teachers, like. Pir Muhammad, Harbans Sahai. Local mahajans and traders.

Gandhi left behind a group of 15 volunteers to start constructive village work and told Rajendra Prasad that the only real solution was ‘the education of raiyats and a constant process of mediation between them and planters’.

l

l

KHEDA SATYAGRAHA IN GUJARAT (22 MARCH - JUNE 1918) l l

l

l

l l l

l

r Rich r

peasant proprietors patidars or from Kunbi caste.

called

A large number of small peasants and landless labourers.

Produced - food grains, cotton and tobacco for Ahmadabad market.

In 1917, excessive rain damaged Kharif crop in Kheda. This coincided with increase in price of Kerosene, iron, cloth and salt. In view of poor harvest, demanded revenue remission.

peasants

The ‘revenue code’ provided for a total remission if crops were less than 25% of normal production. Two Bombay barristers, V.J. Patel and G.K. Parikh made enquiries and reached a conclusion that a major crop portion of crop was damaged. Government did not agree with the findings. Official contention was the agitation was not a spontaneous

136 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Initiative for agitation came neither from Gandhi nor from other Ahmadabad politicians, but by local village leaders like, Mohanlal Pandya of Kapadvanj taluka.

After a lot of hesitation, Gandhi decided to launch a Satyagraha on March 22, 1918.

r

Inaugurated the satyagraha at a meeting in Nadiad.

r

Toured villages and support to peasants.

r

First Real Peasant Satyagraha in India. People in this region:

expression of peasant discontent but was started by ‘outsiders’ or members of Home Rule League and Gujarat Sabha of which Gandhi was the President at that time.

l

Gandhi’s Supporters

r

Indulal Yajnik.

r

Ansuya Sarabhai.

r l l

l

l l

Urged peasants not to pay land revenue. gave

moral

Vallabhbhai Patel and

Satyagraha reached its peak by 21 April when 2337 peasants pledge not to pay revenue.

Moreover, a good Rabi crop had weakened the case for remission. Gandhi called off agitation in June, 1918 when the government issued instructions that land revenue should be recovered from only those who had the capacity to pay

This agitation did not have uniform effect on the area. Only 70 villages out of 559 in Kheda actually involved. Future Gandhian social base, particularly Anand and Borsad talukas of rich tobacco and dairy farming charotar track of Kheda.

KISAN SABHA IN UNITED PROVINCES (1918-20) l

r r

r

l

Leader: Gaurishankar Mishra and Indra Narayan Dwivedi. with the support of Madan Mohan Malviya. by 1919, 450 branches in 173 tehsils.

Large number of Kisan delegates from UP attended Congress Session at Delhi (Dec 1918) and at Amritsar (Dec 1919).

‘Nai-dhobi’ Band, a form of social boycott, started in December 1919 in Pratapgarh district. r r

Leader: Jhinguri Singh and Durgapal Singh. Baba Ramchandra was another leader.

t t ­

r r l

Kisan Sabha at Roor village in Pratapgarh became the centre of activity.

Over 1 lakh peasants registered their complaints on payment of 1 anna each.

Internal strife within Congress led to formation of alternative organization named Oudh Kisan Sabha on 17 October 1920 at Pratapgarh. r Leaders:

r

r l l l 

a Brahmin from Maharashtra settled in Faizabad in UP in 1909.

on his request Jawaharlal Nehru visited several times to rural areas in June-August 1920.

Jawaharlal Nehru, Gaurishankar Mishra, Mata Badal Pande, Baba Ramchandra, Deo Narayan Pande and Kedarnath Appealed to kisans:

Not to offer hari and begari

t ­

To boycott those who did not accept these conditions

t

UP Kisan Sabha was set up in February 1918. r

t

t ­

To refuse to till bedakhali land

To solve their disputes through panchayats.

First big show of strength at Ayodhya on 20 and 21 December 1920. 1 lakh peasants participated.

Marked feature of Kisan Sabha movement was that kisans belonging to both higher as well as lower castes were in its ranks.

Violent activity in January 1921 in districts of Raebareli, Faizabad (now Ayodhya) and Sultanpur. Government suppressed it.

Seditious Meetings Act in March 1921 brought by Government to cover affected districts. Oudh Rent Amendment Act 1921; r

Though gave little relief to the tenants, but aroused hope for the future, and thus assisted in the decline of the movement.

MOPLAH REVOLT: 1921-22 l 

Marked the culmination of a series of Moplah outbreaks in the 19th and early 20 th centuries. Nature of Movement: r

William Logan, the second special Commissioner, appointed in 1875 to look into the Moplah disturbances:

“The overwhelming cause of the outbreaks was the new system of land-ownership introduced by the British following their annexation of the district of Malabar in 1792 and oppressive nature of the Malabar's landlords. The cultivators had degenerated Peasant Movements during British Period

137

r

r

r

r

r

into a precarious position mainly due to the crying evils of rackrenting, extortionate renewal fees and inadequate compensation for improvement.”

E.M.S. Namboodiripad agrees with Logan's views and argues that:

“The Moplah outbreaks were 'spontaneous' attempts by the peasants of Malabar to free themselves from the iron-grip of the Jenmis and that the 1921 revolt was essentially a peasant movement against both landlords’ oppression and the British Raj.”

l

l

r r

“The Moplah outbreaks were striking examples of India's long and active tradition of peasants’ protests and revolts.”

r

Stephan Dale sees the 1921 revolt primarily in religious terms.

“The Moplahs were mobilized by the cry of 'Islam in danger' raised by the Khilafat movement in its bid to prevent post-war dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire.”

Gandhi viewed, “Moplah revolt was basically a religious outburst which had been allowed to occur and even encouraged by the imperialist policy of divide and rule on the one hand and on the other by the lack of nonviolent non-cooperation in Malabar”. Most accepted view: Moplah revolts were being basically peasant rebellion. Religious fanaticism and Moplah ethnic solidarity were outer coverings to an essentially agrarian problem in Malabar.

138 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Prior to the outbreak of the 1921 revolt, three movements developed in Malabar which later merged together: r

Kathleen Gough asserts that:



Agrarian Issues: Evictions, rack renting, excessive lease renewal fees and poor compensation for tenants' improvements, left the peasantry in a state of abject poverty and desperation.

r

l



First, the tenancy movement rooted in the local agrarian grievances particularly in South Malabar Second, the Khilafat movement for the restoration of Khalifa and his temporal power Third, the Non-cooperation movement launched jointly by the all-India Khilafat Committee and the Congress.

The triple agitations afforded them an opportunity to voice their economic grievances as well as to demonstrate their religious and cultural identity. Moplah leader Ali Musaliar preached: ‘Khilafat, tenancy and Swaraj' as the panacea for the economic problems of the poor Moplah peasantry.

Gandhi visited Malabar with Khilafat leader Shaukat Ali as part of the effort of Congress/ Khilafat organizations to win strong political support among the Moplahs of Malabar. Immediate cause and course of uprising r

r

5 th February 1921: district authorities prohibited all Khilafat / Noncooperation meetings in the Ernad and Walluvanad talukas. Prohibitory notice stated that Khilafat meetings would not only arouse the ire of the Moplahs against the British Government but also against the Hindu Jenmis.

r

r

r

r

r

r r

r

r

Prominent Congress / Khilafat leaders such as K.Madhavan Nair, P.Moiden Koya, U.Gopalan Menon and Yakub Hasan arrested.



With these arrests the entire Khilafat campaign was left in the hands of the local militant leaders - the Musaliars, Thangals, and Hajis.

In April, the Majlis-ul-Ulema (Council of Muslim learned men), an All India militant Muslim organization, held a conference at Erode and called upon the Moplah masses to launch a jihad against the Hindus.

August, 1921: The rebellion started following a rumour of raid by police and the army on the famous Mambrath mosque at Tirurangadi - where in fact they had gone to arrest various Moplah leaders including Ali Musaliar. This incident incited the already agitated Moplah peasants who rushed to the mosque and clashed with the police.

l

r

10,000 rebels were active at the height

and Walluvanad 'l'aluks.

Magnitude of the movement:

of the rising in September, 1921.

According to official sources, 2,339 rebels were killed; 1,652 wounded and 45,303 taken prisoners.

The Moplah rebellion had been crushed completely by the end of December, 1921.

EKA MOVEMENT: 1921-22 l Centres:

l

l

Hardoi, Bahraich and Sitapur (Uttar Pradesh).

Main grievance was oppression of peasants by thikedars, who forcefully extracted 50 per cent more revenue than the recorded revenue. Eka movement was marked by a religious ritual: r

A hole that represented Ganga was dug and filled with water

r

Assembled peasants vowed

r

In the first phase, the wrath of the Moplah peasants was directed against the Government officials and jenmi landlords.

Such was the nature of the rebellion that all attempts by some liberal Congress and Khilafat leaders (who were released in August, 1921) to pacify the rebels were practically of no use.

Uprising was most intense in Ernad

r

It was only when the police opened fire that a frenzy of riotous destruction, killing, looting and arson began.

By the end of August the whole of the interior of Southern Malabar was in the hands of the rebels and thus the Government was forced to call in the army to assist the civil administration.

r

A priest presided the function t

To pay only recorded revenue and pay on time

t

To refuse forced labour

t

l

t ­

Not to leave land when ejected To abide decisions

by

the

panchayats

Grass root participation but with different form of struggle r

Madari Pasi and other low-caste leaders did not incline to the nonviolent struggle which Congress and Khilafat leaders urged. Peasant Movements during British Period

139

l

l

Eka movement included not only the tenants but also small zamindars who too were disenchanted with government’s high revenue demand.

BARDOLI MOVEMENT

Bardoli: a taluq in Surat district of Gujarat

l

Was the product of non-cooperation days:

l

Annual conferences of Kaliparaj held from 1922 to 1927. Gandhiji presided the conference in 1927.

r

r

In 1922 Bardoli was chosen as place to start civil disobedience campaign.

r

Preparatory work politicized Bardoli immensely.

r

Kalyanji and Kunwarji Mehta, popularly known as Mehta brothers

r

All preparation done but programme abandoned due to Chauri-chaura incident.

Leaders: r

r

t ­

They worked through Patidar Yuvak Mandal as well as a Patidar Ashram at Surat and journal Patel Bandhan.

Dayalji Desai:

t ­

Set up national schools.

t ­

Boycott foreign cloth and liquor.

t Persuaded 

r

No-tax movement launched in 1928.

r



Gandhi renamed them as ‘Raniparaj’ (inhabitants of forests).

r

Severe repression in March 1922 brought an end to this movement.

l

r

students government schools.

to

leave

Kaliparaj and the Hali system: r r

Kaliparaj were ‘dubla’ tribals who formed 60% of Bardoli population.

Hali system: under which Kaliparaj labored as hereditary labourers for upper caste land-owners (Ujaliparaj) and were exhorted to abjure intoxicating drinks and high marriage expenses.

140 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

l

Kunwarji Mehta and Keshavji Ganeshji aroused Kaliparaj against Hali system.

Narhari Parikh and Jugat Ram Dave, who were entrusted to enquire into the Hali system, made upper caste land owners responsible for Hali system and sexual exploitation of their women.

Bardoli Satygraha: r

r

r

r r

r

r

Root of the problem: 30 % increase in land revenue by Jayakar, officer-incharge. Gandhi in Navjeevan and Young India campaigned against this. Congress called it unjustified.

Result: Increase reduced to 21.97%.

Concession was meager, so movement was started under Vallabhbhai Patel. Women of Bardoli gave Vallabhbhai the title of “Sardar’.

Form of protest: refusal to pay land revenue as per revised assessment until government appointed a tribunal or accepted the current amount as full payment amount. Symbolized Hindu-Muslim unity, as the satyagraha started with recitation of the Gita as well as the Koran and songs of Kabir. Bardoli Satyagraha Patrika, a daily, was started to spread the campaign.

r Women

activists: Mithuben and Maniben Patel, Sharda Mehta, Shardaben Shah, Bhakti ba – mobilized women.

r

Kaliparaj too supported as they were told their Gods Siliya and Simaliya had become old and deputed Gandhi to look after them.

r Members

r r r r

of Bombay Legislative Council – K M Munshi and Lalji Narainji – resigned in protest to put pressure on the government. Bombay Textile Mill workers went on strike in support. Punjab offered to send ‘jatthas’ on foot to Bardoli.

Gandhi shifted to Bardoli on 2 August 1928 to lead campaign if Sardar Patel arrested.

Viceroy Lord Irvin directed Governor Wilson to find a way out.

r Result:

t ­ unconditional t t

Governor.

surrender

SWAMI VIDYANAND l

Swami Vidyanand in 1922 raised the demand for abolition of Zamindari against Raja of Darbhanga (Bihar).

UP KISAN SANGH l

In 1924 Congress in the United Provinces started UP Kisan Sangh.

l

However the policy of Sangh was ‘not to antagonize the zamindars but to attack the British Government in whose hands the zamindars were blindly playing’.

l

Sangh to take pro-peasant stance.

COASTAL ANDHRA

by

Enquiry by judicial officer Broomfield and revenue officer Maxwell. enhancement 6.03%.

was

reduced

to

NAMASUDRA AND MUSLIM BARGARDAR MOVEMENT l In

mid-1920s in districts like Mymensingh, Dacca, Pabna, Khulna and Nadia of colonial Bengal.

l Namasudras l l 

community.

were

Indian

Bargardars were share-croppers. Both demanded tenancy rights.

avarna

Swarajists in Bengal bitterly opposed to any proposal to give tenancy rights to them.



N.G. Ranga r r

In 1923 started work among upper stratum of peasantry.

Founded FIRST RYOT’S ASSOCIATION in Guntur in 1923. Peasant Movements during British Period

141

l

Peasant movement in Krishna-Godavari region in 1927 against land revenue hike; r

Veneti Satyanarayana in east Godavari

r

T Prakasham, Konda Venkatappayya, Unnava Laxminarayana (author of novel Malapalli) built up a base for Congress in Guntur.

r

Dandu Narayana Raju in west Godavari

PRAJA PARTY (BENGAL) l

l

In July 1929, Akram Khan, Abdur Rahman and Fazlul Haq formed the Praja Party.

Overwhelmingly Muslims, Party also had few socially radical Hindus namely Jitendralal Banerjee, Naresh Sengupta and Atul Gupta.

THE UNIONISTS IN PUNJAB l

l l

l

l

Founder of The Unionists: Fazl-i- Husain.

Party, pre-dominantly Muslim, founded to protect the agriculturists from urban Hindu money lenders. Had alliance with Chhotu Ram, a Haryana Jat to get Jat support.

Both – Praja Party and the Unionists – oriented mainly towards relatively prosperous peasants rather than mass cultivators, share-croppers and agricultural labourers. The Congress in both provinces was still losing valuable political support through a combination of communalism and failure to develop a reformist agrarian programme.

AKALI MOVEMENT l l

l Reason:

Patiala: East Punjab Princely States.

Akali’s Struggle with Maharaja of Patiala.

142 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r

Forced abdication of Nabha ruler Ripudaman Singh by Maharaja in 1923.

r

19% increase in land revenue in 1926.

r

l

l

Continued detention of Akali activist Sewa Singh Thikriwala in Patiala by Maharaja.

East Punjab was Sikh peasantry dominated area.

Clamour for agrarian reforms and civil and political rights in east Punjab resulted in the formation of Punjab Riyasati Praja Mandal in July 1928 at Mansa.

l Demands: r

l

r

Abolition of Maharaja’s reserved land for shikar.

Leaders: r

Kharak Singh

r

Master Hari Singh

r l

Cancellation of 19% hike in land revenue done in 1926.

Jagir Singh Joga

Jagir Singh Joga and Hari Singh were radical peasant activists who later moved towards Marxism.

SWAMI SAHAJANAND SARASWATI l

Born in February 1889 in petty zamindar family of Ghazipur (Uttar Pradesh).

l

Active in Congress during Non-cooperation Movement.

l

l

Became Sanyasi in 1907.

Started an Ashram at Bihta (near Patna, Bihar) in 1927. r

Initially to promote social advancement of people of Bhumihar caste.

r Later,

began organizational among kisans.

work

ALL INDIA KISAN SABHA l

Formed in April 1936 at Lucknow.

l

Kisan Manifesto was released in August 1936.

l



Swami Sahajanand as President and N G Ranga as General Secretary. Main points of Manifesto; r

Protection of peasants from economic exploitation.

r

Moratorium on debt.

r r r

l Founded

Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha in November 1929. r Objective:

l

l

r

to mobilize peasant grievances against zamindari attacks on thei occupancy rights.

Sri Krishna Sinha, Congress leader, was its first secretary.

Gradually peasant movements intensified across India led to the formation of All India Kisan Sabha at Lucknow in 1936. r Swami

Sahajanand became President of this Sabha.

first

Swami Sahajanand organized the Bakasht Movement in Bihar in 1937-38. r r

r

Bakasht means self-cultivated.

Movement was against eviction of tenants from Bakasht lands by the zamindars.

Led to the passing of Bihar tenancy Act and the Bakasht Land Tax.



Abolition of feudal levies.

Security of tenure for tenants.

r

A living wage for agricultural labourers.

r

Recognition of peasant unions.

r

Swami Sahajanand Saraswati

50 % reduction in land revenue and rent.

Fair prices for commercial crops.

Radical Demands:

r r

Abolition of zamindari

Licencing of money-lenders

l Adopted l

1937.

RED FLAG as banner in October

In 1937 Provincial Elections, Kisan Sabha supported Congress.

l In

l l

l

subsequent years, Kisan Sabha movement became increasingly distant from Congress and dominated by the Socialists and Communists.

Haripura Session of Congress under Presidentship of Subhas Chandra Bose: rift became evident. Kisan Sabha stayed away from Quit India Movement of 1942.

Later Swami Sahajanand, N.G. Ranga and Indulal Yajnik left the organization which had adopted pro-War and pro-British approach. Peasant Movements during British Period

143

CONGRESS AND PEASANTRY l l

l



1930s witnessed the rapid growth of socialist ideas within and outside Congress.

This found reflection in the election of Jawaharlal Nehru as president of Congress for 1929, 1936, 1937 and of Subhas Chandra Bose for 1938 and 1939. Nehru said that political freedom must mean the economic emancipation of the masses, especially of toiling peasants from feudal exploitation. Lucknow Congress 1936 Resolution: r

r r 

r

Exemption from rent in case of uneconomic holdings. Relief of agricultural indebtedness.

Gandhi too accepted the radical economic policies and declared in 1942 that ‘land belongs to those who will work on it and to no one else’.

l

Congress Working Committee Resolution in 1945 recommended abolition of landlordism.

TEBHAGA MOVEMENT IN BENGAL 1946-47 l l l

Control of money lending.

Faizpur Congress 1937 Resolution and Election Manifesto 1936: r

r r r r r 

Promised substantial reduction in rent and revenue.

l

r

Abolition of feudal levies.

Security of tenure for tenants.

Right to form peasant unions and right to strike.

Congress Ministries in Provinces (1937-39)

r

Passed agrarian legislation dealing with:

t­

Tenancy rights

t

Rent reduction

t t ­

Security of tenure Relief and protection to peasantdebtors

144 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Traditional Crop-sharing system: r

r

Substantial reduction in rent and revenue. Provision of cheap credit.

Tebhaga literally means 'three shares' of harvests.

r

Promised radical transformation of agrarian system. Scaling down of rural debts.

Movement was launched at a crucial juncture on the eve of India’s Independence and Partition.

r l

Sharecroppers used to hold their tenancy on fifty-fifty basis of the share of the produce. Such crop sharing system was known as barga, adhi, bhagi (meaning half share).

Sharecroppers were commonly called Bargardars, Adhiars.

Proprietors of the land who possessed transferable and heritable rights to the land were called ‘Jotedars’.

Bengal Land Revenue Commission: r r

Appointed by the Government of Bengal in 1938. Popularly known as Floud Commission on the name of its chairman Sir Francis Floud.

r Commission r r

submitted its recommendations on 2 March 1940. Had made recommendation in favour of the share-croppers. Among its recommendations were the abolition of the Permanent Settlement

r

and the end of rent receiving interests of all forms.

Government could do little towards implementing the recommendations of the Floud Commission.



r Main

l

obstacles were political instability, the Great FAMINE of 1943, communal unrest and the politics of partitioning India.

r

Tebhaga movement 1946-47: r

Sharecroppers called the traditional system unjust and claimed two-third share of produce on the ground of their investment and labour input.

r Movement

started in November, when the aman (winter) paddy to be harvested.

r Sharecroppers,

r

r r

r

instead of taking the paddy to the landlord’s Khamar (threshing floor) began to take it all either to their own Khamars or to those set up by the Kisan Sabhas. Slogan was ‘Adhi Nai Tebhaga Chai’.

Organized mainly by the communist cadres of the BENGAL PROVINCIAL KRISHAK SABHA.

r

l



Spread out to 19 districts of Bengal.

Most intensely felt in the districts of Dinajpur, Rangpur, Jalpaiguri, Khulna, Mymensingh, Jessore and the 24-Parganas.

Prominent Leaders: Kansari Haldar, Mia Rasul, Asoka Bose, Gajen Malik, Manik Hazra, Jatin Maity, Bijoy Mondal and Rash Behari Ghosh

r During

this period, there were communal riots in many parts of Bengal, such as Noakhali. But Hindu

r



Terrified landlords filed cases of theft against Kisan Sabha leaders and called the police to their aid. The peasants resisted arrest, and over 50 were killed in police firings.

A bill in the Legislative Assembly introduced in early 1947 to reform the barga system.

But this Barga Bill failed to become law due to political developments caused by India’s Independence and Partition.

r Tebhaga

r



In many areas the agitations turned violent, and landlords fled, leaving parts of the countryside in the hands of Kisan Sabha.

Impact of the movement:

r

elaka and Tebhaga committees were set up for the governance of the area locally.

“Hindu-Muslim Bhai Bhai Sab Krishoker Ek Larai” (Hindus and Muslims are brothers, all peasants are united in one struggle)

Response of Bengal Government under Suhrawardy:

r

r Tebhaga r

r

and Muslim peasants fought together ensuring communal riots did not spread. Slogan was:

r

struggle was successful as about 40% of the sharecropping peasants got Tebhaga rights granted willingly by the landholders. Struggle also led to the abolition or reduction of unjust and illegal exactions in the name of ABWABS. But had limited success in East Bengal districts (now Bangladesh).

There was another spate of Tebhaga movement in these districts in 1948-50.

Evaluation of the movement: Role of Women: r

Peasant and tribal women played important role because they were tortured and exploited. Peasant Movements during British Period

145

r

They joined meetings and processions with the men.

r

Often operated the warning system – sounding conch shells, bells or drums when police entered the village.

r

r



Bimla Majhi and other tribal women formed fighting troops called ‘Nari Bahini’ facing rifles with brooms, pestles and knives.

l

r

r

Mohila Atma Raksha Samiti or Women’s Self Defence Society under Manikuntala Sen encouraged women to come out. They held political education classes for women.

r

Tebhaga was not a Gandhian pattern of peasant struggle. r

Nature of land ownership was extremely exploitative:

Was a violent protest, not non-violent resistance.

r Was

an armed struggle landlords and police.

against

40 percent of the land was either directly owned by the Nizam or given by the Nizam to elites in the form of jagirs.

Remaining sixty percent was under the government’s land revenue system, which relied on powerful landlords and gave no legal rights or security from eviction to the people actually cultivating the land. TELANGANA AGRARIAN founded upon:

t ­

t­

TELANGANA PEASANT MOVEMENT: 1946 Background l

Hyderabad State: r r

t ­

A princely state during British Rule.

Comprised of three linguistic regions:

t

Telugu-speaking Telangana area (including the capital city, Hyderabad).

t Marathi-speaking t

t t ­

area.

Marathwada

A small Kannada-speaking area.

Telangana occupied 50% of the state’s area. Ruling elites, including the Nizam, were Muslims, while the majority were Hindus.

146 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

t ­ l

The low or outcaste Chillarollu (bonded and agricultural labourers of untouchable Mala and Madiga or of servicing / artisanal Golla, Bhoi, Wanjari, Kamati, Kummari etc. descent). The Kapsus (rich Kamma agriculturists and the middle and poor cultivators and tenants-atwill of such peasant-castes as Mathrasi, Telaga, Munnar and Balija).

The high caste Doras (jagirdars, watandars, landlords and exrevenue officials of Reddy, Kamma, Brahmin, Velama and Muslim origin) - the chief upholders of the Nizamshahi and its main beneficiaries. Dora or the landlord domination was based on a system of economic and social exploitation.

Other exploitative practices; r

SOCIETY

Vetti (forced labour) and Vettichakiri (enforced services) system performed by lower castes at the will of the landlord.

r Prevalence

of keeping girls as ‘slaves’ in landlords’ houses; used by landlords as concubines.

l

Political Background l l l l

l

Advent of the Second World War saw the beginning of communist influence on the Andhra Mahasabha (AMS). In 1942, with the removal of the ban on the Communist Party of India (CPI), the communists began to grow in Hyderabad. By 1943, the CPI had built a strong organisation in Telangana.

AMS, under the Presidentship of Ravi Narayan Reddy, evolving into a radical nationalist organisation, collaborating with the communists to organize the peasantry.

l

communists, along with AMS, started forming sanghams (village-level committees).

Immediate cause l Tensions

mounted when Visnur Ramchandra Reddy, a hereditary tax collector, attempted to forcibly take land belonging to a member of a village sangham.

It was resisted by the local village sangham leaders and volunteers.

Goons of landlords opened fire on the procession, leading to the death of Doddi Komarayya, the sangham leader. Death of Komarayya enraged the people, sparking a massive revolt amongst the Telangana peasantry.

Spread of the Movement: l

By the end of July, spread to about 300400 villages across districts, especially Nalgonda and Warangal.

l Impact: r

AMS conducted several struggles against powerful landlords, opposing vetti, illegal exactions and forced eviction.

l The

l

l

On July 4, 1946, a procession was organised by the villagers protesting the violence and terrorism of the landlord’s goons.

r l l

l

An end to vetti, illegal exactions, compulsory grain levies, and reoccupation of lands seized earlier by the landlords in several areas

Establishment of Sangam Rajyam or Village Government (or parallel government) in large liberated areas

The Nizam’s government banned: r r

AMS in October 1946 and

Communist party in November 1946.

A spurt of arrests and military raids were conducted.

Thus the First mass upsurge against the big landlords and the government came to a halt.

Peasant Movements during British Period

147

NOTES

SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS

RAM MOHAN ROY (1774-1833)

l

Impression of different culture on Roy. r

Profoundly impressed by Islam.

r

Doctrines of reason and humanism of West.

r

By philosophy of the Mutazilah and is fond of reciting the verses of Hafiz and Jalaluddin Rumi.

l

Roy at the age of 16 left his home in search of Truth.

l

Entered the service of the company in 1803.

l Travelled

l l

l l

l

Born in village Radha Nagar (Hooghly district, Bengal) in 1774, in a Brahmin Family.

His great grandfather was the first recipient of the title of ‘Ray Rayen’, which added surname ‘Roy’ to his name. A learned scholar obtained the knowledge of: r r r r

l

r

Tantrism from his Sanskrit teacher at Radha Nagar. Sanskrit literature and philosophy at Varanasi. Koran and Persian literature at Patna.

and

Hindu

Arabic

Greek and Hebrew to study the Bible in original. Other languages like Latin, French etc.

Well-acquainted with Jainism and other religious movements and sects of India.

150 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

northern India and the Himalayas during his wanderings, studied the Buddhist and Lamaist doctrines. In 1805 became Diwan to Digby, with whom he stayed till 1814.

Digby became his friend and taught him English. In 1814, on Digby’s return to England, he came to settle down in Calcutta.

Roy’s Works l

l l

l

l

Persian Treatise Tuhfat ul Muwahhidin (Gift to Monotheisms) in 1803, in which arguments against belief in many gods and for the worship of a single god. ‘Manazaratul Adyan’, also in Persian: discussions on various religions.

‘Precepts of Jesus’ in 1820 –in which, tried to separate the moral and philosophic message of the New Testament from its miracles. In 1822, published tract on ‘Modern Encroachments on the Ancient Rights of females according to the Hindu law of Inheritance. Translations in Bengali: - of Vedanta, Kena, Isa, Katha, Mandukya and Mandaka Upanishads. Aim of translations - a resuscitation of the pure religion of the Hindus.

l

l

Translated Vedanta Sutras into English between 1816 and 1819.

One of the most striking events, which proved to be a turning point in his life, was the performance of sati by his elder brother’s wife in 1811.

Religious Ideas l

against undignified position of women.

l

remarriage of widows and prohibition of polygamous marriages.

l

l l

favoured right of inheritance and property to women. Opposed kulinism, child marriage and infanticide.

l

Crusade against ‘Sati’ began in 1818: r r

r

Roused public opinion;

Showed it inhuman by citing examples from the oldest sacred books of Hindu religious;

l

Visited burning Ghats at Calcutta to try to persuade the relatives of the widows to give up their plan of selfimmolation. groups of like-minded people to keeps a strict check on such performances.

l

l

Lord William Bentinck passed the Regulation no XVII on Dec 4, 1829, declaring the practice ‘Sati’ illegal and punishable as a criminal offence.

Reactions: Orthodox Hindus petitioned to parliament to withhold its approval of Bentinck’s action. Roy organized a counter- petition of enlightened Hindus in favor of Bentinck action. To remove all discrimination of caste and race, proposed the adoption of Saiva form of marriage prescribed in the Mahanirvana Tantra.

With the help of Vedic texts and Upanishads, showed that although ritual was permissible, it was not obligatory. priestly class criticized superstitious beliefs.

Advocated monotheism:

and

r Published r

Bengali translation of the Vedas and of five of the principal Upanishads to prove his point.

Wrote a series of facts and pamphlets in defense of monotheism.

Man is in essence divine: r Took

r

l

idolatry, polytheism, prevalence of meaningless religious rituals.

r Condemned

r

r Organized l Achievement:

r Opposed r

His Social ideas l

Stood for the reform of Hinduism:

this great principle from Hinduism that ‘Atma vai Brahma’.

Man’s life is a discipline through which he can rise from depth of the sub-human to the heights of the super-human. Man can be in true relationship with the Supreme Being by following the three-fold formula of study (Sravana), reflection (Manana) and meditation (nidhiyasana).

Roy did not confine his application of rational approach to Indian religious and traditions alone. r

He admired the teachings of Jesus Christ but, refused to accept the dogmas of the divinity of Jesus Christ, of the trinity, of the angels and the miracles.

r He

repudiated the exclusiveness of Islam, which divided humanity into two categories: Socio-Religious Reform Movements

151

‘blest’- believer in the unity of god and the prophet-hood of Mohammad.

l l l

t The

r

t The

r

‘cursed’- who did not repeat the sacred formula (Kalima) and did not recognize Mohammad as the last of the prophets.

Relied on the power of human reason - final touchstone of the truth of any doctrine. Reactions against his religious outlook:

r

Orthodox Hindus condemned him for criticizing idolatry and for his admiration of Christianity and Islam.

His social boycott in which his mother too joined; branded a heretic and an outcaste.

r His

criticism of some traits of Christianity and his Endeavour to incorporate high moral message of Christ in Hinduism earned for him the hostilities of the missionaries.

Political Ideas

l

l

r

He refused to identify the divine attributes with gods, goddess’s angels, or superhuman beings.

r

l

r

Roy not in favor of an immediate demand for freedom, but, claimed in Company’s constitutional government, the rule of law ought to be supreme and civil liberties and individual rights guaranteed. Mr. Arnot, who was secretary of Roy in England, has recorded the Raja’s opinion that India would be free in forty years; and in the meanwhile under British tutelage, India would attain level of the civilized and free countries of the world. Roy’s suggestions for reform in Judicial system: r Separation

executive;

of

judiciary

152 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

and

the

r r

Appointment of competent and honest judges knowing the language of the people.

Removal of causes of forgery and perjury. Institution of the jury system.

Revival of remodeled panchayats.

Provision for the superintendence of court proceedings by the people. Judicial equality between Indians and European.

l

Demanded for the superior services.

l

He recognized the absolute ownership of property by the individual.

l

r

Indianisation

of

Roy did not favour transfer of power from the Company to the Crown because in his opinion, direct rule from a distance of many thousand miles, with undeveloped means of communication was a hazardous venture. He held that land belonged to the individual, not to the state:

r

Preferred the Zamindari system to Ryotwari, for he was in favor of a strong middle class.

r While

desired the permanent settlement to be extended, he wanted to secular similar fixity for the cultivators.

r Advocated r r r

economy in public expenditure by the reduction of the military budget and the home charges. Protested against the attempts to impose taxes on tax-free lands.

Demanded abolition of the company’s trading rights and the removal of heavy export duties on Indian goods.

Disfavored the doctrine of Laissez fare.

l

Pioneer of constitutional method of agitation: r His

first agitation movement - against Adam’s Press Ordinance Of 1823, which curtailed the freedom of the press.

r In

1827, protested against the Jury Act, which discriminated against the Hindus and the Muslims on religious grounds, and sent a petition to the Parliament for its annulment.

l

r In

1830 - against resumption of lands granted for charitable purposes.

Roy wanted- the introduction of modern capitalism and industry in the country.

Education l

Advocate of Modern Western Education.

l

Helped David Hare (who came to India in 1800 as watch maker) in establishing the famous Hindu college in 1817.

l

l

Opposed Sanskrit System of Education considering it backward-looking.

l

His internationalism l

Took keen interest in international events.

l

News of failure of the Revolution of Naples against the Austrians in 1821 made him so sad that he cancelled all his social engagements.

l

l

l l l

Maintained an English school in Calcutta from 1817.

l

Vedanta College in 1825, in which both Indian learning and Western social and physical sciences were taught. Compiled Bengali Grammar.

l

Launched in December 1821 Bengali weekly Sabad Kaumudi or ‘The Moon of Intelligence’ - First Indian News Paper Edited, Published and Managed by Indians.

Condemned the miserable condition of Ireland under the oppressive regime of absentee landlordism. Publicly declared that he would emigrate from the British Empire if Parliament failed to pass the Reform Bill.

His associates, followers and successors: Associates in the field of education Dutch David Hare and Scottish Missionary Alexander Duff. Dwarka Nath Tagore - the foremost of his Indian associates.

r Prominent

Evolved a modern and elegant Prose style for Bengali through his translations, pamphlets and journals. Brought out journals in Bengali, Persian, Hindi and English.

Celebrated the success of Revolution in Spanish America in 1823 by giving public dinner.

r

r

A Pioneer of Indian Journalism l

Supported the cause of liberty, democracy and nationalism and opposed injustice oppression and tyranny in every form everywhere.

r

l Established l

Another weekly paper in Persian in 1822: The Mirat-ul-Akbar or ‘the Mirror of Intelligence’.

Followers: Prasanna Kumar Tagore, Chandra Shekhar Deb, Tarachand Chakarvarty. First secretary of the Brahma Sabha - Tarachand Chakravarti.

Atmiya Sabha l

Established in 1816.

l

In its gatherings, hymns were recited from Vedas and religious songs were sung.

l

Memberships open to followers of all religions.

Socio-Religious Reform Movements

153

l l

Singing accompanied by instrumental music by a Muslim, named Ghulam Abbas.

Learned scholars were invited to deliver sermons.

Last Years l

Brahmo Samaj l

Purpose

r r r

r r

r r r

r r r

To purify Hinduism and to preach monotheism or the worship of one god. New society was based on reason as well as the Vedas and Upanishads.

Trust Deed, executed on January 8, 1830, prescribed the objects of the Samaj and the terms of the trust. Property donors: Ram Mohan Roy, Dwarka Nath Tagore, Prasanna Kumar Tagore, Kalinath Roy, Ram Chandra Vidyavagish.

Faith did not lay down any definite rites and rituals.

r

As an envoy of Mughal Emperor Akbar Shah II to the court of King William IV.

r

Akbar II invested him with the title of Raja.

r

Established in 1829; early name was Brahmo Sabha. r

In 1830, Roy went to England:

r

r

l

To represent the British sovereign the inadequacy of the pension granted to the Mughal emperor. Stayed in England for three years.

His death: in Bristol (England) on September 27, 1833.

After Roy’s Death - Samaj languished for sometime for want of dynamic leadership; Maharishi Dwarka Nath Tagore and Pandit Ram Chandra Vidya Vagish conducted the affairs of Samaj for about ten years.

DEBENDRA NATH TAGORE (1817- 1905) Before joining the Brahmo Samaj

God: cause and source of all that exist; so that nature, earth and heaven are all his creations.

l Organized

No sacrifice was permitted.

l

No place for incarnation.

No object of worship could admitted within the premises.

be

Next to the conception of god, idea regarding man occupies the most important place.

Emphasis on the love of mankind and upon the service of humanity as the highest rule of life.

Social base: only the intellectual elite of Bengal. It did not evoke much response from the less sophisticated section of the middle class and none from the uneducated masses.

154 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

l

Tatvarajini Sabha at Jorasanko (Calcutta) in 1839. Later, this was known as Tattvabodhini Sabha.

Main objective: promotion of religious enquiry and dissemination of knowledge of Upanishads.

l Features: r

weekly meetings.

r

once in a month divine service was also held.

r

l

papers on different subjects were read and discussed.

In 1840, School. r

founded

the

Tattvabodhini

Akshay Kumar Dutt appointed as a teacher.

r

l

Members: Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Rajendra Lal Mitra, Tarachand Chakravarty, Peary Chandra Mitra and others.

Published a monthly Tatvabodhini Patrika r

r

journal

Editor - Akshay Kumar Dutt

Joined formally the Brahmo Samaj on December 21, 1843 l

His tasks: r

r r

To continue religious mission of Roy with renewed zeal. To stand against the ultra radical trend of missionary attacks on Indian culture launched by Alexander Duff.

Compiled a religious text called the Brahmo Dharma, containing spiritual and moral texts from different Hindu scriptures,

r Also

l

r

introduced the Brahmo form of worship or Brahmopasana. Raj Narayan Bose introduced devotional fervors in worship.

For two years (1856 to 1858), he retired to Shimla hills.

KESHAV CHANDRA SEN (1838-1884) l

Joined the Brahmo Samaj in 1857.

l

Introduced element of strong emotion and devotional fervor into the cause of the new church.

l

Infused the true spirit of repentance and prayer.

Sangat Sabha l

Friendly association established in 1859:

Objective was to discuss the spiritual and social problems of the day.

r

Brahmo rites, advocated by Sabha, are mentioned in the Anusthan Paddhati.

r

called

To promote a systematic study of India’s past in the Bengali language.

r

r

l

Sabha was against Brahmanical rites and their idolatrous character.

Sabha also launched the humanitarian and philanthropic activities, such as providing help during famines and epidemics.

‘Indian Mirror’ a fortnightly journal: r r

Started in 1861 with Keshav as its editor. Later it became the First Indian Daily in English.

l

A new missionary zeal characterized the followers of Keshav.

l

Before the end of 1865, there were 54 samajas (local branches), 50 in Bengal, 2 in NWP and one each in Punjab and Madras.

l

l

Keshab himself visited Bombay Madras to propagate his views.

and

Ideological conflict with Debendra Nath Tagore (DNT): r

r

r

Initially services of Keshav were appreciated by DNT who appointed him the minister of the church and secretary of the Brahmo Samaj.

Relations strained because of Keshav’s progressive ideas such as inter-caste marriage and widow-remarriage and his insistence that Brahman ministers of the Samaj, wearing sacred threads, should not be allowed to preach from the pulpits.

DNT, by virtue of his position as the sole trustee of the Samaj, dismissed Keshav and his followers from all offices and position of trust and responsibility. Socio-Religious Reform Movements

155

l

Division of Brahmo Samaj r

r r

l l

Keshav established a new association in 1865:

t

t

l

Named as ‘Bharat Varshiya Brahmo Samaj’ or Brahmo Samaj of India.

Most of the local branches were included in it.

Debendra Nath Tagore’s Samaj was called ‘Adi Brahmo Samaj’ or the original of Brahmo Samaj.

Besides the difference on the radical reforms, another foremost distinction was that while DNT’s Samaj’s slogan was ‘Brahmanism is the Hinduism’, slogan of Keshav’s Samaj was ‘Brahmanism is catholic and universal’.

In 1870, Keshav visited England.

Adoption of the Sankirtan in the Vaishnava Style by Keshav’s Samaj: r r

Inspirer and teacher of Keshav: initially Jesus Christ and later on Chaitanya.

r

Members prostrated at the feet of Keshav.

r

l

l

r

r

Another feature of Keshav Samaj.

Keshav was regarded as a prophet by some.

Schism in Keshav’s Brahmo Samaj: r Reason:

r Redoubled

enthusiasm for social reform and social welfare work.

t

Practice of ‘man-worship’.

t

Views about female education and emancipation: Moderates within Samaj were not prepared to favor higher university education for women, free mingling of men and women or the total abolition of the ‘purdah’ system.

Remarkable feature was the inclusion of women as members.

r Established

r

Passion of Bhakti (devotion) prevailed upon the members.

Concept of Avatar (god incarnating himself as man):

His activities after return: r

For the purpose of propaganda.

the Indian Reform Association (1870), which worked for the spread of western education, emancipation of women, female education and social work.

t

In 1872, due to his efforts, the govt passed the Brahmo Marriage Act (Act III of 1872), which:

t

Abolished early marriage of girls and polygamy

t

Legalized the form of marriage according to Brahmo rites which constituted a distinct break with Hinduism.

t

Sanctioned widow remarriage and inter caste marriage for those who did not profess any recognized faith such as Hinduism and Islam.

156 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r

l

Immediate cause: marriage of Keshav’s daughter to the young Maharaja of Cooch-Bihar in 1878; both the bride and bridegroom were under-age, and also the marriage was in accordance with the Hindu rites which were in violation of Brahmo Marriage Act of 1872.

Those who differed seceded and formed a different organization on May 15, 1878, called ‘Sadharan Brahmo Samaj’.

After this schism, Keshav promulgated his new mission: r Named

‘Nava Vidhana or the ‘New Dispensation’.

r

Emphasis on the mystic aspect of religion,

r

Organized a band of 12 disciples declared as god-appointed ‘apostles’, and an order of men and women, placed under strict vows.

r

l l

Combined Christian and Hindu ideals and practices.

Later Keshav came under the influence of Ramakrishna Paramhansa, from whom he learnt to regard god as mother. Response to Keshab’s religion very little among educated countrymen and thus the brahmo samaj ceased to expand.

SADHARAN BRAHMO SAMAJ l

Its constitution drafted by Anand Mohan Bose.

l

Leaders - Sivnath Shastri, Anand Mohan Bose, Bipin Chandra Pal, Dwarka Nath Ganguly and Sir Surendra Nath Banerjee.

l Constitution

l

l

based on democratic principles and gave equal rights to all members in the management of the samaj.

r

Legislation passed validating widowremarriage and inter-caste marriage.

r

Failed to influence Hindu society on monotheism and the abolition of the worship of images, the first and fundamental idea with which the new movement started.

l Failure:

YOUNG BENGAL OR NEW BENGAL MOVEMENT l

l

l

It consisted of the first generation of the English-educated young men, among whom the alumni of Hindu college were prominent. Leader and inspirer - Henry Vivian Derozio, an Anglo-Indian. H.V. Derozio-

Social Reforms: removal of the purdah system, introduction of widow-remarriage, abolition of polygamy and early marriage, provision of higher education. Social welfare: organizing famine relief funds, establishment of orphanages, schools for deaf and dumb.

l Journals

started: Tattva Kaumudi, Brahmo Public Opinion, Indian Messenger, Sanjivani, Nabya Bharat, Modern Review and Prabase.

Contribution of Brahmo Samaj: l

Positive impact: r

Helped in creating an environment against caste rigidity among upper castes.

r

Born in 1809; was of mixed parentagefather Portuguese and mother Indian. Socio-Religious Reform Movements

157

r

r

r r r

r

At an early age of 14, completed his school education under Drummond, and in 1823, became a Clerk in an English firm in Bhagalpur. Returned to Calcutta in 1826 took up journalism and literature.

Helped in editing journals: India Gazette, Calcutta Literary Gazette, Bengal Annual and Kaleidoscope.

Established a daily paper The East Indian.

Published a volume of poems in 1827. Was appointed an assistant master in the senior department of the Hindu college in 1827; after one year, was promoted to the post of Lecturer in English literature and history.

r Drew r

his inspiration from the French revolution.

Inspired all studentst

To think rationally and freely,

t

To love liberty, freedom, and

t

r

r

r

t

To question all authority, To worship Truth.

equality

and

Derozio - the first national of poet of modern India. He wrote in 1827:“my country! In the days of glory passed a beauteous halo circled rounded thy and worshiped as a deity thou wast”. Like Socrates, he pursued what was right with single-minded devotion, and like Socrates, he had the gift to inspire young men with his own enthusiasm in search of truth, was accused of misguiding the youth and was inferred.

He was dismissed from the Hindu college in 1831 because of his radicalism.

158 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

l l l

l

l l

l

l l

l

r

Died of cholera in 1831 at the young age of 22.

Derozians, followers of Derozio, were drawn from that section of middle class which was not affluent. Under the leadership of Deozio, they brought out journals, like the Parthenon (or Athenian), the Bengal Specter. Attacked old and decadent customs, rites and traditions; were passionate advocates of women’s rights and demanded education for them. Did not take up peasants cause; also forgot to maintain their links with the people. Not succeeded in creating a movement because social conditions still unripe for their ideas to flourish. Carried forward Ram Mohan’s tradition of educating the people in social, economic and political questions through news papers, pamphlets and public associations.

Carried on agitation on public questions - such as, the revision of the company’s charter, the freedom of the press, better treatment for Indian labor in colonies abroad, trial by jury, protection of the riots from oppressive zamindars, and employment of Indians in the higher grades of govt services. Formed a society known as the Academic Association. Radical makers of new Bengal:- Krishna Mohan Bandhyopadhyaya, Rasik Krishna Malik, Radha Nath Shikdar, Dakshina Ranjan Mukhopadhyaya, Peary Chand Mitra, Ram tanu Lahiri etc.

Surendra Nath Banerjee described the Derozians as “the pioneers of the modern civilization of Bengal, the conscript fathers of our race where virtues will excite veneration and whose failings will be treated with gentlest consideration.”

RADHA KANTA DEB (1784-1867) l

Born in 1784; educated in Cunningham’s Calcutta Academy.

l

He compiled in Sanskrit an encyclopedic lexicon, named ‘Shabda Kalpadruma’ consisted of seven parts and a supplement and took him 40 years to complete.

l

l l

l

r r

Knew five languages - Bengali, Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit and English.

He wrote a number of texts for schools and made translations from English and Persian. Members of a number of societies: r

r r l In

Vice president of the Agricultural and Horticultural society of India,

Corresponding member of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland; Member of Asiatic society of Bengal, Hindu college council and of the Calcutta School Society.

1823, founded the ‘Gaudiya Samaj’ to promote education and propagate knowledge.

Under his lead:

r

l

l l

r

The Hindu College Committee took the decision to confine its admissions to Hindu alone; To exclude Ram Mohan Roy from membership of the committee. To disallow William Adam, a follower of Ram Mohan, from obtaining a teaching post in the college, To dismiss Derozio.

He resigned from the committee due to his strained relations with Drinkwater Beadon, the chairman, resulted from the conversion of a professor and a student to Christianity. Organized Patitoddhar Sabha (Society for the Reclamation of the fallen) in 1851.

The friend of India, the leading English weekly of that time, announced the formation of the society as ‘one of the most important events that has occurred in the present century.’

ISHWAR CHANDRA VIDYASAGAR

l In l l

1830, established the Dharma Sabha to organize a campaign against the abolition of the Sati System. Was conservative in matters of religion and progressive in matters that are political, educational and economic.

Was moved by two ideas- preservation of Hindu religion and advancement of welfare of the Indian people.

l He l

opened a Sanskrit college in 1851 and the Hindu Metropolitan College in 1853.

Supported technical education; helped in establishing Bengal Pathsalas; was an advocate of women’s education. Socio-Religious Reform Movements

159

l

Born in 1820 in a very poor family.

l

A great humanist: It is said that he did not have a warm coat for he invariably gave it to the first naked beggar he met on the street.

l

l

In 1851, became Principal of Sanskrit College.

Resigned from government service for he would not tolerate undue official interference. Evolved a new technique of teaching Sanskrit.

r

Opened the gates of Sanskrit college to non-Brahmin students.

r

r

r

r r

Wrote a Bengali primer, used till this day.

Introduced the study of western thought in the Sanskrit college, to free Sanskrit studies from the harmful effects of self-imposed isolation.

Protested against child-marriage in 1850.

r

Advocated women’s education.

r r

l

l Contributions: r

r

l

r

was against polygamy.

As a govt inspector of schools, he organized 35 girls schools, many of which he ran at his own expense.

He was secretary to the Bethune school.

Bethune School:- founded in Calcutta in 1849. The Bethune school had great difficulty in securing students because many believed that girls who had received western education would make slaves of their husband. The young student were shouted at and abused and some times even their parents were subjected to social boycott. The first steps in giving a modern education to girls were taken by the MISSIONARIES in 1821, but these efforts were marred by the emphasis on Christian religion education.

Helped found a college which is now named after him.

Background:

Crusade for Widow Remarriage:

l

In 1818, the territories of the Peshwas were annexed by the British.

l

New governor of the Presidency of Bombay was Elphinstone (1819-1827).

Helped through his writings, in the evolution of a modern Prose style in Bengali. t

t

t

t

Raised his voice in favor of widow remarriage in 1855. First lawful Hindu widow remarriage among the UPPER CASTES, was celebrated in Calcutta on 7 dec, 1856.

Widows of many other castes in different parts of the country already enjoyed this right under customary law. Through his efforts, 25 widow remarriages were performed between 1855-60.

160 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

WESTERN INDIA

l

British system of administration was established in Maharashtra.

l Bombay

Native School and Book Society was established in 1822 under chairmanship of Governor.

BAL SHASTRI JAMBHEKAR l

l

Born about the end of 1812.

Learnt Marathi, Sanskrit, English, Bengal, Guajarati, Persian.

l

Earned the Native Assistantship of the School Book Society in 1830.

l Started r r

Bombay Darpan (Nov, 1832).

A weekly in Marathi.

First NEWSPAPER in Marathi.

l

First Marathi Monthly ‘Digdarshan’ in 1840.

l

Died in 1846.

l

LOKHITWADI

Advocated widow remarriage, female education and admission of converts to Hinduism.

Other Moderate Reformers: Jagannath Shankar Shet, Vishnu Shastri Bapat and Krishna Shastri Chipulankar.

PARAMHANSH MANDALI

l

Established in Bombay in 1849.

l

Association based on concepts of unity of god and the universal brotherhood of mankind.

l

l l

l l

l

Founder: Ram Balakrishna Jayakar, Dadobe Panduranga Tarkhad and his brother Atma Ram Panduranga.

Worked for moral improvement of the individual and condemned outworn customs and rites.

Inspired from the work of Christian missionaries; tried to spread their message though the language of the Maratha saints. Members worked in secret, as were afraid to face social obloquy.

Movement never developed an independent philosophical basis – followed the rituals of Christianity too much. In 1860, association was dissolved.

l

Original name: Gopal Hari Deshmukh born in 1823.

l

Worked as assistant commissioner on the Imam Commission from 1856 to 1861 and as judge at Ahmadabad and Nasik.

l

Studied law and became a munsif in 1852.

l Was

invited to Delhi Durbar in 1876.

l

Was made a Member of The Governor’s Council in 1880.

l

Died in 1892.

l l

For about a year worked as Dewan of Ratlam States. Works: r

Wrote articles from 1848 to a weekly journal, the Prabhakar, on social and political problems of the day called ‘shatapatren’ ( the hundred Epistles). Socio-Religious Reform Movements

161

r

r

Wrote a book Jatibheda, condemning caste in 1877.

Published in 1878 Gitatattva and Subhashita to popularize the teaching of the Gita.

r

r Brought

out Swadhyaya and Ashvalyana Grihyasutra to explain the religious rites of the Hindus in a critical way.

r

r In r l

Gramarachana, the village organization, he discussed the condition of the villages.

r

Wrote History books - History of Rajasthan, History of Gujarat, History of Saurashtra and History of Ceylon.

r

r

r r

Closely connected with the Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj, and Theosophical Movement in Western India. Supported the cause of women and advocated female education.

Helped the papers of Maharashtra the Daya Prakash and Indu Prakash and Hitechu of Gujarat and also to the Deccan Vernacular Translation Society and its sister organization in Gujarat.

One of the founder members of the Orphanage at Pandharpur. The First Reformer of Maharashtra to challenge the old authorities and the old traditions and to accept wholeheartedly the new basic concepts.

r He

analyzed the cause of British success over the Marathas.

r He r

accepted the British rule. Reason: it was based on the principles of democratic government.

But he held it responsible for the increasing drunkenness among the people; criticized it for the levy of burdensome taxes and for partiality

162 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

He said ‘government was autocratic or paternal in a backward country, but in a civilized state it was the servant of the people’. “Sanskrit learning”, ‘according to him’, makes a man idle and devoted to fruitless pursuits.

Unlike the old Hindu social system, he wanted the individual to be free to decide for himself, free to follow his own reason and will in his actions.

JYOTIBA PHULE AND THE SATYA SHADHAK SAMAJ

Social reform: r

to European in the administration of justice.

l

Jyotiba Phule - born in 1828 in a low caste Mali family.

l

His personal experience and association with Christian missionaries made him critical of the prevailing Hindu religion and customs.

l

l l

l

l

l

Jyotiba turned to the writings of Prof Wilson and Sir William Jones on Hinduism to study the superior claims of the Brahmans.

His life mission- to challenge Brahman supremacy. Written works - Sarvajanik Satya Dharma Pustak and Gulamgiri.

Founded the Satyashodhak Samaj in September 29, 1873 to carry forward his anti-Brahman activities in an organized manner.

The cause of the poor was so clear to him that when he met The Duke of York, he presented himself in a loin cloth as the true representative of the poverty stricken peasant. In 1851, Jyotiba Phule and his wife started a girl’s school at Poona.

l l

Active promoters of these schools were Jagannatha Shankar Seth and Bhau Daji.

FIRST INDIAN to start a school for the untouchables in 1859.

THE STUDENTS LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY

l

Held their Maharajas or spiritual heads in great reverence.

l

Reformer - Karson Das Mulji.

l

These maharajas wielded great powers over their followers. r

A student of the Elphinstone Institute and a member of The Literacy and Scientific Society.

l

Formed in 1848 by the educated young men under the Presidentship of Dadabhai Naoroji.

l

To propagate message of reform among Parsis.

l

First newspaper the Bombay Samachar was a Parsi venture.

l

Established in 1867, under Keshab’s guidance.

Society organized lectures on popular science and social questions.

l

Other leaders - R.G. Bhandarkar, and Dr. Atmaram Panduranga.

l Started l

l l

l l

l l

Rast Goftar or truth teller.

Two branches - Guajarati and Marathi Dnyan Prasarak Mandali.

Started schools for the education of women.

Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Religious Reform Association) established in 1851. Parsis had accepted many Hindu rituals: r r

Offering coconuts at Holi.

Cups of oil to Lord Hanuman.

Persons associated: N Furdunji, S. S. Bengalee, R K Cama, D B Naoroji

First Zoroastrian Conference in 1910 was held at the instance of Parsi Priest Dhala.

BHATIA COMMUNITY OF GUJARAT l

Showed little interest in the new education and the new ideas.

l Were Vaishnavas, followers of Vallabhacharya.

r

Wrote articles on social reform in the Rast Goftar.

r Started

his paper and exposed Maharajas’ ‘immodesty and deceit’.

PRARTHANA SAMAJ

l

l

Chief architect - Mahadev Govind Ranade (1842-1901).

‘Subodh Patrika’ - A newspaper was started to spread the teachings of the society.

l A l l

l l

‘Night School’ was opened to impart education to the working classes. Started missionary work in 1832.

Pandita Ramabai gave much help in founding ‘Arya Mahila Samaj’. Ranade was not a blind follower of Western ways.

He regarded himself a devotee of the ‘Bhagvat Dharma’. r Rejected r

the mystic pantheistic exposition of Vedanta philosophy of Sankara. Approved the theistic interpretation of Ramanuja, Vaishnavas and the medieval Maratha saints. Socio-Religious Reform Movements

163

l l

His view regarding theism is set out in the 39 articles under the title ‘A theist’s confession of faith.’ His few fundamental principles: r

God is one, idol worship is folly.

r

Prayer, communion, fellowship of good and pious men, repentance and purification are essential.

r

Universe is god’s creation and is real.

r Congregational r l

worship in the temples, ceremonies to solemnize landmarks in life are helpful. Asceticism, adoration of ‘GURUS’, belief in redeemers and miracles are wholly unnecessary.

Social Reforms: r

Equality of men by abolishing caste system, recognizing inter-caste marriages and inter-dining.

r Prohibition

r l

of child marriage, legislation for the marriage of widows, repudiation of seclusion of women, and promotion of women’s education.

l Launched

l

l l

r r

r

Progress was the onward movement of social life in which man operated as a free agent.

Indian history was a story of ups and downs, of peace and disorder, due to inner moral decay and violent external intervention. In this vast country no progress is possible unless both Hindus and Muslims join hands together.

164 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Inaugurated the practice of holding a Social Conference along with the annual meeting of the Indian National Congress. Ranade, described as ‘the prophet of cultural renaissance in western India’.

l

Inspired by Keshab, who visited Madras in 1864.

l

Real founder - K. Sridharlu Naidu, a disciple of Keshav Sen.

l

Rejection of all cruel and irrational customs and practices which degraded human beings. Social reform was the purification and improvement of the individual and the recasting of the family, village, tribe and nation into new moulds.

Deccan Educational Society (1884-85) owes its origin to his inspiration.

VEDA SAMAJ

Among first leaders: V. Rajagopal Charlu, P. Subrayal Chetti and Vishwanath Mudaliar. r

r

According to Ranade: r

widow remarriage movement and founded Widow Marriage Association in 1861. His associates - Dhondu Keshav Karve and Vishnu Shastri.

r

l

l

He travelled to Calcutta and studied the Brahmo Movement and on returning to Madras changed the Veda Samaj into Brahmo Samaj of South India in 1871.

He translated the books of Brahmo Dharma into Tamil and Telegu and undertook missionary tours to propagate the faith. He died in an accident in 1874.

After his death- dissensions within the society.

Some remained faithful to Naidu, but the majority formed a society on the teachings of Sadharan Brahmo Samaj.

REVIVALIST MOVEMENT IN BENGAL Background: l

Revolt of 1857 brought a change in the political atmosphere of the country.

l

l

Around 1870 in Bengal and 1880 in Maharashtra, assertive Hinduism with nationalism and romanticism began to replace the voice of rationalism. Major Characteristics of New Aura: r

Feeling of individual self-assertion and pride in the past of the race.

r

Sympathy for the growing misery and poverty of the rural population and yearnings for liberty and equality.

r

r l

r

r

Resentment against oppression of the ruling class.

l

Political emancipation given priority, without which even social reform on a large scale seemed impossible.

l

Known as neo-Hinduism. r r

Totally opposed to all reform, led by Sasadhar Tarka Chudamani.

Admitting the need for change, but not in main substance led by Bankim Chandra.

Other orthodox leaders: Krishna Prasanna Sen, Nabin Chandra Sen and Hemchandra Bandhyopadhyay.

BANKIM CHANDRA CHATTERJI r r

r

Combined nationalist religious devotion.

fervor

with

Auguste Comte’s Positivism deeply influenced his mind.

A strong advocate of study of western sciences, but neither the utilitarianism of Benthamite School, not the evolutionary Hedonism of Spencer, nor the godless Positivism of Comte satisfied him.

t

Religion cannot be from utilitarianism.

t

Need was the fullest development of the personality of individual through religious and moral regeneration of society.

t

Feeling of pride in the past resulted in revulsion of feeling against Western Culture.

Divided into two schools.

Religion - instrument of moral and political regeneration of society.

t

NEW MOVEMENT l

Incorporated his ideas in Dharma Tattva (Principles of Religion) and Krishnacharitra (Life and Character of Krishna). separated

No use attacking social customs and practices.

This harmonious development was “Anusilan Dharma” (the religion of discipline), based on four fold ascending order of human affections- Atmapriti (love for the self ), Swajan Priti (love for family), Swadesh Priti (love for country) and Jagat Priti (love for Humanity).

BHUDEV CHANDRA MUKHOPADHYAYA l

Like Bankim Chandra, defender of NeoHinduism.

l

Hinduism for him was inclusive and universal.

l

l

l

He is full of references to Comte in his “Samajik Prabandha”; he supported the positivist principle of ‘Live for the sake of others’. Bhudev’s main purpose of religion was to preserve mankind and achieve its well being.

He visualized the moral and material regeneration of society through the spread of education, eradication of poverty and enhancement of wealth. Socio-Religious Reform Movements

165

RAMAKRISHNA PARAMHANSH (1836-86) l

Original name: Gadodhar Chattapadhyay.

l

Known as ‘The Saint of Dakshineshwara’.

l l

l l

Born in 1836 in Kamarpukar village in Hooghly district. Inspiration drawn from the Vedanta and the Upanishads.

Regarded all religions as different paths leading to the same goal.

Original name – Narendra Nath Dutta.

l

Initially influenced by the teachings of the ‘Brahmo Samaj’.

l l l

Vivekananda described him as a Bhakta (devotee) outwardly but inwardly a Jnanin (an enlightened soul).

l

His emphasis on compassion and service to humanity.

l

He taught ‘not mercy but service, service for man must be regarded as god.’

At 20, he came into contact with Ramakrishna and became his devoted follower. His austere Life: r

Renounced the world.

r

His tour of India acquainted him with the reality of the common people.

r

r

He prayed, “oh mother, make me the servant of the pariah”.

VIVEKANANDA (1863-1902)

A graduate from Calcutta University.

r

He was initiated into Islam by a Muslim Sufi.

l

l

l

l

Took the life of a wanderer and retired to the Himalayan forests.

His austere discipline extended over six years. He explained: - “The only god in whom I believe is the sum totals of all souls, and above all, my god the wicked, my god the afflicted, my god the poor of all races.”

Re-establishment of pride greatness of Indian tradition:

in

the

r In r r

1893 he went to America and attended the World Parliament of Religions at Chicago.

He stayed in America lecturing, establishing “Vedantic Societies” and making disciples. From the US, he proceeded to England and there to France, Switzerland and Germany.

r First

l

166 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Indian to question the superiority of the West and boldly asserted spiritual pre-eminence and incomparable greatness of philosophy of Vedanta.

Returned to India: r r

After four years of staying abroad. Landed at Colombo on January 15, 1897.

l l

r

His journey from Cape Comorian to Calcutta was a triumphed procession.

Rama Krishna Mission. Two principal centers: r

Belur near Calcutta and

r

Training centre for young men to work as Sanyasis (renouncers of worldly life) for religious and social welfare work.

r

l

Mayavati near Almora,

l

Monks of the mission lived a life of asceticism, but active in service of society.

l

Factors for the success of the Mission:

l

as alleged by the social reforms, but foreign rule alone was responsible for all the ills.

Belief in the truth of all religions.

r

No aggressive proselytizing zeal.

r Opposed r

caste, sectarianism, touchability and inequalities.

r

r

r

un-

No desire to develop into a separate sect like the Brahmo or the Arya Samaj.

r Remained

r r

a monastic order disseminating reforming ideas without violently uprooting people from their social or religious environments.

Idea of social service is central to religious and spiritual life.

r

Help to the people in times of distress - opened dispensaries.

l

It arose as a reaction against rationalism of the social reformers. Vishnushastri Chipulankar: r r

Wrote journal “Nibandhamala”.

opposed

Ranade’s

social

Rejected the idea of abolishing caste or establishing equality of rights between women and men before attaining self government. According to him:

t

‘Social reforms at that time were destructive, for it relaxed the social bonds without putting anything in their place’.

t

Educating public opinion on social problems rather than having recourse to legislation at the hands of a foreign government.

Immediate problem was the resistance to foreign rule rather than that of religious or social reconstruction.

Wanted to rally the Hindu masses under one political flag.

r Therefore

the

He believed: ‘neither religion nor social customs like child-marriage or caste, had anything to do with India’s decline

reform.

t

REVIVALIST MOVEMENT IN MAHARASHTRA l

A critic of Western culture and admirer of Hindu religion and philosophy.

r Openly

Its inspiration- philosophy of Vedanta. r

Bal Gangadhar Tilak:

introduced the public festival of Ganesh and the celebration of Shivaji anniversary to revive the glorious achievements of past in people’s mind.

ARYA SAMAJ l

Founder - Swami Dayanand Saraswati.

l

Original name: Mula Shankar

l

Born in 1824, in the petty state of Morvi, in Kathiawar (Gujarat), in a Brahmin family. Socio-Religious Reform Movements

167

l l

l

l l

At the age of 21, he renounced his home to seek to pacify the turmoil and commotion of his soul.

r

His Guru: Virjananda, a blind saint at Mathura.

r

r Dayanand

spent two and half years at Mathura and learnt philosophic interpretation of the Vedas and decided to purge Hinduism of all its aberrations.

r

In 1863, he began teaching and continued till his death at Ajmer in 1883.

r

His motto: ‘Back to the Vedas’ r

Vedas contain all the truth.

r

All other religions were imperfect.

r Vedas

l

r

For 15 years he wandered in search of knowledge.

r

were eternal, infallible and divine.

r

unalterable,

r

Disregarded the authority of the later scriptures like the Puranas.

Like Ram Mohan Roy, he: r

Delieved in one god.

r

Raised voice against caste system based on birth, child-marriage and prohibition of sea voyage.

r

r r r

r r

r

r

Decried polytheism and the use of images.

r r

Unlike Ram Mohan, he preached directly to the masses. He was in favour of teaching of Western education and sciences.

Arya Samaj founded in Bombay in 1875. Branches: in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan.

168 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Cow-protection: In 1882, a cow protection association was formed.

First reformer believed in aggressively protecting the Hindu faith from the assaults of Christian and Muslim critics.

His effort to evoke a sense of pride in India’s past stimulated a militant enthusiasm for the propagation of the Aryan faith. His followers: Lala Hansraj, Pandit Guru Dutt, Lala Lajpat Rai, Swami Shradhananda.

Lala Hansraj established Dayanand Anglo Vedic College, in Lahore recognizing the value of English education. As a counter move to this, Gurukul of Haridwar, was founded by Shraddhanand in 1902. Split in Arya Samaj: t

In 1893 on two issues.

t

Anglicized versus Sanskrit based education16170

t

Encouraged female education and widow remarriage.

Dayananda: a good Sanskrit scholar but had no English education.

Shuddhi Movement: a programme of conversion of non-Hindus to Hinduism.

Meat eating versus vegetarianism

Moderate faction led by Lala Hansraj and Lala Lajpat Rai Militant faction: Lekh Ram and Munshi Ram (Swami Shraddhanand)

THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY l

l

More conservative and more mystical than the Arya Samaj.

Founder:- Madame H.P. Blavatsky and Col. H.S. Olcot,

l Year-1875,

place - New York (US).

l Founders l

arrived in India in January 1879 and established their head quarters in Adyar, near Madras, in 1886.

Mrs. Annie Besant: r In

1888, joined the society in England.

r

Visited the USA in 1893 and attended the Parliament of Religions at Chicago.

r

Landed at Tuticorin in Nov 1893.

r

Settled in India in 1893.

l Religious

Teachings fundamental points: r r

Unity of god,

based

on

RADHASWAMI MOVEMENT l

Founded in 1861.

l

The Radhaswamis believe in:

l

four

Universal brotherhood.

l

l

Theosophists:

l

Occult science, unlike ordinary science, is not based upon hypothesis, experiment and inference. Advocated the revival of the ancient religions of Hinduism, Zoroastrians and Buddhism.

r Recognized r r r r

r

the doctrine transmigration of the Soul.

l

l

r

Company of pious people (Satsang)

Preached universal brotherhood of man. Opposed child marriage.

Advocated abolition of caste. Uplift of the outcaste.

Amelioration of the conditions of widows.

society had many branches all over India, especially in South India. Opened the Central Hindu School at Banaras In 1898, which was later developed by Madan Mohan Malviya into the Banaras Hindu University.

Society opened schools for boys, for women for the depressed classes and participated in Boy Scout Organization.

r

Simple social life

No need for renunciation of worldly life for spiritual attainments.

Teachings embodied in two books; each named ‘Sarr Bacchan’ (essential utterance). The Sect recognizes: r

l

Supremacy of Guru

Means of Salvation: practice of ‘Surat Subdyoga’ (union of human soul with the spirit current or word) under the guidance of a Guru.

r

of

l Theosophical l

One Supreme Being

r

Science of theosophy is occult science.

r

r r

l

l

By a banker of Agra ‘Tulsi Ram’, popularly known as ‘Shiv Dayal Saheb’ or ‘Swamiji Maharaj’.

no god of the Hindu pantheon,

nor any temples or sacred places except those sacrificed by the presence of the guru or his relics.

Necessary duties: works of faith and charity, spirit of service and prayer.

DEVA SAMAJ l

Founded in 1887 by Shiv Narain Agnihotri at Lahore.

l

Teachings compiled in a book called ‘Deva Shastra’.

l

l l

Shiv Narain - earlier a follower of Brahmo Samaj. Emphasis on one Supreme Being, eternity of soul, supremacy of guru. The Guru, claiming supernatural powers, Socio-Religious Reform Movements

169

l

was practically regarded and worshipped as a god by his disciples.

The movement lost its popular appeal after 1913, when Shiv Narain Agnihotri appointed his second son, Devanand as his spiritual successor.

BHARAT DHARMA MAHAMANDALA l

An all India organization of the orthodox educated Hindus.

l

Object was to counter the teachings of the Arya Samaj.

l

l

l

l

Started in 1890 in Punjab by Pandit Din Dayal Sharma. In 1895, Sanatan Dharma Sabha, in Haridwar, the Dharma Maha Parishad in south India, Dharma Mahamandali in Bengal - to defend orthodox Hinduism.

In 1902 - these various organizations united under a single organization called the Bharat Dharma Mahamandali with head quarter at Varanasi.

Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya the leading spirit of this movement.

MADRAS HINDU ASSOCIATION l

Founded by Annie Basent in 1904.

R. VENKAT RATNAM NAIDU

l Started

Social Purity Movement advocating temperance and combating The Devadasi System.

VIRESALINGAM PANTULU l

Founded the Rajahmundry Social Reform Association in 1878 in Andhra Pradesh.

170 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

l

Principal objective: promotion of widowremarriage.

K.N. NATRAJAN l

Started the influential journal Indian Social Reformer in 1890.

l A

Hindu Social Reform Association was also started in Madras in 1892 by the ‘Young Madras Party’ associated with that journal.

BEHRAMJI M.MALABARI l

Parsi reformer.

l

Daya Ram Gidumal: co-founder of Seva Sadan Society.

l

l l

Established the Seva Sadan Society in 1885. Against child-marriage widowhood.

and

enforced

Malabari’s efforts led to the enactment of Age of Consent Act, 1891.

G.G. AGARKAR l l

Founded the Deccan Educational Society in 1884 at Poona. G.K. Gokhle, Tilak etc were members of this society.

GOPAL KRISHNA GOKHLE l

Founded the Servants of India Society in 1905 at Bombay.

l

Servants of India Society conducted three papers:

l

With the aim of training Indians in different fields for the service of their motherland.

r r r

The Servants of India, English weekly edited by S.G. Vaje Dnyan Prakash: OLDEST Maratha Daily, edited by Mr. Limye. The Hitwad, a weekly.

HRIDYA NATH KUNZRU l

Founded the ‘Seva Samiti’ at Allahabad in 1914.

l Objective: l

organizing social service during natural calamities and promoting education, sanitation and physical culture.

Initially a member of Servants of India’s Society.

SHRI RAM BAJPAI l

Another member of Servants Of India Society.

l

Later Baden Powell, after a private visit to India, lifted the ban.

l Founded Seva Samiti Boy scouts Association

in 1914 at Bombay on the lines of worldwide Baden-Powell organization, which at that time banned Indian from joining it.

l Bajpai’s

organization separate existence.

continued

its

INDIAN NATIONAL SOCIAL CONFERENCE l

l

NARAYAN MALHAR JOSHI l Established

at Bombay.

Social Service League in 1911

l

Aim: Improving the life conditions for the masses.

l

Also founded the All India Trade Union Congress in 1920 at Bombay, but left it in 1929 when it showed leaning towards the Soviet Union and started the ‘Indian Trade Union Federation’.

l

and

work

Earlier he was member of Servants of India Society.

Founded by M.G. Ranade and Raghunath Rao.

Conference met annually from its first session in Madras in Dec 1887.

l Launched l l

‘Pledge movement’ to inspire the people to take oaths to prohibit child marriage. Also advocated the inter-caste marriage and opposed kulinism and polygamy. Conference met in Congress pandal till Tilak drove it out at Poona in 1895.

MEHTAJI DURGA RAM MANCHA (1809-76) l

Founded in 1844 the Manav Dharma Sabha and the universal religious society. Socio-Religious Reform Movements

171

THE ISLAMIC REFORM MOVEMENTS l

Not as powerful as their counterparts among the Hindus.

l

Muslim upper classes were not inclined to have contact with Western culture and education.

l

l

Two types of movement: One loyalist to the British and the other anti-British.

A beginning was made with the foundation of Muhammadan Literacy Society at Calcutta in 1863. The Society encouraged upper and middle class Muslims to take to western education.

SIR SYED AHMAD KHAN

Early Career l

Born in 1817.

l

Specialized in mathematics and astronomy.

l l

Received his education in Lucknow.

Served first as the Superintendent of Calcutta Madarsa.

l Later l l

l l l l

as British envoy at the counts of the Kings of Iran and Burma (Ava). Twice appointed Chief Emperor Akbar Shah II.

Minister

of

Faced problems of livelihood after his father’s death in 1839, as the Mughal court could not offer any prospect of service with adequate emoluments according to his tastes.

Therefore, started learning judicial work and in 1839 became a clerk in the office of the Commissioner of Agra. He was in Bijnor when the revolt of 1857 broke out.

Visited England in 1869 and stayed there for a year and half.

In 1876, retired from government service and settled down in Aligarh.

Ideas of social and religious Reform: l

All his efforts directed to bring back the influence and power of upper class.

l

Did not favour ‘Independence’ for practical reasons. Believed the betterment of the Muslim community could be accomplished only under British dispensation.

l

l l

Showed little awareness of the vast misery of the lower class.

Impressed by modern scientific thought. Religious reform: r Advocated r

172 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

‘Quran’ as the only authoritative work for Islam, all other Islamic writings are secondary.

Even the Quran he interpreted in the light of contemporary rationalism and science.

r

Against blind obedience to tradition.

r

No one who believed in god could be condemned as infidel (Kafir) or a heretic (Mulhid).

r

r

t

Favoured freedom of thought.

t

this scheme, opened the Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental School at Aligarh on 24 May 1875; raised to the status of a college in 1877.

r

l

abstained from attacking the Christians.

Stress upon the Unity of HinduMuslim, Hindu-Muslim political cooperation.

Social reform: r

r

Against medieval customs and ways of thought and behavior. Favoured raising of women’s status in society

r Advocated

l

removal of purdah and spread of education among women.

r Condemned

polygamy divorce customs.

As an Educationist: r

r

and

easy

Not satisfied with the traditional system of Muslim madarsas, or the secular teachings imparted in the institution maintained by the government. His Scheme of education contemplated three grades of institutions:

t

t

Highest grade - represented by the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College for pupil above 18 and was composed of three sectionsEnglish, Urdu, Arabic and Persian. Middle grade - secondary schools for children between 11 and 18, medium of instruction – URDU.

In all three religious educations was compulsory.

r Under

According to him, Sultan of Turkey had no justification to claim the title of Caliph, since it ended with Imam Hasan on the expiry of 30 years after the death of the Prophet.

r He r

Primary grade - elementary schools (maktabs) for those between six and 11 years of age.

r

l



Higher English education - panacea for all social and political ills of India.

To appease the Muslim opposition, he stopped the publication of the journal Tahdib ul Akhlaq (social reform) in 1878.

Syed and politics:

Before the birth of Indian National Congress: r r

r

r

Strong advocate of association of all Indians in the councils of the government.

Opposed idea of special favour for the Muslims. In his pamphlet, ‘Causes of the Indian Mutiny’ (1863), he said that the original cause of Mutiny was the non-admission of a native as a member into the legislative council. In 1866, founded the British India Association.

After the birth of Congress in 1885: ALIGARH MOVEMENT: r

From 1885, Syed Ahmad’s liberalism started to recede.

r

Other British advocates of change were:

r Change

of government attitude towards Muslims began with the publication of W.W. Hunter’s Indian Mussalmans in 1871.

Socio-Religious Reform Movements

173

t t

r r

r

r l

t

Nassau Lees, ex-Principal of the Calcutta Madarsa. Beck and Muhammadan College. W.S. Blunt.

Morrison of Anglo Oriental

In 1886, Syed Ahmad organized the Muhammadan (Later Muslim) Educational Conference. Syed Ahmad launched a violent agitation against the Congress in 1887, warning Indians, particularly the Muslims, of the dangers involved in its activities.

Most of the taluqdars of Oudh, except Raja Rampal Singh, were with him.

To oppose Congress, Syed founded United Patriotic Association in 1888. But it did not last long.

Aligarh Movement leaders after Syed Ahmad: r

Chiragh Ali

r

Zaka Ullah

r r r

Altaf Hussain Hali (Urdu poet) Muhsin ul Mulk

Maulana Shibli Nomani

SYED AMIR ALI l

Founded the Central Association In 1877.

l

Was opposed to the idea of political unity between Hindus and Muslims.

l

l

Muhammadan

Was communal and rigidly separatist.

l Published

l

‘Spirit of Islam’ in 1902.

In 1910, he opened the London branch of All India Muslim League.

174 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

A revivalist movement.

l Leaders: r

l

l

l

l l

Nazir Ahmad

r Vaqr-ul-Mulk. r

WAHABI MOVEMENT

r

Shah Waliullah (1702-62) of Delhi led the moderate faction.

Syed Ahmad (Raibareilly) adopted the militant ways.

Shah Abdul Aziz, son of Shah Waliullah: On the fall of Delhi to British in 1803, issued a decree (Fatwa) declaring that India was the land of war (Dar-ul-harb) that it was incumbent on the Muslim either to declare a holy war (Jihad) against the Christian conquerors or to migrate from India to Muslim lands. Syed Ahmad took the lead of the movement, supported by relatives of Shah Abdul Aziz. British misnamed them ‘Wahabis’.

After 1831, they established their main centre at Patna. After 1850, centre shifted to SITHANA in North West Frontier Province (Pakistan).

l Wahabis l l

mutineers.

also

supported

the

1857

They were in constant fight with the British. British government’s trials on Wahabi: r r r r

Ambala May1864 Patna 1865

Malda September 1870

Rajmahal October 1870

DEOBAND MOVEMENT l Islamic

seminary at Deoband was founded in 1867 by two theologians Muhammad Qasim Nanantavi (1837-80) and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi.

l l l

A poor man’s schools and its teachers and students lived in the most economical conditions.

Rashid Ahmad Gangohi advised the Indian Muslims to co-operate with the Congress in its nationalist activities.

Deoband’s Declaration:- ‘the concept of nationality did not contravene any Islamic principle’ - This decision created a gulf between Deoband and the Aligarh Movement.

l Unlike

l l

l

Aligarh movement, Deoband School did not prepare its students for government jobs or worldly careers but for preaching of Islamic faith. Students - not only from India but also from neighboring Muslim countries.

In 1888, the Deoband ulama issued a decree against Sir Syed Ahmad’s organizations ‘The United Patriotic Association and The Muhammadan Anglo Oriental Association.’ r

Mohammad AL Hasan

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.

SHIBLI NOMANI (1857-1914) l l

l l

l

One of the greatest poets of modern India.

l

In his earlier poetry, he extolled patriotism

l l

l

l

A supporter of the Deoband School

Founded the Nadwatal Ulama and Dar-ulUlum in Lucknow in 1894-96.

Favoured reforming the traditional Islamic system of education by including English language and European sciences.

Admired the Congress for its high idealism and for the welfare and advancement of Indian people. He said: ‘Muslims, jointly with the Hindus, could live honorably and happily’.

Condemned ritualism, ascetics and other worldly attitude. Famous for his poetry ‘sare jahan se achha Hindostan hamara’. Later encouraged Muslim separatism.

In 1930, Muslim League session at Allahabad he spoke of a need for a ‘North West Indian Muslim State’.

SYED NAZIR HUSSAIN l

Founded the sect of Ahl-i-Hadis (people

l

According to him ‘Quran and Hadis' were

Other Leaders:

r

l

MUHAMMAD IQBAL (1876-1938)

of the Hadis) in Punjab in the second half of the 19 th century.

the ultimate authority.

ABDULLAH CHAKRALAVI l

Founded the sect of Ahl-i-Quran (people of

l

Members, known as ‘Chakralavis’.

l

Quran) in Punjab in the late 19th century. Quran - ultimate authority on Islam.

AHMAD RIZA KHAN

l

Founded the Barelwi School in Punjab in

l

Members known as Barelwis.

l

l

the late 19 th century. Opposed

preachings.

Deoband

School

and

its

Advocated revival of many old Islamic practices.

Socio-Religious Reform Movements

175

AHMADIYA MOVEMENT l

l

Also known as the Qadiani Movement.

Founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad at Qadiani in Punjab in 1889.

l Aim: l

to defend Islam against the onslaughts of the Arya Samajists and the Christian Missionaries.

He claimed himself to be a Messiah but regarded Muhammad as the true Prophet.

l Also l

l

claimed to be incarnation (avatar) of Lord Krishna.

Like the Brahmo Samaj, believed in the principle of universal religion of all humanity. Influenced by western liberalism and reform movements of Hindus.

l Gave l

religious sanction to modern Industrial and technological progress. Opposed Jihad against non-Muslims.

TITU MIR’S MOVEMENT

l

Organized in West Bengal by Mir Nithar Ali (1782-1831).

l

Popularly known as Titu Mir, a disciple of Syed Ahmad Raebarelwi.

l

Some Hindu landlords imposed a Beard Tax on his followers and persecuted them.

l

l

Organized the Muslim peasants against Hindu landlords and British indigo planters.

He was killed in action in 1831 by a British regiment of native infantry.

l l l l

l

l l l

l

About the same time in East Bengal.

l Founder:-

Haji Shariat Allah.

176 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Aimed at eradication of social innovations among the Muslims of Bengal, many of them borrowed from Hinduism. Thinking of India under the British rule as Dar ul Harb (land of Kafirs).

They suspended the Friday and Id prayers. Under Haji’s son Dudu Miyian, from 1840 onwards, it became revolutionary. Setup a hierarchical organizations from village to provincial level with a Khalifa (authorized deputy) at each level.

Organized a para-military force armed only with clubs, to fight the henchmen of the Hindu landlords or even the police. Dudu’ s arrest in 1847.

Survived as religious movement after his death in 1862.

TA’AYUUNI MOVEMENT l

An offshoot of Wahabi Movement.

l

Opposition to the Fara’idi movement.

l l l

l

FARIDI OR FARA’IDI MOVEMENT l

A fundamentalist reformist movement having emphasis on the Islamic pillars of faith (fara’id).

Led by Karamat Ali Jaunpuri, inspired from Shahwali Allah. Conflict between the Fara’idis and the Ta’ayuni’s - began about 1839 - lasted for nearly two decades. Critical of Faraidi suspension of Friday and Id prayers. Argued that India was not dar-ul harb under British rule; if not dar-ul- Islam then at least dar-ul-aman (land of peace) since Muslim had their religious freedom.

AHRAR MOVEMENT l

Founded in the 1910.

l Leaders:

l

l

Maulana Mohammad Ali, Ajmal Khan, Hasan Imam, Maulana Jafar Ali Khan and Majhar-ul-haq.

Advocated for active participation in the nationalist movement.

l l

l

Opposed loyalist politics of the Aligarh movement.

AKALI MOVEMENTS l

Aim of the movement: to purify the management of the Gurudwaras or Sikh shrines.

l

Sikh Gurudwaras before 1920 were in the hands of the Udasi Sikh Mahants who were corrupt and selfish. In 1921, a powerful Satyagraha against the mahants and the government.

Forced the government to pass a new Sikh Gurudwaras Act in 1922 which was later amended in 1925.

With the removal of corrupt mahants, the Gurudwaras under the control of an elected committee known as the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee.

Socio-Religious Reform Movements

177

NOTES

CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT DURING BRITISH PERIOD

REGULATING ACT 1773 

Introduced by Frederick North, therefore called North’s Regulating Act.



Lord North - then Prime Minister of Great Britain.



Commenced on June 10, remained in force till 1784.

1773

r

Appointed four persons to Supreme Council of Bengal.

t

Lt. Gen John Clavering

t

Richard Barwell

t

and

r

t

George Monson Philip Francis

Established a Supreme Court at Fort William, Calcutta (Kolkata).

t t

Having Chief justice and 3 judges. Sir Elizah Impey: Chief Justice.

t Robert

r

t

 

t



Provisions of Act: r Prohibited

r

the servants of the Company from engaging in any private trade or accepting presents or bribes. Elevated Governor of Bengal Warren Hastings to Governor-General of Bengal. Brought Presidencies of Madras and Bombay under Bengal’s control.

180 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

came

into

Prior to the regulating Act, company affairs were managed by the Court of Directors containing 24 members, elected annually by the court of proprietors. A share holder who held shares worth £ 500 had right to elect the directors. Regulating Act Provisions:

Voting right given to those share holders who held shares worth of £ 1000.

­ Term of office of Directors increased to 4 years, one-fourth retiring every year.

Act introduced parliamentary supervision over East India Company’s affairs.

r

Supreme Court existence in 1774.

Home Government:

t

Lord North

Chambers, Stephen Caesar Le Maistre and John Hyde: Justices.

r

­ Directors to submit all correspondence from GovernorGeneral in India relating to revenue to the Treasury and those relating to the civil and military government to Secretary of State. Form of Government in India:

t Act

appointed a GovernorGeneral and FOUR councilors for

t

Council to majority.

t

Three members of the council formed a QUORUM.

t

t

t

t

t

t t

r

take

decision

by

Governor-General had a casting vote in case of a tie.

t

Restrictions:

They were to hold office for FIVE years, and could be removed earlier only by the King, on the recommendation of the Court of Directors. Future appointments to be made by the company.

Governor-General-in-Council of Bengal was vested with the power of superintendence and control of governments of Bombay and Madras Presidencies in matters of war and peace, except in case of emergency when they could take orders from the directors in London.

It had power to suspend any offending Governor and his council. Thus, the Act took the first step in the centralization of administrative machinery in India.

Vested in Governor-General-inCouncil of Bengal It was empowered to make rules, ordinances and regulations

t ­

They were not to be repugnant to the laws of England.

t

Thus, the legislative power was controlled by the Supreme Court.

t ­

FIRST Governor-General (Warren Hastings) and councilors (Phillip Francis, John Clavering, George Monson and Richard Barwell) were named in the Act.

Legislative Power: t

for the good governance of the company’s settlement at Fort William and factories subordinate thereto.

the Presidency of Fort William (Bengal).

t

r

They were not valid until ‘duly registered and published in the Supreme Court.’ They could be set aside by the King-in-Council on the application of any person or persons in India or in England.

Supreme Court: t t

t t t t

t

Act provided for the establishment of Supreme Court at Calcutta (now Kolkata).

It had a Chief Justice and three other judges who were to be a barrister of at least 5 years standing.

Appointed by the Crown, they were to hold office during his pleasure. Court was vested with criminal, admiralty ecclesiastical jurisdictions.

civil, and

Its jurisdiction extended to all British subjects residing in Bengal and Orissa.

Governor-General and Councilors and Judges of the Supreme court were exempt from arrest or imprisonment in any action or suit or proceeding in the court. Appeal from the Supreme Court lay to the King-in-Council.

Constitutional Development during British Period

181

r

Defects of this Act: t

It placed the Governor-General at the mercy of his council.

t

Disunity of the council impeded smooth working of the administration.

t

t t

No overriding power to GovernorGeneral.

r

It did not make clear as to what law the Supreme Court was to administer.

Functions of Supreme Court and those of the council were not well-defined.

r

t Insufficient

authority of the Governor-General-in-Council over the other Presidencies.

BENGAL JUDICATURE ACT OF 1781 

Passed by British parliament on 5th July 1781.



Touchet committee was appointed to do an enquiry about the administration of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. The report of this committee led to enactment of Act of settlement of 1781.



 

Also known as Declaratory Act, 1781.

Passed by parliament to remove the defects of Regulating Act of 1773. Changes made: r

r r

It exempted the actions of the public servants of the company done in official capacity from the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. Question of the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court was settled.

Supreme Court was to have jurisdiction over all the inhabitants of Calcutta and

182 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r

was to administer the personal law of the defendant. While enforcing its decrees and processes, the Supreme Court must take into consideration and respect the religious and social customs and usages of the Indians.

Appeals could be taken from the Provincial Courts to the GovernorGeneral-in-Council, the final court of appeal, except in those civil cases which involved a sum of £ 5000 or more. In this category, the appeal could be taken to the King-in-Council. Rules and regulations made by the Governor-General-in-Council were not to be registered with the Supreme Court.

All dispatches proposed to be sent to India were to be shown to Secretary of State.

 Restricted

 

the Supreme Court’s jurisdiction to either those who lived in Calcutta or the British Subjects in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Removed the Court’s jurisdiction over any person residing in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

Thus ended the conflict with Supreme Council over jurisdiction.

PITT’S INDIA ACT 1784 

Named after British Prime William Pitt the Younger.



Purpose:- to remove defects in the Regulating Act of 1773.

 

Minister

Commencement: August 13, 1784.

Essential plan: Company’s public affairs and its administration in India were to come directly under supreme control of the British Parliament.



Provided for joint governance of British India by the Company and the Crown.

t

t

t t t

William Pitt the Younger 

Provisions: r

Changes in the company’s government in London: t

t

t

r

t

Establishment of a Board of Control - consisting of six commissioners, including two cabinet ministers.

Functions: to guide and control the work of the Court of Directors and the Government of India; to control all matters of civil and military government of the British territories in India. Appointment of a Secret Committee, consisting of three directors, with a view to take the place of the Court of Directors in political and military matters.

Revision of the Government in India: t

Company’s

Government of India was placed under the Governor-General and a Council of three.



Presidencies of Madras and Bombay were to be sub-ordinate to the Presidency of Bengal in all matters of war, diplomatic relations and revenue.

Governors of Bombay and Madras Presidencies were deprived of their independence. Governor-General of Bengal was given greater powers in matters of war, diplomacy and revenue.

Governor-General-in-Council was made subordinate to British Government.

It was forbidden to declare war and entry into any treaty without the sanction of the Directors or the Secret Committee.

Defects: r It

r



By reducing one member of the executive council, GovernorGeneral’s position was strengthened, as he needed only one member to support his way.

had divided authority and responsibility. Governor-General had two masters - Court of Directors and the Board of Control. Having right to appoint and dismiss their servants in India, the Court of Directors had retained their vast patronage.

This Act laid down the general framework in which the Government of India was to be carried out till 1857.

SUPPLEMENTARY ACT OF 1786 



Lord Cornwallis was appointed Governor General of Bengal.

2nd

He was also to hold office of CommanderIn-Chief. Constitutional Development during British Period

183



Governor General was authorized to overrule his Council in special cases of safety, peace and interests of the Empire.

REGULATING ACT OF 1793  

 

The charter of the company was renewed for another 20 years.

Power of Governor-General and Governor to overrule their council was explained.

 Governor-General’s

control over Presidencies was strengthened.

the

Company was deprived of its monopoly of trade with India.



Shareholders of the Company were granted a dividend of ten and half percent out of the revenues of India.







r

Revival and improvement of literature.

r

Introduction and promotion of knowledge of the sciences among the inhabitants of the British territories in India.

r

Encouragement of the learned natives of India.

CHARTER ACT OF 1833 

Abolished trading activities of company.



Monopoly of trade with China ended.

 

Henceforth, company became a purely administrative body. Restriction of European immigration into India removed.

184 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r

Financial and Administrative Powers centralized.

r

To exercise same authority over administration of Bombay and Madras as in Bengal.

r

r r





Sole authority to make legislation.

Governor-General-in-Council of Bengal enlarged:

r

Monopoly of trade with China and the trade of tea remained.

Budget Allocation for Promotion of Education for the FIRST TIME: a sum of one lakh rupees annually for –

Centralization of power in GovernorGeneral-in-Council of Bengal

r

CHARTER ACT OF 1813 

Restrictions on acquisition of property and land in India by Europeans also ended.

4 th member i.e. Law member added who must not be a servant of the company. Law member entitled to sit and vote at the meetings of the Council only for the purpose of making laws. First Law Member - Lord Macaulay who prepared the draft of Indian Penal Code.

First Law Commission for consolidation and codification of varying laws, but commission was finally abolished.

Governor General-in-Council to make laws for all persons, whether British or Indian, and for all Courts of Justice, whether established by Majesty’s charter or otherwise. Henceforth to be designated as ‘Governor General of India-in-council’.

 Section

87 of the Act discrimination of any kind. r

removed

It provided that “no Indian or naturalborn subject of the Crown resident in India should be by reason only of his religion, place of birth, descent, color or any of them, be disqualified for any place of office or employment under the company.”





In actual practice however, very little was done to give effect to this pious provision.

1833 Act enjoined the Government of India to take measures for amelioration of the condition of slaves and ultimate abolition of slavery in India.

 By

ACT V of 1843, slavery was abolished in India.

CHARTER ACT OF 1853  

Law member became full member of Governor General-in-Council.

Six additional members were added to Governor General-in-Council for Legislative purpose: r Chief

r 

Justice and a Judge of Calcutta Supreme Court and four representatives - one each from Bengal, Madras, Bombay and the North-Western Provinces. Provincial representatives were to be civil servants with at least 10 years standing.

Governor General was empowered to appoint two more civil servants to the council though this power was never actually exercised.

 Thus,

First ‘official legislature’ was established: r

Six new members called legislative councilors.

r

Procedure of the council on the lines of British Parliament:

r

r

Legislative business in public, instead of in secret. t ­

t ­

Questions could be asked.

Policy of the Executive Council (EC) could be discussed.

Executive Council retained the power to veto a bill of the legislative council.

r

Discussion in the council became oral instead of in writing.

r Bills 

  



were referred to select committees instead of to a single member.

Salaries of members of Board of Control, Secretary of State and other officers to be fixed by the British Government and paid by the Company. Salary of President of Board of Control made equal to that of a Secretary of state.

Number of members of Court of Directors reduced from 24 to 18. Services were thrown open to competitive examinations. r Macaulay

became President of a committee to enforce this scheme in 1854.

Court of Directors was empowered to constitute a new Presidency or to alter boundaries of existing ones to incorporate the newly acquired territories. r

  

By this provision, a separate Lieutenant Governorship for Punjab was created in 1859.

Approval of Crown was necessary for all appointments of councilors, Central or Provincial.

A Law Commission appointed in London for codification Indian laws. Commission submitted plans for: r

r

Creation of High courts amalgamating Supreme Court and Sadar Diwani Adalat. It resulted in enactment of Indian High Courts Act 1861 and the establishment of High courts in Calcutta, Bombay, Madras (1861). A uniform code of civil and criminal procedure. Thus, Macaulay’s penal code was revised and passed into a Code of Civil Procedure (1859) and a Code of Criminal Procedure (1861).

Constitutional Development during British Period

185

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT 1858   

Transferred the power from East India Company to the British Crown. Abolished the system of ‘Double Government’, introduced by Pitts India Act 1784. r

r

r

r  

r

Of the 15 members, 8 to be appointed by the Crown and 7 by the Court of Directors.

At least half of these members must have served in India for not less than 10 years and they must not away from India for more than 10 years at the time of appointment.

Members would continue in office during good behavior and would be removed only on petition to the Crown by both the Houses of Parliament.

 

New system laid the foundation of Cabinet Government of India.

r

Routine matters of administration were disposed of by the member-incharge.

r

r 

Council was to be advisory.

r

r 

FIFTH member added to the GovernorGeneral’s Executive Council.

r Using

this power, Lord Canning introduced the Portfolio System in

186 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Only matters of general policy came before the Executive Council as a whole.

Additional members to EC (not less than Six and not more than 12)

t

Nominated by GG.

t

Not less than half to be nonofficials.

r



For two years.

This legislative council would have no control over administration or finance or right of interpellation.

Restoration of legislative powers of making and amending laws to province of Madras and Bombay: r

Such member was to be a gentleman of legal profession.

Governor-General was empowered to make rules for more convenient transaction of business in the council.

Important matters were placed by the member concerned before the Governor-General (GG) and decided in consultation with him.

t

Governor-General became direct representative of the Crown and received the title of Viceroy. First Viceroy: Lord Charles John Canning.

Each branch of administration has its official head in the government.

Viceroy’s Executive Council (EC) was expanded for purposes of legislation:

Final decision remained with the Secretary of State.

INDIAN COUNCILS ACT 1861



r r

Secretary of State and his 15 members’ council took the charge of government:

the Government of India. Up to that time, the Government of India was a government by the entire body of the Executive Council.

Governor General’s assent essential. Valid only after assent.

Governor General’s prior approval was obligatory in matters like currency, telegraphs and posts, naval, military, copyright etc.

Ordinance power to Governor General. r

In case of emergency.

r Without

  

r

the concurrence legislative council.

of

the

t

To remain in force for not more than six months.

t 2/5 th

Governor-General was authorized to create similar legislative councils in remaining provinces. Governor-General had the Power Vetoing any law passed by Council.

r

of

r r

r

No statutory provision was made for the admission of Indians. But in practice, some of the nonofficial seats were offered to ‘natives of high ranks’.

r

r 



In 1862, Lord Canning nominated Maharaja of Patiala, Raja of Banaras, and Sri Onkar Rao to newly constituted council.

Added 6 th ordinary member to Viceroy’s council- “the member for public works”.

INDIAN COUNCILS ACT 1892

 

Dealt exclusively with the powers, functions and compositions of Legislative Councils in India. Size of legislatures expanded: r

Central legislatures:

But for Oudh and North West Province, Maximum strength was fixed at 15.

Functions of Legislatures widened: Members:

ask questions and obtain information from the Executive on matters of public interest.

r

Got the ‘Right of Discussing Budget’ – meant Members could make general observations on the Budget and suggestions for increasing or decreasing revenue or expenditure.

1870 ACT

1874 ACT

Additional members not to be less than 8 or more than 20 in the case of Bombay, Madras and Bengal.

r Could

Dalhousie had urged Indian inclusion in Council created by 1853 act.

Governor General-in-council was empowered to pass regulation without reference to legislative council.

of total members of the council to be ‘non-officials’, which were partly nominated and partly elected.

Provincial legislatures:

Ushered in admission of Indians into higher councils of government: r

Additional members not to be less than 10 or more than 16.



Principle of election was introduced: r

Word ‘election’ was not specifically mentioned.

r Elected

members were declared as ‘nominated’.

r Governor r

officially

General or Head of Provincial Government had the power to accept or reject the nominations. Lord Lansdowne (1888-94) utilized this power in having 8 members of Local Councils elected by Municipalities, District Boards, Chamber of commerce, universities etc and 4 members of Supreme Council elected by non-official members of local council.

Constitutional Development during British Period

187

r

INDIAN COUNCILS ACT 1909 (MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS) 



Break-up of 32 non-official members: t

5 to be nominated by Governor General.

t

Special electorates - 2 (one each from Bengal and Bombay chambers of commerce)

t ­

Lord John Morely: Secretary of State for India.

Lord Minto: Viceroy of India.

t t

r

Lord Minto 

Size of legislatures expanded r



Central Legislature: t

Additional members rose to 60.

t

Official majority maintained.

t t

Total members: 69 (37 officials, 32 non-officials). Break-up of 37 official members:

­t 9 ex-officio namely, Governor General, 7 Executive Councilors, one extra-ordinary member. r

Remaining 28 to be nominated by Governor General.

188 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Mass

electorates - 12 holders constituencies Muslim constituencies)

(land and

t

Non official majority established.

t

For example:- in Madras:- no of officials 21, no of non-officials 26 (21 elected and 5 nominated).

t

However, this did not mean nonofficial elected majority, as some of the non officials were to be nominated by the governors.

Only in Bengal a clear elected majority established.

Separate electorate for Muslims was introduced.

Executive Council in Bengal Presidency introduced: r r



General electorates - 13 (nonofficial members of the provincial legislatures)

Provincial Legislatures:t



27 to be elected:

Purpose to assist Leiutenant Governer in the Executive Goverence of Provence. Introduced in Bengal in 1909 and Bihar and Orissa in 1912.

t Raja

Kirori Lal Goshwami appointed a member of EC in Bengal.

Functions of Legislature: r

Empowered to move resolutions on budget and also on matters of public interest.

r r

Members were given the right of discussion and asking supplementary questions. Discussion of budgets in the Central Legislature: t

Members, though not empowered to vote, could move resolutions concerning additional grants to local governments, any alteration in taxation, on a new loan which might have been proposed in the financial Statement.

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT 1919 (MONTAGU-CHELMSFORD REPORT) 



Edwin Montagu: Secretary of State for India.

Lord Chelmsford: Viceroy of India.

t The

r

Financial Statement (Budget), before its submission in the council, had to be referred to its committee consisting of the finance member (chairman) and non-officials and nominated members on a 50:50 basis.

Members: t

t

t

l

Could discuss matters of general public interest, except certain specified subjects such as the armed forces, foreign affairs and the Indian States. Could move resolutions on them.

Could also vote, though the President was empowered to disallow the whole or a part of such resolutions, without assigning any reason.

Office of Vice President Introduced: r

Both in the Executive Council of Centre as well as Province.

r

Vice President would preside the executive council meeting in the absence of Governer General or Governer as the case may be.

r

The senior member of exective council to be apointed by Governer General or Governer in their respective Executive Council.

Lord Chelmsford Main provisions: 

Changes in the Home Government in London: r

Secretary of State (SOS), who used to be paid out of the Indian revenues, was now to be paid by the British exchequer.

r New

functionary the High Commissioner for India appointed and paid by the Government of India and acted as the agent of GovernorGeneral-in-Council.

Constitutional Development during British Period

189

r r



Some of functions of SOS were transferred to High Commissioner.

Control of Secretary of State was reduced in the Provincial spheres but remained as complete as before in the case of Centre.

t

r

r Any r r

subject not specifically transferred to the provinces was a Central subject. The Council of State (strength= 60)

Thus an elected established.

v

v v v v v t t t

Nominated members (26) : 20 officials and 6 non-officials Elected members (34):

General constituencies (20) Muslims (10)

called

Franchise - extremely restricted.

190 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Elected members:



General constituency- 52 Muslims- 30 Special- 20 Sikhs- 2

Life of the assembly: 3 years

t

Qualification for a vote:-

t Could

be extended GOVERNOR GENERAL. v

v

It’s President to be nominated by Viceroy. were

v

Nominated members - 26 officials and 15 non-officials

t

Tenure 5 years.

members ‘Honorable’.

Total strength: 145 (41 nominated, 104 elected)



Sikhs (1)

Women were not entitled to become its members.

v



Europeans (3)

t Its t

majority

The Legislative Assembly:



v 26 v

A person who holds a ‘title’.

v

Two houses at the Centre were:

to be nominated by Governor-General and 34 to be elected.

A person having past experience in some legislative council of India, or

v

Bicameral Legislature at the Centre. t

A person on the senate of the university, or

v

t

Those paying an income tax on the minimum income of Rs 10000 a year, or

Those paying a land-revenue of Rs 750 a year, or

v

Number of Indians in GovernorGeneral’s Executive Council increased to 3 in a Council of 8. Division of subjects into the Central List and the Provincial List.

v v

Changes in the Government of India: r

Qualification for a vote:

t

v

by

the

A person must be an occupant or owner of a house of the minimum annual rental value of Rs 180, or He must be paying an income tax on an income of not less than Rs 2000 a year, or

He must be paying a land revenue of at least Rs 50 a year.

Distribution of seats among the different provinces was made on the basis of their importance and not on the basis of their population.

l

r

r

r

l

r

Powers of the Central Legislature:

r

r

Could legislate for the whole of British India, for the Indian subjects and servants of the Government, inside or outside the country.

t r

Restrictions on the legislature: r Previous

sanction of GovernorGeneral required for the introduction a bill such as:

t r

r



Foreign relations and the relations with the Indian States. Public debt and public revenue,

Further, if the Governor General felt that any bill or any part of it, affects the safety or tranquility of British India or any part thereof, he could prevent its consideration. If on the advice of the Governor General the legislature refused to pass a law, the Governor General could pass it himself, subject to the sanction of the Crown. Introduced in the provinces on April 1st, 1921.

Reserved and

Reserved subjects:

t

Administered by the Governor with the help of the members of the Executive Council. Example: Land Revenue, Famine Relief, Justice, Pensions, Police, Irrigation and Water Ways, Criminal Tribes, Electricity, Mines, Factories, Printing Press, Public Services.

Transferred subjects:

t

Administered by the Governor with the help of the Ministers.

t Example

and

Introduction of Dyarchy in the provinces: r

r

Discipline or maintenance of military, naval and the air force. religious rites usages of the people.

Central provinces (1924-26)

t Transferred

t

Amendment or repeal of an existing law or an ordinance of the Governor General.

t Religion,

Bengal (1924-27)

this system, the subjects to be dealt with by the provincial government were divided into two parts-

Short-notice questions could also be asked.

t

t

r Under

Members were given the right to move resolution and motions for adjournment of the house, to consider urgent questions of public importance.

t

It ceased to function in two provinces for sometime:

t

Could repeal or amend any law already existing in the country.

t

Continued in operation till April 1937.

r



– Education (other than European and AngloIndian education), Libraries, Museums, Local Self-Government, Medical Relief, Public Health and Sanitation, Agriculture, Excise, Weights and Measures, Contol of Public Entertainments, etc.

Right of interference by Secretary of State–in-Council and Governor General–in- Council in the Transferred Subjects was restricted.

Changes in the Provincial Legislatures: r

Of the total numbers of the members:

t t

At least 70% were to be elected.

Not more than 20% were to be officials.

Constitutional Development during British Period

191

r r 

t

System of direct election (i.e. primary voters electing the members) for the Provincial Councils introduced. Members could initiate legislation; they could also reject the budget, though Governor could restore it.

Abolition of distinction between Regulation Provinces (Bengal, Bombay, madras) and Non-Regulation Provinces: r All

l

Remaining to be nominated nonofficials.

r

provinces Provinces.

became

r

l

SIMON COMMISSION

r r r

All members were Englishmen, No Indian member.

Clement Attlee: one of its members; later became Prime Minister of Great Britain when India got Independence.

192 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Growth of education of institutions in India

representative

Relations between British India and Indian states (added later).

Commission to report: r

r l l

Whether and to what extent it is desirable to establish principle of responsible government, or

To extend, modify or restrict the degree of existing responsible government. establishment of 2nd chamber of local legislatures is or is not desirable.

What should be the relations between British India and Indian Princely States

The Commission submitted its report in May 1930. Features of report: r Proposed

abolition of Dyarchy.

r Establishment r

Act of 1919 had provision for the formation of a statutory commission to look into the working of MontaguChelmsford Reforms ten years after the enactment of 1919 Act.

7 member Indian Statutory Commission appointed in November 1927 under chairmanship of Sir John Simon

Working of system of government

r Whether

Appointment of Simon Commission: r

r

r

Governor appointed by His Majesty.

Surendranath Banerjee was in favour of reform proposals. He left Congress and founded Indian Liberal Federation whose members called as ‘Liberals’.

r

r Development

Governor’s

Special session at Bombay (August 1918): INC termed the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms’ proposal as ‘disappointing and unsatisfactory’ and demanded effective self-government instead.

Simon commission to enquire into: r

Response of Indian National Congress:

r

l

l

r r

l

of representative government in provinces

Complete responsible government in provinces Official block in legislatives to go.

Envisaged the scheme of all India federation, including princes.

r Retention

electorates.

of

separate

communal

Report was discussed at three Round Table Conferences held in r r

November 1930

September - December 1931

r 13 th November

– December 24, 1932

l

The Bill passed on by the British Parliament after deliberations on Report came to be known as the Government of India Act 1935.

NEHRU REPORT l

l

Madras Session of Congress of December 1927 took two major decisions: r

r

Set up an All Parties Conference to draft a constitution for India.

All Parties Committee under chairmanship of Motilal Nehru was set up. Jawahar Lal Nehru was secretary. Members of the committee: r

Ali Imam

r

Madhav Srihari Aney

r r r r l

Boycott Simon Commission.

r

Tej Bahadur Sapru

l

Features of Nehru Report: r

Favoured ‘Dominion Status’ as the next immediate step.

r

India to be a Dominion status.

r A

Federal System with residuary powers with the Centre.

r

Joint electorate for Central Assembly and Provincial Legislatures

r

Bicameral legislature at the Centre:

t The

Senate, elected for SEVEN years containing 200 members elected by the Provincial Councils.

t The House of Representatives with r

Mangal Singh

Shoaib Qureshi

Subhas Chandra Bose G R Pradhan

Nehru Committee report, mainly drafted by Motilal Nehru and Tej Bahadur Sapru, submitted on August 10, 1928.

r

r r

500 members elected for FIVE years through adult franchise.

No reservation of seats for the Central Assembly, except for Muslims in provinces where they were in minority and for non-Muslims in North West Frontier Provinces. Such representation was to be in proportion to their populations. No reservation to any community in Punjab and Bengal. Reservations, wherever applicable, was for a period of 10 years.

Provision made for Bill of Rights (Fundamental Rights).

r Suggested r

Universal adult franchise (eligible age 21).

r

Governor-General was to act on the advice of the Executive Council, which was to be collectively responsible to the Parliament.

r

l

Report was considered by All Parties Conference at Lucknow on 28-31 August 1928.

19 Fundamental Rights.

Governor-General to be appointed by the British Government but paid out of Indian revenues.

r Similarly

in the provinces, the Governor was to act on the advice the Provincial Executive Council.

Constitutional Development during British Period

193

r

New provinces to be created on linguistic basis.

r Full

protection to religious cultural interest of Muslims.

and

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA ACT, 1935

t

 Sources:r

Simon Commission Report.

r

The Discussion at the three successive Round Table Conferences.

r r r 

The Nehru Report.

The White Paper Issued in March 1933. The Joint Select Committee Report.

r The Lothian Report, which determined

the electoral provisions of the Act.

r

Act came into force on April 1, 1937.

 Two r r

Sind from Bombay and



Provisions:

Aden also ceased to be a part of India. r

r r

t

All India federation (comprising governor provinces chief commissioner’s provinces, Indian Princely States).

t

Provincial autonomy.

In the case of the Indian Princely States, accession to the federation was voluntary. Dyarchy at the Centre:-

t Reserved

Subjects: Administration of Defence, External Affairs, Ecclesiastical

194 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

The Council of State: v

A permanent body.

of its membership being vacated and renewed triennially

v consisted

Embodied two main principles: t

Even in regard to this latter sphere, the Governor General might act contrary to the advice so tendered by the ministers if any of ‘special responsibilities’ was involved.

v One-third

Orissa from Bihar and Orissa.

Burma separated from India.

With regard to matters other than the above reserved subjects, the Governor General was to act on the advice of a ‘Council of Ministers’ (not more than ten), who were responsible to the Legislature.

Bicameral Federal Legislature: consisting of the Council of State and the Federal Assembly.

t

new provinces created:

 

t

Affairs and of tribal areas, was to be made by the Governor-General in his discretion with the help of ‘Councilors’ (not more than three), appointed by him.

r

of 156 elected members of British India and not more than 104 from the Indian States (to be nominated by the rulers concerned)

The Federal Assembly v

Consisted of 250 representatives of British India and not more than 125 members from the Indian States.

Limitations legislature: t

upon

the

central

Power of veto vested not only with Governor General but also with the Crown.

t

t

t

Governor General might prevent discussion in the legislature and suspend the proceedings in regards to any bill if he was satisfied that it would affect the discharge of his ‘special responsibilities’.

No bill or amendment could be introduced in the legislature without Governor General’s previous sanction with respect to certain matters:

if the bill or amendment sought to repeal or amend or was repugnant to any law of the British Parliament extending to India.

t

There were similar fetters on the provincial legislatures.

t

Executive authority of a province was exercised by a Governor on behalf of the Crown and not as a subordinate of the Governor General.

Provincial autonomy:

t t

lowered, yet it remained tied to property qualifications.

v Principles v

Governor General had the power to make Temporary Ordinances as well as Permanent Acts at any time for the discharges of his ‘special responsibilities’.

v

r

v Franchise

Governor’s position was largely modeled on that of the GovernorGeneral. Dyarchy in abolished.

t Provincial

the

provinces

legislatures further expanded. v In

were

six provinces (Madras, Bombay, Bengal, UP, Bihar and Assam) there was a bicameral legislature.

Some of the general seats were reserved for the scheduled castes.

t

Governor to invoke a joint session in case of deadlock.

t

Governor could also issue certain Permanent Acts, known as Governor’s Acts.

t

r

of ‘communal electorates’ and ‘weightage’ were further extended.

Governor could issue Ordinance.

Distribution of legislative powers between Centre and Provinces: t

t

It was not a mere delegation of power by the centre to the provinces as by rules made under the Government of India Act, 1919. Three fold division: v

v

Federal List: external affairs; currency and coinage; naval, air and military forces, census. Provincial List: education etc.

v Concurrent

police,

List: criminal law and procedure, civil procedure, marriage and divorce, arbitration.

t Federal

t

legislature had the power to legislate with respect to matters enumerated in the Provincial list if a Proclamation of Emergency was made by the Governor General. It could also legislate with respect to a provincial subject if

Constitutional Development during British Period

195

t

t



the legislatures of two or more provinces desired this in their common interest.

In case of repugnancy in the concurrent field, a Federal Law prevailed over a Provincial Law to the extent of repugnancy, but if the Provincial Law, having been reserved for the consideration of the Governor General, received his assent, the Provincial Law prevailed notwithstanding such repugnancy. Residuary power of legislation was not vested in either the Central or Provincial Legislature, but the Governor General was empowered to authorize either the Federal or the Provincial Legislature to enact a law.

Other provisions: r r

Women were given a wider franchise.

‘India council’ of the Secretary of State (SOS) was abolished.

196 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r

Instead, SOS was given advisers who might or might not be consulted.

r

Federal Railway Authority was established for management of Railways.

r



Provisions made for establishment of Federal Court.

Critical Analysis: r

Federal part introduced.

r

Could not satisfy the nationalist aspirations, as both political and economic power continued to be in the hands of the British Government.

r Only

r r

r

of

Provincial operation.

the

part

Act

put

never into

Only a few popularly elected ministers added to the structure of British administration. But despite limitations, it provided a framework for a federal structure. It also gave parliamentary system of government in 11 provinces.

FREEDOM STRUGGLE 1 (1885 - 1916)

PREDECESSORS OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

BANGABHASA PATRIKA PRAKASIKA SABHA (1836) l

First organization to be established in Bengal.

LAND HOLDER’S SOCIETY (1837) l

Earliest Public Association in Modern India.

l

Decided to co-operate with British India Society in London.

l Purpose:

l l

to promote the class interests of the Land lords.

Appointed a committee to supply regular information to the latter about Indian grievances and demands.

Dwarka Nath Tagore - one of its very active members.

BENGAL BRITISH INDIAN SOCIETY (1843) l

Purpose: to promote and protect general public interests.

l

Founded on the advice of George Thomas, secretary of British Indian Society.

l

Dwarka Nath Tagore - mainly instrumental in founding this organization.

198 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

BRITISH INDIA ASSOCIATION (1851) l

Resulted from the merger of Land holder’s Society and Bengal British Indian Society.

l

Branches in other provinces.

l

Demands:

l

l

Had an all India outlook.

Aristocratic in composition. r

Separation of Legislature from the Executive.

r

Increase in govt. grant from education and holding of Civil Services Exams in India.

r

l

inclusion of Indian in Legislative Council.

In 1869 S. N. Banerjee sought the intervention of the association over his disqualification from joining the Indian Civil Service.

l Its

Madras branch seceded from it on the ground that it looked after the interests only of upper classes.

MADRAS NATIVE ASSOCIATION (1852) l Founder: l

Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty.

First Indian Political Organization in Madras Presidency.

BOMBAY ASSOCIATION (1852) l

First President: Naoroji Furdunji.



Scientific Society by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan.

l

l

l l

Dominated by wealthy and aristocratic elements, called “Prominent Persons” in those days. Were provincial or local in character. Worked for: r

Reform of administration.

r

Spread of education.

r Association r

administration.

of

Indians

with

Putting forward Indian demands to the British Parliament.

AFTER 1858 (POST-1857 REVOLT)  

Witnessed more discontent amongst educated Indians against British Indian administration. Discontent gradually found expression in political activity.

EAST INDIA ASSOCIATION (1866) l

Established in LONDON by Dadabhai Naoroji.

l

Aim:

l

l

Other leaders: Pheroz Shah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, Man Mohan Ghosh. t t

To discuss the Indian question.

To influence British Public to promote Indian Welfare.

Later, branches in prominent Indian cities.

r

Born in 1825.

r

India’s First Economic Thinker.

r

First Political Organization in Bombay Presidency.

Common Features of all these Associations l

Dadabhai Naoroji: Known as the Grand Old Man of India.

r

Put forward the idea that the ‘basic cause of India’s poverty lay in the British exploitation of India and the drain of its wealth’.

r

Thrice elected President of Indian National Congress.

NATIONAL INDIAN ASSOCIATION l London

l Founder:

Mary Carpenter, biographer of Ram Mohan Roy.

POONA SARVAJANIK SABHA (1870) l l

By Justice Ranade, G V Joshi and S H Chipulankar. Brought out a journal from 1878.

INDIAN LEAGUE (1875)

l

Under Sisir Kr. Ghosh.

l

Founders: M. Viraraghava Chari, Subramania Iyer, P Anand Charlu.

MADRAS MAHAJAN SABHA (1884) G.

BOMBAY PRESIDENCY ASSOCIATION (1885) l

By Pheroze Shah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, and Kashi Nath Telang. Freedom Struggle 1 (1885 - 1916)

199

BIRTH OF INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

INDIAN ASSOCIATION OF CALCUTTA (JULY 1876) l Most l

l l

l

l l

important of nationalist organizations.

pre-Congress

Founded by younger nationalists of Bengal.

Led by Surendranath Banerjee and Anand Mohan Bose.

Surendranath Banerjee said that this association was based on conception of united India derived from the inspiration of Mazzini, the main architect of “Italian Unification”.





Aim: Creation of strong public opinion in the country on political questions and the unification of the Indian people on a common political programme.

Initially name: Indian National Union.

Established in 1885 at the initiative of Allan Octavian Hume (of Scotland), a retired English Civil Servant.

Fixed a Low Membership Fee (Rs 5 Per Annum) for the poorer classes to attract large numbers of people. First Major Issue for Agitation was the reform of Civil Service Regulations and the raising of the age limit.

l Agitations: r Against r

r r l

the Arms Act Vernacular Press Act.

and

the

For protection of the tenants from oppression by the zamindars.

During 1883-85, organized popular demonstrations to get the Rent Bill changed in favour of tenants.

For better conditions of work for the Workers in the English owned tea plantations.

Branches: in the towns and villages of Bengal and also in many towns outside Bengal.

l Sponsored two all-India National Conferences r r

at Calcutta in December 1883 and 1885.

First All India Political Organization which provided a model to the Indian National Congress. It merged with INC in 1886.

200 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Allan Octavian Hume

THEORY OF ORIGIN Safety Valve Theory 

According to this, the Congress was deliberately created by British Viceroy acting through a British ex-civilian to act as a ‘safety valve’ against popular and violent revolution.



Genesis of this theory: r r



Hume’s plea to officials for concessions to educated Indians to stare off mass violence.

Accepter of this theory: r

r



Statement of W.C. Banerjee in 1898 that Hume was acting under the direct advice of Lord Dufferin, Viceroy of India.

Lala Lajpat Rai, in his ‘Young India’ published in 1916, attacked the Moderates in the Congress by using this theory. He said, ‘The Congress was a product of Lord Dufferin’s brain’.

Influence of Hume in official circles exaggerated.

r Hume’s r

r r

r

intention needlessly suspected as he had a genuine human sympathy for India.

Hume helped in guiding, shaping, coordinating and recording Congress’s activities from 1885 to 1906 as General Secretary of Congress. Congress formation was not resulted from initiative of an individual.

 During 

‘No Indian could have started the Indian National Congress….. If the founder of Congress had not been a great Englishman and a distinguished ex-official, such was the distrust of political agitation in those days that the authorities would have at once found some way or the

1880s, ideas of national organization were much in the air.

During last 10 days of 1885, as many as 5 conferences of different associations held in different parts of India: r

Madras Mahajan Sabha: 2 nd Annual Conference (December 22 to 24).

r

Conference by Eurasians at Jabalpur.

r r





r



Indian Association: Second Conference at Calcutta. Conference by Prayag Central Hindu Samaj at Allahabad.

Indian National Congress session in Bombay.

Politically conscious Indian, discontented with foreign rule and its policies of exploitation, wanted to set up an all India political organization. Existing organizations: r

Were narrow in scope and functioning

r

Their membership and leadership confined to a single city or province.

r

Gopal Krishna Gokhle’s remark on reason for Hume’s leadership:

Early Congress leaders hoped to use Hume as a ‘lightning conductor’.

Need for an All India Body

Rajni Palm Dutt in ‘India Today’: The Congress had two strands - one of co-operation with imperialism against the ‘menace’ of the mass movements, and the other of leadership of masses in the national struggle.

Analysis of this theory: r

other of suppressing the movement.’

Dealt mostly with local questions

Indian National Congress (INC): r

r

was a response to the existing political and socio-economic conditions. was inspired by idealism and loftiness of nationalist vision.

FIRST SESSION OF CONGRESS 

President: W.C. Banerjee.



Meeting place: Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College Bombay.



No. of delegates: 72

Freedom Struggle 1 (1885 - 1916)

201



Date: December 28, 1885 monday.

Second Session: Calcutta in 1886



Later decided upon Poona because it was centrally located and Poona Sarvajanik Sabha expressed readiness to make arrangements.







Initially Hume and his group considered Calcutta as place for conference.

Venue shifted to Bombay. Reason: outbreak of Cholera in Poona.



By 1886 Congress became the “Whole Country’s Congress”



436 delegates-elected by different local organization and bodies.

CONGRESS SOCIAL COMPOSITION l

A middle class organization.

l

2 teachers at first session and 50 teachers at Fourth session.

l

Masses and landed class were absent.

l



AIMS of Congress r Promotion r

of friendly relations between nationalist political Workers from different parts of the country.

Development and consolidation of the feeling of national unity irrespective of caste, religion, or province.

r Formulation

 



r

of popular demands and their representation before the Government. Training and organization of public opinion in the country.

First session adopted NINE Resolutions. Before dispersing, two more decisions: r r

Ratification of resolutions passed at the Congress session by political associations throughout the country.

Next Congress session to meet at Calcutta on December 28, 1886.

Limitation: Question of social reforms not touched upon.

202 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Here, decision to hold annual meet in different parts taken up.

l l

l

Represented a platform of all the races, castes, creeds, professions, trades and occupations, but disparity in representation. Among classes: educated middle class largest. Among Castes: Brahmins larger in number

Kadambini Ganguli, First Woman Graduate of Calcutta University, attended Congress Session in 1890.

Social Class

Congress Session

Bombay

Calcutta

Madras

Allahabad

Lawyers

39

166

206

435

Journalists

14

40

43

73

Doctors

01

16

08

42

Others

18

214

350

698

Total

72

436

607

1248

THE MODERATE CONGRESS 

Phase: First 20 years of history of the Congress (1885 to 1905).



Meeting - a great social occasion as well as a political assembly.



Congress Meeting-at the end of each year for THREE days.



Congress Resolutions: Three broad types of grievances

r

r

r Political r

Administrative and

r Economic

Political Demand l

Reform of Supreme and Local Legislative Councils. r

r

r

To give them greater powers (of budget discussion and interpellation for instance). to make them representative by including some members elected by local bodies, chambers of commerce, universities etc.

It was dominant in the period 188592.

r Result:

Indian Councils Act (1892)

r Nationalists

l

totally dissatisfied, they demanded a larger share and wider powers for Indians. Particular demand-Indian control over the public purse; and raised the slogan that had become the national cry of the American people during their War of Independence ‘No Taxation without Representation’.

‘Swarajya’ or self government r r

within the British Empire on the model of self governing colonies like Australia and Canada Demand from Congress platform - by Gokhle in 1905 at Benaras and by D. B. Naoroji in 1906 at Calcutta.

Administrative Demand l Indianisation

of services through simultaneous ICS examinations in England and India - a demand raised not only to satisfy the tiny elite but connected with much broader themes:

A blow against racism.

Would reduce the drain of wealth since much of the fat salaries and pensions enjoyed by white officials were being remitted to England.

r To

make administration responsive to Indian needs.

more

l

Separation of judiciary from executive.

l

Repeal of the Arms Act.

l l l l l

Extension of trial by juries.

Higher Jobs in the army for Indians.

Raising of an Indian Volunteer force. Urged for Welfare activities.

Spread of primary education.

l Facilities

education.

for

technical

and

higher

Economic Demands l

An enquiry into India’s growing poverty and famines.

l

An end to unfair tariffs and excise duties.

l

Cuts in Home Charges and military expenditure.

l

Abolition of salt tax.

l

Extension of permanent settlement.

l

Reduction of land revenue.

l Direct

government industries.

aid

to

modern

Other Demands r r

r r

Development of agricultural banks to save the peasants from the clutches of the money lender.

Large scale government programme of extension of irrigation for development of agriculture and to save the country from famines. Extension of medical and health facilities. Improvement of the Police system.

Freedom Struggle 1 (1885 - 1916)

203

l

Better treatment abroad.



Horrors of indentured labour in Assam tea gardens in the late 1880s.

l

of

Indians

coolies

Condemned forest laws by passing resolution every year between 1891 and 1895. r

r

r

Indian Association campaign against it.

launched

a

Its assistant secretary Dwarka Nath Ganguli went there to bring back information about the slave labour conditions. The Congress considering it a local issue, refused to take this up.

Methods and Style of Functioning l

Constitutional agitation within the four walls of the law.

l

Through petitions, speeches, meetings and resolutions, demands presented to the authorities.

l



 

specific policies balanced by general admiration. The second meant little time left over for the political activity. Above all, their highly elitist lifestyle often led to feelings of mingled contempt and fear of the ‘lower orders’ and a dependence on the British for law and order which must have been strengthened by the revivalist frenzies and communal riots of 1890.’

Step by Step progress.

Political methods were moderates, so subject of criticism.

Extremists described their politics as ‘mendicancy’ and meetings as three days ‘tamasha’ (show). Reasons for moderation: r

Historian Bipin Chandra: ‘Guided by the then existing circumstances which was not yet ripe to pose a direct challenge to British rulers.’

r

Historian Sumit Sarkar: ‘nature and social composition of the early congress leaders and participants’ leaders tended to be Anglicized in their personal life and highly successful men in their professions. The first bred ambivalent attitudes towards Englishmen, with criticism of

204 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Basic Objectives l

To lay the foundation of a secular and democratic national movement.

l

To form an all India leadership group.

l l

To politicize and politically educate the people. To develop and propagate an anti colonial nationalist ideology.

Phase of Moderate Politics 

Three broad phases: according to its activities and organization. r 1885-92 r 1892-99

r 1899-1905

First Phase: 1885-92 

Dominated by Hume, the sole full time activist.



Hume made a determined effort to win Muslim support in 1887-88 utilizing the personal contacts of Badruddin Tyabji and evolving a formula at 1887 session by which a resolution would be rejected if it was opposed by the bulk of any community.





Mainly concerned with council reform.

Another attempt at Hume’s initiative to rally peasant support in 1887 through TWO popular pamphlets translated into not less than 12 regional languages.



Viraghva Chari’s ‘Tamil Catechism’ attacked existing legislative councils as sham.



No special attempt after 1887-88 to woo Muslim opinion.

Attitude of the Government

 Such 



efforts: Short lived particularly successful.

and

not

Peasant strategy abandoned as it was found to have aroused intense official suspicion and hostility.

Second Phase: 1892-99 

Doldrums situations in Congress with Hume’s departure for England in 1892.



Shift in emphasis almost entirely to campaigning in England through the British Committee of the Congress, founded in 1889, by Wedder-burn, A O Hume and Dada Bhai Naoroji with its journal ‘India’ (1890).





No effective leadership emerged.

Surendra Nath’s opposition in 1898 to certain pro-zamindar modifications of the ‘Bengal Tenancy Act 1885’.

Third Phase: 1899-1905  

 



Pheroz Shah Mehta (founded ‘Bombay Chronicle’ in 1913) established his predominance during this period. Main focus: repeated famines and the cotton excise issue. Council reform hardly between 1892 and 1904.

figured

much

Nationalist Economic Theory expounded on the floor of the Imperial Legislative Council for the first time in 1901 by Gopal Krishna Gokhle on his speech on the budget. Punjab Land Alienation Act (1901) for restricting transfers outside ‘agricultural tribes’ compelled congress rethinking on thorny issue of land relations.

 

R.C. Dutt at 1899 Lucknow session under his Presidentship, passed a resolution demanding both permanent fixation revenue in raiyyatwari areas and a ceiling on zamindari rent. From 1887 onwards open criticism and condemnation of INC by British officials from Dufferin downwards. Branded nationalist leaders as ‘disloyal babus’, ‘seditious Brahmins’, and ‘violent villains’.

 Two

Congress Pamphlets: ‘A Tamil Congress Catechism’ and ‘A Conversation between Maulvi farrukhuddin and Ram Baksh of Kambhktapur’ encouraged this hostility.



Officials pushed the ‘divide and rule’ policy.



Lord Dufferin challenged the very national character of the congress and dubbed it as representing only a ‘microscopic minority’ and its demands as a ‘big jump into the unknown’.



 

They encouraged reactionary elements like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and Raja Shiv Prasad of Benaras and other pro-British individuals to organize the United Indian Patriotic Association as an anti Congress movement.

In 1890, Government employees were forbidden from participating in its deliberation or attending its meetings.

In 1900, Lord Curzon announced to the Secretary of the State that the Congress was ‘tottering to its fall’ and one of his great ambitious in India was ‘to assist it to a peaceful demise’.

Evaluation of Moderate Congress 

Weaknesses: r

Narrow social base: Early Congress movement was away from the Indian masses. Freedom Struggle 1 (1885 - 1916)

205

r

 

r

Did not achieve much success through their constitutional method of agitations.



Showed loyalty to the crown.

Successes: Early nationalists succeeded in -

Awakening the consciousness of ‘one common nation’ among the people.

r

Popularizing the idea of democracy and nationalism.

r

r

r

r r



Established the political truth that India must be ruled in the interests of Indians.



Cause of Extremism Colonial nature of British rule: De-industrialization industries.

r

Land revenue policies.

r r r

Drain of wealth.

of

handicrafts

Commercialization of agriculture, and Growth of modern industries.

r Impact: r

r

Arrest of Tilak and other newspaper editors in 1897.

Deportation of Natu Brothers in 1897 without any trial.

Social and Cultural:

and technical under state of negligence.

education

Higher education, being subject of official suspicions, under tighter control through the Universities Act (1904).

Style of functioning of the Moderate Congress. r

Moderates’ ‘mendicant’ technique of appealing felt to be both futile and dishonorable.

r Being

Phase: 1905-1917 r

Indian Official Secrets Act (1904), which restricted the freedom of the Press.

r

THE EXTREMISTS CONGRESS



r

Resentment over some repressive policies, like 1898 Law, which made the act of exciting ‘feelings of disaffection’ towards the foreign government an offence.

r Primary

Exposing the evils of British rule and its imperialist character.

Evolving a common political and economic programme.

Complete disappointment over Indian Council Act, 1892.

r

Training people in the art of political work. Propagating modern outlook.

r

r

But, early national movement was not a ‘complete fiasco’. r

Political:

rural indebtedness, unemployment, poverty and famines.

Famines of 1896-1900 took a toll of over 90 lakhs people.

206 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India





a movement of Englisheducated elite alienated from the common people.

Role of Leaders

Aurobindo Ghosh (then in Baroda) r

r

r r

Brought FIRST systematic critique of Moderate politics in 1893-94 in a series of articles entitled ‘New Lamps for Old’ in Indu Prakash. Rejected slow constitutional progress

Urged the establishment of a link between the bourgeois and the proletariat. ‘Proletariat’ to him - the common people of town and country in general.

r

Trying to organize secret societies by the turn of the century.

r Sent



Jatindranath Banerjee and Barindra Kumar Ghosh to Bengal as emissaries.

Aswini Kumar Dutt [in Bengal] r r

A Barisal school teacher.

Disillusioned with the Congress.





r Described r



r

r

Built up base of Swadeshi Movement through social work.

r

Attacked Congress mendicancy.

Mass contact through melas, jatras and use of the mother tongue in both education and political work.

r r

r 

r

r r

Use of religious orthodoxy as a method of mass contact. Example: Alignment against reformers on Age of Consent Bill (1891), Ganapati Festival (1893). Development of a patriotic cumhistorical cult as central symbol of nationalism. Example Shivaji Festival (1896). No revenue campaign in 1896-97

FIRST USE of boycott movement by Tilak in Cotton Excise issue of 1896.

Did not attend any Congress meeting between 1893 and 1900. Bengal: Surendra Nath and his ‘The Bengalee’ versus Motilal Ghosh and ‘The Amrit Bazar Patrika’. Lahore: three groups within the Lahore Brahma Samaj; split within the Aryas; and a conflict between Lala Har Kishan Lal and Lala Lajpat Rai.

Madras: Triangular conflict between ‘Mylapore Clique’ (V Bhashyam Iyengar, S. Subramanian Iyer, V.krishnaswami Iyer), ‘Egmore rivals’ (C.Sankaran Nair, Kasturi Ranga Iyengar) and ‘mofussil outs’ (T. Prakasham Krishna Raw, Chidambaram Pillai).

Poona - Tilak versus ‘AgarkarGokhle’ combine for control of Deccan Educational society.

Growth of education and unemployment: r Educated

Indians became best propagators and followers of militant nationalism because they were -

Bal Gangadhar Tilak r

Advocated technical education and industrial self-help in place of annual festival of English educated elite.

Factionalism in Congress

r

Contribution to patriotism through poems and short stories describing beauty of Bengal countryside and its people’s life. Call for ‘Atmasakti’ (self-reliance) through swadeshi enterprise and national education.

r

r

Rabindranath Nath Tagore

r



Amravati Session of Congress (1897) as ‘three-day tamasha’.

Lajpat Rai

t

t



Low paid or unemployed.

Educated in modern thought and politics, so influenced by ideas of democracy, nationalism and radicalism.

International influences: r

Rise of Modern Japan after 1868.

r

Revolutionary movements in Ireland, Russia, Egypt, Turkey and China.

r

Defeat of the Italian army by the Ethiopians in 1896 and of Russia by Japan in 1905.

Freedom Struggle 1 (1885 - 1916)

207

r 

r

Boer war in South Africa.

All this convinced the need of a spirit of patriotism and self-sacrifice.

Partition of Bengal: r

r

Added fuel to fire.

Partition considered as a deliberate attempt to divide the Bengalis and weaken nationalism in Bengal and a big blow to growth of Bengali language and culture.



Shivaji Festival - first half in 15 April 1896



With the foundation of Deccan Sabha on Nov 4, 1896, the division between the two in Mahrashtra was complete. But it was not so all over India.





Three Groups of Extremists  Maharashtra   

Group-headed Gangadhar Tilak.

by

Bal

Bengal group represented by Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh. Punjab Group-led by Lala Lajpat Rai.

Extremists went for radical journalism. ‘Panjabee’: Lala Laj Pat Rai

‘Maratha’ and ‘Kesari’: B G Tilak

‘Bande Mataram’: Aurobindo Ghosh



 



Resented any interference by an alien government into the domestic and private life of people. Quarreled with reformers over Age of Consent Bill in 1891.

Threw a challenge to National Social Conference (under the influence of moderates) in 1895 by not allowing it to hold its session in Congress pavilion in Poona.

208 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

In 1897 Bipin Chandra Pal was in the camp of Moderates when he wrote, “I am loyal to the British Government because with me loyalty to British Government is identical with loyalty to my own people and my own country; because believe that God has placed this government over us for our salvation.” But In 1902 he wrote, “The Congress here and its British committee in London are both begging institutions.”

Bengal Extremists 



Bal Gangadhar Tilak

In 1895, Poona Sarvajanik Sabha was captured by Extremists from Moderates





Greatly influenced by ideas of Bankim Chandra, a liberal conservative like Edmund Burke, wanted no break with the past.

Opposed to precipitate reforms imposed from above; reforms should wait on moral and religious regeneration which should be based on fundamental of religion criticized Moderates. Aurobindo raised patriotism pedestal of mother worship.

to

the

“I know my country as my mother. I adore her. I worship her.”

Aurobindo attracted by the teachings of Dayanand Saraswati

l Bankim

Chandra, Dayananda and Vivekananda prepared the ideological ground on the basis of which Extremists drew up their political programme.

Moderates and Extremists: An Analysis Differences are both in the means used and in the ends proposed. Moderates

Extremists

Badruddin Tyabji (1887) Madras

Sacrifice

and

orderly Boycott

progress believe

in

co-

operation, and efforts to win over the British.

George Yule (1888) Allahabad

Passive resistance

William Wedderburn (1889) Bombay

Movement

Pheroj shah Mehta (1890) Calcutta

accompanying masses Use of vernaculars and

WC Banerjee (1892) Allahabad

popular customs like

D.B. Naoroji (1893) Lahore

Extremists

mood

in

general was to combine Evocation

of

Hindu

revivalists’ moods.

Adopted it later in Advocated for it from the very beginning.

model

on of

Colonies Australia

C. Sankaran Nair (1897) Amravati

complete

Ramesh Chunder Dutt (1899) Lucknow N.G. Chandavarkar (1900) Lahore Dinshaw Edulji Wacha (1901) Calcutta

independence.

S.N. Banerjee (1902) Ahmadabad

British As Aurobindo said the that Swaraj should not British be an importation of

Lal Mohan Ghosh (1903) Madras

self-government Empire

meant

Surendranath Banerjee (1895) Poona

Anand Mohan Bose (1898) Madras

Views on Swaraj

1905 Swaraj meant It

Alfred Webb (1894) Madras Rahimutallah M Sayani (1896) Calcutta

religion into politics

within

P. Anand Charlu (1891) Nagpur

utilization of traditional, Mela etc.

1905

PRESIDENTS

D.B. Naoroji (1886) Calcutta

C o n s t i t u t i o n a l Self help slow

CONGRESS W.C. Banerjee (1885) Bombay

Means or Method of Agitation agitation

EARLY

like

and

European variety.

Gopal Krishna Gokhle (1905) Benaras First woman President: Annie Besant

Canada. On Boycott View it as a ‘last View it as a ‘starting desperate effort’

Henry Cotton (1904) Bombay

point’

for

the

formulation of a whole range of new methods

First Indian woman President: Sarojini Naidu During 1885-1933, the presidency had a term of 1 year only.

Freedom Struggle 1 (1885 - 1916)

209

LORD CURZON & NATIONALISTS  Real

confrontation between Curzon and Nationalists came through three successive measures of British: r

r 

r

Changes in Calcutta Corporation in 1899. Universities Act of 1904.



Size of Bengal Presidency: Bengal (East and West), Bihar, Orissa and Assam.



In 1874: Assam separated from Bengal



Partition of Bengal (1905).

r

Reduced the number of elected Indian members, a move directly connected with the interests of Calcutta European business community.

person responsible for changes was Alexander Mackenzie, then Lt. Governor of Bengal, who happened to be the brother of Burn Company partner who was also the representative in Legislative Council of the Bengal Chamber of Commerce.

Universities Act of 1904: r

Universities reform formulated at a secret and purely WHITE Conference at Shimla in September 1901.

r Worked

r

r

r r

out by a Universities Commission whose sole Indian member was Gurdas Banerjee, strongly disagreed with the recommendations. Cut down the elected senate members.

Transferred the power of ultimate decision in matters of college affiliation and school recognition to government officials. Tried to fix minimum college fees. Total expenditure on education:

t

t

Rs 20.46 million in 1903-04.

Rs 24.49 million in 1905-06 : 2.5% of total budget.

210 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Proposals to reduce it going back to 1860s. r Became

Province.

r Added

Changes in Calcutta Corporation in 1899:

r Other



PARTITION OF BENGAL 1905

r







Chief

Commissioner’s

to it the pre-dominantly Bengali speaking area of Sylhet.

In 1897: on Assam Chief Commissioner William Ward’s proposal Chittagong division, Dacca and Mymen Singh (all in South Lushai Hill tracks) were added to Assam.

Person’s involved: r

Lord Curzon - Viceroy of India.

r

H.H. Risley - Home secretary.

r 

a

Andrew Frasor - Lt. Governor of Bengal.

initially it was a transfer plan

Two grounds offered by H.H. Risley in support of transfer plan: r r

Relief of Bengal.

Improvement of Assam.

Between December 1903 and formal announcement of 19 July 1905, a transfer plan was transformed into a full scale Partition.

Motive 



Apologists: ‘administrative convenience’

Criticism: administrative convenience was not something impartial but often connected with the convenience of British officials and British businessmen.

Evidence: Risley argued regarding Assam’s expansion - to give to British officers a wider and more interesting field of work, and provide a maritime outlet in









order to develop industries in tea, oil and coal (all dominated by Whites)

r r

Japanese victory over Russia in 1904-5.

This finds support in Curzon’s speech at Dacca in Feb 1905 offering East Bengal Muslims the prospect of ‘unity which they have not enjoyed since the days of old Musalman viceroys and kings’.

r

Popular revolution against autocracy of Tsar in Russia.

Contemporary and later nationalists: blame the “divide and rule” policy of British.

Historian Sumit Sarkar: real political motive was a division among predominantly Hindu Politicians of West and East Bengal.

Evidence: H.H. Risley two notes dated 7 Feb and 6 Dec 1904.

r

Till July 1905 

 





Dispatch to Home authorities in London for sanction on February 2, 1905. On July 19, 1905-Government announcement to form a separate province comprising Chittagong, Dacca, Rajshahi divisions, Hill Tippera (Tripura), Malda and Assam.

On October 16, 1905-Province came into existence. Breaking up Bengal and its 41.5 million Bengali speaking people.

Miscalculation of the Government 



British underestimated the sense of unity among the Bengalis and the contribution they made in inspiring self-confidence and pride among their countrymen living in different parts. Enthusiasm of nationalists enhanced with following international developments:

Partition plan was opposed through conventional ‘moderate’ methods: r

Press campaigns.

r

Big conferences at the Calcutta Town Hall in March 1905 and Jan 1905.

r

“Bengal United is power…. One of our main objects is to split up and thereby weaken a solid body of opponents to our rule”.

Viceroy wrote his minute on Territorial Redistribution on June 1, 1903.

Chinese boycott of American goods in protest against immigration laws.

SWADESHI MOVEMENT IN BENGAL: 1905-08

r

Partition 

British reverses in the Boer War.

Numerous meetings and petitions.

Particularly in Dacca and Mymensingh districts.



Total failure of such techniques.



First form: Boycott of British goods.

New Forms r r 

Suggested by Krishna Kumar Mitra’s weekly ‘Sanjivani’ on July 13, 1905. Accepted by leaders like S.N. Banerjee after considerable hesitation at the Town Hall meeting of August 7, 1905.

Observance of ‘Raksha-bandhan’ as a symbol of brotherhood on 16 October - an appeal by Rabindra Nath Tagore.

 Observance

of ‘arandhan’ (keeping of hearth unlit at all homes) as a sign of mourning on 16 October – a call by Ramenda Sundar Trivedi.

British Crackdown r

Measures like Carlyle circular (published on October 22, 1905) threatening withdrawal of grants, scholarship and affiliation from nationalist dominated institutions. Freedom Struggle 1 (1885 - 1916)

211



r

Result: Boycott of official educational institutions; Organization of national schools received a great fillip from donation of 1 lakh rupees by Subodh Mullick on November 9, 1905. Further measures of repression:

t

Posting of Gurkhas in Barisal.

t Lathi

charge smashing up provincial conference in Barisal in April 1906. President of Barisal Conference was Abdul Rasul.

Internal Differences within Movement in Bengal 

 

To some, boycott became the starting point for the formulation of a whole range of new methods and abrogation of partition. No more than ‘the pettiest and narrowest of all political objects’- said Aurobindo in April 1907.

r

for constructive work in village through revival of traditional Hindu Samaj. Satish Chandra Mukherji’s Dawn and his Dawn Society.

(ii) Political Extremism r Slow

r

development of selfstrengthening (‘Atmasakti’ as Rabindra Nath called) had little appeal to excited youth of Bengal. Inspirer

t

Bipin Pal: ‘New India’

t

Brahmo Bandhab Upadhyaya : ‘Sandhya’.

t



t

Moderate leaders managed to call off the educational boycott by 16 Nov 1905.

Three Major trends

(i) Constructive ‘Swadeshi’ r



r

Rejection of futile and self-demeaning ‘mendicant’ politics in favour of selfhelp through swadeshi industries, national schools.

t

Attempt at village improvement and organization.

Evidence

r

r r

Business ventures of Prafulla Chandra Roy or Nilratan Sircar. Aswini Kumar Dutt’s Swadesh Bandav Samiti in Barisal (Bakarganj) - settled 523 village disputes.

Rabindra Nath in his ‘Swadesh Samaj’ address (1904) sketched out a blue print

212 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r

Ghosh:

‘Bande

‘Yugantar’ brought out by a group associated with Barindra K.Ghosh.

Aurobindo: t

To others, like S.N. Banerjee, boycott a last desperate effort to get partition revoked.

Aurobindo Mataram’.

In a series of articles in Bande Mataram in April 1907, later reprinted as ‘Doctrine of Passive Resistance’ ridiculed the ideal of ‘peaceful ashrams and swadeshism and self-help as inadequate and visualized a programme of organized and relentless boycott of goods officialized education, justice and executive administration. He also looked forward to civildisobedience of unjust laws, a ‘social boycott’ of loyalists, and recourse to armed struggle if British repression went beyond the limits of endurance.

Sandhya of November 21, 1906 had a similar perspective:

“If…..the chowkidar, the constable, the deputy and the munsif and the clerk, not to speak of sepoy, all resign their respective functions,

feringhea rule in the country may come to an end in a moment.” r



Aurobindo in his April 1907 articles ruled out - ‘no rent or no tax calls’, as it was going against zamindar community in Bengal which was assumed to be basically patriotic.

r

In practice, Bengal Extremism wasted a lot of energies in purely verbal or literary violence and in fighting over the Congress.

‘Yugantar’ 3 Mar, 26 Aug 1907: ‘O Patriots! Without blood will the country awake?’

(iii) Controversy over cultural ideals between modernistic and Hindu-revival trends. Swadeshi mood:

r

r

r r



r

r

r

Rabindra Nath Tagore:

Combined politics with religion, use it as morale booster for activists and a principal instrument of mass-contact. S.N. Banerjee: First to use method of Swadeshi vows in temples. National education plans had strong revivalist content. Boycott enforced though traditional caste sanctions.

In May 1906, Shivaji Utsav with imageworship began.

Communicator of Swadeshi: Bande Mataram, Sandhya, Yugantar. Brahmo edited journals like Sanjivani or Prabasi. Shibnath Shastri in Prabasi – ‘Patriotism which glorifies our past

Hemchandra Kanungo, a revolutionary terrorist-denounced religiosity. t

t

Initially swayed by revivalism.

In mid 1907, under the impact of communal riots, broke away from this.

t Expressed

tensions and ambiguities of the time through two of his novel’s Gora (1907-9) and Ghare-Baire (1914).

PRINCIPAL COMPONENTS OF 1905-08 MOVEMENT l

Boycott and Swadeshi

l

Labour unions

l

Mass contact methods.

l

Illustrate the limits of an intelligentsia movement with broadly mass aspirations but without yet real mass support.

l

National education

l Samitis

BOYCOTT and SWADESHI

l

Initial success: Fall in percentage in import items. r

22% in cotton piece goods

r

11% in Salt

r

Other mood: critical of obscurantism and revivalist trend.

r

Krishna Kr. Mitra’s Anti Circular Society boycotted Shivaji Utsav.

By 1907, mass movement perspective was being challenged from within its own ranks by calls for elite-action terrorism.

r Evidence:

r

r r

Analysis: r



as ideal and beyond improvement and which rejects the needs for further progress is a disease.’

r l

r

44% in cotton twist and yarn 55% in Cigrates

68% in boots and shoes.

District merchants of Saha community became target of social boycott. Freedom Struggle 1 (1885 - 1916)

213

l

Revival in Handloom, silk-weaving and some other traditional artisan crafts.

l

Jogendra Chandra Ghosh set up an Association in March 1904 to raise funds for sending students abroad, especially Japan.

l

l

Satish Chandra Mukherjee in 1900 quoted Engels to prove the horrors of industrial revolution and wanted big factories only where absolutely indispensable, preferring small scale ‘individual family organization’ run on a caste basis.

Some ventures in porcelain Ex: Calcutta Pottery Works (1906).

l

Patrons and entrepreneurs: Few big zamindars (like Manindra Nandi of Cassimbazar); Mainly professional intelligentsia.

l Some

l

l

ventures in soap, cigarettes, chrome tanning.

Swadeshi pamphleteer, Kalisankar Sukul in 1906.

Swadeshi thus could never seriously threaten the British stronghold over the crucial sectors of Bengal economy.

National Education l

Plea for more technical training.

l

Tagore’s Santiniketan and Satish Mukherji’s Dawn society planned to combine traditional and modern education.

l

l

Advocacy of vernacular medium, more powerfully by R.N. Tagore.

Failed to attract the bulk of student community. Reason: Due to negligible job prospects.

214 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r

Bengal National College: planned initially as a parallel university under National Council of Education set up in March 1906, but failed to get any colleges affiliated to it. Its principal: Aurobindo. A dozen national schools in West Bengal and Bihar and a considerably larger number in East Bengal.

r But

r

matches,

Crucial limiting factor: lack of capital.

What survived after a couple of years:

r

Banga Laxmi Cotton Mills launched in August 1906 with equipment bought from an existing Serampore plant.

l

l

l

Calcutta based National Council largely ignored such district or village schools in East Bengal spending only Rs 12000 on them out of a total budget of Rs 125000 in 1908. Later, in East Bengal out of these schools, some became virtually recruiting centres for revolutionaries, of which Sonarang National School near Dacca was the most prominent.

Labour Unrest l l

Strikes in white-controlled enterprises. Reasons: rising prices and racial insults. Pioneer labour leaders: r

Aswini Kumar Banerjee

r

‘Athanasius’ Apurba Kr, Ghosh

r

l l

r

Prabhat Kusum Roy Choudhari Prematosh Bose

In September 1905: walkout of 247 clerks of Burn Company in Howrah in protest against a new work-regulation. In October 1905: Tram strike in Calcutta settled through the efforts of Banerjee and Ghosh

l Strikes l

in workshops.

Jute

mills

and

railway

First Real Labour Union: Printers Union, set up on October 21, 1905.

l

Railway men’s union in July 1906

l l l

Set up by clerks

r

Meetings at Asansol, Jamalpur and Raniganj.

To draw in the coolies

Jute strikes frequent between 1905 and 1908 – affecting at various times 18 out of 37 mills. Indian Mill hands Union at Budge-budge in Aug 1906 by A.K. Banerjee Inspirer Journals: r r

Pioneer: Anglo Indian journal Nabasakti: Extremist journal

l

In Bengal: no real political strikes unlike in Bombay during Tilak’s arrest in 1908

l

Swadeshi contacts developed only with clerks or at best Bengali Jute workers

l

l

Nationalist interest in labour slumped totally after 1908 and would not be renewed before 1919-1921. Activities till 1908’s Summer: r Physical r

r

r

l l

members.

and

moral

training

of

Social work during famines, epidemics or religious festivals.

l l

techniques

l

Five Principal Samitis banned in Jan 1909. r r

l

l l

Swadesh Bandhab Brati

8485 in East Bengal.

Bakarganj and Dacca topped the list with more than 2600 each.

A lot of variety in Samiti movement.

Calcutta based Anti Circular Society: r

Secular in character.

Only Samiti with important Muslim associates, like Liaquat Hussain, Abul Hussain, Dedar Bux, and Abdul Gafur.

Barisal Swadesh Bandhab: r

Acquire a mass base.

r

Its leader Aswini Kr. Dutt.

r

175 village branches in 1909.

Dacca Anushilan r

r

Founded by Pulin Das.

concentrated on secret training of cadres.

Up to 1908, efforts at mass contact formed the staple of activities of most of the Samitis. Methods of mass contact: r

Patriotic songs and plays.

r

Organization of festivals.

r Use

r

of

Apart from Calcutta - 19 samitis in 1907.

r

r

Organizing crafts, schools, arbitration courts and village societies. the passive resistance.

Sadhana

r

Preaching swadeshi message.

r Implementing

r

Suhrid

l Volunteers:

Plantation and mine labour unaffected.

Samitis or National Volunteer Movement l

Dacca Anushilan

r

r r

r

l

r

of folk media like jatras (particularly those of Mukund Das in Bakarganj). Cultivation of traditionalist religious idiom.

Hinduism was sought to be the principal bridge to the masses.

During 1908-09: first round of repression caused certain samitis (like Swadesh Bandav) disappearance or made them a terroristic society. Freedom Struggle 1 (1885 - 1916)

215

r

EXTREMISM IN OTHER PROVINCES: 1905-08 Bihar, Orissa and Assam r

Counter Elite movements developed with the spread of education.

r Educated r

Bengali due to their dominant position in services becoming unpopular.

t

r

r

r

r

r

But had some sympathy for ‘non political’ swadeshi enterprise. Example: Madhu Sudan Das ‘Utkal Union Conference’

No much impact.

Leaders like Madan Mohan Malviya or Moti Lal Nehru followed a policy of cooperation with provincial government to achieve some local gains. Nagri Resolution (1900)

t

Gave equal status to Hindi with Urdu in courts

t Government

grants Pracharini Sabha

to

Nagri

Another element which kept Malviya contented was the helpful official attitude towards proposals for Hindu University at Benaras. British sympathetic towards nonpolitical swadeshi and particularly to demands for protection of U.P. Sugar.

r British

invited Malviya and Chintamani to official sponsored Industrial Conference at Nainital in 1907.

216 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

serious attempt intelligentsia group to peasantry till about 1917.

Punjab

by any approach

Extremism: a powerful force only in Benaras t

Here lived big Marathi and Bengali communities.

t

Student recruits to Extremism like Sundar Lal.

t

Such trend kept them away from the radicalism associated with Bengal movement

United Provinces r

r No

Demand of separate provinces for Orissa and Bihar.

t

Tilak’s U.P. tour in Jan 1907 caused stir among students. But influential political leaders still away.

A revolutionary group emerged, under Sachindra Nath Sanyal, maintaining contacts with Calcutta through Mokhoda Charan Samadhyaya (editor of Sandhya after Brahmo Bandhab’s death)

r Constructive

swadeshi started in 1890s in the field of banking, insurance and education.

r Boycott r r

r r

of foreign cloth countervailing excise of 1895. Two groups

t t

after

Arya Samajists

Brahmo leaning group.

Arya Samajists:

t Combined t

constructive swadeshi with militant Hindu consciousness. Connected with the Congress.

Brahmo group

t t

Headed by Lala Har Kishan Lal Ran the ‘Tribune’ newspaper

Extremism between 1904 and 1907

t

t

Marked by factionalism.

Arya group of Lajpat and Hansraj quarreled with Har Kishan over

t

t

t

t

t

r

the management of National Bank and Insurance.

Punjab Bharat

Concentrating on constructive work rather than boycott.

seeking joint platforms with moderate congressmen as well as with a Muslim group headed by Muhammad Safi and Fazl-iHussain

Another Protest from 1903 by Siraj uddin Ahmad with his journal ‘Zamindar’ (the term in Punjab context meant peasant proprietor, not land-lord) Reason: a series of provocations from British.

t

Trial of Panjabee editor.

t

t

t

t

Down to late 1906, extremism was much milder than that of Bengal

t

t

t

Arya started ‘Panjabee’ (with its motto of self help at any cost) in Oct 1904 as a radical challenge to ‘Tribune’.

Situations changed for few months in 1907

t

t Lajpat

t r

r r

r

By early 1907, colonists (Hindu, Muslim, Sikh) protested.

Bari Doab comprises Amritsar, Gurudaspur and Lahore districts, inhabited mainly by Sikh peasantry. Increase rate: 25% or even 50%. land revenue Rawalpindi.

hike

also

Deportation of Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh.

t

t

Under provisions of Regulation III of 1818.

Ajit Singh was released after 6 months and later fled to Persia.

Ajit Singh

t

t r

in

Then Lt. Governor of Punjab: Denzel Ibbotson.

Uncle of Bhagat Singh.

Organized Extremist Anjuman-iMohibban-i-Watan in Lahore with its journal ‘Bharat-Mata’.

t Founded

Backlash: attacks on white in Lahore.

Chenab Colonies Bill-Oct 1906 - to tighten the bureaucratic control over the Chenab Canal Colony centered around Lyallpur.

Increase in canal water rate in Bari Doab in November 1906.

North Western state Railway strike in early 1907.

t

Prosecution of Panjabee for writing about racist outrages.

Proposals to tighten up Land Alienation Act: irritated Hindu commercial and professional groups.

t

Rai addressed two meetings of Chenab Colonists.

t

Indian Association (1907).

Patriot

In 1907 urged nonpayment of revenue and water rates. Later turned to terrorism.

Punjab Extremism died down quickly.

Reason: t

Government repressive policies

t

Deportation of Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh

t t

Ban on political meeting.

Government Concessions

Freedom Struggle 1 (1885 - 1916)

217

t

Viceroy vetoed Chenab Colonies Bill.

t

Release of deportees in Sept 1907.

t r

Madras r

Reductions in water rates.

t t

Ajit Singh and his associates like Sufi Amba Prasad from Moradabad and Urdu poet Lal Chand ‘Falak’.

Andhra delta region.

Tirunelvelli district in extreme south.

r

r

r

Factional Conflict.

‘Mylapore’ clique led by V. Krishna Swami Iyer Versus combined group of ‘Egmore’ politicians and ‘Mofussil outs’ led by G Subramanian Iyer. ‘Egmore’ controlled influential ‘Hindu’ newspaper of Madras.

‘Mofussil out’ leaders T. Prakasham and M. Krishna Rao started radical ‘Kistna Patrika’ in 1904 from Masulipatnam. Vande Mataram Movement: t In t t t

Andhra delta region Rajahmundry, Kakinada and Masulipatnam.

Tirunelvelli District  l l

Centered on Tuticorin port. Leaders: r r

Followed by a movement to start national schools.

218 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

G. Subramanian Iyer

V. O. Chidambaram Pillai

Developments r

r

r

In 1906, Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company started in Tuticorin to run steamers up to Colombo, backed by Rs 6 lacs capital. This swadeshi venture faced hostility from British India Steam Navigation Company, which gave rise to anti foreign feelings Subramania Shiva:

t

New plebian agitator from Madura

t

Appeals of Shiva caused workers strike at foreign owned Coral Cotton Mills. Result: 50% rise in wages.

t With

Got encouragement from Bipin Pal’s tour in April 1907 at the invitation of M. Krishna Rao.

Government repression against Vande mataram badges and Pal’s meetings led to a student strike.

Swadeshi’s contribution to Telugu language, literature and history: ‘Andhrula Charitramu’ or History of Andhra (1910).

decline of Extremism, T. Prakasham, Konda Venkatappayya and Pattabhi Sitaramaya - all future Gandhians, started organizing Andhra Mahasabha to demand a separate linguistic state.

Two areas under influence: t

Attack on Kakinada European Club. Reason: an European had boxed the ears of a boy for shouting Bande Mataram (May 31, 1907).

r After

Few Aryas: Bhai Parmanand and Delhi Student Har Dayal.

Andhra Delta Region r

r

Rise of revolutionary terrorists

t

r

t

r

Chidambaram Pillai preached message of swaraj and boycott.

Government prosecution of Shiva and Pillai led to closing of shops, protest strikes by sweepers, carriage drivers.

r

Calcutta ‘Bande Mataram’ wrote “Tuticorin events as bond between educated and mass- the first great step towards swaraj”.

r

Decline of Extremism, after removal of Shiva and Pillai

r

Result: murder of D.M. of Tirunelvelli ‘Ashe’ in June 1911.

r r

A Tirunelvelli Brahman

t

A revolutionary Tamil Poet

Critical of caste system

t Suffered t t

t t

political exile from 1910 in Pondicherry. Different from V.V.S. Iyer, who became a disciple of Hindu revivalist Vir Savarkar heavily

r r

Munje

r

At Poona on 8 Oct 1905 - Bonfire of Foreign Cloth.

r Setting r

up of Swadeshi Pracharini Sabha in Bombay.

Vastu

Extremist leaders bid through Dinshaw Wacha to persuade mill owners to sell

Mass picketing of Liquor shops (later a Gandhian Technique); reduced government excise revenue contacts with predominantly Marathi speaking working class.

In Bombay: 49.16% of mill workers in 1911 came from Tilak’s home district Ratnagiri Philanthropic work started by N.M. Lokhande, associated with Phule’s anti-Brahman Satya Shodhak Samaj Movement.



Tilak’s trial:

r Opposed

by Ranade’s ‘Quarterly Journal’ and Tilak’s Mahratta, as Nationalist opinion generally refused to concern itself with labour conditions in Indian-owned enterprises.

Developments

In 1890s, religio-political festivals like Ganapati, Shivaji, Ramdasa started.

Setting up of Tata Iron and Steel project in August 1907 (project share capital: 2.5 crore rupees)

First FACTORY ACT’ (1881)

‘Tenets of the New Party’ (1907) inspired many activists. r

Bombay’s Profits: 3.25 crores in 1906 as compared to a wage bill of Rs 1.68 crore.



 Tilak’s 

r

r

Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Khaparde

and

New initiatives in later 1907 and early 1908

r

to

Tilak’s close associates

earned by Bombay Ahmadabad mill owners.

r Developing

Died in 1921.

Maharashtra l Leader:



Hailed Russian Revolution

Bharti contributed Tamil nationalism.

r Profits

r

Subramania Bharti t

Swadeshi Contribution:

r

Formation of small terrorist group

t

l



dhotis at more moderate price. But bid was unsuccessful.

r

opening of trial on 13 July 1908

r

Term: Six years transportation

r



Tilak was convicted on 22 July 1908

Repercussions

r

Cloth shop employees of Mulji Jetha Market called for six-day hartal. Freedom Struggle 1 (1885 - 1916)

219

r

Sporadic strikes

r

Mofussil riot at pilgrimage centre of Pandharpur (Sholapur dist); participants were mainly lower caste people.

r

CONGRESS SPLIT AT SURAT

Clashes with police

r Thus 

decrying the theory that extremism in Maharashtra no more than a Chitpavan conspiracy.

What survived after Tilak’s removal r r

Individual terrorism t

t

 

Pherozshah Mehta managed to shift the venue from Nagpur to Surat.



Congress President: Rash Behari Ghosh.

 By 

In Nasik in 1907

Came out of Mitra Mela founded in 1899 by Savarkar brothers Killing of Nasik’s DM Jackson by the pistol sent by V D Savarkar from London on 21 Dec 1909.

Nava Bharat Group in Gwalior

t

Its goal: to become a republic, since ‘all native princes are mere puppets’.

Gujarati speaking districts Maharashtra (Bombay Presidency)r

Extremism failed.

r

Kunwarji and Kalyanji Mehta:

In 1907 Pheroz Shah Mehta engineered the transfer of Congress session from Nagpur to Surat. t t

Two brothers and rich Gujarat peasants.

came under influence of Lal-BalPal trio

t started

through Mandal

organizational the Patidar

220 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

convention the local Reception committee chose the President. Issues of Conflict: Resolutions: r Boycott

Four

Calcutta

r Swadeshi

Terrorism in Maharashtra - not as formidable as in Bengal.

r



‘Abhinav Bharat’ t

r

Surat Session: December 26, 1907

work Yuvak

r r

National Education, and Self Government



Extremists wanted these to be passed.



Soon after this, some unknown person hurled a shoe at the dais which hit Pherozshah Mehta and Surendranath Banerjee.



 

On December 27, Tilak’s move for an adjournment was ruled out by Reception committee chairman. Malviya

Then police came and cleared the Hall.

Session was over with a split in Congress.

Efforts for re-union  



Extremists, like Lala Lajpat Rai, Tilak and most of his Bengal friends tried for a reunion.

Tilak termed the split as ‘catastrophe’ and sent a letter of regret to Congress President and offered his cooperation for Congress unity. Bombay Moderate Group like Pheroz Shah Mehta etc. - remained inflexible.

Allahabad Convention (April 1908)  

Made the split definitive.

It drew up a constitution which fixed: r

Congress methods constitutional’.

as

‘strictly

r

Congress struggle limited to bringing about ‘steady reform of existing system of government.

r Restricted 

delegate-election to ‘recognized bodies of over three years standing.’

Most important factor responsible for sudden rigidity of Moderate Leadership was an expectation of Morley-Minto Reforms.

Between Muslim League and Congress  At



Bombay both the parties set up committees to draft minimum constitutional demands through mutual consultation. Lucknow Pact: 1916 r Congress

electorates.

r Muslim

UNITY AT LUCKNOW

Lucknow Congress Session : Dec 1916



Pherozshah Mehta remained obdurate till his death in 1915.



 

 

President: Ambika Charan Majumdar

Tilak, after returning from his six years Mandalay exile, earnestly tried for unity with old Congress adversaries.

Moderates like Bhupendra Nath Bose of Calcutta wrote a letter to Gokhle on 26 Nov 1914 expressing willingness ‘to accept any means to lift the congress out of present bog’.

Reunification process was also helped by the rise of Theosophical leader Annie Besant from 1914. Annie Besant: r

r

 

Felt self-government for Indo-British friendship.

Only way of achieving goal of self government through effective nationwide agitation modeled on British radical and Irish Home Rule Movement.

Tilak’s group re-admitted to Congress at Bombay session in December 1915. Final Merger at Lucknow Session of 1916.

 

separate

leaders accepted under representation in Muslim majority areas ( only 40% of seats in Bengal) in return for over-representation in provinces like Bombay or United Provinces (where 30% was to be assigned to them)

Between Moderate and Extremist Congress 

accepted

Pact clearly favoured the interests of UP based ‘Young Party’ led by Wazir Hussain and Raja of Mahumdabad.

It caused some resentment in Bengal despite the support given to it by the Fazlul Haq group.

HOME-RULE LEAGUES Background 

Congress: a purely deliberative body, not geared to any sustained agitation.



Need of agitational work brought the two Home Rule Leagues into existence in 1916.





Tilak’s proposal at Lucknow to set up a compact Working Committee as a first step towards converting it into a real party was ruled out by the President.

Two Leagues demarcated their areas of operation: r r

Tilak’s League to work in Maharashtra, Central Provinces, Karnataka and Berar. Annie Besant’s in rest of India.

Freedom Struggle 1 (1885 - 1916)

221

Tilak’s Home Rule League  Launched 

  

at Bombay Provincial Conference at Belgaum in April, 1916.

Organized into 6 branches: one each in Central Maharashtra, Bombay city, Karnataka and Central Provinces and two in Berar. Published pamphlets in Marathi, English, Kannada and Gujarati Tilak’s tour played crucial role. Tilak said: r

r r  

‘India is like a son who had grown up and attained maturity. It was now that the trustee or the father should give him what was his due’. On unity of struggle: ‘Alienness is not connected with religion, trade or profession.’

More pamphlets in Indian languages were brought out.



At its height in mid-1917: membership rose to 27000.



 



On untouchability: ‘If a god were to tolerate untouchability, I would not recognize him as God at all’.

r

Demanded Tilak to furnish securities of Rs.60000, otherwise to bind him for good behavior for a period of one year. Tilak lost the case in the lower court, but the High Court exonerated him in Nov 1916. This gave fillip to the movement.

Annie Besant’s Home Rule League

Formally inaugurated in Sept 1916.

 Brought

out 26 English pamphlets discussing mainly the system of government existing in India and the reasons for the demand for selfgovernment.

222 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Headquarters at Adyar run by Annie Besant and her lieutenants Arundale, C.P. Ramaswamy Aiyar and B.P. Wadia Brought out Papers: r

New India

: Madras based

r

Young India

: Bombay based

Common Weal : Madras based

New Members r

Satyamurthi in Madras

r

B. Chakarvarty and Banerjee in Calcutta.

r

Jawahar Lal Nehru and Khaliquzzaman in Allahabad

r Wealthy

dye Dwarkadas

r Industrialist

Govt. decided to strike a blow to the movement r

200 odd local branches, 132 of them in Madras Presidency

r

Membership: By April 1917-14000 and By early 1918-32000

r





r r

Jitendra

importer

Omar Sobhani

Lal

Jamnadas

Shankar Lal Banker Indu Lal Yajnik

Social Base of Besant’s League 

Tamil Brahmans of Madras city



Urban professional groups in U.P. (Kayasthas, Kashmiri Brahmans, some Muslims).



Younger Gujarati industrialists

 

Hindu Amil minority in Sind

Traders and lawyers in Bombay city and Gujarat.

Social Base of Tilak’s League  Considerable

participation Brahman traders in Poona.

 Gujjars

of

non-

and Marathas outnumbered Brahmins in districts like Khandesh.

Congress and the Home Rule League Lucknow session in December 1916:   

Home Rule Leaguers turned up in large numbers (more than 1000 delegates) to demonstrate their strength. Home Rule Leaguers held a joint meeting at the end of session. Addressed by both Tilak and Besant.

 After  

session, both leaders toured extensively through parts of North, Central and Eastern India. In June 1917, Besant, B.P. Wadia and Arundale arrested.

Soon, movement was joined by Jinnah, S.N. Banerjee and Malviya.

AICC Meeting in July 1917 



Accepted Tilak’s suggestion of passive resistance and Gandhi’s suggestion of collecting signatures of 1000 men willing to defy the internment orders and march to Besant’s place of detention. Village tours and meetings intensified.

l

Decline of Home Rule Leagues 

During 1918, gradually fizzled out



Withdrawal of support by Moderates who still believed in getting more reforms from government.

Factors:





 

Change in British Attitude l l

l

Adopted a soft line.

Montagu’s Declaration: ‘…increasing association of Indians in every branch of administration and gradual development of selfgoverning institutions with a view to progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of British Empire.’

Immediate gain: release of Besant in Sept 1917.

Besant elected President of Calcutta Congress in Dec 1917, at Tilak’s instance.

Publication of Reform Scheme in July 1918 divided the nationalists: r r

Some rejected the scheme; Others to give the trial.

Besant’s somersault in late 1917, when Montagu’s promise of ‘Responsible Government’ converted her into a near loyalist. Tilak, though more consistent in his approach, could do little on his own due to Besant’s continuous vacillation. Further, Tilak decision to go to England at the end of 1918 to pursue a libel case he had filed against Valentine Chirol, author of ‘Indian Unrest’, physically removed him from the scene.

Achievement of Home Rule 

Created a politically aware and committed band of nationalist workers.



Wide popularization of the idea of Home Rule and arousal of national feeling.



.

Contacts with villages and towns.

Freedom Struggle 1 (1885 - 1916)

223

NOTES

GANDHI: ENTRY INTO FREEDOM STRUGGLE AND HIS IDEOLOGY

r In

GANDHI IN SOUTH AFRICA  Gandhi  

 

went to England for his studies in 1881 and qualified for the Bar. Returned to India in 1891.

Began practicing in Bombay High Court.

Not being a success as a lawyer shifted to Rajkot. Sailed to Durban in 1893: r r



r

In connection with a legal case of Dada Abdulla and Company, an Indian firm, doing trade in South Africa. Contract for one year stay.

But he stayed upto 1914 with two breaks in between.

Conditions of Indians at South Africa: r About

2 lakhs Indians lived in South Africa at that time.

r Most r

r

of them labourers.

r

r

freed

Some merchants with their clerks and assistants.

Suffered from racial disabilities with regard to: t

Rights of citizenship,

t

Ownership of property.

t r

indentured

Trade and

r

Prohibited to travel in first and second class railway compartments and were forced at times to travel on the footboard of trains.

r Not

permitted to enter hotels exclusively reserved for Europeans.

226 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Indentured labourers had to pay £ 3 as poll tax.

Gandhi’s Campaign I l Against l

l

l

l

l

l l

a proposed Bill of Natal Government to disfranchise Indians. Gandhi declared that bill as ‘first nail into Indians’ coffin’.

To infuse solidarity into heterogeneous Indian community, he formed an association ‘Indian Natal Organization’ in 1893. Indian National Congress in India passed a resolution against the Bill. In England, sections of Indians supported Indian cause.

400 Natal Indians submitted a petition against the bill. However, Bill Legislature.

was

passed

by

Natal

Gandhi petitioned to Colonial Secretary in London to disapprove the bill.

l Bill l

Every Indian contemptuously called ‘coolie’ (labourer). Without a permit, Indians not allowed to walk on footpaths or to be out at night.

Transvaal, Indians were asked to do trade or reside in specific areas which had highly unhygienic surroundings.





was held. Later, with some amendments, it was passed and approved. According to New bill: ‘No native of countries (not of European origin), which had not hitherto possessed elective institutions founded on parliamentary franchise, to be placed on voter’s list unless they obtained exception from Governor General’. Brief visit to India: r

Attended Calcutta session of Congress 1901 and succeeded in piloting a resolution on condition of Indians in South Africa.

Return to South Africa in 1902 r

Stayed for 12 years continuously.

r



r

r

r



in 1904, Gandhi shifted to a place near Durban called Phoenix.

Transvaal Government Registration Bill) r

Bill

(Asiatic

Every Indian - man, woman or child above eight - was required to register and to give finger and thumb impressions on the registration form.



r

r r

Whoever failed to register before a certain date would be guilty of an offence for which he could be punished or deported.

r

r r

r

Gandhi organized a meeting at Empire Theatre in Johannesburg.

Despite opposition from the Indians, bill was passed. Gandhi led a delegation to England, but his effort failed. New Law to take effect from July 1, 1907.

Gandhi adopted a new technique known as ‘Satyagraha’.

r An

r

organization called ‘Passive Resistance Association’ was formed which asked Indian people to boycott the permit offices. Gandhi was sentenced to two-months imprisonment.

r Indians

taken registration form numbered 519 by November 30, 1907.

Gandhi-General Smuts Meet r

Arranged by his friend Albert Cart right.

Smuts backed out from his words.

A large number of Indians consigned their registration certificates to flames. Transvaal Government enacted the Immigration Law which aimed at excluding new immigrants from India.

r

Gandhi announced that Satyagraha would also be directed against this law.

r

Financial support to Association by Indian National Congress and many rich people in India like Ratan Tata, Nizam of Hyderabad etc.

r

At any time, an Indian could be asked to produce his registration certificates and police officers were permitted to enter into Indian’s house to check his papers.

Gandhi accepted Smuts proposal that the registration law would be repealed if Indians registered voluntarily.

Gandhi restarted Satyagraha

Voice Against The Bill

r



r

In 1903, started a weekly ‘Indian Opinion’.

r

Gandhi was Arrested and kept in Transvaal prison.

Later on, Satyagrahis shifted to a place named as ‘Tolstoy Farm’.

Gandhi’s Campaign-2 

 

 



Supreme Court judgment of 1913 invalidating all marriages which had not been performed according to Christian rites and registered by the Registrar of Marriages.

Gandhi began a march across Transvaal border with a big contingent of Satyagrahis on November 6, 1913. Gandhi was arrested.

In India, Gopal Krishna Gokhle toured throughout India to mobilize support for Gandhi’s movement.

Lord Hardinge, Viceroy of India, demanded an impartial enquiry into charges of atrocities leveled against South African government. Finally, Smuts offered compromise: r

Poll tax of £3 on freed labourers was abolished.

Gandhi: Entry into Freedom Struggle and his Ideology

227

r

Marriages performed according to Indian rites were declared legal.

r Domicile 

certificate bearing the holder’s thumb imprint now required only to enter Union of South Africa.

Thus Satyagraha which continued for about 8 years was finally called off.

Influence on Indian National Movement.  

Adoption of non-violent satyagraha. Realization of Hindu-Muslim Unity.

GANDHI IN INDIA





Before returning to India, Gandhi went to England.

To support British Government in the First World War, he decided to organise an ‘Ambulance Corps’ of Indians.

At this time, took little interest in political matters.



Attended Congress session:



Reached India on Jan 9, 1915.

 His 

  

Political Guru was Gokhle.

Gokhle wanted him to join Servants of India Society, but due to strong objections from some of its members, Gandhi failed to enter it. Gokhle extracted a promise from Gandhi that he would not express any opinion on political matters for a year. Gandhi kept his vow and spent 1915 and most of 1916 touring India. Places visited by Gandhi: r Rangoon r Sindh

r Madras

r Benaras 

r r

Shanti Niketan and

Kumbh Mela at Hardwar

Set up Sabarmati Ashram at Ahmadabad in 1916.

228 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Refused Annie Besant request to join Home Rule League on the ground that he did not want to embarrass the British government during the war. r r

 Received 

‘Kaiser-i-Hind’ Gold Medal in the New Year Honours list of 1915.





In 1915 but avoided speaking on important issues like self-government.

In 1916, spoke there on indentured labourers recruitment and a resolution was passed for the abolition of this practice.

Gandhi welcomed unity between the Moderates and the Extremists, but himself did not belong to any group.

CHAMPARAN SATYAGRAHA 1917 Problem   



European planters established indigo farms and factories in Champaran at the beginning of 19 th Century.

By 1916-17, a large part of Champaran was held by three proprietors: the Bettiah, Ramnagar and Madhuban estates. Bettiah, the largest state consisting over 1500 villages

Most of these villages were not managed by landlords but were leased to thikadars or temporary tenure holders, of whom the most influential group was European indigo planters.





  

 

Basic issue of trouble: the system of indirect cultivation whereby peasants leased land from planters, binding themselves to grow indigo each year on specified land in return for an advance at the beginning of cultivation season. Tinkathia system: by which a tenant had to cultivate indigo at 3/20 th of his holdings.

Slight modifications in this system in 1908, yet not material change in degrading conditions of tenant. Demand of Indian indigo in world market was declining due to increasing production of synthetic indigo in Germany.

Loss to planter forced them to put the burden of losses on tenants. Planter offered to release the tenants from growing indigo, if the latter paid compensation or damages. Apart from this, they heavily inflated the rents and imposed many illegal levies.

Gandhi’s effort







But on continuous efforts and persuasion of Raj Kumar Shukla, a peasant from Champaran, Gandhi agreed to visit Champaran.

Recommendations: r

abolition of Tinkathia system.

r

reduction in enhanced rates.

r

abolition of many illegal exactions. 25% refund, as for illegal recoveries.

 Recommendations

were included Champaran Agrarian Act 1917.

in

Gandhi’s Chief Supporters l

Rajendra Prasad, Gorakh Prasad, Acharya Kriplani, A.N. Sinha, Braj Kishore Pd.

l

School teachers, like Pir Muhammad, Harbans Sahai.

l





appointed Champaran Agrarian Committee with Gandhi as one of its members. r

l

Took no interest in this when discussed at Lucknow session in 1916 on the ground that he knew nothing about the matter.

Gandhi disobeyed the order and was arrested, but at the Bihar Government’s stance, was released and granted the facilities for investigation.

 Government

l



When reached Motihari, he was served with an order to quit Champaran.

Middle peasants like Sant Raut, Kedar Rai. Few village mukhtars (attorneys). Local mahajans and traders.

Gandhi left behind a group of 15 volunteers to start constructive village work and told Rajendra Prasad that the only real solution was ‘the education of raiyyats and a constant process of mediation between them and planters’

KHEDA SATYAGRAHA IN GUJARAT (MARCH - JUNE 1918) 



First real peasant satyagraha in India People in this region: r Rich

peasant proprietors patidars from Kunbi caste.

called

Gandhi: Entry into Freedom Struggle and his Ideology

229

r

A large number of small peasants and landless labourers.



Produced - food grains, cotton and tobacco for Ahmadabad market.



In view of poor harvest, demanded revenue remission.



 









In 1917, excessive rain damaged Kharif crop in Kheda. This coincided with increase in price of Kerosene, iron, cloth and salt. ‘Revenue Code’ provided for a total remission, if crops were less than 25% of normal production. Two Bombay barristers, V.J. Patel and G.K. Parikh made enquiries and reached a conclusion that a major portion of crop was damaged.

Government did not agree with the findings.

Official contention was that the agitation was not a spontaneous expression of peasant discontent but was started by ‘outsiders’ or members of Home Rule League and Gujarat Sabha of which Gandhi was the President at that time.

Moreover, a good Rabi crop had weakened the case for remission.



This agitation did not have uniform effect on the area.



 

r



After a lot of hesitation, Gandhi decided to launch a Satyagraha on March 22, 1918. Inaugurated the satyagraha meeting in Nadiad.

at

a

Urged peasants not to pay land revenue.

r Toured

villages and support to peasants.

Gandhi’s Supporters r

Indulal Yajnik

r

Ansuya Sarabhai.

gave

moral

Vallabha Bhai Patel and

Satyagraha reached its peak by April 21.

230 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Gandhi called off agitation in June, 1918 when the government issued instructions that land revenue should be recovered from only those who had the capacity to pay. Only 70 villages out of 559 in Kheda actually involved.

But acted as Future Gandhian social base, particularly Anand and Borsad talukas of rich tobacco and dairy farmers of Kheda.

AHMADABAD MILL STRIKE 1918 

r 



Initiative for agitation came neither from Gandhi nor from other Ahmadabad politicians, but by local village leaders like, Mohanlal Pandya of Kapadvanj taluka.

r 

peasants

 

Problem of mill owners: r

r

Scarcity of labour

1917 plague-outbreak made labour shortage more acute.

‘Plague Bonus’ - to dissuade the workers from leaving Ahmadabad, mill owners decided to pay ‘plague bonus’ which was sometimes as high as 75% of normal wages. After epidemic, mill owners decided to discontinue the bonus. Conflict started r r

Workers demanding 50% increase in wages in view of price hike

Mill owners prepared to give 20% increase







Gandhi’s intervention in February March 1918. Gandhi discussed the workers problems with textile magnet Ambalal Sarabhai, who had financially helped his Sabarmati Ashram and whose sister Ansuya Behn was his disciple.



Gandhi announced on 15 March a fast until a settlement was reached.



Settlement on March, 18:



Both workers and mill owners agreed to refer the issue to a Board of Arbitration consisting of three representatives of employees, three of workers with British Collector as Chairman. r r

r

Gandhi included in Board as worker’s representatives. Mill owners decided to withdrew from board on the ground that Gandhi had no real authority or mandate from workers. They declared lockout of mills from February 22, 1918.



Gandhi persuaded workers for 35% wage hike



Mill owners ended lock out on 12 March and announced that they would take back the workers willing to accept 20% increase.

This was the time when he first used the weapon of hunger strike. r

r

Workers on their first day would receive 35% raise, on the second day 20% increase and from the 3rd day until the date of an award by an arbitrator would receive 27½% increase. Finally, arbitrator’s award went in favour of workers and 35% raise was given to them.

Till early 1919  

Gandhi’s interventions in matters of all India politics were relatively minimal. His efforts were confined to: r

Protest against Besant’s internment.

r

Showed little interest in the Reform proposals.

r

 Gandhi,

assisted by Ansuya Sarabhai, organized daily mass meetings of workers.



Repeated pleas for release brothers (for which he developing contacts with religious leaders like Abdul Lucknow).

of Ali started Muslim Bari of

First all India Satyagraha - only after enactment of Rowlett Act in February 1919.

Gandhi: Entry into Freedom Struggle and his Ideology

231

GANDHI Ideas and Beliefs r

INFLUENCES ON GANDHI 

Gandhi's thought evolved over time. r Influenced r

by Bhakti saints, Vaishnavism, Advaita Vedanta, Islam, Buddhism, Jainism and Christianity.

Thinkers such as Tolstoy, Ruskin and Thoreau:

t t

Ruskin's ‘welfare for all’ as explained in his book 'Unto This Last'.

t

William Salter's Ethical Religion (1889).

t

r

Leo Tolstoy's The Kingdom of God Is Within You (1894).

Henry David Thoreau's On the Duty of Civil Disobedience (1849).

Leo Tolstoy in 1908 wrote ‘A Letter to a Hindu’, which said that only by using love as a weapon through passive resistance could the Indian people overthrow colonial rule.

r Tolstoy r r

r

and Gandhi continued correspondence until Tolstoy's death in 1910.

Gandhi saw himself a disciple of Tolstoy.

Gandhi along with Hermann Kallenbach trained their followers the philosophy of non-violence in Tolstoy Farm. Shrimad Rajchandra, a poet and Jain philosopher, was treated as "guide and helper" by Gandhi.

232 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Gandhi referred to him as Kavi (poet).

r

In 1930, Gandhi wrote: “in moulding my inner life Tolstoy and Ruskin vied with Kavi. But Kavi's influence was undoubtedly deeper because I had come in closest personal touch with him”.

r

Gandhi was acquainted with Sufi Chishti Order during his stay in South Africa.

r

His comparative studies of religions and interaction with scholars led him to respect all religions.

TRUTH AND SATYAGRAHA 

Gandhi dedicated his life to discovering and pursuing ‘Truth or Satya’.



According to him, most important battle to fight was overcoming own demons, fears and insecurities.



 

Satya (truth) in Gandhi's philosophy is "God".

He called his movement as ‘Satyagraha’. Satyagraha as a political tool meant: r

Refusing to use brute force against the oppressor.

r

Aiming to transform or "purify" the oppressor.

r

Seeking to eliminate antagonisms between the oppressor and the oppressed.

r Where

‘love conquers hate’

r





r

Arms the individual with moral power rather than physical power.

Determined ‘passive resistance’ and ‘non-co-operation’.

Satyagraha is a ‘silent force’ or a ‘soul force’ (a term also used by Martin Luther King Jr during his famous "I Have a Dream" speech). Civil disobedience and non-cooperation as practised under Satyagraha are based on the ‘law of suffering’.

r



Gandhi said: “It is swaraj when we learn to rule ourselves.”



How to realise Swaraj?



NON-VIOLENCE (AHIMSA) 



 

Gandhi used non-violence (ahimsa) as a political weapon.

‘Violence only begets violence. Nonviolence brings goodwill between the oppressor and the oppressed.’

r

‘Worthy ends can never be attained without worthy means.’

 But,

Gandhi preferred violence to cowardice. He said: “where there is only choice between cowardice and violence, I would advise violence.”

SWARAJ (SELF-RULE) 

r

Gandhi said:

r

Swaraj meant: r

Rejecting and uprooting ‘exploitative structure and mindset’ of Colonial Era from within themselves.

r Through

r

He explains his philosophy and ideas about Ahimsa in his autobiography The Story of My Experiments with Truth.

“Non-violence was not a weapon of weak and cowardly, but only strong and brave could practise it”.

Swaraj is self-rule, self-restraint and selfreliant.

r

Concept of non-violence has a long history in Indian religious thought.

r

‘Progressive liberation of all’: regenerating new systems and structures that could enable individual and collective self-development.

patience, perseverance, ceaseless toil, courage and intelligent appreciation of the environment.

Swaraj means penetration into the villages solely for the services of the villagers. It means national education i.e. education of the masses. Mass education is empowerment. Real Swaraj will come, not by the acquisition of authority but by the acquisition of the capacity by all to resist authority when it is abused.

DEMOCRACY 

For Gandhi, democracy means swaraj of the masses.

 A

socio-politico-economic system where ‘the weakest should have the same opportunity as the strongest’.

SARVODAYA  

Gandhi said, ‘Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s need, but not greed’.

Gandhi believed in sarvodaya economic model, which was influenced by Ruskin's ‘welfare for all’ as explained in his book 'Unto This Last'. Gandhi: Entry into Freedom Struggle and his Ideology

233



Sarvodaya Meant: r

r

r r

r 

'Advancement of all and not merely of the greatest number’. Good of the individual is contained in the good of all.

Not ‘exclusive quest’ for the physical and material happiness, but total and integral development of every individual in human society.

An economic system which cares to lift the ‘poor, less skilled, and of impoverished background’.

r non-violent

r non-exploitative r non-materialist

r non-imperialist r non-racist,

r non-consumerist, r 





egalitarian and just moral and humane

r de-centralised

Gandhi challenged rapid industrialisation on the Soviet model and denounced it as dehumanising and contrary to the needs of the villages where the great majority of the people lived.

Disagreed with Marx: Gandhi refused to endorse the view that economic forces are best understood as "antagonistic class interests".

Gandhi criticised capitalism that was driven by endless wants and a materialistic view of man at the cost of other human needs such as spirituality and social relationships.

234 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

To Gandhi, both communism capitalism were wrong, because: r Both r

No individual or a group will be left out or suppressed in the Sarvodaya society.

Sarvodaya works for the establishment of socio-politico-economic order which is:

r



focussed exclusively materialistic view of man.

and

on

Communism deified the state with unlimited power, while Capitalism deified capital.

FASTING (HUNGER STRIKE) 

Gandhi used fasting as a political device.



First Fast: in South Africa in 1913 for 7 days (July 13-20)

 Undertook 17 fasts during India's freedom

  

movement.

First fast in India: Ahmadabad Mill Strike (15-18 March 1918)

Longest Fast lasted 21 days: 1933 (May 8, 29) Third anti-untouchability fast for the improvement of Harijans' condition Last Fast: in Delhi January 13-18, 1948 for restoration of communal peace.

WOMEN 

Gandhi strongly favoured the emancipation of women.



He opposed purdah, child marriage, dowry and sati.



Urged the women “to fight for their own self-development”.

UNTOUCHABILITY AND CASTES 

Gandhi spoke out against untouchability early in his life.



One of the major speeches he made on untouchability was at Nagpur in 1920,



Before 1932, he used the term Antyaja for untouchables.





where he called untouchability as a great evil in Hindu society.

In 1932, Gandhi began a new campaign to improve the lives of the untouchables, whom he started referring to as Harijans or "the children of god". On May 8, 1933, Gandhi began a 21 day fast of self-purification and launched a one-year campaign to help the Harijan movement.

 Ambedkar

felt Gandhi was being paternalistic and was undermining Dalit political rights. He accused Gandhi as someone who wished to retain the caste system. Ambedkar and Gandhi debated their ideas and concerns, where both tried to persuade each other.

 In



1935, Ambedkar announced his intentions to leave Hinduism and join Buddhism, but converted to Buddhism in 1956. In actual elections of 1937, except for some seats in Mumbai where Ambedkar's party won, India's untouchables voted heavily in favour of Gandhi's campaign and the Congress.

GANDHI ON EDUCATION 

Gandhi expressed his views on education through a series of articles in ‘Harijan’.



Education means:



 

Literacy in itself is no education. r r

A harmonious growth of body, mind and soul. Ability to discriminate between good and bad.

True education must correspond to the surrounding circumstances. Spinning and weaving as the necessary part of any national system of education.



Education should be so revolutionized as to answer the wants of the poorest villager.

Nai Talim 

Gandhi called his ideas on education Nai Talim (literally, 'new education').



Nai Talim evolved out of his experiences at the Tolstoy Farm in South Africa.





Function of Nai Talim is not to teach an occupation, but through it to develop the whole man. Gandhi attempted to formulate the new system at the Sevagram ashram after 1937.

 Gandhi



rejected the colonial Western format of education system, believing it violated and destroyed the indigenous cultures.

Gandhi favoured an education system with far greater emphasis on learning skills in practical and useful work.

Wardha Scheme 

An All India Education Conference at Wardha r

r r

On 22 nd and 23 rd October, 1937.

Attended by Eminent educationists, Congress leaders and workers, the Education Ministers of the seven states. Presided by Gandhi.

r Appointed r r

a committee of nine members under the chairmanship of Dr. Zakir Hussain. Report of the committee published in March 1938, known as the Wardha Scheme of Education. It was approved by Mahatma Gandhi and was placed before the Indian National Congress at its Haripura Session held in March 1938. The Congress accepted the scheme.

Gandhi: Entry into Freedom Struggle and his Ideology

235



Main Features of Wardha Scheme r r r

r

Free and compulsory education for all boys and girls between the ages of seven to fourteen. Craft-centred Education.

Self-supporting Education.

Medium of instruction be the mothertongue.

GANDHI AND RELIGION 

According to Gandhi: r r

r



Religion is not about what a man believes.

It is about how a man lives, how he relates to other people, his conduct towards others, and one's relationship to one's conception of god.

It is not important to convert or to join any religion, but it is important to improve one's way of life and conduct by absorbing ideas from any source and any religion.

Gandhism is: r

A political creed.

r

A religious outlook.

r r r

An economic doctrine.

GANDHI’S LITERARY WORKS 

Gandhi was a prolific writer.



Hind Swaraj became "the intellectual blueprint" for India's independence movement.

 Gandhi's

 



A humanitarian world-view.

Gandhi himself did not approve of the notion of "Gandhism".



“There is no such thing as "Gandhism" and I do not want to leave any sect after me. I do not claim to have originated any new principle or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way to apply the eternal truths to our daily life and problems...The opinions I have formed and the conclusions I have

He explained in 1936:

236 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

earliest publications, Hind Swaraj, published in Gujarati in 1909.

The book was translated into English the next year. He edited several newspapers. r

Harijan in Gujarati, Hindi and in the English language.

r

Young India, in English.

r

A moral precept.

 

arrived at are not final. I may change them tomorrow. I have nothing new to teach the world. Truth and nonviolence are as old as the hills.”

r

Indian Opinion while in South Africa and;

Navjivan, a Gujarati monthly. Later, Navajivan was also published in Hindi.

Gandhi also wrote several books. r Autobiography,

r

the Story of My Experiments with Truth (Gujarātī "સત્ ય ના પ્ ર યોગો અથવા આત્ મ કથા"). His secretary Mahadev Desai translated it into English. Satyagraha in South Africa about his struggle there.

WORD ‘MAHATMA’  

Rabindranath Tagore is said to have accorded the title ‘Mahatma’ to Gandhi. In his autobiography, Gandhi nevertheless explains that he never valued the title, and was often pained by it.

TITLE ‘FATHER OF THE NATION’ 



Origin of this title is traced back to a radio address on Singapore radio on 6 July 1944 by Subhash Chandra Bose where Bose addressed Gandhi as "The Father of the Nation".

Martin Luther King Jr. (USA). r r



t



"Christ gave us the goals and Mahatma Gandhi the tactics." “If humanity is to progress, Gandhi is inescapable. He lived, thought, acted and inspired by the vision of humanity evolving toward a world of peace and harmony."

Albert Einstein, notable European physicist, in 1931 exchanged written letters with Gandhi. Einstein said of Gandhi:

“We may all be happy and grateful that destiny gifted us with such an enlightened contemporary, a role model for the generations to come. Generations to come will scarce believe that such a one as this walked the earth in flesh and blood.”

Madeleine Slade (known as "Mirabehn") was the daughter of a British admiral who spent much of her adult life in India as a devotee of Gandhi.

"Mahatma Gandhi implemented very noble philosophy of ahimsa in modern politics, and succeeded."

"We have big war going on today between world peace and world war, between the force of mind and force of materialism, between democracy and totalitarianism. To fight these big wars the common ordinary people in this modern age need Gandhism.”

Barack Obama, the former US President, commented:



Aung San Suu Kyi, the Burmese leader, said:



Gandhi has inspired many political, social and religious leaders all over the world.

r

He said:

Nelson Mandela, anti-apartheid activist and former President of South Africa



r



King sometimes referred to Gandhi as "the little brown saint."

t



Dalai Lama said:

r

On April 28, 1947, Sarojini Naidu during a conference also referred Gandhi as "Father of the Nation".

INFLUENCE OF GANDHI ON IMPORTANT WORLD LEADERS 





“From Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru and all the Indian leaders for independence learnt how 'not to fear' the British gun.”

r

Joan Baez, the American folk singer and human rights activist.

r

Joanna Macy, activist.

r

r



"In my life, I have always looked to Mahatma Gandhi as an inspiration, because he embodies the kind of transformational change that can be made when ordinary people come together to do extraordinary things."

r

Cesar Chavez, the American social activist. the

Mubarak Awad, Palestine leader.

environmental

the

non-violent

Thich Nhat Kanh, the Vietnamese Buddhist leader.

Mahatma Gandhi District in Houston (Texas, United States), an ethnic Indian enclave, is officially named after Gandhi.

Gandhi: Entry into Freedom Struggle and his Ideology

237

r Terrorism

SEVEN SOCIAL SINS PREACHED BY GANDHI 

Politics without principles;



Commerce without morality;

    

Education without character; Science without humanity; Worship without sacrifice.

Gandhi objected to this.



He said, "I have nothing new to teach the world. Truth and Non-violence are as old as the hills".

He said he would rather be "a politician trying to be a saint."

RELEVANCE OF GANDHI IN MODERN TIMES  21 st



r

Pleasure without conscience;





r

Wealth without work;

WAS GANDHI A SAINT?



t

century defined by globalisation, free markets, privatisation and liberalisation.



r

r

t

Ethnic nationalism or religious chauvinism, economic inequality or military might - all of them powerful drivers of conflict in today’s world.

238 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

t

growing inequality both within and amongst nations

Lack of access to education, health and food security Threat of environmental degradation and climate change Gandhi gave three guiding principles:

t

Ahimsa (non-violence),

t

Sarvodaya (upliftment of all).

t r r

Satyagraha (the force born of truth and non-violence) and

These principles are still relevant to deal effectively with today's challenges.

Gandhi never accepted the exclusivist approach to religion, culture or civilization.

r Gandhian

techniques successfully employed by many people to liberate their oppressed societies around the world:

21 st Century Challenges:

Establishment of peace - world’s single greatest imperative:

Economic disparities

Gandhi’s Relevance:

It has also been marked by violence, extremism, inequity, poverty and disparity. r

It inflicts untold suffering on innocent women, men and children.

t

Martin Luther King Jr in the United States

t

Aung San Suu Kyi in Myanmar

t

Nelson Mandela in South Africa

r Gandhi’s r

philosophy of inclusive growth is fundamental to building of a resurgent rural India.

His belief in ‘production by masses’ is answer to growing unemployment.

FREEDOM STRUGGLE II ROWLETT ACT & NCM

ROWLETT ACT l

Sedition committee Committee in 1917.

or

Rowlett

r

Under chairmanship of Justice Sydney Rowlett.

r

To recommend legislation for its suppression.

r

r

l

Submitted its report in April 1918.

drafted two bills and presented them to Imperial Legislative Council on February 6, 1919.

Bill’s provisions: r

Trial of offences by a special court consisting of 3 High Court judges.

r

provision of appeal against decision of this court which could meet in camera and take into consideration evidence not admissible under the Indian Evidence Act. Proposed to give authority to government to search a place and arrest a person without a warrant.

r Detention

without a trial for maximum period of two years. Means suspension of Habeas Corpus, which had been the foundation of civil liberties in Britain.

New bills attempted to make war-time restrictions permanent.

Movement l

Gandhi opposed not just the content of the bills, but also the manner in which they were foisted in the country without regard to public opinion.

240 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Gandhi formed ‘Satyagraha Sabha’ on February 24, 1919 in Bombay. Those opposed satyagraha.

Gandhi’s

move

of

r

Sir D.E. Wacha, S.N. Banerjee, T.B. Sapru. Sriniwas Shastri.

r

Annie Besant on the grounds that nothing in the act to resist civilly.

r

Younger and radical elements of Besant’s Home Rule League. They formed the main cadre of Satyagraha.

Reason:- They felt the Satyagraha would hamper reforms.

l

Government maintained- ‘the bills were temporary measures’ which aimed at preventing seditious crimes.

r No

l

l

To investigate ‘revolutionary crime’ in the country.

l Government l

l

Those supported:

r Certain



Pan-Islamic leaders, particularly Abdul Bari of Firangi Mahal Ulema group at Lucknow and some radical members of Muslim league.

Passage of Bills in Legislative Council r r



r

One of the two bills namely Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act passed on March 21, 1919. Every single Indian member of Central Legislative Council opposed it. Jinnah too opposed the Rowlett Bill.

Inauguration of Satyagraha: r

r r

By observing a day of ‘hartal’ when business should be suspended and people should fast and prey as a protest against Rowlett bill. Date for Hartal: initially 30 March, later changed to 6 April. Day for Hartal:- Sunday

r Arya r

Samajist leader Swami Shraddhanand’s suggestion for a no revenue call. Gandhi rejected it. Gandhi urged D.E. Wacha to accept his programme.

r

Satyagraha Sabha, the specific organization for the movement, concentrated on:

t r

r

r

r r

Publishing propaganda literature

t Collecting

signatures Satyagraha pledge.

to

Gandhi left Bombay on 8 April for Delhi and Punjab; but was removed from the train at Palwal near Delhi and was taken back to Bombay.

Congress as such was not in the picture at all - had no machinery for real agitation politics. ­

r r r

r r

Officer responsible:- General Dyer, military commander of Amritsar.

t

Hunter Commission appointed on October 29, 1919 to enquire.

t

­ t t

Most affected

Most affected places: Amritsar, Lahore, Gujranwala and a no of smaller towns.

Amritsar:

r

t

­

Punjab:



Hartals of 30 March and April 6 were peaceful but massive affairs.

9 April Ramnavami procession showed Hindu-Muslim unity. th

Local leaders Saifuddin Kitchlew and Satyapal were deported the same evening (April 9).

Gandhi restrained from entering Delhi and Punjab.

Police firing near Hall Bridge on April 10.

In reaction symbols of British authority were attacked; a white woman insulted in Kuchakou Chianwalla Lane.

A large crowd gathered to protest the arrest of Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr Satyapal.

t No

Movement: Area wise description:

r

t

th

to Satyagraha pledge numbered only 982 in mid-march; 397 in Bombay city; 400 in Gujarat, 101 in Sind and only 84 outside Bombay presidency.

r

Jalianwala Bagh Massacre on April 13, 1919.

Gandhi himself toured extensively: visited Bombay, Delhi, Allahabad, Lucknow and a number of South Indian cities between March and April, 1919.

r Signatories



Martial law in Amritsar clamped down on April 11.



of killed:estimates).

379

(official

Indian members to Commission: v

Sir Chiman Lal Sitalvaad

v

Jagat Narayan

v

Shahzada Sultan Ahmad

Commission submitted report in 1920.

Indian National Congress also formed a 3 member enquiry committee under chairmanship of Madan Mohan Malviya; other two members were Moti Lal Nehru and Gandhi.

r

Martial law enforced in whole Punjab on 13 th April.

r

On 10 th April, violent clash with police, Reason:- Gandhi’s externment, Amritsar events.

Lahore:

r Muslim r

r

artisans particularly violent.

and

workers

Rambhuj Dutt tried to control the crowds. On April 11, strikes at Mughalpara railway workshop (employing 12000)

r Enormous

rally at Badshahi mosque endorsed the Formation of People’s Committee, which virtually controlled the city from 11 th to 14 th April. Freedom Struggle II Rowlett Act & NCM

241

r

r r r

This committee consisted of middle class politicians.

Committee called off hartal on April 13, at a town hall, resulted in a mass resentment. t t

t

Delhi r

Aerial bombings of Gujranwala and surrounding on 14 th April.

Use of Lewis guns on unarmed citizens.

t

Kerosene unobtainable.

Salt price at 4 times the 1914 price. Hindu traders irritated by war taxation.

Big artisan community (largely Muslim) hard hit by decline in handicrafts. Evidence: - number employed by the Lace and Embroidery trade went down from 18000 to 4000 between 1911 and 1921.

Course of movement: t t

April 4 rally at Jama Masjid where Muslims and Hindus alike kissed the feet of Swami Shraddhanand.

Continuous hartal from April 10 to 18 April. Reason: Gandhi’s externment.

Ahmadabad

Vast masses of peasantry were unaffected.

r

News of Gandhi’s arrest precipitated a crisis.

r

On 12 th April - crowds on rampage at nearby town of Viramgam.

r

In whole Punjab- only 4 whites killed but Indian causalities, at least 1200 dead and 3600 wounded.

Prominent role by:

t

r

Making entire population stand whole day under scorching Sun at Kasur on 1 st May.

Congress Committee Report on Punjab affairs:

t

t

People’s

Rabindra Nath Tagore renounced his Knighthood.

t

Influenza epidemic killing 7000.

t

British repression started on 14 th April.

t

r

Had faith in Mahatma Gandhi. of Committee leaders.

t

t

40 members under Chamandin.

t Deportation

Prominent factor – Economic: t

Danda Fauj:

t

r

r

r

Violent upsurge on April 11.

Nadiad in Kheda district: Mass violence averted by one of Gandhi’s followers.

Bombay city

Pan-Islamic leaders.

Swami Shraddhanand.

r

Two day hartal on 10-11 April.

r

Restraining factor- Gandhi himself.

r Gujarati

t Radical

merchants far more prominent than industrial workers.

newspapers (started between nov 1918 and Feb. 1919) and their editors.

Impact of Movement

v ­



v

Indra of ‘Vijaya’.

v

Qazi Abbas Hussain of ‘Qaum’.

Asif Husain Haswi ‘Congress and ‘Inquilaab’.

242 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

of

Agitation gave a new leader, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, who took the command of National Movement.

 

r

With Gandhi, a new form of struggle – ‘non-cooperation’ and a new technique of struggle - ‘non-violent satyagraha’.

Political support of peasants, artisans and urban poor turned the face of nationalism towards the common man.

 Witnessed

a remarkable political awakening – hartals, strikes, processions and demonstrations all over the country. Hindu-Muslim unity and brought Hindus and Muslims together in political action. Example:



r

Swami Shraddhanand, a staunch Arya Samaj leader, was asked to preach from the pulpit of Jama Masjid at Delhi.



 

During 1920-21 the Indian national movement entered into a new phase i.e. a phase of mass politics and mass mobilization.

Though emerging out of separate issues both these movements adopted a common programme of action. The technique of non-violent struggle was adopted at the national level.

Background 

The impact of the First World War: r During r

r



Saifuddin Kitchlew, a Muslim, was given the keys of the Golden Temple, the Sikh shrine at Amritsar.

NON-COOPERATION AND KHILAFAT MOVEMENTS (1919-22)

war, prices commodities soared.

of

daily

After war, Indian industries suffered due to increase in volume of imports. Peasantry under heavy burden of rents and taxes.

Rowlett Act 1919: r Empowered

the government to imprison any person without trial and conviction.

r Gandhi’s

 Aroused r

In the political field, the nationalist’s disillusionment surfaced when the British did not keep their promise of bringing in a new era of democracy and self-determination for the people.

‘satyagraha’ caused a remarkable political awakening in India.

Jalianwala Bagh Massacre April 1919: r r



r

Mass killing of unarmed large crowd by the military commander General Dyer shocked the whole India.

Rabindra Nath Tagore renounced his Knighthood in protest.

Shankaran Nair resigned from the Executive Council of Viceroy.

Government of India Act, 1919: r

Further disillusioned the nationalists, as the reform proposals failed to satisfy the rising demand of the Indians for self-government.

KHILAFAT MOVEMENT IN INDIA 

During the First World War, Turkey allied with Germany and Austria against the British.



After the war, the British removed the Khalifa from power in Turkey.



The Indian Muslims regarded the Sultan of Turkey as their spiritual leader Khalifa. Hence their natural sympathies with Turkey.

Khilafat Agitation 

Three central demands presented by Mohammad Ali to diplomats in Paris in March 1920. Freedom Struggle II Rowlett Act & NCM

243

r r r 

Turkish sultan, the Khalifa, must retain control over the sacred places of Muslims.

The movement developed a moderate and a radical strand. r

r

r r

Moderate strand initiated by prosperous Bombay merchants like Chotani; confined to sober meetings memorials and deputations to London and Paris. Radical strand consisted of lower middle class journalists and ulama with considerable influence over small towns and villages, particularly in the United Provinces, Bengal, Sind and Malabar.

Radicals led by the Ali brothers after their release from internment in early 1920, pressed for countrywide hartals. It was from this group that the Call for Non-Cooperation first came at the Delhi All India Khilafat Conference on 22-23 November 1919. Hasrat mohani made a call for boycott of British goods at this conference. (President of the conference was Gandhi).

Gandhi’s role l l

l

Initially played a mediating role between the moderate and radical groups.

Till May 1920, he sided with the moderate Bombay group. Turning point came due to two factors: r

publication of very harsh terms of Treaty of Severs with Turkey on May 14, 1920.

244 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Hunter Commission report on May 28, 1920 on the Punjab disturbances.

r

‘The Morning Post’ raised a purse of £ 26,000 for the butcher of Jallianwala Bagh.

r

He must be left with sufficient territory to enable him to defend the Islamic faith. Jazirat-ul-Arab (Arabia, Syria, Iraq, and Palestine) must remain under Muslim sovereignty.

r

Gandhi bitterly described this report as ‘page after page of thinly disguised official whitewash.’

Khilafat Committee 

Was formed under the leadership of: r

Ali brothers – Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali

r

Hakim Ajmal Khan

r r

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Hasrat Mohani



All India Khilafat Conference at Delhi (November 1919):



Muslim League gave full support to National Congress.



Central Khilafat Committee meeting at Allahabad



r

Decided to withdraw all cooperation from the government if their demands were not met.

Gandhi and Tilak viewed the Khilafat agitation as ‘golden opportunity’ for cementing Hindu-Muslim unity and bringing the Muslim masses into national movement. r

Date: June 1-3, 1920.

r

Four Stage Non-Cooperation Programme announced:

r

Attended by a number of nationalist Hindu leaders. t

Boycott of titles

t

Boycott of police and army and finally

t t

Boycott of civil services Non payment of taxes

r r

Date fixed to start the movement – 1 st Aug 1920. It was tragic that Bal Gangadhar Tilak died on 1st August 1920.



Khilafat Committee launched a noncooperation movement on 31 st August 1920.



Contribution of Khilafat Agitation to National Movement.





Spread anti-imperialist feelings among the Muslims. Mixed religion with politics which resulted in spread of religious consciousness to politics, ultimately strengthening the forces of communalism.

NON-COOPERATION AND THE CONGRESS 

Gandhi began pressing the Congress to adopt a similar plan of campaign around three issues: r The r The

 



r

Punjab wrong

Khilafat wrong

‘Swaraj’.

Full support initially came only from Gujarat and Bihar.

C.R. Das and Tilak bitterly opposed boycott of council election while Motilal Nehru initially hesitant later realizing the organizational unpreparedness of Congress for elections, supported Gandhi. Lajpat Rai supported election boycott, as the Punjab election rules announced in mid-June offered a little chance for the urban Hindu based congress of that province.

Established leaders’ support to Gandhi’s programme was largely because of political calculation of election prospects.

Calcutta Special Session of Congress September 4 to 9 1920: 

Approved the following programmesr

Surrender of titles.

r

Boycott of foreign goods.

r

Brought urban Muslims into nationalist movement.

Criticism of Khilafat Agitation 





r

‘Triple boycott’ of schools, courts and councils. Encouragement of national schools, arbitration courts and khadi.

No mention was made here of resignations from services, police or the army or of no tax.

November 1920 Council Elections:  

All the Congress candidates boycotted elections. Voting percentage: r Urban r

areas: 27.3% of Hindu electorate and 12.1 % of Muslims electorate participated.

Rural areas: 41.8% of Hindus and 28.3 % of Muslims participated.

Nagpur Congress: December 1920 President C. Rajagopalachari 



It saw the dramatic switchover of C.R.Das who moved the central resolution accepting ‘the entire or any part of the non-violent non-cooperation scheme.’ Changes in Congress Constitution and organization:- made at Gandhi’s insistence to make it a real mass political party.

r

r

A regular four-Anna (25 paisa) membership fee per year to enable the rural and urban poor to become members. A hierarchy of village- taluka- district or town committee. Freedom Struggle II Rowlett Act & NCM

245

r

 

r

Reorganization of PCCs on a linguistic basis, with the number of delegates to be fixed in proportion to population. A 15 Member Working Committee as the Real Executive Head.

Congress now changed its character and became the organizer and the leader of the masses in national struggle for freedom.

r

Muhammad Ali Jinnah

r

Bipin Chandra Pal

r

G.S. Khaparde

Non-Cooperation Movement Gravity and extent of Non-Cooperation Movement requires an analysis at three levels: r

Phases of all India movement.

r

Regional and local variations.

r

Role of distinct social groups and classes.

All-India Movement 

Four phases: r

First Phase: January to March 1921. t

t

­

Central emphasis was on students leaving government controlled schools and colleges and lawyers giving up practice. Charkha programme:

Students and educated urban people being urged to take up spinning on a voluntary basis as a symbol of identification with the rural masses and as a quick road to swadeshi.

t Massive

student strikes Calcutta and Lahore.

246 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

at

r

Vijayawada Session of AICC found the country ‘not yet sufficiently disciplined, organized and ripe’ for civil disobedience.

Second phase: April to June 1921

Therefore concentration on-

v ­

Raising Rs one core for the Tilak Swaraj Fund.

v

Installing 20 lakh charkhas by 30 th June.

v

r

Annie Besant

Top lawyers like C.R. Das and Moti Lal Nehru gave up their practice.

r

Those Congress leaders who did not like the new turn the national movement had taken and left Congress during this period:

r



r

t

Enrolling one core Congress members;

Third phase: July to Nov 1921 t

t

t t

t t

Adopted more militant stance in face of mounting pressures from below at Bombay AICC session in July. Concentrated on boycott of foreign cloth, including public bonfires and boycott of the coming visit of the Prince of Wales in November. But, full-scale civil disobedience through non-payment of taxes was again postponed.

Gandhi gave a call for flooding the prisons with volunteers: ‘our triumph consists in thousands being led to prisons like lambs to the slaughter house’. Organization of volunteer bands was now given top priority.

Prince of Wales visit on 17 Nov 1921

­v Greeted with successful countrywide ‘hartal’. v v­

Violent clashes in Bombay.

Gandhi declared: ‘Swaraj has stunk in my nostrils’ and

r

postpone once again plans of civil disobedience in the selected single taluka of Bardoli.



Fourth Phase: November 1921 February 1922: t

Khilafat leaders, the Ali brothers, were jailed in November for speeches at the Karachi Khilafat Conference in July calling on Muslims to resign from the army.

t Khilafat

leader Hasrat Mohani demanded Complete Independence at the Ahmadabad Congress in December 1921.

t t

planned No-Revenge Campaign at Bardoli from second week of February 1922 on the issue of infringed liberties of speech, press and association. Chauri-Chaura incident:

v ­

Perturbed by this incident, Gandhi called off entire movement abruptly on February 11, 1922.

v ­

t

On February 5, 1922 angry peasants under leadership of Bhagwan Ahir attacked a police station and burnt 22 policemen alive.

Bardoli Resolution: Congress Working Committee met at Bardoli (Gujarat) on February 12, 1922 and passed a resolution stopping all activities which would lead to breaking of laws and urged Congressmen to donate time to:

National schools

Popularization of charkha

v ­

r

Removal of untouchability

Promotion of Hindu-Muslim Unity

Bardoli resolution stunned the country.

Subhas Chandra Bose, young and popular leader of Congress, wrote in his autobiography ‘The Indian Struggle’:

t Gandhi

Chauri-Chaura in Gorakhpur district (Uttar Pradesh).

v

v ­

v

response: large scale arrests and ban on meetings.

v

Constructive programme

v Temperance

t Government’s

t

v ­

‘To sound the order of retreat when public enthusiasm was reaching the boiling point was nothing short of a national calamity. The principal lieutenants of Mahatma, Deshbandhu Das, Pandit Motilal Nehru and Lala Lajpat Rai, who were all in prison, shared the popular resentment. I was with Deshbandhu at the time and could see that he was beside himself with anger and sorrow at the way Mahatma Gandhi was repeatedly bungling.’

Gandhi was arrested on 10 March 1922. Justice C N Broomfield pronounced judgment awarding 6 year imprisonment, but was released on 5 Feb 1924 on health grounds. v Hardly

any protest from masses as they were shocked by his decision to call off the NCM.

Freedom Struggle II Rowlett Act & NCM

247

Social Composition of NCM 

Upper and middle class: r

Appeal for self sacrifice was hardly very successful.

r

Number of lawyers giving up practice stood at 180 in March 1921.

r



Only 24 titles were surrendered out of 5186.

r

Students and educational boycott: r

More effective.

r

Considerable number of national schools and colleges were founded, like Jamia Milia Islamia in Aligarh later shifted to Delhi, Kasi Vidyapith at Banaras, Bihar Vidyapith and Gujarat Vidyapith.

r

r r



r

Particularly in Bengal, where about 20 headmasters or teacher were resigning per month till April 1921.

Business support and economic boycott: r

Economic boycott far more intense and successful than in 1905-08.

r

A new feature was the taking of collective pledges by merchants not to indent foreign cloth for specific periods.

r

r



Value of imports of foreign cloth falling from Rs 102 core in 1920-21 to Rs 57 cores in 1921-22.

A qualitative change in the Congress fund’s situation.

t ­

AICC had Rs 43000 in its coffers in 1920, but more than 130 lakhs between 1921 and 1923.

248 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Still a significant section of big business, still remain hostile.

An Anti-Non-Cooperation was started in 1920 by Purshottamdas Thakurdas, Jamnadas Dwarkadas, Cowanji Jahangir, Pheraze Sethna and Sitalvaad. Fear of labor unrest probably crucial in keeping industrialists’ attitude ambivalent.

t ­

Labor:

‘Capital’: the organ of British business in Calcutta made such point clearly.

r Throughout r

442 institutions started in Bihar and Orissa, 190 institutions in Bengal, 189 in Bombay, and 137 in UP.

Many of these proved short-lived, as the pull of conventional degree and jobs naturally reasserted itself when swaraj failed to come in a year.

t ­

r

1921: 396 strikes involving 6, 00,351 workers and a loss of 69, 94,426 work days. Swami Vishwanand and Swami Darshananand tried to organize the coalminers of the Ranigunj - Jharia belt.

Gandhi’s stand on ‘strikes’: ‘strikes do not fall within the plan of nonviolent non-cooperation.’

Regional Variations of NCM 

Punjab: r

Movement in the cities remained relatively weak unlike in April 1919.

r Sikh

dominated Central Punjab countryside witnessed powerful Akali Upsurge.

r Initially

r

quite an independent religious reform movement for a time being got associated with noncooperation. Akali were fighting to wrest control over the gurudwaras from corrupt mohants, who had established a mutually profitable alliance with British officials.

r

r

r r

r 

Official Akali movement led by the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Samiti grimly adhered to non-violent methods. A dissident ‘Babbar Akali Group’ emerged in March 1921 in Jullandhar and Hoshiyarpur under Kisan Singh and Mota Singh.

Sikh Gurudwara Act of 1925 established SGPC control over the Gurudwaras.

r

Powerful peasant movements

r

Bhil Tribal Movement under Motilal Tejavat.

r

r



r

r

Gandhi preferred Bardoli as the first civil disobedience centre, probably because the kaliparaj were more backward and docile than the perennially restive Baraiyas. Baraiyas social banditry under Babar deva touched a new peak in Kheda in 1921.

support came from Gujarati businessmen, professional and clerical groups.

Emergence of a radical student group under S.A. Dange, R.S. Nimhkar, V.D. Sathaya, R.V. Nadkarni (later joined by S.V. Despande and K.N. Joglekar). They were active in non-cooperation, but critical of Gandhi.

r Non-cooperation

remained

relatively weak



Tilakite political leadership was unenthusiastic about Gandhi and the non-Brahmins till the 1930.

ASSAM: r r

l

r 

Non-cooperation attained a strength which no later phase of the national movement would ever equal.

Tea-Gardens of Surma Valley at Chargola in May 1921: Coolies demanded wage increase followed by a massive exodus (8000 of labor force), amidst declaration that such was Gandhi’s order.

South India:

Of four linguistic regions of south India, only Karnataka remained largely unaffected.

Madras Presidency: r

Bombay City:

r Enthusiastic

Gandhi’s fast helped to end the riots by 23 rd November.

r Established

Bijolia Movement in Mewar.

Anand and Borsad in Kheda remained important bases.

Hartal on November 17, 1921 quickly developed into large scale riots, killing 20 persons.

Maharashtra:

Gujarat:-

r



Nankana massacre of 20 Feb. 1921 by the mohants and the British refusal to hand over the keys of the Golden Temple treasures in Nov 1921, led to direct confrontation with mass courting of arrests by Akalis.

r

Rajasthan: r



Arur Singh, the government appointed manager of the Amritsar golden temple, invited General Dyer to become a honorary Sikh like Nicholson, the butcher of Delhi in 1857.

r

Four month long strike at the White Owned Buckingham and Carnatic Textile Mills from July to Oct 1921 with full support from local noncooperation leaders like Thiruvika.

Singaravelu Chettiyar, a Madras lawyer, who became the first communist in south India, condemned Freedom Struggle II Rowlett Act & NCM

249



r

Andhra Pradesh: r r r

r

Leaders were Konda Venkatappayya, A. Kaleshwar Rao, T. Prakasham and Pattabhi Sitaramayya.

Led by Duggirala Gopala Krishnayya, its 15000 inhabitants refused to pay taxes and collectively migrated for eleven months to a new settlement named Ramanagar.

‘Forest Satyagraha’ t­

In Rayachoti taluka of Cuddapah and Palnad taluka of Guntur.

Tribal and poor peasants fought against forest restrictions with nationalistic fervor.

Moplahs Of Malabar:

r

r

Andhra upsurge: resistance of the small town of Chirala-Parala in Guntur district to the government move to make it a municipality (which implied a sharp hike in local taxes from Rs 4000 to Rs 30000).

t ­

r

r

Andhra political awakening of 1921 was reflected in Unnava Lakshmi Narayana Telugu Novel ‘Malapalli (1922)’.

t



r

Gandhi for imposing brakes on kisan movements and urged the use of non-violent non-cooperation against ‘capitalistic autocracy’ and suggested a rather eclectic communism which would include the charkha.

Most violent of outburst of 1921.

the

millenarian

A tenant rights agitation, developing in Malabar from 1916, was taken up by the Khilafat movement after Manjeri Conference in April 1920.

250 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Police raid on Tirurangadi Mosque on 20 Aug 1921 in search of arms sparked off a major rebellion. British totally lost control over Ernad and Walluvanad talukas of south Malabar for several months.

Khilafat republics were setup at a number of places under ‘Presidents’ Kunhammad Haji, Kalathingal Mammad, Ali Musaliyar, Siukh Koya Thangal and Imbichi Koya Thangal.

Black Hole of Podanur:- at Podanur on 20 November, the bodies of 66 asphyxiated Moplah prisoners were found in a railway wagon into which they had been shut in.

CONTRIBUTION OF NONCOOPERATION MOVEMENT TO NATIONAL MOVEMENT 

It made Congress a mass-based political organization.



Peasants, artisans and urban poor were brought into the national movement.



Indian people lost sense of fear and gained self-confidence and self-esteem.







Nationalist sentiments and national movement reached remotest corners of the land.

Women drawn into the movement.

Notion of invincibility of British Rule was challenged by satygraha and mass struggle.

Criticism

• Abrupt withdrawal of movement led to demoralization in the national ranks.

• Differences and divisions among the leaders leading to birth of the Swarajists.

LEFT MOVEMENT IN INDIA

LEFT MOVEMENT IN INDIA

LEFT MOVEMENT 

Began originally in Russia.



M.N. Roy (original name - Narendra Nath Bhattacharya).



First Indian Communist Party was founded by him in 1920 in Tashkent Military School (Soviet Russia).

r

r

Lenin appointed him Chief Advisor on colonial matters in Asia.

r

Lenin recognized him as ‘symbol of Revolution in the East’.

Rise of educated youth in the freedom struggle. Revolutionary terrorism was on the rise.

Impact of Russian Revolution of 1917 – “a mighty rule could be overthrown as was done with mighty Czarist Empire”.

Socialist doctrines became popular with the Communist Manifesto of Karl Marx.

r

Print media contributed further with publication of various socialist weakly.

t

r

Great Depression of 1929.

r

Highly critical of Gandhi:

He believed – Gandhi ‘championed the cause of reactionary and medieval forces’. Gandhi’s non-violent and noncooperation method was hardly different from constitutional methods, so could never be basis for any revolutionary change.

1920s: national movement was in full swing: r

Alternative method of struggle led by ‘Lal-Bal-Pal’. (Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak & Bipin Chandra Pal).

and guided many communist leaders such as S A Dange, Nalini Gupta, S Usmani to set up communist groups in India.

t



Rise in various streams and methods of fighting against British rule.

r

initially a revolutionary extremist, also founded Communist Party of Mexico outside Russia.

r Encouraged

r

r r

r Roy, r

Unrest among many about the inaction of the Moderates.

r

Heavily influenced by International politics.

r

r

Was the age of Gandhian politics.

252 From Indus to Independence: Modern India

A number of youth associations founded as alternate method of Gandhian politics.

KANPUR CONSPIRACY CASE 1924 l 

Communist leaders – S. A. Dange, Muzaffar Ahmad, Nalini Gupta and S Usmani were tried for sedition. All India Communist Conference at Kanpur (December 2, 1925): r

Communist Party of formally constituted.

India

(CPI)

r All

ROLE OF BRITISH COMMUNISTS l

l l

Prominent British communists – R.P. Dutt, Allison, Phillip Spratt, Hutchinson.

Contributed to strengthen the base of communism in India. R.P. Dutt r r

l

l

l

of

Said that Indian bourgeoisie was a counter-revolutionary force. ‘Struggle of Indian people must be ultimately a struggle for social liberation’.

r

Arrived in India in December 1926.

r

Got financial support from Moscow.

r

Worked among workers of cotton mills and railways.

r

Honest conduct

Organizational framework Spirit and courage to take risks

POLITICS OF TRADE UNIONISM Before 1920, Indian working class lacked effective leadership.

After 1st World War, drastic change in the working and methods of working class could be seen.

of

Congress intense

Comintern

in

Called upon Indian communists to develop a militant communist party to energise the masses.

Wanted ‘to severe connections with all elements of bourgeoisie and the Indian National Congress’.

It proved to be a great tactical error for Indian communism:

t

t

Reached India in September 1927.

New strategy

t

t

t

Attack on Gandhi and Congress alienated a good number of masses.

Created confusion and division; Bombay Communist Party divided into many groups. M.N. Roy too dissatisfied with this new policy.

Roy was expelled from Comintern in 1929.

r This

Contribution of British communists to Indian communism:

r

l

r

Formed ‘Workers and Peasants Party’ in 2 largest industrial cities, Bombay and Calcutta.

r

6 th Congress of September 1928:

t

H.L. Hutchinson also arrived in 1928.

r

l

r

B.F. Bradley: r

1928 was the ‘year industrial unrest’.

Ultra-Leftist Policy in 1928:

British

Phillip Sprat r

l

One of the founders Communist Party.



r

India Trade Union (AITUC) formed in 1920.



policy continued to guide Indian communists till 1935, when 7 th Comintern (Moscow Aug 1935) reversed this by advocating formation of popular and broad national fronts against Imperialism.

United Front Policy r r

adopted by 7 th Comintern held at Moscow in Aug 1935. Dutt-Bradley Thesis:

t 7 th t

Comintern line was clarified by R P Dutt and Philip Bradley.

published as article named “The Anti-Imperialist People’s Front in India” in February 1936. Left Movement in India

253

t r r

r

r

r

Thesis welcomed all including the liberals in the ‘United Front’ against British Rule.

P.C. Joshi, who took over in 1935, advocated the formation of a united front with socialists. In 1936, Communist Party of India decided that its members should join Indian National Congress (INC) and cooperate with Congress Socialist Party (CSP). Thus, linked the communist struggle with the national movement.

Despite the ban on CPI in 1934, the new policy paved the way for smooth functioning, particularly during Congress Ministries in Provinces during 1937-39. In 1939, Joshi in party National Front wrote: ‘the class struggle today is our struggle of which Congress is organ’.

weekly, greatest national the main

CSP-CPI TUSSLE 

Indian communists could not continue in the CSP for long.



Four founding members of CSP – Achyut Patwardhan, Ram Manohar Lohiya, Asoka Mehta and M.R. Masani – resigned from National Executive of the party in protest to stop communist infiltration and expansion.





Second World War and Indian Communists  



254 From Indus to Independence: Modern India

With the attack of Germany on Russia, they declared it as ‘People’s War’ and called upon Indian people to support Allied forces, of which Britain was a part.

Congress and most other nationalists put condition to support war-effort, if Britain transferred the substance of power to India immediately and promised complete independence after the war.

CPI and the Quit India Movement 

Communists did not support rather condemned the Quit India Movement, launched by Congress in 1942.

BRITISH GOVERNMENT’S ATTITUDE TOWARDS COMMUNISTS Before World War II 

Meerut Conspiracy Case r

Started in 1929 and verdict given on January 16, 1933.

r

Put to trial under Sec 121-A of Indian Penal Code of 1860 for depriving the King Emperor of the sovereignty of British India and for using methods and carrying out programmes and plans outlined and ordained by Communist International.

r

Congress Socialists felt that real objective of the communists was not to co-operate with the CSP or INC in achieving common political objective, but to capture the leadership of non-communist parties and to strengthen their base.

Lastly in 1940, CSP and CPI parted their company.

When War declared and Soviet Russia was not part of it, Indian communists declared it an ‘Imperialist-War’.

r



r

Several trade unionists including 3 Englishmen arrested

Main leaders convicted were Muzaffar Ahmad, S A Dange, Shaukat Usmani, K.N. Joglekar, Philip Spratt, Benjamin Francis Bradley and Lester Hutchinson. Workers all over the world launched agitations against trial and conviction.

July 1934, CPI was declared illegal and banned.

Post World War II  In

lieu

of

Government: r



r

support

for

war-effort,



India (CPI) and made it legal.



prison.

Lifted ban from Communist Party of

When most of Congress leaders were

in jail, Communists functioned freely and came to dominate the AITUC, All Federation.

Success of Left Movement

l

l

Background

Released Indian communists from

India Kisan Sabha and All India Students l

CONGRESS SOCIALIST PARTY

Besides British Imperialism, brought to the fore the ills and exploitation of Indian

agrarian and industrial society by forces from within.

Organization and holding of workers and peasant movements in India in 1930s.

Could not understand the Indian reality.

l

l



‘class antagonism’ and ‘violence’ – were not suited to Indian tradition.

l Women l

l

were

representation.

not

given

much

Failed to understand and work with caste dynamics of Indian rural society.

Movement not clearly understood by Indian masses.

resolution.

r

passed

‘Poorna

elected

Swaraj’

r

r 

Adopted a resolution ‘on Fundamental Rights and Economic and Social Program’.

1933:

r

over the nationalist movement.

Basic themes of Marxian Communism –

r Congress

was

1929: Bihar Samyawadi Party was formed by Congress-leftists.

hegemony of socialist ideas and parties Could not work unitedly.

Nehru Congress President.



Failure of Left Movement

l

r Jawaharlal

1931 Karachi Congress Session:

Congress.

Failed in its basic task of establishing

1929 Lahore Session of Congress:



Development of Left orientation in the

l

During 1920s, aspirational youth leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose emerged within the Congress.

In Benaras (Varanasi) a socialist group was formed by Sampoornanad, T. Bhattacharya and Kamlapati Tripathi.

Bombay group of Socialists was formed by M.R. Masani, Yusuf Mehraully, Achyut Patwardhan, and Purushottam Tricumdas. Socialist group emerged in Kerala under E.M.S. Namboodiripad and in Delhi by Faridul Haque Ansari.

Civil Disobedience Movement (1932-33): during their arrest young Congressmen Jai Prakash Narayan, Achyut Patwardhan, M R Masani, Asoka Mehta, N G Gore, S M Joshi and M L Dantwala – took decision to form socialist party within Congress. r Drafted r

a Constitution and Programme known as Poona Draft.

a

Draft criticized Gandhi’s programme of constructive work and accepted ‘Scientific Socialism’. Left Movement in India

255

Formation of Congress Socialist Party 

First All India Socialist Conference r

At Patna on May 17, 1934.

r Under

Presidentship Narendra Dev.

r Jai r 

of

Prakash Narayan organizing secretary.

became

Passed a resolution emphasizing the need for ‘an All India organization of the socialists in the Congress’.

r

at Bombay on October 20-21, 1934.

r

Declared the formation of ‘All India Congress Socialist Party’.

r

Approved the Constitution of the party. Formed within the Congress.

r Prominent

r r

Leaders: Jai Prakash Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev, Achyut Patwardhan, M R Masani, Ram Manohar Lohiya, Charles Mascarenhas, Farid-ul-Haque Ansari, B V Karnik, P K Pillai, Mohan Lal Gautam and Kamladevi Chattopadhyaya. Main Goals: ‘Complete Independence’ and ‘Socialist State’. Declared 15 objectives.

Legislative Politics r

r

Patna Conference May 1934: stated that the ‘resolution passed by Lahore session of INC to boycott councilentry’ be maintained until INC rescinded this in an open session.

Bombay Conference Oct 1934: maintained that parliamentary activity would be conducted in the name of INC, but socialists would not hold ministerial offices as they were creation of British imperialism.

256 From Indus to Independence: Modern India

AICC Meeting at Delhi:

t

Acharya

First All India Socialist Party Conference r



r

t



t

After 1937 Provincial Assembly Elections, ‘Office - acceptance’ resolution was moved by Rajendra Prasad and was seconded by Vallabhbhai Patel. J.P. moved an amendment stating CSP’s policy.

But resolution passed by 135 to 78 votes.

Tripuri Crisis (1939) r r

By 1939, leftists elements within Congress threatened to dominate the rightist leaders and also Gandhi. Subhas Bose, who was elected INC President in 1938 at Haripura, announced his candidature for second term.

r Seeing

r

the Second World War imminent, Bose suggested the launch of a nationwide civil disobedience movement as a final advance in the direction of complete independence. Gandhi was not in favour at that time and in the manner as advocated by Bose.

r Gandhi

also opposed Bose candidature for re-election as President and supported Pattabhi Sitaramayya for Congress Presidentship.

r But r

the Socialists supported Bose who re-elected defeating Sitaramayya. On Bose re-election, 12 out of 15 members of Congress Working Committee resigned.

r Thereafter

G.B. Pant moved a resolution, known as Pant Resolution, which stated: “Gandhi alone could

lead the Congress, and therefore the President should appoint the working committee for the ensuing year in accordance with the wishes of Gandhiji.” r

The Socialists in order to preserve the unity of the Congress, did not take part in voting and remained neutral.

r In

these circumstances, resolution was passed.

r Bose r



r

Pant

not only resigned from Presidentship but left the Congress. Resignations in large numbers came from Bengal, UP and Punjab.

like ‘ABC of Dislocation’ and ‘Instructions – Sabotage of Communication’ were seized by police at Nasik and in Punjab.

t JP

and Lohiya ‘National Heroes’.

r

r r

l l

Anushilan Party, which had joined CSP, separated in protest.

JP set up secret organizations in Bihar, United Provinces, Gujarat, Calcutta and Bombay.

t t

CSP decided to fight the struggle in the name of Congress and disbanded CSP as an organization. JP in his letter ‘To All Fighters of Freedom’ offered a complete programme of national revolution.

JP and his socialists organized “Azad Dastas” or bands of guerrilla fighters in 1943. Pamphlets

r

r

Quit India Movement (QIM)

t

Three modes were discussed:

First, the Augusteers, who took part in QIM, wanted a loose organization within INC. Leaders supported this – Mohanlal Gautam, Hariharnath Shastri and N. Choudhari.

Second Group comprised new war time recruits like Aruna Asaf Ali wanted a militant party.

r Third

CSP also wanted Gandhi and INC to launch a massive mass movement and was not satisfied with “Limited Individual Satyagraha” started by Gandhi in 1941.

In Aug 1942 launch of QIM fulfilled CSP demand of mass movement.

With the end of war, in May 1946 at Bombay revival of CSP started.

r

CSP organized anti-War meetings all over the country to create public opinion against British war attempt.

t

as

REORGANIZATION OF CSP

Second World War r

emerged

represented by senior Socialists like Acharya Narendra Dev urged for reorganization on its old pattern with a view to influencing the Congress till attainment of Independence. Jai Prakash Narayan too supported this line. Party revived and decided to function within Congress till the struggle for freedom was going on.

r JP 

was entrusted with task of reorganization of party in different provinces.

Independence and Partition: r

r

Socialists were opposed to Partition, but at AICC meeting at Delhi in June 1947, they remained neutral in voting to ratify CWC’s decision accepting partition.

Lohiya said that the Socialists did not have courage to oppose Partition-plan. Left Movement in India

257



Emergence of Independent Socialist Party: r

February 1948 - Congress Working Committee (CWC) declared that:

t ‘Cooperative

r

t

r

commonwealth’ as the goal of INC, instead of ‘Socialist Society’ as urged by the socialists. No member of an elective Congress committee including the primary Congress Panchayat would be a

258 From Indus to Independence: Modern India

member of any other political party, which had a separate membership, constitution and programme.

March 1948 – National Executive of Socialist Party at Bombay decided that ‘all members of the party resign from the primary membership of Congress’. After Nasik Conference from 19 to 21 March 1948, an independent party “The Socialist Party” was formed.

TRADE UNION MOVEMENT IN INDIA

TRADE UNION MOVEMENT

FIRST PHASE (1850 - 1903) 





Foundation of modern industries in India was laid between 1850 and 1870. r r

First Cotton Mill in 1853 in Bombay. First Jute Mill in 1855 in Calcutta.

Lord Dalhousie’s Railway Minute of 1853 r

r



r

An associate of Jyotiba Phule.

Started a weekly ‘Deenbandhu’ from Bombay in 1880.

r Founded



Bombay Millhands Association 1890; was a labour union not a trade union, only gave free advice to millhands.

First Factory Commission in 1875.

260 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

to factories using mechanical powers and with employees of not less than 100 persons. Prohibited employment of children below 7.

Limited number of working hours (9 hrs) for children between 7-12. Dangerous machine to be fenced. 4 holidays per month.

r Opposed

Started a monthly ‘Bharat Shramjeebi’ to educate workers.

Narayan Meghji Lokhande: r

r

“Working Men’s Club” in

Sorabjee Shapoorji Bengalee in 1875 started agitation to draw attention of the Government towards deplorable conditions of women and children in Indian industries. r

r

A Brahmo Samajist.

1870.

r Applicable

r

Sasipad Banerjee:

To enquire into the working conditions of the factories.

First Factory Act 1881:

r

Envisaged a network of railways connecting main places with the ports and providing for strategic needs as well as commercial development.

r Founded





r

 

by Ranade’s ‘Quarterly Journal’ and Tilak’s Mahratta, as Nationalist opinion generally refused to concern itself with labour conditions in Indian-owned enterprises.

Second Factory Commission 1884. Second Factory Act 1891: r

Applied to all factories employing not less than 50 persons.

r

Increased minimum age of children from 7 to 9 and upper age from 12 to 14.

r

r

Limited working hours for women to 11 hrs with an interval of one and half hrs.

One day rest a week for all workers.

r

SECOND PHASE (1903-18) 

Labour Unrest in Bengal. r Strikes r

in white controlled enterprises. Reasons: rising prices and racial insults.

r r r r

t

Aswini Kumar Banerjee

t

‘Athanasius’ Apurba Kr, Ghosh

t

r r

r

Prematosh Bose

Tram strike in Calcutta in October 1905: settled through the efforts of Banerjee and Ghosh. Strikes in Jute mills and railway workshops. First Real Labour Union: Printers Union, set up on October 21, 1905.





Set up by clerks.

t

Meetings at Asansol, Jamalpur and Raniganj.

Indian Millhands Union at Budgebudge in Aug 1906 by A.K. Banerjee. Inspirer Journals t t

Pioneer: Anglo Indian journal Nabasakti: Extremist journal

Tilak’s arrest in 1908:

t

No real political or workers’ strikes in Bengal, unlike Bombay.

r

A plebian agitator from Madura.

r

Shiva caused workers strike at foreign owned Coral Cotton Mills Result: 50% rise in wages.

l

Chidambaram Pillai preached message of swaraj and boycott.

Factory Acts of 1909 and 1911: concerned with Jute industry. Other Most Notable Organisations: r Amalgamated r r

Society of Servants of India (1897).

Railway

Postal Union in Bombay(1907).

Kamgar Hitvardhak Sabha (1909). Social Service League (1911).

Features of labour movement during pre1918 phase: r Movement r

To draw in the coolies.

Jute strikes frequent between 1905 and 1908 – affecting at various times 18 out of 37 mills.

Subramanian Shiva

r

Railway Men’s Union in July 1906:

t

Nationalist interest in labour slumped totally after 1908 and would not be renewed before 1919-1921.

r With

Prabhat Kusum Roychoudhari

In September 1905: walkout of 247 clerks of Burn Company in Howrah in protest against a new work-regulation.

t r



Pioneer labour leaders: t

r

r

Plantation and mine labour unaffected.

r r

led mostly by social reformers and philanthropists, not by workers.

Leaders belonged to moderate school of politics. There were sporadic organizations.

No trade union in true sense existed.

THIRD STAGE (1918- 26) 



After 1 st World War, trade union movement got intensified.

First Trade Union in India: Madras Labour Union in 1918. r r

Founders: G. Ramanajula Naidu and G. Chelvapati Chetti ( both associated with Annie Besant’s New India. President: B.P. Wadia.

Trade Union Movement in India

261



r

Other promoter: T.V. Kalyansundar Mudaliar ( known as Thiru Vi).

r

‘Plague Bonus’: mill owners decided to pay ‘plague bonus’ as high as 75% of normal wages to dissuade the workers from leaving Ahmadabad.

Ahmadabad Mill Strike 1918:

r r

r

r

 

t

Mill owners prepared to give 20% increase.

Gandhi’s intervened in Feb-Mar 1918.

r



Gandhi persuaded workers for 35% wage hike.

r Gandhi, r

r r r

assisted by Ansuya Sarabhai, organized daily mass meetings of workers.

t

t ­ 

Workers on their first day would receive 35% raise, on the second day 20% increase and from the 3rd day until the date of an award by an arbitrator would receive 27 ½ % increase.

Finally, arbitrator’s award went in favour of workers and 35% raise was given to them.

Textile Labour Association or Mahajan Sangh at Ahmadabad.

262 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Majur

First session in Bombay in October 1920.

t ­

President: Lala Lajpat Rai

General Secretary: Dewan Chaman Lal.

Response of Indian National Congress: r

Nagpur Session (December 1920)

t ­ Congress

expressed fullest sympathy with the workers of India in their struggle for legitimate rights.

Gaya Session (1922): t

Congress went a step further and decided to render assistance to AITUC in organizing workers.

t ­ C.R.

Das held TWO HOURS PRESIDENTSHIP of AITUC.

Gandhi announced on 15 March a fast until a settlement was reached. Settlement on March 18, 1918:

By N.M. Joshi and Tilak.

t ­

r

Mill owners ended lock out on 12 March and announced that they would take back the workers willing to accept 20% increase.

Weapon of hunger strike was used by Gandhi for the first time.

N.M. Joshi was the First Indian Representative in International Labour Organization (ILO) in 1919. r

Conflict started:

Workers demanding 50% increase in wages in view of price hike.

Founded by Mahatma Gandhi in 1920.

Formation of AITUC (All India Trade Union Congress) in October 1920.

After epidemic, mill owners decided to discontinue the bonus. t

r

FOURTH PHASE (1926-32) 

Indian Trade Union Act 1926. r r

For the first time, trade union got some legal protection.

Bombay textile Labour Union was the first union to be registered under the new Act.



From 1925 onwards, communist influence noticeable in AITUC.



1928 was the ‘year of intense industrial unrest’.



In 1927, Workers and Peasants Party came into existence.



Trade Disputes Act 1929.



Division of AITUC



Public Safety Bill 1929. r

First in 1929:

t ­

When Jawaharlal Nehru was its President.

t­

V.V. Giri became President of ITUF

t ­ r



r

N.M. Joshi formed Indian Trade Union Federation (ITUF).

Second in 1931.

t ­ t

Red Trade Union Congress (RED TUC) came into existence.

r



r

Set up to inquire into the existing conditions of labour in industrial undertakings and plantations in India Submitted report in 1931.

r Recommendations: t ­

t

Appointment of labour officers. Canteen facility workers.

to

Meerut Conspiracy Trial 1929: r

r

r

industrial

Initiated in 1929 and verdict given on January 16, 1933. Several trade unionists including 3 Englishmen arrested.

Put to trial under Section 121-A of Indian Penal Code of 1860 for depriving the King Emperor of the sovereignty of British India and for using methods and carrying out programmes and plans outlined and ordained by Communist International.

Phase of Rejoining of Split Unions: r

ITUF merged in NTUF organized by N M Joshi and R.R. Bhakhle in 1933.

r

In 1938, both AITUC and NTUF held a common session at Nagpur.

r

Leaders were Ranadive, Despande and B.N. Dutt.

John Henry Whitley as chairman and N.M. Joshi and Dewan Chaman Lal as members.

Workers all over the world launched agitations against trial and conviction.

FIFTH PHASE (1933-38)

Whitley Commission on Labour 1929:

r



r

Main leaders convicted were Muzaffar Ahmad, S A Dange, Shaukat Usmani, K.N. Joglekar, Philip Spratt, Benjamin Francis Bradley and Lester Hutchinson.

r

REDTUC amalgamated in AITUC in 1935.

In 1940 a Final Unity between AITUC and NTUF happened.



Indian Delimitation Committee under Laurie Hammond 1935



Indian Bolshevik Party – Dutt and Majumdar.

  

Payment of Wages Act 1936.

Hindustan Mazdoor Sabha in 1938. r

By leaders like Sardar Patel, Dr Rajendra Prasad and Acharya Kriplani.

r

Enquiry Committee headed by Dr Rajendra Prasad.

Kanpur Strike 1938

SIXTH PHASE (1939-45) 

Lahore Conference in 1941: r r r

Decided to set up a new central trade union named Indian Federation of Labour. Promoter was M.N. Roy.

It was a pro-Government organization. Trade Union Movement in India

263

r



M.N. Roy was the first Indian who took part in 3 rd International Communist Conference at Moscow.

r M.N.

Roy also Democratic Party.

founded

National Service Ordinance 1940.

264 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Radical



Essential Services Maintenance Ordinance 1941.



Industrial Disputes Act 1947.





INTUC (Indian National Trade Union Congress) in 1947 on Gandhi lines. Minimum Wages Act 1948.

REVOLUTIONARY TERRORISM OR EXTREMISM

PHASE I 1900-1920   

Beginning of 20 th century brought another method of political struggle known as revolutionary terrorism or extremism.



Mainly operated in Bengal, Maharashtra and Punjab.

These regions were politically more active than other parts of country.

Economic exploitation Imperialist Government: r

r 

by

Their works were constant sources of information which influenced the minds of revolutionaries.

Methods of nationalist struggle: r

r

Moderate phase of Congress (18851905) had adopted methods such as petitions, prayers, appeals and memorandum. Extremist leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai and Bipin Chandra Pal endorsed passive resistance methods – boycott, hartals and demonstrations.

r Political

philosophy of the Revolutionaries was to bring an end to foreign predominance in all forms, and they found methods of struggles of Moderates and Extremists insufficient to achieve this.

266 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r

r

British

Dadabhai Naoroji, G.V. Joshi, R.C. Dutt, G.S. Iyer and William Digby exposed how British colonial economic policies had ruined the Indian economy and caused deindustrialization, drain of wealth, unemployment and impoverishment.

r

r

RISE AND GROWTH OF REVOLUTIONARY EXTREMISM: FACTORS 

Role of Renaissance – Indian as well as European.



r

Inculcated the ideas of nationalism, democracy, self-government and the rights of citizen in the minds of western educated youths. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Bankim Chandra Chatterji, Swami Vivekananda and Swami Dayanand Saraswati opened a new era of national awakening.

European thinkers – Bacon, Spencer, Locke, John Stuart Mill, Adam Smith and Carlyle – opened new doors of thought and expression. Lives and teachings of Burke, Voltaire, Garibaldi and Mazzini – greatly influenced Indian youth.

Patriotism and sacrifice became their mantras.

Role of Cultural Revivalism r

r

Renaissance leaders used religious festivals and fairs as a platform to spread nationalism and radical ideas among the people.

Tilak started Ganapati, Shivaji and Ramdasa festivals in the 1890s.

r Sedition

r

r r

Committee described Ganapati and Shivaji festivals as first indication of the beginning of revolutionary movement. Bipin Chandra Pal revived the cult of Shakti and declared that the worship of Mother India (Bharat Mata) as the worship of Goddess Durga. Dayanand gave the slogan, ‘Go back to Vedas’.

Aurobindo Ghosh, Barindra Kumar Ghosh - members of Yugantar group and Upendra Nath Banerjee admitted the necessity of religion to inspire people.

r 



Religious revivalism became a vital force for the growth of revolutionary work in the country.

Nationalist Movements Germany and Ireland.

of

r Italian r

idea of armed fascinated Indian youth.

Italy,

r

r

and



Maharashtra 

r By



Chapekar brothers (Damodar and Balakrishna) on June 22, 1897. They shot Lt. Ayrest, though target was Mr. Rand, President of Plague committee at Poona.

‘Mitra Mela’ and ‘Abhinav Bharat’ r

V.D. Savarkar founded an association ‘Mitra Mela’ in Nasik in 1900 to obtain freedom through armed revolt.

r Later r

Bengal 

in 1904, developed this association further and renamed it ‘Abhinav Bharat’. Its two members – Mirza Abbas and B.N. Bapat – went to Paris to learn the art of making bomb.

Secret societies were formed on the pattern of Carbonari, secret revolutionary societies of Italy.

r

Founded on March 24, 1902 in Calcutta. Promoth Nath Mitra, Jatindranath Banerjee and Barindra Kr. Ghosh. many throughout Bengal.

branches

Jnanendra Nath Basu in Midnapore, Pulin Das in Dacca.

r

r

l

activities confined initially to physical and moral training of members. Was banned along with other samitis under Samitis Act of 1908.

Swadeshi Movement (1905) onwards:

r

First sign of Revolutionary Terrorism: r

Society:

r Their

Gave national politics a push towards extremism.

REVOLUTIONARY INDIVIDUALS/ GROUPS AND THEIR ACTIVITIES

r

Secret

r Established

Irish revolution also showed them the path of armed struggle.

Militancy – not Mendicancy became the method of struggle.

First revolutionary Anushilan Samiti: r By

struggle

Partition of Bengal in 1905 subsequent Swadeshi Movement. r



Bengal Extremism wasted a lot of energies in purely verbal or literary violence and in-fighting over the Congress. By 1907, mass movement perspective was being challenged from within its own ranks by calls for elite-action terrorism.

FIRST systematic critique of Moderate politics brought in 1893-94 in a series of articles entitled ‘New Lamps for Old’ in Indu Prakash.

Revolutionary Contributors: r

Aurobindo Ghosh (in Baroda)

t Rejected t

progress.

slow

constitutional

Tried to organize secret societies by the turn of the century.

t Sent r

Jatindranath Banerjee and Barindra Kumar Ghosh to Bengal as emissaries.

Barindra Kumar Ghosh

t

Younger brother of Aurobindo Ghosh who sent him to Bengal from Baroda. Revolutionary Terrorism or Extremism

267

r

t His

Yugantar party had commenced manufacture of Bomb in Maniktala garden in Calcutta.

t

‘Yugantar’: a weekly newspaper

t

t Became t t

r

important organ revolutionary propaganda.

of

Wrote on April 22, 1906 after Barisal Conference: ‘Force must be stopped by force.’ Appealed on August 26, 1907: ‘O Patriots! Without blood will the country awake?’

Yugantar Party

t t t

It was not a single organization but loose confederation of several groups. Name ‘Yugantar’ Government.

given

Led by Jatindranath Mukherjee.

Hemchandra Kanungo

t t

t

r

to build international contacts so as to organize a real military conspiracy. Most remarkable among the first revolutionary generation.

Went Paris, France in 1906 to get military training and learnt art of making bombs from a Russian anarchist woman, Nicholas Safranski.

t

t

After return in Jan 1908, set up a combined religious school and bomb factory in Maniktala suburb of Calcutta

First use for killing of Sir Bamfylde Fuller, Lt Governor of Eastern Bengal by Prafulla Chaki in October 1907. But did not succeed.

268 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose were sent to kill him v

v ­

Prafulla shot himself dead

Khudiram, only 18 at that time, was tried and hanged.

This bomb case was further tried as Alipore Bomb Conspiracy Case or Maniktala Garden Case:

v ­

t

In April 1908 threw a bomb at a carriage, which they believed was occupied by Kingsford, but killed two English ladies – Mrs. Kennedy and Miss Kennedy.

Tilak supported action of Prafulla Chaki and Khudiram Bose writing an article in Kesari on 22 June 1908. For that, he got 6 years imprisonment.

v

Use of Maniktala Bombs:

t

Next target was Mr. Kingsford, who had ordered several men to be flogged during Swadeshi Movement in Calcutta. He was transferred to Muzaffarpur (Bihar).

v

by

t Tried r

t

Next attempt to blow up the train of Lt. Governor of Bengal Andrew Frazer on December 6, 1907.

64 persons arrested which included Aurobindo Ghosh, his brother Barindra Kr Ghosh, Hem Chandra Das, Bhupendra Nath Dutta, Kanai Lal Dutt and Satendranath Bose.

Narendra Gosain became approver of the police, who was shot dead in prison by Kanai Lal Dutt and Satendranath Bose.

Only Aurobindo was acquitted, rest sentenced life imprisonment.

r

Dacca Anushilan of Pulin Das

t

t

Mainly active during 1910-14.

r

More militant in character than Calcutta Anushilan.

t Concentrated

on ‘swadeshi dacoities’ to raise funds and assassinations of officials and traitors after 1911.

t Had

r

t t t

t

t t

t t

t 

Period of World War I – Germany fought Britain.

r

t

Contact with 16 Rajput Rifles was also made for seizure of Fort William.

Jatin severely wounded in gunbattle with police and died near Balasore.

Pratapaditya Utsav in Bengal on the lines of Maharashtra Shivaji Utsav.

t Founded

'BHARAT STREE MAHAMANDAL' in 1910 in

Was arrested and kept in jail for 4 years. First Woman Prisoner Regulation III of 1818.

under

r

Sonar Bangla: First underground publication of revolutionary literature.

r

Anandmath of Bankim Chandra.

Rannati: revolutionary text.

important

r

Bande Mataram of Aurobindo Ghosh.

r

Indian War of Independence 1857 by V.D. Savarkar.

Life of Mazzini by Lala Lajpat Rai.

r

Sandhya by Brahmo Bandhab Upadhyaya.

r

Pather Dabi by Sarat Chandra Chatterji.

r

Naren Bhattacharji was arrested.

t Started

Gave shelter to some young revolutionaries connected with Bagha Jatin’s German plot.

Joined Yugantar Party.

Role of Revolutionary literature:

r

Indo-German Plan was unearthed and foiled by the police.

Niece of Rabindranath Tagore.

t

t

r

Ship known as S.S. Maverick containing ammunitions and rifles sent to Bengal.

A member of Anushilan Samiti.

A widow in her early life.

r Bartaman

Naren Bhattacharji (M.N. Roy) was sent to Batavia to arrange German arms.

Sarla Devi

t



Jatin Mukherjee with other Bengal groups planned armed rising with the help of German arms.

Women Revolutionaries in Bengal

t

t

pamphlet

Jatin Mukherjee (Bagha Jatin)

Nanibala Devi

t

nearly 500 branches throughout the Bengal Province. Published a secret ‘Swadhin Bharat’.

Allahabad and other cities. This was first All India Woman Organization.

Bandi Jeevan by Sachin Sanyal.

Sedition Committee Report of 1919 stated that the revolutionaries drew up a remarkable series of text books for their colleagues. They organized libraries and reading rooms to gather political education.

Punjab  

Revolutionary movement had its roots in agrarian unrest of 1907. Immediate cause: Punjab Canal Colony’s Bill of 1906 passed in February 1907. r

Under this Bill, farmer was mere tenant and land belonged to Government. Revolutionary Terrorism or Extremism

269

r

Peasants denied the right to cut trees on their land.

r

Prominent Leaders: Lala Lajpat Rai and Sardar Ajit Singh.

r

r r r

r

r

Land revenue and water tax also increased. Centres of activities: rural areas as well as Rawalpindi, Lahore and Amritsar. Stirring poem of Lala Banke Dayal: “Pagri Sambhal O Jatta, Pagri Sambhal O” touched many hearts.

Ajit Singh founded a society named A n j u m a n - i - M u h i b b a n - i -Wa t a n , popularly known as Bharat Mata Society in 1907. Sufi Amba Prasad and Lal Chand Falak were his associates.

Government repression started; Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh deported to Burma, but released soon.

United Provinces 

A powerful force only in Benaras. r r

r

Delhi 

Marathi and Bengali communities lived in Benaras.

A revolutionary group emerged, under Sachindra Nath Sanyal, maintaining contacts with Calcutta through Mokhoda Charan Samadhyaya (editor of Sandhya after Brahmo Bandhab’s death).

student like Sundar Lal recruited to Extremism.

Attack on Viceroy Hardinge on December 23 1912 (Delhi Conspiracy case). r By r

r

Ras Behari Bose and Sachindra Nath Sanyal.

During his official entry into the new capital i.e. Delhi, Viceroy was on elephant and was wounded.

270 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Master Amir Chand, Awadh Bihari and Bal Mukund were hanged.

r

Chief accused Ras Behari Bose escaped.

r

During 1908-18: 186 revolutionaries killed or convicted.

As per Rowlett Committee Report:

r

Between 1906 and 1917: In Bengal, number of dacoities: 110 and attempts at murder: over 60.

REVOLUTIONARY ACTIVITIES ABROAD

Why Indian revolutionaries went abroad? l

Government repression forced them to look for shelter outside.

l

To quest for arms.

l l l

To bring out revolutionary literature immune from Indian Press Act 1910.

To end the intense Hindu religiosity and rather limited social outlook of early militant nationalism. To develop links with the international socialist movements.

Shyamji Krishnavarma l

A disciple of Swami Dayanand.

l

Original name of ‘India House’ was ‘Indian Home Rule Society’

l

Started in 1905 ‘India House’ for Indian students in London.

l Started l

l

l

a Sociologist’.

monthly

journal

‘Indian

Started a scholarship scheme to bring radical youth from India.

Krishna himself largely confined to theory of passive resistance.

From 1907, Krishna’s India House was taken over by a revolutionary group led by V.D. Savarkar from Nasik.

l l

In 1910, V.D. Savarkar had been extradited from London to be given life transportation in Nasik Conspiracy case. Shyamji left London and settled in Paris.

Vinayak Damodar Savarkar l

l

l

Also known as Vir Savarkar or V D Savarkar.

A young graduate from Fergusson College, Pune. He availed of Krishnavarma’s fellowship offer and left for London in 1906.

l Wrote l l l l

l

l

‘Indian War of Independence 1857’ in Marathi and published in 1909, later it was translated into English. Book was banned by the British.

wrote a pamphlet ‘Grave-Warming’.

Arrested in 1910 and extradited to India. On return to India, tried on two charges: r

r

Abetment to murder of Nasik Collector Jackson. waging a conspiracy against King Emperor (Sec 121A of IPC).

Savarkar, then aged 28, sentenced to life term imprisonment in July 1911 and kept in Cellular Jail in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Released from jail in 1921.

Madan Lal Dhingra l

Assassinated the India Office bureaucrat Curzon Wyllie in July 1909 in London.

l

He said: “Neither rich nor able, a poor son like me can offer nothing but his blood on the altar of Mother’s deliverance”.

l

Hanged on August 17, 1909.

l Dhingra

was an inspiration for revolutionaries such as Bhagat Singh, Azad etc.

Madam Cama l

A Parsi revolutionary based in Paris.

l l

Developed close contacts with French socialists like Jean Languet. Started monthly journal ‘Bande Mataram’ from Paris in 1909.

l Attended

l

the Stuttgart (Germany) Congress of Second International in Aug 1907 and Unfurled the Flag of Free India there. (Flag was tri-colour Green, Yellow and Red with the words ‘Bande Mataram’ in the middle).

During 1 st World War, her activities were stopped by French Police.

Virendra Nath Chattopadhyaya l Chose l

Berlin as his base from 1909 onwards. Started journal ‘Talvar’.

CHARACTERISTICS OF REVOLUTIONARIES OF THIS PHASE

l

Copied the methods of Irish terrorists and Russian Nihilists to assassinate unpopular officials.

l Several

newspapers like ‘Sandhya’ and “Yugantar’ in Bengal and ‘Kal’ in Maharashtra supported the revolutionaries.

l Many secret societies like Anushilan Samiti l 

of Dacca became active in revolutionary activities. Revolutionaries established activities abroad.

Terrorism, as a political gradually failed in India.

centre

of

weapon,

Reason: r

Did not try to generate a mass revolution.

r

Could not rise beyond individual heroic action.

r

Lacked a peasant base.

Revolutionary Terrorism or Extremism

271



Contribution: r

r

Developed the national consciousness.

r

Circular-i-Azadi (1907) – published by Ram Nath Puri. Hindi Association t t

t r

Attended by Bhai Parmanand, Sohan Singh Bhakna, and Harnam Singh ‘Tundilat’.

t

A Sikh priest.

t

Visited Vancouver in early 1913.

t t

Had worked in Hongkong and Malaya states. Externed from Canada after a stay of three months. Centre of activity shifted to U.S.

Tarak Nath Das:

t

An Indian student.

t

Started in Vancouver a paper called Free Hindustan.

t

r

First Meeting held in the house of Kansi Ram.

Bhagwan Singh t

r

Was formed in Portland (US) in May 1913.

t

One of the first leaders of Indian community in North America.

Opposed restriction on Indian immigration into Canada.

Tarak Nath and G.D. Kumar:

t

t

Forced out of Vancouver

Set up United India House in Seattle in US.

272 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

t

G.D. Kumar started ‘Swadeshi Sewak’ Paper.

t

Background: r

Every SATURDAY they lectured to a group of 25 Indian labourers.

t

Their sacrifice was a reminder to the nation that system of colonial injustice had to be destroyed.

GHADAR MOVEMENT 

t



They had closed links with Khalsa Diwan Society.

Sent a deputation to meet the colonial secretary in London and Viceroy and other officials in India.

Ghadar Movement r

Began in 1913 in San Francisco.

r

Headquarter called Yugantar Ashram.

r

This weekly was brought out from 1 Nov, 1913 in Urdu, then in Gurumukhi and several other Indian languages.

r By r

r

r

r

Sohan Singh Bhakna and Har Dayal.

Took its name from the weekly ‘Ghadar’

‘Ghadar’ weekly began its first issue with this passage

“What is our name? The Ghadar (Revolution); in what does our work consist? In bringing about a rising…. Where will this rising break out? In India When will it breakout? In a few years…..”

On the front page of Ghadr’s each issue - a feature entitled ‘Angrezi raj ka kacha chitha’. This chitha consisted 14 points; last two points suggested the solution. Har Dayal t

A St. Stephan’s College Student.

t

Arrested in India on March 25, 1914, but when released on bail he slipped out of country.

t Issued

a ‘Yugantar Circular’ praising the attack on Lord Hardinge in 1912.

t

Arrived in California in April 1911.

t Taught

briefly University.

t Served t r

t t t

t

t

t

r

Stanford

t

as secretary of San Francisco branch of Industrial Workers of the World.

t

In Nov 1913, Canadian Supreme Court allowed 35 Indians to enter Canada.

Inspired by this, Gurdit Singh, chartered a ship named Komagata Maru in Singapore.

r

A ship load of Sikhs and Panjabi Muslim immigrants, turned back from Vancouver by Canadian immigration authorities.

t Their

passions inflamed by the Komagata Maru Incident (September 29, 1914).

Result: v

Plan foiled at the last moment by treachery.

v

Sachin Sanyal transported for life for having tried to subvert garrisons at Benaras and Danapore.

Rash Behari Bose fled to Japan.

contribution: revolutionary ideas reached to the army and to the peasants

Singapore Mutiny t t

On February 15, 1915.

By 5 th Light Infantry and 36th Sikh Battalion.

t Under

to fight for the rights of the passengers, a ‘Shore Committee’ set up under Hussain Rahim, Sohan Lal Pathak, and Balwant Singh.

Ghadarites in Punjab

Rash Behari, Sachin Sanyal, Vishnu Ganesh Pingley.

t Significant

Total passengers on ship were 376.

Ship was returned. Immigrants clashed with the police on their return at Budge-Budge near Calcutta and 22 were killed

Target of attack: Ferozpur, Lahore, Rawalpindi garrisons.

v

Incident

In US, under Bhagwan Singh, Barkatullah, Ram Chandra and S.S. Bhakna powerful campaign organized.

Plan for a coordinated revolt on February 21, 1915.

t Leaders:

Wrote perhaps the Earliest Indian Article on ‘Karl Marx’ in Modern Review’, Calcutta of March 1912.

Komagata Maru (September 29, 1914) t

at

t

r r

t

Jamadar Chisti Khan, Jamadar Abdul Ghani, Subedar Daud Khan.

37 executed, 41 transported for life.

Kartar Singh Sarabha: a 19 year old Ghadarite and organizer of mutiny among Punjab garrisons. Abdullah - a solitary Muslim in a group of rebel sepoys executed at Ambala.

REVOLUTIONARIES FROM ABROAD DURING WORLD WAR I 

Zimmerman Plan: r In

collaboration with German foreign office, Indian Independence committee was set up in 1915. Revolutionary Terrorism or Extremism

273

r Leaders: r 

Virendra Nath Chattopadhyaya, Bhupen Dutta, Har Dayal.

Indo-German-Turkish Mission: to stir up anti-British feelings among tribes near Indo-Iranian border.

Provisional Government of Free India at Kabul. r

Set up in Dec 1915.

r

With backing from crown Prince Amanullah, but not from Amir.

 

Political vacuum caused a renewed attraction for the methods of revolutionary terrorism in Bengal, UP and Punjab. Revival in Bengal in 1923-24 r

Mahendra Pratap, Barkatullah, and Obedullah Sindhi.

r

Ghadar leaders like Ramchandra and New York agents of Berlin Committee headed by Chandra Chakarvarty received considerable German funds, but squabbled among them.

From Japan



British Response to wartime threat.

r

r r

Ras Behari Bose and Abani Mukherjee made several efforts to send arms after 1915. Defence of India Act passed in 1915 primarily to smash the Ghadar Movement. One estimate of Ghadar trials - 46 executions and 64 life sentence.

r Radical

pan Islamists like Ali brothers, Hasrat Mohani were interned for years.

POST-1922 DEVELOPMENTS



Bengal journals like Atmasakti, Sarathi and Bijoli.

t

Sarat Chandra Chatterjee’s Pather Dabi published in 1926; glorified the path of urban middle class ‘violent’ revolution; government banned the novel.

In United States of America (USA)





t t

r By



Inspirer:

Sudden suspension of Non-cooperation movement by Gandhi in Feb 1922 caused dissatisfaction and disillusionment amongst the youth. Ram Prasad Bismil opposed Gandhi in Gaya session of Congress (1922).

274 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r

r 

Sachin Sanyal’s Bandi-Jivan which was circulated also in Hindi and Gurumukhi versions.

Gopinath Saha in Jan 1924 murdered an Englishman named Day, though the real target was Calcutta’s notorious Police Commissioner, Tegart. Bengal Ordinance of 1924 effectively stopped revolutionary action in Bengal.

In Uttar Pradesh r

r

Kanpur Meeting Oct 1924. t

Attended by Sachin Sanyal, Jogesh Chatterji, Bismil, Bhagat Singh, Shiv Verma, Sukhdev, Bhagwati Charan Vohra, Chandra Shekhar Azad.

Hindustan Republican Association (HRA). t

Founded in October 1924 to organize an armed revolution.

t

Manifesto of HRA known as ‘The Revolutionary’ written by Sanyal.

t By

Jogesh Chandra Chatterji and Sachin Sanyal, the Bengalis living in U.P.

v Proposed

British Rule.

overthrow

of

v Establishment v

v

t

of ‘Federal Republic of United Stated of India’. Politics of Gandhi criticized.

Advocated abolition of ‘all systems which make any kind of exploitation of man by man possible’.

LAST AND MOST ENERGETIC PHASE (1930-34) 

Revived in Bengal with Chittagong Armory Raid of April 1930.



‘Revolt group’ in Chittagong



Raised funds through dacoities.

r

t Established

t t

branches in Allahabad, Agra, Benaras, Kanpur, Lucknow, Saharanpur and Shahjahanpur.

r

Manufactured bombs at Calcutta and Deoghar (Jharkhand).

r

Kakori: a place 23km from Lucknow (UP).

r

v HRA

members looted government money from a train.

v 4

v v

v



t

revolutionaries - Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqullah Khan, Rajendra Lahiri and Roshanlal were hanged in December 1927.

17 sentenced to long term imprisonments.

Azad was the only revolutionary who escaped.

Last words of Bismil - ‘I wish the downfall of British Engine’ and Roshanlal - ‘Bande mataram’

Most members arrested Kakori train incident.

‘Terro-communism’ for combination of revolutionaries.

a term old and

after used new

Under leadership of Surya Sen (better known as Master Da).

Well-planned and organized armed raid on government armoury at Chittagong in April 1930.

r Declared

Kakori Train holdup on August 9, 1925.

v

Terrorism surpassed all previous records: in 1931 - 9 murders, 92 incidents.

himself President of Provisional Independent Government of India. Surya Sen was hanged in 1934.

Remarkable features of Chittagong movement: t t

t

t 

Participation of women (Kalpna Dutta, Parul Mukherjee and Pritilata Waddeder). Not an individual action but group action.

No longer confined to town alone. In Chittagong no less than 52 villages were declared disturbed areas in May 1931.

Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA) r

Founded Sept 8 and 9, 1928.

r At

r By

r

Ferozshah Kotla in Delhi.

Bhagat Singh and his Punjab group, Sachin Sanyal’s brother Jatindranath and Ajoy Ghosh from U.P. and Phanindranath Ghosh from Bihar. Actions of HSRA members:

t

Murder of Saunders: v

In Lahore on December 17, 1928.

Revolutionary Terrorism or Extremism

275

v

Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Sukhdev and Chandra Shekhar Azad pledged revenge for the assault on Lajpat Rai during anti-Simon commission demonstration on 30st Oct 1928.

HSRA REVOLUTIONARIES 

wanted to kill James Scott, SP of Lahore, but mistakenly killed John Saunders, ASP.

Chanan Singh, a constable who chased Bhagat Singh, was killed by Azad.

Bomb thrown in Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929:

v

v t

Bhagat Singh Batukeshwar Dutt

v v



Near Delhi in Dec 1929.

Gandhi criticized the attack in his article titled ‘The Cult of Bomb’ in his Young India on 2 nd Jan 1930.

response to Gandhi, Bhagwati Charan Vohra wrote ‘The Philosophy of the Bomb’.



alone recorded incidents in 1930.

276 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

26



“Why I am an Atheist”.

Bhagat Singh also wrote:

r

His close associate: Ajay Ghosh, who became General Secretary of CPI in later times.

‘Revolution is the inalienable right of mankind. Freedom is the imprescriptibly birthright of all. The labourer is the real sustainer of society.’

Along with Sukhdev and Rajguru was executed on 23 rd Mar 1931 in Lahore jail and cremated at Hussainiwala (Ferozpur).

Jatin Das r

HSRA hero.

r

Died on the 64 th day.

Went on 64 day hunger strike in Sept 1929 for the improvement in the status of political prisoners in Lahore Borstall jail.

Chandra Shekhar Azad r

A member of HSRA.

r

Made an attempt to blow up Viceroy Irwin’s train in Dec 1929 to avenge the liquidation of his comrades.

r

v In

t Punjab

Became its founding secretary.

r

r

Their rationale to bombing was explained in the leaflet titled ‘To Make the Deaf Hear’.

Attempt to blow-up Lord Irwin’s train:

With Sukhdev, organized the ‘Lahore Students Union’.

r

and

As a protest against the introduction of anti-Labour Trade Disputes Bill and Public Safety Bill

r



Singh, Rajguru, Sukhdev were convicted in trial known as Lahore Conspiracy Case

v By

Helped establish Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha in 1926.

r Wrote:

v Bhagat

t

r r

v They

v

Bhagat Singh

r

Balraj was the party name of Azad.

Was killed in Alfred Park in Allahabad on February 27, 1931.

Durga Devi r

Wife of Bhagwati Charan Vohra.

r r r

r

Posed as wife of Bhagat Singh in order to help him escape after Saunders’ murder. Made daring assassination attempt on Lord Hailey, ex-Governor of Punjab and an enemy of revolutionaries.

Led funeral procession of Jatin Das from Lahore to Calcutta.

Visited Madras in 1939 to meet Maria Montessori, an educator from Italy, and opened her own school in Lucknow, the first Montessori School in North India.

PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT 



Shantisudha



Bimalpratibha Devi

Two school girls.

r

Objective was to show the country that women could also use arms.





Pritilata

r r

r r



made unsuccessful attempt to kill Governor Jackson on February 6, 1932.

A member of Chittagong Revolt Group of Surya Sen.

Led an attack on European Club successfully and then committed suicide.

Leaflet found on her body expressed her commitment to cause: “Let the English learn and the world takes notice that women of our country are no longer lagging behind”.

Belonged to a conservative Brahmin family.

r

Later joined Worker’s Movement in 1930s.

Was arrested on October 2, 1931 in connection with a dacoity in East Calcutta.

Women revolutionaries r

Mostly joined as cadres.

r

Performed assigned duties.

r

Stevens, DM of Tripura December 14, 1931.

Bina Das

r

r Were

r Assassinated



college teacher arrested on November 11, 1933 in connection with a dacoity case.

r

Shanti Ghosh and Suniti Choudhari r

r A

r

subordinates revolutionary organizations.

within

Little role in planning major actions and strategies.

Wedded to the cause of freedom for the country.

REVOLUTIONARIES ACTIVITIES IN SOUTH 

Vanchi Aiyar r

original name: Vanchinathan

r

Member of Madras

r

He committed suicide thereafter.

r On

Bharat Matha Sangam in

June 17, 1911 assassinated Robert William Escourt Ashe, District Collector of Tirunelvelli, who was responsible for firing on a crowd that was protesting the arrest of Extremist leader Chidambaram Pillai.

Revolutionary Terrorism or Extremism

277

NOTES

FREEDOM STRUGGLE III SWARAJIST TO INDEPENDENCE

l

THE SWARAJISTS Gaya Session of Congress: December 1922  Two

opposing groups formed over the issue of Council entry:

r





r

Pro-changers: advocating end boycott of Legislative Councils.

of

No-changers: opposed Council entry.

Pro–changers were defeated by ‘No-changers’.

C.R. Das, a Pro-Changer, resigned from the Presidentship of Congress.

l

 

Advocated a new line of political activity in the aftermath of the Non-Cooperation Movement. Leaders: Chitranjan Das (C.R. Das), Motilal Nehru, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Vithalbhai Patel and S. Satyamurti. Wanted to r r

End the boycott of Legislative Councils and enter them. Obstruct Legislative Councils’ working and expose their weaknesses.

r Transform 

them into political struggle.

arenas

of

r

Use them to arouse public enthusiasm

r

C.R. Das became President and Motilal as one of the secretaries.

In December 1922 formed the CongressKhilafat Swarajya Party, commonly known as Swaraj Party. r

r

New party was to function within the Congress.

Accepted the Congress programme except one that it would take part in Council Elections.

November 1923 Central Assembly Election l

Swarajists won 42 out of 101 elected seats.

280 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

In March 1925, succeeded in electing Vithalbhai J Patel, as the Speaker of the Central Legislative Assembly.

Swarajists’ Contribution l

Filled the political void when the national movement recouping its strength.

l

Due to their endeavor, government was forced to give protection to Tata Iron and Steel Company in 1924.

l

The Swarajists 

With cooperation of other Indian groups, repeatedly outvoted the government in the Assembly.

l

l

Exposed the weakness of Reform Act of 1919. Their efforts led to the appointment of Alexander Muddiman Committee to look into the defects of 1919 Act.

Abolition of cotton excise duty. Reduction of duty on salt.

Walked out of Central Assembly 

In March 1926 and then in January 1930.



Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Dr. M.A. Ansari, Rajendra Prasad, C. Rajagopalachari, Kasturiranga Iyengar.

THE ‘NO CHANGERS’







Opposed Council entry.

Warned that legislative politics would lead to neglect of work among the masses, weaken nationalist fervor and create rivalries among the leaders. Continued to emphasize: r

Constructive programme of charkha.

r

Hindu-Muslim unity.

r

Grassroot work in the villages and among the poor.

r Temperance. r

Removal of untouchability.

 

Hundreds of Ashrams, National Schools and Colleges came up all over the country by constructive workers.



Later these workers served as backbone of Civil Disobedience Movements. The two groups agreed to remain in the Congress on the advice of Gandhiji, but work in their separate ways.

RESPONSIVISTS 

A group within the Swarajists.



Offered cooperation to the government so that the Hindu interests might be safeguarded.









Madan Mohan Malviya, Lala Lajpat Rai and N.C. Kelkar.

OF

NEW



r

the influence of Russian Revolution, many socialist communist groups came up.

This left wing not only fought British Imperialism, but also internal class oppression by Capitalists and landlords.

All Bengal Conference of Students held at Calcutta in August 1928 under the Presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru.

Peasants and Workers movement again stirred up. r

Uttar Pradesh: agitation against tenancy laws. The tenants wanted:

t

Lower rents

t ­

Relief from indebtedness

t

Against increase in land revenue.

No revenue campaign led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.

Rapid growth of Trade Unionism r

Many strikes in 1928.

r

Strike at South Indian Railway.

r



Protection from eviction

Gujarat : Bardoli Satyagraha – in 1928. t

r

M.N. Roy became the First Indian to be elected to the leadership of the Communist International in 1924. Rise of new left wing in Congress under Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose.

Youth put forward and popularized the programme of complete independence.

r

r Under

r

r

r

New trend of Socialism emerged.

r

Youth leagues formed and student conferences held all over country.

t ­

Accused Motilal Nehru of being antiHindu, of favouring cow-slaughter and of eating beef.

1927: EMERGENCE FORCES

r

r First

The Swarajists and the ‘No Changers’: 

Indian youth became more active

2 months strike at Kharagpur Railway Workshop. Strike at Tata Iron and Steel Works at Jamshedpur. Subhas Chandra Bose played an important role in settlement of this strike. Most important strike: Bombay Textile Mills strike.

t t ­

1, 50,000 workers on strike. 5 months strike.

Revival of Revolutionary Movement. r

Reason: failure of Non-cooperation movement.

Freedom Struggle III - Swarajist to Independence

281

r Hindustan

r

r r

Republican Association changed the name and became the Hindustan Socialist Republication Association in 1928 under leadership of Chandra Shekhar Azad. Assassination of December 17, 1928.

t

Saunders

on

r ­ 

Saunders: the British police officer who led the lathicharge on Lala Lajpat Rai on October 30, 1928.

t

Theirs action was not individual action but group action.



Under the provision in the Act of 1919 for the formation of a statutory commission to look into the working of Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms ten years after the enactment of 1919 Act.

r 7

r r 

member Indian Statutory Commission appointed in November 1927 under chairmanship of Sir John Simon. All members were Englishmen, No Indian member.

Clement Attlee: one of its members; later became Prime Minister of Great Britain when India got Independence.

Simon commission to enquire into: r ­

The working of system of government.

282 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r ­

representative

Whether and to what extent it is desirable to establish principle of responsible government.

to extend, modify or restrict the degree of existing responsible government.



establishment of 2nd chamber of local legislatures is or is not desirable.

What should be the relations between British India and Indian Princely States.

What angered the People of India r

r `

SIMON COMMISSION r

Commission to report:

r ­

feature was participation of young women.

Appointment of Simon Commission

of institutions in India.

r ­ Whether

t Remarkable



r ­ Development

r ­

Bomb in Central Legislative Assembly on April 8, 1929 by Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt. Chittagong Armoury Raid in 1930 by Surya Sen

Growth of education.

Exclusion of Indians in Commission as member. Exclusion was seen as a violation of principle of self-determination and deliberate insult to self-respect of the Indians.

Madras Session of Congress: 1927 r

r

President: Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari.

Congress decided to boycott the Commission.



Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha supported the Congress.



Parties not supported Commission’:



Muslim League even accepted the principle of joint electorates, provided seats were reserved for the Muslims. of

r

Justice Party in Madras.

r

Breakaway Muslim League under Md. Shafi.

r 

‘boycott

Punjab Unionists.

Place of visit of Popular Upsurge:

commission

and

r

February 3, 1928: Commission reached Bombay. All India hartals organized.

r

30 th Oct: in Lahore; Lala Lajpat Rai got seriously injured in lathicharge and died on November 17, 1928.

r

r

February 19: Commission reached Calcutta.

November: Lucknow – Khaliquzzaman floated kites and balloons with ‘Simon Go Back’ slogan. Jawaharlal and Govind Ballabh Pant were beaten by police.

r Vijaywada r

Poona











 

The movement did not lead to wider political struggle because Gandhi was not yet convinced that time for struggle had come. The Commission submitted its report in May 1930. Features of report: r

Proposed the abolition of dyarchy.

r Establishment

of representative government in provinces

r Retention

electorates.

of

separate

communal

November 1930.

r­

13 th November – 24 th December 1932

September-December 1931.

The Bill passed on by the British Parliament after deliberations on Report came to be known as the Government of India Act 1935.

NEHRU REPORT



The government brutally suppressed the movement.

r­ r­





Report was discussed at three Round Table Conferences held in:

 

Lord Birkenhead, the Secretary of State for India, challenged in 1925 in the House of Lords: “…..let them (Indians) produce a constitution which carries behind it a fair measure of general agreement among the great peoples of India …….” Leaders of the nationalist movement responded to the challenge by drafting the Nehru Report. Madras Session of Congress of December 1927 took two major decisions: r

r

Boycott Simon Commission.

Set up an All Parties Conference to draft a constitution for India.

All Parties Conference: First in February 1928 at Delhi; Next in May 1928 at Bombay.

All Parties Committee under chairmanship of Motilal Nehru was set up. Jawahar Lal Nehru was secretary. Members of the committee: r

Ali Imam

r

Madhav Srihari Aney

r r r r r

Tej Bahadur Sapru Mangal Singh

Shoaib Qureshi

Subhas Chandra Bose G.R. Pradhan

Freedom Struggle III - Swarajist to Independence

283





Nehru Committee report, mainly drafted by Motilal Nehru and Tej Bahadur Sapru, submitted on August 10, 1928 and was considered by All Parties Conference at Lucknow on August 28-31 ,1928. Congress Session December 1928:

of

Calcutta

Failed to pass the report.

r

Jinnah, as Muslim League President, presented three main proposals to be incorporated in the Draft of Nehru Report:

r

in

r Gandhi

r

r

proposed resolution that called for the British to grant Dominion Status to India within 2 years, later reduced to 1 year.

t One-third

Initially Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Bose opposed Dominion Status and demanded ‘complete Independence’.

t

r But 

Due to objections raised by some communal minded leaders of Muslim League, the Hindu Mahasabha and the Sikh League.

later on Jawaharlal Nehru voted for the resolution while Bose abstained from voting.

Features of Nehru Report: r

India to be a Dominion status.

r

Joint electorate for Central Assembly and Provincial Legislatures.

r A

r

r

r

r r



r

Federal System with residuary powers with the Centre. t

Bicameral legislature at the Centre.

No reservation of seats for the Central Assembly, except for Muslims in provinces where they were in minority and for non-Muslims in North West Frontier Provinces. Such representation was to be in proportion to their populations. No reservation to any community in Punjab and Bengal. Reservations, wherever applicable, was for a period of 10 years.

Residuary powers should be left to the provinces and should not rest with the Central Legislature

r

leader M.R. Jayakar brushed aside such proposals.

Sub-committee of the Convention also rejected the proposals.



About the Nehru report, Jinnah writes:



Jinnah then joined the Shafi group of Muslim League.



Universal adult franchise (eligible age 21).

284 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

In Punjab and Bengal, in the event of adult suffrage not being established, there should be reservation of seats for the Muslims on the population basis for ten years subject to a reexamination after that period, but they shall have no right to contest additional seats;

r Mahasabha

Provision made for Bill of Rights (Fundamental Rights).

All Parties Conference held in December 1928:

of the elected representatives of both the Houses of the Central Legislature should be Muslims;

“The Nehru report proposal can, therefore, at the best be treated only as counter Hindu proposals to the Muslim proposals. And as there is no agreement reached it is now for the All India Muslim League to take such action or adopt such course as the league may think proper in the best interest of the community and the country.”

t

FOURTEEN POINTS OF JINNAH 

Jinnah 14 Points r

In response to Nehru report.

r

A constitutional reform plan to safeguard the political rights of the Muslims.

r

Proposed at Muslim League Session of March 1929 in Delhi.

t t

t

t t

t

Future constitution should be federal with residuary powers vested in the province.

All legislatures in the country and other elected bodies should be reconstituted on the definite principle of adequate and effective representation of minorities in every province without reducing the majority of any province to a minority or even equality.

Sind should be separated from the Bombay presidency.

t

Provision should be made in the constitution giving the Muslim an adequate share along with other Indians in all the services of the state and in self-governing bodies, having due regard to the requirements of efficiency.

t

In the Central Legislative, Muslim representatives should not be less than one-third.

Representation of communal groups should continue to be by means of separate electorates provided that it should be open to any time to abandon its separate electorate in favour of joint electorates.

t

Any territorial redistribution that might at any time be necessary should not in any way affect the Muslim majority in the Punjab, Bengal and North-West Frontier Province.

religious liberty, that is, liberty of belief, worship, observances, propaganda, association and education should be guaranteed to all communities.

t

t

Uniform measure of autonomy to all provinces.

t

t Full



No bill or resolution should be passed in any legislature or any other elected body, if three-fourths of the members of any community in that particular body oppose such a bill or resolution, on the ground that it would be injurious to the interests of that community.

Reforms should be introduced in the North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan.

The Constitution should embody adequate safeguards on the protection of Muslim religion, culture and personal law, and the promotion of Muslim education, language, religion, personal laws, Muslim charitable institutions, and for their due share in grantsin aid given by the state and by self-governing bodies. No cabinet, either central or provincial, should be formed without there being a proportion of Muslim Ministers of at least one-third.

No change to be made in the Constitution by the Central Legislature except with the concurrence of the states constituting the Indian Federation.

Gandhi and Congress rejected Jinnah’s fourteen point. Freedom Struggle III - Swarajist to Independence

285

POORNA SWARAJ



Background 

  

Term ‘Swaraj’ came into Congress Constitution in Nagpur session in 1920, but it was not defined. So it was not clear that ‘swaraj’ meant ‘self-government within Empire or outside’. In 1920 Gandhi too advocated ‘Swaraj within a year’ in his article in “Young India” but meaning of swaraj unclear. Hasrat Mohani: FIRST Congress leader who demanded ‘Poorna Swaraj’ or Complete Independence in 1921.



Also announced the launching of Civil Disobedience Movement, but the making of programme of struggle was left to Mahatma Gandhi. Other Resolutions: r Boycott r

of Conference.

First

Round

Boycott of all future elections.

Table

CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT First Phase: March 12, 1930 – March 5, 1931 Dandi March or Salt Satyagraha

Calcutta Congress of December 1928 gave an ultimatum of One Year for acceptance of Nehru Report to the British, but that was not honored by the British.

Lahore session of Congress: December 1929.   

Passed a resolution declaring ‘Poorna Swaraj’ (Complete Independence) to be Congress objective Objective of Poorna Swaraj was in contrast to the demand of Dominion Status of Nehru report.

December 31, 1929: newly adopted tricolor (saffron, white, green with charkha at the centre) of freedom was hoisted.



Started by Gandhi on March 12, 1930 with 78 followers.



Dandi: a village at sea coast in Modern Navsari district of Gujarat.





From Sabarmati ashram to Dandi (240 miles - 385 km). Why on the issue of Salt: r

Salt was an essential commodity in common man’s life.

r

Also, a tax was imposed on it.

r



January 26, 1930 was fixed as the FIRST INDEPNDENCE DAY, which was to be celebrated every year with a Pledge of Independence.

286 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India





It was controlled by the government.

Gandhi reached Dandi on 6th April and picked up a handful of salt and broke the salt laws.

Breaking of salt laws was a symbol of Indian people’s refusal to live under British made laws and therefore under British rule.



Subhas Chandra Bose compared salt march to Napoleon’s march to Paris on his return from Elba.

Course of the Movement 

Violation of salt laws all over the country.



Refusal to pay rural chaukidari tax in Eastern India.



 



Defiance of forest laws in Maharashtra, Karnataka, and the Central Provinces. Peasants refused to pay land revenue.

Notable feature: wide participation of women.

Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan: r

Also known as ‘Frontier Gandhi’.

r

Organized the society of ‘Khudai Khidmatgars’ (servants of God), also known as ‘Red Shirts’

r



r

Pledged to non-violence freedom struggle.

r

Garhwali soldiers refused to open fire on non-violent demonstrations.

Peshawar Incident r

 

Led the movement in North West Frontier Province.

This showed that nationalism was beginning to penetrate the Indian Army.



Chaired by the Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald.



Muslim League, the Hindu Mahasabha, the Liberals and Princes attended it.

 Total

  

Raised the banner of rebellion at young age of 13.

r

Released by Jawaharlal Nehru when India got Independence.



Ruthlessly crushed the movement.



Congress was declared illegal.

Gandhi and arrested.

other

Congress

leaders

Congress boycotted.

Six plenary meetings held where delegates put forward their issues. Nine sub-committees formed to deal with different matters including: r

federal structure

r

province of Sindh and NWFP

provincial constitution

r  

defence services and

r minorities

Then, discussions on the reports of the subcommittees, which were followed by 2 more plenary meetings and a final concluding session. Idea of an All-India Federation: r

Was moved for discussion by Tej Bahadur Sapru.

r

Princely states agreed to the proposed Federation provided that their internal sovereignty was guaranteed.

r All

Captured and imprisoned in 1932.

British Repression:

74 delegates from India attended the Conference.

r

Rani Gaidilieu of Nagaland: r

Inaugurated on November 12, 1930 in London.



Manipuris took brave part.

r



FIRST ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE NOVEMBER 1930

r  

the groups attending the conference supported this concept.

Muslim League also supported the Federation as it had always been opposed to a strong Centre.

It was difficult for progress to be made in the absence of the Indian National Congress but some advances were made. British Government ready for negotiation with Congress. Freedom Struggle III - Swarajist to Independence

287

GANDHI – IRWIN PACT: 5 TH MARCH 1931 

Government agreed/conceded: r To r

r 



r

release prisoners.

non-violent

SECOND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE SEPTEMBER 1931 political



Opened on September 7, 1931 in London.



Three major differences between the first and second Round Table Conferences:

Right to make salt for consumption.

Right to make peaceful picketing of liquor and foreign cloth shops. Withdrawal of emergency ordinances.

Congress agreed: r

To suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement.

r

To take part in 2nd Round Table Conference.

r

Public inquiry into police excesses.

Viceroy turned down two of Gandhi’s demands: r

Commutation of Bhagat Singh and his comrades’ death sentence to life sentence.

r







t

Jawaharlal Nehru felt deeply let down. His reaction: ‘This is the way the world ends not with a bang but with a whimper’. Younger and left-wing Congress leaders opposed it

r

Reason: Demand of commutation of death sentence of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru to life imprisonment was not accepted. Naujawan Bharat Sabha organized demonstration at Karachi railway station against Gandhi.



Approved the pact.

Authorized Gandhi to represent Congress in Second Round Table Conference.

288 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

t

r



Gandhi-Irwin Pact opened the way for Congress participation in this conference.

On August 29 th, 1931, Gandhi sailed for England in the S.S. Rajputana.

Gandhi attended as the sole official Congress representative.

Sarojini Naidu represented Indian women.

National Government:

t t

Karachi session of Congress: March 1931. 

t t

Opposition to Gandhi-Irwin Pact 

Congress Representation:

Two weeks earlier, the Labour government in London had fallen.

Ramsay MacDonald now headed a National Government dominated by the Conservative Party.

Financial Crisis – During the conference, Britain went off the Gold Standard further distracting the National Government.

Gandhi claimed: r

That the Congress alone represented political India;

r

r 





 

That the Untouchables were Hindus and should not be treated as a ‘minority’.

That there should be no separate electorates or special safeguards for Muslims or other minorities.

r r

deadlocked

on

the

Separate electorate was now being demanded by the Muslims, Dalits, Christians and Anglo-Indians. Only Sikhs did not demand separate electorate.

At the end of the conference Ramsay MacDonald announced Communal Award for minority representation. Gandhi returned to India disappointed and empty-handed.

Background: 2 nd Round Table Conference in London in September 1931. r r r

Gandhi attended the conference and advocated for immediate grant of Dominion Status, but the British refused. Also, the Conference was marred by communal and caste interests, fuelled by the British. Gandhi returned empty-handed by the end of 1931.

r

r

Gandhi demanded that ‘a responsible government must be established immediately and in full, both at the Centre and in the Provinces. Conference was minorities’ issue.

Peasant unrest throughout the country

r

These claims were rejected by the other Indian participants.

SECOND PHASE OF CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE MOVEMENT (JAN 1932 - MAY 1934) 



r

r

Due to world Economic Depression, prices of agricultural products fell drastically and thereby made the burden of land revenue and rent unbearable.

December 1931: Congress started ‘No rent - no tax’ campaign.

On 26 th December Jawaharlal Nehru was arrested.

Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan too was arrested while leading a peasant movement.

Peasant Struggles started in Bihar, UP, Bengal, Andhra and Punjab.

Second Phase of Civil Disobedience Movement 

Gandhi resumed the movement on his return to India after 2 nd RTC.



January 4, 1932: Gandhi other Congress leaders arrested.



New Viceroy Lord Willingdon rescinded many provisions of Gandhi-Irwin Pact, believing an error was done in signing a truce with Congress.



Congress was again declared illegal.



Congress officially suspended the movement in May 1933 and withdrew it in May 1934.



  

Government succeeded in repressing the movement.

Again political activists felt despair.

Subhas Bose and Vithalbhai Patel declared: ‘the Mahatma as political leader failed’. Willingdon declared: ‘The Congress is in less favourable position than in 1930, and has lost hold on the public.’

Critical Evaluation: 

Significant feature was participation of women.

 But,

Hindu-Muslim unity of 1919-22 was lacking. Freedom Struggle III - Swarajist to Independence

289

 Also  

No response from lawyers and students, as Gandhi himself at Lahore Congress rejected ‘boycott of courts and schools’.





r

Donation by G.D. Birla.

r

Walchand Hirachand calls to businessmen to give up ‘the policy of sitting on the fence’.

Arrest of Jamnalal Bajaj, a FULL TIME ACTIVIST of Congress, in 1930.

Though it did not result in freedom, but succeeded in further politicizing the people. British journalist H.N. Brailsford assessed that ‘the recent struggle had freed the minds of the Indians and they had won Independence in their hearts’. Popularity of Congress and Congress leaders was not waned :

Evidence:

r Heroes’ r

welcome was given to political prisoners when released in 1934.

Congress winning 8 out of 11 provinces in February 1937 elections.

End of Civil Disobedience and Gandhi’s withdrawal from active politics 

In October 1934, Gandhi withdrew from ‘active politics’.

COMMUNAL AWARD AND POONA PACT Communal Award: 



 

Massive response from peasantry and business class. r



no major labour upsurge.

Also known as ‘Ramsay MacDonald Award’.

Ramsay MacDonald was the British Prime Minister.

290 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Award announced on August 16, 1932. Main features: r r



Muslims, Europeans and Sikhs could elect their candidates by voting in separate electorates.

Depressed classes, officially described as the Scheduled Castes, were recognised separate community and were granted separate electorates.

This Award was believed to create social divide among the Hindus and disintegrate the Hindu society.

Gandhi’s fast unto death 



Gandhi was then in Yeravada jail.

He rejected the ‘Communal Award’ and started a fast unto death on September 20, 1932.

Poona Pact  

 

Madan Mohan Malviya took the initiative and called a Conference to resolve the issue.

Finally a Pact was signed on 25 th September 1932 between Dr B. R. Ambedkar on behalf of depressed classes and Madan Mohan Malviya on behalf of caste Hindus. Gandhi did not sign the Pact. Gandhi accepted this Pact and broke his fast. Main Features r

‘Joint electorates’ of all Hindus was agreed with two conditions:

t

148 seats in different Provincial Legislature were reserved for the depressed classes instead of 71 as provided for in Communal Award.

Provincial Legislature

Seats

Madras

30

Bihar and Orissa

18

Bombay with Sindh Punjab

Central Provinces

15 08 20

Assam

07

Total

148

Bengal

United Provinces t

r

r

30 20

18% of seats allotted to general electorate for British India in Central Legislature reserved for depressed classes.

Adequate representation assured in Local bodies and public services. Financial aid promised to promote literacy among the depressed classes.

THIRD ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE NOVEMBER 1932 

Third and last session assembled on November 17 th, 1932.

favoured landholders and richer farmers in rural areas.



Only 14 % of total population of British India had the right to vote.



Governor-General and Governors to be appointed by British Parliament.



Defence and external affairs were under Governor-General’s control.

Nationalist Response to Act:  



Failed to satisfy nationalist aspiration, as political and economic power still remained in British hands.

Congress condemned the Act as ‘totally disappointing’. Federal part never introduced.

Provincial Elections: 1937 

Labour Party from Britain and Indian National Congress refused to attend.



In April 1936 Lord Linlithgow replaced Lord Willingdon as Viceroy.



Not much was achieved in this conference.





Discussions ultimately led to the passing of Government of India Act 1935.

Lucknow session of the Congress (April 1936):

 Only  

46 delegates attended

Recommendations of this conference were published in a White Paper in 1933.

Government of India Act 1935

 



Provided for an All India Federation (Union of provinces of British India and Princely States) and Provincial Autonomy.

Bicameral Legislature at the Centre (with States given disproportionate weightage).

Representatives of Princely States were not to be elected, but to be appointed by the rulers.

Act provided for a limited adult franchise based on property qualifications such as land ownership and rent, and therefore

r

Approved the decision to contest the elections.

r

In reference to Viceroy's appeal for cooperation, Jawaharlal Nehru retorted: ‘we go to the legislatures not to cooperate with the apparatus of British imperialism, but to combat the Act and to seek to end it’.

r

NATIONALIST POLITICS: 1935-39 

Lord Linlithgow had arrived in India with a firm determination to implement the new constitution.

 

But this did not mean that the Congress had agreed to work the constitution.

Provincial elections held in February 1937 under new Act of 1935. 11 Provinces in British India: r

Madras, Central Provinces, Bihar, Orissa, United Provinces, Bombay Presidency, Assam, NWFP, Bengal, Punjab and Sindh.

Freedom Struggle III - Swarajist to Independence

291

 

Gandhi did not address a single election meeting.

parties which allied with those non-Muslims, not supportive of the Congress.

Election Results:

r

r Congress: t won

t

r

t ­

clear majority in five provinces: Madras, United Provinces, Central Provinces, Bihar and Orissa;

emerged as single largest party in NWFP, Assam and Bombay.

did not have majority in Bengal, Punjab and Sind.

r 

Of the 482 Muslim seats:

t ­

Congress contested only 58 and won 26.

t ­

Muslim League won just 105.

t

t

t ­

t

t ­ t ­

Muslim preference was regional

292 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

been left pending due differences within the Congress

r

r

r r





r

to

AICC met in March 1937 to decide over the issue.

Rajendra Prasad moved a resolution for 'conditional acceptance' of office which was accepted. The condition attached was that the governors would not use their special powers to intervene with the functioning of ministries.

r Other

Its performances in the Punjab and Sind, both Muslim majority provinces, were equally dismal, its gain being a single seat in the former and none in the latter.

League's top performance was in provinces where Muslims were minorities.

r had

r

Muslim League failed to secure a single seat in Bihar, Orissa and the N.W.F.P., though NWFP was a predominantly Muslim province.

In Bengal the League won only 37 out of 119 Muslim seats. Its performance in Bombay and U.P. where it won 20 out of 39 and 27 out of 64 Muslim seats respectively.

The League was essentially an urbanbased political party and had little or no contact with the masses in 1937.

Decision of Office Acceptance: r

Congress did not secure a single Muslim seat in Bombay, the United Provinces, Bengal and Central Provinces. It obtained 4, 5 and 15 seats in Madras, Bihar and N.W.F.P. respectively.

The poor showing by the Muslim League was neither surprising nor unexpected.

pro-office leaders: Rajagopalachari, G.D. Birla.

C.

Jay Prakash Narain moved an amendment for total rejection of office. N.G. Ranga, Swami Sahajanand, Indulal Yajnik supported. But JP’s amendment was defeated (78 in favour and 135 against).

This was considered as a major victory for the Right Wing within the Congress. Gandhi himself was in favour of conditional acceptance of office.

CWC meeting at Wardha in June 1937 permitted office acceptance.

Congress didn’t set up ministries for about six months. Formation of Governments in July 1937:

r

r r

Out of 11 provinces, Congress formed:

t

t

Its own governments in 7 - United Provinces, Central Provinces, Bihar, Madras, Bombay, Orissa and North West Frontier Province and Coalition governments in provinces – Assam and Sind.

Non-Congress governments: Bengal and Punjab.

2

Only

No government of Muslim League in any province.

CONGRESS MINISTRIES IN PROVINCES (1937-39)  

Congress remained in office for nearly 2 and half years. Positive measures taken: r Released

Political prisoners Promoted civil liberties

t ­

r

r r r r

r

r

and

Permitted trade unions and peasant organisations to function and grow. Repealed restrictions on the press undertook Harijan uplift

greater attention to primary education

Set up new standards of honesty and public service:

t ­







reduced their salaries to Rs 500 per month.

travelled on second or third class in railways.

firm handling of communal riots.

functioned under certain limitations, but gave relief to the people. Constructive programmes got a boost.

Congress Ministries was perceived by the people as their own raj, and they firmly believed that the days of the British Raj were numbered. Left Wing was very vocal it was the Right Wing which dominated.

GROWTH OF COMMUNALISM 



1100 political prisoners in Bengal, Kakori prisoners in UP, Andaman prisoners etc. were released.

Passed agrarian legislation dealing with tenancy rights, security of tenure, rent reduction and relief and protection to peasant-debtors.

t

 Ministries

Jinnah’s conciliatory posture after the elections:

r

Nehru’s response: r r



 

In March 1937, He expressed League’s willingness to cooperate 'with any group or party if the basic principles are determined by common consent’.

Nehru was not inclined to respond sympathetically to Jinnah's call and his terms for cooperation. Nehru felt confident that the Congress itself could win over the Muslim masses on the basis of economic issues and initiated ‘Congress Muslim mass contact programme’.

To Jinnah, Congress mass contact with the Muslims, was calculated to divide and weaken and break the Muslims, and was an effort to detach them from their accredited leaders. Thus, 1937 marked the beginning of the 'parting of the ways' between the Congress and the Muslim League. Muslim League learnt the lessons of the 1937 elections for itself: r

From its Lucknow session onwards, made determined efforts to build up a more populist image among Muslim masses.

Freedom Struggle III - Swarajist to Independence

293

r



r

From Lucknow session (1937) to Lahore (1940), Muslim League's membership multiplied from a few thousand to well over half a million. Main political weapon since 1937 had been attacks on the Congress.

Pirpur Committee r appointed r

r

r r

March,1938

League

in

To investigate the complaints of illtreatments meted out to Muslims in various Congress provinces, when the Congress had been in office for only eight months.



Committee submitted its report in November 1938. Main concerns contained in reports:

t Introduction

t

t t

t

r

Muslim

presided over by the Raja of Pirpur

t

r

by



t

of the Wardha Scheme of Education, particularly Vidya Mandir Scheme.

Use of Hindi and suppression of Urdu. Singing of Bande Mataram.

Attacks on the religious right of Muslims to slaughter cows.

Hoisting of the Congress flag on public buildings. Playing of mosques.

music

before

the

Ratio in service between the two communities.

Pirpur Report sought to embarrass Congress governments and also to instil in Muslims the fear that under 'Hindu Raj’ they would always be a weak, powerless, and oppressed community. A resolution passed by the League which contended that ‘Bande Mataram

294 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

was 'positively anti- Islamic and idolatrous in its inspiration and ideas’

British official opinion discounted the charges of atrocities and prejudice of Congress governments against Muslims. r

Viceroy Linlithgow felt that 'proof of specific instances is not easily forthcoming'.

r

In 1937, 58.69 percent of ICS officers were British, while In January 1940, British held 64.8 percent of posts in Indian Police Service.

Congress Response: r

r



To soothe Muslim feelings, Congress decided that only first two stanzas of song Bande Mataram, which consisted of a praise of the motherland, would be sung.

December 1938, Congress Working Committee passed a resolution declaring Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha as communal organizations.

During 1937-1939, Muslims were united under the Flag of Muslim League due to shrewd propaganda of Jinnah and Muslim League.

 Jinnah's 



propaganda created atmosphere of fear and hatred.

an

Advent of Congress to power in most of British India made them feel to be a minority in Provinces in which political responsibility had passed out of the hands of Britain into that of the Hindu majority. Muslims now united League under Jinnah.

behind

Muslim

Outbreak of World War II and its effects on Indian political spheres 

Viceroy Linlithgow announced on 3 September, 1939 India's entry into the

war without consulting political parties, legislatures or provincial ministries.



Objective was to turn India into a war base, and to provide men and money.



Reason for seeking the cooperation of political parties:



He attached the greatest importance to winning the support of Gandhi and Nehru, because of their popular appeal, for the war effort. r r

to expand the numbers for the war effort and to preserve the loyalty of the army, the ultimate bulwark of the Empire

Resignation of Congress from the Ministries



On 30 th October 1939, the CWC ordered the Congress ministries to resign.



‘Viceroy's statement in answer to the Congress invitation for a clear declaration of the British war aims, particularly in their application to India, is wholly unsatisfactory and calculated to rouse resentment among all those who were anxious to gain, and are intent upon gaining India's Independence... The Viceregal statement is an unequivocal reiteration of the old imperialistic policy.’





CWC resolution stated:

Congress Governments resignation: r Forced r r

Linlithgow to be dependent on the League counterpoise to the Congress.

more as a

Deprived Jinnah and the League of their chief weapon of attack against Congress. Observance of Deliverance Day:

t t

Jinnah adopted a strategy of keeping anti-Congress feeling high.

He called on December 1939 December 1939 deliverance and

Muslims on 2 to observe 22 th as the day of thanks-giving as

t

a mark of relief that the Congress Governments had at last ceased to function.

Deliverance Day itself passed off quietly in most places and 'fell very flat' in the Muslim majority provinces of Sind and NWFP.

AUGUST OFFER, 1940 l l

It was a statement by Viceroy Lord Linlithgow, made at Shimla on 8 th August 1940, on behalf of the British government. Main points:

r Expansion

r r

r

r

of the Governor General’s Executive Council and the establishment of an Advisory War Council should no longer be postponed.

Government reaffirmed its desire to give full weight to minority opinion.

Framing of the new constitution should be ‘primarily the responsibility of Indians themselves and should originate from Indian conception of the social economic and political structure of Indian life’, subject to the fulfilment of their obligations (e.g. questions like defence, minority rights, the treaties with the States, the position of All India services). British Government will most readily assent to the setting up, after the conclusion of the war with the least possible delay, of body representatives in order to devise the framework of the new constitution.

In the interval, it was hoped that all parties and communities in India would co-operate in India’s attainment of free and equal partnership in the British commonwealth of nations. Freedom Struggle III - Swarajist to Independence

295

l

l

Reactions: r r

Congress Working Committee rejected the offer at a meeting at Wardha on August 21, 1940.

r

Muslim League also rejected the proposal in September 1940.

r

Significance:r

It recognized at least the natural and inherent right of the people of the country to determine the form of their future constitution.

l



l

l

Gandhi to Viceroy Lord Linlithgo:

Vinoba Bhave (Vinayak Narhari Bhave) was the first to offer Satyagraha.

r

l

l

Background (Why Cripps Mission): r

Two major changes occurred in World Politics in 1941:

t

Attack of Nazi Germany on Soviet Union on June 22, 1941.

296 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Japan occupation of Rangoon (Burma) in March 1942 brought the war to India’s doorstep.

Congress leaders denounced Japanese aggression and again offered to cooperate, if Britain transferred the substance of power to India immediately and promised complete independence after the war.

l l

Government desperately wanted active co-operation of Indians in war effort. Britain’s allies - USA, China and Labour Party of Britain were keen on India’s full participation in War, so mounted pressure on British Government to act in this regard.

To secure this cooperation, in March 1942 a mission headed by a Cabinet Minister, Sir Stafford Cripps, sent to India.

3 Members Commission whose other Members were: r r

Pethick Lawrence A.V. Alexander

Sir Richard Stafford Cripps: r

A radical member of Labour Party.

r

A strong supporter of Indian National Movement.

r

More than 25000 satyagrahis arrested by May 15, 1941.

CRIPPS MISSION 1942 l

r

In October 1940, Gandhi gave the call for ‘limited satyagraha’ by selected individuals.

“The Congress is as much opposed to victory for Nazism as any Britisher can be. But their objection cannot be carried to the extent of their participation in the war. And since you and the Secretary of State for India have declared that the whole of India is voluntarily helping the war effort, it becomes necessary to make it clear that the vast majority of the people of India are not interested in it. They make no distinction between Nazism and the double autocracy that rules India.”

Japan’s attack on American fleet at Pearl Harbour on December 7, 1941.

r British

INDIVIDUAL SATYAGRAHA 1940 l

t

Also a member of coalition War Cabinet led by Prime Minister Winston Churchill.

Cripps declared that the aim of British policy in India was ‘the earliest possible realization of self-government in India’ Cripps Mission spent 3 weeks in India and held negotiations with Indian leaders on Draft Proposals.

l

Proposals of Draft Declaration: r

‘Full Dominion Status’ to India except defence after the War.

r

After War, Constituent Assembly to be convened to frame a new Constitution for India.

t ­

r Future

r

r

option to secede from the Commonwealth and go for Total Independence.

Members of Constituent Assembly be partly elected by Provincial Assemblies through proportional representation system and partly nominated by Rulers of Princely States. British Government would accept the new Constitution, subject to two conditions:

t

t

l

Any province not willing to join the Union could have a separate Constitution and could form a separate Union.

New constitution making body and British Government would negotiate a treaty to bring into effect the transfer of power and to safeguard racial and religious minorities.

Response to Cripps Proposal r

r

l

Gandhi described Cripps’ offer of Dominion Status after the war as ‘a post-dated cheque drawn on a failing bank’.

Muslim League rejected the proposal because: r demand

for Pakistan addressed clearly

r

was

not

Muslim right to self-determination ignored

Hindu Mahasabha and the Liberals

l

British Authorities

l

Proposals were merely propaganda device for US and Chinese consumption.

l

r

opposed provision of right to ‘opt out of Indian Union’ to Provinces

r

Churchill (British Prime Minister), Amery (Secretary of State), Linlithgow (Viceroy) and Ward (Commander-in-chief) consistently torpedoed Cripps’ efforts.

Cripps Mission Failed r r

r That

t

Option for province ‘not to join Union’ and even ‘to have a separate Union’ was a concealed acceptance of partition of India.

l

Congress rejected the proposal on the grounds:

Congress wanted transfer of substance of power to India immediately and complete independence after the war, but Cripps offered ‘Dominion Status’ after war.

Nehru pointed out: ‘The existing structure and autocratic powers would remain and a few of us will become the Viceroy’s liveried camp followers and look after canteens and the like.’

So unhappy that Gandhi advised Cripps on 4 th April 1942 to take the first plane home and leave India. Cripps admitted failure and left India on 12 th April 1942.

QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT 1942 Background: 

Failure of Cripps Mission r

Cripps Mission was for ‘the earliest possible realization of selfgovernment in India’. Freedom Struggle III - Swarajist to Independence

297

r



Congress demand was immediate transfer of effective powers to Indians.

r British

refusal discontentment.

led

to

the

Political situation in the country during war-time r

People’s discontent was fuelled by wartime shortages and the rising prices.

r Japanese r

occupation of Burma (Myanmar) in March 1942 brought Japan to India’s door-steps.

April to August 1942 was the daily heightening tension time.

Quit India Movement

r

Satara (Maharashtra)



Students, peasants and workers provided the backbone of the Revolt.



Upper classes and bureaucracy remained loyal to the Government.



Tata steel Plant was closed for 13 days

Government Repression  

Repression crossed all limits.

Crowds were even bombed from air.

 Rebellious  

villages paid fine and the villagers had to suffer mass-flogging.

India had not witnessed such intense repression since 1857.

Revolt of 1942, as it had been termed by the British, was short-lived.

Impact of Quit India Movement 

  

All India Congress Committee met at Bombay on August 8, 1942 and passed famous ‘Quit India’ resolution.



In the morning of 9 August, Gandhi and other Congress leaders were arrested.



Subhas Bose escaped from India in March 1941.

Movement was leaderless.



When Soviet joined allies in June 1941, he left for Germany.



Also started Azad Hind Radio.

Gandhi, addressing to the delegates on the night of 8th August, gave the mantra: ‘Do or Die’.

Course of the movement  

Symbols of British authority – police stations, post offices, railway stations – were attacked.



‘Parallel Governments’ were set up.



It demonstrated the depth that nationalist fervor had penetrated in the country and the capacity of struggle and sacrifice people had developed.

Bengal and Madras were the most affected.

r

r

Balia (eastern UP) under Chittu Pandey Tamluk (Midnapore district Bengal): Jatiya Sarkar was set up.

298 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

of

It made clear that the British would no longer rule India against the wishes of the people.

SUBHAS CHANDRA BOSE AND INA

 Reached 

Soviet Union to seek help.

In Berlin (Germany), he formed ‘Free India Legion’ from Indian prisoners of wars captured by Germany.

r

He was called ‘Netaji’ by INA soldiers.

r

Launched campaigns against British in Burma, Imphal (Manipur) and Kohima (Nagaland).

r

r

 

Azad Hind Fauj (Indian National Army or INA).

r r

Assisted by Rash Behari Bose:

an old revolutionary extremist.

t

had formed Indian Independence League.

r In

r

in exile since 1915.

July 1943 Bose took the leadership of INA.

INA was joined by Indian residents in South-East Asia and by Indian Soldiers and officers captured by Japanese forces in Malaya, Singapore and Burma Subhas gave the slogans:

t

‘Jai Hind’,

t

famous proclaim ‘Tum mujhe khoon do, main tumhe azadi doonga (Give me blood! I will give you freedom)’.

t

‘Delhi Chalo’ and

r

military

t t

r

r

Formed in Singapore by Mohan Singh, an ex-Captain of Indian Army on September 1, 1942 Objective: to conduct a campaign to liberate India.

Bose Associates in Azad Hind Fauj:

t

Prem Sahgal – military secretary to Subhas Bose

t

M.Z. Kiani

t

From Germany, went to Japan in February 1943. r

INA joined Japanese army in Burma for its march on India.

t

Shahnawz Khan

Lakshmi Sahgal (Early Lakshmi Swaminathan)

name-

INA controlled Andaman and Nicobar Islands for 18 months, Manipur for 4 months. With the defeat of Japan in 1944-45, INA too lost the battle.

r Remaining INA troops surrendered under

M.Z. Kiani to British-Indian troops.

RED FORT TRIALS (INA TRIALS) l

Between November 1945 and May 1946. r

10 court-martials held in Red Fort Delhi.

r

Three accused: Prem Sahgal, Gurudayal Singh Dhillon and Shahnawaj Khan

r

r r

r

Charge: treason or waging war against the King Emperor

Congress and Muslim League both made the release of INA prisoners an important political cause.

INA Defence Committee was formed by Congress.

Congress legal luminaries Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Kailashnath Katju and Asaf Ali fought the case. Freedom Struggle III - Swarajist to Independence

299

r

r



r

But, all three were judged guilty and sentenced to deportation of life.

t

However, immense public pressure and demonstrations forced British Commander-in-chief Claude Auchinleck to remit the sentence and to release all three.

r

t Acknowledgement

of Clement Attlee, British PM, in 1947 to Chief Justice of Calcutta High Court Justice P B Chakarvarty.

After 3 months, 11000 INA soldiers were also released.

r

INA members were treated as patriots and not collaborators with enemy, as painted by British.

“INA had literally burst upon the country …… from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin was aflame with an enthusiastic fervor unprecedented in its history.” (IB note November 20, 1945) t

t

t

‘INA Days’ held in Karachi, Vellore, Salem, Madras, Patna, Dacca and other areas.

Shops refused to serve British clients.

Governor of Central Provinces compared the situation to that prevailed during 1857 and voiced doubt about willingness of Indian troops to fire on mob.

nationalist feelings even in British-Indian Defence forces. It shook the loyalty to the British Crown among the Indian army and navy.

MUTINY OF ROYAL INDIAN NAVY FEBRUARY 1946 

t

r

t

Almost a strike by 5200 officers and pilots of Royal Indian Air force on 11 February. Mutiny of Royal Indian Navy in February 1946.

It broke the communal barriers for a while, as the three accused were from different religions.

300 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Trouble started on Feb 8 on the HMIS Talwar, a signals training ship based in Bombay.



Immediate issue was conditions and food.



Mutineers’ Leaders:





poor

living

On February 18: full-scale revolt erupted. r r

M.S. Khan, signalman: President Madan Singh, President

Demands:

telegraphist:

Vice-

r

Release of all INA prisoners.

r

Withdrawal of Indian troops fighting in Indonesia against Sukarno’s Nationalist army.

r

r Caused

Evidence:

Played a crucial role hastening the end of British rule.

Evidence:

Significance of INA Trial: r

Congress-League demonstrations in Delhi, Calcutta and Lahore showed rare moment of unity.

Equalization of pay between British and Indian sailors.



Being a signals ship, Talwar mutineers quickly communicated with other ships.



Effects of Mutiny:



Out of 88 ships of Royal Indian Navy, 78 ships joined the mutiny. r r

spread to all key ports along West and East coast of India. sympathy strike by civilian population

r 

r

r



Mutiny in Jabalpur regiment and several engineering units of Madras regiment.



Role of Nationalist Leaders:

r



of Bombay paralysed the city for several days.

r

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel: On Feb 22 1946 went aboard several of mutinous ships and urged their leaders to surrender.

 

 

British now needed Indian leaders to help them restore order within armed forces.



r



r

Lord Wavell replaced Linlithgo as Viceroy in October 1943.

Wavell Plan or Broadcast (June 14, 1945): Objective r

To ease the present political situation, and

Equal representation of caste Hindus and Muslims in the Council. Defence (war portfolio) of India to be in British hands.

Portfolios of Home, Finance and External affairs to be looked after by an Indian Member of Council.

r British

This Mutiny was the biggest mutiny since 1857.

Also, Wavell realized that the governance in India in the changed circumstances could be possible only with the cooperation of Indians.

Viceroy and Commanderin-Chief, all members of Executive Council to be Indians.

r

Nehru: expressed need to curb the ‘wild outburst’.

Russian Government pressurized Britain to transfer power in Indian hands.

Viceroy’s Executive Council to be reconstituted and number of members be increased.

r

Gandhi: scolded navy men for the ‘unbecoming example’.

By May 1945, 2nd World War came to an end.

r

Plan proposals:

r

Jinnah: similarly discouraged Muslim sailors.

As a goodwill gesture, he released Congress leaders arrested during Quit India Movement.

To advance India towards her goal of ‘full self-government’.

r Except

WAVELL PLAN 1945 

r



r

High Commissioner to be appointed to look after the commercial interests on the lines of the Dominions. Interference of Secretary of State to be decreased to the minimum. Interim Government would in no way prejudice the final constitutional settlement

Proposals intended to make a longterm solution easier.

Shimla Conference (25 th June 1945) r r

To make his plan operational, Wavell called a political conference in Shimla on June 25, 1945.

Except Hindu Mahasabha, 21 leaders of different political parties/groups were invited.

Response to Wavell Plan r r

Gandhi was in Shimla but did not attend the conference. He resented the use of words “caste Hindus”. Jinnah put two conditions:

Freedom Struggle III - Swarajist to Independence

301

r

r

r

r

r



Congress represented only Hindus and Muslim League was the sole representative of Muslims, so it had the sole right to nominate all Muslim members to the Council.

Some effective safeguard, other than the Viceroy’s veto, should be provided to protect Muslim interests from majority decisions of the Council.

Maulana Azad, the Congress President, asserted that Congress would not accept the interim settlements that prejudice the national character of Congress reducing it to level of communal body. Shivraj, a representative for Schedule Castes, objected to the Congress claim ‘to nominate representatives of scheduled castes’. Hindu Mahasabha, though not invited to conference, opposed parity between caste Hindus and Muslims in the Executive Council.

r

CABINET MISSION 1946 Background 

Post-War scenario brought change in British attitude: r r

r

r

Though Wavell plan broadly proposed Indianisation of Executive Council, representation on the basis of religion had inherent divisive traits.

It gave strength to demand of Pakistan and confirmed ‘a power of veto’ on Jinnah in deciding any future constitutional development in India. Maulana Azad:

“The Shimla conference marks a breakwater in Indian political history. This was the first time that negotiations failed, not on the basic political issue between India and Britain, but on the communal issue dividing different Indian groups.”

302 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Balance of power changed. USA and USSR emerged as big powers, Britain’s old glory faded.

Britain’s economic and military power shattered after 6 years of War, though Britain was part of winning Allies.

r

Change of government in Britain. Labour Party replaced the Conservative.



Evidence: INA trials, Naval Mutiny, Royal Indian Air Force strikes, Indian Signal Corps strike at Jabalpur, Police force strike in Bihar and Delhi.

r

Shimla Conference: an analysis r

It is said that Shimla Conference ‘was a fraud upon the public as well as upon its members’.

r

r

Major instruments of British Rule – the Army and the police – showed signs of nationalist leanings.

Numerous demonstrations, strikes, agitations and hartals showed the will and determination of Indian people against British Rule.

Students in schools and colleges took active part in strikes and demonstrations.

r Large-scale

Evidence: t

r

t

labour unrest across India

July 1946: Postal and Telegraph workers’ strike.

August 1946: Railway workers’ strike in South India.

Peasant Movements after 1945.

t t

Tebhaga Struggle in Bengal.

Peasant struggles in Hyderabad,

r

Malabar, Bengal, UP, Bihar and Maharashtra.

r Popular

upsurges in Princely States – Hyderabad, Travancore, Kashmir and Patiala.

r General

Elections for Central and Provincial Assemblies in December 1945. t

Congress won majority of general seats and Muslim League did the same for seats reserved for Muslims.

t

3 member commission constituted by British PM. r

Lord Pethick Lawrence: Secretary of State for India.

r

A.V. Alexander: First Lord of the Admiralty.

r

 



 

r r

Sir Stafford Cripps: President of Board of Trade.

r

r

Terms of Reference: Transfer of power to India.

Arrived in India in March 24, 1946 and left on June 29, 1946.

3-month long grueling negotiations with Indian leaders, both from Congress and League, rulers of Princely States and British officers. Announced recommendations on May 16, 1946. Mission Proposals: r r

r

Two-Tiered Federal Plan with a view to maintaining National Unity as well as Regional Autonomy.

A federation of British Provinces and Princely States with federal Centre.

Federal Centre would control only – Defence, Foreign Affairs and Communications.

t

t

Cabinet Mission 

Provinces to be grouped into 3 sections:



r

Group A: 6 Hindu majority provinces (Bombay, United Provinces, Bihar, Orissa, Madras and Central Provinces)

Group B: Muslim majority provinces in the North-west (Punjab, Sindh and NWFP)

Group C: Muslim majority provinces in the north east (Bengal and Assam)

All subjects other than the Union subjects and all residuary powers should vest in the Provinces.

An elected Constituent Assembly to frame a Constitution for Indian Union. Three groups of provinces should also possess their separate constitution.

A province should have the right to leave the Union in future if it so liked after elections under new Constitution.

An Interim Government with leaders from national parties.

Response of Congress and Muslim League r

League accepted the proposal on 6 June 1946.

r Congress

r

Working Committee accepted on 25 th June 1946 with condition that right to join group be given to provinces (since Congress governments in NWFP and Assam). Fresh Congress-League tussle:

t

Grouping of Provinces: v

League wanted grouping of provinces to be compulsory with the right to secede from the Union.

Freedom Struggle III - Swarajist to Independence

303

v Congress v

t

wanted that provinces be given right to join a group.

Congress was not satisfied with Mission’s clarifications that grouping would be compulsory at first, but provinces would have right opt out after the constitution had been finalized and new elections held in accordance with it.

Cabinet Mission Plan Constituent Assembly v

Vs

Congress argued that the Constituent Assembly would be a sovereign body.



Jawaharlal Nehru’s Press Conference of 10 th July 1946: ‘We have agreed to go into the Constituent Assembly and we have agreed to nothing else’.

r After



(September 2, 1946 - August 14, 1947) Background:  

r

Cabinet Mission Plan had proposed an Interim Government at the Centre. Proposed Composition of Government: r

r

r  On  

14 members in cabinet: 6 from Congress, 5 from Muslim League and 1 each from Parsi, Sikh and Indian Christian community.

Important portfolios would be divided equally to Congress and League. Neither Congress nor League would be entitled to object the names submitted by other party.

July 22, 1946, Viceroy Lord Wavell wrote letters to Nehru and Jinnah to join Interim Government.

Both Nehru and Jinnah rejected the offer.

Later on August 6, Wavell invited Nehru to form the Government.

Nehru’s press conference, League on July 29, 1946 withdrew its earlier 6 th June acceptance of Cabinet Mission’s proposals.

Interim Government

Cabinet mission rejected the Pakistan demand citing that it would ‘not solve the communal minority problem but only raise more such problems’.



Formed on September 2, 1946.



Other cabinet members were:

Critical Analysis of Cabinet Mission Plan r

Granville Austin, an American historian, argues that the non-Indian Cabinet Mission should have never attempted to mediate between the Congress and the Muslim League; ‘it was foredoomed to failure’.

INTERIM GOVERNMENT 1946

v League

r

wanted the Plan Proposals to be ‘final’ as Hindu dominated Constituent Assembly would be detrimental to Muslims’ interests.

r

Congress wanted STRONG CENTRE which would command respect from the nations of the World, but Cabinet Mission offered WEAK CENTRE.

304 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India



Jawaharlal Nehru became the VicePresident in Viceroy’s Executive Council. r Vallabhbhai

Patel (Home and Information and Broadcasting).

r Dr r

Rajendra Agriculture).

Prasad

Sarat Chandra Bose.

(Food

and

r

C Rajagopalachari (Education and Arts).

r

Baldev Singh (Sikh) (Defence).

r r

Jagjivan Ram (Labour). C.H. Bhabha (Parsi).

r John r r r

Matthai (Industries).

(Indian

Christian)

Asaf Ali (Transport and Railways). Sir Shafaat Ahmad Khan. Syed Ali Zaheer.



r

Jogendra Nath Mandal (Law).

Interim Government remained in place till transfer of power in 1947.

ATTLEE’S DECLARATION 1947  

Clement Attlee, then Prime Minister of United Kingdom. Background of Attlee’ Declaration: r

Interim Government of CongressLeague in 1946 was not working well.

r League r

Assembly.

boycott

of

Constituent

Failure of London Conference.

r Antagonism r

 On 

Muslim League joined Interim government on 25 th October 1946.



To create space for Muslim League members, Sarat Chandra Bose, Shafaat Ahmad Khan and Syed Ali Zaheer resigned.



 

Jinnah declared: They were "going into the Interim Government to get a foothold to fight for... cherished goal of Pakistan”.

Muslim league nominated Jogendra Nath Mandal, a schedule caste Hindu in the cabinet. Muslim League members in cabinet:

r r

Liaquat Ali Khan (Finance). Abdur Rab Nishtar (Posts).

r Ibrahim r

(Commerce).

Ismail

Chundrigar

Ghazanfar Ali Khan (Health).

and disagreement between Congress and League. Recurrent riots leading to civil war.

February 20, 1947 in the House of Commons, he declared: r r

r

The present state of uncertainty is fraught with danger and cannot be indefinitely prolonged.

His Majesty’s Government’s intention is to take necessary steps to effect the ‘transference of power’ to responsible Indian hands by a date not later than 30 June 1948. If, by June 1948, a Constitution was not framed by a fully representative Constituent Assembly, His Majesty’s Government will have to consider to whom the power of the Central Government in British India should be handed over on the due date; whether as a whole to some form of Central Government for British India or in some areas to the existing Provincial Governments, or in some other way as may seem most reasonable and in the best interests of the Indian people. Freedom Struggle III - Swarajist to Independence

305

 

Congress on March 8 welcomed the announcement as ‘wise and courageous’. Gandhi remarked that it would lead to Pakistan.





was the best plan under circumstances

r

India would be Independent by 15 th August 1947.

Main Provisions: r

MOUNTBATTEN PLAN: 3 RD JUNE 1947 

r

Partition of India into two dominions – India and Pakistan.

r Princely

Lord Mountbatten replaced Lord Wavell as Viceroy of India on 24 th March 1947.

Originally urged the political leaders to accept Cabinet Mission Plan of 16 th May 1946, but found agreement impossible.

r

r

States were either to join India or Pakistan or remain Independent.

Bengal and Punjab to be partitioned if members (Muslims and non-Muslims separately) of Legislative Assemblies of both States voted in favour of partition.

Referendum in NWF province to decide whether people wanted to join India or Pakistan.

r Referendum

 

r

On June 3, 1947 announced a new plan, also known as June 3 rd Plan.

r

Plan: r

r

Laid down principles for the partition of India and speedy transfer of power. Ended the political and constitutional deadlock created by Muslim League after its refusal to join Constituent Assembly to frame new Constitution for India.

r Conceded r

League’s demand for Pakistan but not as desired by Jinnah. Predominantly Hindu and Sikh areas were assigned to new India and predominantly Muslim areas to new nation of Pakistan.

306 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India







r

in Sylhet, Muslim majority district of Assam, to know whether it wanted to join East Bengal (East Pakistan). A Boundary Commission to define the boundaries of Punjab and Bengal.

A separate Constituent Assembly to be elected by Muslim dominated areas to make constitution for Pakistan. British Parliament to enact a law for the transfer of power

Mountbatten on his Plan

“The whole plan may not be perfect; but like all plans its success will depend on the spirit of goodwill with which it is carried out.” Response to Plan: r

Congress Working Committee meeting at Delhi on 14-15 th June accepted the Plan.

r

Muslim League accepted the Plan on 9 June.

r r r

Baldev Singh, leader of Sikh community, accepted the plan with reluctance. Hindu Mahasabha partition plan.

Gandhi and Maulana Azad initially against the Plan. t t



Gandhi: plan was against the fraternity. Azad: It was surrender to League’s demands and a deal by the leaders who succumbed to power temptation.

r

Was set up on June 7, 1947.

r



r

Under Chairmanship of Viceroy Lord Mountbatten with 2 members each from Congress and Muslim League. Members were Sardar Patel and Rajendra Prasad from Congress and Liaquat Ali Khan and Abdur Rab Nishtar from League. To deal with different questions involved with Partition.



r

On June 27, 1947, partition committee gave way to Partition Council.

Composition altered with 2 members from each of Dominion Cabinets. Patel and Rajendra Prasad remained in the Council.

Partition of Provinces: Bengal:

r

r

Legislative assembly met on June 20, 1947.

Decided by 126 to 90 votes to join Pakistan.

Legislative assembly met on June 23.

r

Members of non-Muslim majority areas by 50 to 22 votes decided to partition the province and join India.

Decided by 91 to 77 votes to join Pakistan.

Members of Muslim majority areas by 69 to 27 votes decided against partition of province and to join India.

Sind

r

r

Legislative Assembly met on 26 June.

Decided by 30 to 20 votes to join Pakistan.

Baluchistan

r

Decided to join Pakistan on 26 June.

r

Referendum held in early July 1947.

Sylhet

Partition Council

r

Members of Muslim majority areas by 106 to 35 votes decided against partition of province and to join India.

r

r



Members of non-Muslim majority areas by 58 to 21 votes decided to partition the province and join India.

Punjab:

r

Partition Committee

r



were

Later on both Gandhi and Azad accepted the plan.

r



the

r

r



opposed

r

r



Majority of voters – 239619 to 184041 decided separation from Assam and joining East Bengal.

NWFP

r

r

r r

Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan said that voters should be allowed to vote also for an independent ‘Pathanistan’.

Viceroy and Jinnah did not concede the demand.

Khan Sahab appealed his followers to boycott the referendum. Referendum held from July 6 to 17.

Freedom Struggle III - Swarajist to Independence

307

r

Of total electorates – 572798, only slightly over 50 % voted – 289244 in favour and 2874 against joining Pakistan.

INDIAN INDEPENDENCE ACT 1947     



July 2, 1947: Mountbatten showed Indian Independence Bill to Indian leaders which was based on June 3 Plan. July 4, 1947: Bill introduced in the House of Commons.

July 16 , 1947: Bill passed at its third reading. July 18, 1947: received the Royal assent.

July 19, 1947: Mountbatten announced establishment of two separate provisional governments, one for India and other for Pakistan. Main Provisions of Act:

r r

r

r

r

Two new Dominions – India and Pakistan – to be set up out of British India. Appointed date of implementation: August 15, 1947.

Dominion of India would include whole of British India except territories constituting Pakistan i.e. West Punjab, Sind, Baluchistan, North West Frontier Province and East Bengal. In place of Province of Bengal and Punjab, as constituted under Government of India Act 1935, new provinces of East Bengal and West Bengal out of Bengal, and West Punjab and East Punjab out of Punjab shall be constituted.

On the basis of majority of votes cast in referendum in North West Frontier

308 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r

r

Province, before appointed date, Governor-General to declare NWFP to be part of Constituent Assembly of Pakistan.

Similarly, On the basis of majority of votes cast in referendum in Sylhet, Muslim majority district of Assam, before appointed date, GovernorGeneral to declare the territory of Sylhet to be part of East Bengal.

Boundaries of new Provinces of Bengal and Punjab, and Province of Assam to be determined by the award of a Boundary Commission appointed or to be appointed by the Governor-General.

r Each r r r

Dominion would have a Governor-General to be appointed by His Majesty.

The Legislature of each Dominion shall have full power to make laws for that Dominion. Governor-General shall have full power to assent to any law in His Majesty’s name.

No act of British Parliament or no Order in Council passed, after appointed date, shall have effect on new Dominions.

r His

Majesty shall have no responsibility to any territory of British India from the appointed day.

r Suzerainty

of His Majesty over the Indian States lapses from the appointed day. Also with it lapses all treaties, agreements, obligations, rights, authority and jurisdictions in relation to States.

r Constituent r

Assembly of each Dominion to act as the Legislature Each of new Dominions and all

r 

Provinces and other parts shall be governed as nearly as may be in accordance with the provisions of Government of India Act 1935, till the time Constituent Assembly makes new Constitution.

Royal styles and titles like ‘Indiae Imperator’ and ‘Emperor of India’ to be abandoned.

Impact on Interim Government

r

League members withdrew all the portfolios and Congress took charge of all the affairs pertaining to Dominion of India.

r

Thus, two Interim Governments were created.

Matters of common concerns to be dealt with jointly under GovernorGeneral Chairmanship.

r By July 19, communiqué, Mountbatten

became Governor-General of Dominion of India and Jinnah as Governor-General of Dominion of Pakistan.

RADCLIFFE’S BOUNDARY AWARD: AUGUST 1947 

On June 27, 1947, Mountbatten proposed Boundary Commission consisting of 4 High Court Judges – 2 chosen by Congress and 2 by League.

Two Boundary Commissions: r

r

r League r

members took over corresponding portfolios concerning Pakistan.



Bengal Boundary Commission: Members – C. C. Biswas, B K Mukherjee, Abu Saleh Mohammad Akram and S A Rahman. Punjab Boundary Commission: Members – Mehar Chand Mahajan, Teja Singh, Din Mohammad and Mohammad Munir.



Both Commissions to be chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe.



Partition was made on 1941 census of districts.



 

 

Terms of reference to each commission: ‘to demarcate the boundaries on the basis of ascertaining contiguous majority areas of Muslims and non-Muslims; in doing so it will take into account other factors.’ Radcliffe reached Delhi on July 8, 1947. Boundary Commission in session: r r

Bengal Boundary Commission from July 16-24.

Punjab Boundary Commission from July 21-31.

Radcliffe Award made public on August 16, 1947. Response to Award: r Jinnah:

“It is unjust, incomprehensible and even perverse award. It may be wrong, unjust and perverse and it may not be a judicial but political award, but we had agreed to abide by it and it is binding upon us.”

Freedom Struggle III - Swarajist to Independence

309

15 AUGUST 1947 l

India celebrated its first day of freedom with joy as well as pain. r

Joy because dream and sacrifices of patriots had become a reality.

310 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

r

Pain because India was partitioned, unity of India broken, senseless communal slaughter was rampant and lakhs of citizens had become refugees and were forced to leave the land of their forefathers.

COMMUNALISM AND PARTITION

COMMUNALISM AND POLITICS OF PARTITION



Communalism: r

Is basically an ideology.

religious identity of a community as fundamental and unchangeable.

t

r Defines r Is

based on 3 intertwined beliefs:

t

That a group of people follow a particular religion have common social, political & economic interests.

312 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

t

That the social, political, cultural and economic interests of the followers of one religion are dissimilar and divergent from the interests of followers of another religion, That the interests of the followers of different religions are mutually incompatible, antagonistic and hostile.

r

Is modern phenomenon.

r Made

appearance around the end of 19 th century.

r Is

a product of colonial economic political structure.

r

socio-

r

Revolt of 1857: Hindus and Muslims fought together against British.

t

British were alarmed by HinduMuslim unity.

t

in Delhi alone 27000 Muslims were hanged

t

r

vindictive attitude of officials against Muslims

British Attitude towards changed in 1870s.

t Reason: t

v­



increased government aid to Muslim educational institutions.

Lord Cross, Secretary of State’s communication to Lord Dufferin in 1887: ‘That division of religious feeling is to our advantage.’

Anjuman-i- Islamia (1884-Lahore) Muhammadan Association by Syed Amir Ali.

British Policy of ‘Divide and Rule’

t

Objective was to check the growth of a united national feeling.

started encouraging separatist and communal tendencies.

t tried t

Muslims

use of Urdu as medium of instruction for Muslims in primary and secondary schools.

Literary and Scientific Society founded by Abdul Latif (1863).

t National

t

t

rise of nationalist movement posed threat to safety and stability of British Empire.

v

t

r

British

William Hunter, a civil servant, authored a book named ‘The Indian Musalmans’ in 1871 on the basis of which Lord Mayo Government decided in principle:

t Muhammadan t

RISE AND GROWTH OF COMMUNALISM Factors

Pro-British Muslim Association in late 19 th century.

t

r

to win over Muslim landlords, zamindars and newly educated. treated Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs as separate communities. encouraged movement to replace Urdu as court language.

permitted the propagation of communal ideas and hatred through press, pamphlets, posters and public platform, but suppressed nationalist press and writers.

Role of Syed Ahmad Khan:

t

t

t t

A great educationist and social reformer became conservative towards end of his life.

Laid the foundation of Muslim communalism in 1880s and declared that the political interests of Hindus and Muslims were different and divergent.

Preached complete obedience to British rule. Urged not to listen to Badruddin Tyabji’s appeal to Muslims to join Congress. Communalism and Partition

313

t r

Founded an organization ‘United Indian Patriotic Association’ to counter Congress.

t

Relative backwardness of Muslims:

t

t

t

t

t

t

In comparison to Hindus, Muslims were relatively backward in education, trade and industry.

During first 70 years of 19th century, Muslim upper class was against British, so opposed to western education, science etc.

r

Later Syed Ahmad Khan, Nawab Abdul Latif, Badruddin Tyabji and other modern Muslim leaders worked for the spread of modern education among Muslims.

r

Due to educational backwardness, Muslims lagged behind nonMuslims in government service or other professions.

t

of

Economic backwardness under colonial rule: v Caused

unemployment, particularly for the educated youths.

314 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

t

t t

officials and loyalist Muslim leaders took advantage of that and incited educated Muslims against educated Hindus.

Particularly

officials and vested interests on both sides- Hindus and Muslims, aroused communal passion.

Role of British historians in spreading communal view of history

t

Even late educated Muslims found it tough to enter government service as compared to educated Hindus.

Unemployment, Educated Youths

Politically immature people failed to realize the real underlying causes.

British historians also fueled the mind on communal lines. v v

But the proportionate of the educated among Muslims was far lower than among Hindus, Parsis or Christians.

Bombay was the only province where Muslims had taken to commerce and education.

Caused intense competition for limited available jobs

t British

t British

t

v

r

v ­

Termed medieval period as Muslim period and Ancient as Hindu period. Showed the decay of Indian society and culture during medieval period. Treated all Muslims as rulers and non-Muslims as ruled.

But in reality, Muslim masses were as oppressed and deprived as Hindu masses. Rulers, nobles, zamindars, both Hindu and Muslim, were real beneficiaries. Gandhi observed: v “Communal

harmony could not be established in our country so long as highly distorted versions of history were taught in her schools and colleges through the history textbooks.”

Role of Aggressive Nationalism

t Speeches t

and writings of aggressive nationalists had strong religious and Hindu tinge. They identified Indian culture and Indian nation with Hindu culture and the Hindus.

For example:

v

v Bal v

v­

Aurobindo Ghosh advocacy of dipping into Ganga before initiation of Bang-bhang agitation in 1905 and taking oath before Goddess Kali for the revolutionary terrorists.

Aggressive nationalists were not anti-Muslims



“He who does what is beneficial to this country, be he a Mohammedan or an Englishman, is not alien. Alienness has to do with interests. Alienness is not concerned with white or black skin or religion.”

t

t

But a certain Hindu tinge in political work and ideas of the aggressive nationalists gave opportunity to British to cleverly poison the minds of the Muslims and colour the movement as Hindu movement.

Result was a large number of educated Muslims remained either aloof or hostile to national movement led by Congress. Shimla Deputation (1906) v 35

member delegation of Muslims, mostly from aristocracy, met Viceroy Lord Minto on 1 October 1906 at Shimla and demanded special privileges for Muslims.

All India Muslim League was founded on 30 December 1906 in Dhaka (now capital of Bangladesh).

t Founding t t

Tilak declared in 1916:

Creation of Muslim League

t

t

Shivaji or Rana Pratap was hailed as national hero for their historical fight against Muslim ruler Aurangzeb or Akbar.

t

­

r

Gangadhar Tilak propagated Ganapati (1893) Shivaji (1896) festivals.

Lord Minto assured ‘political rights and interests of Muslims would be safeguarded’ not only because of their numerical strength but also ‘their political importance’ and ‘service to the Empire’.

t

t

t t r

Leaders: Aga Khan, Nawab of Dhaka, and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk. Founded as a loyalist, conservative and communal organization. Founded in the background of antiPartition Movement in Bengal in 1905. Supported the partition of Bengal.

Demanded special safeguards for Muslims in government service.

Its activities were not directed against foreign rule but against National leaders and the Hindus. League became one of the main instruments of British to fight the growing freedom movement.

Indian Councils Act 1909 (MorleyMinto Reforms). t

t

t

Separate electorate for Muslims, a political demand of Muslim League was accepted and became a law by 1909 Act.

By this, British formalized the Muslims as a separate community which later conceptualized as a separate nation. Separate electorate system checked the integration of Muslims into mainstream of Indian nationalism and became a potent tool for the further growth of communalism. Communalism and Partition

315

r

n

Creation of Hindu Mahasabha

t From

t

t

t t

1870s, a section of Hindu zamindars, money-lenders and middle class began to arouse antiMuslim feelings. Colonial view of history depicted Muslim rule of medieval India as ‘tyrannical’ and British as ‘saviour’ of Hindus from “Muslim oppression’.

Anti-cow slaughter propaganda spread all over India in early 1890s. This campaign was not directed against the British Cantonments, where large number of cows slaughtered, but against Muslims.

Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, it became more intense critic of Congress and its policy of wooing Muslim support.

t British

r

Founded in 1909

v

opposed Congress favoured British rule

U.N. Mukherjee and Lal Chand

and

v

founded in April 1915

First Conference in Hardwar in April 1915

­ n n

v

v

under Presidentship of Maharaja of Kasim Bazar Gandhi and Swami Shraddhanand were also present

originally called ‘Sarvadeshak Hindu Sabha’

changed its name to Akhil Bharat Hindu Mahasabha in 1921 (6 th session)

316 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Lucknow Pact 1916

t

Congress and League signed a Pact at Lucknow

t

put up common demand of selfgovernment before the British government

t

important role played by Tilak and Jinnah

Pact’s flaws: It accepted the ‘principle of separate electorates’ for Muslims.

t Lucknow

Akhil Bharat Hindu Mahasabha v

government though favoured Muslim communal organistions to counter Indian National Congress.

t

Punjab Hindu Sabha v Leaders:

t

v Under

Hindi-Urdu conflict took place in Bihar and UP. v

At this session amended the clause ‘about loyalty’ to British and added a clause committing to ‘united and selfgoverning India’.

r

Pact left the way open for future resurgence of communalism.

Role of Religion

t

Religion in itself is not the cause of communalism.

t

After 1937, religion was used as a mobilizing factor by the communalists.

t

t



Communalism is ‘political trade’ in religion.

Gandhiji declared:

“Religion is the personal affair of each individual. It must not be mixed up with politics or national affairs.”

r

Failure of Nationalists to launch an all-out ideological political struggle against communalism

t

TOWARDS PARTITION l

1923 onwards: r After r

r

1923 India communal riots.

r

l

r l

into

Muslim league and Hindu Mahasabha again became active. Party communalism.

was

split

by

A group known as ‘Responsivists’ including Madan Mohan Malviya, Lala Lajpat Rai and N.C. Kelkar, offered cooperation to government to safeguard Hindu interests.

Gandhi went on 21 days fast in September 1924 against communal riots in Maulana Mohammad Ali’s house at Delhi.

During 1930s r

Muslim League was strong in areas where Muslims were in minority, and weak in Muslim majority provinces such as Punjab, Bengal, Sindh and North West Frontier Province. In Muslim majority provinces, even Muslim League took help of Hindu Mahasabha to stop Congress.

1937 Provincial Legislative Elections r

t

t

As per Simon Commission report, 112 riots took place during 1923-27.

r Swarajist r

plunged

t

Result of Elections

t

Congress emerged in power in 7 out of 11 Provinces, but won only 26 out of 482 seats reserved for Muslims, and even out of 26, 15 in North West Frontier Province.

r

Muslim league won only 105 out of 482 and also failed to form government even in Muslim majority states. Hindu Mahasabha too fared badly

1937 elections demonstrated that neither Muslim League nor Congress represented Muslims. Most of Muslim reserved seats won by regional Muslim parities like Unionist in Punjab under Sikandar Hayat Khan, Krishak Praja Party in Bengal under A K Fazlul Haq.

Muslim League learnt the lessons of the 1937 elections for itself:

t

Severe loss forced Muslim League to adopt more communal stance.

t

From Lucknow (1937) to Lahore (1940) Session, Muslim League's membership multiplied from a few thousand to well over half a million

t

t

t

t

t

Made determined efforts to build up a more populist image among Muslim masses.

Congress Muslim mass contact programme in 1937

Nehru rejected Jinnah's “call and terms for cooperation”. Nehru felt that Congress itself could win over the Muslim masses on the basis of economic issues and so initiated ‘Muslim mass contact programme’.

Jinnah opined that Congress mass contact with the Muslims, was calculated to divide and weaken and break the Muslims, and was an effort to detach them from their accredited leaders. Communalism and Partition

317

r Thus,

1937 marked the 'parting of the ways' between Congress and League.

r League’s l

main political weapon since 1937 had been attacks on the Congress.

Pirpur Committee: r r

r r

Appointed by Muslim League March,1938 under Raja of Pirpur.

Submitted its report in November 1938.

l

Main charges contained in reports:

t

t

Concerned with the Congress's 'campaign of mass contact' among the Muslims.

t

Hoisting of the Congress flag on public buildings.

t

Playing of mosques.

music

before

the

Ratio in service between the two communities.

t To

embarrass governments

Congress

To instil in Muslims the fear that Congress raj means 'Hindu Raj’ in which they would always be a weak, powerless, and oppressed community.

318 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

Congress governments in most of British India were painted in a way that political responsibility had passed out of the hands of Britain into that of the Hindu majority. Muslims now united behind Muslim League under Jinnah.

Resignation Ministries r

r

Attacks on the religious right of Muslims to slaughter cows.

Pirpur Report sought -

t

r

and Muslim League’s propaganda created an atmosphere of fear and hatred.

l

of

Congress

from

Observance of deliverance day

t t

Use of Hindi and suppression of Urdu.

Singing of Bande Mataram.

t

r Jinnah

Introduction of Wardha Scheme of Education, particularly Vidya Mandir Scheme.

t

t

During 1937-1939:

r

in

To investigate the complaints of illtreatments meted out to Muslims in various Congress provinces.

t

r

l

the

Jinnah adopted a strategy of keeping anti-Congress feeling high.

He called on Muslims on 2 nd December 1939 to observe 22 nd December 1939 as the day of deliverance and thanks-giving as a mark of relief that the Congress Governments had at last ceased to function.

Deliverance Day itself passed off quietly in most places and 'fell very flat' in the Muslim majority provinces of Sind and NWFP.

1940 Lahore Resolution of Muslim League r r

Muslim League session held at Lahore on 23 March 1940 passed a resolution demanding ‘a measure of autonomy’ for the Muslim majority areas

r Resolution

never mentioned Pakistan or Partition.

r

Sikandar Hayat Khan, who drafted the resolution, declared in Punjab Assembly on 1 March 1941 that he was opposed to Pakistan because it would mean ‘Muslim raj here and Hindu raj elsewhere’.

r

r

l

r

t Group

t

Urdu poet Iqbal, famous for his poetry ‘sare jahan se achha Hindostan hamara’, in 1930 League session at Allahabad spoke of a need for a ‘North West Indian Muslim State’, but not visualizing a separate country.

r

r

Muslim League was vague about its demand in 1940

r

Muslim League won all 30 reserved seats in Centre and 442 out of 509 seats in the provinces.

r

Congress won 91 per cent of nonMuslim seats. Significance of this election:

t ­ Political

polarization on communal lines was complete.

t League

established itself as dominant party among Muslims and ‘sole spokesperson’ of Indian Muslims.

Cabinet Mission Plan (1946) r r

Announced recommendations on 16 th May 1946

Recommended a federation of United India

r Central r

Government to control only foreign affairs, defence and communications.

Provinces to be grouped into 3 sections:

t

Group A: provinces

6 Hindu (Bombay,

majority United

B: Muslim majority provinces in the North-west (Punjab, Sindh and NWFP)

Group C: Muslim majority provinces in the north east (Bengal and Assam)

r League

1946 Legislative Elections

r

l

Provinces, Bihar, Orissa, Madras and Central Provinces)

Name ‘Pakistan’ coined by Rehmat Ali and 3 others (Md Aslam Khan, Sheikh Mohd. Sadiq and Inayat ullah Khan), Punjabi Muslim students at Cambridge, in pamphlet “Now or never” written in 1933. But no taker to this idea at that point of time, dismissing it as a student dream.

r

l

r

wanted grouping to be compulsory with the right to secede from the Union.

Congress wanted that provinces be given right to join a group.

Congress was not satisfied with Mission’s clarifications that grouping would be compulsory at first, but provinces would have right opt out after the constitution had been finalized and new elections held in accordance with it. Thus, Cabinet Mission plan was rejected both by Congress and League. Failure of Cabinet Mission made Partition more or less inevitable.

Direct Action Day (16 August 1946) r

Muslim League called for a ‘Direct Action Day’.

r

Riots broke out in Calcutta on the same day and then in Noakhali.

r

By March 1947, riots spread in many parts of India - Bombay, Delhi and Punjab.

r

r

r

Jinnah proclaimed: ‘we shall have either a divided India or destroyed India’.

Gandhi visited Noakhali in November 1946 in a bid to restore peace.

Communal riots were interpreted by the British as evidence of the irreconcilable differences between Hindus and Muslims. Communalism and Partition

319

r

l

Congress too in March 1947, being convinced Partition as a necessary evil, accepted Partition of Punjab and Bengal in principle.

Interim Government (1946) r

Formed on 2 nd September 1946

r

Muslim League joined Interim th government on 25 October 1946.

r

r

r

Jawaharlal Nehru became the VicePresident in Viceroy’s Executive Council. Jinnah declared: They were "going into the Interim Government to get a foothold to fight for... cherished goal of Pakistan”. League had no intention to share with Congress the responsibility for running the Government.

r

WHY CONGRESS ACCEPTED PARTITION OF INDIA AND CREATION OF PAKISTAN? l

l

r Further,

r

r

l

the League refused to participate in the Constituent Assembly which met on 9th December 1946.

Mountbatten Plan ( 3 rd June 1947) r

r

Laid down principles for the partition of India and speedy transfer of power. Ended the political and constitutional deadlock created by Muslim League after its refusal to join Constituent Assembly to frame new Constitution for India.

r Conceded

League’s demand for Pakistan but not as desired by Jinnah.

320 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

To avoid large-scale bloodbath: r

r ­ r

r­

r ­

l

l

Mass killings of innocents in communal riots had become a recurring and regular phenomenon.

Riots were not confined to one area but happening everywhere.

To avoid Balkanization of country:

r

The breaking point came when the League demanded that the Constituent Assembly be dissolved because it was unrepresentative.

On 5 th February 1947, Congress members of the Interim Government sent a letter to Wavell with the demand that the League members should be asked to resign.

Predominantly Hindu and Sikh areas were assigned to new India and predominantly Muslim areas to new nation of Pakistan.

r ­

Divisive Policies of British rule hardly did anything to prevent communal conflicts, rather encouraged. Avoiding partition in 1947 could result in ‘more divisions’ and ‘Balkanisation' of the country

Sensing the reality, Congress did not agree to hand over 1/3rd of country as Muslim League had demanded, but agreed to separation of only those areas where influence of League was predominant. Thus, Punjab, Bengal and Assam were partitioned.

Muslim League to get, in the words of Jinnah, ‘moth-eaten Pakistan’.

Obstructive approach of Muslim League during Interim government at the centre in 1946: r ­

Congress got the first hand experience of ‘sabotage tactics’ of Muslim League.

r ­

Congress leaders chose to accept Pakistan rather than compel unity.

Alternative to partition was imposing unity by force:

r ­

r ­

J.B. Kriplani, Congress President in 1947, told the Viceroy that ‘rather than have a battle we shall let them have their Pakistan’.

r ­

Sardar Patel said in Congress Working Committee on proposal of accepting Partition Plan:



l

Nehru said: ‘use of the sword could not stem the communal forces rather ensuing civil war would have long term consequences’.

“Nobody like the division of India and my heart is heavy. But the chance is between one division and many divisions. We must face facts; we cannot give way to emotionalism and sentimentality. My nine months in office has completely disillusioned me regarding the supposed merits of Cabinet Mission Plan. Except for few honorable exceptions, Muslim officials from top down to the chaprasis (peons) are working for the League. The communal veto given to the League in the Mission Plan would have blocked progress at every stage. Whether we like it or not de facto Pakistan already exists in Punjab and Bengal. Under the circumstances I would prefer a de jure Pakistan, which may make the League more responsible. Freedom is coming. We have 75 to 80 per cent of India, which we can make strong with our own genius. The League can develop the rest of the country.”

l l

Theory was only and only political in nature, proved by none other than the propounder Jinnah. Statements of Jinnah testify this: r

r

l

When asked by Muslims who were staying on in India what they should do, Jinnah asked them ‘to be loyal citizens of India’.

On August 11, 1947 in Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, Jinnah addressed: ‘You may belong to any religion or caste or creed that has nothing to do with the business of the State’.

Creation of Bangladesh by breaking away from Pakistan in 1971: r

r

revealed the hollowness of this theory A common religion could not hold East and West Pakistan together.

IMPACT OF PARTITION Immediate l

Massive violence and slaughter

Patel’s Statement addresses the answer to the question of inevitability of Partition in 1947.

‘TWO-NATION THEORY’ l

Accepting partition does not mean Congress leaders endorsed the ‘twonation theory’ propounded by Jinnah.

r r

Punjab suffered the most.

Near total displacement of Hindus and Sikhs from West Punjab (Pakistan) to Communalism and Partition

321

r

r r

l

r

Severity was lesser in Bengal; exchange of population was also not near-total.

r

Women became prime targets.

r

Dishonoring women of a community was seen as dishonoring the community itself.

Largest forced migrations in world history r

r

r

r r

l

India, and Muslims from East Punjab (India) to Pakistan.

r

Millions uprooted and transformed into refugees.

1951 census of India: 72,95,870 displaced persons (refugees) who came from Pakistan. 1951 census of Pakistan: 72,26,600 persons, who came from India.

The two numbers add up to 14.5 million.

Nearly 77% migration in Punjab and 23% in Bengal.

Division of families, division of communities and division of properties.

r

l

r

r

Kashmir Imbroglio r

r

Bone of contention between India and Pakistan since 1947. Pakistan treats it agenda’ of Partition.

as

‘unfinished

322 Indus to Independence Series: Modern India

J&K was a princely state, ruled by Hindu raja Hari Singh.

Its accession to India had been through a legal document called Instrument of Accession signed by Hari Singh on 24 October 1947. With the abrogation of Article 370 on 5 August 2019 by Parliament of India, integration of J&K state was made complete and henceforth all laws, which apply to any part of India, will be applicable to J&K also. But Kashmir still is a bilateral issue between India and Pakistan.

Post-Independence communalism

Long Term l

Jammu and Kashmir (J&K), being Muslim majority state, Pakistan wanted and still foments all sorts of trouble to make it a part of Pakistan.

r

r

Partition generated memories and hatreds that still haunt the psyche on both sides of border.

Pre-Independence communal discourses and incidents are being misused by communal groups, both Muslim and Hindu, to further their divisive agendas. Post-Independent India has been witness to several communal riots. Mutual respect and peaceful coexistence is the need.