Insights into Senior Foreign Language Education 9781800412224

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Insights into Senior Foreign Language Education

Series Editors: Professor David Singleton, University of Pannonia, Hungary and Fellow Emeritus, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland and Associate Professor Simone E. Pfenninger, University of Salzburg, Austria This series brings together titles dealing with a variety of aspects of language acquisition and processing in situations where a language or languages other than the native language is involved. Second language is thus interpreted in its broadest possible sense. The volumes included in the series all offer in their different ways, on the one hand, exposition and discussion of empirical fi ndings and, on the other, some degree of theoretical reflection. In this latter connection, no particular theoretical stance is privileged in the series; nor is any relevant perspective – sociolinguistic, psycholinguistic, neurolinguistic, etc. – deemed out of place. The intended readership of the series includes fi nal-year undergraduates working on second language acquisition projects, postgraduate students involved in second language acquisition research, and researchers, teachers and policymakers in general whose interests include a second language acquisition component. All books in this series are externally peer-reviewed. Full details of all the books in this series and of all our other publications can be found on http://www.multilingual-matters.com, or by writing to Multilingual Matters, St Nicholas House, 31–34 High Street, Bristol BS1 2AW, UK.

SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: 150

Insights into Senior Foreign Language Education Marek Derenowski

MULTILINGUAL MATTERS Bristol • Blue Ridge Summit

DOI https://doi.org/10.21832/DERENO2217 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. Names: Derenowski, Marek, author. Title: Insights into Senior Foreign Language Education/Marek Derenowski. Description: Bristol, UK; Blue Ridge Summit: Multilingual Matters, 2021. Series: Second Language Acquisition: 150 | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “This book examines the unique characteristics of teaching foreign languages to senior learners. It discusses the potential age-related barriers and learning difficulties which they may encounter and offers solutions for teachers in the form of potential modifications to educational programmes, classroom practices, activities and materials”— Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2021014879 | ISBN 9781800412217 (hardback) | ISBN 9781800412224 (pdf) | ISBN 9781800412231 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: Language acquisition—Age factors. | Second language acquisition. | Language and languages—Study and teaching—Foreign speakers. | Older people—Language. Classification: LCC P118.65.D47 2021 | DDC 401/.93—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021014879 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue entry for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN-13: 978-1-80041-221-7 (hbk) Multilingual Matters UK: St Nicholas House, 31–34 High Street, Bristol BS1 2AW, UK. USA: NBN, Blue Ridge Summit, PA, USA. Website: www.multilingual-matters.com Twitter: Multi_Ling_Mat Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/multilingualmatters Blog: www.channelviewpublications.wordpress.com Copyright © 2021 Marek Derenowski. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher. The policy of Multilingual Matters/Channel View Publications is to use papers that are natural, renewable and recyclable products, made from wood grown in sustainable forests. In the manufacturing process of our books, and to further support our policy, preference is given to printers that have FSC and PEFC Chain of Custody certification. The FSC and/or PEFC logos will appear on those books where full certification has been granted to the printer concerned. Typeset by Nova Techset Private Limited, Bengaluru and Chennai, India. Printed and bound in the UK by the CPI Books Group Ltd. Printed and bound in the US by NBN.

Contents

List of Figures List of Tables Glossary Introduction

vii ix xi xiii

1

Interdisciplinary Approach to Aging Introduction 1.1 Aging as a Biological Concept 1.2 Aging Theories 1.3 The Concept of Successful Aging 1.4 Gerontology 1.5 Aging as a Social … 1.6 … and Cultural Phenomenon 1.7 Aging in Philosophy 1.8 Living Longer 1.9 The Glorious ‘Third Age’ 1.10 Will You Still Need Me … 1.11 Oldies Goldies Final Remarks Questions to Consider Suggested Readings

1 1 3 5 6 10 11 12 14 17 18 20 23 24 25 25

2

Lifelong Learning in a Contemporary Society Introduction 2.1 Understanding ‘Lifelong Learning’ 2.2 Lifelong Learning – Where did it Start? 2.3 Lifelong Learning – Facing Global Challenges and Finding Solutions 2.4 Promoting Lifelong Education: Third Age Universities 2.5 The National Perspective – Polish Example Final Remarks Questions to Consider Suggested Readings

27 27 29 33

Senior Language Learning Introduction 3.1 Senior Learner Education

55 55 58

3

v

41 46 50 53 54 54

vi

Insights into Senior Foreign Language Education

3.2 Transformative Learning as an Alternative for Traditional Senior Education 3.3 Research on Older Learners’ Language Learning – a Short Overview 3.4 Reasons for Taking up Learning by Seniors 3.5 Senior Learner Characteristics 3.6 Barriers in Senior Learner Education 3.7 Teaching Senior Learners 3.8 Educators We Need to Be Final Remarks Questions to Consider Suggested Readings

59 62 64 65 69 78 92 98 98 99

4

Voices from the Classroom Introduction 4.1 Aims of the Study 4.2 Participants 4.3 Instruments and Procedures 4.4 Voices from the Classroom – Students 4.5 Voices from the Classroom – Teachers Final Remarks Questions to Consider Suggested Readings

100 100 102 102 106 111 126 145 147 147

5

Conclusions and Modest Suggestions for Further Research Introduction 5.1 Senior Learner Revisited 5.2 Content of the Book 5.3 Suggestions for Researchers, Teacher Trainers and Educators Final Remarks Questions to Consider

148 148 149 151 155 158 159

References

160

Appendix 1: Questionnaire Appendix 2: Questionnaire Appendix 3: Interview Questions

180 185 190

Index

191

List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Two different perspectives on successful aging (summary of Bowling & Dieppe, 2005)

9

Figure 1.2 Reasons for older adults’ loneliness (summary of De Jong Gierveld, 1998)

23

Figure 1.3 Ways of improving the quality of life for older adults (summary of Mastalski, 2015)

24

Figure 2.1 Strategies for lifelong learning (summary of Soni, 2012)

44

Figure 2.2 Motivations and challenges of senior education

52

Figure 3.1 Categories of publications related to senior language acquisition

63

Figure 3.2 Fundamental characteristics of critical geragogy (summary of Formosa, 2002)

66

Figure 3.3 Suggestions for working with students with mental illnesses (summary of Kurt, 2000)

77

Figure 3.4 Suggestions for senior course organization (summary of Demirel, 2000)

79

Figure 3.5 Questions concerning senior learners’ needs

80

Figure 3.6 Developing listening skills (summary of Ramírez Gómez, 2016)

89

Figure 3.7 Developing speaking skills (summary of Ramírez Gómez, 2016)

91

Figure 3.8 Teaching writing (summary of Ramírez Gómez, 2016)

91

Figure 4.1 Language-learning experience

105

Figure 4.2 Languages learned today according to the respondents of the study

106

Figure 4.3 Expectations of senior learners towards a language course

114

vii

viii

Insights into Senior Foreign Language Education

Figure 4.4 Facilitating factors according to senior students participating in the study

115

Figure 5.1 Benefits and drawbacks of senior education

151

List of Tables

Table 1.1

Selected defi nitions of aging

4

Table 1.2 Programmed and damage aging theories (Jin, 2010; Davidovic, 2010; Goldsmith, 2013, 2014)

6

Table 1.3 Successful aging theories in the 20th century (summary of Martin et al., 2015)

8

Table 2.1 Selected defi nitions of lifelong learning

31

Table 2.2 Benefits of lifelong learning (summary of Nordstrom, 2006: 23)

32

Table 2.3 Lifelong learning in selected EU documents

36

Table 2.4 Implications of the Lisbon Strategy and Memorandum for Lifelong Learning

37

Table 2.5 Key messages for lifelong learning (based on Commission Staff Working Paper Brussels, 30.10.2000 SEC(2000) 1832)

38

Table 2.6 Four pillars of education and constant flux (summary of Delors, 1996)

41

Table 2.7 Social and personal competencies and skills

46

Table 3.1

Reasons for and against taking up learning by seniors (summary of Gil et al., 2013)

64

Table 3.2 Selected senior learner typologies

67

Table 3.3 Senior learners’ selected characteristics

68

Table 3.4

Stereotypical perception of aging in Eastern and Western cultures

70

Table 3.5 Selected studies on age-related stereotyping

71

Table 3.6 Opinions related to inhibition deficit hypothesis

74

Table 3.7 Theories related to transmission deficit hypothesis

75

Table 3.8 Selected studies on senior language learners

78

ix

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Insights into Senior Foreign Language Education

Table 3.9 Principles for efficient environment for senior learners

82

Table 3.10 Hearing-related problems and solutions (summary of Ramírez Gómez, 2016)

86

Table 3.11 Teaching reading (summary of Ramírez Gómez, 2016)

90

Table 3.12 Teacher traits for working with senior learners

93

Table 3.13 Typology of senior learners and favourable teacher approach (summary of Schmidt-Herta and Tippelt, 2011)

94

Table 3.14 Roles assumed by teachers who work with senior learners (summary of Grow, 2001)

96

Table 3.15 Senior education characteristics

97

Table 4.1

Age groups in the study

103

Table 4.2 Reasons for taking up a language course

111

Table 4.3 Reasons for taking up language course

112

Table 4.4 Major demotivating factors in senior course participation

117

Table 4.5 Expectations of senior learners

118

Table 4.6 Selected teacher characteristics according to different senior age groups

121

Table 4.7 Reasons for attending language courses by senior learners

129

Table 4.8 Preferences in classroom topics

132

Table 4.9 Teaching aids

133

Table 4.10 Teaching adjustments

135

Table 4.11 Stress-reducing teacher behaviours

137

Table 4.12 Motivating factors in senior education

138

Table 4.13 Selected features of senior learners

139

Table 4.14 Characteristics of good foreign language teachers who work with senior learners

143

Glossary

Agism – Labelling and sometimes discriminating against people on the basis of their biological age. Andragogy – Science of lifelong education of adults based on learners’ and teachers’ autonomous behaviour. The term is often used in contrast with pedagogy. Antioxidants – Molecules that neutralise free radicals and unstable molecules that can harm body cells. Biogerontology – A subfield of gerontology focusing on biological process of aging. Catalase – Enzyme found in nearly all living organisms exposed to oxygen. It catalyses the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen. Dementia – A decline in memory, language, problem-solving and other thinking skills that affect a person’s ability to perform everyday activities. Alzheimer’s is the most common cause of dementia. Foreign language (learning) – A language learned largely in the classroom and not spoken in the society where the teaching occurs. It refers to the teaching of a language that is neither an official language nor the mother tongue of a significant part of the population. Second language learning, on the other hand, is a conscious process where the learning of a language other than the first language (L1) takes place. Genome – Genetic material of an organism, which consists of DNA or RNA. Geragogy – Offers learning opportunities for older adults and recognises age-related issues which may affect learning. Gerontology – The study of aging and older adults. Researchers in this field are trained in physiology, social science, psychology and public health. Glottogeragogics – A result of amalgamation between glottodydactics and geragogy. A common subject matter for both of these disciplines is the system of pre-service foreign language teacher training focusing predominantly on teaching foreign language to senior learners. Homeostasis – This is the condition of optimal functioning for the organism and includes many variables, such as body temperature and fluid balance. Juvenism – Philosophy that rejects old age as uncomfortable and shameful. xi

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Mechanoreceptor – A sensory cell that responds to mechanical pressure or distortion. Ontogenesis – Developmental history of an organism within its own lifetime. Propedeutics – Knowledge necessary before, or for the learning of, a discipline, but not which is not sufficient for proficiency. Proprioception (kinesthesia) – The sense of self-movement and body position. It is sometimes described as the ‘sixth sense’. Senescence – Gradual deterioration of functional characteristics involving an increase in death rates and/or a decrease in fecundity with increasing age. Stochastic processes – A mathematical object usually defined as a family of random variables. Superoxide dismutase – An enzyme that is produced as a by-product of oxygen metabolism and, if not regulated, causes many types of cell damage. Vestibular system – A system that sends signals primarily to the neural structures that control eye movements, and to the muscles that keep an animal upright.

Introduction

Albert Einstein wrote that ‘wisdom is not a product of schooling, but the lifelong attempt to acquire it’ (Dukas & Hoffmann, 2013: 44). Before him there was Seneca the Younger (4–65 AD), who said: ‘As long as you live keep learning how to live’ (McGowan, 1931: 27). Curiosity and inquisitive mind have always been engraved in human nature, just as learning has always been an intrinsic characteristic of humanity. In the contemporary world societies are aging and the active life span is being extended significantly. On the one hand, these aging societies must face challenges such as social exclusion or negative stereotyping of seniors, who often have the status of non-citizens (immigrants, refugees, asylum-seekers) and whose numbers are constantly increasing around the world. On the other hand, elderly people wish to stay mentally and physically active as long as possible, even in the face of the inevitable passing of time. By virtue of their increased reflectivity, personal awareness and medical advancements, as well as ongoing changes in social structures, despite being retired, some seniors have the necessary instruments to remain full of life in their individual growth. Unfortunately, some of them, especially people from lower economic classes or less educated immigrants and refugees from poorer countries, often have to face the above-mentioned challenges. Needless to say, they often feel less confident about their abilities to learn, for example, a new language. Furthermore, older age is not so vibrant and optimistic for all seniors alike. Despite medical developments and increasing social awareness, seniors suffer from a wide range of negative social, physiological and psychological ‘limitations’, such as economic euthanasia, loneliness, memory deficits and mental illnesses, to name just some of them. In view of the above, lifelong learning has to be perceived as an essential challenge and treated as a necessity rather than a possibility, especially in the process of improving seniors’ living conditions and providing them with a proper place in contemporary societies where there is no age-related seclusion or negative attitude towards older people. Since for most of us our lives are no longer divided into the time of education followed by the time of work, learning needs to be examined across the whole human lifespan. Lifelong learning needs to provide people with educational opportunities ‘especially for people from lower social classes and for xiii

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immigrants and refugees, in many learning settings, through which ageadvanced people pass, including home, school, work, and the larger political community’ (Fischer, 1999). A lifelong learning approach allows for a more successful integration of the best features of school, community, home, and workplace learning. Instead of being perceived only as education for adult learners, lifelong learning should be considered as a specific mindset or philosophy of education. Learning throughout the entire human life results in an increase in the importance of human biographies beyond the age of 55+. At the same time, studies, conducted mostly in non-formal settings, have been based on the premonition that older learners are not able to perform effectively. Therefore, despite the increasing interest in senior learners’ education, research on older learners is still limited and undoubtedly requires more insight and consideration. These limitations may result from the fact that adults, along with young learners and adolescents, are one of the three major age groups to be identified, with no further specification within the group itself. For this reason there is a strong need for establishing solutions that will successfully foster senior learners’ education and create well-established teaching methodologies specific to this particular age group (55+). If this is to happen, there need to be considerable modifications to pre-service teacher training. Future teachers need to be equipped with sufficient knowledge and skills necessary for working with senior learners and creating learner-friendly educational environments (Gardner, 1991; Nuissl & Przybylska, 2016). The aim of this book is to dispel some of the existing preconceptions and negative stereotypes surrounding senior foreign language education by providing an in-depth and up-to-date account of issues related to senior foreign language education. To make the content of the book more comprehensible, foreign language is understood here as a language taught and learned in a classroom context that has no connection to the learner’s everyday life, and is often selected by learners for professional or academic reasons. In contrast, a second language is understood here as a language that is not used by learners as their native language. It is also defi ned as a language which is used in a region where most of its speakers are considered non-native. Furthermore, it is often an official language of a particular country and may be used for communication between members of different cultures. Therefore, although the book does not distinguish explicitly between foreign and second language learners and concerns all seniors who participate in the educational process, the study described in Chapter 4 focuses on seniors who are considered foreign language learners. It needs to be also explicitly stated that, although most research on senior language learning focuses predominantly on foreign language learning, in an era of massive migration, with immigrants and refugees of all ages having to learn the languages of their new countries or try to cope without them, there is a greater need than ever to make second language

Introduction xv

learning the focal point of scientific concern. More data on the specificity of the second language learning process may have a positive influence on the inclusion of non-citizens in our societies. The book also aims at putting forward some constructive recommendations concerning pre-service teacher training in order to make teacher education better adjusted to the specific needs and expectations of senior learners. Finally, the book seeks to initiate a discussion and encourage an exchange of ideas that will result in the introduction of necessary and constructive modifications into foreign language geragogy. Chapter 1 (Interdisciplinary approach to aging) looks at the process of aging from different standpoints. Aging is described as biological, philosophical and sociological, as well as cultural phenomenon. This chapter extends the concept of ‘aging’, usually understood in terms of the health of older adults and their ability to function in daily life. Instead, it focuses on gerontology, which is a scientific study concerned with aging that examines the biological aspects of coping with age such as genetic background and physical health, psychological aspects of coping with age such as level of cognition and mental health status, and sociological aspects of living in a changing environment encompassing personal relationships to the culture and policies, as well as infrastructure. The chapter underlines the fact that such variability can be identified in every human population and may be related to such factors as genetic conditions, early-life influences and other significant factors that may be unnoticed until later in a person’s life. Chapter 2 investigates the concept of lifelong learning perceived from two different perspectives. The first is lifelong learning as a common sense principle of learning from the cradle to the grave. In the other approach, lifelong learning is seen as an educational principle that has to be realised in policies, programmes and projects (i.e. indigenous versus new information and communication technologies (ICTs), formal education against non-formal education and informal education). The content of the chapter also tackles the issue of access to education and the quality of education provided to a greater number of people. Furthermore, the importance of lifelong learning for professional purposes and connecting lifelong learning for work to democratic citizenship have been included. The chapter also looks at issues related to lifelong learning being promoted by various official organisations such as the Council of Europe, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The fi nal sections of the chapter briefly describe the emergence of Third Age Universities (U3A) in Poland, and Poland is used as an example of ways of popularising lifelong education. Chapter 3 includes a short overview of senior learner-oriented research as well as potential reasons for seniors to take up foreign language learning. It also examines the uniqueness of senior foreign language learners

xvi

Insights into Senior Foreign Language Education

and describes potential barriers such as age-related stereotyping, memory and language deficits, balance and coordination, along with mental illnesses. More specifically, the chapter describes selected classroom practices, activities and materials that may be adopted when working with senior learners. Furthermore, it discusses potential modifications in educational programmes that could be introduced in order to eliminate affective barriers, making learning material relevant and motivating, in addition to the use of adult learning strategies. It explains how materials used in the senior learner classroom should be selected and properly adapted. Additionally, the chapter focuses on the characteristics of foreign language teachers who work with senior learners. Chapter 4 is a description of a study conducted in order to learn more about the specificity of senior foreign language learning and teaching processes. This chapter includes (a) the research aims, (b) descriptions of participants, instruments and procedures, and (c) results and discussion. The study investigates (a) how senior learners project themselves as capable foreign language learners and (b) what are their main motives and expectations towards a foreign language course as well as what potential challenges they may face during learning a language. The study also aims at (c) identifying specific characteristic features of language teachers and (new) roles which may (or should) be adopted by language educators who work with senior learners participating in various language courses at a third age university. I hope that the results of the study will provide an incentive for far-reaching modifications in the pre-service teacher training and result in more efficient training of future educators. Chapter 5 briefly recapitulates the main points emerging from Chapters 1–4, and indicates where, in particular, further research is needed. Furthermore, this chapter sets out to present the readers with some pedagogical implications that can be included in teaching foreign languages to senior learners.

1 Interdisciplinary Approach to Aging

Introduction

When in 1513 Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de Leon travelled to what is now called the state of Florida, he was hoping to find the fabled Fountain of Youth, which, according to the apocryphal combination of New World and Eurasian legends as well as stories told by the local Native Americans, was located in a place called Bimini. Water from the pool could restore youth to anyone who drank from it. According to the legends, there existed a mythical land of prosperity with a pond having mystical healing powers. Of course Ponce de Leon was not the first nor the last explorer to quest for eternal youth (Shaer, 2020). The concept of the Fountain of Youth may have its origins in the Pool of Bethesda, which appears in the Gospel of John, in which Jesus heals a man (Colburn, 1834). Extended life span is also mentioned in Aristotle’s treatise On Longevity and Shortness of Life in 350 BC (Aristotle, 2004) and in the works of Herodotus from the 5th century BC, where he mentions a fountain that existed in the land of long-living Macrobians (Cass, 2015). A similar story mentioning the ‘water of life’ can be also found in one of the Eastern legends (3rd century AD) about Alexander the Great and his trustworthy, older servant, Al-Khidir. Alexander was travelling through the Land of Darkness in order to fi nd the spring with healing powers. The Fountain of Youth also appears in the stories told by Prester John (11th/12th century AD) and in medieval times in The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, where the author locates the spring somewhere in India (Mandeville, 1990). In my own country, Poland, there is a legend of Saint Kinga, who was running away from the enemies and when she stopped to regain powers, she put her staff into the ground and in that place a beautiful linden tree grew magically. Saint Kinga ordered a well to be build in that place and soon after the well was fi nished, water with healing powers started to appear (Panuś, 2009). As can be seen from the examples provided above, humankind is constantly searching for everlasting life. Nowadays, all of the changes that every living organism goes through from the moment of conception to 1

2

Insights into Senior Foreign Language Education

death, focusing predominantly on the schedule of reproduction and survival, are described by life history theory (Stearns, 1992; Goldsmith, 2014). As Davidovic et  al. (2010: 139) write: ‘Aging is not an illness. However, we are not so certain that we do not need to add that aging is a problem for the human kind only. Overall, the cure for aging or reaching immortality is simply not realistic’. The focus of this chapter is predominantly on the process of human aging investigated and discussed from various perspectives. This chapter extends the concept of ‘aging’, usually understood as the health of older adults and their ability to function in daily life. Instead, it focuses on gerontology, which can be understood as a study of aging and older adults. Gerontology encompasses such sciences as physiology, social sciences, psychology and public health, and develops as human longevity increases. Gerontology also includes various research associated with changes occurring in our bodies as we age. Furthermore, this chapter underlines the fact that these age-related changes may be directly or indirectly connected with genetic conditions, influences from our early life and other significant factors which may become apparent in later stages of our life. Section 1.1 discusses the aging process from a biological standpoint and provides the readers with selected, sometimes contradictory, defi nitions of aging. It also enumerates factors that may have a direct or indirect influence on the pace of human aging. Additionally, it lists and discusses potential symptoms of aging and problems that older people may experience in relation to their advanced age. Section 1.2 compares and analyses selected aging theories which aim to explain what happens with our bodies as we age and what is more harmful to us – the environment around us or the inexorable timetable of nature. The subsequent section (1.3) deals with the concept of ‘successful aging’, suggesting that people of older age can still sustain their health and vitality as well as provide positive contributions to the community they live in. It encompasses various theories that attempt to explain what the secret of successful aging is. The section also explains how aging is perceived, on the one hand, by theoreticians and, on the other, by people who have nothing in common with science. Finally, it presents selected, incongruous standpoints about the nature of successful aging. By presenting them to potential readers, I want to highlight the complex nature of the aging process. Section 1.4 is devoted to ‘gerontology’ – the study of aging and older adults in such areas as physiology, social science, psychology, public health and policy. Gerontology encompasses such sciences as geriatrics, psychology of geriatrics, sociology of aging, complex rehabilitation, food technology, architecture of environment and any other field of science interested in older generations. From the more practical perspective, gerontology can be divided into clinical, social, experiential and geriatric rehabilitation. In this section readers will fi nd some basic information concerning research in gerontology. The section which follows (1.5) investigates aging from

Interdisciplinary Approach to Aging

3

the social perspective and focuses predominantly on social recognition of old age and the roles that older members of society adopt. It also describes potentially negative results of social perception of older age. This is followed by Section 1.6, which describes the same phenomena from a more culture-oriented angle. It describes aging across time and space and takes the readers to places such as ancient Greece, Egypt, Rome and other parts of the continent and the world. The section also describes the search for meaning and feeling of control in older age and tries to establish when old age starts. Finally, it shows old age in different types of cultures. Philosophical understanding of aging is presented in Section 1.7. Points of view on old age expressed by such philosophers as Plato and Socrates are presented here. The opinions of Solon, Aristotle and Hippocrates, show how the concept of old age was understood in ancient times. Old age is also depicted in the most widespread religions and to make the picture complete, this section includes references to ancient poets and writers who mention old age in their works. Section 1.8 provides the reader with relevant statistical data concerning the increase in life expectancy. It examines statistical data from various regions of the world and draws a conclusion that longevity will become an increasingly central feature of policy debates. Any ground-breaking discovery in anti-aging research could have significant effects on the lives of individual people and whole societies. In Section 1.9 the concept of the ‘third age’ as well as different types of ‘age’ are explained. It differentiates between the first, second and third ages as well as introducing the concept of the fourth age. The content of this section is a discussion of different approaches to the third age phenomenon and puts different ‘ages’ into time frames. The section also includes a short description of the term ‘senior’. Section 1.10 includes, among other things, the words of Pope John Paul II and focuses on potential challenges that older generations have to face, including loneliness, social exclusion, economic euthanasia and juvenism. It enumerates reasons for these phenomena to occur in modern societies and brings us to realise the necessity of paying more attention to senior members of our societies, especially when living in such harsh times of global epidemic threat. Finally, Section 1.11 is a short discussion of solutions to the problems presented in Section 1.10 and mentions, for example, senior volunteering, which effectively helps to reduce social isolation, activate the social activity of seniors, increases their self-esteem and changes negative stereotypes. The chapter fi nishes with conclusions and five questions that summarise its content. 1.1 Aging as a Biological Concept

One of the imperatives that has determined the history of humankind is the desire to find the probable cause of aging. It seems evident that the process of aging and particular lifespan characteristics are very distinctive and

4

Insights into Senior Foreign Language Education

differ among various, often similar, individual species. For those of us who lack sufficient scientific knowledge, aging is predominantly the result of cellular deterioration caused mainly by oxidation, fatigue, natural molecular damage and other unavoidable natural processes that result in the gradual degradation of our organism. Aging may be seen as natural, unavoidable (unfortunately), intensifying with our age changes and leading directly to the deterioration of the body (Peto & Doll, 1997; Masoro, 2006). According to Verny et al. (2015) the process of aging usually signifies biological transformations that occur in person’s later life. It is expressed by a gradual alteration of the functional capacity of the human organism. ‘With the decline of internal as well as external resources, the ratio of gains to losses becomes adverse, shifting towards more negativity and dysfunctionality’ (Piechurska-Kuciel & Szyszka, 2018: 109, paraphrasing Freued & Riediger, 2003). In order to make the concept of aging clearer, before looking at possible factors affecting aging as well as aging symptoms, selected defi nitions of aging are presented in Table 1.1. Although aging is without a doubt an ongoing process and starts with our birth, some symptoms are more happily anticipated than others. These more anticipated events may include a baby’s first step or his or her fi rst word. Those which are welcomed with less enthusiasm include the fi rst grey hair. There are also symptoms of aging that we would never like to experience, including dementia and arthritis. Furthermore, when our body transforms from youthful attractiveness into adultness and symptoms of aging, including wrinkles and grey hair, become more visible, people may have serious problems with self-esteem and accepting themselves (Hunt, 2004; Jin, 2010). What is more, older people may suffer from additional age-related changes, including problems with taste and smell. In most cases food becomes less sweet and less salty. Maybe this is why older people often like sweets so much and put so much sugar into their tea or coffee. The decreased Table 1.1 Selected definitions of aging Aging Accumulation of accidental negative changes to biological systems (Jin, 2010; Goldsmith, 2014).

Unavoidable effect of the process which encompasses biological, psychological and social changes (Zych, 2010).

A process of consecutive life-stages connected with specific diseases and social disturbances (Trafiałek, 2006a).

Dynamic, continuous process of gradual reduction of biological activity resulting in a significant decrease of regeneration and adaptation (Trafiałek, 2006b).

Biological transformations that occur in person’s later life expressed by a gradual alteration of the functional capacity of the human organism (Marina & Jonaş, 2012).

Progressive deterioration of physiological function, accompanied by an increase in vulnerability and mortality with age (deMagalhães 2011).

Interdisciplinary Approach to Aging

5

sensitivity to smells may also affect our appetite. Another sense that suffers from age-related problems is our sight, which starts to decline in most people after the fourth decade. Some of these problems are more physical (e.g. cataracts and glaucoma); others are connected with eye accommodation and our ability to see objects clearly, especially those which are further from us. Older people need more luminosity and contrast in order to manage with their mobility, balance and coordination. Furthermore, larger print size may be necessary at home while reading a book, or in the classroom while working on a text. Nowadays older people can buy mobile phones with larger letters or read internet pages with higher contrast. Hearing is another sense that unfortunately undergoes negative changes. On the one hand, technology provides us with outstanding audio-enhancing devices. On the other hand, not every senior can afford such technology and sometimes hearing loss may lead to depression or social exclusion (Hunt, 2004). 1.2 Aging Theories

Biologists and bioscientists often express an opinion that it is impossible to scientifically explain significant lifespan differences which exist between similar species. Furthermore, a large array of factors which affect the aging process pose an additional challenge (Olshansky et al., 2002; Arking, 2006). Traditional aging theories assert that the process of aging neither is a form of adaptation, nor is genetically programmed. Furthermore, contemporary biological aging theories can be divided into two broad categories: programmed theories and damage/error theories. According to Goldsmith (2013), both theories may provide an explanation for the existing lifespan discrepancies. However, according to the same author, programmed aging theories were often considered as theoretically impossible because the evolution process was believed to be directed entirely by an individual person’s balance between costs and benefits. It was also widely agreed that the deterioration of the organism and death did not provide any individual benefit in gradually aging organisms. Furthermore, in both theories the age of reproduction is the most important (but not the only) factor in determining the organism’s lifespan. Table 1.2 explains and compares the basic assumptions of these two aging theories. In relation to aging theories and longevity, deMagalhães et al. (2010; deMagalhães, 2011) writes that biomedical research has always been directly influenced and enhanced by technological developments, resulting in many significant breakthroughs in the biology of aging such as the sequencing of genomes. Genetic association studies of longevity can now be done at a wholegenome level, testing all genes in the genome simultaneously for associations with longevity rather than by focusing on a few candidates, genetic screens can be performed in model organisms in large scale to search for new genes regulating aging. The expression of thousands of genes can

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also be determined in parallel thanks to post-genome technologies like microarrays, which allow changes in aging and age-related diseases to be characterized with unprecedented accuracy. To fi nd clues about which genes may be involved in the evolution of longevity in humans and other animals, genomes of several organisms with different lifespans can be compared and analysed. (deMagalhães, 2011: 37)

Developing integrative models of age-related changes and aging mechanisms at different biological levels will be crucial to deepen our understanding of the aging process in the future. Table 1.2 Programmed and damage aging theories (Jin, 2010; Davidovic, 2010; Goldsmith, 2013, 2014) Programmed theory

Damage/error theory

Aging results from random or stochastic processes and it follows a biological timetable

Aging results from harmful environmental effects on humans. Changes owing to environmental factors

Emphasis on genetically regulated processes. Aging process is strictly connected to our genetic blueprint

Emphasis on environmental assaults to living organisms that induce cumulative damage at various levels as the cause of aging

People age because their bodies have ‘a biological suicide mechanism’ or programme. It purposely limits our lifespan to a speciesspecific value in order to obtain evolutionary benefit

People age because their bodies are incapable of providing sufficient defence against naturally occurring deteriorative processes such as mechanical fatigue, oxidation and other damage

Longer living may result in an evolutionary disadvantage that caused the evolution and retention of the lifespan-limiting mechanism

Every species has an evolutionary imperative to live and reproduce for a period characteristic to a particular species

Programmed theory includes three subcategories:

Damage theory includes five sub-categories:

• Programmed longevity – aging process is the result of a sequential switching of genes • Endocrine theory – our biological clocks act through hormones to control the rapidity of aging; aging is hormonally regulated. • Immunological theory – the human immune system is programmed to decline over time, which leads to an increased vulnerability to infectious diseases and thus aging and death

• Wear and tear theory – cells and tissues have vital parts that naturally wear out, resulting in aging • Rate of living theory – the greater an organism’s rate of oxygen basal metabolism, the shorter its life span • Cross-linking theory – an accumulation of cross-linked proteins damages cells and tissues, slowing down bodily processes and resulting in aging • Free radicals theory – superoxide and other free radicals damage the macromolecular components of the cell • Somatic DNA damage theory – DNA damage occurs continuously in cells of living organisms

1.3 The Concept of Successful Aging

The concept of ‘successful aging’ is sometimes called ‘vital aging’ or ‘productive aging’. Each of these terms implies that at older ages we

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can still sustain our health and vitality. Another implication of these terms is that older people can positively contribute to society rather than only depend on other people. The concept of successful aging is present in the gerontological publications to encompass processes of aging throughout the human life span, implying positive aspects of aging processes for some and provoking criticism for being either not comprehensive enough or too far-reaching (Rowe & Kahn, 1998; Wykle et al., 2005). Successful aging may be also understood as maintaining positive functioning as long as possible (Poon et al., 2003) or as Moody (2005: 59) suggests, implies ‘key ideas such as life satisfaction, longevity, freedom from disability, mastery and growth, active engagement with life, and independence’. In both cases successful aging has only positive connotations and does not mention any potential challenges resulting from the aging process. A similar opinion on the process of aging has been presented by Martin et al. (2015), who state that the concept of successful aging resembles the last two stages of the four-stage Hindu model of the life span. In Vanaprastha (the ‘retired person’) we become more self-oriented and introspective about our lives. In this stage successful individuals decide to abandon physical and material pleasures, retire from social and professional life, and spend time meditating. Furthermore, at this stage, older people should present a general sense of content and feeling of readiness to step away from responsibilities and appoint younger members of the family or society. Older persons become free to contemplate on the meaning of their upcoming death and rebirth. In the last stage (Sannyasa) old people renounce all human desires, fears, hopes, duties and responsibilities (Ramamurti & Jamuna, 2010, as found in Martin et al., 2015: 15). Obviously, this particular concept of successful aging is strongly connected with particular religions and beliefs. Not every culture includes the concept of reincarnation that makes death less terrifying and promises new life. However, the concept of successful aging may be also found in the Old Testament and the story of King David, who died at a good old age full of riches and honour. We do not know if he faced death with peace and acceptance. What we do know is that, for the Hebrews, elderly people at the age of 80 portray the strength of survival and at the age of 90, we become frail and bend over the grave. For Plato, successful aging can be achieved through spirituality and for Cicero old age comes with great authority, which is even more valuable than all pleasures of young age. Many centuries later, in the 1920s, Carl Jung (2015) elaborated on the aging process and created a less successful concept of adult life by stating that late life is a process of psychological turning inward. In the second part of the 20th century successful aging has been the focal point of various theories, as presented in Table 1.3.

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Table 1.3 Successful aging theories in the 20th century (summary of Martin et al., 2015) Activity theory

Successful aging is closely associated with maintaining middle-aged activities and attitudes into later adulthood

Disengagement theory

Aging people steadily but systematically disengage from their active professional and private life

Adjustment and retirement theory

Three types of adjustment: mature and armoured, where engagement is essential for successful aging; and rocking chair, connected with a passive approach to life

Personality theory

Factors such as coping style, ability to adapt, expectations of life, income, social interactions and constraints are a part of the coalescence of an older person’s personality and successful aging

MacArthur Network on Successful Aging

Successful aging is based on low probability of diseases and disabilities. High cognitive and physical functional capacity and active engagement of life are key factors in successful aging

Selective optimisation with compensation

Successful aging is based on maximising the potential gains and minimising the losses. Based on selection and optimalisation of goals linked to persistence and compensation

Taking a closer look at the above presented theories it seems apparent that there is a clear-cut line between two approaches. One of them claims that successful aging is strictly connected with staying active, making the right choices and maintaining good health, skills and abilities developed in the past. The other focuses on the gradual loss of our health and stepping away from previously performed responsibilities. Both of these concepts seem to indicate that aging should be considered as a unique process for every individual and that successful aging is a matter of personal attitude and approach to life. According to Andrews (2009: 4), ‘the language of success and failure, of measurable outcomes, seems to bypass the very quality which lies at the heart of aging well – a sense that the journey is worthwhile, and that the challenges with which one has been faced have been met while keeping one’s dignity intact’. Sometimes instead of the term ‘successful aging’ we may find another term, ‘harmonious aging’, more popular in Eastern philosophy and understood as searching for meaning in older age for the purpose of better understanding the cultural context of aging and one’s place in society. Increased reflection is not only present in Eastern philosophy. Western culture representatives also have the freedom to explicitly express personal opinions, often contradictory to other peoples’ opinions. Because of retirement, many older individuals have greater freedom to pursue interests, to use their time to think and to submerge themselves in meaningful reflection. Bowling and Dieppe (2005) explored the concept of successful aging even further and came up with a set of constituents that best describe successful aging. In their opinion, theoretical defi nitions and popular knowledge include successful aging characteristics, as included in Figure 1.1.

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Theorecal

Popular

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•Life expectancy •Life sasfacon and well-being •Mental and psychological health •Personal growth, learning new things •Physical health and independent funconing •Psychological characteriscs and resources •Autonomy and self-esteem •Socal community, leisure acvies •Social network and support

•Accomplishment •Enjoyment of diets •Financial security •Neighbourhood •Physical appearance •Producvity and contribuon to life •Sense of humour •Sense of purpose •Spirituality

Figure 1.1 Two different perspectives on successful aging (summary of Bowling & Dieppe, 2005)

However, not all existing opinions about successful aging are so positive and focus on maintaining good health and spirit. According to Moody and Sasser (2012), successful aging should not be seen only as a simple extension of youthfulness, because doing so creates a misleading image of older age by promoting an unrealistic idea of ‘agelessness’. What is more, advocates of successful aging use it for the commercial promotion of ‘healthy lifestyles’ and create an illusionary search for the everlasting youth. One may say that there is nothing wrong with creating such an image and one would be right. However, there may be situations in which theory is not met with reality, resulting in low levels of self-acceptance, low self-esteem, or even self-hatred. Featherstone and Wernick (1995: 11), say that: Consumer culture does of course offer a wide range of images of positive aging reparative measures and strategies, ranging from fitness routines to cosmetic surgery in order to re-inscribe the body in a more youthful manner. Yet, as we have argued, for those who are in deep old age, who are weak, frail or disabled, the body is not only a masking device which conceals and distorts the self which others interact with, in addition the lack of mobility and functioning capacity may make the body seem to be a prison. (Featherstone & Wernick, 1995: 11)

Despite contradictory opinions concerning the concept of successful aging, most of the contemporary societies seem to be well prepared for providing

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its older members with optimistic perspectives and opportunities. Having extensive life experience and often being well educated make seniors capable of making conscious decisions about how to effectively use their time and energy. Obviously, there are also older adults who, because of their mental and physical state, cannot make such decisions on their own. Sometimes the priorities of older people are very different from what caregivers, family, or friends want them to be. There are also seniors who are not given the opportunity to freely decide for themselves and are deprived of their social rights. Therefore, it seems that the most optimal solution is to consider aging as a natural part of our physical maturation with all its advantages and disadvantages. Instead of placing such a high value on youthfulness, it may be more constructive to accept the occurring changes as inevitable and live our lives without fear or denial and to follow the path of successful aging (aging well, healthy aging). 1.4 Gerontology

Looking at the world around us, we can clearly see that medical advancements extend our lives to limits that were impossible to imagine few centuries ago. At the same time technocratic civilisation and the cult of eternal youth often exclude older people from active participation in social life. Seniors are often sentenced to social exclusion and negative stereotyping. In order to change such trends, researchers and scientists came up with the concept of gerontology, which focuses on developing increased awareness and extensive knowledge about the specificity of older age. The term gerontology was coined in 1903 by Élie Metchnikoff, a Russian zoologist who performed immunology research and won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (Lane et al., 2020). Brossoie (2015: 20) defi nes gerontology as the ‘scientific study of aging that examines biological, psychological, and sociological factors associated with old age and aging’. According to Smith (2014: 8), gerontology, ‘apart from developing awareness about the challenges of the aging process is becoming a major area of research in the biological, behavioural, and social sciences, resulting mainly from the growing population of older people and the need for well-trained professionals who would help seniors with the challenges of the contemporary world and develop programmes and services which improve the quality of life for older people’. In contemporary research Wilińska et al. (2018) report a study on agism in different countries and cultures. In their study they argue that it is possible to develop more critical understanding of age and aging if you are physically away from your own culture. Another study conducted by Buttigieg et al. (2018) presents an overview of how agism is defi ned and measured in health and long-term care. Finally, Abuladze and

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Perek-Białas (2018) describe a study that encourages to use publicly available datasets to measure agism. Getting old is an inevitable process that most of us will go through and it will not go smoothly for all of us. Therefore, gerontology experts are in demand, including therapists specialising in older people. Stating that the demand for gerontologists is going to increase in the future is like pushing an open door. Gerontology is becoming one of the most important sciences in the aging global population. 1.5 Aging as a Social …

In As You Like it, Shakespeare (2004) writes: ‘Last scene of all … is second childishness and mere oblivion, Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything’, and this is not his only remark to old age. In Much Ado About Nothing, we may fi nd a quote: ‘As they say, when the age is in, the wit is out’. When commenting on our lives Shakespeare (2015, 2016) wrote: ‘from hour to hour we ripe and ripe and then from hour to hour we rot and rot’ (As You Like It) and in Cybleine one may fi nd out that ‘golden girls and lads all must, like chimney sweepers, come to dust’. These quotations focus predominantly on the negative image of older age and remind us that, no matter what we do, aging is an unavoidable consequence of our birth. Although Shakespeare wrote these words 500 years ago, the world has not changed as much as we would like. One of the distressing problems of the globalised societies is the place of older people in the contemporary world. It seems that the society sometimes ‘hides’ the older generation, which was noted by Pope John Paul II, who said that: ‘The experience teaches us that the lack of positive approach favours marginalization of older people and banishes them into seclusion and social death’ (2006: 6). It seems difficult to precisely establish when aging became of interest to scientific research; however, it has been the topic of interdisciplinary research throughout the twentieth century. Owing to its multidimensionality, advanced age is still and intriguing phenomenon for medicine, sociology, ethnography, demography, pedagogy and philosophy. As Little and McGivern (2014) write: ‘Age is not merely a biological function of the number of years one has lived, or of the physiological changes the body goes through during the life course. It is also a product of the social norms and expectations that apply to each stage of life. Age represents the wealth of life experiences that shape whom we become. With medical advancements that prolong human life, old age has taken on a new meaning in societies with the means to provide high-quality medical care. However, many aspects of the aging experience also depend on social class, race, gender, and other social factors’. Sociologists are predominantly interested in the social roles that the older generation performs as well as the

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characteristics and needs of the older generation and their place in the family and the professional market. Furthermore, social exclusion and withdrawal from performed social roles are analysed by sociologist as negative social trends concerning older members of society (WiśniewskaRoszkowska, 1989; Kotlarska-Michalska, 2000). Recently sociology took a closer look at the issue of older immigrants. According to Dweyer and Papadimitriou (2006), in 2006 there were more than 2.5 million older non-nationals aged 55+ in EU member states and these numbers could rise to 20 million in the second decade of the 21st century. From the social perspective, there are two types of discrimination against older immigrants in contemporary societies. The fi rst type includes disadvantages related to professional context, including inferior health, economic difficulties, limited welfare, limited access to services and the risk of being perceived as a social ‘problem’. Older immigrants’ access to governmental services is often drastically limited, forcing them to rely on their families. The second type of discrimination encompasses various age-related constraints in immigration policies (Dolberg et al., 2018). Older immigrants are often portrayed as a vulnerable, marginalised part of the society, suffering from what Bollini and Siem (1995) describe as ‘exhausted migrant syndrome’, seen in immigrants who arrived in their host countries in good health, but after years of hard manual labour, difficult living conditions and insecure legal status, experience serious health problems (Dolberg et al., 2018). Apart from investigating stern social challenges sociologists are interested in the social effects of aging and the potential consequences of fastaging societies. In Poland some of the earliest research on older generation dates back to 1970s. It was focused on the idea that aging is closely related to the emotional attitudes of the society towards elders and made an attempt to answer the question whether older age is attractive or rather daunting (Wiśniewska-Roszkowska, 1989; Kotlarska-Michalska, 2000). 1.6 … and Cultural Phenomenon

Human history has witnessed old Wisemen in Egyptian Pharaohs, among Greek philosophers, in Palestine and in ancient Rome. China had Confucius and the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove. There were Abraham, Moses and Solomon in Judeo-Christian tradition and Judaism had Sages of the Talmudic lore. World mythologies also created old Wisemen including Odin in Norse mythology and Mentor in Greek mythology. Even contemporary popular culture has introduced Gandalf, Dumbledore and Obi-Wan Kenobi. All of them, fi ctional or  authentic persons, were portrayed as exceptional characters with a  peaceful and positive nature who accept aging well. However,

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Rochefoucauld (2010) observes that people have difficulties in accepting old age and instead of giving a good example to the young they just give plenty of advice. In probably all cultures around the world there exist sayings, maxims, aphorisms and proverbs concerning old age and older persons. Examples taken from popular culture seem to indicate that old age is one of the most popular themes in human cultures and aging is our main concern from ‘the cradle to the grave’. People have been trying to fi nd out the meaning of life and what happens to them after they die since the beginning of humanity. They did it through sociocultural artifacts, including religion, education, professional life, gender roles in society, social relationships, entertainment, media, etc. (Heine et  al., 2006). Furthermore, there exists an explicit age-related dichotomy that can be seen in cultural anthropology. On the one hand, we have wise elders who are mentors for their younger counterparts. On the other hand we can find examples of culturally acceptable ‘elimination’ of the old as portrayed in the Ballad of Narayama, where old people wander into the mountains to die, away from other members of the community (Burszta, 2001). Another significant concern about aging is depicted in cultural studies which have long been trying to come to a decision as to when the old age starts. The reason for such a persistent search is because the boundaries of ‘old age’ seem to be very indistinguishable and some people even claim that old age is nothing but the creation of our times related to continually increasing human life expectancy. A similar opinion was expressed over 250 years ago, by Bois in his History of Aging (1970: 152), who wrote that old age was: ‘no longer a rare chance for a few, but the natural completion of life’, and continued by saying that ‘a fashion for the old age spreads around Western societies, and is present on shop displays and in political speeches’. The words of Bois are still valid because every political party in their election programme emphasises the need to cater for the needs of the old members of the society (Burszta, 2000: 63). Brandtstädter and Rothermund (2002) introduce a dual-process framework, which assumes that older adults prefer a so-called accommodative process, associated with adjusting personal goals to the existing reality and situational constraints, over assimilative processes, encompassing modification of the social and cultural context accordingly with their personal goals, ambitions and needs. Carstensen (2006) presents a similar theory and states that older adults express a tendency to prioritise their goals in order to obtain emotional meaning in life. Their behaviour is often connected with the perception of time left and awareness of inevitable passing away. One way to embrace these fears is to affirm a cultural worldview and obtain an elusive sense of symbolic immortality, which may be supported by the fact that today we simply live longer.

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1.7 Aging in Philosophy

In the poem called Youth, an American poet, Samuel Ullman makes a following statement: Nobody grows old merely by the number of years We grow old by deserting our ideals Years may wrinkle the skin But to give up enthusiasm wrinkles our soul

and he continues: When the aerials are down, and your spirit is covered with snows of cynicism and the ice of pessimism, then you are grown old, even at twenty, but as long as your aerials are up, to catch the waves of optimism, there is hope you may die young at eighty. (Armbrester, 2009)

The poem clearly points to the preponderance of the mind over matter and states that if we start to age it happens first in our minds. The poet also believes that positive attitude and optimism help in staying younger. We should also stick to our ideals and not abandon what we set out to accomplish. The words of the poem direct us to a specific view of the world where changes are a natural part of our life, but they may occur at different paces and have different forms. In accordance with the opinions presented above, Plato expresses a rather positive attitude towards older adults when he says that the ideal state should be gerontocratic, a specific form of oligarchical rule in which the leaders of the nation are significantly older than most of the adult population. ‘It is for the elder man to rule and for the younger to submit’ (Plato, 2009). His observations of older adults and some of the issues he discusses in Republic I and the Apology foresaw some of the major developments in contemporary gerontology, including the debate between theories of aging, life review and the nature of old age wisdom. Furthermore, in The Republic Plato writes about Socrates meeting an older wealthy person, Cephalus, who is no longer interested in his former pleasures and expresses the need to cultivate the inner dispositions of temperance and tranquility of mind (McKee & Barber, 2001). Like Plato, Solon of Athens also considered older adults as wise because they have devoted their lives to gaining experience and thinking about the changing world. He emphasised the opportunities for continuous development through the subsequent seven-year seasons of life (Lewis, 2006). Although Greeks did not have positive opinions about old age, older warriors, philosophers and statesmen could expect recognition from younger members of Greek society. Even Spartans, who valued physical strength, established a counsel (Gerousia) made up of 28 men and two kings who were over the age of 60 to control the city-state and take care of all community issues. Hippocrates believed that every person had a

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finite quantity of infi nite heat (vital force) that diminishes with every passing year of our life. Hippocrates felt that one must assist nature rather than work against it, and his advice for longevity was moderation and the maintenance of daily activities (Williams, 2016). In Greece such a philosophical concept was known as kairos (the right time, a perfect moment for something to happen) and was strongly present in Stoic and Pythagorean philosophy (Baars, 2010). Aristotle in his Rhetoric and On Youth and Old Age on Life and Death and on Respiration presents a more negative account of old age. He believes that every person has a soul placed in a person’s heart. The human soul cannot exist properly without natural heat, which just like fire can be put out. The feeble flame of the older age is more easily extinguished than the strong flame of the young age. A similar opinion is presented by Sophocles in Oedipus at Colonus (Cole, 1988). Mimnermus of Smyrna presents an image of an old man and writes: ‘sunlight gives him joy no more. He is abhorred by boys, by women scorned: so hard a thing God made old age to be’ (West, 1993: 28). In Roman philosophy we can fi nd the works of Cicero – Cato Maior De Senectute (On Old Age) – or Seneca – De Brevitate Vitae (On the Shortness of Life). Markus Cicero (2004) knew that old age can mean social exclusion when he wrote: ‘What I fi nd most lamentable about old age is that one feels that one is repulsive to the young’. At the same time, he considered advanced age as a source of great wisdom and experience. ‘States have always been ruined by young men and saved by the old’. According to Cicero, stability in old age resulted directly from a stable youth. Another theory connected with older age was created by a Roman physician Galen (200 AD), who like Aristotle, believed that our human souls mature with age. In the later times, Christians, Jews and Islamic Arabs adopted the philosophical basis of Galen’s theory (Williams, 2016). The Middle Ages continued with Galen’s as the most influential theory of aging. At the same time, the basic medieval point of view was that aging is strictly connected with phlegm and melancholy. In order to avoid them people wore bright colours, danced and organised tournaments and parties. The 13th century scholar Roger Bacon believed that people age and die because of the original sin of Adam and Eve, who were banished from the Garden of Eden. He also considered aging as a disease and stated that medicine can slow it down but never stop it. Among his ideas for slower aging one can fi nd suggestions such as a healthy diet, exercising and good hygiene. With the birth of the Renaissance the focus shifted. However, at the same time, philosophy returned to the Greek and Roman concept of fire within human beings. Sometimes the inner fire was replaced by a more contemporary concept of metal and rust. The 18th and 19th century philosophies considered aging as a natural consequence of passing time and analysed it from a more medical point of view. Aging was a consequence of natural selection. The beginning of the 20th century

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and the following decades focused mainly on fi nding a ‘cure’ for aging and fi nding a way to stay young longer, if not forever (Williams, 2016). Mothersill (1999, as cited in Harroid, 2006: 123) points out that ‘contemporary philosophers focus too much on the idea of “death” itself neglecting the proper understanding of the issues connected with aging and old age. As she suggests we should look to the lives of those who have reached an exemplary old age for hints on how to extend our lives and flourish during that period’. Philosophers such as Hobbes, Russell, Dewey, Kant and Sartre are among those who can be exemplars of productive and creative older lives (Baars, 2010, 2017). Today the world has not changed much and the philosophy of the last two decades still searches for an efficient aging cure. Maybe we are very close to a groundbreaking discovery of such a cure or maybe the next hope for everlasting youth lie in genetics. No matter which historical period are we going to dice into or which part of the world we are going to explore, it seems indisputable that the concept of aging is strongly connected to the concept of change. Therefore, in many monochronic cultures around the world everyday lives are strongly connected with time, its passing, beginnings, ends and transitions. Our languages contain such expressions as being on time, time is money, time being saved, bought, wasted, etc. One of the fundamental constituents of savoir vivre is the concept of being on time and not being late as strongly connected with respect towards others. Our lives are determined by every passing second, minute, hour, day, month, year and season. We race with time only to fi nd out that this race ends with our passing away, often caused by time-related stress. Increased reflection on passing time allows for heightened awareness of ongoing changes in our lives, some of which we have no control over or they may end unexpectedly, whereas others depend on our conscious decisions. As depicted by Homer (1991: 76), Odysseus chooses mortal life and his mortal wife, who has ‘immortality and unfading youth’. He does not aspire to live forever, but wants to live with other human mortals. The author lets his hero make a positive choice for a fi nite and vulnerable life. Each of us has a choice on how to approach the inevitable process of aging and the fact that with passing time our bodies and minds decline in effectiveness. As Cicero (1887) writes, ‘my old age sits light upon me, and not only is not burdensome, but is even happy. For as Nature has marked the bounds of everything else, so she has marked the bounds of life. Moreover, old age is the fi nal scene in life’s drama, from which we ought to escape when it grows wearisome and, certainly, when we have had our fi ll’. Finally, James (1956, as cited in Harroid, 2006: 126) believes that ‘Given that life is uncertain, and that most of us will have to deal with old age, how do we make a life a significant one in old age … it depends on the liver’. So let us live our lives as we desire and embrace the forthcoming changes.

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1.8 Living Longer

Aging creates one of the greatest social and economic challenges to most of the world’s societies in the 21st century. ‘Economic doomsayers have long warned that the aging populations of industrial and post-industrial countries represent a demographic time bomb. Societal aging is bad news for the economy, they say, because it means that fewer people work and contribute to economic growth, and more people collect pensions and demand health care’ (Scott, 2018: 13). In 2010 the overall population of EU member states comprised over half a billion people with 87 million inhabitants aged 65 and more (17% of total population). In 2035 there will be over 520 million people living in the EU. The number will decline to 506 million in 2060. What is more, these numbers will increase steadily by up to 2 million seniors annually and this is twice the rate reported in 2008. It is also predicted that the median age of the population is going to reach almost 48 years by 2060. The impact of demographic aging within the European Union is likely to be of major significance in the coming decades (Bardus & Raso 2013: 72). Giannakouris (2008), writes that ‘by 2025 more than 20% of Europeans will be 65 or over, with a particularly rapid increase in the number of citizens and non-citizens (immigrants, refugees, asylum-seekers) over 80 years old’. A similar opinion has been expressed by EloniemiSulkava (2013), according to whom ‘the number of seniors (65+) is steadily increasing in Europe and on average, these people not only live longer, but they are also well educated and have better functional capacity when compared with the previous generation of 65 + ’. She continues by saying: The average life expectancy in EU member states for 2008–2010 reached 75.3 years for men and 81.7 years for women. However, there are differences between the countries. The gap between the highest and lowest life expectancies is around eight years for women and 12 years for men. Women in France had the highest life expectancy (85.0 yrs) and in Bulgaria and in Romania the lowest (77.3 yrs). Respectively, men in Sweden had the highest life expectancy (79.4 yrs) and the in Lithuania the lowest (67.3 yrs). It is expected that life expectancy will continue to increase. In 2016 it will be 84.6, years for men and 89.1 years for women. The gains in longevity is resulted from various factors, e.g. from rising living standards, healthier lifestyle, better education and greater access to quality health services. It is important to point out that when an aged person reaches average life expectancy she/he still has many years left. (Eloniemi-Sulkava, 2013: 52)

In Sweden average life expectancy started to increase as early as 1840 and this phenomenon has occurred in many developed countries all around the world. In the USA the average life expectancy for females in 1900 was on average 48 years and 100 years later, in 2000, women lived an average of 87 years. Such an increase (39 years) in average life expectancy was the

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result of reduced mortality before reaching the age of puberty (Arking, 2005, 2006). As early as 1990, the Behavioral and Social Research Program of the National Institute on Aging started to put more financial resources into sponsoring and supporting various academic centres for research on the demography and specificity of the aging process (Sonnega, 2006). Tuljapurkar et  al. (2000) conducted research in the G7 countries (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the UK and the USA). The results of the research indicate that the mortality rate in all G7 countries had declined significantly. For example, in the USA, in the 1930s, life expectancy at birth was 58 for males and 62 for females. Seventy years later, in 2001, it was 75 years and 80 years, respectively. Furthermore, the median life expectancy in the USA is substantially higher than official forecasts. Life expectancy in the USA is set to rise to 86 by 2075 and to 88 by the end of the century. In other countries the tendencies are also very promising. In Japan the average life expectancy is 78 years for men and 84 years for women. In France men live an average of 75 years, while French women average 83 years (Sonnega, 2006). 1.9 The Glorious ‘Third Age’

Gunder Esgin (2013) writes about three concepts of age resulting from the studies where age is considered as a social phenomenon. These three types of age encompass: (1) chronological age, defi ned as total number of the years that the individual lives from birth and which is also named ‘calendar age’; (2) functional age, defi ned as to the appearances of individuals and the activities which they are capable of doing (the level of self-capacity of the elderly in daily activities); and (3) subjective age, defi ned as to how old the individual feels himself/ herself. Laslett (1989, as cited in Gunder Esgin, 2013: 1166) divides human life not into three but four age-related periods, and calls the Third Age (period) the retirement period, or as the author calls it ‘the crown of life’. Although the individuals are no longer professionally active, they get the freedom (time and environment) of achieving their personal needs and passions owing to the reduction or cessation of many domestic responsibilities. The Fourth Age is a new dependency period and the last part of old age, where there is no hope for living in the course of life before death. This four-stage cycle resembles Shakespeare’s seven-stage cycle of human life, where we begin as infants and end our life in almost the same manner. Gilleard and Higgs (2014) share the same opinion and write about a new generation of retired people who find themselves in a position of greater potential agency. They are no longer socially and fi nancially dependent on family members or other people. Instead they have a unique opportunity to develop a distinct

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19

and personally fulfi lling lifestyle. For Laslett (1989), this is more than a transition from working to not working; it is a moral project that is to be distinguished from the ‘indolence’ of unemployment. Adopting this particular schemata, the third age takes place when we retire from our professional life and we are still relatively healthy people who have retired but still have enough energy and motivation to lead an active family, social and educational life (dos Santos & de Souza Lago, 2016). According to some authors, the concept of the third age started as early as 1960s and was used to describe people who retired from their work and expected to become ‘a stratum of the economically active population, given the potential for consumption that such layer could represent; integrate to consume and to make live bodies that are healthier and less expensive to the State. This new category euphemises the burden of old age and values good aging as an individual problem, a private undertaking’ (dos Santos & de Souza Lago, 2016: 139). Ortega (2008) writes that the invention of the third age resulted in increased awareness concerning our bodies and taking good care of ourselves. Similarly, for other authors (Carr & Komp, 2011; Gilleard & Higgs, 2011, as cited in Oxford, 2018: 4) the third age is considered as a period free from any significant health problems and disabilities. In their opinion, the third age is often defi ned as a life phase and it is important to defi ne and place it in a meaningful sociocultural context. Unfortunately, such a description does not apply to all older adults, who may suffer from chronic diseases, feel exploited by their professional responsibilities or may be a part of the society that does not obtain retirement money, for example immigrants. dos Santos and de Souza Lago (2016: 133) write: Old age, third age, and elderly are categories and ideas of extremely wide range in social discourse, in institutions, in the media, in people’s way of acting and interacting to each other. At first, they seem like self-evident dimensions of life, since aging would be an ontological issue, intrinsic to human existence. There are, in fact, major concerns, controversies and a discursive proliferation on the topic of old age and the subjects who embody the marks of time. The concerns surrounding the human fi nitude and the bodily transformations resulting from the effect of time on matter appear as producers of discourses founded on several fields of knowledge: medicine, religion, psychology, law, philosophy, anthropology, etc. (dos Santos and de Souza Lago, 2016: 113)

Scholars introduce their own terms to describe the third age, such as ‘the third chapter’, proposed by Lawrence-Lightfoot (2009), lasting from the age of 50 to 75. Smith (2014) connects the third age with people who are between 70 and 84 years of age. Oxford (2018: 4), on the other hand, argues against a chronological approach towards the concept of the third age and the idea that the third age can be discriminated by chronological years, when she says: ‘For several reasons, I personally doubt that

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chronological age is a good proxy for the concept of the third age’ and she continues by saying: First, individual lives, including schedules for retirement, are very different for various people, making third-age timing difficult to predict for a given person, much less for a professional group or for a culture. Second, some people, like me, retire several times, and the start of the third age might depend on which retirement is counted as ‘real’ and why. Third, scientific advances make possible an ever-increasing number of third-age years, so the length of the third age is difficult to anticipate. For these reasons, it is better to consider individual or small-group cases and circumstances than to trust generalized or supposedly universal third-age years. (Oxford, 2018: 4)

A similar opinion has been presented by Motta (2002) and Sais (2011), who, like Oxford (2018), point out that the creation of the third age category resulted in an unfair homogenisation of a population group which is by far internally complex. Someone who is 55 years old and someone aged 70 or 80 are often considered members of the same third age group. Finally, according to Barnes (2011) the third age offers many opportunities and advantages for older adults, including passion, risk-taking and adventure. In order to fully experience the ‘gifts’ of the third age, seniors need to focus on the positive sides of their lives and increase their reflectivity. In order to develop a positive self-image, it is necessary to maintain physically healthy lifestyle, adapt to ongoing changes, stay confident, become more assertive and accept the fact that there will be some limits to what they are able to do. Of course, in many cases it is easier said than done and these demanding requirements will not be fulfilled by all seniors alike. Therefore, we need to remember and help those for whom enjoying the third age may be more challenging than for the others. With our help they can still find pleasure in older age. 1.10 Will You Still Need Me …

When in 1967 the Beatles recorded their album Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band they did not know that one of their songs ‘When I’m 64’ was going to be a perfect illustration of aging as a social issue 50 years later. The lyrics of this particular song – ‘Will you still need me, will you still feed me. When I’m sixty-four’ – precisely depict the lives and challenges of the seniors in a constantly changing reality around them. As has been already mentioned, we live longer. The average life expectancy is increasing steadily in many countries worldwide, mainly as a result of developments in medicine, increased awareness of healthy eating habits and improvements in living conditions, sanitation and healthcare. Yet despite this incontestable success of humankind, age stratification and age discrimination are still widespread. Even the entertainment and media

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present a rather negative image of the older generation. Frequently, older people are portrayed as comical, stubborn, eccentric and foolish. They are also depicted as narrow-minded, in poor health, foundering fi nancially and unable to make the right decisions. Movie scripts tend to present older characters as reclusive (Finding Forester), dying (The Notebook) or facing their own mortality (The Bucket List). Senior characteristics presented in these movies are representative mainly of Western cultures, often described as individualistic, where older adults are marginalised and often socially excluded. Results of research suggest that a comfortable old age in Eastern countries may be characterised mainly by family and social relations that promote open-mindedness, appreciation of older age, associated with wisdom, experience and tolerance. In Western countries features such as activity, engagement and vitality are more likely to be associated with aging well or successful aging (Fry et al., 2007). In 2002, Pope John Paul II said that the experience shows that the lack of a positive approach towards older members of the society often results in their marginalisation and sentences them to loneliness, described as ‘social death’. According to Mastalski (2015), the contemporary world often tries to ‘hide’ the existence of the aging population. He points to gerontological challenges including ‘juvenism’, marginalisation of older people, loneliness, economic euthanasia, problems of violence, suicides and depression of the elderly, problems in fulfi lling roles by the elders, their activation and religious problems of old age. Rejection of old age as uncomfortable and shameful is the core assumption of ‘juvenism’ (juvenis in Latin means ‘youth’), which is a phenomenon strictly connected with skills, effectiveness and the ability to be successful in personal and professional life. Some of the older members of our societies, especially those who are less educated, may often feel alienated in this fast-changing world around them. Such a claim is directly supported by the relationship between the feeling of uselessness and having no sense of living among older generation, and rapid social changes connected with exhaustive promotion of youth. Loss of authority and the inability to adapt to changes result in lower self-esteem and the feeling of being devalued. Juvenism brings about various attitudes and behaviours, one of them being a rather stereotypical perception of older members of society. This negative stereotype depicts older adults as unproductive and dependent on others. Such attitudes make older people feel like a ‘necessary evil’ and are, undoubtedly, frustrating for them. The feeling of frustration is even more intensive owing to the denial of wisdom and education. Furthermore, the ‘cult of youth’ and affirmation of beauty make older people sense the passing of time even more and create a feeling of anxiety and fear of aging. For older adults aging is associated with passing, loneliness, disability and the inevitable coming of an end. Age

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becomes a taboo. People avoid talking about the value of life as well as its passing (Truchlińska, 2005). Members of older generations are often faced with barriers of different types: architectonic, psychological, or technological. What is more, a relatively low pension often secludes older people from social life and forces them to resign from social activities, such as: cinema, theatre, or going to a restaurant. It seems that the process of marginalization of the older generation results directly from the fascination with the phenomenon of ‘ageism’, which is usually understood as a set of beliefs, prejudices, and stereotypes having their origin in biological diversification of humankind. Older people are gradually deprived of their social position in the society. These beliefs, prejudices, and stereotypes are strongly connected with the process of aging. (Szukalski, 2004: 11)

In professional fields, the process of marginalisation can be found in a different approach to employees depending on their age or in advertisements containing phrases such as: ‘Jobs for young people’ or ‘Job for a person below 40’. According to Osiecka-Chojnacka (2012), in the contemporary cult of youth people have a tendency to unwillingly perceive themselves as ‘old’. She continues by saying that the essential factors supporting the process of marginalisation include a lack of proper education concerning the needs and characteristics of older members of society. Some of the most prevalent instances encompass avoidance of contact with elders, negative stereotypes and isolation from the rest of society. Another negative phenomenon is called ‘multiple discrimination’, when age discrimination co-exists with other forms of discrimination. Without a doubt, seclusion of older people leads to loneliness of older members of the society, which may significantly imperil the development of personality (Mastalski, 2015). Sadler (1988) and Hołyst (2007) enumerated five types of loneliness: • • • • •

interpersonal (loneliness from having a close person pass away); social (feeling isolated from other members of society); cultural (having difficulty in adjusting to traditional way of life); space (experiencing the nonsense of one’s existence); and psychological (feeling of alienation from one’s ego).

Dykstra (2009) and Dykstra and Fokkema (2007) distinguish between emotional and social loneliness. The former, accompanied by feelings of desolation and insecurity, is from missing an intimate attachment (e.g. martial partner), whereas the latter is closely associated with having a rather narrow circle of friends and acquaintances who would be able to provide a sense of belonging. Further, De Jong Gierveld (1998) writes about potential reasons for older people’s loneliness, which can be divided into three general categories as presented in Figure 1.2.

Interdisciplinary Approach to Aging

Social network

Family

The Self

23

•The number and the quality of the relaonships in which people are involved. •Death of a spouse. •Decreased number of social contacts. •Unsupporve social networks.

•Preferences, expectaons and desires for personal relaonships. •The degradaon of mulgeneraonal families. •Poor self-esteem. •Poor social skills. •Poor health. •Economy and reduced financial resources.

Figure 1.2 Reasons for older adults’ loneliness (summary of De Jong Gierveld, 1998)

Experiencing economic problems may lead to economic euthanasia, which is understood as forced ending of life owing to the difficult financial status of older people. Economic euthanasia means that a person does not have enough fi nancial resources to buy medications or benefit from private social care and modern-day therapies. It means a lack of perspectives and social care, difficulties in obtaining medical treatment, decreased life satisfaction, feeling of seclusion and recurring suicidal tendencies. Economic euthanasia may be considered as a failure of our contemporary civilisation, mainly because the advancements in medicine give an impression that older members of the society should be appreciated and well taken care of. Otherwise, economic euthanasia will undoubtedly become an integral part of social poverty and may lead to even greater social seclusion of older people (Mastalski, 2015). 1.11 Oldies Goldies

Despite the negative phenomena presented in the previous section, old age has many advantages and like songs that never fade away people can also experience a long and successful life. According to Bardus and Raso (2013: 76), in recent years the concept of active aging has been predominantly connected with health and has focused on a broad range of activities that actively include older people as full members of the society. They continue by stating: The essence of the concept of active aging combines the element of productive aging and the emphasis on quality of life and mental well-being. Thus an active aging strategy should cover the whole of the life course, because it is concerned with how everyone ages, and not only with older

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Insights into Senior Foreign Language Education

people. So the vision behind the active aging strategy is a society for all ages, in which all are valued and where everyone has an opportunity to participate and contribute regardless of their age. In the third age, after retirement, during partial retirement, people should have opportunities to contribute in a variety of ways (paid employment, voluntary work, community participation, family activities and leisure), or a mixture of them, where special attention to nutritional aspects of healthy lifestyles is needed. Maximizing citizens’ potential and quality of life can create a more inclusive society and can further economic sustainability. (Bardus & Raso 2013: 76)

Mastalski (2015: 161) introduces a number of suggestions on how to improve the quality of seniors’ social existence, mainly by the suggestions presented in Figure 1.3. As people get older they may fi nd becoming a volunteer an excellent substitute for the social roles they no longer perform. What is more, the rest of the society may benefit from senior volunteerism because it helps to eliminate social isolation, strengthens community participation, enhances volunteers’ self-esteem, changes stereotypes and promotes social and political consciousness. While providing help to others, elderly members of our societies enhance their physical, mental and social well-being. It may even protect them from the dangers of retirement, physical decline and inactivity (Mastalski, 2015). Final Remarks

Famous Italian actress Sophia Loren said that ‘there is a fountain of youth: it is your mind, your talents, the creativity you bring to your life and the lives of people you love. When you learn to tap this source, you will truly have defeated age’. Throughout this chapter readers embarked on a journey through the intricacies of time and human aging. This trip took the readers into ancient Greece, Rome and the jungles of South America, but also to the very centre of the human body, mind and soul. During this voyage we met adventurers, mythological and literary Promong healthy lifestyle

Restraining from addicons

Acvely spending free me

Planning their future

Engaging in volunteering

Encouraging family-oriented lifestyle

Figure 1.3 Ways of improving the quality of life for older adults (summary of Mastalski, 2015)

Interdisciplinary Approach to Aging 25

personas, writers, poets, philosophers, anthropologists, physiologists, biologists, scientists and medical experts. At this point, some of the ideas and theories presented in this chapter may seem unpersuasive or simply overlap. Therefore, the theories presented in this section of the book are of central relevance to better understanding of how and why we age and why we ‘age’ so differently. Furthermore, this chapter also showed that one should not be afraid of aging and should welcome it as a natural consequence of our body changing according to the natural cycle of life. Successful aging is not just a theoretical assumption created for the purpose of our contemporary culture. Yes, there are those for whom older age is nothing but health problems, social exclusion, loneliness, depression and other negative phenomena. We need to be aware of the people around us who need help and guidance in coping with everyday life and do everything we can to make the older age more controllable for them. However, despite the obvious challenges of older age, it is still full of positive emotions and experiences. Socially active seniors more eagerly participate in the process of social inclusion, which requires proper contacts between generations and well-established civil society. Younger generations should be encouraged to perceive older adults not as a burden, but rather as an increasing social group. Furthermore, more frequent contacts with seniors often result in significant reduction of existing prejudices and negative stereotypes. Since time is passing the same way for all of us, let us take the opportunity and learn how to accept it and, if possible, enjoy every moment of our lives. Questions to Consider

(1) How do our bodies age and how is aging understood today? (2) How do we age successfully according to some of the theories presented in this chapter? (3) What does gerontology have to say about the aging process? (4) How is aging perceived in sociology, culture and philosophy? (5) How can be senior lives improved? Suggested Readings Alley, D., Putney, N., Rice, M. and Bengston, V. (2010) The increasing use of theory in social gerontology: 1990–2004. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences 65B (5), 583–590. Baars, J., Dohmen, J., Grenier, A. and Phillipson, C. (2013) Aging, Meaning and Social Structure: Connecting Critical and Humanistic Gerontology. Bristol: Policy Press. Erikson, E.H. (1982) The Completed Life Cycle: A Review. New York: Norton. Finch, C.E. (1990) Longevity, Senescence, and the Genome. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Fung, H. (2013) Aging in culture. The Gerontologist 53, 369–377. Holliday, R. (1995) Understanding Aging. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Liang, J. and Luo, B. (2012) Toward a discourse shift in social gerontology: From successful aging to harmonious aging. Journal of Aging Studies 26, 327–334. Sohal, R.S., Mockett, R.J. and Orr, W.C. (2002) Mechanisms of aging: an appraisal of the oxidative stress hypothesis, Free Radical Biology and Medicine 33 (5), 575–586. Sokolovsky, J. (1997) The Cultural Context of Aging: Worldwide Perspectives. London: Bergin and Garvey.

2 Lifelong Learning in a Contemporary Society

Introduction

The philosophy of learning throughout the entire life is anything but modern, since ‘ancient societies all over the world have emphasized the need to learn from the cradle to the grave’ (Medel-Añonuevo et al., 2001: a). The concept of lifelong learning was fi rmly embodied in the works of the ancient philosophers, such as Confucius (551–479 BC), Socrates (469–399 BC), Plato (427–347BC) and Seneca (4BC to 65AD), who described the process of learning which comprised a whole human life. Later, Amos Komensky (1592–1670) and Grundtvig (1783–1872) came back to the concept of learning through the whole life and in the last century Lindeman (1926) and Lengrand (1970) wrote about learning that encompassed the whole life of a person. The 6th century statesman Solon, who was one of the seven sages of ancient times, said, ‘I shall gladly grow old, learning new things’ (Plato, 2009). Plato’s dialogues provide us with a profound evidence that Solon’s aphorism was widely memorised by Greek schoolboys and that the attitude it described was widely acknowledged as a desirable quality (Hancock, 1987). The ancient Greeks’ perception of human development and education has been present throughout the centuries, and in the 1960s ‘recurrent education’ and in the 1970s ‘education permanente’ were introduced. In 1973 the OECD published a document called Recurrent Education: A Strategy for Lifelong Learning (Papadopoulos, 2002). However, with time, the educational models underwent significant changes, making economy and technology operating in the globalised world of the 21st century the imperatives of contemporary lifelong learning, replacing, at least to some extent, the social and cultural objectives of education. ‘True, broad objectives such as social cohesion, cultural and democratic values, etc. are taken into account. But these are subsumed as products of economy revitalised through lifelong learning rather than as prime movers of the strategy’ (Papadopulos, 2002: 38). Lifelong learning is recognised today as an indispensable mechanism to enable global education to face the multiple contemporary and continuously emerging challenges of the modern world (Medel-Añonuevo et al., 2001). 27

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Insights into Senior Foreign Language Education

The focal point of Chapter 2 is the concept of lifelong learning, which is considered as natural human behaviour responsible for the evolution of civilisations across time and space. Nowadays we associate lifelong learning mostly with economic and technological imperatives of the contemporary, globalised world. It is considered a vital instrument to prepare global education to overcome potential challenges. Keeping that in mind, lifelong learning has received a widespread political, economic and social support and has been approved by the governments of many countries around the globe. Alongside lifelong learning policy, autonomy and self-directed learning are being promoted as positive outcomes. Section 2.1 defi nes lifelong learning and compares it with the idea of a ‘path’ or a ‘way’ that learners take in order to develop themselves despite existing cultural differences. Lifelong learning is described as a concept designed to improve the quality of human life and introduce positive changes into societies around the world. This section also describes the potential benefits of lifelong learning as well as emphasising the necessity to promote lifelong learning in contemporary societies. Section 2.2 explains the origins of lifelong learning, together with a description of lifelong philosophy adopted by some of the most influential European and world organisations. It includes descriptions of the most influential documents issued by the European Union, Council of Europe, OECD and UNESCO, such as the White Paper on Teaching and Learning: Towards the Learning Society from 1995, the White Paper: Towards a Europe of Knowledge from 1997, and The Lisbon Strategy from 2005. This section also pays attention to the shift from the ‘old’ society to the ‘new’ society with its innovations, inventions and initiatives. The former is described here as stable, simple and predictable. The illusory nature of such a dichotomy results in the introduction of more realistic benefits of lifelong learning based on an amalgamate of the ‘old’ and the ‘new’ society. Section 2.3 discusses certain global challenges that lifelong learning faces and some potential ways of dealing with them. The challenges include high school dropout rates in some countries, limited or no access to education, the quality of education and poor teaching and learning conditions. The section also provides examples from around the world and presents lifelong learning as a potential solution to the above-mentioned problems. Furthermore, conditions for efficient lifelong learning are presented here. A separate problem, described in Section 2.3, is the insufficient technological knowhow among members of many societies. Contemporary struggles with online teaching in Poland may be a perfect illustration for this problem. Additionally, the section discusses social and personal competencies which seem to be indispensable in lifelong learning. Section 2.4 explains the phenomenon of Third Age Universities around the world and their noteworthy influence on the process of lifelong learning. This section attempts to explain why Third Age Universities have become so popular and their potential benefits. It also presents the

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readers with selected examples of Third Age Universities from the USA, Canada, Australia, European countries and China. Finally, it introduces the concept of the ‘fourth age’. Following this, Section 2.5 provides readers with a selected example of Polish senior educational endeavour. It explains the blueprint for the establishment of Third Age Universities in Poland and presents the potential rationale behind their concept. This section also includes some statistical data that is changing rapidly as new universities are being established in Poland. 2.1 Understanding ‘Lifelong Learning’ There are many roads to the top of the mountain, but when we get there we all see the same moon. (Japanese proverb)

No civilisation would ever be established if it was not for the process of lifelong learning and information exchange. It seems that learning throughout the entire life is a natural behaviour for human species. Before there were schools and institutions, individuals learned how to capitalize on their respective experiences, before passing them on to their followers who would do the same in their turn after bringing some improvements. This is how we could explain the knowhow transmitted over the ages which made humanity invent tools of different shapes, tame animals and come up with new inventions. (Essefi 2002: 65)

In Eastern philosophy one can find a word Tao or Dao signifying ‘road’, ‘way’ or ‘path’. It describes the natural order of the universe around us, whose specificity must be discovered in order to comprehend and appreciate the potential for one’s wisdom. This comprehension and discovery happens through reflection and experience and throughout one’s whole life. It is never ending and we must realise that the road is more important than the end of the journey itself. The concept of lifelong learning also implies the endlessness of the process and focuses on the relation between life and learning. Therefore, it seems natural to start the discussion on lifelong learning by describing the connections between these two notions. Notwithstanding existing cultural differences it seems natural to assume that for most people all over the world learning constitutes a meaningful human activity. Of course, there are those members of societies for whom access to education is limited or even impossible to obtain, such as immigrants, refuges and members of lower social classes, not only in Third World countries. Especially for them, lifelong learning is an opportunity to change their lives, provide some meaning for their existence, fi nd out more about culture and maybe become a more active piece of the socio-cultural puzzle. It goes without saying that through lifelong learning individuals discover their own culture as well as other cultures that they encounter. Furthermore, Mendel-Añonuevo et al. (2001: 5–6) call lifelong learning a ‘safe label’, and claim that it can serve as an

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appropriate solution to almost every macro and micro crisis that people have to face, including poverty, war and sickness. According to these authors, efficient learning throughout the whole of life is required to deal with these challenges effectively. The process-orientedness of lifelong learning and the relation between learning and life imply that age is not an obstacle here and that lifelong learning is for young and old alike. Younger generations need to abandon negative stereotypes concerning older generations and accept the fact that even in older age people can learn effectively. As the older generation educates itself, senior learners develop a more positive self-image and change negative attitudes towards aging. Both age groups, the young and old, in a similar way, recognise the value of learning throughout life. If, however, the young and old do not participate in an intergenerational dialogue, there exists a risk of polarisation and division of thoughts, beliefs and values. Lifelong learning undoubtedly creates an environment in which older and younger generations can efficiently debate, discuss, learn from each other and reflect on existing similarities and differences (Medel-Añonuevo et al., 2001). In the second half of the 20th century, lifelong education was still the dominant philosophy of many educational policies and social thinking in social sciences. However, the beginning of the 21st century brought about a significant change from lifelong education into lifelong learning. Tissot (2004) defi nes the essential types of learning in the lifelong learning area: • •

•

• •

•

Formal learning is considered as learning that occurs within a well organised and structured educational context. It may even lead to formal recognition (diploma, certificate). Non-formal learning consists of learning entrenched in previously planned activities that are not explicitly created as learning opportunities, but which contain an important learning element such as vocational skills acquired at the workplace. Furthermore, it exists alongside the official system of education and usually does not lead to a certificate. Informal learning is defined as learning resulting from daily life activities related to family, work or leisure. It is often referred to as experiential learning and can even be understood as accidental learning. It is considered to be a natural accessory to everyday life experiences and is not necessarily intentional learning. Self-motivated learning reflects the assumption that in lifelong learning there is an emphasis on the need for individual people to assume more responsibility for their own learning. Self-founded learning emphasises the responsibility of individuals to finance their own education and training with minimal support from the government. Therefore, a lifelong learner is a person who is ready to invest time, money and effort in education or training on a continuous basis. Universal participation is necessary for meeting the economic demands of the 21st century and social cohesion in a time of rapid economic and social change.

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At the same time, authors and governmental agencies have provided a wide-ranging list of ‘lifelong learning’ definitions, as presented in Table 2.1. Taking all of these defi nitions into account, lifelong learning may be considered as a continuous, process-oriented enterprise which may take a variety of forms and is focused predominantly on raising awareness and the acquisition of skills and knowledge in order to overcome the Table 2.1 Selected definitions of lifelong learning Dave (1976)

Lifelong learning covers the whole range of learning experiences including formal, informal and non-formal patterns of learning throughout the cycle of life of an individual for the conscious and continuous enhancement of the quality of life, their own and that of society. It also includes the skills, knowledge, attitudes and behaviours that people acquire in their day-to-day experiences

Longworth and Davies (1996); Bryce et al. (2000)

Lifelong learning is a continuously supportive process that aims at stimulating and empowering people to obtain knowledge, shape values, acquire skills and understanding they will require throughout their life and to efficiently apply them with confidence, creativity and enjoyment in all roles, circumstances and diversified environments

Memorandum of Lifelong Learning (2000)

Any learning activity with an objective, undertaken on a continuous basis and aimed at improving knowledge, skills and competences

Medel-Añonuevo et al. (2001)

Lifelong learning is as more process-oriented than product-oriented. The total amount of time devoted to learning over a lifespan, as well as the amount of time spent in learning activities parallel to everyday life, is increasing

Ambrosio (2002)

The process of an aware, personal construction of the individual, through learning and education but also through existential experience to which thought has been given, conditioned by multiple, interpersonal, social relationships

Abukari (2004)

Lifelong learning is viewed as a process involving all strategies that are incorporated in order to provide opportunities for conscious learning throughout life and is directed towards providing both for the needs of an individual and the whole community

Lamb (2005)

Lifelong learning is the process of acquiring and expanding knowledge, skills and dispositions throughout one’s life to foster one’s well-being. Furthermore, it is much more than just taking up various adult courses. It is about reflection and providing solutions to potential challenges of everyday life

Eggelmeyer (2010)

Lifelong learning can assume different forms and does not have to resemble traditional classroom environment and is something all people should participate in, having an obligation to ourselves to continue learning throughout the whole of our lives

Laal and Salamati (2011)

A continuously supportive process which stimulates and empowers individuals to acquire all of the knowledge, values, skills and understanding they will require throughout their lifetimes and to apply them with confidence, creativity and enjoyment in all roles, circumstances and environment

Soni (2012)

Lifelong learning promotes effective educational opportunities in diversified educational and social settings such as home, school, work and community

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challenges of everyday life, assume more responsibility and provide benefits for individual people and whole communities. Mascle (2007) states that lifelong learning has five noteworthy advantages: better prospects for financial satisfaction, increased self-esteem, the freedom given to adult learners who can share ideas and teach each other, the shift of schooling to a 24/7 model and long-distance or online methods, and finally, making scholarship a habit. Nordstrom (2006: 23) writes: ‘Lifelong learning’s core values of learning, exploring, and serving, coupled with benefits for the mind, body and spirit make it an incredibly powerful tool for personal transformation and enhancement’, and he lists 10 potential benefits of lifelong learning which are presented in Table 2.2. As can be seen from the table, lifelong learning seems to be closely connected with intrinsic motivation and fulfillment of personal ambitions. Table 2.2 Benefits of lifelong learning (summary of Nordstrom, 2006: 23) Lifelong learning helps fully develop natural abilities

People have innate natural abilities which can be explored and developed when the professional career comes to an end

Lifelong learning opens the mind

Listening to others or taking part in stimulating discussions helps people to see the other side of a particular issue and even sometimes change their mind

Lifelong learning creates a curious, hungry mind

Our drive and desire to learn keep us going, constantly looking for more to feed our hungry minds

Lifelong learning increases our wisdom

A person can put their live in a new perspective. It increases the understanding of previous successes and failures and helps people to understand themselves better. They can more fully develop the wisdom that can come with later life

Lifelong learning makes the world a better place

Through the community service aspect of lifelong learning, senior learners can give back to their communities and to the world

Lifelong learning helps us to adapt to change

Lifelong learning enables individuals to keep up with society’s constant changes – especially technological ones such as mobile phones, the internet and social media

Lifelong learning helps us to find meaning in our lives

Sometimes it is difficult to look back on our lives and reflect in a meaningful and constructive manner, but lifelong learning provides the benefit of real perspective and enables people to find true meaning in their past experiences

Lifelong learning keeps us involved as active contributors to society

People are taking part in educational programmes, travelling all over the world and offering their expertise to society through meaningful community involvement. Older learners constitute a valuable asset to the contemporary society

Lifelong learning helps us make new friends and establish valuable relationships

Lifelong learning is a brilliant way to keep in touch with people, meet new friends and enjoy life surrounded by the company of folks who are truly embracing the excitement of later years

Lifelong learning leads to an enriching life of self-fulfillment

Through academic learning, educational adventure travel and a renewed sense of volunteerism, people expand their awareness, embrace self-fulfillment and truly create an exciting multidimensional life

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33

Furthermore, these benefits focus on efficient development of interpersonal relations. Apart from its indubitable advantages, lifelong learning requires a number of major modifications, or as Torres (2011) calls it, a ‘major revolution in education and general educational policy’. Nowadays, age is no longer a factor that determines educational success. Therefore, negative stereotyping and existing prejudices need to be abandoned and replaced by peer- and inter-generational learning at home, in school, in the community and at work. Education beyond classrooms, education outdoors, contact with nature and real-life situations are now the natural context of efficient lifelong education. Instruments necessary to make it all happen encompass modern technologies, computers and the internet, but also more traditional means such as radio, TV, blackboards, audio and video recorders, etc. (Torres, 2011). 2.2 Lifelong Learning – Where did it Start?

Ambrosio writes: ‘To learn throughout life is neither an abstract concept nor a new proposal. Rather, it is an approach to life, pursued with effort but which brings great satisfaction and pleasure’ (2002: 70). To transform the famous quote ‘To err is human’, we could say ‘To learn is human’, and it would not be an exaggerated declaration. A similar opinion has been presented by Carneiro (2002), who states that education is the ultimate realm of Homo sapiens. However, in the author’s opinion it is ‘fraught with oracles preaching novelty, and one cannot help eliciting innovation and enterprise as growing concerns in learning, but also, by mission – even design – education is a place of preservation and transmission. This dual role of education, both to conserve and to liberate, with its potential for contradiction, confl ict and even immobilisation, is more present today than ever before’ (Carneiro, 2002). Furthermore, this dual nature of contemporary education perfectly portrays the natural transition between stability/preservation (old) and change/innovation (new). Old, stable society, often characterised by simplicity and repetitiveness, where principles are shared and exemplary patterns become archetypes, undergoes transformation into a new, innovative society described by instability, inventiveness and constant questioning of existing patterns. In such societies, regardless whether old or new, knowledge and learning have always been responsible for the process of the gradual shift from more primitive to more advanced forms of social development in such fields as industry, information processing, economy and culture. In our contemporary world, it seems that, owing to inventions in technology and all-powerful social media, knowledge and information became easily accessible and are now at the reach of our fingertips (Paris & Byrnes, 1989; Carneiro, 2003; Steffens, 2006). However, this concept is still considered as illusionary, since major knowledge gaps and significant inequalities in educational opportunities

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still exist. What we need is a context rich in knowledge and education, a world that could accept meaning-free learning, and a world where reflection and continuous development are perceived as higher values. In order to meet these requirements, learning throughout life needs to combine traditional approaches and modernity. Lifelong learning should cater for diversity in learning styles and educational opportunities (Carneiro, 2003: 5). It seems reasonable to assume that the future of learning throughout life lies in non-academic learning environments which will be less teachercentred and much more learner-oriented. A shift like this will require learners to become more reflective, self-regulated and efficient in using skills, strategies and competencies that will allow for creative problemsolving and independent learning practice. Therefore, learning throughout life should cover a wide range of enticements and prepare learners for independent behaviours in de-institutionalised contexts (Hofer et al., 1998). If lifelong learning is to result in more efficient gathering of data, knowledge and skills and greater social diversity, the State needs to promote a more active role for multiple non-State providers. An assumption seems to exist that learning occurs without any constraints and without any frontiers. In order to put all of these theoretical concerns into practice there exist various associations, social groups, non-profit organisations, local and international organisations and governmental and non-governmental organisations that aim at improving the lives of seniors (Carneiro, 2003: 6). These are some of them: • • • • • • • • •

The International Association of Gerontology – the oldest international gerontological association established in Liege in 1950 and including 64 organisations. The European Federation of Older Persons – a European organisation with its headquarters in Luxembourg. Established in 1962, it encompasses 160 organisations from 50 countries. The European Centre for Gerontological Documentation and Research – established in 1964, it is situated in Brussels. The Centre International de Gerontologie Sociale – situated in Paris and established in 1968. The International Federation of Aging – established in 1973 with its headquarters in Toronto. It unites organisations from 40 countries. The World Association for the Senior Citizens Union – an international organisation from Geneva, established in 1976, in Miami (USA). The International Association Universities of the Third Age – established in 1976, in France. It is a federation of Third Age Universities from all over the world. The International Federation of Associations of Older People – established in 1980 in Paris (France). The Buehler Center on Aging, Health and Society, North Western University Chicago – established in 1982.

Lifelong Learning in a Contemporary Society 35

• • • •

The European Platform of Seniors’ Organizations – established in 1988 with its headquarters in Brussels. The European Society for Research on the Education of Adults – established in 1991, in The Netherlands. The Gerontological–Economic Research Organization – established in 1999, in Switzerland. The European Older People’s Platform – established in 2001, in Brussels. It unites 140 organisations from EU (Jaroszewska, 2013: 112).

The adoption of a lifelong learning philosophy has contributed significantly to the formation of a new attitude towards adult education, identifies it as a management tool of the work force (European Round Table of Industrialists [ERTI], 1995) ‘and considers lifelong learning as a provider of a range of services, which, from the point of view of human resources management, are seen as the key to increasing efficient productivity’ (Comissão Europeia, 2002; Consejo Europeo, 2011). Adult education is also treated as a means to help prevent potential and ongoing social conflicts (OECD, 2003, 2011). It is also a very valuable asset in preventing the social exclusion of older adults. Finally, it is assumed that professionally active older people have a natural need for self-empowerment and constant upgrading of their skills and knowledge. Considering the above, it seems natural to look now at how the conception of lifelong learning has been presented in the documents and philosophies of major global and European organisations and institutions (OECD, 2011). 2.2.1 The European Union

The impact that the European Union is having on education at member state level and its effects on the social inclusion of various social groups is preventiing school failure and reducing school dropout. Non-citizens and people with special needs experience social inclusion and obtain equal access to education. However, often the recommendations are unclear owing to the stipulation of the EC Treaty and the predominance of the principle of subsidiarity (Ibañez-Martin & Jover 2002; Carrera & Geyer, 2009). In order to provide some clarity, Table 2.3 presents the earliest documents issued by the EU and their foremost assumptions on the concept of lifelong learning. 2.2.2 Council of Europe

Although the Council of Europe was established in 1949, it took over a decade for it to come up with the concept of permanent education which was initiated in the early 1960s. Sixty years ago, ‘education permanente’ was considered an innovative enterprise which could be effectively used to deal with more diversified educational needs and cater for

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Table 2.3 Lifelong learning in selected EU documents White Paper on Growth, Competitiveness and Employment (1993)

The original White Paper emphasised the development of education and training as a sine qua non condition for a new model of more employment-intensive growth

White Paper on Teaching and Learning: Towards the Learning Society (1995)

The document emphasises the impact of information, internalisation, scientific and technological knowledge on work, professional opportunities, production and competitiveness. The main assumptions were grouped under five general objectives: (a) encouraging the acquisition of new knowledge – recognition of skills, mobility, multimedia educational software (b) bringing schools and the business sector closer together – apprenticeship-trainee schemes and vocational training (c) combating exclusion – second-chance school and European voluntary service (d) ensuring proficiency in three community languages (e) treating capital investment and investment in training on an equal basis

White Paper: Towards a Europe of Knowledge (1997)

The focus is on the contribution of education to the development of communities and more efficient social inclusion, which will help in providing the true feeling of identity, as well as responsibility for one’s own development. This social dimension of education together with knowledge and employability created a friendly environment for dynamic development of new educational system. Six types of action are proposed including: (a) physical mobility, extending to all target groups (b) virtual mobility through communication and information networks, and the production and dissemination of multimedia and audiovisual products and services (c) building co-operation networks at European level to facilitate exchange of experience and good practice (d) promoting language skills and understanding of different cultures (e) pursuing innovation through projects based on transnational partnerships to create education and training products or instruments for the accreditation of skills (f) improving community sources of reference with regard to education, training and youth systems and policies in member states

Amsterdam Treaty (1997)

It was the first time that the EC had obtained a clear competence to legislate on issues related to education and was recognised as having capacity to establish European-wide policies

learners’ individual needs, regardless of their age. Equal educational opportunities and equal access to education were and still are the focal points of permanent education. In the following decades, these major standards were accepted by member states and became a foundation for education in the EU (Kallen, 1996). Six decades later, member state representatives met in Lisbon to sign the Lisbon Strategy (2002). This event started a series of significant educational changes in the European Union. One of the Lisbon Strategy conclusions affi rms that Europe has moved into the Knowledge Age. In this new Knowledge Age, patterns of living,

Lifelong Learning in a Contemporary Society 37

working and learning have undergone transformations, which implies that not only individual people must adapt to ongoing changes, but also the established social and cultural code of conduct needs to change (Council of the European Union, 2006). Table 2.4 highlights the most important assumptions of the Lisbon Strategy and Memorandum for Lifelong Learning. The contents of Memorandum include the rationale for implementing lifelong learning as a dominant educational strategy (Section 1) and mention the importance of promoting active nationality and employability (Section 2). In Section 3 the focus is on the need of an essentially novel approach to education and training which will function only if individuals and organisations decide to work together and implement lifelong learning into practice. Section 4 includes six key messages which are based on experience gathered at European level through Community programmes and the European Year of Lifelong Learning (1996). For better understanding, Table 2.5 presents the key messages for lifelong learning included in the Memorandum. The Memorandum closes, in Section 5, with examples of how Europeanlevel actions can assist Member States to make progress. Working together to put lifelong learning into practice is the best way forward: •

to build an inclusive society which offers equal opportunities for access to quality learning throughout life to all people, and in which education and training provision is based fi rst and foremost on the needs and demands of individuals;

Table 2.4 Implications of the Lisbon Strategy and Memorandum for Lifelong Learning The Lisbon Strategy

The document emphasised the need for greater social cohesion as well as the need to promote the inclusion of specific categories of persons (such as minorities, children, the elderly and disabled people) in member states’ employment, education and training, health and housing policies. ‘The shift towards lifelong learning must accompany a successful transition to a knowledge based economy and society’. Such a statement implies that efficient education and training systems are in the focal point of the coming changes. ‘Member States, the Council and the Commission within their areas of competence, to identify coherent strategies and practical measures with a view to fostering lifelong learning for all’ (www.ipe.ro/ rjef/rjef106/rjef1066.pdf).

Memorandum for Lifelong Learning

In this document lifelong learning has been defined as ‘all purposeful learning activities, undertaken on an ongoing basis with the aim of improving knowledge, skills, and competence. It is not enough to consider lifelong learning as just one, isolated aspect of education programmes and training’. Furthermore, ‘the concept of lifelong learning must be perceived as a guiding principle for access and participation across a variety of educational contexts. Everyone in European Union, without any exceptions, should be provided with equal opportunities to adjust to the demands of social and economic change and to participate actively in the shaping of Europe’s future’ (Council of the European Union, 2006).

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Table 2.5 Key messages for lifelong learning (based on Commission Staff Working Paper Brussels, 30.10.2000 SEC(2000) 1832) Guarantee universal and continuing access to learning for gaining and renewing the skills needed for sustained participation in the knowledge society

Modifying and upgrading basic skills enabling active participation in every sphere of contemporary life (IT, languages, technological culture, entrepreneurship and social skills). Formal education and training systems are responsible for ensuring that each person acquires, updates and sustains an agreed skills threshold

Visibly raise levels of investment in human resources in order to place priority on Europe’s most important asset – its people

Incentive measures need to be fully developed and people must be encouraged to engage themselves in more active personal learning through special savings and deposits. Companies may support their employees in their personal development with funds and scholarships.

Develop effective teaching and learning methods and contexts for the continuum of lifelong and lifewide learning

Education needs to change and become more user-oriented. This implies changes in pre-service and in-service teacher training. Improving the quality of teaching and learning requires significant investments and a considerable upgrade in formal as well as non-formal learning contexts

Improve the ways in which learning participation and outcomes are understood and appreciated, particularly nonformal and informal learning

Modernising national certification systems and practices for new economic and social conditions. Explicit recognition of knowledge, skills and qualifications is an effective means to develop motivation among ‘non-traditional learners’ and those who have not been professionally active for some time

Ensure that everyone can easily access good-quality information and advice about learning opportunities throughout their lives

More guidance to overcome the distinction between educational, vocational and personal management. Guidance and counselling services must be locally accessible and practitioners must be familiar with the personal and social circumstances of those for whom information is provided

Provide lifelong learning opportunities as close to learners as possible, in their own communities and supported through ICT-based facilities

Local authorities have to provide necessary infrastructure of access to lifelong learning opportunities, such as third age universities. It helps to ensure that people, especially those who are socially excluded, are more active and socially engaged. In the case of people who are not able to leave their homes owing to their illness or disability, ICT is needed

•

•

•

to adjust the ways in which education and training is provided, and how paid working life is organised, so that people can participate in learning throughout their lives and can plan for themselves how they combine learning, working and family life; to achieve higher overall levels of education and qualification in all sectors, to ensure high-quality provision of education and training, and at the same time to ensure that people’s knowledge and skills match the changing demands of jobs and occupations, workplace organisation and working methods; and to encourage and equip people to participate more actively once more in all spheres of modern public life, especially in social and political life at all levels of the community, including at European level (Council of the European Union, 2000/EC).

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2.2.3 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

In 1973 the Recurrent Education strategy was established as a direct outcome of increased social concern. The focus was more on providing educational opportunities in lifelong education rather than concentrating on episodic educational enterprises which, in most cases, had limited educational benefit. It would allow for natural integration of formal education and on-the-job training into a single, efficient framework which would, in turn, allow for a more efficient response to individual needs and the job market. However, despite the full support from European ministers of education, the implementation of the strategy happened at a slow pace and on different levels across Europe (Papadopoulos, 1994, 2002). The last decade of the 20th century was dedicated to the improvement of the equality of education. Transforming lifelong learning into reality was the predominant aim of the OECD. According to OECD specialists, this was realised by strengthening the foundations for learning throughout life by improving access to early childhood education, promoting coherent links between learning and work, rethinking the role and responsibilities of all partners, including governments, who provide opportunities for learning, and fi nally, by creating incentives for individuals, employers and other education and training providers to mobilise greater investment in lifelong learning opportunities (OECD, 1996, 1998). At the same time, the OECD reflects upon certain important concerns such as school failure, ‘schools for tomorrow’, teachers for tomorrow’s schools, opening pathways from education to work and redefining tertiary education. Furthermore, the focus is on monitoring country progress and the fi nancing of lifelong learning (OECD, 1998). Finally, social and economic issues have been taken into consideration such as social exclusion, cities as learning centres and the development of internationally comparable indicators of adult literacy and human capital investment (OECD, 1998). In the following years the OECD has published a document under the title Completing the Foundation for Lifelong Learning. The document was based on a study conducted in 2001 in Belgium (Flemish Community), Denmark, Finland, France, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Korea, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. The study was conducted in upper secondary education and provides data concerning the management and fi nancing of teacher training and teacher development as well as the level of support for students who want to become professionally active and the introduction of communication technologies into education (Werquin, 2010). 2.2.4 UNESCO

UNESCO was founded in 1945 and came into being in 1946. However, like the OECD, its access into the field of lifelong learning was rather a slow and cautious process inspired largely by insights gained through its

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Insights into Senior Foreign Language Education

activities during the 1950s and 1960s in the field of adult education. As late as in 1970, UNESCO published its first report on lifelong learning entitled: Learning to Be: The World of Education Today and Tomorrow (Lengrand, 1970). The importance of lifelong learning as a tool for creating a more humane society was explicitly presented in the document. The authors firmly believed that people have an innate desire to learn and broaden their knowledge and skills. However, the document was considered as an inspiration rather than instruction for educational policies. Nevertheless, it resulted in the development of various lifelong learning programmes, particularly for literacy and adult education (Papadopoulos, 2002). In 1993 the General Conference of UNESCO introduced the concept of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century, whose members were obliged to reflect on the future of global education. The Commission was chaired by Jacques Delors, the former European Commission president. However, despite UNESCO’s limitless fi nancial support, experience and research data, it took three years (until 1996) to prepare the final report, Learning: The Treasure Within. The document focused on lifelong learning and suggested a new approach to learning, based on more flexible education systems in which people’s opportunities and values are significantly enhanced. Once more, lifelong learning and ‘new learning society’ were seen as much more than just an extension of adult education opportunities. Furthermore, the document postulated a strong need for a long-term approach to education as well as more active inclusion of local communities and public authorities. Such a shift in education required a less centred decision-making process and involving local communities. Also, the authors of the report observe that, while facing future global challenges, education could play an unprecedented role in the creation of relations between individual people, groups, societies, nations and cultures (MacGregor, 2002). As Delors (1996: 13) wrote: There is a need to rethink and broaden the notion of lifelong education. Not only must it adapt to changes in the nature of work, but it must also constitute a continuous process of forming whole human beings – their knowledge and aptitudes, as well as critical faculty and the ability to act. It should enable people to develop awareness of themselves and their environment and encourage them to play their social role at work and in the community.

The UNESCO document was founded on the so-called ‘four pillars’, which constituted the core foundation of education and provided a framework for lifelong learning (see Table 2.6). In 2011, Ouane suggested adding three new pillars that capture and reflect the constant flux and forward momentum of the modern world. He suggest adding Learning to learn (learners take responsibility for their own learning), Learning to transform (learners are able to introduce changes in order to improve their status) and Learning to become (learners integrate with society).

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Table 2.6 Four pillars of education and constant flux (summary of Delors, 1996) Learning to know

React to the multiplicity of sources of information, to the diversity of rich multimedia content, to new ways of knowing in a society that is closely inter-connected

Learning to do

Connect knowledge and skills, learning and competence, inert and active learning, codified and tacit knowledge, creative and adaptive learning. Learning by doing and doing by learning prepares for the changing nature of work

Learning to live together

Imprint core values of civic life in education. We need to learn to understand others and their history, traditions and spiritual values. This encourages people to implement common projects and to manage conflicts intelligently and peacefully

Learning to be

Recognise the nature of a timeless priority that takes on the inner journey of each and every one as a process of spiritual and existential broadening that bestows a final meaning on life and on the pursuit of happiness

2.3 Lifelong Learning – Facing Global Challenges and Finding Solutions

No matter how promising an outlook has been created, education still faces some serious challenges, especially in some of the developing countries. Asian, African, Caribbean, and Latin American countries are struggling with free access to education and a dropout rate that is very high (more than a third). Furthermore, enrolment figures show lower participation rates for females, members of minority groups and people from poor, rural areas. Another serious challenge is the quality of education provided, even in some European, developed countries where well-established education still provides poor-quality schooling resulting from insufficient teacher training, poor learning and teaching conditions and squandered resources (Linden, 2002). Additionally, the widespread use of distant learning techniques implemented as a result of the corona virus epidemic has created an educational context in which learners, despite participating in the learning process, have not benefitted from it at all (e.g. in Poland). Finally, governments are not sufficiently prepared to deal with potential educational problems or they treat education as an element of internal political conflict. Taking into consideration the above challenges, it may be difficult for some countries to become members of the learning society, especially with constantly growing populations, ethnic confl icts, wars, migrations, etc. The inability to become one of the learning societies may have far-reaching consequences, such as intolerance, prejudices, xenophobia and homophobia, not to mention a significant increase in illiteracy. No matter how utopian it sounds, it is a moral imperative to include every person in equal access to education. Unfortunately, not only in developing countries, poor-quality teaching, insufficient teacher training and poor social perception of the teaching profession (e.g. Poland – my personal comment) result in low levels of education and educational achievements (Linden, 2002).

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The above-described challenges can be seen on many continents and in many countries across the world. At the turn of the 21st century, deIbarolla (2002) and Linden (2002) report on Burkina Faso, where almost 80% adults are illiterate and the enrolment ratio in primary schools is less than 40% and drops to less than 10% in secondary education. Other African countries with drastic illiteracy rates include Guinea, Ethiopia, Chad, Somalia, Sierra Leone, Mali and Gambia. Another example comes from South America, where Guatemala has adult literacy rates of 67% and strong primary-education enrolment of 88%, but participation in secondary education drops to 26%. In many Latin America countries, there is still a high illiteracy rate – a mean of 15% of adults. Most people have not acquired even six years of schooling in some countries, and very few youngsters stay on at school beyond the age of 14 or 15 years. Basic education has proved to be extremely unequal, insufficient and inefficient for important population sectors. In Mexico, for instance, around 1.5 million children aged between 6 and 14 are out of school, and only 54% of those who start school actually finish compulsory Grade 9 education. Nearly 14 million youngsters aged between 15 and 24 are out of school, and less than 17% of that age-group achieve higher education (de Ibarrola, 1996; Linden, 2002). In Latin America an estimated 5 million young people were effectively excluded from education and work and had to struggle to fi nd a job, not to mention taking up systematic learning programmes. Even if they attended schools, adult education was mainly oriented towards elementary literacy programmes that did not provide learners with professional skills and knowledge. Even in countries where on-the-job training was compulsory, actual opportunities were very rare. Therefore, secondary education became a priority, but unfortunately it was often neglected by the educational decision makers (Jacinto, 1998). In Asia, Afghanistan is among the countries with the highest rate of illiteracy, mainly owing to Taliban extremist movements, tribal structures and existing cultural norms. An additional factor that strengthens these negative trends is the fact that economies need cheap labour not welleducated workers. These are just some of the examples that unmistakably point to lifelong learning as a sine qua non condition for social improvement. All around the world the need for manual labour is decreasing and the jobs that are left have become more efficient owing to the application of knowledge and technology. What is more, the economic crisis of the late 1990s in some of the East Asian countries and other countries around the world shows that the economic situation may drastically change and the economy as well as the labour market need to be flexible in order to adapt to these changes (de Ibarrola, 1996; Linden, 2002). Another argument for the development of lifelong learning in developing countries may be that, despite many examples of poorly developing countries, there are also some developing countries such as Argentina and

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Chile where lifelong learning is gaining importance and some social and educational changes are becoming more visible (Linden, 2002). As de Ibarrola (1996: 125) writes: ‘Literacy is perhaps the most basic practice where deep new change is visible. Previously, an internationally accepted literacy measure was the ability to read and write a simple family or business letter, an address or a transport schedule, or even recognize and write one’s own name’. Lifelong learning has also been considered part of the solution to a problem of disaffected youth who are spending more and more time outside the mainstream of society. If educational systems are to be successfully reformed, there is a need for a policy framework of lifelong learning – a system catering for the efficient creation of primary education systems that allow individual learners to acquire knowledge that would significantly improve the quality of their lives and include them in the society. The same needs to happen with the previously mentioned secondary education, which needs to gain more significance if lifelong learning is to become a reality. One of the major challenges for secondary education is its quality, which often remains unsatisfactory. Furthermore, if lifelong learning is to become a fact, open access to a multiplicity of educational models and settings for people from different backgrounds and divergent needs is indispensable as well as a well developed network of social relations and economics (de Ibarrola, 1996; Soni, 2012). According to de Ibarrola (1996: 127), ‘Extra lifelong-learning priorities are not the solution to unfilled basic education needs and they certainly cannot be a substitute. Learning throughout life cannot be understood without the strong basic education that prepares people to learn efficiently from new opportunities and daily experiences. Research and experience show that self-teaching is a complex process and is rarely found among non-qualified or illiterate people’. Figure 2.1 presents some of the most significant strategies for making lifelong learning not just a theoretical concept, but a realistic enterprise for all people around the world. Alexander (2002), referring to lifelong learning, states that ‘in order to deal with the potential challenges people all over the world should learn how to become more resilient and have higher self-esteem, so that they are capable of responding positively to upcoming changes. In order to do so we need to involve ourselves into team work and co-operation with others, as well as, become more creative and problem solving oriented’. Independence of mind and critical thinking are fundamental, so that we can analyse issues and persist despite scepticism or opposition from conventional thinking. Aside from education-related issues, another potential challenge of our globalised world is connected to peoples’ technological and ICT skills (or rather lack of these skills). With the rapid development of the Fourth Wave society, with the internet, new technologies, information and newage ICTs, the role of the individual learner is gaining importance. The

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Strategies for lifelong learning Recognize all forms of learning, not just formal courses of study Create a partnership between public authories and educaon service providers, business sector, social and local associaons, research centres Insight into the demand for learning in the knowledge-based society – which will entail redefining basic skills, to include for instance the new informaon and communicaon technologies Adequate resourcing, involving a substanal increase in public and private investment in learning is needed Facilitate access to learning opportunies by making them more visible, introducing new provision and removing obstacles to accessthrough the creaon of local learning centres Create a learning culture by giving learning a higher profile, both in terms of image and by providing incenves for the people most recent to opt for learning Introduce of quality control and indicators to measure progress Reformulate access and equity priories in a lifelong context, by looking at the opportunies that are available to individuals across their life-cycle and in the different sengs where learning can occur

Figure 2.1 Strategies for lifelong learning (summary of Soni, 2012)

knowledge-based economy, new technologies, the growing speed of technological changes and globalisation all influence the need to improve the population’s skills and competences (Dzięgielewska, 2002; Colardyn & Bjornavold, 2004; Kobylarek, 2016). According to Kasprzak and Marcinkiewicz-Wilk (2016: 110), ‘the information society is often called a society of young people because owing to the rate of changes and technological progress only young people from an early age are able to keep up with new technologies’. If members of the Fourth Wave society are to efficiently operate in this fast-changing reality, they need to be equipped with a set of skills that will enable them to feel safe and actively participate in these ongoing transformation. However, older people were raised in a different social context and, in their case, the lack of crucial skills in information technologies and lesser adaptability to changing conditions may result in marginalisation and, consequently, social exclusion. Therefore, the older generation that was not born into this cyberspace-dominated world may need to learn from scratch and become accustomed to technological advances. Such an expectation to adapt to the fast-changing information-based technology has been compared by Prensky (2001) with learning a foreign language when a learner can become quite proficient in using it, but he/ she will almost never achieve the native language level. That is why the members of the senior generation have been called Digital Immigrants who are generally aware of the existence of cyberspace and who have some

Lifelong Learning in a Contemporary Society

45

experience in using it, but they treat computer technology as a foreign environment. Seniors often feel that they do not belong to virtual communities and use the internet only when necessary or not at all (Marcinkiewicz-Wilk & Jurczyk-Romanowska, 2016). Baschiera and Marcinkieiwcz-Wilk (2016) as well as Formosa (2012) write about digital competence, which is supported by ICT basic knowledge and skills encompassing the use of computers. It is the ability to retrieve, access, store, produce, present and exchange information, as well as communicate and participate in collaborative networks via the internet. As the authors state, digital competence requires ‘a sound understanding and knowledge of the nature, role and opportunities of ICT in everyday contexts: in personal and social life as well as at work [...] An interest in engaging in communities and networks for cultural, social and/or professional purposes also supports this competence’ (Baschiera & MarcinkieiwczWilk, 2016). The teaching of ICT as well as e-learning strategies is of central importance for the proper preparation of seniors to efficiently function in this new digital reality. Seniors need to develop an understanding of the nature and role of new technologies and be able to use them for leisure and communication and to become aware of various issues regarding the validity and reliability of the information available. Looking at the results of Megapanel PBI/Gemius it seems that senior citizens and also non-citizens are profoundly aware of the growing importance of computer technologies. The research shows that the number of older users of computers and the internet (aged 55 and over) grows every year. In 2005 they constituted only 4% of the total number of internet users, but in 2015 the figure went up to 14% (Zakowicz, 2016). The same author observes that this is related to some positive contributions from educational projects, computer workshops conducted by the Third Age Universities (my mother is a proud student), libraries, academies and senior’s clubs. As a result, the number of e-seniors is still growing and with it an interest in new ICTs. The importance of technology in education has also been emphasised by Frąckiewicz (2009: 31), who writes: ‘information and communication technologies can have a positive impact on improving the performance of existing operations which will contribute to avoiding the problems of seniors such as stress or saving money. Moreover, new technologies may significantly reduce the risk of so-called digital exclusion or e-exclusion (digital divide)’. According to Kobylarek (2016), older learners may sometimes feel excluded from the computerised reality and experience anxiety and fear of failure. Seniors often underestimate their own abilities and are reluctant to take up computer classes. Furthermore, seniors who neglect new developments in technology or have limited access to new technology may need to start their inclusion into the global society from scratch and fi nd themselves in ‘a technological oblivion’ (Kobylarek, 2016). Apart from technology-related problems, there is another sphere in which problems for lifelong learning may arise, namely social and

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Table 2.7 Social and personal competencies and skills Social and civic competences

Strictly connected with intrapersonal, interpersonal and intercultural competence and encompassing all forms of behaviour, which allows people to successfully participate in social and professional life in culturally diverse social contexts and to successfully cope with any potential conflicts (Działa, 2016; Cordier et al., 2015)

Social and interpersonal skills

These skills embrace familiarity with the customs and procedures of everyday life – savoir vivre (understanding, awareness, acceptance). In order to initiate, develop and maintain satisfactory relationships, the need for these skills is vital (Johnson, 1992)

Cultural skills

These involve appropriate preparation for encountering representatives of other cultures. Without appropriate cultural training, seniors will be susceptible to manipulation or be too trusting (Illeris, 2007: 72)

Communication skills

These are linked with social competence, but they also have their own specificity connected with the language and methods of communication of the so-called rising generation, which for seniors is becoming more and more unfathomable (Nizińska, 2012)

Psychological skills

These depend on the ability to decipher hidden messages in the replies of an interlocutor. These skills ought to be naturally developed among seniors because of the acquired life experience and wisdom, but when communication is based on the language of the rising generation, these skills will prove unsatisfactory (Kobylarek, 2016)

personal skills. These problems include overcoming social exclusion, establishing meaningful and satisfactory relationships, accepting cultural differences and establishing meaningful communication. Table 2.7 presents competencies and skills, as defined by different authors, which should allow seniors to overcome these problems. 2.4 Promoting Lifelong Education: Third Age Universities

Gabryś-Barker (2018: xviii) writes that ‘senior learner education is provided for in various forms. One of the first educational institutions that has been established in order to meet the educational expectations of senior learners is the third-age university’. According to Marcinkiewicz (2011: 38), ‘the origins of this institution can be found in 19th century Denmark in the idea of The People’s University which was created by Nicolai Frederik Severin Grundtvig (Półturzycki 1994: 19). The first Universite Du troisieme Age (Tous Age or du Temps Libre) as it is called in France, was founded in France by Pierre Vellas, professor of international law and sociology, in 1973’. Wieczorek (2008) and Konieczna-Woźniak (2001) describe Third Age Universities as: multidisciplinary non-formal education centres with various affiliations (non-profit organisations, associations, foundations, or schools of higher education), which date back to the 1970s. Some of the most important organisations for the elderly, which preceded the establishment of the Third Age Universities, include the International Association of Gerontology, Fédération Européenne pour les Personnes Âgées, Centre International de Gérontologie Sociale and European

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Centres for Social Welfare Training of Research. Representatives of those organisations created in 1980 the Fédération Internationale des Associations des Personnes Âgées, which is respected by the UN and EU, and the European Federation of Older Students, founded in 1990 (Wieczorek, 2008; KoniecznaWoźniak, 2001). Although the fi rst Third Age Universities were established in the 1970s, two decades earlier in the 1950s and 1960s education of senior learners took the form of a developed social policy, which from the 1970s focused more on what education can offer to senior learners in order to make their lives more active and fulfilled, including: • • • • • • • •

life activation (becoming active and involved, overcoming stagnation); the use of seniors’ potential in the job market; historical reasons (to make up for lost opportunities); social environment and contact with both other seniors and young people; contact with and work for the environment; making contacts with other institutions easier through exposure to the modern world; pastimes (to overcome the loss of loved ones); accumulating mental capital to develop a cognitive reserve (GabryśBarker 2018).

Ziębińska (2010, as cited in Marcinkiewicz-Wilk, 2011: 41) believes that the role of the Third Age Universities is to counteract the marginalisation of seniors by different forms of activities: social, physical and intellectual. Research shows that the Third Age Universities activates seniors by actions such as support teams, work in self-government and attending various courses. However, the Third Age Universities is also a place where it is possible to find new social roles, such as volunteering. It also helps to develop the competencies needed in the information society, such as computer skills or the learning of foreign languages. According to Czerniawska (2007: 216): The classic model of the Third Age University assumes that this is a gerontology and university institution. Therefore researchers focus on problems of old age and contribute to the optimization of living conditions of seniors. It should be noted, that the aim is not only to improve the living conditions of people who are in older age but also help their comprehensive development. The University of the Third Age is a part of Lifelong Learning, so it should promote health education, inspire intellectual activity, physical activity and artistic expression, as well as supporting active attitude in the local environment. (Czerniawska 2007: 216)

The same author (Czerniawska, 2009) distinguishes the Chinese model and the internet model. The latter was developed in Australia and was designed for immigrants to learn the native language. The former, the Chinese model, enables the learning of professional and cultural skills. Its aim is to cater for culture and customs that are important for older Chinese,

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who after the Cultural Revolution became the only generation that could save the cultural heritage. Another trend that is reflected at the Third Age Universities is voluntary service. In addition to classes and courses in large groups conducted by professionals, small research groups where students share their experience and ideas are created in the Third Age Universities. Recently a new term has appeared – ‘the fourth generation’ – which characterises seniors over the age of 80. Therefore, there has been an idea to establish the University of the Fourth Age, which should be an online university, enabling education at home, especially for disabled seniors. The experiences of various forms of senior education in different countries resulted in the evolution of different Third Age Universities models. The French model is based on co-operation with academic centres, whereas the British model, developed by Paul Lasletta, values autonomy and self-directed learning and assumes the self-help character of Third Age Universities (Marcinkiewicz-Wilk, 2011). According to Halicki (2000) in such institutions divisions into students and teachers do not exist and the classes are often organised by students. In relation to older learners, the role of the universities is to create a network with a panel to administer senior education and to create opportunities for seniors to take active part in the educational process. He writes about the Elderhostel, which is considered as an equivalent of the Third Age Universities in the USA. An Elderhostel successfully combines education with adventure and travel. Senior learners are provided with opportunities for a productive and meaningful life in society. Since the USA has been mentioned, Oxford (2018) writes about Osher Lifelong Learning Institutes (OLLIs), which are now situated in 120 universities and colleges throughout the USA. OLLIs support non-credit courses and educational activities for senior learners who are 55+. In OLLIs, researchers are paying close attention to lifelong learners and offer noncredit courses with no assignments or grades to adults over age 50 and develop the interests of many older adults, especially those who have retired and are now learning for the joy of learning, without any official assessment (Oxford, 2018). Fromm Institute of Lifelong Learning at the University of San Francisco and Senior College at the University of Southern Maine in Portland are just two examples of educational facilities with successful lifelong learning programmes for senior learners. Furthermore, the University of Southern Maine created similar programmes and replaced the name ‘Senior College’ with ‘Osher Lifelong Learning Institute’. It was soon followed by Sonoma State University, a member of the California State University. At present, the Osher Foundation supports over 120 lifelong learning programmes on university and college campuses across America, with at least one grantee in each of the 50 states and the District of Columbia (http://www.osherfoundation.org). The USA is obviously not the only country on the North American continent actively involved in senior education programmes. In Canada,

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L’Université du troisième âge (UTA) at Sherbrooke in Ontario offers a variety of educational programmes for senior learners. Older adults who take part in these courses are provided with an opportunity to break out from social isolation, take an active part in social interaction and cultural involvement, and actively extend their knowledge. A typical course lasts about 25 hours and classes are conducted during the day. Teaching activities may take place in cultural and community locations (e.g. museums or libraries). Furthermore, most of the topics relate to history, politics, languages, literature, health, philosophy, the sciences and the environment. Typical activities involve neither assignments nor exams and are not for credit. They do, however, meet the quality standards required of all educational activities offered by the Université de Sherbrooke (Sherbrooke University, 2020). Taking a closer look at another continent and country, Sydney University offers a variety of courses for senior learners throughout Sydney. Similarly to American examples, Australian educational facilities offer courses for senior learners without exams and formal assessment. Their courses include languages, literature, drama, poetry, music, theatre, ethics, history, geography, travel, writing, current affairs, personal development, philosophy, science and technology, and computers comprise just some of the courses. Other activities include singing groups, learning to play music, yoga, tai chi, bushwalks, bird watching, card games and restaurant visits (Sydney University, 2020). Another example comes from Brisbane Senior College, where senior learners can participate in a variety of senior-oriented enterprises. In Asia, a continent where old age is highly respected, unique opportunities are also provided for senior learners. One example comes from Singapore, where senior citizens can attend more than 900 courses in 21,000 learning facilities created by the National Sliver Academy. The government of Japan established an educational system for senior citizens as early as the mid 1960s. By the end of the 1970s most local governments opened Kominkans (Community Educational Centers), where senior learners could actively participate in various educational events. Most of these educational facilities offer morning or afternoon classes in health, traditional arts, sports and popular hobbies. In the late 1980s, prefectural authorities began opening Advanced Studies Centers offering academic courses for senior students (Nojima, 2006). Today Japanese universities offer a variety of courses for older adults who would like to become more socially active. Finally, Oxford (2018) mentions Assisted Living Homes, where many third agers reside. Working with them could help in overcome some residents’ damaging self-stereotypes about their own cognitive and social limitations and re-introduce them to the society. According to Oxford (2018), a deeper understanding of the third age could result in targeting fourth agers, many of whose lives are made even more restricted in nursing homes.

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2.5 The National Perspective – Polish Example

Like other countries around the world Poland also has a history of lifelong learning and senior education. In Poland, lifelong learning has been defined and described in a document called the Act of Education System. In this particular document, lifelong learning has been defined as education in schools for adults and considered as an extension of general knowledge, skills and qualifications in the form of extracurricular activities by persons who have completed compulsory schooling. Furthermore, in September 2013, the Polish government issued a document which was the outcome of an intensive effort made by an interdepartmental workgroup established by the Prime Minister in order to create a comprehensive blueprint of lifelong learning in Poland. The creation of this particular document resulted from coordinated commitments of Polish authorities made under the auspices of a European strategy for Europe 2020 and a Long-term Strategy for Country Development – Poland 2030 (Gil et al., 2013). The predominant aim of this document was to ensure the stability and promotion of lifelong learning in Poland in accordance with European standards. The Polish lifelong learning policy focuses on three important aspects, including different contexts, different age groups and assessment of learning effects. The national educational strategy provides unlimited access to education to anyone who is willing to develop his/her competences and skills in relation to the job market and civil society. In addition, it facilitates the migration of people between economic sectors and countries. To make these aims a reality, close co-operation is indispensable between national and local governments, employers, civil institutions and educational organisations. Such co-operation should be based on a series of rules, including ‘appreciation of worldwide learning; learning in different periods of life; commonness; evaluation and confi rmation of learning effects, regardless where, how and when it happened; development of partnership for lifelong learning; placing individual person in focus of politics; effective investment in learning process’ (Gil et al., 2013: 113). Senior learners are one of the age groups that has been explicitly recognised in the above document. In Polish social policy seniors are represented by such institutions as the Parliamentary Legislative Team for Senior Citizens and Parliamentary the Legislative Team for Preventing Discrimination Against Older Citizens. The fi rst team was established in 1996 and consociates Members of the Polish Parliament and the Senate. The main aims of this particular team include: • • •

supporting the creation of integrated and long-term policy; inspiring local authorities to create laws ensuring full rights for senior citizens and non-citizens (immigrants, refugees, asylum-seekers) as well as allowing for realisation of their aspirations and needs; identifying and reacting to every occurrence of discrimination in the legal system;

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• • • • • •

51

promoting good practices and co-operation between local authorities for the benefit of the older generation; promoting senatorial actions conducted for the benefit of older people; encouraging the creation of a national cluster of organisations working for the benefit of older members of the society; co-operation with the Intergroup for Seniors and the European Older People’s Platform; supporting research on older members of society; promoting a positive image of older people in the society (Jaroszewska, 2013: 125).

Another Parliamentary group was established in 2010 by the Government Representative for Equal Treatment. The Legislative Team for Preventing Discrimination Against Older Citizens was responsible for: monitoring and analysing examples of discrimination and the exclusion of senior citizens and, even more importantly, non-citizens in public life; creating better conditions for older people to function in the society, e.g. health care and professional development; establishing laws and regulations responsible for improving seniors’ social habitat; and initiating legislative proposals leading to the eradication of discrimination against older people (Jaroszewska, 2013: 125–126). Unfortunately, despite various attempts to activate older learners in 2012 only 4.5% undertook any educational activity. In comparison, in Denmark it was 32.5% and in Sweden 23%. Polish senior education has to face a number of challenges, including low professional activity of people in the productive age, the lowest in EU 27 Member States professional activity among people between 55–64, very high levels of alienation among older members of the society, insufficient numbers of seniororiented services, especially in ICT, and fi nally, a high percentage of people over 55 and more who are inactive in sport, culture and the community (Attachment to the Council of Minister’s Resolution 10 September 2013). Unfortunately, becoming an EU member did not solve many of the problems that the Polish educational system has to overcome. Some of these challenges are obviously not just Polish ones, but they need to be catered for as efficiently as possible. Of course, there have also been positive changes in senior education introduced in the recent decades. Figure 2.2 shows some of these positive changes and potential challenges in contemporary senior education. There seems to be a direct link between the level of education, activity level on reaching old age and the willingness to continue education. The higher the level of these factors, the stronger the motivation is to undertake further forms of education. Most often, such people decide to continue education in its organised form when they realise that the knowledge they may acquire could help them to solve personal, social and professional issues, or that it may give satisfaction (Gil et al., 2013; Rejman, 2012). A trend that

•Acquire new skills •Prepare for work •Spare me •Meet new people •Greater efficacy •Change in financial standing •Social or professional promoon •Personality development •Improvement of personal bonds •Developing physical fitness •Wish to adjust to one’s educaon •Increase of self-esteem

CHALLENGES

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MOTIVATION

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•Limited access to informaon •Media indifference •Negave atudes •Negave stereotypes •Social inferiority •Fear of mockery •Financial resources •Physical and mental condions •Lack of support from family •Access to educaonal facilies

Figure 2.2 Motivations and challenges of senior education

can change the negative situation is the development of Third Age Universities and the Parliamentary Team for Third Age Universities established in 2011. The predominant aims of this particular group encompass: • • • • • • •

promoting the development of Third Age Universities in Poland, promoting high standards, integrating the local community, exchanging information and experience, promoting good practices; building respect and a positive image of Third Age Universities as important institutions for personal development; tightening co-operation between Third Age Universities and Polish authorities, local authorities and universities; integrating Polish Third Age Universities with other universities outside Poland; introducing new legal regulations resulting in the further development of Third Age Universities ; co-operating with the National Association of Third Age Universities and National Federation of Third Age University Associations; exchanging experience and good practice between Third Age Universities in the EU (Jaroszewska, 2013).

One of the most important outcomes of the Parliamentary Team for Third Age Universities is Pact for Seniors, and a series of conferences and meetings as well as making 2012 the Year of Third Age Universities. The first Third Age Universities was established in 1975 in Warsaw. In 2009 there were 250 Third Age Universities in Poland, in 2011 there were as many as 300, and in 2012 there were 385 Third Age Universities in Poland and 20 outside Poland (Lenart, 2009). According to Klimczuk (2013) Third Age Universities functioning in Poland was standardised by a series of regulations in 2012–2013. Currently, there are 464 Third Age Universities operating in Poland with over 100,000, students and there is a positive tendency towards a stable growth of participants thanks to extended life expectancy among Poles

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(81 for women and 72 for men) and changes in retirement age (65 for women and 67 for men) (Grotek, 2018). Apart from governmental and non-governmental enterprises the academic world has also been paying more attention to the topic of the third age and senior education. The Polish Gerontological Association, the Andragogical Academic Association, the Association of Social Gerontologists, the Polish Demographical Association and the Polish Sociological Association are just some of the associations which are genuinely interested in the aging-educational process. Woytowicz-Neymann (1970) writes about the process of foreign language learning and teaching to adult learners described from the perspective of a teacher and analyses the data obtained from 5784 participants of English language courses. Based on the analysis of these results she discriminated four age groups: 20–30, 31–40, 41–50 and finally 51–60 years. The results of this particular study have been influenced by specific socio-cultural factors in the post-war context as well as the development of such sciences as glottodydactics. The author was aware of the pioneering nature of her study and saw it as a starting point for further research. In the subsequent 40 years older learners have rarely, if ever, been the focal point of interest. In the last two decades there has been an increased interest in studies of senior learners resulting in publications from Komorowska (2007), Jedynak (2009), Jaroszewska (2011a–c, 2012, 2013), Kic-Drgas (2010, 2011) and Derenowski (2018). Final Remarks

In ancient times, education was an indispensable part of natural learning process in response to the everyday struggle for human survival. Members of the older generation trained the younger ones from their polis, community or group in the knowledge and skills which they needed to survive (e.g. Telemachus and Mentor). This type of knowledge transfer is known as ‘cultural transmission’ or ‘cultural learning’, which is the process of acquiring new knowledge and skills through socialisation and engagement with people around you. Learning entails change just as change energises learning. Change creates opportunities and expectations to be met. It makes people inquisitive and open-minded. More importantly changes force us to adapt to new challenges and demands. Some of these changes may be large, others small, yet all of them may have positive influence on our lives even if they raise ambiguities and uncertainties. We spend most of our lives in various educational settings that provide us with skills, knowledge and competencies. However, if these changes are to have positive outcome we need to know how to learn and increase our reflectivity. Reflective learners are open to new ideas, skills and behaviours and ready to set new, challenging goals. In the modern world lifelong learning is much more than just an educational enterprise. Through lifelong learning people undergo positive change and transform into well prepared, well equipped and reflective

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members of our societies. For some of these people, lifelong learning is the most efficient, and sometimes the only, way to overcome stern challenges, including poverty, intolerance, prejudices, social exclusion, even social euthanasia. Therefore, national and local authorities need to join forces and make lifelong learning one of the most important issues in their politics. Citizens and non-citizens need to be given an opportunity to change their lives for better, regardless of their age. Lifelong learning is a wonderful prospect for older people to become active and recognised members of their culture and society. Learning throughout the entire life opens new doors for seniors who either never had a chance or could not take this chance, and now they are ready and motivated to have one more try, for example by joining Third Age Universities. As Kumar (2009) writes, ‘Adult education and lifelong learning is all around us as long as we try to make a living, whether individually or collectively. Whenever we are engaged with each other in doing one thing or the other, one can see many examples of the ways people teach and learn. We become novices to experts based on our capacity to learn and gain new skills and knowledge. Our brain makes new pathways and connections based on reliability and predictability of our experiences’. Questions to Consider

(1) How did the concept of lifelong learning change over time and what does it mean today? (2) What are the potential challenges that proponents of lifelong learning have to face? (3) What are some of the potential solutions to these challenges and what solutions would you consider as the most efficient? Suggest your own solutions. (4) How are some of the most important world organisations responding to lifelong learning needs and how can governments create lifelong learning policy? (5) What are the origins of TAU universities and what opportunities do they provide for seniors today? What potential benefits can you see in establishing a TAU in your country? Suggested Readings Barros, R. (2012) From lifelong education to lifelong learning. Discussion of some effects of today’s neoliberal policies. European Journal for Research on the Education and Learning of Adults 3, 119–134. Falk, R. (1999) Predatory Globalization: A Critique. Cambridge: Cambridge Polity Press. George, V. and Taylor-Gooby, P. (1996) European Welfare Policy: Squaring the Welfare Circle. London: Macmillan. West, R. (1998) Learning for life: Final report. Review of Higher Education Financing and Policy. Canberra: AGPS.

3 Senior Language Learning

Introduction

The fi rst two decades of the 21st century introduced challenges that humanity had to face and deal with. One of them is the constant aging of the world population. Between 2025 and 2050 the elderly population is going to expand from 1.2 to 2 billion people, which constitutes more than 20% of the world population. These predictions may be drastically changed by to Covid-19 epidemic, which has proven to be lethal especially to older members of our societies and is already increasing the death toll dramatically, especially in Europe and both Americas, but also in Asia, Africa and Australia. If somehow the world manages to overcome Covid19 and the situation goes back to normal, Europe is still going to be the fastest aging continent. In the next decade, more than 20% of Europeans will be over 65 years of age, with a particularly rapid increase in the number of people aged over 80. Such countries as Austria, Spain and the Czech Republic will have populations with at least 40% of older adults by the same year (Giannakouris, 2008; Ramírez Gómez, 2016). Furthermore, in over 30 countries around the world, life expectancy is now over 80 years of age and in 2050, 64 countries are expected to join Japan which is the country with the oldest population. At the beginning of the 21st century there were about 10% of people in the world aged 60 or more. Furthermore, the OECD estimates that about 40% of Europeans between the ages of 55 and 65 are still professionally active (Derenowski, 2017). Taking everything into consideration, it seems justifiable to state that increasing longevity is becoming one of the greatest humanity achievements but also a serious challenge for future generations. Goodman and Harper (2007) write that ‘for some of the developed countries these challenges are going to include 2:1 ratio of professionally active people (15–64 years old) supporting one retired person. Governments will encounter a serious problem of supporting older citizens with public health and welfare’. Senior education seems to be one of the ways to overcome these upcoming challenges. Involving older adults into various educational events will result in the active endorsement of a healthy lifestyle, social inclusion and increasing quality of life. Obviously, some seniors may have limited or even no access to education and educational facilities. Existing health problems and social exclusion make equal educational 55

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opportunities only hypothetical. At the same time, creating opportunities for seniors to take up education may efficiently solve the problem of unequal access to social life. Therefore, educational institutions need to fi nd a way to eff ectively adjust their courses to the specifi c needs of senior learners (55+ or retired) and to address their courses to a specific age group that is not necessarily aiming to get a scholarly degree or to improve their career opportunities. Furthermore, there exist prejudices, negative misconceptions, false assumptions and negative stereotypes regarding older adults and their learning abilities. Similarly to other age groups, senior learners may require well-designed methodologies and courses which will take into consideration their specific needs. Senior education may also require specially designed activities and materials as well as changes in pre-service teacher training. Contemporary teacher training should encompass the socio-educational dimension of education and an amalgamation of formal, non-formal and informal education. Through education seniors will acquire a set of soft competencies, become more autonomous and increase their reflection. It will aid senior learners to actively socialise, integrate with the rest of society and become active participants of social life. It becomes even more important when we acknowledge the fact that senior education may have a compensatory nature, e.g. making up for missed opportunities, meeting people and maintaining or developing social contacts (Berndt, 2000; Escuder-Mollon & Esteller-Curto, 2013; Eloniemi-Sulkava, 2013). The predominant aim of Chapter 3 is to describe the process of senior foreign language education. To be more precise, the content of this chapter includes information about seniors who decide to take up foreign language learning classes. Their motives and characteristics as well as potential problems to be encountered while learning are also discussed. Apart from taking a closer look at senior learners, Chapter 3 analyses selected learning conditions, teaching and learning instruments, tools, techniques and methods of working with senior learners along with the characteristics of educators who work with senior learners. The first part of this chapter, Section 3.1, aims at ‘setting the scene’ for further discussion of senior education and focuses predominantly on the concept of educational gerontology, understood here as an interdisciplinary field that inherits elements from education of adult learners and social gerontology. The predominant role of educational gerontology is to analyse and facilitate the process of older adults learning and create opportunities for senior learners to become more self-directed. Furthermore, it challenges negative stereotyping of older people and promotes a more positive image of the aging society. Section 3.2 discusses selected examples of research conducted in the field of senior language learning. It includes a general overview of publications and research conducted on senior learners. One of the conclusions stemming from this section is that despite recent interest in senior education, there is

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still a need for more research on this particular age group. Previously conducted studies were predominantly comparative in nature and treated older adults as another age group often compared with younger learners. Section 3.3 aims to explain some of the potential reasons for taking up learning by senior members of our societies. It turns out that most of the reasons are socially driven and that senior learners start their education for interpersonal contacts and interpersonal needs. More and more people of advanced age travel around the world or have families abroad (e.g. the parents and grandparents of Polish citizens who have migrated to the UK). Older learners are also willing to participate in diverse forms of activities that make them feel younger. Another important reason is the need to organise free time or realise one’s own personal dreams. For many of the senior learners going back to school is associated with increased levels of anxiety. Therefore, only some of them attend classes in order to self-assess or fi nd out more about their abilities and skills. In Section 3.4 the most important characteristics of senior learners are discussed, alongside classifications of older people. Undoubtedly, senior learners bring to the classroom such features as extensive life experience, autonomy and increased motivation. They also come with increased anxiety and a fragile self-concept that needs to be catered for by the instructor. There are also potential barriers in their education, including negative stereotyping, memory and language deficits, balance and coordination problems and mental illnesses. Therefore, Section 3.5 focuses on potential barriers in senior education, including negative stereotyping, memory and language deficits, problems with balance, and selected mental illnesses. When it comes to limitation, it needs to be said that we all age differently and the aging process may adopt different paces and forms. However, we all age and certain drawbacks may occur on our way to educational success. Being aware of them will help us in overcoming them and achieving our educational goals and ambitions. Section 3.6 is another segment focusing on the specificity of teaching senior learners, together with pre-conditions to be taken into account when preparing for senior courses as well as activities, instruments and techniques that can be used in a senior classroom. The objective of this section was to present practical recommendations to help teachers adjust their teaching practice to the needs and expectations of adult learners. To make the picture even more transparent for educators, this part of the chapter has been divided into subsections with specific content. The fi rst of them focuses on various aspects to be taken into consideration before the course begins, such as course preparations, tools and instruments useful for senior learning and teaching. The subsequent subsection touches upon potential challenges that teachers may encounter (visual, auditory, cognitive) and potential suggestions on how to deal with them effectively in the classroom. It also describes the results of selected studies

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on senior education. A separate part of the chapter is devoted to a description of the tools and activities to be used while developing senior learners’ language skills. Although certain activities have been described in the previous sections, it seems reasonable to describe them in more detail. Finally, Section 3.7 focuses on teachers who work with senior learners. Section 3.8 contains the characteristics of teachers who decide to work with older learners and the roles they need to adopt in a senior classroom. 3.1 Senior Learner Education

The growing significance of senior education resulted in the establishment of educational gerontology, an interdisciplinary field that encompasses selected elements from adult education and social gerontology. It also addresses such topics as institutions, processes of education and the specificity of human aging (described in Chapter 1). Undoubtedly, an important role of educational gerontology is to recognise the specific needs of older learners. Originally, educational gerontology included education for and about older learners as well as education for people who work with older adults with a focus on physicality, psychology and the social context. Recently, education about senior learners and education for people working with senior learners merged into one concept aiming at familiarising older adults with social, political and economic concerns. Additionally, seniors became more aware of the potential resources and possibilities that education may provide them with. More importantly, they can reflect on the characteristics of the aging process and on the challenges and motivations of older age (Peterson, 1976; Ramírez Gómez, 2016). Educational gerontology and its main objectives can be described from four different perspectives. According to (a) the functionalist view, in order to stay active and self-directed, older adults need to establish a new role in contemporary, fast changing societies. (b) The Liberalhumanist approach values training the mind for its own benefit and does not consider education as having any instrumental objective. In (c) the moral approach, learning is considered as a human right that should be provided without any discrimination and that everyone should have equal access to education. Finally, in (d) the critical approach, older adults should be provided with a meaningful context in which they may identify, reflect upon and become able to act on the social problems they are faced with (Ramírez Gómez, 2016). According to Findsen and Formosa (2011), senior learner-oriented educational methodology started in the 1970s. In the beginning there were some contradictory opinions about the nature of senior education. Some considered it to be similar to the education of any other age group (e.g. Knox, 1977), while others (e.g. Lebel, 1978) postulated a separate methodology for older learners. In 1979, Knudson proposed a term humanagogy which encompassed pedagogy, andragogy and geragogy.

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Furthermore, Glendenning (1985) writes about education which is indispensable for the seniors who need to perform a more active role in society. A few decades later, senior education is a widely recognised concept and many educational institutions around the world specialise in older adult education, although, as stated by Formosa (2002, as cited in Ramírez Gómez, 2016: 100), ‘their credibility is harmed by their lack of clear and practical parameters for such implementation’. Furthermore, in many cases (with seniors whose partners died, seniors with serious health problems or immigrants/refugees), the reality of older adults’ life if often very distant from the suppositions of the educators, according to whom it is essential to provide seniors with leisure programmes that explore non-instrumental disciplines such as art or literature. For some older members of our societies this is still a somewhat utopian image. Formosa (2002) writes that ‘educational gerontology often fails to notice the reality of older adults who live in isolation and social exclusion and suffer from negative stereotyping, prejudices, and powerlessness’. All of these negative phenomena resulted in the emergence of critical educational gerontology, which treats seniors as people who are able to take control of their own lives and are able to develop despite their advanced age and potential challenges. Critical educational gerontology encourages senior learners ‘to assess the relation between knowledge, power and control’ (Glendenning, 1991) and ‘to emancipate themselves from all forms of oppression in their last stage of life’ (Moody, 1993). In the words of Ramírez Gómez (2016: 103), ‘critical educational gerontology aims for the appraisal of the social context and encourages senior learners to strive for a more life-centred reality. Furthermore, it entails a critical approach to concepts and practices which extends beyond classroom. It tolerates others’ views and it does not attempt to force its views onto the learners. Finally, critical educational gerontology directs learners to a certain aim, but at the same time encourage self-directedness’. 3.2 Transformative Learning as an Alternative for Traditional Senior Education

‘In nova fert animus mutatas dicere formas/corpora’ (‘Of bodies changed to other forms I tell’) – these words open Ovid’s Metamorphosis, where one can read about chaos and transformation of people and gods alike. In a more recent song by a Polish singer, Kora Jackowska, we can hear: ‘Thousands of faces, hundreds of mirages, this is how people create metamorphosis’. People throughout their entire life undergo many transformations and changes. Many of these changes happen in our adult life in the educational sphere. Therefore, when discussing senior language education, it seems justified to take a closer look at transformative learning, which is defined by Clark (1993: 47) as learning that ‘shapes people; they are different afterwards, in ways both they and others can recognize’.

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According to Merriam and Bierema (2013), transformative or transformational learning (both names are acceptable) has become the most studied and discussed adult learning theory since the introduction of andragogy by Knowles in the 1970s. What is more, as Taylor (2008: 12) further writes, ‘transformative learning has replaced andragogy as the dominant educational philosophy of adult education, offering teaching practices grounded in empirical research and supported by sound theoretical assumptions’. It was Mezirow (1978) who first considered transformative learning as a cognitive rational process encompassing an enhanced level of awareness of the context and of one’s beliefs and feelings. Furthermore, he sees transformative learning as a ‘decision to negate an old perspective in favour of a new one or to make a synthesis of old and new, an ability to take action based upon the new perspective, and a desire to fit the new perspective into the broader context of one’s life’ (1978: 161). Mezirow’s theory of transformative learning may be considered as a rational, critical and cognitive process that requires from learners thinking, reflection, questioning and examination of one’s assumptions and beliefs. Following Dirkx (2001, in Merriam & Bierema, 2013: 87), transformative learning ‘requires from learners emotions which are present in any learning experience and have powerful influence on our learning, perhaps even transformative’. According to him we ‘imaginatively elaborate their meaning in our lives’. In attending to and elaborating ‘these feelings and emotions, the nature of the image behind them may begin to emerge’ (Dirkx 2001, in Merriam & Bierema, 2012: 87). Charaniya (2012) notices the cultural dimension of transformative learning and sees it as a process that starts with cultural identity which is challenged by an experience or contradiction between beliefs and practice. Afterwards, one’s cultural identity is expanded through various intellectual, relational and reflective experiences, which ultimately leads to a more meaningful understanding of the self. In comparison with Mezirow’s theory, what ‘transforms’ here is one’s own identity and his or her perception of the world resulting from an ongoing reflection. Transformative learning can also be viewed from a social change perspective, which is crucial for senior learners from lower social classes or non-citizens such as immigrants or refugees who may not have equal access to education and for whom social status change is a challenge. The goal of transformative learning here is to challenge and transform oppressive structures in societies. If such transformation is to take place, people need to, fi rst of all, become aware of power and oppression in their own lives and, as an outcome, try to make a change. Freire (1970/2000) states that such a process begins with the individual who, in the form of a dialogue, discusses and reflects upon his or her daily life for the purpose of introducing changes. Social exclusion is often mentioned by senior learners who decide to attend educational courses and who often see such courses as a compensation and opportunity for meeting peers and becoming more socially active. Senior learners need to realise that passive

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acceptance of their situation can be changed and that they have some influence on their lives, which can become more meaningful again. In senior education, some of the strategies proposed for including transformative learning into classroom seem to be more realistic than others. So-called ‘dialogic teaching’ is based on an educational relationship during which learners and teachers explore, think, inquire and reason together. Interesting as it sounds, this strategy may be difficult to use with senior learners, who are often reluctant to express their thoughts openly and anxious, and who ‘stick’ to their traditional ways of learning. Furthermore, sometimes the age difference between senior learners and their educators may hinder this shared reflection. Mentoring seems to be a better idea; however, courses for senior learners often do not last long and developing the role of a mentor may not be easy for some teachers because it requires time. In such a case, a teacher’s young age may not pose a challenge, since experience shows that senior learners value and appreciate teachers who behave in a professional way, regardless of their age (Merriam & Bierema, 2013). Dirkx and Smith (2009) present a set of pedagogical strategies used for transformative learning online, including journal writing, reflective activities and collaborative learning. From my own teaching experience, senior learners apart from learning languages enjoy discovering the online environment – my mother (70+) is a keen participant in computer classes and an active member of several social media networks. Using technology in senior education to transform older people into more socially active and more selfconfident learners seems to be a promising idea. Many seniors who participate in language courses communicate with their families and friends from other parts of the country or even other countries, via the internet. Being able to communicate with other people, keeping in mind the potential challenges and drawbacks of online communication, could have a positive influence on overcoming the feeling of loneliness and exclusion. As Merriam and Bierema (2013: 409) write, ‘the online environment is still relatively new site for promoting and studying transformative learning’. Making transformative learning a reality in senior education entails people who despite their age still believe that changes can occur at any stage of a person’s life, which is entirely convergent with the concept of lifelong learning. Critical reflection can happen at any moment of our life and even older people, despite certain cognitive and physiological limitations and personal beliefs, can successfully undergo the process of reflection. In doing so, senior learners engage deeper in the learning process and take control of their lives to a greater extent. The senior classroom should become a place where learners feel safe and comfortable, a place where people open up and listen to each other without being judged. Knowledge obtained from transformative learning should lead to positive changes based on reflection. As Merriam and Bierema (2013: 97) write, ‘By its very nature, transformative learning is hard to capture, plan for, or evaluate. However, despite Newman’s critique (2012), many educators and

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researchers have resonated with the power of this type of learning to change the way people see the world, and perhaps to change for the better some of the oppressive and constraining structures in society. If we believe this is an important goal for adult education, the challenge is how to both facilitate this kind of learning, and then to evaluate its outcomes’. 3.3 Research on Older Learners’ Language Learning – a Short Overview

It seems to be a belief held by many people that the earlier one starts learning a language, the more he or she is bound for success. Such an assumption may stem from the belief that younger people learn foreign language more effortlessly, more successfully and faster than older adults (the idea of children as linguistic sponges discussed by Pfenninger & Singleton, 2017): One of the main issues with the ‘catch them young’ notion is the conception of the age factor as the non-plus-ultra predictor of second language (L2) learning outcome at the expense of other determining factors such as nature of input provision, the quality of teacher education, the type of curriculum, support from the social network, commitment of time and energy, individual differences, learner needs, the importance of maintaining motivation levels and integrating the L1, allocation of resources & generally ensuring appropriate conditions for learning. (Kliesch et al., 2018, as cited in Gabryś-Barker, 2018: 48)

Bialystok et al. (2003) are of the opinion that there is a gradual decline in language learning abilities across the human lifespan and for Ohly (2007) age was identified as the only important factor to consider (cf. Singleton, 1989; Moyer, 2004). However, research into age and language learning has been mainly unspecific, mainly because adult language learners are often treated as a single group without specification in terms of age and the investigated age groups were rather small in numbers. In many cultures it is difficult to state when someone becomes an adult. Therefore, an adult age group may encompass people from age 18+ even up to 100+. What is more, apart from being unspecific, research on older learners is also scant. Singleton and Zsolt (1995) state that in the past, studies in first and second language acquisition focused mainly on children and young adults whereas research on senior language learners was neglected and fi ndings were often unspecific and contradictory. The need for more research on older learners is emphasised by Griffiths (2008: 46), who writes: Given an aging population in many countries of the world, research into how older learners learn best is becoming a matter of vital interest to educators concerned with designing and delivering courses for mature students, who often want to complete their education in a way that was not possible for them in their younger years. [...] Research into all aspect of the mature learner is urgently required to inform the education industry. (Griffiths, 2008: 46)

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Jaroszewska (2013) points out that ‘research on older adult learners results in a steadily growing body of evidence from various studies in education, psycholinguistics, cognitive science and neurolinguistics that seem to provide compelling evidence that adult L2 learners are able reach native-like L2 proficiency’. Another important stimulus for increased studies on senior language learning is the ongoing socio-cultural transformations taking place in Western Europe and the USA. These transformation occur predominantly because of language and cultural pluralisms, the development of the travel industry, increased intercultural contacts and dynamic development of digital technology, gerontology and the psychology of aging. Figure 3.1 presents four distinctive categories of senior related research. Finally, Grotjahn et al. (2010) believe that the research on the influence of age on learning abilities concentrates on answering a series of questions such as: • • • • • • •

Are there any age-related differences in the pace of foreign language acquisition? Are there any age-related differences in the processes responsible for foreign language acquisition? What level of competence may older adults achieve in foreign language learning? What is the correlation between the age of a learner and the level of linguistic competence? What are the characteristics of foreign language learning in late adulthood? To what extent can age-related individual differences be explained theoretically? How significant for language learning are differences among different age groups?

1. Age is the main determinant responsible for efficient foreign language learning and teaching (Singleton, 1995, 2003; Scovel, 2000; Jedynak, 2009; Andrew 2012). 2. Episodic, empirical research where senior learners are oen not the centre of aenon and their needs are weighed against the needs of other age groups (Ausubel, 1964).

3. Focus specifically on educaonally acve senior learners (Singleton, 1989) 4. Learning process seen from the senior learners' perspecve (Jaroszewska, 2013)

Figure 3.1 Categories of publications related to senior language acquisition

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3.4 Reasons for Taking up Learning by Seniors

Older adults have myriad reasons why they might want to or need to learn a new language or refresh their knowledge about a language that they learned at school. Some of those reasons may include immigration or working as volunteers or public servants. Some senior learners may simply want to recover their language abilities which have weakened with time (Scott, 1989, as cited in Major, 2014: 3) or as Knowles, Holton & Swanson (2011) mention, senior education should meet specific requirements that will make education not only efficient but also enjoyable. According to Niżegorodcew (2016: 90), the strengths and weaknesses of senior learners ‘depend not only, and not primarily on how old they are, but on their study objectives’. Gil et al. (2013) present reasons for and against seniors participating in the learning process (Table 3.1). A similar set of reasons for attending courses have been presented by Jaroszewska (2009), who identifies and describes motives for elderly learners to start their education: •

•

Interpersonal contacts and internal needs. These needs include independence during travels, exchanging opinions with foreigners, contact with other members of the group and educator, acceptance and appreciation, being among other people, making new friendships, the possibility to exchange opinions among peers and helping others to learn. Elderly learners are willing to participate in various forms of physical activity which make them feel younger. Organising free time and realising dreams. Learning a language is a way to organise free time and fulfi ll the ambition to learn a new

Table 3.1 Reasons for and against taking up learning by seniors (summary of Gil et al., 2013) Reasons for

Reasons against

Wish to acquire new skills and information

Social inferiority

More satisfaction

Fear of mockery on the part of others

Preparation for work in a new position

Fear of the unknown

Productive use of spare time

Lack of financial resources

Wish to meet new, interesting people

Physical and mental condition

Achieve greater efficiency in performed duties

Objections on the part of the family

Help in solving personal and social problems

Inaccessibility of educational institutions

Wish to change one’s financial standing

Feeling of loneliness

Expected social or professional promotion

Fear of showing incompetence

Personality development

Low self-esteem

Improvement of interpersonal bonds

Lack of support

Developing physical fitness

Learning facilities not prepared for senior learners

Wish to adjust one’s education with reference to others

Too high self-esteem

An attempt to increase one’s self-esteem

Insufficient course hours

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•

•

•

•

65

language that was impossible in the past. Participating in a course is a way to avoid loneliness and everyday problems. Self-assessment and development of intellectual abilities. Using a foreign language as a professional necessity and the need for intellectual challenges are among some of these needs. What is more, seniors compare language competence with the language competencies of other learners and treat learning a language as memory training. Association with previous language experience. Senior learners recall a previously learnt language and sometimes treat language learning as a family tradition. They may also fi nd out more about the native language of a deceased spouse or assess language competence acquired during the Second World War. Interest in other cultures. Seniors may participate in a course for pleasure and satisfaction resulting from discovering new countries and nationalities and the possibility to participate in their culture. Some of them may express the need to enrich their international contacts by extending social relations or partake in various cultural events connected with a particular language. In such cases, learning a language may include listening to songs, watching movies and reading books in the language learned. Linguistic interest. Some senior learners may be fascinated with a particular language or feel the need to develop and continue a previously ‘rooted’ passion for investigating linguistics.

As one can see, there is an abundance of reasons for and against taking up learning in older age, most of which will be discussed more extensively in Chapter 4. 3.5 Senior Learner Characteristics

Learners in late adulthood, older learners or senior learners are just some of broad terms encompassing any person who is over the age of 55 and is involved in any form of adult education. According to Grotek (2018, in Gabryś-Barker, 2018: 1288), this particular age group, no matter which name we adopt, is characterised by the largest diversity of any age group currently involved in education. Authors, such as Grotek (2018), often accentuate such issues as: the beneficial role of experience, awareness of cognitive and learning styles, reliance on a set of well tried-out learning strategies, longer attention spans, ability to deal with abstract rules and concepts, capacity to set learning goals, high levels of motivation, deeply-ingrained ideas about what should happen in the classroom, concern with approximating their idealized self-concept rather than meeting the objectives envisaged by the teacher, a substantial degree of proneness to affective concerns, or their predilection for the use of a variety of sensory modes and copious opportunities for repetition. (Grotek, 2018)

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Such lists are typically accompanied by specific guidelines/instructions as to how effective teaching should be conducted in this particular age group. ‘These instructions often focus upon the need to value existing experience, respect adults’ maturity, enable them to manage their own learning, offer constant encouragement, take heed of their preferred learning styles and strategies, and view the use of the mother tongue as an asset rather than a liability’ (Pawlak et al., 2018: 77). In order to make senior education even more successful Formosa (2002) introduced the concept of critical geragogy, which he based on the idea that senior education should rely on learners’ previously acquired knowledge. He introduced seven fundaments of critical geragogy, included in Figure 3.2. In critical geragogy learners’ needs and interest are being taken into consideration and the older learners are often encouraged to develop their autonomous behaviour. Learning is based on problem solving and critical exchange of ideas. In order to involve senior learners in the decision-making process and increase their willingness to become more active change agents, the contents of curricula and forms of evaluation should be discussed with the learners (Formosa, 2002). Based on these characteristics, various typologies of senior learners have been established. Some of them have been presented in Table 3.2. As can be seen in the descriptions included in the table, most of the authors portray seniors who accept life as it is and try to use their extensive life experience to make their lives as enjoyable as they can be despite certain limitations. Of course, there are also those who have problems with accepting the reality and do not know how to cope with everyday challenges.

Directed by a polical raonale and it is commied to the transformaon of agist structures Employs a communal approach, although it is aware of the heterogeneity of old age Refutes that any type of educaon is empowering and aligns with a liberang educaon Instructors are not just facilitators; they are commied to easing the suffering of older people Should reach disnct segments of the older populaon and not occur only in an educaonal programme Embraces a self-help culture towards a more autonomous older-adult educaon Should lead older adults to assume parcipave roles in the transformaon of their reality

Figure 3.2 Fundamental characteristics of critical geragogy (summary of Formosa, 2002)

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Table 3.2 Selected senior learner typologies Moschis (1992)

Healthy indulger, does not experienced negative aspects of aging and attitudes do not differ much from those of younger people Healthy hermit, experienced negative situations, e.g. death of a spouse. He/ she still enjoys good health but self-esteem and raison d’être are shaken, which results in social seclusion Ailing outgoer, maintains positive image of him/herself despite life changes and deteriorating health. Knows how to accept the aging process and fully appreciates life as it comes Frail recluse, accepts changes related to aging. He/she believes that it is best to gradually ‘stifle’ their ‘external activity’ and adjust it to the upcoming decrease in physical and mental skills

Tippel and Schmidt (2011)

Contemplative, self-focused, perceives education as a value in itself and wants to participate in it. Autonomous, prefers individual work, well educated, willing to accept group work provided other learners in the group have similar competencies Socio-emotional type oriented on others, often assumes a helper role to support other less competent seniors Solidarity type, focused on common good and believes that education is an important means to fulfill broader social aims. He/she feels great when they have an opportunity to embark upon new projects and tasks Utilitarian type aiming at personal goals, perceives learning not as a value in itself but rather as an instrument used for fulfillment of personal goals. Such learners do not cooperate and are not engaged in group activities. They do not share the enthusiasm concerning learning, but rather expect specific instructions and guidelines

Jarvis (2004) Rubenson (2011)

Selective, learn what is meaningful for them and are not very inclined to learn something they are not interested in Self-directed learners take responsibility for their own learning Having a problem-centred approach to learning. Such learners are interested in content that has a direct application to their lives Away from formal schooling for many years, may have had negative experiences with school. These adult learners may be re-entering schooling with anxiety and low self-esteem Experienced seniors bring years of previous knowledge and experience to the classroom, as well as an established system of values and beliefs governing their thought

Some of these characteristics seem to be connected with Erickson et al.’s (1959) eighth stage of psychosocial development – ‘ego integrity vs. despair’, where success leads to ‘wisdom’, which allows for taking a closer look at the past life with a sense of closure and acceptance. In the case of older adults such an opportunity prevents anxiety and negative emotions. However, sometimes older adults may suffer from depression and hopelessness resulting from feelings of guilt and dissatisfaction with life. These characteristics have important implications for older adults’ education as teachers need to cater for a stressless and friendly environment which makes senior learners feel accepted, respected and trusted (Karaoz & Aksayan, 2009). In order to provide some more clarity for the above characteristics, Table 3.3 includes a short overview of selected senior learner traits. It comes as no surprise that characteristics presented in the table may also refer to other age groups. When it comes to language learning or

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Table 3.3 Senior learners’ selected characteristics Extensive life experience

Ramírez Gómez (2016)

Previously obtained experience may result in increased reflectivity that is problemoriented and helps in introducing necessary improvements

Motivation

Tusting and Burton (2008) Gómez Bedoya (2008)

Senior learners often match learning to their personal goals after they become more involved into learning

Self-concept

Kececi and Bulduk (2011)

Senior learners making their own decisions and take responsibility for the consequences

Initiative

Nizińska (2012)

Results in greater autonomy and self-education

Specificity of learning

Nizińska (2012)

Modification of learning styles and strategies

Readiness to learn

Bikmaz (2006) DeYoung (2009) Comett (2011)

May be enhanced by encouraging senior learners to participate in role-plays and group work with their peers who have the same roles

Goal or problemorientedness

Kececi and Bulduk (2011) Gokkoca (2001) DeYoung (2009)

Learning is the most efficient way of overcoming problems, especially when they are presented with practical solutions or assisted with problem-solving sessions

speaking activities, senior learners may use their extensive knowledge about the first (or other) languages as well as their extensive life experience. Furthermore, when discussing senior characteristics in relation to other age groups we need to take a closer look at the critical or sensitive period hypothesis. Some researchers are of the opinion that the negative effects of age are largely confi ned to pronunciation. However, other researchers believe that older adults may in fact be capable of attaining a native-like accent (Bongaerts et al., 1997; Birdsong, 2006; Moyer, 2013; Muñoz & Singleton, 2011; Singleton, 2016). Singleton (2001: 81) is cautious about the suggestion that children and adults may process language in completely different ways. ‘There has been a continuation of research into the question of whether or not UG (Universal Grammar) continues to be available as a support for language learning beyond childhood. There is no strong evidence that post-pubertal second language learners do not have available to them the capacities which Chomskyans think of as deriving from UG’. Another learner characteristic that may differ depending on age is the use of (learning) strategies. In the case of senior learners strategy use may be influenced by their prior educational experience and the way they were taught. Those who have been influenced by the grammar translation method may be inclined to study the learning material in advance. In comparison with their younger counterparts, senior learners are likely to have acquired a wider repertoire of learning strategies including note taking and the use of reference materials. Also, their well established literacy in the fi rst language may help them in becoming more efficient foreign

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language learners. Unfortunately, despite a growing body of research on senior learners and language acquisition, there are relatively few studies that have focused on the application of strategies by mature learners (Pawlak et al., 2018). One such study has been conducted by Ohly (2007), who used think-aloud protocols to fi nd out more about the use of language learning strategies by students of the U3A. In his study he found out that the strategies used by older adults were closely connected to the particular task being performed. Senior learners were aware of what strategies to use in order to successfully perform an activity.

3.6 Barriers in Senior Learner Education

If the concept of learning throughout the whole life is to be effectively put into practice, especially in the case of older adults, a closer look is needed at the potential age-related problems learners may face while learning. Brändle (1986, as cited in Gabryś-Barker, 2018: 22) talks about the problems he observed in his foreign language senior learners concerning auditory imitation and memorising. However, despite potential challenges, senior learners seem to be motivated and express positive attitudes towards language learning. According to Kruse (2008a, as cited in Friebe and Schmidt-Hertha, 2013: 12), ‘the age-based configuration of living environments, individual health, positive images of aging, and a continuous participation in lifelong learning are important factors in enabling older men and women to maintain independent lifestyles’. Efficient management of these age-related developmental tasks becomes increasingly important in the later years of our lives. Remaining socially and professionally active often allows seniors to engage in family and community life. Nevertheless, as Pawlak (2015: 46) points out: While [...] such descriptions are without doubt necessary in textbooks for prospective teachers [...] they unavoidably involve overgeneralizations and oversimplifications. This is because there is a wide array of contextual and individual variables which dictate that different adults may manifest rather different characteristics and confront the task of language learning in quite disparate ways, thereby requiring sometimes radically different instructional approaches. (Pawlak, 2015: 46)

What is more, some of these abilities and skills may slowly begin to deteriorate with age, owing to such phenomena as attention deficits, deteriorating memory, problems with perception and declining sensory capacities, as well as impairment of executive functions (Pawlak, 2015: 46). Negative effects of aging are also discussed by Mezirow (1981), who introduces the Critical Theory of Adult Learning and Education and the concept of schemata which affect older adult learning and are often considered as potential barriers for efficient learning. In extreme cases they may even result in tendencies for conservative learning, which occurs

70 Insights into Senior Foreign Language Education

when a learner accepts the content of a lesson under the condition of it being in accordance with the learner’s existing knowledge and beliefs. Another problem may be passiveness or avoidance connected with low self-esteem and lack of belief in final success. In the case of senior learners, low self-confidence may result directly from rapid social changes occurring in the contemporary world. Older adults express a tendency to act according to outmoded information or use inefficient methods. They may also show a lack of enthusiasm towards changes in their learning owing to social and cultural norms. Seniors who are still professionally active may be unwilling to participate in role plays and simulations because they may be afraid of ‘losing face’. Finally, Smith (1984) underlines the fact that sometimes there may be more than one barrier and their occurrence hinders efficient adult learning. The following subsections present selected barriers in older adult education. 3.6.1 Age-related stereotyping

According to Popham and Hess (2015: 1), ‘stereotypes are beliefs regarding the characteristics of people within the same demographic, cultural or social group. These beliefs influence social interactions with and perceptions of others based on their membership in a stereotyped group. Such generalisations of a group of people can have negative consequences and often results in negative and biased perceptions of others’. According to Oxford (2018, as cited in Gabryś-Barker, 2018: 8), ‘powerful cultural stereotypes of aging influence communities, families and individuals’. Table 3.4 includes some of the most distinctive stereotypical perceptions of aging in different cultures.

Table 3.4 Stereotypical perception of aging in Eastern and Western cultures Western culture aging stereotypes

Eastern/Central European cultures aging stereotypes

Existing stereotypes of older people and aging are fundamentally negative and strengthen institutionalised agism (Ory et al., 2003) Age-related stereotypes in Western cultures, particularly in North America, are primarily negative, depicting later life as a time of ill health, loneliness, dependency and poor physical and mental functioning (Mastalski, 2015) Western societies place relatively greater value on independence, personal control and innovation, which is less compatible with older people who represent stability and tradition (Nelson, 2009)

Most cultures that value filial piety (e.g. China, Japan, Korea) treat older adults with more respect than those that do not (Boduroglu et al., 2006; Yun & Lachman 2006; Hummert, 2011) Eastern cultures score higher on Schwartz’s embeddedness value orientation, which includes a value item assessing how important it is to honour elders (Schwartz, 2006) Eastern cultures tend to be more interdependent (Nisbett, 2003) and collective (Schwartz, 2006). Consequently, greater importance should be placed on relational harmony and taking care of older people should be seen as a duty (Schwartz, 2006)

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Unfortunately, positive perceptions of older adults seem to change in some Eastern and Central European cultures (e.g. Poland) and resemble Western cultures in the way they perceive older people. Negative aging stereotypes which are often associated with frailty, sickness and decline reinforce the phenomenon of negative aging (i.e. social oppression based on age). Furthermore, the elderly are often described as those who have memory problems, cannot learn new things, are intolerant and strict, feel lonely and isolated, and cannot face the challenges of passing time. Not surprisingly, age is one of the most common existing topics of negative stereotypes. When we are young we often hear: ‘You are too young. Wait till you get older’. or ‘You will understand this better when you grow up’. When getting older we start to hear that we are too old for something or that we need to make room for younger workers or ‘fresh blood’ (Brewer et al., 1981; Schmidt & Boland 1986; Hummert 1990; Hummert et al., 1994; Blytheway, 1995; Escuder-Mollon, 2012). Studies have been conducted to fi nd out more about the concept of age-related stereotyping and its influence on seniors’ performance. Table 3.5 presents some of these studies.

Table 3.5 Selected studies on age-related stereotyping Levy (1996)

Study focusing on memory and hand-writing skills indicated that positive stereotypes of aging tended to improve performance of seniors

Levy (1996)

Study result proved that older adults primed with negative stereotyping performed worse on memory tasks compared with those who were primed with positive stereotypes. Positively primed group improved their performance in memory abilities

Hess et al. (2006)

A study highlighting the positive influence of positive stereotyping on the behaviour and memory performance of older adults

Auman et al. (2005)

A study that found that negative stereotype related increases in anxiety, skin conductance and blood pressure among a sample of middle-aged and older men when the prime focused on sickness, helplessness and dependence

Löckenhoff et al. (2009)

A study that involved 3435 college students from 26 cultures. The respondents were asked to present their views on older adults’ changes in functioning and rated their cultures’ perspectives on the concept of aging. Most of the participants, regardless of their cultural background, expressed negative stereotypes concerning task performance abilities, physical attractiveness and new learning

Meisner (2012)

A meta-analysis to compare the strength of positive versus negative age stereotyping effects on behavioural outcomes in older adults. Negative age priming elicited a stronger effect on the performance of older individuals during physical and mental tasks than did positive age priming

Swift et al. (2013)

Study examining the performance of older adults in a domain where they are stereotyped more favourably than younger people. Compared with the control condition, the enhancing social comparison boosted performance among older adults

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A conclusion that can be drawn from the above presented studies is that there seems to exist a correlation between the nature of a stereotype and the quality of performance. Positive stereotypes lead to more efficient work whereas negative stereotyping results in poorer student performance. Hummert (2015), for example, introduces a set of stereotypes describing seniors, some of which seem to have more positive connotations while others sound more negative. Golden ager, perfect grandparent and John Wayne conservative encompass a more positive outlook whereas severely impaired, recluse, despondent, and shrew present more negative image of older adults. Negative stereotypes are often related to the potential losses in skills, knowledge, memory and control that we experience with the passing of time. Some of the typical negative stereotypes held by younger members of society include the belief that older adults are unattractive, sick, weak, frail, dependent on others, forgetful and incompetent. Such a negative outlook is often created by mass media. It becomes even worse when we enter the fourth age, identified with misery, pessimism, hopelessness, frailty, purposelessness, non-agency and non-productivity (Levy, 2009; Gilleard & Higgs, 2010; Carr & Komp, 2011). A phenomenon closely related to negative stereotyping is called a stereotype threat and it pertains to a situation when a person is being reminded too often about his or her weaknesses or limitations. Stereotype threat is even more harmful when there seems to be a inconsistency between problems with efficient functioning despite positive images of older life. When older adults try to control their lives too much and they do not perform well despite their efforts, they may lose self-confidence and perform even worse. Negative stereotyping may also activate prevention focus, resulting in avoidance of certain situations and tasks which are usually performed slowly and with more caution. Seniors may even avoid certain activities such as learning, since they do not believe they are competent enough to master the knowledge and skills (‘I will never learn it’) or quite the opposite, owing to their age and experience they believe they know everything (‘I have been doing it for so long and I do not need to know more’) (Mezirow, 1991; Steele, 1997). Furthermore, negative stereotypes about aging may be already imprinted at an early age and as we grow older these stereotypes become threatening to our cognition and physiology as well as resulting in a less healthy lifestyle. Negative stereotypes may function as self-fulfi lling prophecies (Hausdorff et al., 1999; Levy et al., 2000, 2012). Finally, Scholl and Sabat (2008) argue that in order to reduce the influence of negative stereotype threat, seniors need to experience a sense of control over the situation. This can be done by developing greater autonomy ‘regarding health, aiding in the development of more internal health locus of control and motivation to seek out preventative health measures’.

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3.6.2 Memory and language deficits

Singleton (2018 as cited in Gabryś-Barker, 2018: 21) writes: ‘When taking a closer look at memory and language deficits in the older age we may adopt the well-worn cliché that as we get older our memory gets worse’. This opinion applies to people who suffer from dementia and in every population memory delays and failures are frequent. At the same time, there seems to be significant unevenness in cognitive functions with more advanced age and some are relatively intact among older individuals. However, according to Ramírez Gómez (2016: 13), ‘the effects of aging on memory and cognitive abilities have been the focus of plentiful studies, which usually follow one of two lines of thought: information-universal theories or information-specific theories’. According to the former set of theories, seniors are slower than other age groups in all cognitive tasks, whereas the latter claim that ‘age-related cognitive changes depend on various factors and are not uniform within the individual and between two individuals’ (Ramírez Gómez, 2016: 14). These two leading theories were followed by two equally influential theories, which had an analogous outlook on the process of aging and memory, namely the inhibition deficit hypothesis and the transmission deficit hypothesis. Hasher et al. (2007) state that according to inhibition deficit hypotheses, ‘cognitive abilities prevent task performance from irrelevant information. In their theory, aging weakens inhibitory processes, which in turn, are responsible for regulating the information that goes in and out of the person’s working memory. In case of older adults, irrelevant information enter into working memory and instead of being deleted, create interference’. Furthermore, MacDonald and Christiansen (2002) present a viewpoint that ‘aging is accompanied by changes in processing efficiency in working memory, not necessarily capacity’. In their opinion, seniors ‘have less efficient processing, such as slower spreading of activation throughout the networks of the language system, which in turn constraints the amount of information that they are able to process concurrently’. Table 3.6 presents selected opinions related to inhibition deficit hypothesis and proponents of these theories. Yet another significant hypothesis aims to explain the asymmetric effect of aging on language processing. The transmission deficit hypothesis assumes that linguistic information is stored as nodes or as Ramírez Gómez (2016) calls them ‘representational units’, in greatly interconnected network separated into multiple systems. With age these connections become weaker and nodes gradually degrade and lose flexibility. Table 3.7 presents selected theories related to the transmission deficit hypothesis. Apart from statements presented in both tables, other researchers offer their opinions and according to DeKeyser (2005) and de Bot and Makoni (2005), age-related declines in working memory generate problems at the linguistic level, particularly concerning explicit/declarative knowledge

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Table 3.6 Opinions related to inhibition deficit hypothesis Sommers (1996), Sommers and Danielson (1999)

Various impairments in older adults’ perception and comprehension of language, such as greater difficulty in understanding speech owing to background noises, were explained by these inhibition deficits

Connelly et al. (1991), Li et al. (1998)

Older adults express greater difficulty ignoring visually distracting information during reading

Gold et al. (1998), Arbuckle et al. (2000)

Inhibition is considered as a significant factor contributing to producing more off-topic speech among older adults

Cerella (1985), Myerson et al. (1990), Salthouse (2000)

Age-related deficits in language processing occur owing to slowing of component processes, especially the speed at which older people execute cognitive operations

Wingfield et al. (1985), Wingfield (1996)

Declines in processing speed may be responsible for deficits in timelimited language tasks

Dagerman et al. (2006)

Potential difficulties with sentence comprehension, such as a reduction in the use of contextual information to help resolve ambiguity

Craik and Byrd (1982), Klingberg (2010)

Some of these memorising difficulties may decrease when information is acquired in meaningful tasks

Kennet et al. (2000), Hunt (2003), Holtgraves (2006)

The nature of information to be processed is paramount to older adults’ recall rate and increasing the semantic load of the information to be encoded may significantly help seniors to perform better in tasks usually used in studies on memory

Gunstad et al. (2006)

Cognitive decline in speeded abilities, executive function and memory is believed to typify normal aging

Mather (2010)

With time people gain knowledge and experience greater emotional balance, but they also experience memory loss and difficulties in learning new associations

Horning & Davis (2012)

Older adults suffer from varying degrees of cerebral and cognitive deterioration

about lexis and complex syntax. Implicit/procedural knowledge seems to remain stable in old age (keeping in mind that the distinction between explicit and implicit knowledge seems to be rather inaccurate). Furthermore, Abrams and Farrell (2011) state that a common cause of potential deficits encompasses sensory and perceptual deficits: • • • • • •

significant declines in visual acuity, retinal blurring and a reduction in the accuracy of voluntary saccadic eye movements (Scialfa et al., 1999; Scialfa, 2002); slower speed and accuracy of recognising words and texts (Akutsu et al., 1991); pure-tone hearing loss or presbycusis occur in the auditory system (CHABA, 1988); poorer identification of individual sounds and words, even in ideal listening situations (Humes, 1996); impairments in spoken language processing (Wingfield & Tun, 2001); reductions in processing resources such as working memory capacity, processing speed or inhibitory control (Sommers, 2008).

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Table 3.7 Theories related to transmission deficit hypothesis Christensen (2001), Singer et al. (2003)

Vocabulary and general knowledge can remain stable until very old age

Singleton and Ryan (2004)

Age-related problems are not uniform and may differ depending on the individual person. Not all cognitive abilities decline with time

MacKay (1987), Light (1991), MacKay and Burke (1990), Burke et al. (2000)

Which cognitive abilities decline, remain stable or improve with age depends mainly on health of the brain and body as well as on what skills are practised or challenged in everyday life.

Ramírez Gómez (2016)

Extrinsic factors – brain-vessel diseases, hypertension, diabetes, psychiatric pathologies, sociocultural isolation, and sensorial alterations and intrinsic factors – genetic endowment and the level of adaptation to life may change depending on individual person.

Zurif et al. (1995), Kemper and Kemtes (1999), Kemper and Sumner (2001), Kemper et al. (2001, 2003)

Working memory deficits in older age seem to present greater complicatedness and individuality with particular working-memory dependent language tasks, including production and comprehension of complex grammar or semantics

In relation to language skills, James and MacKay (2007) state that older adults require an increased amount of resources for efficient perception and comprehension during listening practice. This is because of significant declines resulting from background noises, accelerated speaking rates, multiple people talking at once or unfamiliar talkers. Furthermore, Abrams et al. (2007) found that there exist significant differences in retrieval of words between adults ages 61–73 and 75–89 years. Their findings may indicate that words that sound similar may interfere with the appropriate word to be used. Another study, conducted by Morrison et al. (2003) on picture naming, suggests that older adults have problems with activating connections between words and their phonology. Similarly, as in the study of Abrams et al. (2007), there seem to exist differences within different older age groups. The biggest problems in picture naming occur when a person reaches 70 years of age. In relation to writing skills, older adults often signal a decrease in their ability to spell. This is supported by Stuart-Hamilton and Rabbitt (1997), who conducted a study on correct spelling and found a significant decrease in spelling skills in older adults. MacKay and Abrams (1998) conducted a similar study and claimed that people aged 60+ years were more prone to producing misspellings and people aged 73–88 years committed certain types of errors more often than other adults. Kemper (2006) states that older adults present an increased comprehension of communication dynamics. At the same time, older adults use a specific communication style called elderspeak, which includes a slower rate of speech and exaggerated intonation. Seniors using elderspeak produce shorter and simpler sentences. Furthermore, elderspeak significantly influences the self-perception of older adults who may feel patronised.

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Keeping all the above in mind, there seems to be a need for more extensive research in order to fi nd out more about the connection between working memory and the complexity of discourse production. We need to remember that the human brain remains flexible during the whole lifespan. Various studies seem to provide evidence for the claim that intellectual engagement and participation in intellectually engaging activities may have a positive influence on our brains and delay the emergence of dementia and other memory-related diseases. This, in turn, may prove beneficial for older adults in avoiding depression (Verghese et al., 2003; Bialystok & Craik, 2010; Stern & Munn, 2010). 3.6.3 Balance and coordination

According to Hafström et al. (2016), falls and injuries resulting from them are most common among older adults and are considered as the most typical geriatric health problem. According to statistics about 30% of people 65+ years old experience at least one fall accident per year. ‘The majority of falls occur owing to multiple interacting factors. For community-dwelling elderly, the two most important intrinsic predictors for a fall accident are taking medications and having a poor balance. The ability to maintain balance and coordination of our body depends predominantly on three sources of information: vision, proprioception (based on feedback from joints and muscles) and the vestibular system which is located in the inner ear, sensing gravity and motion of the head in three-dimensional space’ (Hafström et al., 2016). Furthermore, Hafström et al. (2016) state that a number of factors contribute to the maintenance of an adequate balance. These factors encompass dependable ‘sensory information from the visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive and mechanoreceptive systems; a well-functioning central nervous system with feedback and feed forward loops able to withstand external and internal volitions; as well as adequate musculoskeletal strength and sufficient range of motion in the joints for adequate movement’ (Horak, 2006, as cited in Hafstrom, 2016: 2). Goddard Blythe (2009: 289) wrote that ‘problems with balance and coordination may result in difficulties in focusing on the text and text tracking, hypersensitivity to light, increased anxiety, being in crowded places and feeling dizzy in rooms with complex wallpaper designs’. All of these problems may be also classroom related and may pose a challenge for educators and course makers. The last factor is closely related with so-called motion sickness, which was defi ned by Reason and Brand (1975: 274) as: ‘self-infl icted maladaptation phenomenon which occurs at the onset and cessation of conditions of sensory rearrangement when the pattern of inputs from the vestibular system, other proprioceptors and vision is at variance with the stored patterns derived from recent transactions with the spatial environment’.

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3.6.4 Mental illnesses

Mental illnesses are not common in an educational context (outside special education) but individuals with mental disorders are part of communities in mental health centres, families and workplaces. Educators who work in such institutions should receive efficient training and consider their feelings and thoughts about mental illnesses before the start of the teaching-learning process. If educators are to work with learners who suffer from mental illnesses they may need to take into consideration a set of specific strategies. Apart from establishing the level of anxiety, the points presented in Figure 3.3 should be taken into consideration. Alongside the advice presented in Figure 3.3, Kurt (2000) provides additional suggestions and states that teaching should be performed using short and simple words, information must be repeated as often as possible, important pieces of information should be written on cards, certain techniques should be used and plain symbols and drawings should be incorporated. Furthermore, all possible sources for the individual and his or her family should be used, all appropriate learning styles for the individual must be sought and training must be organised in this direction, and training should be supported by visual tools such as computers and videos. Unfortunately, learners with mental illnesses face negative social and family stereotyping. Therefore, increasing motivation is an important issue to remember while working with senior learners (Smith, 2006; Bastable, 2008; Cornett, 2011).

Learning organised according to the learners’ needs Sessions should be kept short and frequently repeated

Assistance from individuals' family, relaves, neighbours and volunteers

Movaon and the joy of life maintained at all mes

A calm and understanding approach must be adopted

Figure 3.3 Suggestions for working with students with mental illnesses (summary of Kurt, 2000)

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3.7 Teaching Senior Learners

Studies on older learners involved in the process of foreign language learning is still quite scant. However, in the last two decades a number of significant research studies on senior foreign language learners have been performed (Pfenninger & Singleton, 2017; Singleton, 2018). Table 3.8 presents some of the studies focused on senior language learners. Examples from Table 3.8 indicate that during the last two decades, researchers have been trying to create an insightful and precise image of a senior language learner. Some of these studies are predominantly focused on identifying specific characteristics of senior learners, whereas other studies compare senior learners with other age groups in attempt to fi nd Table 3.8 Selected studies on senior language learners Peacock and Ho (2003)

A study showing that older learners use metacognitive, affective, social and memory strategies more frequently that younger learners

Victori and Tragant (2003)

A study demonstrating that older learners are more likely to fall back on cognitively complex strategies and the latter tend to use more social LLS (Language Learning Strategies)

Gómez Bedoya (2008)

A study aiming at creating a profile of a senior foreign language learner

Cantero (2008)

A study focusing on senior learner psychological, physical and social characteristics

Fontanella and Sandmann (2011)

A study emphasising the guidelines for a language course for senior learners such as using noticing as the basis for morphosyntactic instruction in the first stages of learning, using songs and the absence of evaluation

Lenet et al. (2011)

A study focusing on the connection between interaction of learning accomplishment and foreign language learning conditions in old age. Older learners can learn complex morphosyntax in a short time and benefit more from less explicit feedback

Van der Hoeven and de Bot (2012)

A study focusing on memory and vocabulary learning with adults from various age groups and indicating that the older-adult group exhibited a larger vocabulary and experienced more difficulties in learning new words

Cohen and Li (2013)

A case study focusing on the influence of age on linguistic development. Age has adverse effects on foreign language learning because it affects memory skills

Cox and Sanz (2014)

A study focusing on interaction of aging, foreign language learning, conditions and attentional control. There are no significant age-related effects relating to treatment and attentional control. If given enough time to complete a task, seniors are capable of learning accurately

Kliesch et al. (2018)

A study focusing on stereotypical perception of seniors not being able to acquire new skills. Keeping in mind the origin of individual differences the evidence suggests that the brain capacity for neural plasticity varies greatly between older individuals

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out how similar or different these age groups are while acquiring a language. Another study sought to investigate the use of language learning strategies by senior students of English at a U3A. The fi ndings of the study seem to indicate that senior learners may be prone to negative aspects of learning a foreign language, such as anxiety, fear of a loss of face and difficulty in co-operating with others. Senior learners are not very strategic when it comes to planning, monitoring and self-evaluating their learning. Furthermore, many of them find it difficult to cope with anxiety and other affective states, and they often fail to successfully cooperate with their peers or take full advantage of the presence of the teacher (Pawlak et al., 2018). Despite the available data, senior language learning still needs more insight. The following sections attempt to shed more light on the specificity of senior foreign language learning. 3.7.1 Before we start

While determining the educational needs of senior learners it is necessary to get to know the learners better by meeting them personally, reading related literature and sometimes by examining their health records (which is not often possible). When designing a course for senior learners and deciding on the content, Demirel (2000) suggests the stages included in Figure 3.4. A similar set of suggestions are presented by Tabak (2000), who writes about the learning environment designed in such a way as to allow everyone to see each other easily. Other guidelines include efficient acoustic features, bright non-glare writing, enough space for writing activities and, if necessary, tools like wheelchairs, sticks and walkers. Classrooms should have a suitable temperature, non-slip stairs and floors, and comfortable

•Learning preferences •Cognive skills •Affecve skills •Psychomotor skills •Qualificaons of the educator •Available resources

Preliminary research

Decisions concerning methods •Lectures •Discussions •Quesons and answers •Demonstraons •Role-plays •Simulaons •Projects •Presentaons

• Techniques • Materials •Teaching aids •Group characteriscs • Size • Duraon of educaon • Funds • Available educaonal resources •Feedback provided

Addional infromaon

Figure 3.4 Suggestions for senior course organization (summary of Demirel, 2000)

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chairs with back support. The list becomes even longer, encompassing learning materials with large enough print. A white background makes the foreground easier to notice and information should be designed in a form of short information (words or posters). From my own personal experience it may be a serious challenge to provide all of these elements for seniors during a language course. Most often classroom are regular rooms at the university and usually teachers cater for teaching materials. Oxford (2018, as cited in Gabryś-Barker, 2018: 13) writes that a ‘class for older learners should include well-organised, engaging, non-competitive activities, such as co-operative reading and simple discussions with the use of various visual aids. Senior learners could also watch short movies with subtitles or could write recipes for dishes’. Specific needs of senior learners can be identified by answering the questions in Figure 3.5. Another set of recommendations have been proposed by Gómez Bedoya (2008), who writes about giving value to the learners’ interest and experiences. Senior learners usually have previous educational experience as well as extensive life experience. However, these experiences may not resemble the reality that learners are learning in now and their expectations and learning behaviours may differ from contemporary teachers’ teaching practice. Another recommendation is providing enjoyable activities and considering that older learners’ primary aim is enjoying the class and not accomplishing a high level of competence. Senior education often has compensatory nature and senior learners who attend courses enjoy the very fact of meeting other people and not feeling lonely. Sometimes seniors may decide to participate in a course in order to learn something they had had no time to learn before. However, other senior learners come to the classroom expecting teachers to be strict and professional and a more enjoyable atmosphere may be sometimes perceived as not entirely Characteristics, number and the level of success of the educational programmes for the elderly; the economic resources of these educational programmes, the proficiency level of educators, materials and the technologies

What is their general situation?

The participants’ cognitive, affective and physical abilities, their previous experiences, their perceptions of themselves and the society can be evaluated (Demirel, 2000). Individuals can be asked how they feel while filling out the documents (Rojda & George, 2009).

What is known about the participants?

The material should be checked for its suitability and consistency with the aims of the education and for legibility for the elderly. To evaluate the material, a checklist can be prepared and implemented to see whether the material is consistent and suitable and can easily be read (Kececi & Bulduk, 2011).

What is the content of the educational materials like? Figure 3.5 Questions concerning senior learners’ needs

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professional. The author also writes about lowering the demand of assessment tests for these learners and avoiding paternalistic attitudes. It seems that there are many authors who present ideas about efficient course preparation for senior learners. In order to provide some of the remaining sets of suggestions, Table 3.9 includes a comparison of ideas about course preparation for senior learners by various authors. Taking a closer look at these four sets of guidelines, some regularities seem to emerge. Senior language course needs to be well prepared and teachers have to show confi dence in their skills. What is more, teachers are obliged to make their learners believe in their language skills. Making learning goals explicit and manageable is also essential for efficient language learning. Furthermore, it seems reasonable to make senior learners actively involved in the decision-making process and carefully listen to what they want to say. Finally, the authors suggest that senior language courses should be practical, functional and above all flexible in order to introduce necessary modifications, when facing learning difficulties. Jaroszewska (2013: 207) presents a list of materials and instruments which are considered as indispensable when designing a language course for senior learners. This list includes various informative and authentic materials presented in traditional as well as digital forms, materials taken from the press, advertisements, maps, guidebooks, menus, travel guides, manuals, crosswords, etc.; audio-recordings such as airport or train station announcements, weather forecast, songs and audiobooks; video recordings such as news, fragments of movies and sport programmes; literature; music; movies and theatre plays; art in various forms (posters, paintings, architecture, etc.); and ludic art (proverbs, songs, rhymes, etc.). Additionally, senior learners may be responsible for preparing presentations, organising meeting with interesting people, etc. In order to better prepare older adults for the learning process, apart from the above suggestions, Ramírez Gómez (2016) and Andrew (2012) mention the concept of learner re-training. The underlying supposition of re-training is that older learners re-evaluate their learning strategies and learning habits developed during their previous learning experience and, if necessary, develop new ones. Senior learners need to re-evaluate their beliefs about their learning skills in relation to their age and decide if they can efficiently participate in the learning process. Positive evaluation may increase the level of self-esteem and help in overcoming negative stereotyping, discussed in previous parts of the chapter. Furthermore, wellorganised re-training provides senior learners with a meaningful context that fosters self-assessment, self-acknowledgement and experimentation. Re-training, if administered properly, has some evident advantages, including fostering brain plasticity and strengthening cognitive abilities. It also helps develop new social opportunities for senior learners and increases their autonomy. Finally, proper re-training allows for efficient knowledge sharing among members of the course.

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Table 3.9 Principles for efficient environment for senior learners Tabak (2000)

Knowles (2011)

Functionality: the plan must have the qualities and the content to achieve clear, educational goal or goals that can be measured, beneficial, action-based and valid for real life

Preparing the learners: older learners may need to be explicitly presented with differences between merely participative course and self-directed learning. They need to be aware of potential challenges and need help in overcoming selfdefeating attitudes

Flexibility: the plan must be creative and flexible, be able to answer the individuals’ changing needs and be open to new developments Realistic: the education plan must not include over-idealistic and utopian aims Practicability: not only the people who prepared the plan but also other people can use the education plan easily at different times

Climate: learning in a safe, supporting, stress-free climate Planning: when planning a course for older learners teachers need to find a balance between contentbased models, where he or she makes most of the decisions and process-based models, where learners are actively involved in the decision-making process

Being scientific: the education plan should include scientific qualities in terms of the knowledge and the behaviour to be gained Suitability to the social values: the plan should not contradict the life philosophy, ideals, beliefs and the values of the society where it is implemented

Diagnosis of needs: older learners should determine their needs based on motivational and linguistic as well as communicative factors Objective setting and designing learning plans: older learners should be involved in the goal setting process. Knowles (1998) suggests using contracts

Being economical: the costs of the implementation steps of the education plan and the behaviours to be acquired should be affordable

Evaluation: older learners should evaluate their work, their efficiency, the accomplishment of their individual goals, their use of strategies and level of activeness. Furthermore, assessment should be shared and discussed

Helmich-Zgoda et al. (2013)

Ramírez Gómez (2016)

Having clear goals and knowledge: senior learners are less anxious when they have goals of their learning presented in a meaningful and clear manner

State the goals clearly: courses for senior learners should be considered not only as a leisure activity, but rather as a course to be planned carefully and with a competent programme

Avoid information overload: older learners may have a limited memory capacity. Teachers should be careful about the amount of information provided at a given moment of the course

Focus on functionality: courses should not only have a functional approach since this favours mainly more financially independent seniors

Take into account an interlocutor’s indecisiveness: sometimes seniors may have problems with making decisions. Teachers need to show patience and encouragement Take into account senior learners’ point of view: seniors often come to classroom equipped with extensive life knowledge and experience Speak in clear manner: teachers carefully listen to what learners say without interruptions, show interest (eye-contact, head movements), sustain discussion (directed questions, encouragement, pauses) and present genuine willingness to understand the interlocutor. It encourages senior learners to express themselves more freely Provide them with opportunities to talk about positive aspects of their lives: by doing so seniors become more self-motivated and confident Pay attention to what learners say about other things, hold back from interrupting, changing topic, ending someone else’s sentence, talking too much

Design lessons carefully: lessons should be content based, lead older learners to identify socially relevant issues of interest to the third age and discredit existing negative stereotypes concerning the older generation Present learners with information about their abilities: learners should be explicitly presented with their actual potential and abilities in order to create a realistic image of senior learners who may become more self-confident and self-directed. More selfdirected learners are more prone to use strategies in their learning and become aware of their strengths and weaknesses. This will help them to avoid misconceptions regarding the foreign language learning process, which may result from the learners’ prior experiences. In addition, older learners’ attitudes towards their learning potential, which may in turn enhance their self-image and empower them fulfill renovated roles in society Show confidence: instructors working with senior learners should be proactive and exert their authority in the creation of linguistically coherent curricula

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3.7.2 When we engage

When working with older adults educators need to remember to develop meaningful relationships and clearly explain the roles they are going to assume in the classroom. It is especially important when working with senior learners because they may express mistrust or lack of confidence in younger teachers’ professionalism. Therefore, as I noticed during lesson observations, young teachers are often treated with a certain amount of mistrust and caution. Such an approach may pose a problem because, as any educator knows, trust is a sine qua non condition for efficient teaching and learning process. As a consequence, teachers should be very cautious when addressing older learners. ‘It is necessary that the instructor remains alert to avoid any kind of age-related condescending tone or wording, either pessimistic or overly optimistic. She also needs to clearly address her experience as a teacher, his/her trust in older learners’ capabilities to learn a [foreign language], and her willingness to assist learners in the process as much as she can’ (Ramírez Gómez, 2016: 179). If a teacher is struggling with initial distrust, there are strategies they may employ in order to appear more professional. One of them is using empirical evidence and supporting their opinions with empirical data from research described in articles and other publications. Furthermore, educators may sometimes use sophisticated language and dress smartly in order to create an ‘aura of professionalism’. It is important to express sensitivity towards any sign of negative attitudes from learners. However, I witnessed situations in which young educators were appreciated by senior students, mainly because the seniors treated them as their ‘grandchildren’ or simply young people whose vibrant energy is infectious and transmitted to learners (I am aware that it is not the best expression in the contemporary world, but these were the words that seniors often used). In order to make older adults more trusting and actively involved in the learning process, Oxford (2018) suggests three approaches. The first is called sage-ing and enables older learners to become more spiritually joyful, physically vital, socially responsible and full of ‘meaning and purpose’. The French language-based (sage (fr.) – wise person, thinker, expert, counsellor, reasonable, intelligent, covenant and even saint) concept of sage-ing depicts wisdom and experience as the most positive outcome of getting older (Schachter-Shalomi & Miller, 1995). Furthermore, Oxford (2018) states that sage-ing seems to be similar to Vaillant’s (2002) key adult tasks, with integrity and wisdom coming to the fore and despair becoming less prevalent. The second approach to a more fulfilling aging process is mindfulness, which can be used by older learners to become more self-centred. By doing so they may significantly reduce stress and anxiety, gain greater spiritual depth and reduce or even prevent physical pain and disease (Williams & Penman, 2012; Kabat-Zinn, 1991, 2013). Naik et al. (2013: 1) write that

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‘mindfulness is best thought of as a way of being rather than an activity in and of itself’. They continue by saying that ‘almost any activity can be carried out with mindful awareness’. The concept itself is associated with Buddhist philosophy, where the term ‘mindfulness’ comes from the Sanskrit word ‘Smrti’, which literally translates as ‘that which is remembered’. Mindful awareness has three key features: • • •

Purpose – intentionally and purposefully directing attention rather than letting it wander. Presence – being fully engaged with and attentive to the present moment. Thoughts about the past and future that arise are recognised simply as thoughts occurring in the present. Acceptance – being non-judgmental towards whatever arises in the moment. This means that sensations, thoughts and emotions are not judged as good or bad, pleasant or unpleasant; they are simply noticed as happening, and observed until they eventually pass (Naik et al., 2013).

More scientific interest in mindfulness has been associated with KabatZinn, the founder of the University of Massachusetts Medical School Stress Reduction Clinic. Research on mindfulness led to the development of the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction curriculum, an eight-week training course that has been successfully used with a wide audience, from cancer patients to those suffering from depression to highly stressed business executives (Kohls et al., 2009; Shapiro and Carlson, 2009). The last approach, SOC (selection, optimisation, compensation), aims at helping older learners to deal effectively with cognitive as well as physical declines. In this approach, selection refers to choosing the tasks that are most important; optimisation means doing those tasks, building on strengths rather than weaknesses; and, fi nally, compensation aims at finding alternative ways for solving our problems (Oxford, 2018). Apart from establishing the rules of engagement or code of conduct, educators will encounter an assortment of age-related challenges which will require efficient ways of approaching them in order to make the learning process more enjoyable. Even if people age in a healthy fashion, they are still bound to experience age-related physical and mental changes. Therefore, it should be not surprising that our senses decline with age. Hearing and vision changes affect language communication while the other changes can affect thinking processes and perception of the learning context (Smith, 2006; Tabloski, 2010). Agyire-Tettey et al. (2017) writes that ‘persons with hearing impairment are mostly categorised as deaf of hard or hearing (D/HH) based on the severity of their hearing loss which might be permanent or fluctuating and may range from mild hearing loss to profound deafness. Hearing loss is, however, the loss in the ability to hear only 25 or less decibels of sound’. In everyday life people experience various obstacles related to everyday communication. Such deficiencies may have a negative influence on learning

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outcomes (senile hearing obtuseness) and negatively influence intellectual processes. Therefore, learners with hearing problems are often described as people who have either completely lost this sense or have decreased sensitivity to sounds. They may be sometimes unable to speak or may have a limited verbal ability and a weak vocabulary (Bastable, 2008). Senior learners often suffer from high-frequency disturbances resulting from computer use. Furthermore, background noises and hums may significantly reduce their ability to properly distinguish and acquire particular sounds, for example, when two people talk simultaneously it may hinder understanding of either of them, since they ‘erase’ each other (Nizińska, 2012). When communicating with people who suffer from hearing loss, teachers need to fi nd out about a person’s preference for communication (e.g. sign language, written information, lip reading, visual support). Additionally, non-verbal communication, including facial expressions, gestures and mimic, should be included in the classroom communication process. During lessons, teachers should be natural and speak clearly, using simple sentences, adopt a way of asking for consent like a touch of the hand before starting to talk, set up face-to-face communication and maintain a distance of about 100 cm (three feet) (Tabloski, 2010; Cornett, 2011). A study conducted by Wingfield (2000, as cited in Ramírez Gómez, 2016: 164) suggested that ‘the reduction in hearing capacity observed in older adults relates to increasing difficulties in perceiving high tone and low-energy sounds. There is also a general decline in older adults’ ability to distinguish sounds, which causes the brain to confuse interpretation cues and to reduce processing speed as a palliative’. Therefore, teachers who work with senior learners may want to refrain from using high-pitch sounds and the previously described ‘elderspeech’. Teachers should make sure that learners can read lips and speak preferably in a low tone, stand in good lighting with the mouth in clear view, speak clearly, loudly and slowly, use facial expressions or gestures to give additional meaning cues, check students’ hearing aids, reinforce oral language with visual materials and make referrals to hearing specialists or doctors as appropriate. Teachers may also consider ‘examining the class’s hearing abilities which may positively contribute to a more efficient seating chart or a better location for audio resources’ (Ramírez Gómez, 2016: 164). It is also advisable to use simple sentences in the native language and in the target language (if possible). Table 3.10 presents some of the most common hearing-related problems and potential solutions. Unfortunately, hearing is not the only sense that declines with age because many older learners exhibit a considerable decline in visual capacity. According to Stuart-Hamilton (2006), ‘over 1/3 of humans of 65 suffer from visual deficiencies such as reduced ability to see distant objects, a loss of the ability to see objects on the side, and a loss of the ability to see very close (even faces) and some colours (peripheral vision), and eye diseases related with diabetes. What is more, older people with reduced visual acuity may display behaviours such as dimming eyes, needing to

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Table 3.10 Hearing-related problems and solutions (summary of Ramírez Gómez 2016) Potential problems that may be encountered in the classroom

Strategies to use in the classroom to help hearing-impaired older learners in their language learning

Limited verbal ability and a weak vocabulary Loss of selected sounds or high-frequency sounds

Learn and use an official sign language

Senile hearing obtuseness High-frequency disturbances resulting from computer use Significantly reduced ability to properly distinguish and acquire particular sounds Difficulties in perceiving high-tone and lowenergy sounds Ability to distinguish sounds, which causes the brain to confuse interpretation cues and to reduce processing speed as a palliative

Use closed captioned visual materials Use facial expressions, gestures and mimics Visual emphasis should be provided in class Write instructions on the board for visual reference Use personal listening devices and amplifiers in the classroom Close doors and windows, turn off electrical equipment Use a well-lit classroom Have deaf students sit at the front of the classroom Do not try to speak across the room Gain a deaf student’s attention before speaking Speak loudly and clearly using simple sentences Avoid any simultaneous commentary Always check for comprehension Retain focus by having frequent brain breaks Develop an Individualised Education Program

touch, reluctance to communicate or withdrawal. Seniors above the age of 75 suffer predominantly from the loss of visual field which results in extended reaction to stimuli’. Teachers who work with senior learners experiencing visual impairments should provide their learners with light bright enough for them to see well. They should also make sure that they are not standing too close to the learners in order not to appear blurred. These suggestions are especially valid when working with a whiteboard. When using white/blackboards or printed materials teachers should make sure that important points are written in large font, maybe in bold, and that they combine upper- and lowercase letters and avoid wavy lines and dots (Smith, 2006; Cornett, 2011). In relation to students’ visual impairment, teacher may consider using electronic books which allow for modifying the size of fonts and images. Unfortunately, electronic devices are often uncomfortable for older learners who are more accustomed to traditional learning materials and reading paper books. Other recommendations for education of the elderly with a reduced visual ability include: • •

materials prepared in a format and size that elderly people can easily see; procedures explained as descriptively as possible;

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materials prepared in larger fonts for people with visual deficiencies; education materials prepared in black on a white background; contrasting colours preferred when using different colours; using audio-recording devices; computers and texts using the Braille alphabet preferred if possible. (Bastable, 2008, in Kececi & Bulduk, 2011: 158–159).

Apart from sensory-related deficiencies, senior learners suffer from a decline in the ability to create connections between new information and information already stored in long-term memory, as well as a decline in processing speed. These cognitive declines happen frequently in situations when older learners are required to recall information or understand complex instructions. In order to successfully overcome these difficulties Fougnie (2008) suggests the following recommendations: • • • • • •

•

•

Reduce the focus of attention – teachers should avoid conducting two or more activities simultaneously (e.g. talking to students while writing on the board). Use simple-structure sentences – this frees more processing resources. It also seems to be beneficial to include first language (L1) in the teaching-learning process. Reduce the speed of delivery and the rate of speech. Instructors should develop awareness of their speech rate. Create a non-stressful environment. Lower stress increases intrinsic motivation, develops self-directedness and increases active involvement of learners. Present new lexical items in a relatable manner. New words should be related to learners in some way or relate to their personal experiences. Increase the semantic load of a lexical item and its level of processing complexity as high distinctiveness and elaboration of new lexical items may increase the probabilities of recall because such items may activate more sections of a person’s memory network. Experiment with different vocabulary-learning strategies and new lexical items. Teachers should devote some of the class time to explicit strategy use and strategy training and hope for more autonomous behaviour on the side of the older learners. Pay special attention to the clear identification of the objectives of activities performed during the course. This helps learners to realise the objectives of the course and focus their resources and abilities on specific tasks.

Grotek (2018) describes a diagnostic qualitative study whose aim was to investigate the needs and expectations of foreign language learners in late adulthood. The results show that the ability to cater for the students’ language and andragogical needs is the essential characteristic of an educator who works with senior learners. When it comes to language learning,

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developing speaking skills was mentioned as the most crucial aspect of language instruction. In questions related to the socio-affective aspect of being a group member, the participants pointed to creating a friendly and non-threatening atmosphere in the classroom. Furthermore, teachers are expected to pay attention to the personalisation and individualisation of the learning process by activating all students, providing opportunities to share personal stories and opinions. Finally, teachers are expected to show understanding for age-related idiosyncrasies and potential limitations. An interesting result was that senior learners expected the teacher to use L2 in the classroom. From my own experience, in most classes, learners, often explicitly, demanded L1 to be used during lessons. Here, the participants expected teachers to use L2; however, the rate of delivery should be adjusted (slower, shorter utterances, repetition). Senior learners also expect teachers to organise revision sessions as regularly as possible. They also require regular repetitions and explicit explanations of new material. Finally, older learners seem to be particularly sensitive to other learners’ opinions and positive perceptions from other members of the group. Therefore, teachers should try to avoid creating stressful situations in the classroom as much as possible by restraining themselves from too frequent error correction and being realistic in their expectations towards learners (Grotek, 2018). 3.7.3 Tools and activities

In a foreign language classroom teachers make an attempt to develop learners’ communicative competence and prepare them for using language outside the classroom. This requires from teachers a wide range of efficient instruments. However, according to Pot et al. (2018, as cited in GabryśBarker, 2018: 182), ‘best practices in adult language education have developed little since the 1980s, when Joiner (1981) devised an optimal, goal-driven (building communicative competence) learning programme with individualised, self-paced instruction as its core, and the inclusion of real-world materials to link learning to practice and boost motivation’. According to Savina (2015) older adults are usually not readily open to innovative teaching methods like enacting stories of word games. They often consider listening comprehension as one of the most challenging activities, possibly because they may associate listening with previous experiences of trying to understand authentic conversational speech at high speed with slurred pronunciation. Thus, while doing listening tasks, a learner can be provided with opportunities to evaluate their own competence which may facilitate the process of making their skills visible to them (Kersh et al., 2011). When working with senior learners, teacher are recommended to use short recordings (two to three phrases), which last 10–15 seconds, on a subject that is familiar to learners. Senior adults are remarkably good at perceiving videos and movies, especially if it is a

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movie they have seen in their native language. With graded audio materials teachers need to make sure that the track is relatively low-pitch and that the voices in the recording are clearly audible for the learners. Unfortunately, most of these recordings include background noises which are supposed to provide the listeners with a meaningful context. However, these kinds of noises often hinder the understanding of the listening, especially when working with older learners. Therefore, teachers who work with senior learners, if possible, should try to avoid such recordings. For the same reason it is advisable to avoid authentic listening passages which cannot be equalised, especially when scanning the text and listening for specific information. Problems with comprehension may be a direct source of learners’ frustration and demotivation in upcoming tasks (Ramírez Gómez, 2016). Cantero (2008) writes that ‘some senior learners, in order not to be perceived by other learners as incompetent, may be even reluctant to request for another listening’. Listening practice designed for senior learners should contain more activities focusing on general understanding, incorporating more visual context and have the pitch and speed of the listening adjusted to the abilities of the learners. Obviously, such interference in teaching materials deprives them of authenticity. Nevertheless, these changes introduced in educational materials contribute to the efficient development of listening skills among older learners and increase their motivation to continue learning. Furthermore, if older learners do not develop sufficient listening skills in the classroom, their communication outside the classroom in an authentic context (during travels or when meeting their families abroad) will undoubtedly prove unproductive and discouraging of further attempts. Figure 3.6 introduces important guidelines for teachers while developing listening skills. Reading is yet another receptive skill and, similarly to the case of listening, activities can be performed individually with pace adjusted to the learners’ individual abilities. We need to remember that older learners, at least in Poland, have often been taught with the use of the grammar-translation method and for many of them the reading activity often changes into a translation activity with the use of traditional dictionaries. Therefore, it seems reasonable to start with graded texts, develop efficient skimming techniques, start with reading for general understanding, and gradually increase the specificity and complexity of information included in the texts. Instructors have to make sure that the layout of the reading Check the quality of recording

Use short recordings and videos Listening

Focus more on general understanding

Encourage learners to listen outside the classroom

Figure 3.6 Developing listening skills (summary of Ramírez Gómez, 2016)

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Table 3.11 Teaching reading (summary of Ramírez Gómez, 2016) Reading Carefully explain the aim of a particular activity

Start with reading for general understanding and gradually increase the specificity and complexity of information

Work with Layout of the Font is big dictionaries reading texts enough, space is adjusted between lines is appropriate

Include a high visual contrast between fonts and background

texts includes a sufficiently sized font, the space between lines is appropriate and texts include a high visual contrast between fonts and background (Ramírez Gómez, 2016). Table 3.11 presents some of the above-mentioned techniques for teaching reading to senior learners. In the case of speaking activities, teachers often need to encourage senior learners to experiment with the language and try to be more selfdirected. However, developing speaking skills may be more difficult owing to increased anxiety level, lower self-esteem, heightened inhibition, stressful environment and opinions of the teacher and peers. To overcome these challenges teachers may start with group management and organising work in pairs or small groups. Pair and group work have their drawbacks (native language, one person dominance, etc.), but such arrangements may reduce the stress of the older learners. Pair and group work has an additional benefit, namely the development of soft competencies such as negotiation and co-operation skills. Memorisation of new material sometimes poses a challenge for elderly learners resulting from increased levels of anxiety, negative self-perception and difficulties with maintaining focus. Since many senior learners are used to traditional ways of learning, they often resort to notebooks as a form of external memory. Note taking is a dying skill today and most of these learners seem to feel more at ease when they have their notes. We need to remember that for many of them learning has a compensatory function. Another issue is attention, which is particularly important when working with older learners who experience problems with dividing their attention. It seems advisable for the educators to prepare shorter activities with explicitly presented material and provide learners with more time for doing these activities. With smaller groups teachers may decide to help individual students to perform the activity or provide some explicit strategy training (Ramírez Gómez, 2016). Figure 3.7 introduces some useful ideas for developing speaking skills. Finally, while developing writing skills educators may focus on structure or function (e.g. writing a postcard, a letter or a diary). Similarly to reading, writing is self-paced and older learners may want to adjust it to their individual abilities. On the other hand, they may be used to learning

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•Encourage learners to experiment with language •Organize group and pair work •Negoate topics and vocabulary items •Use visual aids •Start with simple structures

Figure 3.7 Developing speaking skills (summary of Ramírez Gómez, 2016)

a language with strong emphasis on grammar and translation. Having observed multiple classes and interviewed a number of senior learners, I cannot help but notice that they often compose sentences in the first language and translate then directly into L2. In order to avoid or at least limit such procedures teachers may focus on summarising activities which will teach learners how to put more complex ideas into simpler words. Another similarity with reading is the extensive use of dictionaries, which may result from insecurity, force of habit or genuine memory deficits (Ramírez Gómez, 2016). Figure 3.8 presents three useful techniques for developing writing skills. When selecting materials to be used with senior learners teachers need to bear in mind that proper selection may lead to more motivated and efficient learning. Nowadays, there are coursebooks designed specifically for senior learners; however, most of the readily available popular textbooks include topics which stereotypically portray older people as grandparents or seniors who enjoy their retirement. The majority of topics and materials in such coursebooks entail younger people and their life. Moreover, these stereotypical projections of older people are usually negative (health problems, deaths, mental barriers, hospital patients, widows and widowers, etc.). As has been mentioned in the previous chapters, this perception of older people is harmful and inaccurate. In the contemporary world seniors

Use summarising techniques Focus on the structure or funcon

Adjust pace

Wring

Figure 3.8 Teaching writing (summary of Ramírez Gómez, 2016)

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are actively involved in social life, they travel, exercise, attend various courses and enjoy their lives. Therefore, senior learners may not identify themselves with characters included in coursebooks and experience some degree of rejection towards them. As with any other age group, materials designed especially for older learners should include activities, techniques, topics and themes relevant to this specific age group. One of the reasons for this is the previously described engagement of learners in the learning process. The relevance of materials and topics may result in an increased involvement of senior learners in their learning and enhance their motivation. Furthermore, materials and topics included in course materials influence negative/positive self-image of older learners outside the classroom context and help in dealing with negative ageist stereotypes. 3.8 Educators We Need to Be

Virgil, an ancient Roman poet, wrote ‘Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causa’ (‘Happy is he who was able to know the causes of things’). A few centuries later a 17th century Japanese samurai, Yamamoto Tsunetomo, wrote Hagakure – the Code of the Samurai, which was a manual consisting of short stories and reflections. In one of the entries the book reads: In one’s life, there are levels in the pursuit of study. In the lowest level, a person studies but nothing comes of it, and he feels that both he and others are unskillful. At this point he is worthless. In the middle level he is still useless but is aware of his own insufficiencies and can also see the insufficiencies of others. In a higher level he has pride concerning his own ability and rejoices in praise from others. This man has worth. In the highest level a man has the look of knowing nothing. These are the levels in general. But there is one transcending level, and it is the most excellent of all. This person is aware of the endlessness of entering deeply into a certain Way and never thinks of himself as having fi nished. He truly knows his insufficiencies and never thinks that he has succeeded. Throughout your life advance daily, becoming more skillful than yesterday, more skillful than today. This is never-ending. (Tsunetomo 1979)

These words may be considered an early example of the reflective approach. Reflectivity seems to be one of the crucial teacher characteristics in the contemporary classroom (Derenowski, 2011). Furthermore, Kuzborska (2011) states that ‘the teacher’s personal attitudes, educational philosophy and beliefs determine the progress of the lesson and shape the plan as well as teachers’ decisions’. Recently, research on senior learners’ characteristics have became more popular, resulting in studies concerning the characteristics of educators who work with this particular age group. Hill (2014) defi ned three areas where adult learners have identified specific teacher traits that they found beneficial to their learning (Table 3.12).

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Table 3.12 Teacher traits for working with senior learners Teacher competencies

Relationships with students

Attitudes

Having relevant practice knowledge – ‘providing relevant, real-time information’ and ‘teaching practice applications as well as theory’ – and teaching material that is up-to-date and evidence based. Adult learners were appreciative of instructors who were able to structure classroom learning, implement a variety of teaching techniques and stimulate discussion

In forming relationships with their instructors, adult learners valued instructors who were approachable and available, and were flexible in regard to deadlines and class activities. They found it important that the instructor value and validate their experience, as well as be sympathetic to the demands placed on them by jobs and family

With regard to teacher attitude, adult learners appreciated instructors who were ‘fun and enthusiastic’ and who listened to students, viewed ‘students as having knowledge’ and didn’t ‘treat them like blank slates’

Furthermore, Ramírez Gómez (2016: 175) writes about two main types of instructors for older learners: (1) Those who express a certain degree of resignation regarding the learners’ abilities. These teachers emphasise what older learners are unable to do, focus on their limitations and regard the differences between younger and older learners as responsible for hindering senior learners from mastering a foreign language. They usually have little faith in their learners’ abilities and react to cognitive-related difficulties with resignation and usually point out that the main motivation of senior learners is the need to socialise and not to gain proficiency in a particular subject. (2) Those who have an overly positive attitude towards them. These teachers place emphasis on the positive aspects of working with senior learners such as higher participation and motivation, the complexity and maturity of their opinions, the richness of their educational and professional background, as well as their extensive life experience. According to this approach, a lesson becomes a unique and socially affluent experience filled with emotional participation of senior learners. According to this particular approach, seniors come to the classroom not only to socialise but also to regain their, sometimes lost, life purpose. As has been mentioned in the previous chapters, affective factors, such as motivation and self-confidence, seem to be essential in senior foreign language education. Fear of failure only increases when such learners are faced with a stressful, fast-paced learning situation. Older learners may also exhibit greater hesitancy in learning. Therefore, teachers must be able to reduce anxiety and build self-confidence in the learner. Schmidt-Herta and Tippelt (2011, in Grotek 2018: 129) introduce a typology of senior learners with a favourable teacher approach. Table 3.13 introduces favourable teacher approaches based on a typology of senior learners.

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Table 3.13 Typology of senior learners and favourable teacher approach (summary of Schmidt-Herta and Tippelt, 2011) Type of learner

Basic learner characteristics

Favourable teacher approach

Contemplational type

Self-oriented and highly educated. Preference for individual learning or in a group of similarly competent members

Getting to know the learners’ interests, level of abilities and skills as well as the need to adjust the programme. Planning a series of specialised tasks with a variety of goals to achieve. Assigning homework to revise the material

Socio-emotional type

Oriented to others. Usually highly educated and regards lifelong education and self-development as a self-perceived goal. Willing to share their knowledge with less competent others

Motivating and supporting the group in the learning tasks by giving tips in a non-intrusive way. Concentrating on the positive aspects of learners’ work and encouraging them to find solutions by working as a group

Solidary type

Oriented to common good. Perceiving education as a means to achieve better quality of life. Setting goals and undertaking action to achieve them, preferably in co-operation with others. Likes doing tasks and projects

Managing the group work by setting the goals and helping the learners find solutions by suggesting sources to choose from. Encouraging and activating members of the group. Stimulating the learners by gradually introducing new incentives to work on

Utilitarian type

Oriented to individual goals. Not interested in co-operation or personal involvement in learning. Expects concrete instructions and tips. Performs most of the assigned tasks on their own

Assessing the learners’ potential and establishing with them the gradual stages of learning. Clarifying the steps to make assessment techniques and providing all materials to carry out the tasks. Emphasising incorporation of new knowledge into the learner’s existing experiential system

The specificity of senior education requires teachers to adopt a variety of teaching roles. Accordingly, Grow (1991) proposed a four-stage process to help senior learners ease into self-directed and critical education. In Stage 1, the educator acts as a coach who provides informational lectures and immediate feedback and is in charge of overcoming any deficiency and resistance in the learners. In this process learners need to be treated with respect and their potential has to be utilised. Basic instruments for efficient coaching include non-verbal communication, active listening and effective questioning techniques. The teacher-coach has to look for efficient ways of dealing with new material and show support and respect. Such teachers are more focused on making changes rather than already obtained results and concentrate on positive abilities rather than mistakes that have been made.

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In Stage 2 teachers adopt the role of a mentor whose responsibility is to encourage senior learners in their classroom work and provide guidance throughout the whole learning process. Older learners who are particularly vulnerable to criticism and failures require mentors to be motivating, observant and supportive, but also to the provide proper conditions for efficient learning. Mentors need to show compassion and thoughtfulness towards senior learners. Finally, a teacher who assumes the role of a mentor should instruct and provide advice, be a good negotiator and a person who knows how to make their learners self-directed through strategy training (Derenowski, 2018). Becoming a facilitator is the primary objective of the third stage which means that learners are treated as equal and activities such as seminars and group projects are implemented. Through dialogues teacher and learners may express their points of view and opinions and look for the best solutions to potential problems. This is especially important for older learners who have extensive life experience to draw from (Kurantowicz et al., 2013). Finally, in the last stage (Stage 4), the teacher assumes the role of a consultant, which ‘entails the implementation of internship, presentations and individual or group work’ (Ramírez Gómez, 2016: 176). The predominant aim of this fi nal stage is to help learners become self-directed. In order to do this teachers have to identify learners’ needs depending on their personal experience. However, with this particular age group it may be difficult to develop autonomous behaviours because seniors are usually teacher-dependent and prefer to follow instructions provided by the teachers. Some of the actions that a consultant may incorporate in his or her teaching encompass a fast reaction to learners’ needs, a flexible approach to the specificity of the language-learning process and learners’ individual differences. Furthermore, it is essential for a consultant to have well-developed social skills such as: easiness in making contacts with other people, building good relations with the group, group-work skills, developing interest in the learning topics, developing and sustaining motivation and effective anxiety-reducing techniques (Kurantowicz et al., 2013). Table 3.14 summarises these four stages. In 2017, I conducted a small-scale study which sought to identify the characteristic features of foreign language teachers who work with senior learners enrolled in a course in English as a foreign language at a U3A. More precisely, I hoped to find out which distinctive features of a language educator are perceived as indispensable while teaching English to senior learners. The participants of the study were 15 learners, nine females and six males, recruited on a voluntary basis from two groups attending courses in English as a foreign language at the University of Applied Sciences in Konin, Poland. The data were collected during two group interviews with the participants of the study, who were very reluctant to take part in the discussions and some of them refused to participate. After

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Table 3.14 Roles assumed by teachers who work with senior learners (summary of Grow, 2001) Stage 1 Coach

Stage 2 Guide/mentor

Stage 3 Facilitator

Stage 4 Consultant

• Providing informational lectures • Providing immediate feedback • Overcoming deficiency and resistance in learners. • Observe learners’ work, look for new learning ideas

• Motivate and guide the learner • Negotiate the curriculum • Provide support • Dupport selfdirected behaviours • Show empathy and understanding • Present professional approach

• Finding solutions to problems through dialogues, group discussions and projects • Reaching a group consensus • Helping to find solutions • Selecting the proper materials • Monitoring the learners’ work

• Develop selfdirectness among senior learners • Reduce anxiety • Flexible approach to the specificity of the language learning process and learners’ individual differences

the interviews, the collected data were subjected to a combination of quantitative and qualitative analysis, with the former consisting of tabulating relevant responses and the latter involving the identification of some common themes that were indicative of the characteristics best describing educators who work with senior learners. In order to make the study results more comprehensive, I came up with a pre-arranged classification of teacher characteristics consisting of four general categories: • • • •

organisation skills – clear explanation, being well prepared, using clear examples, facilitating learning, providing meaningful context; theoretical preparation – thorough command of the topic, presenting various perspectives, presenting facts and concepts from the related fields, presenting other points of view; enthusiasm – being an energetic and dynamic person, enjoying teaching, having an enthusiastic approach and an aura of self-confidence, being charismatic; interaction skills – using humour, developing a friendly atmosphere, being a good public speaker, encouraging autonomous behaviour, stimulating, sensitive to students’ needs and motivations, being fair and approachable, giving advice, providing feedback, concerned about the quality of their teaching.

According to the respondents, the features which best describe educators include such characteristics as those shown in Table 3.15. Senior respondents seem to be predominantly concerned with the interaction skills of a teacher and the affective aspect of their teaching (Jaroszewska, 2013; Niżegorodcew, 2012). They expect the educators to create a friendly atmosphere and show empathy. Educators may want to also consider spending some time on developing communication strategies or providing their learners with opportunities to work together on specific tasks. ‘Sharing failures is easier than facing them alone. It seems equally

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Table 3.15 Senior education characteristics Teacher characteristic

No. of respondents

Compassionate

14

Shows understanding

13

Creates friendly atmosphere

12

Encouraging

12

Enthusiastic

11

Self-confident

11

Energetic

11

Patient

11

Flexible

10

Gives time

8

Gives advice

6

Is fair

5

Explains clearly

4

Well prepared

4

Provides context

3

important to facilitate prospects for senior students to be open with one another and discover others’ perspectives in a safe classroom environment. Although, creating friendly atmosphere in the classroom is favoured by learners of every age, for this particular age group the feeling of security and low anxiety seem to be predominantly significant’ (Derenowski, 2018, as cited in Gabryś-Barker, 2018: 155). Furthermore, the feeling of security is often mentioned as particularly significant while teaching senior learners. Further analysis of the consecutive teacher attributes shows a set of traits that are closely related to the ‘enthusiasm’ of an educator. Senior learners also expect their educators to display enthusiasm, self-confidence, energy and encouragement. As Tauber and Mester (1995: 11) write: ‘Teacher enthusiasm plays a central role in holding students’ attention, generating students’ interest, and developing students’ positive attitudes towards learning. Highly enthusiastic teachers are highly expressive in vocal delivery, gestures, body movement, and overall energy level. All of these are crucial ingredients that, in turn contribute to greater student achievement’. Additionally, educators who work with older learners are expected to be patient and provide their learners with enough time to complete the task.’ ‘Being fair’ was another interaction skill mentioned by the respondents which may turn out to be one of the most essential teacher skills, since it is closely related to such issues as student enthusiasm and teacher esteem. In turn, organisational skills encompassed clear explanations, being well prepared  and providing meaningful context. Interestingly, some students

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highlighted the age of the teacher as being important in the language learning process. During the interviews, the participants pointed out that they preferred older teachers because they made them feel less intimidated (Derenowski, 2018). Final Remarks

After living a long and colourful life, Allan Karlsson fi nds himself stuck in a nursing home. On his 100th birthday, he leaps out a window and begins an unexpected journey. This is how a book by Swedish author Jonas Jonasson The 100-Year-Old Man Who Climbed Out of the Window and Disappeared starts and it is just the beginning of a fabulous and exciting journey that Allan Karlsson is going to experience. A slightly different journey but still equally exhilarating, stimulating and remarkable awaits senior learners who decide to embark on it, start learning and start learning foreign languages in particular. Why are senior learners so important for educators? The reasons are plentiful. One of the macro reasons is that the societies are aging and people are living longer. The United Nations estimated that between 2018 and 2050, the population aged 60 in every country will increase and there is expected to be a three-to-one ratio by 2030, and a four-to-one ratio by 2050. Within many countries, increased life expectancy and declining birth rates are pushing up the average age of the population. In Japan, the median age has risen from 26 in 1952 to 46 today. In China, it has risen from 24 to 37 over the same period, and is expected to reach 48 by 2050 (Scott, 2018). Furthermore, those who retire, usually at the age of 65, are often autonomous as well as physically and mentally active and they want to stay that way. Continuous development in technology and wide range of available resources allow for greater autonomy of learners. Additionally, the world around us has become smaller and it is easier to travel and experience intercultural exchange. However, the third-age generation presents a significant deficit in foreign languages (Poland may be a very good example). Therefore, governments, especially in developed countries, are promoting lifelong learning and third-age education. For many seniors third-age education is a unique opportunity to compensate for lost time and fulfill their ambitions. Despite the growing interest in third-agers and lifelong education, the research on these issues are still scant and we do not know much about how older adults learn. Questions to Consider

(1) How is transformative learning beneficial to senior learners? What is the role of reflection in education? (2) What are some of the characteristics of senior learners that you consider essential in the educational context?

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(3) What are some of the suggestions for educators who design a course for senior learners? (4) How can language learning be facilitated for senior learners? Think of some additional suggestions. (5) What specific characteristics are expected from educators who work with senior learners? Should there be an extra component in pre-service education concerning senior learners? Suggested Readings Antoniou, M., Gunasekera, G.M. and Wong, P.C.M. (2013) Foreign language training as cognitive therapy for age-related cognitive decline: A hypothesis for future research. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 37 (10), 2689–2698. Glisky, E.L. (2007) Changes in cognitive function in human aging. In D.R. Riddle (ed.) Brain Aging: Models, Methods, and Mechanisms (pp. 3–20). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Grossman, P., Neimann, L., Schmidt, S. and Walach, H. (2004) Mindfulness-based stress reduction and health benefits: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 57, 35–43. Hess, T.M., Hinson, J.T. and Hodges, E.A. (2009) Moderators of and mechanisms underlying stereotype threat effects on older adults’ memory performance. Experimental Aging Research 35, 153–177. Johnstone, R. (2002) Addressing ‘The Age Factor’: Some Implications for Languages Policy. Language Policy Division Directorate of School, Out-of-School and Higher Education DGIV. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Knowles, M., Holton, E. and Swanson, R. (2011) The Adult Learner: The Definitive Classic in Adult Education and Human Resource Development. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Levy, B.R. and Schlesinger, M.J. (2005) When self-interest and age stereotypes collide: Elders opposing increased funds for programs benefiting themselves. Journal of Aging & Social Policy 17, 25–39. Mortensen, L., Meyer, A.S. and Humphreys, G.W. (2006) Age-related effects on speech production: A review. Language and Cognitive Processes 21, 238–290. Salthouse, T.A. (1991) Theoretical Perspectives on Cognitive Aging. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Walach, H., Nord, E., Zier, C., Dietz-Waschowski, B., Kersig, S. and Schupbach, H. (2007) Mindfulness-based stress reduction as a method for personnel development: A pilot evaluation. International Journal of Stress Management 14 (2), 188–198. Willott, J.F. (1991) Aging and the Auditory System: Anatomy, Physiology, and Psychophysics. San Diego, CA: Singular Press.

4 Voices from the Classroom

Introduction

In recent years we have observed a growing interest in foreign language acquisition and aging as the philosophy of lifelong learning is becoming one of the dominant trends in educational policies all around the world, having its reflection in the official documents of the European Union and other organisations. There is a growing tendency to perceive senior learners as a group with specific characteristics and needs. On the one hand, older learners are faced with negative stereotyping that with time memory, cognitive and physical abilities decline. On the other hand, there is evidence that senior learners can be successful in foreign language learning and that age-related decline is not necessarily a problem when it comes to language learning. Of course, senior learners may experience weaker memory, slowing down of cognitive processes and reduced auditory and visual acuity. However, these challenges may be overcome by foreign language educators since, as Plutarch said: ‘Old age is not “evil”’, on the contrary it may be considered as ‘good, imparting genuine and honorable existence to the dawning of the human life amidst the everchanging world’ (Plutarch, 1936). Zych (2012) and Szarota (2014) unanimously state that the 21st century can be described as the ‘century of the old’ or ‘the third age century’. Medical advancements, increase health awareness, more active life and dynamic development of modern civilisation are resulting in extended life expectancy of the human population. Of course this is not occurring everywhere and not with the same quality and pace. There are still societies and places around the world where people are suffering from malnutrition, contagious diseases, starvation and repression. We cannot forget about them. However, in Europe alone almost 22 million people are over 80 years old and this number is going to double by 2050. Therefore, various institutions need to adjust their offer to a growing population of active seniors. Universities of the third age, local cultural organisations, ERASMUS+ programmes, Social Activation of Seniors, etc., are just some of the opportunities available for older members of our societies to stay active after reaching the third or even the fourth age. Another growing field of senior activity is foreign language education, which is rapidly increasing in popularity. Almost every U3A offers foreign language classes to seniors who would like 100

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to improve their language skills, avoid social seclusion, make contact with families abroad or travel to other countries. According to a study conducted by Socrates Grundtvig Education and Culture Center, there seems to be no specified methodology for teaching languages to 50+ learners. Consequently, there still seems to be no specific approach in pre-service foreign language teacher training that can ensure that the teaching of foreign languages occurs in the most efficient way. This is regrettably consistent with the author’s experience. The majority, if not all, of the university syllabi do not take into account senior learners (50+) as a separate age group and do not include senior foreign language teaching as a distinctive part of pre-service foreign language teacher training. Volumes have been written about foreign language education for young learners. However, seniors seem to be still a neglected and overlooked age group, which urgently needs broader recognition in the field of foreign language education. Increased awareness of the specificity of senior learner education should result in significant changes in foreign language pre-service teacher training as well as establishing a new profi le of a senior foreign language educator with new knowledge, characteristics, roles to assume and skills. The predominant aim of this chapter is to present the results of the study conducted in order to create a more accurate description of senior learners who decide to attend foreign language courses, and fi nd out more about their perception of themselves as language learners as well as investigating their motive for taking up learning, sometimes after a very long period of time. Additionally, the study aims at describing the potential challenges that senior learners may face while learning a language together with the strategies they employ while dealing with these problems. Furthermore, the author wanted to fi nd out more about preferred techniques and instruments as well as the activities used in a language classroom designed for senior learners. Finally, a more succinct description of teacher characteristics was created for the sake of future pre-service teacher training and teacher professional development. The first part of the chapter, Section 4.1, presents a description of the study aims designed in a form of seven study objectives and Section 4.2 includes a thorough description of the study participants. These participants are later divided into more precise age groups 55–59, 60–69, 70–79 and 80–89 years. The participants come from diverse educational, social, professional and economic backgrounds and present an assortment of life experiences and characteristics. Section 4.3 contained a description of the instruments used in the study, namely, questionnaires for students and for teachers. Additionally, two selected educators are asked to take part in an interview conducted by the author. More specifically, Section 4.3.1 contains more detailed information about the survey designed for teachers which is based on a survey designed by Jaroszewska in 2013 and Section 4.3.2 discusses the questionnaire prepared for the learners. In Section

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4.3.3, the questions asked during the interview are presented. They are related to the respondents’ expectations towards a foreign language course for senior learners as well as potential differences between courses for different age groups and ways in which teachers prepared their language courses for senior learners. Sections 4.4 and 4.5 present the results obtained from questionnaires and interviews and the analysis. The former concerns students whereas the latter focuses on the educators. A comparative look at the two groups of respondents is included in both sections in order to make the understanding of the data easier. Finally, there are also teachers’ opinions presented during the interviews, which complete the results. 4.1 Aims of the Study

The study is particularly significant from the author’s perspective since research into teacher education across the world notes that pre-service teachers typically bring deeply ingrained conceptions of teaching, learning and education. Despite a range of innovations in teacher education over the last 30 years, research continues to observe how pre-service teachers’ preexisting conceptions strongly mediate their learning journey towards the teaching profession. The author hopes that the results of the study will give an important incentive for significant modifications and adjustments in the pre-service foreign language teacher training and result in more efficient training of future educators who are about to face the potential challenges of senior education. Keeping the above in mind, the study includes a set of objectives to investigate: Objective 1. Generate a more clear-cut profi le of a senior (50+) foreign language learner. Objective 2. Investigate how seniors perceive themselves as proficient foreign language learners. Objective 3. Find out more about senior learners’ motives and expectations towards a foreign language courses. Objective 4. Investigate the potential challenges that senior learners face. Objective 5. Discover the strategies that senior learners use to facilitate the process of language learning. Objective 6. Investigate senior learners’ preferred techniques and instruments, as well as activities in a language classroom. Objective 7. Identify teacher characteristics and (new) roles adopted by foreign language educators who work with senior learners. 4.2 Participants

Senior learners comprise two very dissimilar groups; one of them includes older learners who are very willing to cooperate and the other includes those who are very insecure and reluctant towards participating

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in any form of study concerning them as learners. Therefore, after a few months of sending requests, negotiating and trying to convince senior learners about the value of such a study, 200 participants decided to contribute to the survey part of the study. These 200 senior students came from three Polish U3A in Konin, Zielona Góra and Poznań. In other schools, senior students refused to participate in the study. Out of these 200 respondents 180 (90%) were female and only 20 (10%) students were male. It seems that women are more active after retirement and they are more willing to participate in educational courses organised by U3A. It seems that men after retirement prefer to take up more active hobbies such as fishing or gardening. Another reason for such a discrepancy in numbers may be simply the fact that statistically women live longer than men. In Poland average life expectancy for women is 81.9 and for men it is 73.9. In 2015, there was an average life expectancy in the EU of 79.6 years for both females and males, with higher life expectancy for females (82.4) and lower for males (76.6). Age was another factor that contributed to the multiplicity of senior students, who were divided into four groups. Table 4.1 presents the age groups taking part in the study. The youngest student was 55 years of age and the oldest was 87 years old. Differences in particular age groups and the fact that 60-year-olds constitute the largest group may be explained by the fact that in Poland 60 is the retirement age for women, who constitute 80% of the students, while the retirement age for men is 65. On the other hand, those younger than 60 years of age are often still professionally active and have little time to study. The oldest members of the language groups are a superb affirmation of the potential in old age and the vital energy still present, mentally and physically, as well as the motivation to stay active despite the passage of time. Studies examining U3A (Huang, 2005; Yenerall, 2003) have shown the important role of the young elderly (third age) in efforts to age actively and successfully as well as the benefits offered by these learning centres to society. A similar opinion has been presented by Formosa (2012), according to whom ‘Third Age Universities help older members of the society to integrate and create their own social environment’. The results of the study seem to indicate that the majority of the respondents had completed higher education (164 participants – 82%) and the remaining group (18%) Table 4.1 Age groups in the study Age (years)

Participants

55–59

10 respondents, 5%

60–69

120 students, 60%

70–79

56 students, 28%

80–89

14 students, 7%

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had graduated from senior high school. This may indicate that people with lower educational level and non-citizens do not attend educational facilities for older citizens or they have no access to such facilities. One of the most important roles of lifelong education has been the reduction of social exclusion and loneliness. Unfortunately, it seems that there is still a group of seniors who, for different reasons, is barred from education. It may be the result of decreased self-awareness, lack of self-confidence or lower educational level. A stereotypical point of view may be that it is because of limited fi nances that these seniors do not attend classes. However, there may be one more explanation, although also based on existing social stereotypes. The results showed that an overwhelming majority of the participants lived in big cities (10%) and towns of up to 50,000 inhabitants (86%). Only 4% of the respondents mentioned villages when asked about their place of residence. On the one hand, times have changed and nowadays villages are not isolated from the rest of the country and people who live there are well educated. On the other hand, it is possible that farm responsibilities keep some of the seniors active enough and preoccupied with everyday errands. Perhaps farming provides these people with self determination and develops a state of belonging, personal realisation and self-acceptance. In this case, online courses and workshops could turn out to be an effective solution for limited attendance of people from the countryside. The professional sphere of the students’ lives includes an assortment of various lines of work with one dominant group – teachers, comprising 29% of all the respondents, mainly in the age group between 70 and 79 years. It seems that educators, despite retirement, still need increased intellectual stimuli and, to put it simply, they ‘cannot live without school’. In the age group between 60 and 69 years, the prevailing group consists of economists who constitute 15% of all the students. Other popular professions include lawyers (12%), pharmacists (8%), accountants (8%), electricians (7%) and construction engineers (5%). Other occupations included a sanitary engineer, an environmental engineer, an electronics engineer, a mechanic, a radiology technician, a thermo-engineering expert, a dentist, a nurse, a gardener, a trade technician, a road technician, a textile manufacturer, a food technologist, a geophysicist, a commodity specialist and a constructor of measuring equipment, as well as a sociologist, a biochemist, a chemist, a computer programmer, a physicist, a political expert, a soldier and one designer. The remaining respondents described themselves as retired or unqualified workers. The list of professions represented by the senior learners seems to prove that U3A embrace an exceptionally diverse assembly of professions which may support the notion of TAU being a congregation of various people who want to remain intellectually and physically active despite their age. Senior students were also asked about their previous and current language-learning experience. Figure 4.1 shows the results for this particular question.

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30% 58% 12%

All my adult life New experience Started recently

Figure 4.1 Language-learning experience

The majority of the participants had learned languages in their primary and secondary education. It comes as no surprise that over 80% of the students mentioned Russian as the language they had encountered most often, since Russian was an obligatory language for Polish learners up until 1990s. After the Second World War, Russian language was part of the political reality and was often treated with negligence and hostility by learners. The author himself had eight years of Russian languagelearning experience and remembers his negative attitude towards the language and target language culture. Nowadays, owing to the developing trading market with our Eastern neighbours, the Russian language is gaining more attention and a more positive response. Another popular language mentioned by almost 35% of the students was German, which is still taught in Polish schools. French and Spanish were also mentioned by the respondents; however, only a small percentage of students had had the opportunity to learn these languages. Despite its popularity in the 1980s and 1990s, the French language is becoming less popular in Polish schools and for the last 20 years it has been replaced by German and Spanish, which is gaining popularity among Polish students. The English language has always been present in Polish schools (mainly senior high schools); however, its popularity increased significantly after 1989 with the change in the political system in Poland and many other Eastern European countries. Nowadays, it is the most popular language taught in Polish kindergartens, schools and universities. One more language which was taught in Polish secondary education was Latin, mentioned by some of the respondents. Learning Latin provided many students with deductive skills and an analytical approach to learning other languages. In the present day, English is the most popular language, followed by German and French. A small number of seniors also speak Spanish (Figure 4.2). The other group of respondents consisted of 20 foreign language teachers with experience in working with senior learners. All of them are female educators, five with MA certificates and one with a PhD. All of the respondents have had over 15 years of teaching experience; however, their professional experience in teaching senior learners is less than 5–6 years.

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Spanish 2%

Languages learned today

French 10% German 13% English 75%

Figure 4.2 Languages learned today according to the respondents of the study

Their ages range between 40 and 58 years. All of them reported experience in working with senior learners in U3A and Open University courses. They also have experience in teaching foreign languages outside universities in all types of schools and private courses. Additionally, in order to obtain more data, two of the above described educators were asked take part in an interview. These two educators were selected owing to their professional and personal characteristics. The interviewees differ in age. One of them is about 30 years old whereas the other educator is close to retirement (63 years old). They also have extensive professional experience and teaching practice with senior learners. The older teacher is very professional and experienced and at the same time very open with extensive interpersonal skills. It is easy for her to control the group and efficiently respond to their emotional state and she makes her students feel comfortable and relaxed during classes. The other educator is also friendly and open towards senior learners; however, during classes she tries to keep a distance between herself and students. She seems to control the classes well but she appears more strict and reserved. During her lessons she uses more compensation strategies and seems to be empathetic towards her senior learners. 4.3 Instruments and Procedures

The study is based on questionnaires for students and teachers. The questioners for students were distributed and collected during one lesson so the return ratio is 100%. Teachers were also asked to fi ll in the surveys and return them after completion. Unfortunately, the return ratio for teacher questionnaires is low owing to teachers’ reluctance to be questioned by researchers. Therefore, the number of questionnaires collected for the purpose of this particular study is not high and includes only 20 surveys (10%). In order to create a more complete image of foreign language senior education, two teachers, described in the previous section, were interviewed in Polish by the author. Both interviews have been translated into English.

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4.3.1 Questionnaire for teachers

The alpha coefficient for the foreign language teachers’ questionnaire (Appendix 1) was α > 0.7 (0.742), suggesting that the items have relatively high internal consistency. The questionnaire was based on a survey designed by Anna Jaroszewska (2013). This particular survey has been modified and designed for the purpose of the study. It was distributed among teachers of foreign languages teaching at U3A in the Greater Poland region (Konin, Kalisz, Zielona Góra and Poznań). In the introductory part of this anonymous survey the respondents are informed about the aim of the study and that in most of the questions they can select more than one answer. The demographic section includes questions about the respondents’ gender and education. Additionally, information on the respondents’ professional experience and teaching practice outside university as well as their experience in working with senior learners is elicited here. The next part of the questionnaire that follows (Part II) is focused specifically on teaching foreign languages to senior learners and includes inquiries about possible motives for participating in a foreign language course by older adult learners. Some of the options include such reasons as: family abroad, travels, discovering new cultures, spending free time, keeping in touch with peers or other people’s influence. Another question focuses on senior learners’ expectations towards a foreign language course, including acceptable price, increased social activity, improvement of foreign language skills, intellectual development and discovering new cultures as well as personal dream fulfillment and accepting new life challenges. The educators were also asked to point out the most archetypal characteristics of senior learners. Some of these traits are positive, including: motivated, autonomous, active, openly expressing his/her opinions, open to new technologies and new forms of learning, etc., whereas other have been negative, including: anxious, demotivated, teacher-dependent and reserved. In the subsequent question (Question 4) educators have to decide which topics seem to be interesting for senior learners. Some of these topics include literature, culture, history, sport, politics, social issues, education, etc. Question 5 is focused on selected characteristics of good foreign language teachers who work with older adults. The list includes almost 30 traits; some of them are associated with the teacher’s personality (nice, charismatic, self-confident, enthusiastic, open to other people, etc.) and others with teacher behaviour in the classroom (helpful, sense of humour, just, creating friendly atmosphere, patient, understanding, motivating, involved, knows how to resolve confl icts, has an individual approach, is aware of the seniors’ needs, etc.). There are also traits focusing specifically on the teacher’s teaching conduct (has a good command of the language, knows the culture, adjusts the tempo and difficulty of the lesson to learners’ abilities, gives clear explanation, etc.). Finally,

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there are also traits related to teacher appearance (young, age closer to the age of the learners, neat, well dressed, etc.). Subsequent queries (Question 6 and 7) look more closely at materials and classroom work modes preferred by foreign language educators while working with senior learners. Teachers have to state which modes of classroom organisation are used during lessons, including discussions, pair and group work, and projects. In-class materials include coursebooks, films, photos, songs, newspapers, internet web sites, books, eBooks, interactive boards, etc. The teachers participating in the study were also asked about various adjustments used in the classroom while working with senior learners (Question 8), including: larger print, fewer words on the page, larger contrast, brighter light in the classroom, better audio quality, space between tables, louder voice, mimic and gestures, using native language, or using audiovisual aids, etc. Questions 9 and 10 focus on ways of increasing learners’ motivation and reducing stress during lessons. Answers in the survey include: pair and group work, introducing projects, audiovisual aids, technology and elements of culture, developing autonomy, adjusting the pace and difficulty of lessons to the learners’ abilities, native language, peer-assessment and positive feedback. Finally, meditation and learners’ personal life experience may be incorporated into learning. Educators may help learners reduce anxiety by using their names, developing a feeling of group identity or developing self-confidence and self-esteem. Learners may also receive positive feedback and emotional support from the teacher. Other ways of limiting anxiety among learners included in the questionnaire encompass using L1 and meditation techniques as well as learners’ life experience. Questions 11 and 12 are designed to obtain more data concerning forms of feedback provision and forms of assessment (written, oral, individual, group, technology enhanced testing or testing with the use of available learning materials). The three fi nal questions in the survey are directly associated with teachers’ experience in teaching foreign languages to senior learners. In Question 13 teachers have to decide about the effectiveness of their studies in preparing them for teaching senior learners. Question 14 inquires about the ways in which teachers broaden their knowledge concerning geragogy (workshops, observations, literature, etc.) whereas Question 15 asks teachers for any constructive suggestions concerning pre-service teacher education in relation to working with senior learners. The respondents also have additional space for extra comments concerning teaching foreign languages to senior learners. 4.3.2 Questionnaire for learners

The alpha coefficient for the foreign language teachers’ questionnaire (Appendix 2) was α > 0.7 (0.754), suggesting that the items have relatively

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high internal consistency. It was distributed among senior students participating in foreign language courses at U3A in the Greater Poland region (Konin, Kalisz, Zielona Góra and Poznań). In the introductory part of this anonymous survey the respondents are informed about the aim of the study and that in most of the questions they can select more than one answer. In order to make the questionnaire more convenient for the participants, the questionnaire has larger print, higher contrast and bigger spaces between lines. The survey is prepared in senior learners’ native language. In the introductory section of the questionnaire (Questions 1–4) learners are asked about their gender, education, place of living and profession. Furthermore, the participants are asked about the length of their contact with foreign languages and which languages they already know, have learned up to the day and are learning now. They can choose from the most popular languages in Polish schools in the last few decades (English, German, Russian and French). In Question 5, students decide about their personal motives for participating in a language course at a later age. Some of the reasons include travelling, family abroad, discovering new cultures or professional reasons. Other motives encompass personal ambitions or needs, such as: ‘my friends are learning languages’, ‘I always wanted to learn languages’, ‘foreign languages are my hobby’ and ‘cognitive training’. Senior learners are also asked about previous opportunities for learning foreign languages (Questions 6 and 7). Some of the respondents had contact with foreign languages only in school; some learned them individually at home, with a private tutor, or through a correspondence course. They are students of the U3A or of other courses in private schools. Question 8 focuses on practical factors determining students’ choice of the language course, including its price, location, familiar people, well-known teachers, easy access to school and classroom (e.g. elevator, ground floor), convenient day, the number of people in the group and educational materials. Two subsequent questions, 9 and 10, refer to potential factors that either facilitate the foreign language learning process or make it more challenging for senior learners. Family support, colleagues participating in the same course and a professional teacher are some of the factors that may facilitate the learning process. Apart from people who may facilitate the process of foreign language learning there are also course-related factors, including the intensity of the course, the pace of learning, frequent revisions, the size of the group, explicit focus on particular language skills, the coursebook, as well as audiovisual and authentic learning aids. There are also factors that inhibit the foreign language process among senior learners (Question 10) such as lack of fi nances, location of the course, difficult access, noise, classroom and materials not adjusted to senior learners’ needs and abilities, too large groups, pace of the course, monotony, too frequent revisions and teachers’ poor language skills. The

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last group of negative factors is associated with learners’ personality and physical health (I am too shy, anxiety, fear of negative evaluation, lack of support). Question 11 asks senior respondents about their personal expectations towards the foreign language course including acceptable price, professional design, focus on communication, discovering new cultures, staying intellectually active, making new friendships, being less lonely, becoming more socially active, taking on new challenges, being appreciated by others, fulfilling one’s personal dream. In Question 12, the respondents evaluate the attractiveness of selected topics to be included in the syllabus, such as literature, politics, education, social issues, everyday life, culture, history, sport, etc. Question 13 concerns teachers’ characteristics and lists the same selected traits from the teacher questionnaire. The idea behind it was the presumption that comparing teachers’ beliefs and students’ expectations could provide the researcher with valuable data concerning the profi le of a senior learners’ foreign language teacher. The two remaining questions (14 and 15) concentrate on the preferred ways of working during lessons and materials used by foreign language educators. One more time, these two queries are parallel to the questions included in the teachers’ questionnaire and encompass the same options to choose from. Finally, senior learners are provided with additional space for extra comments. 4.3.3 Interviews with teachers

As Benati (2015) writes: ‘Interviews are a useful data collection tool to capture beliefs, opinions, views and reflections from both learners and teachers’. Interviews as a research tool are particularly constructive for uncovering a participant’s personal experiences and pursuing a more indepth data concerning the topic. The interviews were conducted in Polish and comprised 15, initial, open-ended questions asked in hope of obtaining impartial answers from the selected educators (Appendix 3). Throughout the interviews the participants could add additional comments and express their opinions freely. The questions asked during the interview concerned the respondents’ expectations towards a foreign language course for senior learners (Question 1) as well as potential differences between courses for different age groups (Question 2). The interviewer also inquired about any specific preparations for senior classes and the accessibility of materials for such courses (Question 3). The respondents were also asked about the sources of information about senior learners (courses, workshops, postgraduate studies, literature, etc.; Question 4). Question 5 focuses specifically on adjustments and modifications designed for senior learners’ language courses as well as preferred techniques and activities used by the educators (Question 6). Question 7 concerns various aspects related to learners’ behaviour in the classroom, such as their motivation, anxiety, relations

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with other students and reactions to feedback from the teacher. Question 8 deals with teacher’s reflection concerning the perception of senior learners. The next three questions (9–11) aim at fi nding out more about the strengths and weakness of senior learners as well as their motives and relations with other students. Question 12 is directly related to questions in teachers’ and learners’ surveys and refers to the profile of a good foreign language teacher for senior learners. With the three remaining interview questions (13–15) the researcher is inquiring about the usefulness of the respondents’ previous teacher-training studies in relation to teaching language to senior learners, potential modifications to pre-service teacher training and fi nally useful advice to future teachers who may encounter senior learners on their professional path. 4.4 Voices from the Classroom – Students

Probably all of us experience the negative sensation of losing interest in activities that used to excite us. On the one hand, it seems natural as our lives undergo changes and we experience new things. On the other hand, it seems that some people have a more general decrease in their ability to experience pleasure in activities they used to fi nd enjoyable (anhedonia). Therefore, it was of a primary importance to start with an attempt to identify the reasons for attending foreign language courses by senior students who had 13 options to choose from (Table 4.2). Apart from the reasons included in the survey the students provided other motives for studying foreign languages such as: ‘corresponding with people abroad’, ‘all young people speak foreign languages’, ‘I like Roman languages’ and ‘postcrossing’, which is an online project that allows its members to send and receive postcards from all over the world. Its Table 4.2 Reasons for taking up a language course Learning languages for travelling abroad

62%

Family abroad

54%

Having too much free time

41%

Strong desire to learn a foreign language

40%

Necessity in the contemporary world

37%

Discovering new cultures

26%

Maintaining contacts with other people

25%

Language I learned in school

25%

Language learning is a hobby

17%

No special reason

10%

Necessary in my professional life

9%

Friends learning the same language

2%

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members, also known as postcrossers, send postcards to other members and receive postcards back from other random postcrossers. The results of the survey turn out to be even more attention-grabbing when we look at them in specific age groups (Table 4.3). It seems that for the 50–59 years senior age group language is predominantly perceived as a tool for professional practice which is essential to achieve success in business or help them in maintain professional contacts outside their country. It may look slightly stereotypical but it seems that people between 60 and 69 years have more free time, are still socially active, maintain relationships with other seniors, have enough resources to visit other countries and enough motivation to engage in new challenges. There exists a popular belief that today’s 40 is 20 and today’s 60 is 40. Calendar time is frequently perceived as an imperfect measurement of the physiological processes involved in the aging process. ‘Nowadays gerontologists instead of counting years and grey hair focus on biological markers or bio markers of aging which indicate an individual’s functional level. The presence of such biomarkers depends indirectly on patterns of gene expression, which are induced by a variety of internal or external stimuli’ (Arking, 2005). Therefore, aging has become a very individual concept and many older members of our societies refute existing negative stereotypes and take up sport, travel, learn and experience the world around them in ways previous generations would have never attempted. Senior learners who were 70+ took up language courses for two main reasons and it may come as no surprise that people over 70 years of age still feel the need to be cognitively stimulated and it is an optimistic observation that seniors are not only aware of such needs but also actively look for such opportunities. In a re-envisioned society, older adults actively engage in a range of meaningful activities, including art, music, languages and even culinary experiences. They socialise and experience a wide degree of freedom in choosing their preferred daily activities. The oldest members of the study, similarly to the previous age group, focus predominantly on staying cognitively active and exercise their brains. Table 4.3 Reasons for taking up language course 50–59 years

Professional reasons, 80%

Necessity in contemporary world, 60%

Family abroad, 54%

Hobby, 20%

60–69 years Travelling, 68%

Family abroad, 52%

Too much free time, 50%

Discovering Hobby, 40% other cultures, 42%

70–79 years

Maintain personal contacts, 56%

Families and friends abroad, 32%

Too much free time, 10%

Fulfilling personal ambitions, 50%

Too much, Family and free time, 25% friends abroad, 5%

To exercise the memory, 80%

80–89 years Cognitive stimulation, 100%

Discovering other cultures, 10%

Hobby, 10%

Discovering other cultures, 3%

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Some of these people experienced the Second World War and the postwar generation was deprived of regular education, so now they fi nd motivation and strength to fulfi ll their dreams. Such a diversified set of motives may pose a challenge for potential educators who work with senior learners. However, it may also be an advantage when designing course content for senior students because teachers may effectively engage learners in the learning process using their motivations, personal interests and extensive life experiences. Additionally, simple need analysis may be performed at the beginning of the course to fi nd out more about students’ motives and expectations. The extensive life experiences of seniors are naturally connected with their educational practices and ways they have learned foreign languages before and how they are learning foreign languages today. Frequent modifications and changes introduced into the educational system expose senior learners to a variety of learning and teaching methodologies. Therefore, it was important to fi nd out more about the ways in which seniors had learned foreign languages so far. It turned out that 12% of the respondents had contact with foreign languages only during their primary and secondary education. For most of these students it was Russian, which was an obligatory language in Polish schools until the 1990s. A small group of the senior learners (8%) attended private lessons and 4% of them had had some experience with commercial language courses. What is interesting is that none of them had tried online courses or correspondence courses, which may point to the stereotypical estimation that seniors are defi nitely members of the digital immigrants society rather than digital natives. This stereotype may soon become outmoded, since more and more seniors are attending computer courses organised by U3A. The increasing popularity of such courses often results from the fact that many seniors have families abroad and online contact is the only contact they may have with their grandchildren. Furthermore, seniors are becoming more active members of society and using digital technologies is becoming increasingly popular among older members of society, especially when digital companies introduce technology adjusted to seniors’ needs and abilities (e.g. mobile phones with larger digits or computer software with increased contrast). If seniors decide to participate in a foreign language course most of them, regardless of their age, expect mainly comfort, low prices and easy access. Figure 4.3 presents more precise information concerning the potential expectations of senior learners. The choice of small student groups is surprising because seniors often mention socialising as an important factor in their language education. However, this may stem directly from seniors’ low self-esteem and increased anxiety during foreign language lessons. Fewer participants in a language group allows for a more personal approach and a friendly atmosphere in the classroom. However, other factors are less didactic in

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60% 50% 40% 30% 20%

10%

Percentage

0%

Figure 4.3 Expectations of senior learners towards a language course

nature and more ‘technical’. It comes as no surprise, especially in the context of Poland, that fi nancial and logistic factors govern seniors’ decisionmaking processes. Most of the students are retired and owing to low retirement income, they need to carefully decide how that money is spent. Often they have to make difficult decisions concerning their fi nances and equally often other, more existential reasons, prevail. Maybe policy makers, local governments or university authorities should provide senior citizens and non-citizens with free of charge courses or at least introduce a senior discount for various educational activities. It would undoubtedly help them to become more integrated with the rest of society. The results of the study and discussions with senior learners seem to indicate that, apart from logistics and finances, senior students from all age groups feel more comfortable when their friends take the same course and when they know the educator. Again, it seems that participating in a foreign language course increases seniors’ apprehension and is influenced by their low self-esteem. With age, we pay more attention to other peoples’ opinions and our mental strength weakens. Therefore, it is natural that when older learners decide to participate in any educational event, they need to feel comfortable, and familiar surroundings is one of those things that help seniors feel at ease while learning. Additionally, the personality and professionalism of the educator, which are discussed in the following sections, are of fundamental importance. The opinions presented above are supported by the individual opinions of senior learners who also wrote: • • • •

‘lack of stress’ ‘the same age of the students’ ‘teacher’s personality’ ‘great teacher’

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60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

Figure 4.4 Facilitating factors according to senior students participating in the study

Apart from stress-free environment and professional educators, there are other factors which are crucial for facilitating the learning process. The most popular ‘facilitators’ mentioned by all senior learners, regardless of the age group are presented in Figure 4.4. When it comes to the foreign language classroom, senior students, especially the 70–79 and 80–89 year age groups, feel less anxious when they can manage the pace of the lesson and they are presented with repeated revisions of the previously covered material. Furthermore, aiding their learning with audio and visual aids should not be a surprising factor, since senior learners may exhibit certain physiological limitations. Slower pace and frequent revisions provide seniors with confidence and a feeling of control over their learning process, which, in turn, lowers their apprehension in the classroom. Therefore, it may be surprising, to some extent, that 37% of the students mentioned focus on speaking and listening during classes as a facilitating factor. From the author’s experience and classroom observations, it seems that senior students are often very inhibited when they are expected to say something in a foreign language. However, they are also very motivated and satisfied when they say something in proper English and are praised by the teacher or fellow students. Perhaps this was in the minds of the respondents when pointing to speaking practice as a facilitating factor. Every age group requires a teacher’s positive appraisal; however, older students are exceedingly motivated when being praised by the teacher. Alongside the above, the respondents also pointed to other, less popular facilitators such as: • • • • •

travelling or family abroad (9%); friends attending the same course (7%); intensity of the course (6%); self-study (6%); and family support (5%).

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Willingness to participate in a foreign language course is an amalgamation of motivating as well as demotivating factors equally. Not surprisingly, some of these demotivators, mentioned predominantly by the two oldest senior age groups, encompass health-related issues. It seems natural that senior students have to face health-related problems and it is teachers’ responsibility to cater for these setbacks with, as mentioned before, frequent revisions, visual aids, larger print, higher contrast, good quality listening equipment or more space between tables in the classroom. It also comes as no surprise that older learners are more sensitive about the way they are seen by other peers. Positive self-image is one of the major concerns of elders in the classroom and in their everyday social existence. Educators need to assume the role of facilitators and create a non-stressful environment in the classroom by making learners feel secure and comfortable. This can be achieved by positive reinforcement, positive feedback provision, incorporation of appropriate learning techniques, adjusting the pace and intensity of foreign language learning, pair and group work, etc. Furthermore, it seems that designing learning materials for senior learners may pose some challenges owing to the fact that this particular age group encompasses people who may differ in age as much as two or even three decades. In the study every tenth student mentioned age differences as the major obstacle in language learning. One of the students wrote down: ‘I enjoy the company of people my age and interests’. Seeing senior learners as a homogenous age group may lead to potential problems during lessons. Therefore, teachers need to perform a detailed need analysis in order to fi nd out more about the expectations, knowledge and abilities of their students. Perhaps they should spend the first lesson negotiating with learners the content of the classes as well as other issues, such as pace, difficulty or language topics. Such negotiations may give senior learners a feeling of being, at least to some extent, responsible for course design and may, in turn, increase their motivation during classes. When it comes to demotivating factors, Table 4.4 presents most common factors mentioned by the participants as influencing senior students’ lack of motivation. Senior learners seem to be disheartened by the same factors as other age groups. Intensity and pace may demotivate students regardless of the age. Furthermore, it is crucial to notice that teacher personality is high on the list. Of course it seems virtually impossible to find teachers who would satisfy the expectations of all of the participants. However, maybe teachers who work with senior learners should present a specific set of characteristics that are indispensable when working with older learners. Senior learners also seem to be sensitive about the opinions of other learners. Maybe this is why too large groups are so high on the list, as well as being evaluated by other participants. Other factors are more connected with potential health problems and age-related deficiencies. Therefore, it seems important to create a positive image of senior learners and increase their

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Table 4.4 Major demotivating factors in senior course participation Too large groups

26%

Too intensive classes

25%

Teacher personality

24%

Too fast pace

15%

Being evaluated by other members of the course

15%

Memory problems

10%

Financial problems

10%

Materials not being adjusted to the level and abilities of the senior learners

10%

Age differences

10%

Vision and hearing problems

9%

Too much noise

6%

Problems with concentration

5%

Educational facility not adjusted to the senior learners’ abilities and needs

5%

Walking problems

2%

Difficult access to the educational facility

2%

self-esteem. It was also interesting to see that six respondents (3%) mentioned inarticulate/unclear teacher’s speech and 14% pointed to monotonous classes as the major obstacles in efficient course participation. These opinions indicate two crucial aspects of foreign language teacher training. First of all, senior learner educators should not assume that old age equals low expectations and should design their classes with attractiveness being one of the highest priorities. Teachers should also remember to adjust the level, pace and appropriate design of the learning materials. Second, future foreign language teacher training needs to cater for the highest quality of foreign language skills, including pronunciation. Additionally, the pre-service teacher training curriculum should include classes in diction and voice emission which would prepare future teachers to use their voices in a professional, distinctive and comprehensible manner. Participation in a foreign language course is often based on certain expectations towards the course itself. 106 students wrote that they expected the course to equip them with sufficient communication skills (62% of the 50–59 and 75% of the 60–69 year old group members) which will later facilitate their travelling experiences (56% of the 50–59 and 63% of the 60–69 year old group members). Again, it may indicate that certain groups of seniors are still active and they see language as an instrument for fulfilling their travel plans and ambitions. Members of the 70–79 and 80–89 year old groups expect foreign language courses to function as their memory and intellectual stimulator. 73% of the former and 83% of the latter group underlined intellectual activity improvement as one of the prevailing expectations towards a

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foreign language course. It should come as no surprise that oldest members of the U3A perceive foreign language courses as an ideal place to be intellectually stimulated. This is especially optimistic in the context of Poland, because it acts against the negative stereotyping of older members of the society who are ‘too old to try something new’ and looking after grandchildren is the only stimulation they are expected to experience. It may indicate that social perception of seniors is beginning to change as they are seen as capable of maintaining their cognitive abilities even in the later stages of life. Other, important expectations mentioned by the participants of the study are presented in Table 4.5. I would like to focus the readers’ attention on the expectation connected with the negative feeling of loneliness. Even if it received less attention than other factors, it seems to be noteworthy not just for didactic but, more importantly, for societal benefits. ‘The beginning of the old age is blurred and difficult to establish. Symbolically entering old age is often associated with retirement; however, very often the beginning of old age is linked with the feeling of loneliness and being marginalized’ (Krupa, 2012). Loneliness is a sensation that restricts positive emotions and results in social isolation and stepping back from social activities, especially among seniors, who often perceive their lives through the concept of stagnation and inability to change. Universities of the Third Age became a place where older people can effectively overcome the sensation of loneliness. In the language classroom teachers should be aware of that problem and provide their senior learners with a friendly, supportive and welcoming atmosphere. Learners need to feel that they have become members of ‘small communities’ which provide them with a sense of belonging. Perhaps a conclusion, as far-fetched as it may be, is that it is even more significant than language learning itself. Senior learners were also asked about preferred topics, materials and forms of learning arrangement during classes. When it comes to topics, practical issues (65% of the respondents) and family life (74%) were Table 4.5 Expectations of senior learners Maintaining contact with families

46%

Making new acquaintances

43%

Learning new vocabulary

43%

Increased social activity

37%

Fulfilling dreams

34%

New challenges

28%

Discovering new cultures

25%

Improving pronunciation

25%

To be more appreciated by other family members

10%

Feeling less lonely

8%

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selected as the most anticipated ones, followed by culture-related issues, history, literature and social problems (25%). Only a small group of respondents were interested in discussing politics and sport. Seniors also mentioned geography and tourism as topics to be considered by teachers. Surprisingly, only 5% of the respondents expect teachers to present topics related to issues connected with seniors. It seems that senior learners have enough contact with senior-related issues outside the classroom and expect teachers to present them with more universal and less age-related topics. At the same time, educators who work with senior learners can make use of their students’ life experience and extensive knowledge of the world. When it comes to materials used in the classroom, 86% of the respondents, regardless of their age, mentioned coursebook as the most preferred learning aid. The pedagogical factors to be considered while selecting a coursebook are plenty and include, for example, suitability for the particular age group, cultural appropriateness, teaching methodology, level, quality, skills, teacher’s book, variety, pace, etc. In Poland in recent years, publishers have introduced coursebooks designed specifically for senior learners. One of the recent ones, I Am Your Grandpa, is a coursebook designed by Center of Senior Activity Silver Krowodrza and is dedicated to seniors who are beginning their adventure with the English language. More interestingly, seniors were actively involved in the process of coursebook design. The table of contents for another coursebook available on the market includes such topics as: bank account and retirement, hobbies, hotel reservation and sanatorium, visiting doctor and pharmacy, diseases, health care and accidents. Other popular learning aids according to respondents include the internet, mentioned by 30% of the students, visual aids (28%) and movies (24%). Selecting the internet as a favoured learning support seems to especially important since as Peacock and Kunemund (2007: 2) write: ‘Being a non-liner excludes senior people from knowledge of current news, medical information, and connectivity to family members, social support, interactive play, and task oriented goals’. Furthermore, internet technology has the potential for assisting seniors in a large variety of situations related to aging (Loges & Jung, 2001; Selwyn et al., 2003). Computer courses constitute a significant part of the U3A offer and senior students attend them in large quantities. The author’s mother is one of the computer class students and in the last two years she has became a very proficient internet user. She has become active on Facebook and Twitter, sends emails and talks to her friends on Messenger. Not surprisingly, books and newspapers (20%) also turned out to be popular learning aids among senior students who come from the ‘book reading’ generation and for whom printed materials are an indispensable part of their educational experience. Some of them (4%) pointed also to radio broadcasts, which was also a popular form of obtaining information in the last decades of the 20th century. A far-reaching conclusion may

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be that educators who work with seniors need to adjust to the expectations of their students and rejuvenate the more traditional ways of teaching foreign languages. Apart from educational materials senior students were also asked about their preferences concerning forms of student interaction during classes and it turned out that group and pair work and whole class discussions are most preferred by older learners. These forms of co-operation are mentioned by over 50% of all the respondents, regardless of their age. Working in smaller groups with people they accept or even with their close friends or spouses may significantly lower the stress and make learning more enjoyable, especially among older learners whose self-confidence is often lower than among other age groups. Tsui (1995: 90) observes that group work is one of the most effective ways ‘to create a relaxing atmosphere, in which students feel comfortable to try out the target language and make mistakes’. However, educators should remember that students should not get too accustomed to always being with the same group partners because outside the classroom they are going to encounter a variety of people to communicate with. Furthermore, when looking at the size of a group, Richards and Lockhart (2001: 153) write that ‘if the size of the group is too large, student interaction may be affected’ and Hwee Hwang and Ananthi (2017) hold the position that the decision about group size should be made on the basis of the student age. However, they also point out that that larger groups may be a good idea for older learners because in bigger groups it is easier to come up with various solutions owing to previously acquired experience and knowledge. From the researcher’s experience, senior learners are rather more willing to actively participate in discussions and language work when groups are no bigger than six students. At the same time, only 17% of the senior students pointed to individual work and only 4% mentioned project work as a preferable form of classroom work. Working individually allows for adjusting the pace of performed activities to the learner’s abilities and this may, in turn, lower the feeling of anxiety in senior learners who often need more time to complete language tasks. Lower self-confidence presented by many seniors in the foreign language classroom may be another factor influencing the choice of individual work by senior learners. Through individual work senior learners may become more autonomous and work on foreign language aspects at their own pace. By working through a particular language problem senior learners’ confidence may improve even if they are not certain about every step of their performance. Senior learners may also practise self-control by staying focused on a particular task and become more creative and effective in problem-solving situations. A classroom strategy that seems to be in danger of extinction among contemporary students is note taking, which proved to be very popular among senior students (56%), who probably make use of the experiences

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from their previous stages of education. Effective note-taking skills seem to be essential for any university student, especially today when many students rely too much on technology. Good note-taking skills allow for later revision and reduce the risk of plagiarism. Efficient development of note-taking skills is important for several reasons. Sometimes teachers may decide to include additional information not found in coursebooks but essential for learners. Senior learners have an advantage over their younger counterparts who either copy down everything from the power point slideshow or take pictures of the slides. Note taking poses additional challenge for educators who need to adjust their presentation skills and habits to the expectations of the senior learners. The questionnaire for senior students included one more question that exclusively focused on expected characteristics of a good educator who works with senior learners in a foreign language classroom. Senior learners were presented with almost 30 characteristics of a high-quality foreign language teacher, some of which focused on the specificity of senior education. In order to make the picture clearer, the obtained results were analysed in the four previously mentioned, age groups – 55–59, 60–69, 70–79 and 80–89 years – and the characteristics were put into four separate categories, i.e. interactive, pedagogical, didactic and language related (Komorowska, 2002). The obtained results are presented in Table 4.6, with four senior age groups distinguished for more coherent view. When it comes to didactic qualities, one teacher characteristic was mentioned most often by senior learners, regardless of the age group – he/ she adjusts difficulty and pace of a lesson to learners’ abilities. By selecting this particular characteristic as the most important senior learners Table 4.6 Selected teacher characteristics according to different senior age groups Important teacher characteristics

55–59 years

60–69 years

70–79 years

80–89 years

Adjusts difficulty and pace of a lesson to learners’ abilities

43%

45%

54%

52%

Knows and understands the needs of senior learners

10%

15%

30%

45%

Prepares properly and carefully for the lesson

46%

51%

54%

56%

Confident

15%

5%

10%

30%

Involved and helpful, supportive

6%

7%

11%

20%

Advises, explains, speaks slowly

14%

18%

30%

35%

Friendly and kind

40%

45%

55%

65%

Creates friendly atmosphere in the classroom

70%

70%

78%

89%

Motivating and patient

75%

60%

64%

80%

Knowledge about target language culture

65%

66%

62%

61%

High level of control

63%

62%

64%

65%

–

–

7%

8%

Age of the teacher

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appear to be pointing to their insecurity in the learning process. Most of them take up learning after a significant period of time and often feel unconfident about their learning skills. Therefore, teachers who work with senior learners have an obligation to adjust their courses to learners’ needs and abilities. They can do it either by following theoretical guidelines or by need analysis at the beginning of the course. Teachers may also ask learners to perform a diagnostic test at the beginning of the language course. In addition, during classes educators need to show awareness, reflectivity and flexibility in order to match their teaching with students’ expectations and skills. This may be easier for more experienced teachers who have done some teaching with older learners. This is further supported by another characteristic highlighted as significant by the senior respondents – knows and understands the needs of senior learners. Form the author’s own experience, it is safe to say that senior students are very conscious of their own needs and can explicitly inform teachers about their expectations. At the same time, they seem to feel insecure about their language skills. Another teachers’ didactic attribute which proved to be highly appreciated by senior students was being prepared properly and carefully for the lessons. Well-prepared teachers are always valued by students, regardless of their age and experience. However, senior learners seem to appreciate them more than other age groups. This may stem from at least three different sources, one of them being the fact that in view of their extensive age, senior learners expect their lessons to be fi lled with practice to the maximum. As some of them stated, they do not want to waste time and expect the teacher to be very well prepared. Another reason may be connected to an increased anxiety among senior learners, who feel more secure when their teachers know exactly what to do and conduct classes with confidence. If the students see that the teacher knows what he or she is doing throughout the whole lesson, they become more confident and willing to participate in lesson activities. Finally, senior learners have been professionally active all of their lives and some of them still are. Adopting the popular expression: ‘time is money’, they do not want to waste it on irrelevant activities in the classroom. For teachers working with senior learners this means more thorough preparation and developing an aura of professionalism and self-confidence during lessons. Of course, it does not exclude learner autonomy, improvisation and more flexible transitions in the course of a lesson. Teachers need to be experienced enough to be confident and to know the typical classroom situations. Being confident was mentioned only by 15% of all the respondents with the highest percentage among 80–89 year group (30%) and the lowest among 60–69 year olds (5%). Lower results for this particular attribute may be explained by the fact that most of the senior learners pointed to the previously mentioned characteristic or because for some of the respondents being confident might have been

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related to maintaining discipline and from the author’s observations it seems that senior learners are a disciplined age group; however, too strict teachers make them feel uncomfortable and anxious during lessons. Other good foreign language teacher attributes according to respondents include being involved, helpful, and supportive. Educators who work with senior learners need to present themselves as supportive and involved teachers who assume the roles of guides, helpers and resources, as well as facilitators. Senior students also pointed to a set of teacher traits that could be considered either as didactic or as pedagogical. On the one hand, they focus on how the teacher presents the material. On the other hand, they concern interpersonal links between students’ perception and the teacher’s behaviour. Therefore, these attributes are going to be described in a section that ends didactic skills and opens a list of pedagogical skills. In their questionnaires senior learners pointed to teacher conduct and their way of introducing new language material by highlighting such attributes as: he\she advises, explains (material) in a clear and understandable way, speaks slowly and clearly. Teachers assuming the roles of advisors are mentioned by only 5% of the senior students. However, clear and meaningful explanations and a slow and careful way of speaking are appreciated by almost 25% of all the respondents. These results may be directly connected to age-related deterioration of sight, hearing and cognitive abilities in general. While working with senior learners educators need to make sure that materials and explanations are adjusted to learners’ visual and auditory abilities. Another reason may be related to senior learners’ cognitive abilities, which may decline with time. Although there is evidence that the process of cognitive decline may be slowed down for many seniors, it may be difficult to conceptualise what they hear or see. Therefore, teachers need to make instructions and explanations as simple as possible, consider using native language and visual aids, make sure students can explain what they are expected to do, give students more time, encourage co-operation, etc. Finally, senior students may express lower self-confidence and may not believe in themselves and in their foreign language skills. From the author’s experience, senior students often have little faith in their own language skills, despite the teacher’s positive feedback, and they need support and opportunities to become more confident in their foreign language abilities. Another essential group of good teacher characteristics encompasses interactive skills such as teacher friendliness and kindliness, which were pointed out by over 50% of all of the respondents. Once again, results may indicate that senior students come to foreign language courses mainly because of socialising reasons and they expect classes to be nice and conducted in a friendly manner. Our stress-coping skills deteriorate with age and attending classes may come with increased anxiety. Therefore, senior learners have been described as often expressing lower self-confidence and

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expecting teachers to treat them with empathy. This is supported by another teacher attribute which scored even higher in students’ questionnaires – teacher creates friendly atmosphere in the classroom. This particular characteristic naturally relates to the concept of friendly educators. Teacher creating friendly atmosphere has been appreciated by over 75% of the respondents, regardless of the age group. Positive climate in the classroom is considered as the best predictor of students’ overall satisfaction (Graham & Gisi, 2000). ‘Good fellow feeling between teachers and students is essential to a positive classroom climate and leads to better student outcomes’ (Barr, 2016). When working with senior learners educators need to be careful not to cross the ‘thin red line’ between creating a friendly atmosphere and being too familiar with students. Older learners often expect teachers to assume an authoritarian role and may not feel comfortable in a classroom where there seems to be no code of conduct and the atmosphere is too affable. Therefore, it may be a challenge for some of the educators to fi nd this precise space between friendliness and authority. Another interactive skill is connected with praising and criticising students. Only 10% of all of the respondents mentioned just/fair as an important quality of a good foreign language teacher. However, other attributes such as: understanding, motivating, patient have been appreciated by over 60% of all of the respondents regardless of the age group. Interestingly, motivating proved to be most important for the 55–59 year age group, whereas understanding was important for seniors between 60–69 and 70–79 years. Finally patient turned out to be essential for the 80–89 year age group. The oldest group seems to be aware that, owing to physical and cognitive changes, they may need more time to understand information provided by the educator and use it during learning. The previously mentioned positive classroom climate seems to be essential in order for feedback to be maximally effective. The learning climate should promote the concept that the teacher and learner are working together to help the learner achieve the expected outcomes, with an expectation that teachers observe performance and give feedback regularly in an atmosphere of mutual trust and respect. Additionally, senior students appreciate when teachers adopt a more individual approach towards individual learners (55% of all the senior learners). From the author’s own experience it seems that senior learners prefer to be treated independently, which may be easier in senior classrooms where the groups are not big. According to senior learners who took part in the study, teachers should also display a number of characteristics connected directly with personality such as: enthusiastic, energetic and open towards other people as well as having a good sense of humour. On average, these characteristics were mentioned by 10–15% of all of the respondents with no distinctive differences among age groups. It seems that these qualities are appreciated in people in any social context that requires group/team work

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and the use of so-called soft skills. Furthermore, a motivated and enthusiastic educator often translates into motivated students, especially among learners with lower self-esteem who often openly express the need to be taken care of and supported. According to Pelletier et al. (2002) and Radel et al. (2010), there seems to exist a correlation between teachers’ supportive behaviour and students’ intrinsic motivation and determination. According to Han and Yin (2016), it is inevitable for teacher motivation to have a close relationship with student motivation. In Atkinson’s (2000) discussion of relationship between students and their motivated and demotivated teachers, it was found that the disbelief and negative view of a demotivated teacher in students’ abilities, progress and outcomes enabled him to feel the need to be in control and the difficulty to be enthusiastic about students. In contrast, motivated teachers reported enthusiasm about both teaching and students’ work. Another supporting study was conducted in a Turkish context when Kiziltepe (2006) found that administration and students were major factors demotivating high school teachers, and her subsequent study (2008) indicated that students, low salaries and less opportunity to do research were outstanding demotivating factors for university teachers. (Han & Yin, 2016: 9)

Educators who work with senior learners need to remember that many of their learners come to the foreign language classroom for social reasons and they often feel insecure about their social as well as learning skills. Therefore, teachers are expected to create a motivating and supportive educational context in which senior learners feel comfortable. From the author’s experience it seems that effective interaction between educators and their senior students depends also on the age of the teacher. However, the respondents did not pay much attention to the teacher’s age, which is contradictory to what I experienced during my observations in senior classrooms. According to the obtained results senior students do not consider the teacher’s age as an important characteristic of a good foreign language teacher. However, during my previous lesson observations and discussions with senior learners age was mentioned quite often as the interlocutors expected their teacher to be at least 35–40 years of age. Younger teachers made senior learners uncomfortable and stressed, especially during error correction and speaking activities. It is perhaps directly connected with social hierarchies and the fact that a younger and potentially less experienced person corrected an older person with already established social status and often performing managerial functions during their professional careers. Furthermore, in many cultures (e.g. Poland, Turkey, Japan), age is a dominant factor in social hierarchy of importance. The last set of characteristics is directly associated with teachers’ language skills and it comes as no surprise that senior learners expect educators to display a good command of a foreign language. Over 60% of the respondents unanimously in every age group pointed to two teacher attributes, namely high level of language control and extensive knowledge

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about target language culture. Senior students have extensive life experience and when they decide to attend foreign language courses they expect to work with professionals, as they often did in their previous professional life. Therefore, educators who work with senior groups need to present the highest standards of foreign language knowledge and skills, otherwise senior students are going to explicitly express their dissatisfaction and withdraw from learning. From the author’s observations senior learners often ask their teachers about their education, the universities they graduated from and the diplomas they have. Furthermore, senior learner educators are expected to have extensive knowledge about the target language culture, which should not be surprising for at least one reason. As was mentioned before, a significant number of senior students attend foreign language courses in order to prepare themselves for travelling abroad as tourists or to visit their family members who live abroad. As a result, they expect to find out more about culture during language classes, even if it is ‘survival’ knowledge needed for tourists who visit other countries without much intercultural reflection and willingness to experience cultural otherness. However, as Kramsh (1993) writes that ‘the teaching of culture in the foreign language classroom is not analogous to the transmission of information regarding the people of the target community, even though knowledge about the target group is essential. It would be a mistake to perceive culture as nothing more than just a repository of facts and experiences to which one can have recourse, if necessary’. Therefore, even if senior learners expect to obtain cultural knowledge required for tourists, there seems to be a strong need for a meaningful cultural education in a senior foreign language classroom. Like with any other age group, teachers have to try not to be biased and to present other cultures with caution and objectively. What makes senior learners different from other age groups is their long life experience and fi xed beliefs about the world around them. The first may be an advantage if the teacher wants to discuss various social issues during foreign language classes. Unfortunately, students may not be prepared to discuss them in the target language. At the same time, stereotypically, for example Polish seniors may often articulate predetermined, negative opinions and beliefs about cultural otherness. Ambiguity tolerance may decrease with age. Therefore, teachers need to be very perceptive and carefully prepare their classes with senior learners who may feel anxious and uncomfortable when having to express their own opinions during lessons. 4.5 Voices from the Classroom – Teachers

Up to this point we have been ‘listening’ to collective voices of senior learners. Now, we are going to pay closer attention to collective as well as individual voices of foreign language instructors. The joint opinions of the teachers who participated in the questionnaire component of the study

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will be supported by two distinctive voices of an older, reflective and more experienced teacher (Teacher A) and less experienced, younger but very talented educator (Teacher B). It is essential for teachers and their students to harmonise with the intention of creating the best result. In order to make it happen, educators need to become reflective and understand their learners better. During interviews teachers talked about their expectations towards senior learners and how they imagined their teaching. They also mentioned similarities and dissimilarities with other age groups. I expected my senior students to manifest explicit resistance towards new ways of learning a foreign language. Most of them remembered school from 50–60 years ago and I thought that they would not like the ways in which people learn languages today. I thought most of them were used to traditional (grammar-translation) methods of learning and teaching a language. Keeping that in mind, I thought that they may be reluctant towards communication activities and taking part in group and pair work. In the initial stage of the course there were some minor problems with making my senior learners take part in dialogues and simulations; however, with time they became more open and willingly took part in any communication activity I designed for them. I also expected more problems with memory and health in general, which turned out not to be a problem at all. (Teacher A) I often had to adjust my teaching methods to bad learning habits from their previous education. With younger groups I had the opportunity to ‘shape’ their learning habits and introduce novel solutions. With senior learners I had to adjust myself and my teaching procedures to the expectations of senior learners who were often reluctant to change their ‘old’ learning routines. It may sometimes be frustrating for the teacher but there is a saying about ‘old dogs’ and ‘new tricks’ and in my classroom I often found out it still applies … On the other hand, senior learners appreciate and enjoy any, even the smallest success. Younger generations of learners do not show so much enthusiasm during classes or they take some things for granted. Senior learners are aware of their potential limitations and express explicit satisfaction whenever they succeed. Therefore, it is so important to remember about positive feedback and encouragement from the educator. Compared to other groups, senior learners are the most hardworking and best prepared age group to work with. It is even more significant when we realise that they do not have this typical instrumental motivation (grades, certificates, diplomas), that most of them are in the classroom for social and personal reasons. Furthermore, they can compensate for their potential drawbacks with being studious and conscientious in their foreign language learning. (Teacher A)

Similar opinions were presented by Teacher B: Taking into consideration their age, memory problems, concentration, at first I was skeptical about teaching seniors. However, after initial classes, it turned out that they are very eager to learn, do not give up too quickly, they are highly motivated even with small successes (verb to be).

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Children have more flexible brains and they seem to absorb new knowledge like sponges. Seniors, on the other hand, often face health problems which can hinder their effort to learn a language. However, their motivation is stronger and they exhibit more willingness to learn despite drawbacks. (Teacher B)

Furthermore, both educators had almost identical opinions concerning the specificity of working with senior learners and their most salient characteristics: I quickly realised that positive atmosphere during lessons is essential. My senior learners were very sensitive about their well-being during classes and they often made explicit remarks about their feelings during lessons. They expected me to be nice to them and create a stress-free atmosphere during lessons. I repeatedly motivated weaker or more nervous students to participate in activities. I noticed that they need positive feedback and expect teacher to cater for their stress and insecurity. Most of them appreciated praise for anything they had done well and I was responsible for noticing even the smallest success. They were genuinely in high spirits when teacher praised them in front of the whole group. I also noticed that they co-operated with each other and enjoyed team work a lot. Maybe compared with younger learners their generation is more accustomed to team work and co-operation since they have an extensive professional experience. Nowadays learners prefer to do things on their own and group or pair work is not as effective as the theory states. Senior learners are more eager to work with in groups or pairs because on the one hand, it gives them the feeling of closeness and companionship. On the other hand, it provides them with feeling of security when they can work with teammates on a particular assignment. (Teacher A) In my opinion positive atmosphere is essential when working with senior learners. They also need a sense of security provided by the teacher, especially during communication activities and testing. Weaker or less selfconfident learners need more attention and support during lessons. They also need more encouragement and praise. I noticed during lessons that even small success could have a significant influence on students’ motivation and willingness to participate in classes. I needed to be patient, extremely patient because my students were very insecure about their knowledge and they wanted to double check everything they did. They would ask numerous questions about everything they did and I had to be very enduring and answer all of these questions. Otherwise they would never speak out or participate in an activity. Patience is also indispensable during error correction when you have to carefully explain the same error a few times. One more thing, when preparing lessons I often took into consideration their preferences as well as likes and dislikes, even when they were not my fi rst or even second choice of activities or techniques. Senior learners expressed more willingness to participate in language classes when activities and techniques they used were familiar to them. With younger students we often make them adjust to our teaching preferences. With senior learners it is often the other way round. (Teacher B)

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Like in many professions also in teaching there are two significant factors that may result in increased reflection, changes and modifications introduced into teaching practice and teacher beliefs, experience and time. According to Teacher A: Seniors are becoming more socially and educationally active and their stereotypical image of a grandmother or grandfather taking care of grand children is no longer valid. Today seniors are craving for knowledge and they want to be with their peers, either in person or virtually through the internet. They do not want to feel lonely and they often want to make up for the lost time. As learners they are open to new experiences and are willing to participate in classes, despite stress and anxiety. I was aware of these changes and I was well prepared for my classes with seniors. Maybe because I am close to their age (laughter). (Teacher A)

Teacher B expressed a comparable opinion by saying: In the past older people were only associated with taking care of their grandchildren. However, today many of them either do not have relatives or their relatives live abroad. In order to avoid being excluded from social life they often take up new challenges and sign up for foreign language courses. Seniors became an active social group and I admire their willingness to make up for the lost time. Many of them are interested in technology and use social media. They have to be given a chance to become praiseworthy members of society. I must admit that my projections of senior learners has changed significantly in the recent years and now I am more positive about working with them. They may be the most rewarding age group I had pleasure to work with. (Teacher B)

In connection with the above presented statements, teachers were asked about senior learners’ motives for attending foreign language courses and the answers provided by the educators precisely matched those provided by the students. The teachers’ opinions presented in Table 4.7 are entirely based on their experience with senior learners and conversations they had during lessons. This is especially important, because otherwise it would be mere wishful thinking rather than empirical data obtained from the respondents. Table 4.7 Reasons for attending language courses by senior learners Learning languages for travelling reasons

90%

Memory improvement

90%

Family abroad

80%

Maintaining contacts with other people

80%

Having too much free time

70%

Learning as a hobby

65%

Discovering new cultures

50%

Needed in professional life

40%

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In connection to senior learners’ motivation Teacher B said: Most of my learners have well-established motivation to learn a foreign language. The predominant motive is family abroad, usually in the UK or the USA. Seniors want to stay in touch with their children and grandchildren who live abroad. Furthermore, senior learners travel abroad and they want to be able to communicate in English. They want to be independent. (Teacher B)

Teacher A had a very similar viewpoint on the issue of senior learners’ motivation: First of all families abroad. Senior learners want to learn English to be able to communicate with their grandchildren. Second of all, seniors today are mobile and active, they travel abroad and want to be prepared to communicate when they go on holidays. They often came back to me after holidays and told me stories how they were able to talk to waiters and hotel workers. Finally, seniors are ‘egoistic’ in a sense that for most of their lives they have been doing something for others now they want to do something for themselves. Studying English and being socially active give them a feeling of accomplishment and inner satisfaction. (Teacher A)

A Latin poet Virgil wrote: ‘Felix, qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas’ (‘Fortunate is he who is able to know the causes of things’). Teachers’ increased awareness regarding senior students’ educational motives will allow them to design and carry out their foreign language courses with increased effectiveness and decreased student apprehension. Obviously, senior students, like any other age group, attend foreign language courses with the aim of learning foreign languages. Nevertheless, if teachers take into consideration the senior learners’ expressed motives and design their courses so that the social aspect is explicitly emphasised senior learners may participate more willingly and increase their self-confidence. Educators may for example include topics concerning travelling, staying abroad, booking hotels, asking for directions, etc. They may introduce topic-related vocabulary or devote more time to pair or group work. Students may be also involved in language/culture projects which will develop their intercultural knowledge and make them reflect on intercultural similarities and differences. Most importantly, educators need to create and constantly support a comfortable atmosphere in the classroom so as to make their learners get to know each other better as well as to feel comfortable and relaxed in the foreign language learning process. Educators were also asked about the senior learners’ expectations towards foreign language courses. Almost all of them (90%) mentioned the desire to be able to communicate in a foreign language as the major expectation, which should not be surprising since in the previous question corresponding motives have been selected. Yet other expectations mentioned by the teachers direct our attention to specific social aspects such as social exclusion or feeling of loneliness. Some 80% of the respondents

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believe that older people attend language courses to avoid solitude, to make new friendships (60%) and to become more socially active (60%). Social exclusion of older persons is often a multifaceted process that involves such elements as the lack of denial of resources, rights, goods and services. It also comes with the inability to participate in normal relationships and activities, available to the majority of people across the varied and multiple domains of society. ‘By doing so, social exclusion affects not only the quality of life of seniors, but also the equity and cohesion of an aging society as a whole’ (Levitas et al., 2007). Furthermore, Barnes et al. (2006) found out that social exclusion tends to increase with age, with those 80 years and above being more prone to exclusion. Educators who work with senior learners need to become vigilant about their students who may enter foreign language courses to eschew the feeling of loneliness and become members of a group of peers. Teachers may need to consider using group work and project work to make these students feel connected with the rest of the group. Furthermore, teachers have to develop a sense of belonging which may be achieved by working in small groups, using students’ interests and experience, giving students a chance to express themselves openly during lessons. Dissimilar opinions were also found in relation to the price of the course which was one of the more important students’ expectations, and only 30% of the teachers considered it significant. A similar ratio was obtained by another ‘technical’ alternative – well designed course (28%). It seems that according to the teachers, senior learners’ expectations are more associated with educational content and the professional conduct of a foreign language course. However, when analysing the professional background of the participants, it seems that most of them have been working in rather well-paid professions and should have enough retirement fi nances to attend such courses. It may be seen as negative stereotyping but perhaps, despite teachers’ opinions, money is an important aspect while making decisions about attending a foreign language course. There were also other expectations mentioned by the teachers which obtained low recognition such as: fulfilling one’s dream, new challenges, being appreciated by others and using English language materials – 10%. Some of these were considered as quite important for the senior learners (over 30%); hence, again, there has been a significant incongruity between teachers and their senior students. If such discrepancies exist between teachers’ beliefs and students’ actual expectations, educators should devote some time and conduct a needs analysis every time they start working with a new group. Teachers and senior students were more unanimous about topics to be included in a foreign language course as well as modes of classroom work. Although for students it was family life and teachers voted for everyday life (100%), the fi rst options were very alike and included culture and practical issues. Other topics such as politics, education, sport and

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literature obtained mediocre or even low recognition from the educators. Social problems and history also received very little response from the teachers. Finally, educators similarly to their students seem to disregard topics related to issues connected with seniors. Maybe teachers’ political correctness or ‘hypersensitivity’ makes them believe that topics related to senior life may not be appreciated by senior learners who do not want to be reminded about their age or teachers simply want to be ‘age blind’ and treat their learners like any other age group. However, coursebooks often contain topics related directly to senior life and teachers cannot and should not disregard students’ age and extensive life experience. Table 4.8 includes most popular topics to be introduced during lessons, according to the teachers and the students. In relation to preferred learning arrangements, teachers as well as senior students appreciate pair and group work (90%) as well as whole class discussions (60%). These results were also supported by the opinions of the interviewed teachers who said: The relations between students were friendly. They did not compete but rather co-operated and supported each other during classes. As far as I know they met after school to do homework together and study. (Teacher A) From the very beginning the atmosphere in the classroom was positive. Senior students co-operated and provided each other with positive feedback and support. They really enjoyed group work. They even met after school to work together and study. (Teacher B)

Other choices including lectures (0%) and individual work (10%) were not recognised as efficient working modes. Modes of classroom work selected by the teachers support the belief regarding social aspect of senior Table 4.8 Preferences in classroom topics Topic Family life Everyday life

Teachers 60%

Students 74%

100%

60%

80%

35%

Practical issues

70%

65%

Politics

12%

4%

Education

13%

11%

Sport

10%

2%

Literature

15%

35%

Social problems

4%

25%

History

5%

35%

Seniors

3%

5%

Culture

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education where students are expected to attend language courses in order to stay socially active and meet people of a similar age. In most cases, seniors will feel at ease when working with other students of the same age. However, from the author’s experience there are also senior students whose self-esteem is rather low and they do not feel comfortable in the company of others when there is a possibility of making mistakes that others will hear. Therefore, teachers should cater for a variety of classroom working modes so as to make all of the learners feel satisfied during lessons. Variety should also apply to teaching materials used during lessons. Table 4.9 presents the most common teaching aids according to teachers and students. Similarly to senior learners, teachers (90%) identified coursebook as the most popular teaching material, which probably should not be unforeseen since coursebooks are considered traditional and they provide learners with a cohesive set of structured material to be used in and outside the classroom. What is more, senior students are traditionally accustomed to working with coursebooks and they give them a feeling of confidence and security because they may see what is going to be expected from them and what is going to happen during the upcoming classes. Another popular teaching aid in both groups of respondents was the internet, mentioned by eight out of 10 educators. Using the internet during lessons undoubtedly has the potential to make senior learners educationally active outside the classroom and develop more autonomous behaviours. Other popular teaching aids included movies, pictures and songs. There were also teaching materials that did not receive any recognition from the teachers, including books, e-books, interactive whiteboards, as well as some receiving little attention – applications, radio broadcasts, newspapers, computer programmes. The questionnaires for senior learners and their teachers provided valuable data for further analysis. For even more cohesive image of senior foreign language education, additional information from teachers were Table 4.9 Teaching aids Teaching aids

Teachers

Students

Coursebook

90%

88%

Internet

80%

30%

Movies

70%

24%

Pictures

50%

28%

Songs

40%

0%

Radio broadcast

9%

4%

Newspapers

8%

20%

0%

20%

10%

0%

Books, e-books Applications and computers

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obtained during two interviews. Teacher A when asked about any specific preparations for a senior learners foreign language course answered: No, no specific preparations. Just an article I read and I went over one coursebook designed for senior learners. I thought that there would not be any significant differences in teaching seniors so I expected my ‘old ways’ to work here as well. As I mentioned before, not everything went according to plan and I had to adjust my teaching to my learners’ expectations and habits. Maybe if I had read more there would not have been surprises waiting for me in the classroom. (Teacher A)

Teacher B was more involved in preparing and designing additional activities. I prepared activities with simple instructions focusing on vocabulary, grammar and expressions. I also wrote dialogues, role play scenarios which could be later used in the classroom. (Teacher B)

When inquired about their preferred ways of teaching techniques and activities, Teacher A said: My senior students love communication games and activities. In the beginning they were shy and did not want to take part in them but with time they loved any communication activity I gave them. I also noticed they enjoyed activities during which they could make use of their personal experience so when we practised Past Simple tense they could talk about their childhood and school times. (Teacher A)

Teacher B paid more attention to the way foreign language material has been presented to students: It was essential for my senior students to have the material divided into smaller portions and presented in a systematic way. Frequent revision plays a crucial role in foreign language learning process. They repeated it often in order to memorise. (Teacher B)

She also mentions one technique that her senior students enjoyed and appreciated. Seniors had separate exercise books in which they wrote down new words. To learn new words I often used associations when my students drew pictures and wrote down English words to describe particular elements of their drawings. This particular technique proved useful especially with topics such as family and shopping. (Teacher B)

One of the focal point emphasised throughout the previous chapters was the specificity of working with seniors resulting from their potential age-related cognitive and physical limitations, and effective ways of overcoming these drawbacks in a foreign language classroom. Therefore, educators were explicitly asked if and how they adjusted their teaching procedures and materials for efficient senior foreign language learning. Unfortunately, it turned out that the only adjustment made by the majority of teachers was

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speaking louder and slower. Aside from introducing caretaker speech, educators do not make much effort to adjust their teaching to potential senior learners’ problems. About one-quarter of the educators cater for better quality of audio recordings, brighter classrooms, larger print and less text on a handout page. There were also a few teachers who used more visual aids, incorporated L1 into their instructions, used gestures and mimics, and provided senior learners with more comfortable chairs. Altogether these teachers constituted about one-tenth of all of the respondents. Furthermore, there were also adjustments which were completely ignored by the educators such as: more space between tables and quieter classrooms. Table 4.10 presents teaching adjustments advised for teachers. In relation to potential modifications and adjustments Teacher A said: The biggest problem for my learners were audio recordings with background noises. It was difficult for them to follow and they were often distracted by the noises in the background. Therefore, I often read the text or gave them tape scripts during listening practice. I know it is less communicative but it was often the only way to make them work. Instructions in English were also a problem so I often used Polish to make them aware what to do or if they understood the instructions correctly. I did not use larger print or bigger font; however, one time I had to give my reading spectacles to one student who forgot them and could not see the text. It made me realise that my students do have some physical limitations that can influence their learning process. (Teacher A)

Teacher B seemed to be less aware of specific modifications and adjustments for senior learners and said: I used only coursebooks designed especially for senior learners. I also tried to make my lessons more attractive by utilising multimedia, videos, posters, and online dictionaries. (Teacher B)

The collected data present a rather austere illustration of a senior-friendly foreign language classroom and provide reasons to be genuinely concerned Table 4.10 Teaching adjustments Speaking louder and slower

90%

Better quality of audio recordings

25%

Brighter classrooms

25%

Larger print

25%

Less text on a handout page

25%

More comfortable chairs

10%

More visual aids

10%

L1 in instructions

10%

Gestures and mimics

10%

More space and quieter classrooms

0%

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Insights into Senior Foreign Language Education

about the comfort and effectiveness of the foreign language learning process for senior learners. Caretaker speech is what teachers do automatically when working with beginners or younger age groups. Therefore, adopting ‘motherese’ when working with senior learners is nothing extraordinary or specifically creative. Other modifications including mother tongue use or larger print are undoubtedly helpful; however, as the results indicate, only one in four educators applies them during classes. This is even more saddening because these modifications do not require extra effort or any specific preparations or additional financing. Maybe teachers have limited influence on the classroom arrangement, furnishing and lighting. However, some of these aspects may be taken care of before the courses start. It is hard to say why teachers seem to be so unaware or unreflective of the specificity of senior foreign language education. This may result from the fact that senior foreign language courses are still not well established in the educational system and are often conducted in regular classrooms. It seems reasonable for educational institutions and universities to design classrooms specifically for the purposes of senior education, the way it is done for young learner classrooms. Senior foreign language courses should not take place in randomly selected classrooms but in specifically designed ones. When it comes to teachers’ awareness and meaningful application of facilitative classroom strategies an additional component concerning senior foreign language education should be implemented into ongoing pre-service teacher training. There should be more publications, workshops and lectures concerning senior learners. In the Polish educational context there seems to be a trend to design workshops about neurolinguistics but only in relation to young learners and their cognitive potential with complete negligence of older learners. Another potential reason for such inadequate awareness among educators may be frequent changes in teachers conducting classes with seniors. Every year senior learners usually meet new teachers who have limited knowledge about their students and often treat senior foreign language courses as regular language courses for other students. Apart from adjusting classroom settings and teaching procedures to senior characteristics, teachers are also responsible for the affective wellbeing of their students. Creating a friendly and stress-free atmosphere in the classroom happens primarily through using names of the students, L1 use and positive feedback (90%). This is characteristic for all age groups and teachers apply it frequently. Moreover, there are ways to reduce stress such as slower pace of a lesson, using students’ personal experience and increasing learning awareness among students. In order to reduce anxiety learners need to feel that they have at least some control over their learning and know how the process occurs. If senior learners take up language courses they often do it for social reasons and being a member of a peer group is as important as learning a language itself. Additionally, senior students may express lower self-confidence in their learning skills.

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Therefore, teachers may deliberately decide to slow down with the material and do less in a more relaxing atmosphere. Using learners’ personal experience may make students understand that they are an important ‘asset’ to the educational process and that their opinions are taken into consideration. There were also other stress-reducing techniques mentioned by the teachers which turned out to be less popular among the teachers including emotional support, increase of self-confidence and group affiliation, as well as those which none of the teachers considered useful, including meditation and non-standard testing techniques. Table 4.11 shows the most popular stress-reducing teacher behaviour. It is to some extent upsetting that meditation did not fi nd approval among foreign language educators, especially if we take into consideration the concept of mindfulness for seniors. Through mindfulness senior learners gain knowledge about how to effectively observe and name their thoughts and feelings but not to hold on to them as being true or descriptive of them. Practising mindfulness helps senior learners to stay positive and optimistic and not to worry about the future or think too much about the past events. Together with decreased feelings of anxiety, senior learners may become more willing to participate in foreign language classes. Therefore, teachers were asked about their most efficient ways of increasing learners’ motivation and it turned out that a considerable number of the educators focus on the use of the students’ extensive life experience and adjust the class conduct to students’ abilities. Such behaviour has been emphasised throughout almost all the chapters of this book and if teachers expect to have motivated senior learners, taking senior learners’ life experience into consideration is indispensable. Making use of life knowledge and experience not only enriches the educational process but also makes the learners

Table 4.11 Stress-reducing teacher behaviours Knowing names of the students

90%

L1 use

90%

Positive feedback

90%

Slower pace

80%

Students’ personal experience

75%

Increasing learning awareness

70%

Group affiliation

15%

Emotional support

10%

Increased self-confidence

10%

Meditation

0%

Non-standard testing techniques

0%

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feel more at ease during lessons. Furthermore, it was interesting to fi nd out that almost all teachers incorporated the target language culture in order to make language learning more attractive for the learners. Incorporating culture into language courses is expected to bring more positive outcomes than just increasing the attractiveness of a lesson. Moran (2001: 108) claims that some of these outcomes overlap and presents six different emphases comprising: culture-specific and general understanding, competence, adaptation, social change and identity. Additionally, ‘the primary culture learning outcomes in this area relate to overcoming prejudice and other forms of discrimination, with the intention of transforming social institutions and cultural practices. Diversity training, prejudice reduction, teaching tolerance, and unlearning racism are educational efforts designed to help learners not only face discriminatory beliefs and practices in themselves but also take action to eliminate them in the culture’ (Moran, 2001: 115). Other popular motivating factors include rather traditional means as presented in Table 4.12. Regardless of how teachers decide to motivate their learners they need to remember that motivation is a dynamic process and may fluctuate even during one class. What is more, there is no such thing as a universal technique that motivates all students every time when used. Teachers need to carefully ‘study’ their learners in order to efficiently motivate them during lessons and remember the unstable nature of motivation. Undoubtedly, assessment and ways of providing feedback correspond directly with the level of students’ motivation and in the case of senior learners it takes place predominantly during classes (90% of respondents) and with the whole group focusing on the most commonly made mistakes (80%). Furthermore, 90% of the teachers use only verbal testing and 80% of them assesses students but do not grade them. If teachers are honest in their answers, neither do they use written tests, nor technology while assessing their students (e.g. Kahoot). It turns out that educators are aware of the stressful nature of assessment, especially in the case of senior Table 4.12 Motivating factors in senior education Adjusting the pace and difficulty of the classes

90%

Incorporating elements of culture

90%

Students’ life experience

90%

Audiovisual aids

80%

Positive feedback

70%

Pair and group work

60%

Topic selection made by learners

55%

Technology use

5%

Nonstandard testing techniques

5%

Project work, meditation

0%

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learners, whose self-confidence is often lower than their actual abilities, who have not been assessed for an extensive period of time, and who attend classes often for social reasons and are uncomfortable when being corrected in front of other students. Teachers who work with senior learners need to be cautious when providing feedback, they need to make sure that students do not lose face in front of their peers, and they may consider non-standard forms of providing feedback such as descriptive grades, or in specific situations, avoid assessment. Apart from the questions concerning educational context and teacher’s know-how, educators were also asked to select the characteristics that best describe typical senior foreign language learners (Table 4.13). One of the teachers wrote: Typical senior learner. There is no such person as a typical senior learner … According to the interviewed educators, senior students display a mixture of assets and flaws including: Increased motivation, willingness to learn a language, positive attitude to lessons, and trust in teachers but poor concentration, problems with sight and hearing, insecurity, high anxiety and low self-esteem. (Teacher A) Motivation, willingness to be successful, positive approach to foreign language learning but poor concentration, health problems, anxiety, lack of belief in their own learning skills, low self-confidence. (Teacher B)

These opinions are, in most cases, in accordance with the descriptions of characteristics presented in the previous chapters. Stereotypical as they are, they do present quite a succinct illustration of a senior learner and may provide teachers with some useful clues on how to approach seniors in a foreign language classroom. In addition, teachers were asked about the profi le of a good foreign language teacher and their attributes. Beginning with didactic qualities, 50% of the educators pointed to knows and understands the needs of senior learners, which was the most popular option among some of the senior learners’ age groups. It is important for the teachers to ‘practice what they preach’ and to cater for senior learners’ needs and take into Table 4.13 Selected features of senior learners Positive features Motivated and willing to participate

Negative features 80%

80%

Lack of autonomy

Use their extensive life knowledge

80%

70%

Stressed

Co-operative with other students

70%

60%

Easily demotivated

Prepared

65%

60%

Not using technology

Openly expresses his/her opinion

60%

50%

Not open to new methods

Well prepared for the lesson

50%

45%

Teacher dependent

Hard-working

30%

40%

Critical about teaching methods

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consideration their weak and strong points. However, with younger groups of senior learners being overprotective may sometimes be seen as unwanted, since learners despite their age want to be as autonomous as possible. Therefore, teachers need to be careful about how they treat their students. Over 50% of the educators expect teachers to be prepared for the lessons properly and carefully. This particular attribute was highly appreciated by senior students regardless of their age. Being prepared for the lesson is a compulsory requirement when working with every age group, although senior learners not only have high expectations towards teachers, but are also prepared to explicitly point out any potential flaws in the lesson conduct. Older learners often compare contemporary ways of teaching with what they were used to a few decades ago and it may happen that expectations do not meet reality. In such cases teachers need to be patient and meticulously explain their teaching procedures and the aims of the activities, perhaps even have a short introductory meeting before the course to explain what is going to happen and answer students’ questions. At the same time teachers neither see themselves as being confident nor involved, helpful or supportive. Similar results were obtained from the students who also did not expect teachers to present these characteristics. One more time, such results may come from the fact that these characteristics are naturally expected from teachers, regardless of the age group they work with. When it comes to pedagogical skills teachers are expected to provide clear and meaningful explanations (100%) as well as speak slowly and clearly (100%). In being so unanimous, teachers demonstrate their awareness of senior learners’ characteristics although the image that they have may be to some extent stereotypical. On the one hand, senior learners may suffer from age-related health problems and need slower and more explicit explanations. On the other hand, they may not appreciate being treated with additional care. Therefore, teachers should not exaggerate the additional support and facilitation of the material and instructions because it may have the opposite effect. What is advised is an increased reflection on students’ behaviour and provision of simplified content only if needed. Interactive skills are next and here, similarly to senior learners, a significant number of teachers pointed to educators who are friendly and kind, as well as those who create a friendly atmosphere in the classroom. Teachers’ attitudes and the roles they perform in the classroom have changed over the years and in contemporary education positive psychology is gaining more attention from educators. According to Mercer and MacIntyre (2014: 156), ‘second language acquisition still rarely deals with these topics; however, their relevance in the field is immediately apparent when we think about practical, human, and social dimension of language learning’. Furthermore, ‘many language educators are aware of the

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importance of improving individual learners’ experiences of language learning by helping them to develop and maintain their motivation, perseverance, and resiliency, as well as positive emotions necessary for the long-term undertaking of learning a foreign language. In addition, teachers also widely recognise the vital role played by positive classroom dynamics amongst learners and teachers, especially in settings in which communication and personally meaningful interactions are foregrounded’ (Mercer & MacIntyre, 2014: 156). Teachers similarly to students believe that being fair is not as important as other qualities of a good foreign language teacher or they simply assume that it is an attribute that is mandatory for any professionally active teacher; therefore, they did not point to it in the questionnaire. Other characteristics that did not get much recognition from the educators included patience and motivating students, which is different from the opinions presented by the students for whom these two attributes were significant. Only in the case of being understanding did both groups have similar opinions. One may only wonder how these characteristics are being selected by the respondents and why some of the attributes receive more attention than others (A follow-up study comprising interviews with senior learners would be valuable). Is patience such a neglected characteristic or is it so obvious that teachers ignored it in the questionnaire, similarly as they did with motivating students? It seems unfeasible to assume that teachers do not recognise such traits since they often mention them during methodology classes and they are aware how significant these skills are. More than half of the educators stated that adopting a more individual approach towards learners is important, which is approximately the same figure as for the senior learners who also want to be treated more individually by their teachers. After what had been already said about the specificity of working with senior learners, it comes as no surprise that most teachers acknowledge the fact that a more personal approach to every learner makes them feel more secure and taken care of, which may, in turn, increase their self-confidence and willingness to participate in classes. Fortunately, senior language groups are not big and an individual approach is far more feasible than in the case of larger groups. When it comes to teacher personality such characteristics as: enthusiasm, being energetic, openness towards other people and good sense of humour turned out to be essential for the educators, which is contrary to the students’ beliefs concerning teachers’ personality. ‘For the educationorientated professors, features associated with openness to experience (e.g. being liberal, friendly, objective, supportive and non-authoritarian) were in the forefront. For the research-orientated professors, features characteristic of conscientiousness (e.g. being ambitious, persistent, dominant, less supporting and inclined to leadership) were dominant’ (Goncz, 2017: 87).

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Insights into Senior Foreign Language Education

Age of the educator may not be considered as a characteristic by some; however, it undoubtedly influences the nature of interaction between teachers and students. In the case of the students the age factor received insignificant recognition, lower than 10%. In the case of the teachers it was completely insignificant since nobody selected age-related traits. Age is a factor that often ‘suffers from’ negative stereotypical judgments often present in societies. There are cultures where age is often associated with wisdom and experience. Therefore, older teachers are often considered to be more professional and knowledgeable. However, from the author’s professional experience, there are many young teachers who are very professional, skilled and devoted to their work. The results obtained from the students and the teachers indicate that age is an inconsequential factor in teaching senior learners, which is a good prognosis for further senior foreign language education because diversity is always inspirational for the educational process. In the last set of characteristics linked to teachers’ language skills two attributes received positive reception from the teachers, namely good command of foreign language and extensive knowledge of target language culture. Borg (2001: 26) describes a case study that focused on an English language teacher with weak language awareness who avoided the teaching of grammar because he felt he lacked sufficient knowledge to fully answer students’ questions. Important insights into the development of foreign language intercultural competence among foreign language teachers can be found in Cahier 5, the publication of the European Teacher Education Association on the attainment targets for foreign language teacher education in Europe (Willems, 1993). Appropriate pre-service teacher training should not only prepare teachers for their professional behaviour, but it should also contain important information from such fields as literary knowledge and knowledge about life and institutions in target language cultures. Additionally, efficient teacher training should also encompass the equally important knowledge of teachers’ and students’ L1 culture. Future teachers need to be exposed to similarities and differences between cultures and relationships between them. Intercultural teacher training may have a positive influence on the development of positive attitudes towards multilingualism (Obidniak, 2000: 30–31). In countries like Poland where the levels of intolerance are high and minorities are often discriminated against, such openness and empathy are essential and needed. Teachers should also possess knowledge which makes them aware of socio-cultural aspects of living in different countries, including their own. Teachers should be able to work with different types of teaching materials that are useful in intercultural education and effective interpretation of language and culture phenomena. Table 4.14 summarises characteristics of good language teachers according to both groups of respondents.

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Table 4.14 Characteristics of good foreign language teachers who work with senior learners Teachers

Senior learners Didactic qualities

Adjust difficulty and pace to learners’ abilities

50%

Adjusts difficulty and pace to learners’ abilities

49%

Knows and understands the needs of learners

50%

Knows and understands the needs of learners

25%

Prepares for the lessons properly and carefully

50%

Prepares for the lessons properly and carefully

51%

Is involved, provides help and support

25%

Is involved, providse help and support

11%

Is confident

15%

Is confident

15%

Pedagogical qualities Provides clear and meaningful explanations Speaks slowly and clearly

100%

Provides clear and meaningful explanations

25%

100%

Speaks slowly and clearly

25%

Interactive qualities Creates a friendly atmosphere

100%

Creates a friendly atmosphere

75% 15%

Good sense of humour

80%

Good sense of humour

Enthusiasm

70%

Enthusiasm

10%

Is energetic

70%

Is energetic

15%

Understanding

70%

Understanding

60%

Friendly and kind

70%

Friendly and kind

50%

Open towards other people

60%

Openness towards other people

15%

Individual approach towards learners

55%

Individual approach towards learners

55%

Motivates students

20%

Motivates students

60% 60%

Patient

10%

Patient

Age of the educator

10%

Age of the educator

Fair

0%

Fair

8% 10%

Language qualities Good command of foreign language

80%

Good command of foreign language

60%

Extensive knowledge of target language culture

75%

Extensive knowledge of target language culture

60%

The sets of foreign language teacher characteristics presented in Table 4.14 were additionally supported by the opinions of the interviewed teachers who said: Educators who work with senior learners have to express empathy and patience. They need to remember that senior learners may need more time and more frequent repetitions. Furthermore, they are very sensitive so teachers need to be supportive and tactful during feedback sessions

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Insights into Senior Foreign Language Education

and when correcting errors. We need to be well prepared and show confidence in what we do during lessons. Senior students are often insecure and they appreciate teachers who show confidence in their teaching skills. I noticed that age may not be a dominating factor; however, I believe it may have significant influence on relations between teacher and his/her students. Age closer to the students’ age results in more partnership approach whereas younger teachers are sometimes treated as grandchildren. That does not mean that their opinions will be ignored or questioned. It is more about mutual support and positive attitude towards young teachers. (Teacher A) Foreign language educators who work with senior learners need to be empathetic and reflect on senior learners’ emotional states. This is essential, without empathy teaching may prove difficult. Teachers need to be flexible and be willing to introduce modifications even if they are not in accordance with teacher’s initial teaching plans. What is more, sometimes these changes will result from students’ previous teaching experience. As a younger person I sometimes made too hasty judgments about my senior learners which later turned out to be far from the truth. I also think that my young age resulted in being treated as their grandchild rather than a teacher. I know it sounds silly but it would sometimes be easier to teach senior learners if my age was closer to theirs. It would be easier to relate to their life experience and come up with topics suitable for senior learners. One more thing I notice, which is not directly related to teaching, is that my outfit did not have to be formal at all. Casual clothing was accepted by my senior learners. (Teacher B)

Everything that teachers decide to do or not to do stems out from their prior experience and knowledge concerning senior foreign language education, their beliefs, expectations and personality. Therefore, teachers were asked about their educational background and forms of professional development. First of all, according to the teachers their previous teacher training did not prepare them well enough to work with senior learners. These opinions correlate with the author’s experience who within last 20 years of active teacher training experience did not come across any topics or course segments that would focus specifically on senior education. Usually the focal point is occupied by young learners and seniors are included in the adult age group. Undoubtedly, there needs to be a shift in attention and senior learners need to be explicitly recognised as a specific age group in pre-service teacher training. This is supported by teachers themselves, who stated in the subsequent question that their main source of knowledge and experience was teaching itself (80% of the respondents). No courses, no thematic workshops and limited access to literature create a rather disheartening and gloomy image of senior foreign language education. One of the educators wrote: I fi nished my studies in the 1980s and I was not prepared to teach senior learners who at that time did not attend language classes. What we have today is mainly our experience and other teachers’ opinions about how to

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teach senior learners. What we need is to include additional courses concerned with senior learner education and specificity of this particular age group. Furthermore, we need coursebooks, workshops, and web-pages devoted exclusively to senior foreign language education.

Such opinions are becoming increasingly accepted among foreign language educators who are beginning to recognise senior learners as a distinctive age group which in times of social change and progressing aging of societies is starting to gain more attention from local and national authorities. Our society is getting older and the need for senior education is going to increase. Furthermore, the generations without experience in English education are a minority today and there are more and more senior learners who had contact with English language. Therefore, we need to explicitly include senior foreign language teaching and learning into university curricula and prepare our students for their future professional contacts with senior learners. My studies provided me with knowledge concerning teaching skills but they did not prepare me for senior learner education. Do I have any useful advice for educators who are about to start their work with senior learners? You need to show great amounts of empathy and positive attitude. Senior learners need time to open up and fi nd the ‘inner child’ in them. They are often intimidated with new situations. You need to give them time and be patient. Remember that their motivation is connected with social activity and belonging to a peer group. Therefore, they may respond to motivational factors different from the ones that work for younger groups. (Teacher A) My previous studies provided me with knowledge about teaching techniques and tools. However, during practice I had to modify my expectations and develop my professional workshop so it fitted senior learners better. Therefore, it seems reasonable to introduce teacher training courses designed to prepare for working with senior learners. They are a distinct and diversified age group that needs to be recognised in foreign language methodology. Maybe during teaching practice students should have the opportunity to volunteer as foreign language teachers in Third Age Universities. Advice for teacher who are to work with senior learners? Get to know your students well and fi nd out as much as you can about their motives and expectations. You need to accept the fact that senior learners need more time and it may be more difficult for them to learn new things. Give them time and be patient. Support and encourage them. Show understanding and you will fi nd out how rewarding senior learners may be. (Teacher B) Final Remarks

All my professional life I have been actively involved in foreign language pre-service teacher training and for almost three decades I have had the privilege to observe how my students become experienced educators.

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Throughout all these years foreign language teacher training has undergone various modifications and changes in order to meet the expectations and realities of the contemporary world. Teachers have been equipped with multifarious techniques, activities and teaching tools which were supposed to help them expect the unexpected and conduct well-prepared, professionally conducted and attractive foreign language lessons. Teachers have also known for a long time that foreign language learners differ in many different aspects and that they cannot be measured with the same scale. Age as an individual difference despite having a long history of treatment and studies has been, until recently, limited to the fi rst periods of a person’s life. de Bot and Bátyi (2017: 13) write: The course content has been often divided depending on the age of the learners and in most cases learners have been divided into three age groups – young learners, adolescent learners, and adult learners. No further specification has ever been made, resulting in grouping learners into vast, heterogeneous clusters. Still in the days of structuralism, language and its users were seen as being a ‘thing’ to be learned and taught, and since the goal of the learning was the same for all learners proficiency in the language – the road to that goal should be uniform as well. Language was seen as a set of structures that had to be mastered, and this led to the Audiolingual method in which learners had to drill patterns and make no mistakes, since mistakes could be engrained as good as correct patterns. (de Bot & Bátyi, 2018: 13)

Aronin and Singleton (2010) provided an extensive overview of age-related research and Singleton (2003: 22) declared that the tendency for ‘younger learners to do better in the long run in the matter of second language lexical acquisition is no more than a tendency’. No matter how much research has been done so far, studies concerning senior learners and the specificity of their education constitute a valuable asset to the growing body of evidence that seniors constitute a significant age group which, under no condition, should be neglected or ignored. They come to classrooms motivated, expecting proper treatment, full of life experience and with certain challenges to be overcome. They create a unique mosaic of positive attitudes, with a vibrant approach to life, but also insecurity, anxiety and potential limitations. Some of them want to enjoy life and meet new people. However, we should also remember those who are socially excluded and for whom education may be a good or, sometimes, the only way to better their life and social acceptance. Lifelong education may be their passage to a more efficient integration with the rest of society and a promising perspective of a change for the better. Therefore, senior education needs to be investigated, analysed and described in order to create a cohesive image of senior learner characteristics, needs and expectations. Only by doing so will lifelong learning become a realistic opportunity for seniors to become an active and appreciated part of any contemporary society.

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Questions to Consider

(1) Chapter 3 included various ways of facilitating the process of senior language learning. In your opinion what can be done to facilitate the learning process for senior learners? (2) Looking at the answers provided by the senior respondents, do you think there is a need for more materials and coursebooks designed especially for this particular age group? (3) What would you consider a potentially biggest setback when teaching senior learners? Think about possible age-related deficiencies and senior answers from this chapter. (4) Do you think that teachers working with senior learners need to expose any specific skills and competencies? If so, what are they? (5) Senior learners present myriad reasons for attending language courses. Many of them are not language related or even learning related. Keeping that in mind, do you think that language courses for senior learners need to be designed according to different criteria than those for other age groups? Suggested Readings Epstein-Lubow, G., McBee, L., Darling, E., Armey, M. and Miller, I.W. (2011) A pilot investigation of mindfulness-based stress reduction for caregivers of frail elderly. Mindfulness 2, 95–102. McBee, L. (2003) Mindfulness practice with the frail elderly and their caregivers: Changing the practitioner–patient relationship. Topics in Geriatric Rehabilitation 19, 257–264. Ramani, S. and Krackov, S. (2012) Twelve tips for giving feedback effectively in the clinical environment. Medical Teacher 34, 787–791. Richards, H.M., Harvey, S. and Conway, C. (2012) Foreign language teachers’ language proficiency and their language teaching practice. The Language Learning Journal 41, 231–246. Rejeski, W.J. (2008) Mindfulness: Reconnecting the body and mind in geriatric medicine and gerontology. The Gerontologist 48, 135–141. Shin, S. (2008) Preparing non-native English speaking ESL teachers. Teacher Development 12, 57–65. Young, L.A. and Baime, M.J. (2010) Mindfulness-based stress reduction: Effect on emotional distress in older adults. Complementary Health Practice Review 15, 59–64.

5 Conclusions and Modest Suggestions for Further Research

Introduction

It was Confucius who said that: ‘Old age is a good and pleasant thing. It is true you are gently shouldered off the stage, but then you are given such a comfortable front chair as spectator’ (Goodman, 1976). However, this book is not about those who are willing to sit quietly in comfortable chairs but, rather those elderly members of our societies who decide to transform their third or even fourth age into an active and challenging enterprise as well as those for whom lifelong learning is sometimes the only chance to become full-fledged members of society and to overcome their social seclusion. They believe that even if old age has its limitations, it can still be the most rewarding and fulfilling period in their lives. One way to make this happen is to stay educationally active by participating in available courses, e.g. foreign language courses offered by the majority of U3A and other educational institutions. This book is also about older people whose physical condition and age-related illnesses do not allow them to fully participate in social life and about those who are not fully recognised as members of our societies and for whom lifelong learning may be a way to overcome challenges and become accepted and appreciated. Socio-cultural changes occurring in the human population and gradual aging of societies have resulted in an increase in interest in the senior population and characteristics of older members of our communities and those who are not always considered as citizens (refugees and immigrants). Despite the growing attention and increased awareness, research on the issue of senior education is still scarce. For that reason this book has touched upon on selected matters related to the process of human aging and the philosophy of lifelong learning. However, the predominant aim of this book is to increase awareness concerning issues regarding learning and teaching of foreign languages to older adults, also referred to as foreign language geragogy. Furthermore, an attempt has been made to shed more light on the profile of foreign language teachers working with senior 148

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learners an provide some insightful suggestions for further foreign language teacher education and training. 5.1 Senior Learner Revisited

It is safe to say in saying that educational activities constitute a significant part of daily living of the elderly members of our communities. New challenges at an older age require the use of personal creativity of every senior learner who is willing to participate in any form of learning activity. Therefore, the need for lifelong education, which should unsurprisingly be extended to learners in advanced age, has come to the attention of researchers more acutely in recent years. This has happened mainly as a result of a gradual aging process of the human population as well as an increased awareness of the importance of providing older members of society with opportunities to stay physically and mentally active despite retirement. One way to meet these new challenges is to familiarise seniors with an assortment of already available and constantly expanding educational contexts, one of them being foreign language courses offered by the U3A and other educational organisations. Unfortunately, despite the increased awareness of senior education becoming more widespread, available publications as well as educational practice often neglect the need to differentiate between the education of younger learners, adolescents, adults and senior learners. A senior learner often learns a foreign language to not be dependent on others while communicating in a foreign language, during more frequent travels abroad or while communicating with their family members who live abroad. Sometimes older learners want to prove to themselves, their friends and acquaintances that they are still able to progress and learn something new or just to stay socially active and meet their peers. Others need education to become treated as equal members of society. Regardless of the motivations, there needs to be a detailed analysis of educational needs in order to differentiate and adjust the educational process to meet the expectations of senior learners. It seems logical to assume that senior foreign language education requires specific materials, topics and teaching methods which may sometimes differ significantly from those used with other age groups. As far as the methodological aspect is taken into consideration, a vital role is played by the preferred methodological approach, which should fully respect the individual, especially the age specificities of participants in an educational context. For example, Mitterlechner (2012: 9) claims that, while working with seniors, it has to be taken into account that: • • •

learning may take longer for older people; they are more sensitive to external disturbances; they put emphasis on the meaning of education;

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the educational content must be relevant, i.e. it has to be meaningful and it must bring benefit; success in learning depends on motivation; continuation with what was previously learned has a favourable effect; learning is dependent on social factors; unused learning capacities are available in older ages as well.

At the same time, available research indicates that there exist barriers that may significantly impair educational access for older learners, such as negative stereotyping, lack of support from family members and friends, lack of motivation, low level of self-esteem, lack of confidence and increased anxiety. Similar obstacles are mentioned by Petřková and Čornaničová (2004: 69), who write about potential senior learners’ barriers resulting from subjective conditions (e.g. fear of the decrease of sensory and cognitive capabilities, low self-confidence, stage-fright and anxiety from new situations, lack of vitality, indecisiveness) as well as objective ones (e.g. shortage of information about educational possibilities or bad approach to them, unsuitable time of education, problems with transport, fi nancial problems, social ostracism) which can slow down the learning process. Additionally, the process of aging affects senior learners’ memory, causing serious challenges because learning a language is predominantly based on memorising. What is even worse, these ideas concerning agerelated challenges and potential problems lead to the development of negative and often harmful stereotypes related to the learning abilities and educational potential of older learners that have influenced societies, teacher trainers and educators. The worst thing is that even seniors adopt these negative perceptions about themselves and may have given up learning or not attempted to give it a try. Also, in foreign language classrooms there seems to be a prevalence of negative preconceptions concerning senior learners’ learning abilities as insufficient. Many of these off putting judgments are neglected in teacher training and in ongoing research on the foreign language acquisition process. However, a thorough revision of available literature on linguistic development, L2/FL acquisition and individual differences clearly indicates that there is no conclusive evidence that supports the idea that older learners are incapable of accomplishing high levels of foreign language. Thus, senior learners of a foreign language may undoubtedly be faced with specific sets of challenges different from these encountered by their younger counterparts, but there seems too little or no evidence indicating that, if approached fittingly, they will be prevented from achieving higher levels of linguistic proficiency. Conversely, research seems to indicate a beneficial influence of foreign language learning on the psychological and cognitive systems of older adult learners (Ramírez Gómez, 2016; Klingberg, 2010). What needs to be explicitly emphasised is that despite all these negative stereotypes about senior learners, there are many benefits from their

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Negative aspects of senior education: - Negative stereotyping - Insufficient teacher training - Scarce research

Positive aspects of senior education: - Extensive life experience - Social inclusion - Intrinsic motivation

Figure 5.1 Benefits and drawbacks of senior education

involvement in the foreign language learning and the teaching process. As far as their general attitude towards language learning is concerned, seniors express a positive approach to learning, educators and their fellow students. Other potential benefits are presented below. Notwithstanding irrefutable perspectives resulting from working with more age advanced learners, the development of geragogy seems to be hampered by the insufficient amount of related research, inadequate implementation of appropriate teaching methods, lack of understanding of how senior learners learn, as well as understanding of individual learner traits that result in efficient foreign language learning processes. Figure 5.1 presents potential benefits and drawbacks of senior education. 5.2 Content of the Book

The ultimate goal of this book has been to familiarise readers with the specificity of the aging process and with the concept of lifelong learning. Furthermore, the book intended to shed more light of the specificity of foreign language learning and teaching to senior learners and recommend some tangible modifications for teacher training procedures. Raising educators’ awareness of the uniqueness of older adults education may bring about positive changes in the educational system and help in recognising senior learners as an inimitable age group with its specific needs, goals and behaviours. This book consists of five chapters, of which this one contains concluding remarks and suggestions for foreign language geragogy and the foreign language teacher-training process. Three sections of the book are theoretical in nature and attempt to present the readers with a cohesive sequence of facts concerning the process of aging (Chapter 1), a lifelong learning philosophy (Chapter 2) and how the latest discoveries concerning senior learners are implemented into foreign language education (Chapter 3). It was decided to approach aging in an interdisciplinary fashion and present the process as a natural consequence of the passing of time rather than a pessimistic set of inevitable changes occurring in our body and

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mind. It provided a detailed description of age-related biological, cognitive and physical transformations embraced in traditional and more contemporary aging theories. The more traditional theories assert that aging is simply a way in which people adapt or that it is genetically programmed, whereas recent theories claim that aging is just another period in the biological timetable of our lives. In order to fi nd out more about the distinctiveness of the aging process, Chapter 1 also included a description of underlying foundations of gerontology, a branch of science that investigates the older generation and encompasses geriatrics, the psychology of aging, rehabilitation, eating habits, environment and other essential fields of sciences interested in older people. The universality of gerontology lies in the integration of various perspectives on the aging process and how it suggests effective ways of coping with potential age-related challenges. In order to develop a better understanding of the unique changes occurring in older people and in the environment around them, social and cultural contexts were described in two consecutive sections, with an additional philosophical viewpoint that aging starts from the very day we are born. In the contemporary world social contacts tend to decrease with age owing to retirement, the death of friends and family members or decreased mobility as a result of biological and cognitive changes. Social exclusion and negative stereotyping are two aspects taken from a long list of challenges that need to be faced by older members of society and should not be ignored since they may lead to depression and dementia, as well as cardiovascular problems. Regardless of the potential challenges and limitations awaiting for us in the older age it does not have to be a prospect to fear. Keeping that in mind, the readers were presented with an array of positive outcomes resulting from entering the third age as well as including a description of successful, productive, optimum or vital aging. Obviously, aging has also its less attractive faces, such as social and economic seclusion, low self-esteem and loneliness, to name just some of them. Yet Chapter 1 closes with a positive memorandum that most of these problems may be overcome with the use of compensation theories and by questioning existing negative stereotypes. In order to cope with these potential challenges seniors should be encouraged to actively participate in various educational enterprises proposed by national and local authorities. The concept of lifelong learning has been present in many societies since the dawning of ancient civilisations and still constitutes a predominant approach in many modern societies. The lifelong learning philosophy is firmly grounded in the belief that education equips people with transferable skills and encourages learners to try and change their lives into something better and more satisfying. It also enables learners to develop both as individuals and as members of a wider and more inclusive society. One way to implement relevant theory into practice is the establishment of the U3A, which provide seniors with a multitude of educational opportunities and are a superb invention designed to introduce positive

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changes into the lives of older people who can fulfill their ambitions and dreams, sometimes after a long period of time. ‘UTAs which are accepted as one of the most successful educational foundations providing learning opportunity to the elderly and are defi ned as socio-cultural centres where they can add new information to their current information as well as sharing their knowledge with the third age learners’ (Formosa, 2010b: 198). These universities have became focal point in an international policy promoting lifelong learning for all elderly who are still interested in active learning and who want to remain important for the rest of society. Older people are encouraged to acknowledge that they are not too old to learn and remain socially active. This seems especially important since seniors are probably the fastest increasing age group in many countries. Third Age Universities are focused on humanities, foreign language learning, history, environmental issues and literature. Participating in these courses senior learners bring with them a vast repertoire of different life experiences, knowledge, beliefs and perspectives which can be used for acquiring new knowledge and developing new beliefs. Unfortunately, even though quite a lot has been written about the education of other age groups – in particular, young learners have been thoroughly investigated – the data concerning older learners is still scarce and indisputably requires more in-depth analysis and research. The need to recognise the ‘new’/‘old’ age group should result in a reorientation of senior learners who may not have been involved in educational practice for decades. Ramírez Gómez (2016) mentions learner retraining, which takes a form of an instructional mechanism based on the premise that older learners need to reconsider their previous learning experience and habits and decide if they are still relevant for their current cognitive, psychological and physical abilities. Re-training helps older learners to realistically reconsider their beliefs and behaviours, as well as their learning abilities and the way they feel, not the way society expects them to feel. Therefore, senior learner re-training is not merely a deconstruction of previously expressed opinions and beliefs but should be seen as comprehensive and meticulous process of identifying learners’ needs and abilities. Foreign language learning is undoubtedly a process in which senior learners can actively participate. For that reason, Chapter 3 was exclusively devoted to senior learners’ foreign language education. Apart from a section focused on gerontology and research on senior learners’ foreign language learning, it focuses on potential reasons among older learners to embark on learning a foreign language. Some of these motives include the desire to use language in contacts with grand children who live abroad or while travelling. Other learners want to stimulate their cognitive capacities, ‘exercise’ their memory or become more socially active. Apart from a wide assortment of motives, senior learners display a wider set of learner characteristics which fi nd their place in various classifications of senior

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learners. Among them we can fi nd those who accept the passage of time and try to make most of it and those who do not accept the aging process and believe that they should gradually ‘fade away’. There are also senior learners who enjoy the company of other learners and those who prefer to work individually. For some it may be surprising to fi nd that there are so many differences among members of this age group; however, it should not be unexpected since the older learners cluster encompasses people who are 55 years old as well as those over 80 years old. Unfortunately, regardless of a positive approach to aging and accepting the passing of time, age seems to have an impact on our learning skills. There exist potential learning barriers that may impede or even prevent learners from effective acquisition of a foreign language. These barriers may have different origins, starting from exterior obstacles, such as poorly prepared classrooms, limited access to learning facilities, lack of educational materials and negative stereotyping, and interior origins, including low selfesteem, anxiety and cognitive aging. In order to overcome these age-related challenges we need well-prepared educators who are trained specifically for working with this specific age group. Therefore, the analysis of the available data and a revision of related publications led to the presentation of a series of tangible suggestions concerning each stage of the learning/ teaching process, starting from the planning stage, followed by a series of advice on how to adjust the teaching and learning environment to senior learners’ needs, abilities and expectations, ending with concrete techniques, strategies, activities and materials to be implemented while working with older learners. The final section of Chapter 3 is entirely devoted to what has been the biggest concern of the author, namely teacher profile and pre-service teacher training aimed at older learners. In Section 3.8, the readers will find an attempt to portray and describe essential characteristics, skills and competencies for senior learners’ educators as well as roles that teachers need to assume when working with older learners. Regrettably, the picture that emerges from the whole book is that the field of foreign language learning has to some extent disregarded older learners as an important focus of conducted research, focusing predominantly on young learners. However, the specificity of working with senior learners can undoubtedly provide researchers and teacher trainers with valuable data for introducing improvements in education among other age groups and better understanding of variables responsible for effective foreign language learning and teaching processes. The sparse amount of research on senior foreign language learning makes this field one with great potential. Consequently, Chapter 4 included a study which aimed at generating a more precise description of a foreign language senior learner as well as proposing some valuable modifications ton pre-service foreign language teacher training. Apart from the results obtained from surveys, important insights were obtained through interviews with educators who worked with senior learners.

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5.3 Suggestions for Researchers, Teacher Trainers and Educators

The first-hand experience provided crucial feedback on senior learners and their uniqueness. The author’s experience, the review of the literature and the results of the above-mentioned studies brought about a set of suggestions for further research, pre-service foreign language teacher training and foreign language classroom applications. 5.3.1 Suggestions for further research

•

• • •

• •

Despite increased interest in foreign language senior education, little is still known about the specificity of teaching older adults. More research is needed on seniors’ learning preferences and effective ways of adjusting the learning process to learners’ needs and expectations. Undoubtedly, there should be more cross-discipline studies on senior learners’ cognitive abilities and how they affect the process of language learning among seniors. We should also fi nd out more about the influence of explicit strategy training and its influence on the adoption of new language learning strategies by senior learners. Recognition of senior learners as a separate language learning group necessitates an insightful look into foreign language teacher training and the introduction of innovative modifications into pre-service teacher training. Having said that, it seems crucial to investigate new teacher roles in a senior foreign language classroom. Finally, the study presented in this book focuses predominantly on foreign language learning. However, there are many senior learners who consider lifelong learning as a unique opportunity to move away from social seclusion and discrimination. Therefore, it seems important to take a closer look and investigate multiple aspects of second language learning of immigrants and refugees.

5.3.2 Suggestions for pre-service teacher education

•

•

Senior learners/third and fourth age learners need to be recognised as a separate age group in foreign language learning and teaching and explicitly included in teacher training curricula. Students need to become familiarised with the specificity of individual differences and educational potential of senior learners as well as different archetypes of senior learners. Senior education is not only methodology but also socially oriented. Therefore, pre-service teachers need to become socially sensitive about potential challenges of senior education. In many cases senior learners require stress-free conditions for learning as well as increased attention and empathy.

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•

•

•

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Some of the potential challenges result from senior learners’ physical and mental abilities. Future teachers need to gain awareness of potential limitations that senior learners bring with them to the classroom. Therefore, pre-service teacher training should encompass psychological, medical, health-related and rehabilitation issues. Future educators need to obtain knowledge concerning adjustments and modifications that need to be applied in the foreign language classroom. Classrooms designed for senior learners need to be specifically adjusted in order to provide senior learners with convenient learning conditions. Appropriate lightning, proper space between desks, easy access to the classroom, audible listening materials, sufficient table space for writing, space for wheelchairs or adequate heating and cooling systems are necessary for an efficient learning process. Working with this specific age group requires teachers to modify or adopt new roles that require more sensitivity, empathy and patience. Teacher may need to become care-givers. Of course senior learners are not helpless pensioners but very often people full of energy and willingness to learn something new. Teaching practice may be a problem since there are not that many courses to observe or to teach in and senior learners are often reluctant to have someone in their classroom during lessons. Therefore, educators and teacher trainers should provide for a sufficient number of senior educational facilities. Teaching materials need to be developed for educators who are to work with senior learners. Proper fonts contrast and distances between lines are essential for the efficient use of foreign language learning materials. Teachers have to be aware of seniors’ special needs and often adjust learning materials for classroom use. Unfortunately, ready-made learning materials are not widely available and educators may often have to prepare their own resources. With that in mind, establishing a teachers’ network for materials exchange is an endeavour worth considering. Pre-service teachers may also consider adopting new roles which will be sufficient for teaching senior learners. Such roles may include a learning coach for senior learners, a mentor for senior learners, facilitator (senior learning related) or supporter of the learning process.

5.3.3 Classroom context suggestions

•

•

Foreign language courses for senior learners should be preceded by a detailed needs analysis as well as assessment of learners’ physical and cognitive abilities (the teacher may lack sufficient expertise and skills to verify such abilities). Educators should develop a stress-free and friendly atmosphere in the classroom (senior learners are sensitive and their self-esteem is often

Conclusions and Modest Suggestions for Further Research

•

•

•

•

•

• •

• •

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low). Feeling comfortable and relaxed is often more important for senior learners than learning itself. Older learners often come to class to socialise and deal with social seclusion. Senior learners often express the need to be approached individually. Therefore, educators should express more patience and understanding, and devote more time to individual students so as to get to know them better. In order to make it happen, small groups have to be created for the convenience of senior learners and teachers alike. At the same time, older learners need to feel that they belong to a larger group and receive any necessary support in overcoming any potential problems. Once again, increased sensitivity and awareness are a sine qua non condition for efficient senior learner foreign language education. Teachers should come to the classroom well prepared and show absolute confidence in their teaching skills. Senior learners may sometimes question teachers who are young and, therefore, inexperienced. Naturally, young teachers can also work with senior learners provided that they show absolute professionalism before, during and after classes. Senior learners seem to appreciate educators with extensive professional knowledge (sometimes age as well) as well as high social, intercultural and communicational skills. As in the case of young learners, senior learners also require educators with a specific set of characteristics and personality traits. Learning should be based on a coursebook or teacher-generated handouts. There are coursebooks for learning English available on the market; however, educators may want to consider designing their own materials for their language courses. These teacher-made coursebooks may be better adjusted to the specific needs of their learners. Most of the learning should take place in the classroom, not at home. Some of the senior learners may not feel confident enough or may not get sufficient help to work at home. Learners should be explicitly accustomed to various language-learning strategies in order to modify their previous learning experience and to develop new learning habits suitable for current educational processes. Explicit strategy training may prove beneficial for senior learners who have to develop a new set of learning procedures to successfully overcome any potential educational challenges during their learning. It is quite possible that there are strategies that may prove beneficial for this particular age group. Despite their previous learning experience being often focused on grammar instruction, senior learners enjoy communication. Senior learners appreciate activities that place them in real-life situations and familiarise them with sufficient vocabulary and grammar structures. Older learners expect the classroom to resemble the

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outside world and their purposes for taking up classes are often related to genuine communicative situations. Rarely is there any intention to pass exams or study for professional purposes; therefore, seniors expect to obtain practical foreign language communication skills. Learning content is more appreciated by senior learners when topics concern learners’ life experience and their fields of interest (needs analysis may be again useful for educators). Senior learners appreciate frequent revisions of already learned materials and the syllabus should be designed according to a spiral framework. Despite high anxiety and fear of being evaluated, senior learners seem to appreciate the process of tactful and gentle error correction. Educators should be patient and show understanding while correcting errors. Senior learners are capable and may be responsible for some of the decisions happening in the classroom. Developing autonomy is possible among senior learners who have extensive educational and life experience. It may be a good idea to use technology enhancing the visibility and audibility of language during listening practice with background noises reduced. Teachers should make every effort to speak clearly, loudly and slowly.

Final Remarks

The ideas presented in this book need more recognition and proposals on how to effectively approach foreign language geragogy. New discoveries in the field of older learner education may shed more light on the issue and modify the proposals in this work. It is essential to carry out research on senior learners’ education and to keep on teaching foreign languages to senior learners, despite existing barriers and despite the fact that some of them may not make any progress at all. Regardless of how much more research is needed to come to tangible conclusions, senior learners constitute an age group that should have equal opportunities to activate themselves through education to any other age group. Any publication or study on senior learner education is a valuable asset in making foreign language geragogy a recognisable field of study. To conclude, the main aim of this book was to add an significant voice in a growing discussion of efficient senior learner education and propose some important modifications in teacher training. The author himself slowly approaches the age when one becomes a senior; however, according to Francis Bacon: ‘I will never be an old person. To me, old age is always 15 years older than I am’.

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Questions to Consider

(1) Which of the presented suggestions for further research do you consider most promising and useful for language education? (2) Can you think of any other ideas for studies focusing on senior language learners? (3) Figure 5.1 introduces potential challenges in senior education. Which of these do you consider the most crucial to overcome in contemporary society and education? (4) What modifications in pre-service teacher education seem to be crucial for more efficient senior education? (5) Which of the classroom suggestions, in your opinion, seem to be essential when working with senior learners?

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Appendices

Appendix 1: Questionnaire

Good morning. My name is Marek Derenowski and I am a teacher and researcher at Adam Mickiewicz University in Kalisz. I conduct research about the specificity of teaching senior learners. In order to provide answers you need to put X in the right box. You can provide more than one answer. The questionnaire is anonymous and the results will be used only for research purposes and extension of knowledge about senior foreign language education. I appreciate all the help and fi lling in the survey. The survey is based on a questionnaire created by Jaroszewska (2013). 1. Gender: ◻ female ◻ male 2. Education: ◻ course/postgraduate studies ◻ BA ◻ MA ◻ PhD 3. Professional experience: ◻ 1–5 years ◻ 6–10 years ◻ 11–15 years ◻ more than 15 years 4. Professional experience outside university: ◻ primary school ◻ junior/senior high school ◻ commercial courses ◻ other … 5. Experience in teaching senior learners: ◻ commercial courses ◻ Third Age University ◻ Open University ◻other … I. Teaching foreign languages

1. What are the main reasons for attending language courses by senior learners? ◻ no special reason ◻ hobby ◻ my friends convinced me ◻ necessary in my professional work 180

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181

◻ free time ◻ travels ◻ family abroad ◻ memory training ◻ contacts with other people ◻ discovering other cultures ◻ other … 2. What are the expectations of senior learners towards foreign language course? ◻ acceptable price ◻ well organised ◻ able to communicate in a foreign language ◻ using materials in a foreign language ◻ cognitive stimulation ◻ new challenges ◻ increased social activity ◻ making new friendships ◻ being less lonely ◻ fulfi lling the need to feel appreciated ◻ discovering new cultures ◻ easier to travel ◻ making my dreams come true ◻ family abroad ◻ other … 3. What characteristics are typical for senior learners? ◻ motivated ◻ easily stressed ◻ co-operating with other learners ◻ demotivated ◻ teacher dependent ◻ independent ◻ prepared for lessons ◻ open to new ways of learning ◻ using technology ◻ willingly participates in lessons ◻ reserved ◻ explicitly expressing his/her opinions ◻ willingly using life experience ◻ critical towards conducted classes/teacher ◻ flexible ◻ other …

182

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4. What topics are the most interesting for senior learners? ◻ practical issues ◻ literature ◻ culture (fi lm, theatre, music) ◻ history ◻ sport ◻ politics ◻ education ◻ social problems ◻ everyday life ◻ senior related issues ◻ other … 5. Characteristics of a good foreign language teacher ◻ age close to students’ age ◻ young age ◻ good command of language ◻ knows target language culture ◻ nice ◻ friendly atmosphere ◻ supporting ◻ enthusiastic ◻ confident ◻ full of energy ◻ just ◻ patient ◻ helpful ◻ well prepared ◻ adjusts the pace and difficulty to learners’ abilities ◻ understanding ◻ motivating ◻ involved ◻ provides advice ◻ explaining in a meaningful way ◻ speaks slowly and clearly ◻ neat ◻ deals with conflicts well ◻ decisive ◻ open towards other people ◻ sense of humour ◻ knows and understands the needs of senior learners ◻ individual approach towards every learner ◻ other …

Appendices

183

6. What methods of work do you prefer? ◻ discussions/conversations ◻ lecture ◻ individual students ◻ pair and group work ◻ whole class work ◻ projects ◻ other … 7. What types of materials do you use during lessons with senior learners? ◻ coursebook ◻ fi lms ◻ pictures ◻ songs ◻ language learning apps ◻ radio broadcast ◻ charts/tables ◻ newspapers ◻ everyday life objects ◻ computer programs ◻ web pages ◻ interactive board ◻ eBooks ◻ books ◻ visual materials: brochures, maps, posters ◻ other … 8. Do you use any adjustments for senior learners? ◻ larger print ◻ less text on a page ◻ higher contrast ◻ brighter light ◻ better sound system ◻ more space between tables ◻ proper heating ◻ comfortable chairs ◻ quieter classroom ◻ loud, clear, slow speech ◻ mimics and gestures ◻ capital letters ◻ native language ◻ visual aids ◻ other …

184

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9. What type of stress-reduction techniques do you use? ◻ using names of the students ◻ slower pace ◻ native language ◻ positive feedback ◻ non-standard testing techniques ◻ meditation ◻ increased learning awareness ◻ emotional support ◻ group belonging ◻ students’ life experience ◻ increased self-confidence ◻ increased self-esteem ◻ other … 10. How do you increase your students’ motivation? ◻ difficulty matched with students’ abilities ◻ pair and group work ◻ peer assessment ◻ pace matched with students’ abilities ◻ using native language ◻ positive feedback ◻ non-standard testing techniques ◻ meditation ◻ students have influence on forms of work and topics ◻ life experience ◻ technology ◻ audiovisual aids ◻ target language culture ◻ projects ◻ other … 11. How do you provide feedback to your students? ◻ feedback during classes ◻ individual meetings ◻ written feedback ◻ whole group discussion ◻ other … 12. How do you test your students? ◻ only written tests ◻ only oral tests ◻ written test in pair or groups

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185

◻ written tests with the use of available materials ◻ using technology (kahoot) ◻ no tests ◻ tests but no grades ◻ other … 13. Using a scale from 1 to 5 how well did your former studies prepared you for working with senior learners? 1–2–3–4–5 14. How did you extended your knowledge about senior education? ◻ workshops and courses ◻ reading ◻ observations ◻ through teaching ◻ other … 15. Do you have any suggestions concerning future pre-service teacher training in relation to senior foreign language education? 16. Additional comments: Appendix 2: Questionnaire

Good morning. My name is Marek Derenowski and I am a teacher and researcher at Adam Mickiewicz University in Kalisz. I conduct research about the specificity of teaching senior learners. In order to provide answers you need to put X in the right box. You can provide more than one answer. The questionnaire is anonymous and the results will be used only for research purposes and extension of knowledge about senior foreign language education. I appreciate all the help and fi lling in the survey. The survey is based on a questionnaire created by Jaroszewska (2013). 1. Gender: ◻ female ◻ male 2. Place of residence: ◻ village ◻ town