Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education [1 ed.] 9781527512023, 9781527506220

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Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education

Scientific Committee Linda Daniela – University of Latvia, Latvia Dimitris Alimis – EDUMOTIVA, European Lab for Educational Technology, Greece Miltiadis D. Lytras - American College of Greece, Greece Emanuele Micheli - School of Robotics, Italy Michaele Moro - University of Padua, Italy Fiorella Oporta - School of Robotics, Italy Gabriel Philippe Henri George - Université d'Avignon et des Pays du Vaucluse, France Irēna Žogla – University of Latvia, Latvia Rudīte Andersone – University of Latvia, Latvia Zanda Rubene - University of Latvia, Latvia Dita Nīmante – University of Latvia, Latvia Sarmīte Tūbele – University of Latvia, Latvia Marta Kowalczuk-Waledziak - University of Białystok, Poland The book “Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education” includes studies presented at the ATEE Spring Conference 2017 on emerging trends of the use of technology in the educational process, the use of robotics to facilitate the construction of knowledge, how to facilitate learning motivation, transformative learning, integrative learning, constructivism and constructionism, novel approaches, and innovative educational solutions. Some chapters are devoted to studies on the didactic aspects of technology usage, how to facilitate learning, ensure knowledge construction, social aspects affecting acquisition of education, etc. The ATEE Spring Conference was organized by the University of Latvia on 12-13th of May 2017 at the University of Latvia (Latvia).

Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education Edited by

Linda Daniela

Innovations, Technologies and Research in Education Edited by Linda Daniela This book first published 2018 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2018 by Linda Daniela and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-5275-0622-3 ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-0622-0

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter One ................................................................................................. 1 Event Horizon: Helping Students to Learn What Nobody Knows Yet Neus Lorenzo Galés and Raymond Gallon Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 17 Digital Literacies for Language Learning and Teaching: From a Conceptual Framework to the Design and Development of an Online Portal Odette Gabaudan and Susanna Nocchi Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 25 Production of Bilingual Didactic Videos for Deaf Engineering Students: A Case at Federal University of VIÇOSA (Brazil) José Timóteo Júnior, André Luis Santos de Souza, Vinícius Catão de Assis Souza and Silvane Guimarães Silva Gomes Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 35 Online Science Teacher Education: The Case of a Master’s Programme Laurinda Leite and Luís Dourado Chapter Five .............................................................................................. 51 Development of Massive Open Online Courses Basri Ahmedi, Xhevdet Thaqi, Ragmi Mustafa, Artan Dermaku, Ekrem Alimi and Nysret Demaku Chapter Six ................................................................................................ 64 Digital Childhood: Some Reflections from the Point of View of Philosophy of Education Zanda Rubene Chapter Seven............................................................................................ 78 Team-Based Learning in Management Jelena Stepanova

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Chapter Eight ............................................................................................. 91 Benefits of Time Management Skills, Teamwork Skills and Personal Information Management Perceived by Students from the PolishBelarusian Borderland Alicja Korzeniecka-Bondar, BoĪena ToáwiĔska, Katarzyna Borawska-Kalbarczyk Chapter Nine............................................................................................ 108 Education for Creativity: Tourism Employers’ Preferences Kamila Perederenko and Ineta Luka Chapter Ten ............................................................................................. 127 Professional and Technological Education in Brazil: The Expansion of the Federal Institute Adriano A. R. Barbosa Chapter Eleven ........................................................................................ 138 Robot as Agent in Reducing Risks of Early School Leaving Linda Daniela and Raimonds Strods Chapter Twelve ....................................................................................... 157 RoboESL in Our School Community: Follow up and Sustainability Michele Lattarulo, Giovanni Massidda and Erica Sozzi Chapter Thirteen ...................................................................................... 163 From Being Past RoboESL Students to Becoming Robotics-Teacher Assistants Georgios Ioannou Fragkakis Chapter Fourteen ..................................................................................... 172 Lego Robot as Teaching Tools in Vocational Teacher Education in Uganda: Objects to Think With Birger Brevik Chapter Fifteen ........................................................................................ 186 Role of a Principal in Financial Education Management Agnese Kozlovska and Linda Mihno Chapter Sixteen ....................................................................................... 199 Goal Management and Teacher Competence Development in Schools Anete ButkƝviþa

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Chapter Seventeen ................................................................................... 215 Prospective Teachers’ View of Primary School Pupils in Latvia Ineta Helmane Chapter Eighteen ..................................................................................... 229 Competent Teacher for Inclusive Education: What Does it Mean for Latvia? Dita NƯmante Chapter Nineteen ..................................................................................... 244 Empowering Inclusive Teachers for Today and Tomorrow (EITTT) Iveta Liepina, Laura Zavacka and Anne Ryan Chapter Twenty ....................................................................................... 261 The Philosophical Underpinnings of School-Based Health Education Inese Stars Chapter Twenty One................................................................................ 273 A Proposal for an In-Service Teacher Training Course on Sexuality and Disability Based on a Review and Meta-Analysis of Intervention Studies Ana Cláudia Bortolozzi Maia and Teresa Vilaça Chapter Twenty Two ............................................................................... 289 How Do Teachers Use Soap Opera as a Political and Educational Device After an In-Service Teacher-Training Course on Sexuality Education? Teresa Vilaça, Elizane De Andrade and Sonia Maria Martins De Melo Chapter Twenty Three ............................................................................. 310 Narratives of Consumerism in Parenting: Perspective from the Magazine “My Baby” Dace Medne, Nora Jansone-Ratinika and Ilze Dinka Chapter Twenty Four ............................................................................... 324 Game in Pedagogical Pilot Activity for Pre-School Age Children with Phonetic – Phonematic Insufficiency Ilze Vilka Chapter Twenty Five ............................................................................... 338 The Understanding of the Meaning of Learning by Students and Seniors Nowadays Martins Veide

CHAPTER ONE EVENT HORIZON: HELPING STUDENTS TO LEARN WHAT NOBODY KNOWS YET NEUS LORENZO GALÉS AND RAYMOND GALLON

Abstract In this article, the authors compare traditional learning and communication processes and contexts to new strategies and learning situations adapted to a hyper-connected world, and propose universal pedagogical principles designed for a globalised society where human-machine interaction is becoming commonplace. The development known as Industry 4.0, which merges the Internet of Things with Big Data and Artificial Intelligence, means that robotics, artificial intelligence agents, and hybrid reality universes are expanding and creating their own hypermediated transmedia ecosystems, where some sort of machine intelligence is involved in at least one end of an exchange. The informational component of Industry 4.0 has been called Information 4.0. The main goal of the research presented here is to identify the educational skills needed for learning in Information 4.0 ecosystems. We are interested in identifying the communicational competencies teachers and students will need in a world where humans and machines will be extremely connected and permanently updating. Our central hypothesis is that in the era of Information 4.0, skills for communication and information management must be related to the highest level of PISA reading competence and global literacy: reflecting on content and form, drawing upon one’s knowledge, opinions, or attitudes beyond the information provided, and accepting different perspectives and viewpoints. The authors' initial studies mentioned in this article have helped them design an operative roadmap for Information 4.0, designed to help students learn what nobody knows yet. They suggest clear steps for a roadmap and have developed a three-level approach to learning and communicating in Information 4.0 ecosystems that incorporates principles from Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy, and

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proposals for developing global competencies that include support for values and ethical sustainable action, from the OECD and UNESCO. Key words: Information 4.0, Industry 4.0, transmedia, artificial intelligence, robotics, Internet of Things, deep learning, machine learning, Big Data, lifelong learning, ethics, neuroscience, social constructivism

Introduction An important tenet of education states that the limit of children’s performance, when demonstrating what they know, is their ability to communicate (Wittgenstein 1922). Language mastery is crucial for developing cognitive skills and allowing hidden mental processes to emerge (Council of Europe 2015). We only know about children’s reading abilities if they can speak, write, or produce kinetic feedback about a text, which reveals the invisible processes to the teacher. In digital environments, hidden learning processes are revealed by production, participation, and sharing on social media platforms. The main difference between these two situations is that in the digital context, there is an important component of technological mediation and connectivity. The hidden processes already exist in human cognition, and we can see them proliferating now in the digital ecosystem built through machine interactions, known as “Information 4.0” (http://information4zero.net). The proliferation of connected, autonomous objects known as the Internet of Things is leading us toward an uncertain and unseen horizon of interconnected wearable, embedded, and implanted devices. The development known as Industry 4.0 means that robotics, artificial intelligence agents, and hybrid reality universes are expanding and creating their own transmedia ecosystems. The proliferation of humanmachine and machine-machine interactions that take place in this environment are not simply mediated processes, they are hypermediated. We define hypermediated communication as involving some sort of machine intelligence on at least one end of an exchange. Google’s personalised, targeted advertising is an example of automated hypermediation. In this world, the role of hidden processes is growing and the visible part of communication is ever more fragmented. As teacher educators, we face the immense challenge of preparing young teachers not only to face this unknown world, but also to help their pupils learn to navigate in it and decide how it should evolve. How can we clearly identify the challenge for future educators? The authors propose that in this fragmented, hypermediated world, the most valuable strategy will be to create meaning by building connections.

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They propose a theoretical framework for Information 4.0, aligned with the most recent OECD studies for assessment and evaluation. It is based on the recommendations for governance of human-robotic interaction (European Parliament 2017), the mainstream vision of the PISA 2018 global competencies (OECD 2016a), and UNESCO 2030 goals for global sustainability (UNESCO 2015). Today’s technological challenges are not just about adding computers to traditional pencils and notebooks in a linear accumulative learning paradigm, where content is the golden treasure. We need to empower pedagogy to develop more dynamic strategies where the objective is exploring different ways of using technology. Beyond that, it is crucial to find principles that help us identify the best purposes, values, and ethical practices for its usage. Education should be about how human beings will relate to each other in an Information 4.0 ecosystem, and how we create new community experiences to make technology more useful, inclusive, and meaningful for everyone.

Goals and Methodology The main goal of this research is to identify the educational skills needed for learning in Information 4.0 ecosystems. We are interested in identifying the communicational competencies teachers and students will need in a world where humans and machines will be extremely connected and permanently updating. In order to specify an operational hypothesis in this complex context, the authors have addressed three questions from a variety of angles, in the last three years: a)

What are our main concerns when dealing with communication, interaction and exchange in Information 4.0 ecosystems? Action-research methodologies were used to identify the main concerns people have when approaching hypermediated interactions (Gallon and Lorenzo 2015). Results show different concerns that people have (e.g. loss of decision making), that should be considered when defining new characteristics of Information 4.0. (e.g. transparency, knowledge management, partnership with intelligent machines). The next step would be to elaborate a framework of indicators that define the perimeter of Information 4.0 interactions. b) What are the essential competencies that students need to be able to learn in this context?

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c)

Collective debate and action-reflection on practices has promoted critical views on learning processes, professional development and educational systemic evolution (Lorenzo 2017). These reflections include teachers’ opinions about trends and tendencies of thought regarding how students learn (neurolearning processes) and how they can be engaged in learning. Our present project emphasises correlating OECD-PISA skills with competencies for learning to learn in Information 4.0 ecosystems. What are the professional techniques, skills and attitudes we need to put in motion for teachers to help students learn in hyperconnected, hypermediated environments? Case studies were used to explore different types of transmedia training experiences (Gallon and Lorenzo 2014). Results include different models of teacher training transference, where networking and inter-institutional collaboration are significant characteristics. New quantum data analysis techniques, such as Nemetics sequences that represent communication flow (Josefowicz 2012) allow us to start representing communication interactions on the Internet in a visual way (Josefowicz, Gallon and Lorenzo 2017). In the near future, case studies on teacher training and professional development will be relevant for Information 4.0 when combining online connectivity and human collaboration with artificial intelligent agents in automatised systems.

Now that we are entering a reality where content is already provided through connectivity, and learning processes are guided by a variety of automated tutorials, the added value of human teachers needs to be reexamined. Thus, our central hypothesis is: In the era of Information 4.0, skills for communication and information management must be related to the highest level of PISA reading competence and global literacy: reflecting on content and form, drawing upon one’s knowledge, opinions, or attitudes beyond the information provided, and accepting different perspectives and viewpoints. Future studies will necessarily include a humanistic approach to technological problems, machine-human interaction, and communication analytics applied to the hyperconnected and hypermediated interactions of Information 4.0.

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Results Our initial studies have helped us design an operative roadmap for Information 4.0, designed to help students learn what nobody knows yet. A. Identify the research scope for Information 4.0 To begin, we identify our specific research field (i.e. Information 4.0) and locate it in a new environment that is developing as the informational component of Industry 4.0, which has also been referred to as the fourth industrial revolution. While Industry 4.0 is already a consolidated concept (Brynjolfsson and Hitt 2000) that has received German government support (Kagermann et al. 2013), Information 4.0 is an emerging framework for exploring communication and learning processes at macro, meso and micro levels, in mediated, multimediated and hypermediated interactions, both human and machine generated. We can say that the Information 4.0 ecosystem is driven by the internet of things (IoT), informed by continuous massive information input (Big Data), using complex automation. But it is not only that: x Information 4.0 is a complex network of networks, powered by artificial intelligence (AI), in which objects make autonomous decisions that affect us directly in a variety of ways. Information is seen as molecular (no documents are targeted, just information molecules, one notion in response to one state vector), dynamic (continuously updated), offered rather than delivered, ubiquitous (online, searchable and findable), spontaneous (triggered by contexts) and profiled automatically (Gallon and McDonald 2016). x Information 4.0 is a network of infinite instantaneous interactions, a continuous information exchange between agents. It enables emergent human-cyber-physical systems, and makes it possible to implement, leverage, sustain and understand these systems. It puts the technical communication at the centre of the Industry 4.0, IoT, Big Data, cognitive computing revolution (Gollner 2016). This on-going research journey towards Information 4.0 will be an evolutionary process that needs to focus on the most innovative scenarios. Any digital innovation has social implications and creates its own territory. Our field of analysis is not defined just by identified platforms and environments in the digital territory, but by the relationships and the communication flow that emerges and develops between them: humanhuman, human-machine, and machine-machine exchanges are creating the specific focus that allows us to find not only visual and emergent reality, but also the hidden processes that generate it. Our main challenge is how

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to research deep into spaaces that are unknown, u unccertain, and unseen, u at the same tim me produce strrong human (eemotional) ressponses. B. Treat th he concerns of o people about communiccation, interacction and exchangge in Informaation 4.0. ecossystems Our studdies show thaat two of thee main conceerns of peoplee already familiar witth complex coommunication n environment nts are loss off decision making andd excess survveillance – in n other wordss, loss of terrritory for action and loss of contrrol. In a stud dy conducted for Adobe Technical T Communicaation (Gallon and Lorenzo o 2015), an iinternational group of participants (mainly technnical informaation specialistts from USA, Canada, UK, Spain, France, Denm mark and Geermany) proviided a total of o 28,152 identified innteractions, inccluding singlee visits to stattic SlideShares (27,428 accesses), aactive survey completion (3 366) or webinnar registratio ons (358) among otherr communicattion actions (d data as of 15 JJune 2017). These T data help us to detect tendenncies, doubts, and worries related to th he use of technology aat the edge off the unknown communicatiion horizon. Asked abbout the IoT, most participaants in our ressearch (65.52% %) said it is potentiallyy positive forr individuals as a a way of prroviding usefu ul or vital services. Deespite their faavourable outllook, 62% of our survey population also said thhey were worrried about dangers d that m might exist as a hidden consequencees of automatiion and techno ology (Fig. 1)):

Figure 1: Survvey participants’ worries abou ut the Internet oof Things

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Just as we monitor the hidden acquisition of reading skills through visible performance, our current research is looking at known, visible communication processes in virtual environments to try and understand the hidden issues that inform them: x What kinds of data and analyses do we need in order to study both visible and hidden aspects of “Information 4.0?” x How are we going to integrate the existing understanding of communication (from psychology and sociology, mainly focused on micro and meso levels of interaction) into new emerging research related to human and non-human networks (necessarily focussed on a wider concept of connectivity)? x How can we develop a common framework for integrating and synthesising related pedagogical action? The stakes are high and run across all aspects of society at a global level. As educators, we need to find our sources and our solutions in the merging of pedagogical theory, entrepreneurial thought leadership, and goals for sustainability set by international organisations such as UNESCO (UNESCO 2015) and OEDC (OECD 2016b). C. Determine the essential competencies that students need to be able to learn in this context Institutions and administrations are clearly demanding development of a humanistic learning approach for a hybrid world (World Economic Forum 2016). The more the Industry 4.0 revolution consolidates its principles of hyperconnectivity and hypermediation, the more students feel alienated from person-to-person socialisation and disaffected from school and other formal educational environments (Hannon 2012). To compensate for these situations and undesirable consequences, education systems are including relational programmes in their curriculum. Projects for solving conflicts at school, building empathy, facilitating peer-to-peer tutoring, mediation, no-bullying campaigns, and emotional intelligence for community building are spreading everywhere. The need for relational skills seems to grow among new generations that are extremely connected in virtual spaces. Another area where new techniques need to be developed is in maintaining students’ attention. A study by Microsoft Canada indicates that the average attention span of people continues to drop. In 2000, the average human attention span was 12 seconds. In 2015, it had been reduced to just eight seconds – one second less than that of a goldfish (Microsoft Canada 2015)! The study also found that during the eight seconds, the level of attention can be quite high, and that attention shifts

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from one activity to another, often across multiple screens, which means that people do not lose attention so much as change the focus of their attention every eight seconds. Educators need to adjust their techniques to account for this phenomenon if they want to reach children born into a hypermediated world. In this scenario, we propose to correlate the 2000-2015 OECD PISA assessment levels (Fig. 2) with three levels of explicit, implicit and referential information, to create an initial 3-level approach to learning and communicating in Information 4.0 ecosystems (Fig. 3).

Correlation with OECD Assessment Levels for PISA UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING: UDL-Cognitive skills

Reading

Maths

Science

Collaboration for Solving Poblems

Reflect and evaluating

Interpreting, applying and evaluating mathematical outcomes

Interpreting data and evidence scientifically

Establishing and maintaining team organisation

Integrating and interpreting

Employing mathematical concepts, facts, procedures, and reasoning

Evaluating and designing scientific enquiry

Taking appropriate action to solve the problem

Accessing and retrieving

Formulating situations mathematically

Explaining phenomena scientifically

Establishing and maintaining shared understanding

Maths: http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/Draft%20PISA%202015%20Mathematics%20Framework%20.pdf Science: http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/Draft%20PISA%202015%20Science%20Framework%20.pdf Reading: http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/Draft%20PISA%202015%20Reading%20Framework%20.pdf

@NewsNeus @TransformSoc @RayGallonhttp://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/Draft%20PISA%202015%20Collaborative%20Problem%20Solving%20Framework%20.pdf Presentation © 2017 The Transformation Society

Figure 2: PISA assessment levels as defined by the OECD

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Learning and communicating in information 4.0 ecosystems 1. Identifying Multiple Means of Representation (Multimodality). [Explicit Levels of Learning] Students will have to explore molecular content, modular communication, human-machine interaction, and differences at personal and cultural scope.

2. Using multiple means of expression (Transmedia and Transliteracy) [Implicit Levels of Learning]. Students will have to adapt communication strategies to different human-machine interaction possibilities, and generate dynamic sequences of analysis for achieving collective understanding

3. Generating multiple means of engagement (Active Social Participation) [Sustainable Citizenship]. Students will be able to join or start local or international projects based on active citizenship and social engagement, adopting leadership roles for decision making in human-machine and machinemachine generated communication flow.

Figure 3: Three-level approach to learning and communicating in Information 4.0 ecosystems

Although this proposal is merely the first draft, it maintains the progression determined by Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy (Anderson et al. 2001) for cognition and understanding. It also follows the OECD 2030 proposal for developing Global Competencies supporting values and ethical sustainable action, that can be summarised as follows (OECD, 2016b – Fig. 4):

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Learning for Action: Developing Global competencies Inquire, reflect, assess, develop purpose...

Understand and integrate knowledge

Challenges:

Participating Acting Leading

Develop criteria, evaluate, create, share...

Use, explain and Interpret

Access data, obtain input

Develop Intake from information

Teaching to

Learning to

Neus Lorenzo: https://www.slideshare.net/nlorenzo/aprenentatges-per-passar-del-jo-al-nosaltres-en-un-mn-digitalitzat

@NewsNeus @TransformSoc @RayGallon

Presentation © 2017 The Transformation Society

Figure 4: schema correlated to OECD global competencies development

D. Develop the professional techniques, skills and attitudes we need to put in teachers’ hands to help students learn in hyperconnected, hypermediated environments At an individual level, ethical questions and social impact easily come to mind when thinking of innovative technology. In a robotics-based learning context, human teachers must help students find their strengths, raise students’ awareness, and open lifelong learning perspectives for everyone. The teacher’s role will grow when they encourage students to learn how to be, and how to be with others, in a hyper-connected world that is simultaneously more fragmented and more collective than ever. Here is an example that draws on technologies that exist today. A grain field is equipped with solar-powered sensors. They check on soil conditions, temperature, humidity of the air, and the presence of pests. A visual recognition sensor registers the presence of a ravaging insect in large quantities. The sensor immediately sends a radio signal to a drone, equipped with the appropriate insecticide. The drone is also informed by a sensor about wind speed and direction, and calculates a trajectory and dosage that is efficient and minimises negative environmental impact. It sounds wonderful. But what if the designers of these robots forgot to

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check if theere were people in the field ds who might be sprayed? How H was the decisionn taken to begiin the spraying g process, usinng what criterria? What exchanges took place between b senssor and dronne? Was an external computer innvolved? Did it i use AI to deecide what to ddo? In fact, iin this scenario, we human ns can see thee input (presen nce of an insect pest) and the outtput (spraying g). But the eentire decision n-making process is uunreachable, unreadable, u an nd hidden from m human beiings (Fig. 5).

Figure 5: A hhidden decision process using currently c existinng technologiess

In such a situation,, communication is muchh more than n content message, coommunicative code, interaccting agents, oor relational context. c It also includes a huge numbber of processses that are noot only hidden n, they are unknown annd undetectedd by humans: machine lannguage, big data d flow, automatic aanalytics, artifficial governaance, and traansmedia narrrative are parts of thhis hybrid, hypermediated h d transaction.. This is no ot just a theoretical cconstruct; todday’s children n already livee in this tech hnological context, andd the rate of change c is acceelerating. Eveentually, mach hines will not only be dispatching exxternal robotss to solve probblems, but also making changes in oour own bodiees through meedical implantts, aesthetic prrostheses, or neuronal communicatioon devices.

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Our studdies (Fig. 6) show that people over 40 are more relluctant to accept implaanted devices permanently connected to the Internet than t their juniors are ((82.93% worryy about this vss. 40% under 40).

Figure 6: Gennerational differrences with regard to human bbionics

In a worrld where theese phenomen na are commoonplace, and machines play an actiive role in exppanding cultu ural spheres, w what skills do o children need, and hhow do we prrepare teacherrs to help them m gain masteery? How can universsities, instituutions, busineesses and ggovernments define a common frramework forr developing new curricuula, empowerring new methodologies, and encouuraging human nistic attitude s? Digital Technology is not only the tangible evidence off a deep interconnectted flow of evolving e conteent, but the eessential struccture that shapes singuular events annd community y experiences. Both digital tools and digital conttent are deepply mutually embedded an and shape eacch other. Enterprises are slowly coming c aroun nd to integrat ating both as business assets, but the increasinng abundance of products of digital in nnovation makes it diffficult to divee deep into th he globality oof their conseequences, their future iimplications, or the related values that shhould be encouraged to make them w worthwhile.

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In an attempt to build a common approach, the European Parliament has already passed a resolution proposing a humanistic code of ethical conduct for robots, including the possibility of a special status almost as a person for the most advanced (European Parliament 2017).

Conclusion The critical point for communication in a robot-based educational ecosystem is hidden from us, unknown, and unreachable using normal human communication skills. Educational needs become unclear when communication processes escape the human environment and enter the hidden realm of machine-machine exchange. In the model of industrial development set by Industry 4.0, interconnected objects will make decisions without human intervention. Much of their exchanges will be simple data exchanges, of little interest to humans. But a significant number of communications will take place at a level of real informational interaction, and some of it will be informed by deep learning and other AI technologies. We clearly need to shift our ideas of linguistic analysis from the current focus at micro and meso levels, to a macro level vision where non-human communication vastly expands the field of investigation. The educational paradigm shift needed to deal with Information 4.0 moves teaching and learning from linear interaction into multimodal and multi-cognitive processes. The main turning point has already been taken, as teachers’ roles evolve and focus on changes from teaching to learning. Educators promote a student-centred approach at the same time that enterprises focus on a customer-centred journey. Notions about environmental responsibility and sustainability are entering into the discourse following Halliday’s socio-semiotic approach (Halliday 1978, 2006). Institutions, governments, and businesses are all promoting environmental awareness. The convergence of a few significant social concepts across multiple segments of society is the result of a connective process that stems organically from social and economic construction, including major problems and challenges that have been encountered. In the same way, teaching techniques and proposals are evolving from mainstream Cognitive Constructivism towards a more Social Constructivism (Kukla 2000; Schmidt 2007), animated by connectivist principles (Siemens 2004). It is in this context that we can see the basis for Information 4.0 studies, where several interactions take place: human recognition and communication; social networking and culture building; holistic connections of people and objects in the IoT, which lead to an Internet of Everything.

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This exploration of Information 4.0 is an ongoing project, and open to new contributions from linguistics, psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics in micro, meso, and macro analyses. We open a call for colleagues to join our studies in the Primary and Pre-primary Research and Development Community of the Association for Teacher Education in Europe (ATEE: https://atee1.org/primary-and-pre-primary-education/), the Transformation Society (http://www.tranformationsociety.net), and the newly-formed Information 4.0 Consortium (http://information4zero.org). Studies should focus on identifying emerging communication models in the universe of transmedia, new teaching and learning techniques for virtual spaces in Smart Learning Environments, and new quantic models in the Nemetics field (Josefowicz, Gallon and Lorenzo 2017).

References Anderson, L.W., Krathwohl, D.R., Airasian, P.W., Cruikshank, K.A., Mayer, R.E., Pintrich, P.R., Raths, J., Wittrock, M.C. 2001. A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon. Brynjolfsson, E., & Hitt, L. 2000. “Beyond Computation: Information Technology, Organizational Transformation and Business Performance.” The Journal of Economic Perspectives 14 (4): 23-48. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2647074. Council of Europe 2015. “The Language Dimension in All Subjects: A Handbook for Curriculum development and teacher training.” Language Policy Unit. Accessed June 5, 2017. http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/HandbookScol_final_EN.pdf. European Parliament 2017. “Civil Law Rules on Robotics - European Parliament resolution of 16 February 2017 with recommendations to the Commission on Civil Law Rules on Robotics (2015/2103(INL)).” Accessed February 27, 2017. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=%2f%2fEP%2f%2fNONSGML%2bTA%2bP8-TA-20170051%2b0%2bDOC%2bPDF%2bV0%2f%2fEN. Gallon, R. and Lorenzo, N. 2014. “Higher education and Globalization.”In New Voices in Higher Education Research and Scholarship, edited by F. M. Ribeiro, Y. Politis, & B. Culum, 114-147. Hershey, Pennsylvania USA, IGI Global.

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Gallon, R. and Lorenzo, N. 2015. “Tech Challenges: Surfing and Diving Deep.” White Paper, The Transformation Society, Ed Adobe Technical Communications. http://www.adobe.com/content/dam/Adobe/en/products/technicalcom municationsuite/techcomsuite-5/pdf/tech_challengessurfing_and_diving_deep.pdf. Gallon, R. and McDonald, A. 2016. “Information 4.0, the Next Step: A concept, Utrecht, May 2017.” Accessed June 14, 2007. http://www.informationenergy.org/news-articles/detail/information-40the-next-steps/. Gallon, R., Lorenzo, N. and Josefowicz, M. 2017. “Hybrid Communication for Industry 4.0: Nemetic Models. Research paper, The Transformation Society.” https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314115134_Hybrid_Commu nication_for_Industry_40_Nemetic_Models. Gollner, J. 2016. “Information 4.0 for Industry 4.0 (TCWorld 2016).” presentation on SlideShare, Accessed June 5, 2017. https://www.slideshare.net/jgollner/information-40-for-industry-40tcworld-2016. Halliday, M.A.K. 1978. Language as Social Semiotic: The Social interpretation of language and meaning. London: Edward Arnold and University Park Press. —. 2006. “Systemic theory.” In Encyclopedia of Languages and Linguistics, edited by K. Brown, 443-448. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Hannon, V. 2012. “Learning Futures, A contribution in the Innovative Learning Environment Project (OECD/CERI).” Accessed June 14, 2017. http://www.oecd.org/edu/ceri/Valerie%20Hannon.Learning%20Futures. pdf. Josefowicz, M., Gallon, R., and Lorenzo, N. 2017. “Transmedia and Transliteracy in Nemetical Analysis.” In Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology, Fourth Edition. Hershey: IGI Gobal. In press at the time of this writing. Josefowicz, M. 2012. “Connecting to complexity & change: Connecting Urban Design to People.” The International Nemetics Institute. Accessed February 15, 2014. http://cochange.wordpress.com/2012/12/18/connecting-urban-designto-people/. Kagermann, H., W. Wahlster and J. Helbig, eds. 2013. “Recommendations for implementing the strategic initiative Industrie 4.0: Final report of the Industrie 4.0 Working Group.” Accessed June 5, 2017.

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http://www.acatech.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Baumstruktur_nach_We bsite/Acatech/root/de/Material_fuer_Sonderseiten/Industrie_4.0/Final_ report__Industrie_4.0_accessible.pdf. Kukla, A. 2000. Social Constructivism and the Philosophy of Science. London: Routledge. Lorenzo, N. 2017. “Construir una escola per la generació de nadius digitals: Com crear entorns d'aprenentatges motivadors? From the series, Debats d'Educació, Jaume Bofill Foundation, UOC, and The Transformation Society (Webinar materials).” Accessed June 14, 2017. http://www.fbofill.cat/publicacions/construir-una-escola-la-generaciode-nadius-digitals-neus-lorenzo. Full webinar recording at http://www.fbofill.cat/videos/construir-una-escola-la-generacio-denadius-digitals. Microsoft Canada 2015. “Attention Spans.” Accessed June 14, 2017. https://advertising.microsoft.com/en/.../microsoft-attention-spansresearch-report.pdf OEDC 2016a. “PISA 2018 draft analytical Frameworks, May 2016.” In OECD Better Policies for better Lives. Accessed June 14, 2017. https://www.oecd.org/pisa/data/PISA-2018-draft-frameworks.pdf. —. 2016b. “Better Policies for 2030: An OECD Action Plan on the Sustainable Development Goals, OECD Ministerial Council Meeting (1-2 June 2016).” Accessed June 14, 2017. http://www.oecd.org/dac/Better%20Policies%20for%202030.pdf. Schmidt, S. J. 2007. Histories & Discourses: Rewriting Constructivism. Exeter: Imprint-Academic Siemens, G. 2004. “Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age.” In: Elearnspace Everything Elearning. Accessed February 15, 2014. http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm UNESCO 2015. “UNESCO’s contribution to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, Ed. The Division of Public Information, Sector for External Relations and Public Information unesco.org.” Accessed June 14, 2017. http://en.unesco.org/system/files/244834e1.pdf. Wittgenstein, L.J.J. 1922. “Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus,” translated by Charles Kay Ogden, at Wikisource. Accessed June 5, 2017. https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus. World Economic Forum 2016. “New Vision for Education: Fostering Social and Emotional Learning through Technology.” Accessed June 14, 2017. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_New_Vision_for_Education.pdf

CHAPTER TWO DIGITAL LITERACIES FOR LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING: FROM A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK TO THE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF AN ONLINE PORTAL ODETTE GABAUDAN AND SUSANNA NOCCHI

Abstract Advancing digital literacy among language learners and teachers is, to quote Hicks and Turner (2013), no longer a luxury. As technology is pervading our daily lives, there is still an acute requirement to equip students and language learners more specifically with the digital competencies that will enable them to flourish in a multilingual and multicultural digital environment. In parallel, language teachers need to reinvent their teaching to tie their use and understanding of digital tools to progressive pedagogies. This paper will describe and evaluate an Irish nation-wide project that aims to enhance digital literacies for language learners and teachers, namely digilanguages.ie. Following an initial phase that consisted of identifying key language learning contexts that require digital competencies, a suitable conceptual framework (Dudeney, Hockly, and Pegrum 2013) was identified to underpin the design and development of an online portal. The framework allowed for the integration of digital literacies and the learning of a language in a variety of contexts. One of the key challenges addressed in this paper is the translation of the framework into the design and development of a coherent and integrated resource that will inspire both language learners and teachers so that language learning and teaching will be transformed and adapted to a modern and increasingly complex society. Ensuring sustainability for the resource is at the heart of both the technological infrastructure and the participating institutions’ commitment. Therefore, an iterative consultation process with key stakeholders (through online surveys and face to face discussions) has informed each stage of the design and development of the resource. It aims to strike a balance between

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allowing learners/teachers to interact with the material according to their preferences while also providing enough guidance for independent language learners/teachers who wish to navigate the often unpredictable multilingual and multicultural exchanges of our modern world (Kramsch and Whiteside 2008). Key words: digital literacies, language learning, OER, national framework

Introduction The theme of the 2017 ATEE Spring Conference “Innovation, technology and research in education” is at the heart of the work presented in this paper. The project is entitled “Enhancing digital literacies for language learning and teaching”. It is the result of a collaboration among language departments of six Higher Education Institutes in Ireland. The genesis for the project, an open educational resource (OER), is rooted in a national effort to build digital literacy in Irish education (Teaching and Learning in Irish Higher Education: A Roadmap for enhancement in a digital world 2015-2017). The project also seeks to address the national language skills shortage highlighted in numerous Irish-based reports (e.g., National Skills Bulletin 2015; National Strategy for Higher Education to 2030, 2011) and the interest shown by the Irish government in targeting “a step-change in the learning of foreign languages in Ireland” (press release by the Irish Department of Education and Skills, April 2017). The OER consists of a portal that aims to transform 21st century language learning and teaching by integrating competencies of digital literacies into the language curricula of Higher Education Institutes in Ireland.

Aim of the Study The focus of this study is to review the phases, opportunities and challenges that arose in designing and developing an online portal that aims to serve as a national framework for the enhancement of digital literacies, specifically for language learning and teaching in Ireland’s higher education sector. In the context of both language learning and teaching, digital literacies go beyond the technical skills or competencies required, for instance, in the creation of a blog entry or in using a particular social medium. Following Dudeney, Hockly, and Pegrum, digital literacies are conceptualised as “the individual and social skills needed to effectively interpret, manage, share and create meaning in the growing range of digital communication channels” (2013, 2). At the very core of digital literacies are the social practices that permeate the use of new digital technologies (Jones, 2014). Such social practices are inherently anchored in both language and culture. The

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unpredictable multilingual and multicultural exchanges that characterise our modern world mean that it is essential to gain an awareness of “which speech style to speak with whom, about what, and for what effect” (Kramsch and Whiteside 2008). Such awareness and “symbolic power” (ibid.) is at the heart of digital literacies in language learning. As a result, the online portal includes a Digital Literacies strand that closely follows the framework rolled out by Dudeney, Hockly, and Pegrum (2013) and identifies four key focuses, as follows. (i) Connections are particularly relevant in the context of social networking and online communication technologies. (ii) Remixing literacies involve the creation of something new by remixing pictures, videos and other media. The (iii) information focus is concerned with not only finding information but knowing how to evaluate it. The (iv) language focus considers texting social practices, gaming, coding or judiciously navigating hypertext. By proposing a series of activities for each focus and its subcategories, the portal aims to help students and teachers to become more effective in their multilingual and multicultural digital activities.

Materials and Methods This section explores the methods used to inform the development of the portal. The project started with a needs analysis in order to determine relevant target audiences and their respective requirements in relation to language learning and teaching in a 21st century world. Two different surveys were administered across six Higher Education Institutes in Ireland. The response rate for both surveys was very satisfactory given the size of the sector in a small country. The first survey targeted language students at an undergraduate level. A total of 355 participants responded to a range of questions designed to identify their main challenges in learning languages in a higher education context. In particular, they were probed on a list of items to identify what they found difficult about moving from second level education to higher education. They found the transition between the two levels particularly challenging with a high score given to issues related to lexis and grammar as well as to the standard of foreign language used by their lecturers as a majority of students would not have had previous experience of being taught by native speakers of the foreign language. In relation to the usefulness of an online resource while abroad on a mobility programme, 93% of respondents either strongly agreed or agreed that they should have access to an online resource to help them. They identified that what they needed most were resources for grammar

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practice, resources for vocabulary practice, and guidelines on cultural issues. Other aspects that respondents consider useful are self-assessment tools, guidelines on language learning strategies, and a space for discussions with other students. Another set of key findings that emerged out of the student survey concerned digital literacies. Students were provided with a list of digital literacies skills and asked to identify whether each skill was included in their programme and whether they considered it should be included. The list of digital literacies comprised print, texting, hypertext, multimedia, gaming, mobile, tagging, searching for information, filtering, networking, digital identity, online intercultural issues and remix. Interestingly, respondents overwhelmingly felt digital literacies through the target language and culture should form part and parcel of their programme of studies and should be more prominent than what they currently are. A second survey was disseminated among lecturers and student teachers. A total of 75 respondents took part. A key finding is the discrepancy between what respondents believe are important digital literacies (same literacies as listed above), their competence in these various literacies and their ability to integrate them into their teaching. Many avoid teaching digital literacies or feel they lack the skills to teach digital literacies through the target language and culture. The findings of the surveys informed the design of a framework for the development of the portal. Three key target audiences were identified. The first group of users consists of students, in autonomous learning conditions and in a context of transition – either between second level schooling and higher education or between Irish higher education and foreign higher education. The second group of users includes lecturers and student teachers who are looking for classroom or independent activities for their students. The third group of users are lecturers or student teachers in search of continuous professional development. Feedback from project funders on the usefulness of proposing a range of activities for the skill development of language professionals led to an increased focus on that particular aspect of the portal. Each group of users has access to three different strands namely Digital Literacies activities, Language Skills and Practices activities and Transitions and Contexts (see digilanguages.ie). Each strand has a coordinating leader to ensure coherence and progress of its development. As mentioned previously, the Digital Literacies strand follows Dudeney, Hockly, and Pegrum’s (2013) framework. The result of this initial consultation process led to the design of an overarching framework which in turn informed the development of the portal that would host the activities for the three key user groups, for three

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strands and for six languages including English as a foreign language, French, German, Italian, Spanish and Gaeilge. The latter was also important as it was the language used for the localisation of the portal for the Irish speaking community. The activities are developed and curated by a range of key stakeholders, many of whom were identified through the organisation of an OER Fest, a national event organised to identify and inform language lecturers and student teachers who were interested in playing an active role in the development of activities for the portal. The event attracted 45 participants, most of whom have since been involved in designing and curating activities for their respective languages and for the three key target users. Having developed and curated a range of activities for the portal, a selection of such activities was piloted and evaluated on criteria including relevance, content, ease of use and technical aspects, such as navigation or colour scheme. The pilot was carried out both with students (n=68) and lecturers/student teachers (n=27). The next section reports on the participants’ feedback.

Results One of the key challenges faced in the development of such an extensive OER is its structure and navigation. This is due to the complexity inherent in having three different user groups, three strands, six languages, one of which is also used for localisation purposes (Irish). The interface aimed to be simple so that students and teachers could follow their own pathways. The teacher interface is split between continuous professional development activities and activities that can be used with students in the classroom, while, at the same time, multiple access points (through user group, language or strand), searchable content, filter for languages or levels aim to make the portal user-friendly. However, further work in this area is required as feedback to date points to a very rich site but a poor navigation experience with too many clicks required to access particular activities and difficulties in locating information. Introductory sections are in English (except for the localised version of the portal in Irish) while the activities themselves are language specific, thus making initial content easily accessible to all users including those whose language may not be represented. The digital literacies strand, the most unfamiliar to many language professionals, provides a multimedia explanation for each type of digital

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literacy as well as activities relevant to each of the six languages. Indeed, digital literacies practices vary for each language. The language specific variants are not always available for all languages. Irish for instance only has access to one country’s search engine while French, English and Spanish have access to multiple countries’ search engines due to the worldwide status of these languages. The three strands aim to integrate with each other as much as possible through meta-activities. For instance, when students prepare for their student mobility abroad, they need to identify suitable accommodation. The Transitions and Context strand includes a meta-activity called Student Accommodation. In turn, it taps into the Digital Literacy strand by referring to a Hypertext activity and to the Language Skills and Practices strand by suggesting activities for listening and viewing strategies in the context of searching for student accommodation. Therefore, meta-activities such as Student Accommodation encourage users to navigate through all aspects of the portal. At the time of writing this paper, the range of resources available on the portal is equivalent to an extensive 500 learning hours across the entire portal. Many activities target learners with an intermediate level of language (B1 and B2 on the Common European Framework of Reference). More activities need to be added for novice and advanced learners of a language. More input from digital natives or the I-generation would enhance the relevancy of the portal. A mechanism to build a community of practice around the learning outcomes of the portal also needs further consideration. Regarding the implementation phase at an institutional level, this has been very dependent on local organisational structures. In some institutions, for instance, the team members of the project have been able to implement significant module amendments during their programmatic review, whereas this has not yet happened in other institutions, as team members, for various organisational reasons, had a different level of agency in their own institution.

Conclusions An essential outcome of the portal’s framework is to effect change in language teaching practices across the national, and perhaps international, higher education context. The aim is to equip language graduates of the future with the necessary digital literacy competencies that will enable them to be active language members of foreign language communities as well as effective citizens, employees and consumers in a 21st century global world. For change to become truly effective, digital literacies will

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have to be integrated into the curricula of Higher Education Institutes across Ireland. Teachers will need to adapt the suggested activities to their own language learning and teaching contexts. Such integration on a broad scale requires time and is essential for the sustainability of the project. A promising measure is that all participating institutions committed to the integration of the portal’s outputs into their language curriculum and module learning outcomes. In a relatively short amount of time, this may help the onset of renewed language teaching pedagogies. Looking into the future, a key consideration is the issue of sustainability. Many such projects see their lifespan limited to the funding period. Yet, digital literacies evolve fast as new technologies emerge and social practices adapt to these innovations. Activities that become redundant will need to be retired and replaced by new relevant activities on a regular basis. Being acutely aware of the portal’s aim and the shortcomings just outlined, the project team is currently considering means of implementing a sustainability plan adapted to CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning) and considering the four key sustainability pillars that are organisational structures, pedagogic and professional development, community and knowledge building as well as environment and tools for learning (Blin, Jalkanen, and Taalas 2016). With an appropriate sustainability plan in place, the portal should facilitate the integration of digital literacies into Ireland’s language learning and teaching.

References Blin, Françoise, Juha Jalkanen, and Peppi Taalas. 2016. “Sustainable CALL development.” In The Routledge Handbook of Language Learning and Technology, edited by Fiona Farr, and Liam Murray, 223-38. Routledge, London. Dudeney, Gavin, Nicky Hockly and Mark Pegrum. 2013. Digital Literacies (Research and Resources in Language Teaching). Pearson, Harlow. Hicks, Troy and Kristin H. Turner. 2009. “No longer a luxury: Digital literacy can’t wait.” English Journal 102 (6): 58-65. Jones, Rhodes H., 2014. Digital Literacies for Language Teachers: Beyond Competencies. Plenary Address at the 61st TEFLIN International Conference, Solo, Indonesia. Kramsch, Claire and Anne Whiteside. 2008. “Language Ecology in Multilingual Settings. Towards a Theory of Symbolic Competence.” Applied Linguistics 29 (4): 645-71.

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“Teaching and Learning in Irish Higher Education: A Roadmap for enhancement in a digital world 2015-2017”, National Forum report, 2015. Accessed on 29.06.2017 http://www.teachingandlearning.ie/wpcontent/uploads/2015/03/Digital-Roadmap-web.pdf National Skills Bulletin, 2015. Accessed on 15.06.2017 http://www.skillsireland.ie/Publications/2015/National-Skills-Bulletin2015-FINAL-ONLINE.pdf “National Strategy for Higher Education to 2030”, Department of Education and Skills, 2011. Accessed on 22.06.2017 http://hea.ie/resources/publications/national-strategy-for-highereducation-2030/ Press release by the Irish Department of Education and Skills. 2017. Accessed on 29.06.2017 http://www.education.ie/en/Press-Events/ Press-Releases/2017-Press-Releases/PR17-04-19.html

CHAPTER THREE PRODUCTION OF BILINGUAL DIDACTIC VIDEOS FOR DEAF ENGINEERING STUDENTS: A CASE AT FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF VIÇOSA (BRAZIL) JOSÉ TIMÓTEO JÚNIOR1 ANDRÉ LUIS SANTOS DE SOUZA2 VINÍCIUS CATÃO DE ASSIS SOUZA3 AND SILVANE GUIMARÃES SILVA GOMES4

Abstract This paper discusses a project articulated by a multidisciplinary group at Federal University of Viçosa (Brazil), related to educational technology used to favour inclusion of deaf students in the Civil Engineering course (production of bilingual videos). These didactics materials were adapted for deaf students, focusing on the process of educational inclusion via adaptive technologies. Technical subjects were translated from Portuguese to Brazilian Sign Language (Libras), using a visual design and language adapted to favour deaf learning and professional development in the engineering field. The methodology used to describe the project steps was ethnographic research and participant observation. 1

Journalist and responsible for the Audiovisual Sector in the E-learning Department of Distance Education at Federal University of Viçosa, Brazil. 2 Social Scientist, Master’s Degree student, Brazilian Sign Language Teacher and trainee in the E-learning Department of Distance Education at Federal University of Viçosa, Brazil. 3 Teacher in the Chemistry Department and responsible for the Coordination of Inclusion Department at Federal University of Viçosa, Brazil. 4 Teacher and chair responsible for the E-learning Department of Distance Education at Federal University of Viçosa, Brazil.

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The use of New Learning Technologies (NLT) in technical production of Signed Didactics Videos (SDV) was analysed, as well as the linguistic transposition and the steps of the content production. To achieve that purpose, a discussion group was structured, as well as meetings with interpreters of Brazilian Sign Language, and the deaf students. We also visited TV INES, a TV complex that deals exclusively with production of bilingual didactics videos (www.tvines.org) and participated in the Bilingual Forum in National Institute of Deaf Education, at Rio de Janeiro (Brazil). After these steps, the production process of SDV was planned to implement the content of three Civil Engineering subjects to Libras. The didactic material was intended to be available online (watchable and downloadable): the SDV provides content in Libras and animated images, mixing videos and dynamic slides. Finally, it was possible to conclude that due to sign language, the perception and deaf construction of knowledge prioritises imagery. Thus, NLT were used in combination with other visual tools to permit educational inclusion, favouring (e-)learning process and professional training of an engineering deaf student. Keywords: NLT, Signed didactics videos, Bilingual content, Deaf Inclusion at University, Civil Engineering.

New learning technologies and educational mediation in a classroom with deaf students The use of New Learning Technologies (NLT) can foster the development of innovative teaching methods and educational strategies in classroom. This shows us an improvement that favours students’ development, considering that daily access to information has become part of everyday life. Thus, in order to follow and maintain the interest of students in a specific subject, advances in education are also being explored. Humans need to establish communication to adapt in social space, as well as to make use of tools that can facilitate their survival and cognitive development. In this sense, there is a massive use of technologies to improve interactions and communication between people. NLT are increasingly present in society and classrooms, especially when we consider diffusion of access to different modes of knowledge expression (Schofield 1995). This can favour a greater circulation of information, modifying the relation of people to knowledge in space-time, which generates a cognitive change expressed in the collective consciousness (Castells 2000; Cleveland and Block 2017). Considering the historical-cultural approach of Vygotsky, knowledge can be seen as a social construction that emerges from human activity. In general, human activity must be instrumental, which means being subject to the creation of mediational means to carry it on or using existing ones, such as the various cultural artefacts available to mediate knowledge. For

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Vygotsky (2009), thought is formed and expressed through cultural artefacts – signs, such as words, models, images, gestures etc. From this perspective, all knowledge is socially constructed and mediated in the context of human relationships (Bakhurst 2007). Human activity represents one of the most important concepts related to the historical-cultural approach. In the historical-cultural perspective, the concept of activity helps explain the process of knowledge brokerage, so that activity helps mediate the relationship between humans and reality. Thus, the human who at first does not present direct reactions to the stimuli of the environment, though activity has the opportunity to be in contact with situations of the world, in order to act on them, in order to transform the world and oneself. Thus, in the active relation of the subject to the object, the activity is concretised through actions, operations and tasks, which are mostly fomented by necessity and motives. According to Pino (2001), three aspects define the social character of human activity: (i) planning according to well-defined objectives; (ii) the division and organisation in actions and operations carried out by different social agents (Leontiev 1978); (iii) the socialisation of the instruments and products of the activity, that is, the accumulation of production experience and the possibility of access to the cultural goods that are produced. In general, being instrumental means that the activity is subordinated to the creation of adequate means to carry it out or to the use of existing ones. According to Leontiev (1994), historically the means created by humans are the technical ones (to act on the nature) and semiotics (system of signs to act on others and themselves.) In this sense, the idea of technical instrumentality is central to the work of Marx and Engels, while the idea of semiotic instrumentality is an important contribution of Vygotsky to the Theory of Activity. Considering Pino (2001), cognitive activity presupposes productive activity, since knowing implies the conversion of the knowledge historically produced by humans into the knowledge of the individual. As with all higher psychological functions, which are functions of a cultural nature, the constitution of the knowing subject only occurs by the active participation of the individual in the cognitive practices of society. It is there that one has the opportunity to appropriate the knowledge historically produced by humans, which are the objects of knowledge, and the ways of knowing and thinking, which relate to logical systems. Thus, the concept of activity relates only to processes that establish some kind of relationship between humans and the world, seeking to contemplate and satisfy the different human actions and desires (Leontiev 1994). Thus, socially significant activity is the explanatory principle of

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consciousness, built in a process that is internalised through the establishment of social relations. Asbahr (2005) emphasises that consciousness and activity are two fundamental elements to historical-cultural psychology and should be understood as a dialectical unity.

Visuality and movement: deaf communication and Brazilian sign language The visual perspective mobilised by deaf people can organise their language and structure the perception of the world. Thus, the use of NLT in education becomes fundamental to favour the teaching and deaf learning processes (Stumpf 2006). Mediational means can favor the processes of communication, teaching and learning, in order to relate the linguistic modality with the way to understand the social interactions from different visual experiences. Thus, it is important that issues related to the inclusion of deaf students at a university guarantee them equal opportunities and the necessary conditions to stay in the courses, to favour their full personal and professional development. In addition, one must consider the schemas of symbolic representations that support the understanding and significance of the world, including those being mediated by language, by different representational modes and by culture, within fields of meaning that are symbolic and socially produced. This situation can be explicated considering that access to knowledge occurs indirectly, mediated by language and other semiotic artefacts (Wertsch 1997; 2007). In this sense, Brazilian Sing Language (Libras) is required as a means of meaning and recognition of the "deaf culture" (Strobel 2009), and this right is guaranteed by Brazilian Legislation (Brasil 2002; 2005; 2015). Although legal issues will not be discussed in this paper, as well as acknowledging their importance for many advances in educational studies, it is worth noting that all current laws require that deaf people have access to a visuospatial language modality (Quadros and Karnopp 2004; Gesser 2009). Thus, the arrangements involved in deaf education permeate linguistic aspects that must contemplate and respect the cultural relations of these academics subjects. The inclusive perspective present in the Brazilian Legislation brings at school the Interpreter of Sign Language (ISL), as shown in Figure 1. However, the presence of ISL in the classroom is not enough for effective educational inclusion. It is also necessary to adapt didactic materials and improve the visual character of the classes, in order to favour the process of equalising opportunities for deaf students. In addition, it is important that ISL establish an effective

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interaction with the teacher and different semiotic means presented (images, formulas, graphs, tables etc.) during the process of knowledge brokerage in classroom.

Figure 1. Regular inclusive school in Brazil with deaf students and Interpreter of Sign Language: importance of a new structural organisation in the classroom to favour deaf students' active participation in the social construction of knowledge and to have access to different modes of multimodal interactions.

Information and communication technologies: Uses in E-learning Department of Distance Education at Federal University of Viçosa (Brazil) The E-learning Department of Distance Education (CEAD) at Federal University, Brazil, was created in 2001. Among its attributes is the support of teachers in the development of didactic content to help them in classes. The uses of NLT are explored to benefit the students and give them better approaches in their learning experience. In this sense, CEAD’s team works in partnership with teachers to understand what kind of educational product would be better, given the subject. Audiovisual productions, web sites, and educational games are some of the possibilities explored by teachers to achieve their objectives.

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In order to meet the request for creating complementary materials to favor the meaning making in classroom of deaf students, understanding that sign language belongs to the visual modality, the CEAD is able to use resources such as video cameras and any other technology needed to create didactic productions based on sign language.

Determinant circumstance for the project development In April 2016, CEAD received a request: Daniel is a deaf student in the Engineering Course who was having some learning issues. Those were caused because the only way he was exposed to the content was in the classes, with the support of a sign language translator (provided by the Inclusion Department at Federal University of Viçosa), and books. The request was to create complementary materials that could help him. Because this was the first time we had worked with this type of demand, the E-learning Coordination team had to start the process by, at first, understanding the target audience: the deaf student. The first measure was to join a multidisciplinary team, bringing together teachers, four interns (engineering students), members of Elearning (Audiovisual Productions and Pedagogical sectors), Brazilian Sign Language teachers and interpreters. This was important so we could have different points of view, from different fields and knowledge, and by doing so, we could plan our next steps well.

Methodology We started our methodology by fully understanding the request and looking for someone who had knowledge of LIBRAS in an educational context. That was when we found a Brazilian Sign Language teacher. The sign language translators came from the Inclusion Department, which deals with inclusion and accessibility matters. We also had help from the Civil Engineering Department (four students who could make a bridge between the teachers and E-learning Coordination). We also had help from the deaf student, who frequently could give us feedback about each step of the production. Once the team was complete, we started the process of understanding deaf culture. At first, we created study groups, with weekly meetings. We studied texts from some of the biggest Brazilian studies on Deaf Culture, in order to base our work on what is really important to the education of deaf people: respect for their culture and their language.

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After two months of study groups, we planned a trip to Rio de Janeiro, to visit INES – National Institute for studies of deaf people, where part of the team had the opportunity to present four papers based on the experience of working with deaf culture in the context of NLT applied to education, at the Bilingual Forum. During the same trip, we arranged a visit to TV INES, a TV complex directly linked with INES that deals exclusively with the production of bilingual video content, in favour of deaf people. There we had the chance to meet with executive producers and other professionals at the TV INES. We learned how they produce their content and noticed how we could work in a similar way to produce the complementary educational content.

Signed didactic videos: What are they? How to make them? Once we got back to Viçosa, we were finally able to trace the steps to create the product we called Signed Didactic Videos (SDV). Firstly, the teacher writes a text, with the class content. This text is intended as complementary content, not a reproduction of a class. The reason for this approach is due to the fact that the deaf student is helped by an interpreter in the classroom. So the SDV works as reinforcement for the content already given. Once the text is ready, an engineering student hired as an intern converts the text to a script and creates a Power Point™ (or other slide based software) related to the text. Then the Sign Language interpreter, with the help of the intern student, converts the script to a written sign language text, which is a linguistic adaptation where each word or concept written in the script corresponds to the translation creating what we called Written Sign Language Text. When the Written Sign Language Text is ready, the translator records his voice reading it, and gets ready for the video shoot. The recording session occurs with the interpreter placed in front of a chromakey wall, where we place the images of the Power Point™ previously created. We use proper video software to do it in real time, so the interpreter can see himself or herself on a TV placed in front of him or her, as shown in Figure 3. We play the audio previously recorded so the sign language interpreter has the chance to keep rhythm with the signing and another team member synchronises the signing with the Power Point™ animations.

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Video shooting

Figure 2. Bacckstage images during the proccess of shootingg the SDV.

Figure 3. Sccreenshots of the video sho ooting: interprreters of Braziilian Sign Language aree able to see theemselves in reall time during thhe recording.

Results and Conclusions C s With thee legal recogniition of Brazillian Sign Langguage, by the Brazilian Legislation (Brasil, 2002;; 2005; 2015), deaf people have greater access to social rightss and spaces. Because of that, t we face a new reality y for this population, where they caan finally exerrcise their righhts, after a lon ng history of struggless and social battles, invollving deaf coommunities an nd social

Production of Bilingual Didactic Videos for Deaf Engineering Students 33

movements in the south and southwest regions of Brazil (Quadros and Karnoop 2004; Gesser 2009). The access to University, given by affirmative action policies to deaf people, is a reality for many universities. That being said, more than guaranteeing their access to academic spaces and activities, it is fundamental to build physical and symbolic conditions to keep them in those spaces. In other words, in order to avoid academic failure or even drop out, it is necessary to consider NLT as pedagogic support. If well used, those resources can ensure communication, teaching and learning compatible with deaf people’s linguistic modality, which considers their way of perceiving the world through visual experiences. We started the process of creating complementary content for a deaf student by understanding that deaf people’s first language is sign language. To us, as speakers, it was difficult to understand that, as part of the same society, living in the same country, how hard it is to a deaf person, to be integrated in most of the social groups. Respect for the culture and language of deaf people is the first and most important issue we have to keep in mind. The content was used as complementary material in three engineering subjects and the deaf student gave us a positive response. For him, having this material outside the class helped him to understand some difficult topics. According to him, it was because the main language used in the material was his first language: Brazilian Sign Language – Libras. Thus, we conclude that using NLT with sign language provides good results in education. Furthermore, we noticed that the more we learn about the target audience, the better we are able to deliver good quality materials.

References Asbahr, F. S. F. 2005. “A pesquisa sobre a atividade pedagógica: contribuições da teoria da atividade.” Revista Brasileira de Educação 29 (1): 108-19. Bakhurst, D. 2007. Vygotsky’s Demons. In The Cambridge Companion to Vygotsky, edited by H. Daniels, M. Cole, and J. Wertsch, 50-76. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brasil 2002. “Brazilian Law No. 10.436, of April 24, 2002, which provides for the Brazilian Sign Language (Libras) and provides other measures”, Presidência da República, Casa Civil, Subchefia para Assuntos Jurídicos. Brasília. Brasil 2005. “Decree No. 5.626, which regulates Law No. 10.436, of April 24, 2002”, Presidência da República, Casa Civil, Subchefia para Assuntos Jurídicos. Brasília.

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Brasil 2015. “Law No. 13.146, which establishes the Brazilian Law on the Inclusion of Persons with Disabilities (Statute of Persons with Disabilities)”, Presidência da República, Casa Civil, Subchefia para Assuntos Jurídicos. Brasília. Castells, M. 2000. A sociedade em rede, São Paulo/SP: Editora Paz e Terra. Cleveland, S., and G. Block. 2017. “Toward Knowledge Technology Synchronicity Framework for Asynchronous Environment.” International Journal of Knowledge Society Research 4 (8): 23-33. doi:10.4018/IJKSR.2017100102 Gesser, A. 2009. Libras? Que língua é essa? Crenças e preconceitos em torno da língua de sinais e da realidade surda. São Paulo: Parábola Editorial. Leontiev, A. N. 1978. “Sobre o desenvolvimento histórico da consciência.” In O desenvolvimento do psiquismo, edited by A. Leontiev, 89-142. Lisboa: Horizonte Universitário. Leontiev, A. N. 1994. “Uma contribuição à teoria do desenvolvimento da psique infantil.” In Linguagem, desenvolvimento e aprendizagem. 5ª ed, edited by L. S. Vygotsky, A. R. Luria, and A. N. Leontiev, 59-84. São Paulo: Ícone. Pino, A. 2001. “O biológico e o cultural nos processos cognitivos.” In Linguagem, Cultura e Cognição: reflexões para o ensino na sala de aula, edited by E. F. Mortimer and A. L. B. Smolka, 21-62. Belo Horizonte: Autêntica. Quadros, R. M., and L. Karnopp. 2004. Língua de Sinais Brasileira – Estudos Linguísticos. Porto Alegre/RS: Artmed. Stumpf, M. 2006. “Práticas de Bilinguísmo – relato de experiência.” Educação Temática Digital, Campinas 7 (2): 285-91. Schofield, J. W. 1995. “Computers and classroom culture”. New York: Cambridge University Press. Wertsch, J. V. 1997. Voices of the Mind: A sociocultural approach to mediated action. 4th ed., Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Wertsch, J. V. 2007. “Mediation.” In The Cambridge Companion to Vygotsky, edited by H. Daniels, M. Cole, and J. V. Wertsch, 178-92. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press (Cambridge Collections Online). Vygotsky, L. S. 2009. El desarrollo de los processos psicológicos superiores. 1st ed. Buenos Aires: Crítica.

CHAPTER FOUR ONLINE SCIENCE TEACHER EDUCATION: THE CASE OF A MASTER’S PROGRAMME LAURINDA LEITE AND LUÍS DOURADO

Abstract Science teaching requires the mastery of a variety of knowledge components, which start being developed within initial teacher education programmes. However, in-service science teachers, like any other teacher, need to continuously develop and update their knowledge base namely with regard to science knowledge and to science pedagogical content knowledge. Teachers can develop it, for instance, through in-service short courses and master’s programmes. The Portuguese Ministry of Education requires teachers to complete in-service training. However, teachers feel an ever-increasing difficulty in attending such courses due to demanding school timetables and to the distance between their work place and the training institutions. These are the main reasons why the University of Minho (UMinho) offers an online master’s programme to science teachers, since 2012. The LMS used to run the programme is Blackboard, which is the UMinho e-learning platform. It offers many facilities, namely forum, video chat, and file exchange and messages. This paper describes: how the master’s programme was re-structured to fit the online demands; the types of key pedagogical activities that are offered to students; and students’ reactions towards the master’s programme and to its course units. Data were collected by means of an online open-ended questionnaire from two groups of students who attended the programme. The majority of the students were happy with the programme and felt that it was well organised and that it offered them a unique opportunity to complete a master’s programme. Moreover, they valued the chat sessions and stated that they learned more than they would learn if they were attending a faceto-face master’s programme. Thus, from the students’ point of view, online master’s programmes may not only be a valid alternative to a face-to-face master’s, but they may also be the only possibility that they have to attend this kind of in-service training as they eliminate the distance issue and offer a flexible timetable that fits their work and home timetables.

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Keywords: in-service teacher education, science, master’s programme, online teacher education

Introduction Science teaching requires the mastery of a variety of knowledge components (Shulman 1986; Gil-Pérez 1991; Frost 2010), ranging from general knowledge (relative to teaching and assessment strategies) to specific content knowledge (like science knowledge) and to pedagogical content knowledge. Hunter (2015) also emphasises technological content knowledge and technological pedagogical content knowledge, which have to do with the diverse technological tools and the best ways of using them for the purpose of teaching and learning content. In fact, the importance of teachers’ awareness of technological knowledge increases as one moves from textbook centred educational settings to internet dependent settings, which are more demanding for teachers in terms of competences required to use them properly. Teachers’ knowledge components start being developed within initial teacher education programmes (Leite, Dourado and Morgado 2016). However, due to the complex nature of science as well as the science teaching process (Berry and Loughran 2012), some of those components are better developed during in-service practice (van Driel, Beijaard and Verloop 2001). In addition, in-service science teachers, like any other teacher, need to continuously develop and update their knowledge base (Marcelo 2009), namely with regard to science knowledge and to science pedagogical content knowledge (Bianchini 2012; Wallace 2014). Teachers’ knowledge base can be developed, for instance, through inservice short courses (Dourado, Leite and Morgado 2016) and research master’s programmes, which are acknowledged by the Portuguese teacher’s professional statute (Law 75/2010, June 23) as a valuable inservice professional development alternative. The Portuguese Ministry of Education requires teachers to complete in-service training focusing on a diversity of teacher education knowledge components (Law 22/2014, February 11), including the science related ones. However, teachers feel an ever-increasing difficulty in attending such courses due to demanding school timetables (Ramos 2004) and to the distance between their work place and the training institutions that offer in-service training courses that fit their professional needs. Therefore, it is easy to hear teachers arguing that the government is somehow contradictory, as the ongoing educational policies do not facilitate their engagement with in-service training courses that people who dictate such

Online Science Teacher Education: The Case of a Master’s Programme 37

policies ask them to attend. Even though people seem to prefer face-to-face learning (Simonson, Smaldino and Zvacsk 2015), e-learning training may be a good alternative to face-to-face in-service training. In fact, when taking e-learning based training, trainees can stay on their own, and attend the course from their homes, in different places (Simonson, Smaldino and Zvacsk 2015), which is especially comfortable for those teachers that need to balance work and family responsibilities with study demands (Burton and Goldsmith 2002). Nowadays, e-learning is an internet-based modality of distance education and therefore it can be attended from a distance at any time, in any place (Burns 2011). Usually, it includes synchronous (real-time, fixed time) and asynchronous (delayed, anytime) interactions (Simonson, Smaldino and Zvacsk 2015; Poe and Stassen n.d.) which in any case can be performed from anywhere as long as there is internet connection and the necessary technical equipment (laptop, tablet). Synchronous learning typically involves tools, such as live chat, audio and video conferencing, joint viewing of multimedia presentations and online slide shows, data and application sharing. Asynchronous learning typically involves tools, such as discussion forums, file attachments (text, audio and video), email/messages, and newsgroups and bulletin boards. It can be argued that synchronous tools may conflict with the flexibility of online education (Obasa, Eludire and Ajao 2013). However, they provide opportunities for the students to virtually meet their tutors and to have virtual face-to-face discussions on complex issues that strike or confound them. Therefore, synchronous tools can be especially useful for those that are unable to solve all the issues on their own or that feel insecure or even sceptical about what they are learning. In addition, they offer tutors a good opportunity to hear students’ voices first hand and to get their feelings on what the course offers and demands from students. Hence, taken altogether, synchronous and asynchronous learning tools provide opportunities for autonomous learning, either on an individual or on a peer group base, and offer opportunities for student-teacher (and also for student-student) interactions in a (virtual) classroom. In addition, based on Wilson and Allen (2011), synchronous tools provide opportunities for developing an affective and mediating relationship between students and tutors, which may improve motivation and reduce dropout rates. In fact, dropout rates, which are usually high in online courses, are a multifactorial issue (Bawa 2016) that deserve attention at the diverse stages of an online course. People often doubt the results of e-learning from the point of view of students’ level of learning. Research indicates that, on average, students in

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online learning conditions performed modestly better than their counterparts that received face-to-face instruction (Means et al. 2009). These results may be due to the advantages of learning online that authors like Poe and Stassen (n.d.) and Peters (2003) have emphasised; the most important ones are due to the fact that e-learning: -

Is student-centred learning; Is collaborative learning; Provides easy access to a variety of resources; Involves experiential learning through multimedia presentations; Is accessible to non-traditional students, namely to those that have other duties beyond studying; Draws on students’ interest in online environments, increasing their motivation to learn.

Two parallel processes take place in an online environment (Poe & Stassen n.d.): students become active, and (hopefully) reflective, learners on the course subject; students and teachers become familiar with technology by using it. However, if an online learning environment is to successfully reach its educational goals, teachers may need to develop a minimum pedagogical technological knowledge base by engaging in online training (Hunter 2015), through the learning management system used for the course, before initiating the e-learning course. In an online environment, the most striking demands come from students and are targeted to teachers (or tutors). Teachers need to be available to students electronically, on an extended basis and to provide quick responses and feedback to them. In a sense, students want teachers to have a “continuous” connectedness with them. In fact, success in distance education depends heavily on students’ effort to learn (Dobbs, Waid and Del Carmen 2009) and on teachers’ involvement (Means et al. 2009), partly because students do not enjoy waiting for feedback; they want it quickly. This is the reason why, from students’ point of view, the role of teachers is one of the most important factors of success in online courses (Burton and Goldsmith 2002). Nevertheless, it should be noted that there is a myth about studentsteacher interaction in e-learning settings. According to Simonson, Smaldino and Zvacek (2015), the myth says that the more interaction there is in a distance education course, the better. However, these authors argue that: “interaction is not a magic potion that miraculously improves distance learning. Interaction is important, and the potential for all involved in teaching and training to be able to confer is essential. However, forced

Online Science Teacher Education: The Case of a Master’s Programme 39 interaction can be as strong a detriment to effective learning as is its absence. Student to student, student to content have been reported to be the most important categories of interaction with student to instructor interaction of less impact, but still important.” (Simonson, Smaldino and Zvacek 2015, 71).

Finally, it should be stated that assessment is a critical issue in elearning courses. As with any other teaching and learning environment, assessment is not only a formal requirement but also a way of promoting learning. Hence, “In assessing online learning, it is important to create a ‘mix’ of assignments that cover the multiple dimensions of learning that online courses can employ” (Poe and Stassen n.d., 37). Therefore, for assessment of learning to be reliable and fair, teachers need to find ways of getting evidence from students’ own progress, as well as from their final learning achievements (Poe and Stassen, n.d.). In the former case, criteria need to be settled for all the activities that students are required to carry out. In the latter case, it is worth noting that it is still difficult to ensure that students taking an online exam are not using/consulting their learning materials (e.g., videos, PowerPoint presentations, papers, etc.). Thus, open book exams with a limited time might be a good possibility. The other one may be face-to-face exams, undertaken in students’ geographical areas so that they do not contradict the e-learning philosophy. The inconvenience of this alternative is that it requires special logistical arrangements, which are only possible if a network of credible institutions and people are willing to cooperate on the exam implementation.

Aim of the study Faced with science teachers’ need for in-service training and as well as with their impairments of attending face-to-face in-service training programmes, in 2012, UMinho decided to change the format of a research master’s programme and to start offering it on an online basis. Qualified science teachers all over the world could apply for this course but they should fulfil the additional condition of speaking Portuguese as Portuguese was the language of instruction. Thus, this paper aims at describing students’ reactions towards this online master’s programme and to its course units.

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M Materials and Methodss Th he master’s programme p e The maaster’s prograamme on Ed ducational Scciences - Ped dagogical Supervision in Science Education is a two-year longg (120 ECTS)) research master’s appproved by the nationaal Agency for Assessm ment and Accreditatioon of Higher Education (A A3ES). The ccurrent versio on has its origins in 19983 when Unniversity of Minho M was askked to develop p and run the first genneration of maaster’s prograammes with thhe purpose off training staff to teacch in the (earlyy years) teach her education schools that were just starting. Thhe taught partt of the prog gramme (firstt year) includ des eight courses on educational supervision,, science edducation, scieence and educational research. Thhe second yeaar is devoted to a dissertaation that must have a research com mponent focussing on one off the main areeas of the programme that is sciennce education and/or educcational superrvision in science teaching. In the faace-to-face verrsion, four co ourse units weere run simultaneously, during eachh semester of the first yearr. The secondd year was deevoted to undertaking research and writing the dissertation, d unnder the superrvision of a Universityy professor. Inn the online veersion, the firsst year is organ nised into four pairs off course unitss, with each one run duringg a pair of mo onths (see Fig.1).

Fig. 1: The strructure of the taaught part of th he master’s prog ogramme

The ideaa is to avoid having h a too co oncentrated (ssuch as one co ourse unit per month) as well as ann extended (ass the face-to-fface four simu ultaneous course unitss per semesteer would causse) taught par art. Running too t many courses sim multaneously would w requiree students too pay attentio on to too many coursee units at a tiime, which co ould cause ann undesirable overload. All the taughht part of the master’s is ru un through thee official UMin nho LMS that is the Blackboard platform. Ass recommendded (Gao, Zh hang and Franklin 20013), it enables the use off many faciliities, namely threaded discussion fforum, video chat, c and file exchange andd messages, which w are

Onlinne Science Teaccher Education: The Case of a Master’s Progrramme 41

used in all thhe course uniits. Figure 2 sh hows how theese tools fit to ogether to provide studdents with the learning mateerials and taskks in a course unit.

Fig. 2: Tools used in a coursse unit

Activity X requires sttudents to waatch video X oor to listen to o audio X (supported bby PPT X) annd to submit itt before the chhat session X.. Usually, issues relativve to activity X are discusssed in chat X. However, oth her issues (including fforum issues)) can be disscussed, as reequired. Thiss way of organising llearning activvities helps sttudents to orgganise their tiime even though it ddoes not prevvent those th hat cannot coope with the planned schedule froom getting teacher’s support in chat sessions. In the face-to-face version, the second yeaar is devoted d to the dissertation,, which requiires distance tutorial t superrvision by an UMinho professor. T Thus, it compaares to the facce-to-face 2nd year, with thee face-toface superviision meetingss replaced by online meetinngs.

Metho ods The reseearch focused on the taughtt part of the m master’s progrramme. It involved stuudents attendiing the researrch master’s pprogramme reeferred to above. Tweenty-four studdents entered the programm me in 2012/1 13 and in 2013/14. Students are school-experiienced teach ers, with a teaching experience tthat ranges froom five to oveer 20 years. Sttudents’ places of work were locatedd in Portugal,, East Timor, S. Tomé andd Príncipe, an nd Brazil, which are Poortuguese-speeaking countries. Data w were collectedd through an n online annonymous op pen-ended questionnairre, focusing onn the followin ng dimensionss: -

Reasons for choosing the onlinee master’s proggramme; Opinnions on the e--learning techn nology; Opiniions on the relevance of the different d typess of learning acctivities;

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-

Opinions on the level of learning attained; Opinions on learning assessment; Opinions on the teaching team.

Twelve students voluntarily participated in the study by answering the online questionnaire. Data analysis was based on content analysis aiming at uncovering the different ideas behind the answers given to each question. At first, authors performed the analysis separately. Afterward they identified the complex or divergent cases, discussed them and reached a consensus. This procedure was carried out to increase data reliability. Answers or excerpts that illustrate each idea were identified to be used in the next section to illustrate the analysis performed and the interpretations carried out. Their authors will be identified by an S (that stands for students) followed by a number (that stands for the participant’s random order number).

Results Participants were asked about their reasons for choosing the distance programme that is at stake in this paper. Their answers focused on four main issues, as follows: i) Living abroad impairs attendance in a face to face programme: “It would be impossible for me to attend a face-to-face programme because I am living abroad.” (S10).

ii) An e-learning master’s allows students to have a flexible timetable: “It allowed me to manage the teaching and the student timetable.” (S4).

iii) Attending an e-learning master’s is a cheaper way of attending a master’s programme: “It costs you less than a face-to-face programme; you do not need to spend money to travel between your home and the university.” (S5).

iv) An e-learning master’s programme is less time consuming for the students: “You save time, the way to the university time and the back home way time.” (S12).

As far as participants’ opinions on the e-learning technology is concerned, they seem happy with it, but when comparing the internet requirements and the characteristics of the local internet the answers show some problematic issues (see Table 1). In fact, it is the issue with the

Online Science Teacher Education: The Case of a Master’s Programme 43

lowest number of “very adequate”. Table 1: Opinions on the e-learning technology Issues Friendliness of the technology LMS requirements vs local internet characteristics Access to the learning tools Organisation of the teaching materials

1 Inadequate

2

3

4 Very adequate

0

0

7

5

0

1

10

1

0

1

8

3

0

0

5

7

However, some students had to overcome technological challenges mainly due to non-familiarity with LMS related technological tools and to the poor quality of their internet connection: “At the beginning, it was hard because I was not used to technologies: I could not manage to participate in the chat sessions, submit activities... Then, my children helped me to overcome those difficulties. However, I never regretted entering the master’s programme.” (S7); “The quality of internet access has prevented me to follow the courses as regularly as I should.” (S3).

Participants stated that the way the programme was organised facilitated their job as students for a couple of reasons. Most of them mentioned the organisation into pairs of related courses: “A pair of courses every two months was good; otherwise, it would be difficult to cope with the diversity of courses.” (S1); “The use of complementary pairs of courses enables the students to follow the courses better than if they had to follow four [different] courses at the same time.” (S8).

They also, acknowledged the teaching team efforts to make the schedule of the synchronous sessions fit their local time requirements: “I’d like to emphasise the effort to make the chat timetable fit the time zone requirements.” (S10).

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It is worth pointing out that in order to accomplish this fit, two chat timetables were organised for each course unit so that the different time zone requirements could be satisfied. With regard to participants’ opinions on the relevance of different types of learning activities (see Table 2), it can be noted that the chat sessions and watching videos/listening to audios are the types of activities that tend to be most valued. According to the participants in the study, “The videograms available in some courses were of an added value for learning.” (S10). In fact, they provide an overview of the topic, which is faster and easier to acquire than it would be if some texts had to be read. Table 2: Opinions on the relevance of different types of learning activities Types of activities Activities before Chat Discussions in the chat sessions Discussions in the forum Watching videos/Listening to audios Reading texts

1 (Very little) 1

2

3

4

1

2

7

5 (Too much) 1

0

1

2

3

6

1

4

5

1

0

0

0

3

3

6

0

0

2

6

4

Even though chat sessions (which are synchronous) may be seen as incompatible with the flexibility of the e-learning philosophy (Simonson, Smaldino and Zvacek 2015), it seems that participants value them as they feel that those sessions provide opportunities for discussion and clarification. In fact, participants stated that “Chat sessions should be longer to provide more opportunities for discussion and for asking questions” (S4). Moreover, they stated that the chat sessions created conditions for face-to-face like student-teacher interactions: “The chat has created conditions for a student - teacher interaction as good as if it were a face to face course” (S12). The forum was not valued too much (see Table 2) apparently because it did not provide too many learning opportunities from discussions among the participants in the programme. Some participants even stated that it could be suppressed: “The forum would be dispensable as discussions were not very fruitful” (S5). As far as learning achievement reached through the programme is concerned, participants’ opinions indicate that they feel that they learn more than they would in a face-to-face environment. This seems to be due to the fact that they:

Online Science Teacher Education: The Case of a Master’s Programme 45

i) Have to do systematic and continuous study: “The course required me to do more systematic and continuous readings in order to be able to do the activities; the work was more continuous [than in a face to face environment].” (S5).

ii) Need to work before the chat sessions: “Students have to prepare the chat sessions deeper and therefore better learning is achieved.” (S4).

iii) Can interact with colleagues from different places, with different cultural backgrounds: “Master students with diverse backgrounds and coming from different educational and cultural contexts together with the fact that the teachers used socio-cognitive training strategies was a learning promoting factor.” (S10).

Participants’ opinions on the learning assessment procedures were also collected. Participants recognised the relevance of face-to-face exams: i) For the fairness of the assessment: “I agree that the face-to-face exams make sense and have to be mandatory.” (S1); “In an at a distance programme, teachers need to find out [through face-to-face exams] whether knowledge was acquired and competences were developed.” (S6); “Exams are needed in an e-learning programme.” (S9).

ii) For promoting learning: “Exams provided learning opportunities.” (S8); “The preparation for the exams led me to analyse all the themes and to restructure previous learning; besides, they are always fair individual assessment tools.” (S5).

With regard to participants’ opinions on teachers’ support, they explicitly recognised teachers’ competency and support: “Teachers’ scientific and pedagogic competences are outstanding [...] Teachers have offered tireless personal and bibliographical support.” (S10); “I enjoyed teachers very much; I just regret not having been able to devote more time to the master’s programme.” (S11).

This means that students could make a distinction between the course organisation and their availability to participate in the courses activities and to profit from the facilities that were made available to them.

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Conclusion The results of the study indicate that participants in the master’s programme were happy to have engaged in an online programme even though at first they had to overcome some technological challenges. As discussed by Hunter (2015), technological difficulties could be and were expected. Therefore, some help was planned and offered (e.g., a zero chat session) to the students but it needs to be reinforced and enlarged and offered before the course activities start. A zero week (with all facilities on but with no master’s content delivered) will be planned for the upcoming online edition. Students felt that the pair of courses model was very appropriate. This result is in line with our expectations. In fact, based on data gathered from previous and more concentrated online experiences (one course per month), we decided to use the “two courses, two months” model. As Dobbs, Waid and Del Carmen (2009) pointed out, online learning is very demanding for students and therefore care must be taken to avoid work overload. It seems that a good way of doing it is by avoiding both scattering students’ attention in a large diversity of courses and concentrating it too much, with the consequence of giving them a too little time to assimilate the ideas and to integrate those ideas into their cognitive structure. Subjects acknowledged teachers’ support and effort to make the synchronous chat sessions fit their needs. In addition, they valued chat sessions much more than some asynchronous tools, namely the forum. This seems to be in conflict with their timetable restrictions, which led them to opt for the online modality. However, it should be kept in mind that autonomy and confidence are variables that influence online success (Ribbe and Bezanilla 2013) and this may be especially true for people that have been away from their study duties for a considerable amount of time, as was the case for most of the master’s students. Thus, the chat sessions may act as scaffolding for learners’ autonomy as they provide opportunities for students to get feedback on the previous tasks in an interactive way. This may make them feel supported, increase their selfconfidence and lead them to maintain good motivation levels. Hartnett, St. George and Dron (2011) acknowledge good motivation levels as a key requirement for successful learning as well as for reducing attrition. Moreover, results suggest that participants in the study feel that they learned at least as much as if they were attending a face-to-face programme and they recognised that being required to submit an activity before a chat session contributed to that. Even though those students that

Online Science Teacher Education: The Case of a Master’s Programme 47

had not submitted the activity were allowed to participate in the chat session, they could perceive that they would not profit from it, as they were not aware of the issues and therefore would hardly be able to follow the discussion going on and to ask questions to the teacher. From our experience, the submission of activities before the chat session is a good recommendation, as it tends to prevent students from leaving activities (and consequently study) behind. In fact, when a student was unable to submit an activity on time, he/she apologised and felt compelled to do it as soon as possible. Students also agreed with the face-to-face exams and gave good reasons for that. Their reasons compare to those that led us to introduce face-to-face exams as a compulsory assessment component. Assessment is always a sensitive issue (Poe and Stassen n.d.), which needs to be perceived as fair by the students and reliable by both students and employers. This may be the reason why face-to-face assessment has been introduced recently by the national in-service teacher training accreditation agency as a necessary condition for online master’s programmes to be acknowledged by the Portuguese ministry of education as in-service training qualifying for career progression purposes. Hence, from students’ point of view, it seems that online master’s programmes may not only be a valid alternative to a face-to-face master’s but they may also offer them a unique possibility of attending in-service training. Online programmes eliminate the distance issue, save time, are cheaper, and offer a flexible timetable that fits their work and home timetables. Even though the participants in this study were happy with the master’s programme, a few measures may need to be put into practice to improve the upcoming editions. First of all, students need to be made aware that they must have a good internet connection. Then, a zero week should be introduced so that students may get used to technology, namely the LMS and its main tools, without losing formal learning opportunities. Finally, teachers need to find ways of making the forum a more valuable tool for the students. As Gao, Zhang and Franklin (2013, 479) pointed out, “learning environments alone cannot ensure successful learning. The quality of discussion [in a forum] can be influenced by a number of different factors, including the design of activities, learners’ characteristics such as their knowledge and skills.” Therefore, behind rethinking the kind of activities, students may need to be taught the basic skills of argumentation, so that discussion in the forum becomes based on stronger and theoretically and/or empirically based arguments.

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The effects of these measures need to be monitored and consequently they may offer research opportunities. However, there are a few questions (related to the master’s programme but not dealt with in this paper) that may need to be addressed in future research. One of them is the following: even though attrition rates were not high, why do a few students drop out? Bearing in mind the online demands and the fact that most of the students are working professionals, who may need in-service training but have too many busy moments in their lives, how does motivation vary throughout the programme and, if it does, what is the pattern and what are the main factors of motivation change? As there were students alone in their geographical areas and groups of students in other areas, a question that is worth raising is to what extent does individual engagement depend on the (non)existence of a local group of master’s students that can work as a leaning community? Answering these questions would help to inform candidates and organise better online master’s programmes.

Acknowledgments This research was funded by CIEd - Research Centre in Education, Institute of Education, UMinho, UID/CED/01661/2013 - through national funds of FCT/MCTES-PT.

References Bawa, Papia. 2016. “Retention in online courses: exploring issues and solutions-a literature review.” SAGE Open January-March: 1-11. Berry, Amanda, and John Loughran. 2012. “Developing science teacher educators’ pedagogy of teacher education.” In Second international handbook of science education, edited by Barry Fraser, Kenneth Tobin, and Campbell McRobbie, 401-433. Dordrecht: Springer. Bianchini, Julie. 2012. “Teaching while still learning to teach: beginning science teachers’ views, experiences, and classroom practices.” In Second international handbook of science education, edited by Barry Fraser, Kenneth Tobin, and Campbell McRobbie, 389-99. Dordrecht: Springer. Burns, Mary. 2011. Distance education for teacher training: modes, models, and methods. Washington: Education Development Center, Inc. Burton, Laura, and Diane Goldsmith. 2002. Students’ experiences in online courses: a study using asynchronous online focus groups. New Britain: Connecticut Distance Learning Consortium.

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Dobbs, Rhonda, Courtney Waid, and Alejandro del Carmen. 2009. “Students' perceptions of online courses: The effect of online course experience.” The Quarterly Review of Distance Education 10, no. 1: 926. Dourado, Luís, Laurinda Leite, and Sofia Morgado. 2016. “In-service science teacher education in Portugal: an analysis of the short courses available.” The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology Special Issue, December: 1505-16. Frost, Jenny. 2010. “Learning to be a science teacher.” In Learning to teach science in the secondary school: a companion to school experience, edited by Jenny Frost, 2-10. New York: Routledge, 2010. Gao, Fei, Tianyi Zhang, and Teresa Franklin. 2013. “Designing asynchronous online discussion environments: recent progress and possible future directions.” British Journal of Educational Technology, 44, no. 3: 469-83. Gil-Pérez, Daniel. 1991. “Qué hemos de saber y saber hacer los profesores de ciencias?” Enseñanza de las Ciencias 9, no. 1: 69-77. Hartnett, Maggie, Alison St. George, and John Dron. 2011. “Examining motivation in online distance learning environments: complex, multifaceted, and situation-dependent.” The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning 13, no. 6: 20-38. Hunter, Jane. 2015. Technology integration and high possibility classrooms: building from TPACK. New York: Routledge. Leite, Laurinda, Luís Dourado, and Sofia Morgado. 2016. “Initial science teacher education in Portugal: the thoughts of teacher educators about the effects of the Bologna process.” Journal of Science Teacher Education 27, no. 8: 873-893. Marcelo, Carlos. 2009. “Professional development of teachers: past and future.” Sísifo: Educational Sciences Journal 8: 5-20. Means, Barbara, Yukie Toyama, Robert Murphy, Marianne Bakia, and Karla Jones. 2009. Evaluation of evidence-based practices in online learning: a meta-analysis and review of online learning studies. Washington: U.S. Department of Education. Obasa, Adekunle, Adekunle Eludire, and Tajudeen Ajao. 2013. “A comparative study of synchronous and asynchronous e-learning resources.” International Journal of innovative Research in Science Engineering and Technology 2, no. 11: 5938-46. Peters, Otto. 2003. “Learning with new media in distance education.” In Handbook of distance education, edited by Michael Moore, and William Anderson, 87-112. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers.

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Poe, Mya, and Stassen Martha. n.d. Teaching and learning online: communication, community, and assessment: a handbook for UMass Faculty. Massachusetts: UMass. Ramos, Susana. 2004. “(In)Satisfação e stress na profissão docente.” Interacções 6: 87-130. Ribbe, Elisa, and María Bezanilla. 2013. “Scaffolding learner autonomy in online university courses” Digital Education Review 24: 98-113. Shulman, Lee. 1986. “Those who understand.” Educational Researcher 15, no. 2: 4-14. Simonson, Michael, Sharon Smaldino, and Susan Zvacek. 2015. Teaching and Learning at a Distance: Foundations of distance education. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing, Inc. van Driel, Jan, Douwe Beijaard, and Nico Verloop. 2001. “Professional development and reform in science education: the role of teachers' practical knowledge.” Journal of Research in Science Teaching 38, no. 2: 137-58. Wallace, Carolyn. 2014. “Overview of the role of teacher beliefs in science education.” In The role of science teachers’ beliefs in international classrooms, edited by Robert Evans, Julie Luft, Charlene Czerniak, and Celestine Pea, 17-31. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. Wilson, Dawn, and David Allen. 2011. “Success rates of online versus traditional college students.” Research in Higher Education Journal 14: 1-9.

CHAPTER FIVE DEVELOPMENT OF MASSIVE OPEN ONLINE COURSES BASRI AHMEDI, XHEVDET THAQI, RAGMI MUSTAFA, ARTAN DERMAKU, EKREM ALIMI AND NYSRET DEMAKU

Abstract Motivated by a change of generations, an unstable economic situation, and the influence of Information and Communication Technologies, it is becoming increasingly common to find educational models that are already in practice (Clark and Kwinn 2007). The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) has requested an adaptation of the university curriculum with the requirements stated in the Bologna Declaration. Since academic year 2015-2016, the University of Kadri Zeka offers an online teaching platform called "e-Learning" for bachelor's degrees in computer science, education, economics and law. The purpose of this project is to provide a description of the experience of University of Kadri Zeka in the field of online teaching and, more specifically, analyse the results obtained in all subjects from Bachelor of Science in Computer Science. The implementation of this platform is useful but there are also specific difficulties (Bersin 2004). The eLearning tool allows the teacher to edit any teaching material, format this material in various formats as needed and is placed in the relevant courses where students will have access at any time. In each course created, materials can be placed which continually follow the fulfilment of the obligations for the teaching process. This material is accessible only by students which are following the course, and is also available for the upcoming students enrolled in the same course. This significantly increases teacher-student communication. The following shows the experience of using the e-Learning platform to improve the teaching process in the respective courses at University of Kadri Zeka in Gjilan.

Keywords: e-Learning, implementation, teaching process

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Introduction The use of e-Learning as a pilot project in the teaching process at the University of Gjilan has been ongoing for 2 years. The following services have been offered: Syllabi placed in each course, digital literacy placement, placement of lectures in the form of concepts for each week, setting of guidelines for numerical and practical exercises, creation of folders in which students have placed tasks evaluating the knowledge acquired, distance groups communication, information etc. According to the data published in the Higher Education Development Strategy by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology of Kosovo (2005-2015), the description of the situation in higher education is: the lack of contemporary literature; existing teaching methodology does not support a greater involvement of students in higher education; the existing infrastructure does not support a variety of higher education programmes; the existing infrastructure does not support students with special needs; technological infrastructure for development and evaluation of work in higher education institutions is not used, etc. (Strategjia zhvillimore e Arsimit të Lartë në Kosovë 2005). Students and pedagogical staff in such circumstances seek the opportunity to stimulate these subjects that are more friendly, closer and more accessible, and seek resources after the lecture is finished. ICTs in this context are a very useful tool to provide a whole range of resources for students to achieve better academic performance. This is why at the Faculty of Computer Sciences of the University Kadri Zeka there are open online courses ( Massive Open Online Courses) called e-Learning in order to facilitate and supplement the basic knowledge that students need (Clark and Mayer 2011). The eLearning platform can be used in the university area to address potential student deficiencies of all courses or to extend the lessons. MOOC consists of an open-air modality in which courses are offered free of charge through educational platforms at universities. The aim is to disseminate knowledge in a way that is accessible and useful for all students. In order for any on-line platform to be considered an MOOC, it must meet the following requirements: • • • •

Its structure should be learning-oriented, with a range of tests or assessments that can assess the knowledge gained. The number of enrolled must be, in principle, unlimited or at least much higher than the number on a face-to-face basis. The materials are online and available for the users of the platform. Materials must be accessible free of charge.

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There are different types of MOOC, depending on the objectives, methodologies and expected results. In this context, and thanks to the cooperation of the Faculty of Computer Science of UKZ, we present a version of MOOC (Moodle), the purpose of which is an additional tool which qualitatively influences the realisation of various study programmes for all departments at the University of Kadri Zeka in Gjilan.

Methodology The platform (http://www.usht.us/course/category.php?id=48) provides good structural organisation. The first category is the University and then within the subcategories are Departments, Years, and Courses. In each year of the corresponding department, a course with the corresponding name is created. Each course is divided into 15 weeks. In each week, significant amounts of information, teaching materials of varying lengths and different formats such as text, photos, sound, video can be placed. Students' homework, various additional materials, selected exercises, etc. can also be included. Also in one or more weeks of the course, a folder can be created in which students themselves can set homework and tasks where the professor can more easily check and evaluate them. These services allow access also for students who for various reasons have not attended classes. In this way, it is intended to motivate students to study the subject by offering them online materials and making them part of a class "as if they had participated" in real time (King, Robinson and Vickers 2014). Using a survey for the e-Learning platform efficiency with students and teachers in all departments, resulted in an outcome that gives an advantage to the electronic teaching especially in the field of online lectures, limitation of the teaching material, valuation, results, communication etc. During the academic year 2016/2017, all these actions have also been tracked using the e-Learning system itself while being logged in as an Administrator. Thus, using surveys with concrete questions and direct monitoring through the e-Learning system, an evaluation of the online learning system in the University of Kadri Zeka – Gjilan was conducted (Fig.7). The main page of the e-Learning site is depicted in Fig. 1. Access to e-Learning have previously joined students and professors. Access is granted through a username and password. The number of users has been growing continuously. Currently, there are 1427 out of 3000 potential users. The login window is depicted in Fig. 2. In addition to content materials, in an e-Learning course, there are more than twenty exercises that have been described in detail, allowing

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students to use critical thinking skills to solve problems by using the right tools and technological resources. The fact that students have at their disposal multiple exercises at a time, with answers provided facilitates studying (Fig. 3).

Figure 1. The e-Learning platform

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Figure 2. Login for e-Learning

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Figure 3. View of the course in e-Learning

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In each and every course, teachers periodically comment on different aspects related to the learning and assessment of student work. Teachers can perform graphical analysis of texts, exercises, discussions, group work, demonstration and interpretation, study of ideas, creative materials, and individual research. The goal is to bring the subject closer to students by reducing the distance between theory and the real world, seeking to awaken their interest and motivation towards learning. In fact, in January 2016, the main MOOC platform at UKZ (http://uni-gjilan.net/) started to operate with several courses. Then the number of courses was increased and today it is 70 (Fig. 4). In the e-Learning platform are placed 90 out of 150 subjects of study programmes at UKZ. From 1st of October 2017, using e-Learning in the teaching process will be obligatory for each subject for each study programme at the University. The structure of the e-Learning platform is as follows: -

An introductory module, which has materials, presentations and a test of previous knowledge. 13-14 content modules, each of which has the lesson in the form of a PDF, a ppt explaining the subject, a test and a forum. A midterm and final exam (Fig. 5)

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Figure 4. Distribution of courses by department

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Figure 5. Assessments and final exam

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Results The number of participants currently using the e-Learning platform is 1427. The participants are students at one of the four departments at University of Kadri Zeka in Gjilan. Indeed, we can see that all students in the department of Computer Science are using e-Learning while most of the students from the department of Education and Economics are using it, but fewer students are using it from the Law Faculty. The results obtained from the platform usage have been very positive. Thus, if we compare the e-Learning logins between the academic year 2015/16 and the academic year 2016/17 (winter semester), we can see a large increase which is a good indicator for the implementation of e-Learning at UKZ. The course is divided into 15 weeks and includes: curriculum and explanation literature, teaching methodology, use of the e-Learning platform, then two periodic assessment tests and 13 other topics that make up the subject. Of logins in June 2016 with a maximum number of 7521 and in December 2017 there are 27389 logins. From this we can see that we have an increase of 264% in logins for December 2017 compared to June 2016 (Fig. 6).

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Figure 6. User activity on the e-Learning platform from 2015/2016 to 2016/2017

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Conclusions The incoorporation of the e-Learnin ng platform aat University of Kadri Zeka has entailed a signifficant increasee in the numbeer of participaants in the courses. In aaddition to increasing numbers, the fact that participaants come from differeent social and economic bacckgrounds hass presented a challenge c for standarddising coursess in a way th hat is comforrtable for mo ost users. Changes rellated to evaluuation and teeaching proceess has proviided very good resultss in attending courses and assessments. a T The opinion expressed e by 880 survveyed studennts shows thaat 81% are saatisfied with the help provided byy e-Learning platform. (Fig. 7).

Figure 7. Survvey results of UKZ U students

Units wiith a lower deggree of successs than expectted were disco overed, so it is possible to consider how differen nt solutions arre required to o increase the success rrate. The maiin advantagess of using thee e-Learning platform forr students based on a ssurvey are: -

Acceess to an openn educationall practice. Stuudents can register for free iin our e-Learnning platform. The ability to acccess the writteen materials aat any time, and a other materrials for explaaining the subjject. Acceess to exerccises solved in detail, which facilitate the underrstanding of thheoretical con ntent. Test performance that allows teachers to cont ntrol the assim milation of the m material.

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A forum in which students can make an inquiry, resolve peer issues, or communicate with the teacher. All this occurs in an environment with more than 1427 registered students, coming from different countries. The forum represents a very convenient instrument to promote collaborative activity between students and teachers. Leaving the modules open from the beginning to the end of the course facilitates the possibility that each person, given personal circumstances, can work at their own pace. In this way, autonomous and responsible work is promoted along with student decision-making in a virtual environment. The possibility of using innovative methodologies in teaching, such as the flipped classroom.

The e-Learning platform, meanwhile, also includes some of the advantages shown for MOOC, such as: -

Access to videos, materials, exercises, etc. Possibility of reading, writing and editing of contents as needed.

With these advantages we have been able to stimulate the student's interest and motivation to learn, which is reflected in a better rate of learning success. As the next step, one development line we are exploring is to adapt content to a wider range of University education centres for all study programmes, and all departments at University of Kadri Zeka in Gjilan.

References Bersin, Josh. 2004. The Blended Learning Book. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Clark, Ruth Colvin, and Ann Kwinn. 2007. The new Virtual Classroom:Evidence-based Guidlines for Synchronous e-Learning. Pfeiffer. Clark, Ruth Colvin, and Richard E. Mayer. 2011. e-Learning and the Scieence of Instruction. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. King, Carolyn, Andrew Robinson, and James Vickers. 2014. "Online eduacation: Targeted MOOC captivates students." Nature,505. —. 2005. Strategjia zhvillimore e Arsimit të Lartë në Kosovë. Prishtinë: Ministry of Education Science and Technology of Kosovo.

CHAPTER SIX DIGITAL CHILDHOOD: SOME REFLECTIONS FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION ZANDA RUBENE

Abstract The presence of information and communication technologies in children's everyday life that promotes changes both in their world perception, emotional attitudes and social skills also change the social views about childhood as a socially constructed phenomenon in its traditional understanding and makes researchers turn seriously to the analysis of digital childhood. The latest research in social sciences confirms that the user of technologies in the second decade of the 21st century is already 3-4 years old. Researchers describe the culture of today's children as different, unknown and incomprehensible which urges researchers to seek answers to the questions: how will the changes introduced in children's social habits by digitalisation influence their life in the future? Do we use technologies in our everyday life as a possibility to promote children's development or do they become a threat? How do the changes in children's social habits brought about by technologies transform society's understanding of childhood as a social phenomenon? Key words: research on childhood, digital childhood, parenting in the family, risks in parenting caused by digitalisation.

Introduction Childhood is a special period in human life – not only because adults often remember their childhood as the happiest and most carefree time in their life. It is mainly because during the first years of one’s life the person learns to understand both oneself and the world, develops one’s abilities and skills. Things that a person learns in childhood later become the core

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of their personality. Therefore, sciences that deal with human research pay great attention to this stage of human life. Parents and teachers often seek the expectations and aims that are connected with children’s futures from their own childhood experiences; they symbolically return to the time when they grew up and try to transfer their childhood model to the present. The adults consider that skills, habits and values that have been important for them and their parents are also necessary and binding for their children. This is true in many cases – however the world around us mostly changes the values important for the person stay unchanged. However, the modern world has really changed in the last decades. We are speaking about such processes as globalisation, pluralism of values, digitalisation, etc. that often make people in Western society conclude that life is no longer what it used to be. Information and communication technologies are one of the phenomena that during the last decades have significantly changed the everyday life of people of all generations, especially children (Bleckmann 2012). Researchers are still unable to answer clearly and convincingly the question of what the society formed by people who have grown up in the Internet will be like. Therefore, social science researchers actively turn to the research of modern childhood considering that the formation of everyday experience of adults and especially children in the digitalisation context is one of the most topical and significant modern research areas. The childhood of modern children differs from the one experienced by adults, including their habits, attitudes and identity, which develop in different social contexts that naturally leads to the prediction that they will also perceive the world differently when they are grown up (Spanhel 2006; Riederle 2013). Thus, in a situation when children’s access to the internet is considered a norm in society, adults lack pedagogical competence to guide this process purposefully. This substantiates the topicality of research on digital childhood and makes one ponder on whether and how the changes brought about by the digitalisation in children’s social habits will influence their life in the future. Do we use technologies in our everyday life as a possibility to promote children's development or do they become a threat? It is also important to understand how changes in children's social habits transform society's understanding of childhood as a social phenomenon.

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Understanding the childhood concept within social sciences Although the concept “childhood” is often used in everyday conversation, researchers view this concept as controversial, unclear and bound to a definite social and cultural context, thus underlining the necessity to investigate it more profoundly (Kehily 2013). In order to understand the childhood concept, it is necessary to pay attention to the description of childhood studies in modern social sciences. The aim of childhood studies as an interdisciplinary field is to promote the exploration of children and adolescents in the framework of different sciences. The beginnings are found at the start of the 20th century when the so called “child’s study movement” emerged which initiated significant studies in child psychology and physiology (Hall 1904). The childhood studies that developed in the middle of the 20th century emphasised more and more the social instead of the developmental perspective. Special attention to childhood studies was paid at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries when the differences between the social habits of people of different generations living in the same society inspired by media became more noticeable (Rubene and Dinka 2016). Thus, childhood studies have become a topical research subject in different social sciences, e.g., sociology, social anthropology, pedagogy, psychology, etc. The social-scientific perspective is especially important in childhood studies; it analyses the child not as a biological but a social being. The key objective of the research is to explain childhood as a social construct within which the research is performed in the social, economic, culture and political dimensions. The topicality of this approach is defined by the transformations in the adults’ and children’s relations characteristic to the modern society that influence both parenting in the family and the child’s place in the social hierarchy in the modern society in general (JansoneRatinika 2013; Dinka 2014). Society’s ideas about the child and his/her upbringing are closely related with the understanding of the concept “childhood”. Childhood in the discourse of social sciences is explained as a socially determined period in human life until reaching maturity (or the adult’s social status). From the perspective of the pedagogy science, the childhood definition is supplemented with the component of pedagogical activity – pedagogical strategies that help the person to reach maturity, i.e., to become an adult, which are purposefully chosen and constructed in society (Dinka 2014). Different understanding as to what it means “to be a child” and what it means “to be an adult” are observed in different societies; also the above

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mentioned pedagogical strategies differ. It has to be acknowledged that the interpretations of the childhood phenomenon in the context of the digital culture become more and more diverse and vague. The history of childhood is also called the history of care (Aries 1962; Baader et al. 2014). The child – according to this understanding of childhood – is characterised by such features as naivety, vulnerability and irrationality. The child is perceived as an unprotected but unreasonable being that needs to be cared for, thus defining the principal differences between the child and the adult (Dinka 2014). The adult’s responsibility in this tradition of upbringing is to protect the child for as long as possible from the notions about the phenomena that do not belong to the “happy childhood”, for instance, death, illnesses, sexuality, etc. (Parsons 1951). This is also used to protect the child from the knowledge and spheres of social activity that do not “concern” the child because the child simply “is too young for all this”. In order to attain this, social structures for strengthening and maintaining the ideal of childhood were created. For instance, defining the age hierarchy that helps to separate models of behaviour and social habits characteristic to children and adults as well as substantiates the child’s dependent social position in relation to the adult. The childhood stage in Western culture over the years has developed a tendency to become longer (Kehily 2013). If initially childhood lasted approximately the first seven years of the person’s life, then over time other social categories were created alongside the concept “child”, namely, “the teenager” and “the youth” that symbolically removes the border when the person becomes adult and is able to take responsibility for one’s action. Although biologically a child is a person from birth till the beginning of puberty in the framework of legislation, childhood lasts until one comes of age or the age when the person reaches the legal status of an adult. Thus, The age category in childhood studies draws a special attention confronting the understanding of the age with the social understanding about the child in the particular culture (Bühler-Niederberger 2011). The understanding about the physical body as an indicator of biological age, in this case childhood, is explained similarly. The development of the human body is biologically determined; however, the assessment of the body significantly depends on the social norms and societal “expectations” of how to behave and look at a certain age (Harper and Laws 1995). Namely, also the attitude towards the child’s body in a concrete society is socially construed – the views accepted by the society

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about what the child “should be like” make disciplining the child’s body and the pedagogical rituals related to it legitimate. The child’s body in the context of childhood studies is given two meanings – on the one hand, the child’s body represents the lack of competence that the adult has, on the other hand – sentimentalises the abilities and features that the child has from the adults’ perspective (James 2004). The child’s body is treated as feeble that should be cared for leniently; the child also bodily is the being that is yet unable to perform an independent action. The segregation of action is suitable for the definite age also marking the range of actions appropriate only for the child or only for the adult: for the child – school and playing, for the adult – work, etc. Researchers particularly emphasise the creation of social institutions meant for the child (school, preschool institutions, nursery, child’s room in the house, playing grounds, etc.) that allows the society to implement, on the one hand, care and protection, and on the other hand, control over the child and his/her social actions (Dinka 2014). The establishment of a special care network (parents’ responsibilities, styles and methods of upbringing, etc.) intended for the child’s upbringing strengthen the parents’ tutorial role and the compulsory responsibility for the child’s action and possible advancement (Mierendorff 2014). This classical understanding of childhood is based on the conviction that the adult is the one who knows the child’s “formula of happiness”; the child’s duty is to be obedient and to act according to the social order created by the adults. This understanding of childhood hides in itself a legitimate justification that the child needs strict discipline and control, naturally also punishments because the child is incompetent and does not understand what he/she does and can destroy the social order created by the adults. The above mentioned social structures are currently considered normal and necessary for children’s socialisation in the Western society and it would be difficult to imagine our society without them. However, both the human age boundaries of when one is considered a child and, e.g., the school as an institution, and parenting strategies and forms that are acceptable for children in the context of the digitalisation of the society are subjected to transformations that cause the so-called “shock of the present” for adults in the society. Thus the image of the child as an unreasonable being as well as the theory about childhood as the happiest period in human life is a typical anthropological tradition for classical pedagogical thought (Hummelbach and Schröer 2014; Rubene 2012) that justifies the understanding about a child who needs adult care and protectionism and that also substantiates

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the asymmetrical pedagogical relation between adults and children in which the adult decides the child’s actions in all spheres. It is assumed that the child does not have intellectual competence and maturity must to be reached through adults’ purposeful guidance, i.e., with the help of pedagogical action. Complying with the understanding about values and norms dictated by adults, the child will grow up corresponding to the understanding of a full-fledged member of the society and not a possible threat to the order adopted in society (Rubene and Dinka 2016). The views on parenting based on the classical understanding of childhood, on the one hand, idealise childhood emphasising it as a happy and safe period in human life, while the child is perceived as a potential threat to the social processes or a victim who needs to be taken care of even if he/she does not want it because the child simply does not understand what he/she needs. Therefore, current childhood studies often treat children as a social minority and explore them as a social group subjected to discrimination stressing their rights to emancipation and respect having the right to be heard (James et al. 1998; Kehily 2013). The dominating pluralism of values in modern Western society that have promoted transformations both in the family institution and the traditional hierarchical models of parenting, change the social ideas about childhood and engender a discussion about the disappearance of childhood in its traditional sense (Postman 1982). Nowadays the understanding of childhood is significantly transformed by the presence of information and communication technologies in children’s everyday life that promote changes both in their world perception, social skills and emotional attitudes and make researchers turn seriously to the analysis of a digital childhood.

Transformations of childhood understandings in the context of the digitalisation of society The communication and everyday habits of people living in a modern Western society for several decades are implemented with the help of technologies – we make friends, work, relax and communicate with children using the possibilities offered by digitalisation. It is convenient, it is typical and most people are unable to imagine their life without technologies; besides, they would fail to function socially without them (Underwood and Farrington-Flint 2015). Although adults consider the presence of technologies in their life a normal phenomenon still regarding the upbringing of children there are often concerns about the great impact of media on the social habits of the young generation. It has to be admitted

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that these concerns often are justified but adults feel helpless because they lack such experience in parenting that would help them to purposefully use the technologies in promoting the children’s development and socialisation. The latest research in social sciences prove that the user of technologies in the Western society in the first decade of the 21st century on average was 6-13 years young, but in the second decade we are speaking about the digital literacy of a 3-4 year-old child and even a toddler (Hüther and Schorb 2005; Spanhel 2006; Bleckmann, 2012; Holloway et al. 2013). This is an unprecedented situation – a child who cannot speak, write and read but uses the internet is a radically new social phenomenon. Even the studies by media pedagogy and psychology theoreticians that have been actively performed since the 1960-70s of the 20th century offer conclusions and advice for promoting school children’s media literacy, but they do not speak about toddlers and digital technologies. Studies on this age group of internet users have started quite recently in Europe; however, the social reality shows that the use of technologies in everyday life has become a habit to an increasingly larger number of children. The use of information and communication technologies in children’s everyday life creates a situation which the researchers consider unique – adults often do not understand the children’s culture – children’s activities in the internet are unknown to parents, their ability to access technologies often is more limited than children’s; they do not recognise symbols and meanings that children use in their everyday language (Kron and Sofos 2003; Bleckmann 2012). Remembering that adults for centuries have formed children’s culture, the challenges created by the digital reality often make adults feel helpless and their authority weakening. It is less possible to speak about principal differences between the child and adult culture in the context of the digitalisation of society – the modern child lives in the same informative and social space as the adult. Therefore, the classical understandings of childhood – a specific structure created by adults for separating and guarding children from undesirable information – actually disappears (Postman 1982). However, childhood researchers emphasise that only nowadays it is possible to speak about “the children’s own childhood” and not about childhood as the social structure created by adults for disciplining the children (Kron and Sofos 2003). Researchers call the modern children’s culture different, unknown and obscure. This children’s culture which is unknown to adults – and thus often inaccessible – is a phenomenon that makes the society acknowledge that the understanding of childhood has changed and makes researchers reconsider the perception of the “child’s” phenomenon, the aims and

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objectives of education, changing the focus of exploration from the pedagogical moral obligation to the analysis of the child’s needs, the promotion of his/her development (Rubene and Dinka 2016). Thus, at the beginning of the 21st century the childhood research that analyses not only the impact of mass culture products on the child but also treats the child him/herself as an active creator and producer of the culture phenomena appears in social sciences (Kron and Sofos 2003; Kehily 2013). Children themselves write on blogs, profiles of social networks, play games, use the media possibilities without the adults’ help and presence and adults often do not understand the culture symbols created by children and thus they cannot access them. Children have become a significant target audience for the producers – the offer of goods in shops, advertisements, commercials, etc. is created thinking about the desires and needs of children, not their parents, which naturally increases the children’s self-esteem (VecgrƗve 2006). The studies stress that the producers of media production unlike the children’s parents and teachers have adopted the idea about the child as an agent who is able to choose, make decisions and act independently in the social space (VecgrƗve 2006; Calvert 2008). We still try to maintain the traditional social ideas about the child and childhood in the parenting and study process at school thus coming into contradiction with the modern social reality in which the children live. As a result, children do not understand their parents and teachers, in turn, do not understand the children, – each of the involved parties considers their model of action as corresponding to the norm and the action of the other party as “wrong”. Parents try to forbid or reduce children’s possibilities to function on the internet, children protest and consider their parents’ demands oldfashioned, etc. Researchers warn that adults who try to implement an “oldfashioned, packed” parenting model, diminish not only the cooperation possibilities with modern children but decrease their authority in their eyes (Spanhel 2006; Holloway et al. 2013; Riederle 2013; Dias et al. 2016; Cleveland and Block 2017). A contradiction appears in the modern process of upbringing between the traditional understanding of childhood and the increase of modern children’s sense of self-value that causes both challenges to modern parenting and education at school and promotes new research perspectives in education sciences (Dinka 2014). Undeniably, the processes in the society initiated by digitalisation have created new phenomena of culture (media, accessibility of information, consumerism values) and it can be considered that they both promote the children’s life scenarios and threaten them (Kehily 2013; Rubene and

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Dinka 2016). Therefore, the digital childhood researchers urge parents, teachers and the society at large to learn to understand the needs of modern children and to replace the “obedience to the representatives of older generations” as the key value in education with the “cooperation” of generations and mutual learning that would help us have better contact with our children and would reduce the level of new risks created by digitalisation for children in this process of socialisation.

Visible and invisible risks to children’s social agency created by digitalisation Parents living in the city in the modern society often observe the following everyday scene at home: the child most willingly spends free time alone in his/her room keeping busy with technologies as well as behind closed doors. Moreover, the child is not sad if he/she has had no chance to speak with some “live person” the whole day or leave the home. In comparison with what the adults have experienced in their childhood, such a situation does not seem normal – even unacceptable, dangerous, and incomprehensible. “A normal situation”, to our mind, is when the child gets up in the morning, has his/her breakfast and runs out of the house and comes back only with much persuasion to have lunch or go to bed in the evening. Parents are not satisfied with the new model of the child’s life but they actually are unable to change it because neither persuasion, nor threats and punishments are an effective means for children to change habits. Researchers, too, analysing modern childhood acknowledge that there are several specific features of digital childhood that give evidence about significant transformations of the traditional understanding of childhood. These features can become both risks and possibilities for children’s further life – everything depends on the adults’ participation in the process of forming the children’s social life scenario. However, the culture of modern digital childhood cannot be viewed as “good” or “bad” – as such it has developed during the last decades and the adults’ task is to take into consideration its peculiarities to cooperate with children. Besides, it has to be remembered that the society in which children live basically is shaped and constructed by us – the adults. One of the typical features of digital childhood is the so-called everyday domestication of children or children’s isolation at home (Baacke 2007) that causes the formation of the “indoor child” phenomenon in society (Bovill and Livingstone 2001). If the child’s social status traditionally was characterised by his/her attachment to the family,

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living together with parents or familisation (Mierendorff 2014) then in the modern digital environment the child considers it more important to be in the media-centred space that most frequently is his/her room than the closeness of his/her family members (Bovill and Livingstone 2001). Namely, researchers express their concern that the child’s safety and wellbeing gradually becomes dependent not on the parents but the presence of technologies at home. Children willingly stay at their family home but the necessity for communication with people in it as well as outside is due to the impact of technologies becoming less important. Thus the “indoor child” differs from the “outdoor child” who has grown up in the 70s of the 20th century who wanted to spend his/her free time outside the house. The second feature of the digital childhood emphasised by researchers is the weakening of social values in the views and life activity of children and youth (Albert et al 2015). Modern children and youth have a characteristic tendency towards individualisation, not socialisation – it is expressed as the orientation to oneself and one’s rights (narcissism that is characteristic of children); such values as fame and popularity are important for them, while community values, empathy and emotional closeness become less important. Researchers stress that such a sharp change of the value hierarchy is initiated by the digital culture and the social habits dominating in it – the communication among people is implemented via technologies. This decreases the possibilities and necessity of direct communication. The willingness to cooperate and participate runs short as the result of media influence. The profile in social networks, formation and representation of one’s image in it gradually becomes more important for children than talks with real people and real social actions. However, researchers also conclude that the above-mentioned orientation towards oneself allows the modern children and youth to be more selfconfident, self-assertive and optimistic than their parents. Therefore, children have high expectations when they are prognosticating future plans (US Chamber of Commerce Foundation, 2012) that allows concluding that the responsibility of parents and teachers is not to destroy the belief in oneself that children have but to help them to acquire the skills needed to attain the set aims. The third important feature of digital childhood are the diminishing social skills that have been especially emphasised in recent studies (Baacke 2007; Bleckmann 2012). On the one hand, children in the process of uncontrolled media usage are deprived of the time for their development, which they could use for active performance in offline time and space; as a result they develop a simulated, not real life experience.

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Therefore, adolescents are unable to handle not only problem situations but also deal with elementary everyday activities – such as shopping, independently going to the hair-dresser or visiting a doctor, etc. On the other hand, parents in the information society consider the world outside their house as very dangerous, which often makes them care too much about teenagers and doing things, which they could do independently. Thus, adults promote children’s social feebleness, reduce their possibilities to become active agents that creates a contradiction between the children’s high self-esteem and future aims, on the one hand, and their ability to act in order to attain these aims, on the other. Namely, a youth who dreams about studying at the best universities in the world and a successful career can fail because during his/her lifetime has had no possibility to cope with everyday life responsibilities. The ideal of traditional parenting – the obedient child who is taken care of by adults – in the digital society in which the social habits have changed radically means the child is subjected to the risk of not sufficiently acquiring enough social skills that naturally will not strengthen his/her social agency.

Conclusions The parenting of modern children often makes parents and teachers feel helpless and consider the present situation as catastrophic and unsolvable. However, childhood researchers urge parents and teachers not to get discouraged but to seek solutions to the new, unprecedented challenges that are created by the everyday digitalisation of both children and adults. It is important not to decrease the child’s time and activities in the online space but to promote their activities in the offline world. This would include helping children early on to learn to be independent and socially active by developing the courage to think and act. To promote cooperation in parenting, not obedience, the child should be perceived not as a being who does not yet understand what he/she is doing but a person who has his/her own opinion that must be respected. Researchers urge parents and teachers not to consider the “moral panic” and the “shock of the present” that are characteristic at this time as the sign of a crisis in parenting but as a possibility to understand children and their needs and to reflect on the changes of adults’ pedagogical activities in the digital culture.

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References Albert, Mathias, Hurrelmann, Klaus and Quenzel, Gudrun. 2015. 17 Shell Jugendstudie: Jugend 2015. Hamburg: TNS Sozialforschung, 2015. http://www.shell.de/ueber-uns/die-shell-jugendstudie.html/. (28.11.2017) Aries, Philip. 1962. Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Family Life. NewYork: Vintage Books. Baader, Meike S., Floran Esser and Wolfgang Schröer. 2014. Kindgeiten in der Moderne. Eine Geschichte der Sorge. Frankfurt: Campus. Baacke, Dieter. 2007. Medienpädagogik. Grundlagen der Medienkommunikation. Band 1. Tübingen: Niemeyer. Bleckmann, Paula. 201. Medienmündig. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta. Bovill, Moira, and Sonia Livingstone. 2001. “Bedroom culture and the privatization of media use.” In Children and their Changing Media Environment: A European Comparative Study, edited by Sonia Livingstone and Moira Bovill, 179-200. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Bühler-Niederberger, Doris. 2011. Lebensphase Kindheit. Theoretische Ansätze, Akteure und Handlungsräume. Weinheim, Basel: Juventa. Calvert, Sandra. L. 2008. “Children as Consumers: Advertising and Marketing.” The Future of Children: Children and Electronic Media 18, No. 1: 205-34. http://www.futureofchildren.org/sites/futureofchildren/files/media/chil dren_and_electronic_media_18_01_fulljournal.pdf /. Cleveland, Simon and Gregory Block. 2017. "Toward Knowledge Technology Synchronicity Framework for Asynchronous Environment." International Journal of Knowledge Society Research 4: 8, doi:10.4018/IJKSR.2017100102 Dias, Patricia, Brito, Rita, Ribbens, Wannes, Daniela, Linda, Rubene, Zanda, Dreier, Michael, Gemo, Monica, Di Gioia, Rosanna and Chaudron, Stephane. 2016. “The role of parents in the engagement of young children with digital technologies: Exploring tensions between rights of access and protection, from ‘Gatekeepers’ to ‘Scaffolders’.” Global Studies of Childhood 6, no. 4: 414-27. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2043610616676024 /. Dinka, Ilze. 2014. BƝrna tƝla sociƗlo transformƗciju atspoguƺojums bƝrnistabƗ. Promocijas darbs pedagoƧijƗ. [Reflection of social transformations of the child’s image in the child`s room. Doctoral thesis in pedagogy] RƯga: Latvijas UniversitƗte.

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CHAPTER SEVEN TEAM-BASED LEARNING IN MANAGEMENT JELENA STEPANOVA

Abstract Management is one of the main subjects in business education. The implementation of a befitting teaching-learning approach, such as team-based learning, allows students to engage in the educational process and demonstrate higher achievements in its acquisition. This article reports the results of empirical research on team-based learning implementation in a Management course in a Latvian Business College where 10 first-year students participated, who mastered their skills and competences achieving academic success through this approach. Team-based learning in teaching Management proved to be a successful tool as it assisted academic success in the discipline, communication and understanding of the business environment through teamwork and critical thinking; the majority of students gave positive feedback. The research demonstrated that team-based learning gives more freedom and authorises the students to be more responsible for their own studies and knowledge as the process involves both individual work and teamwork and the contribution to the team is significantly important there. Self-determination in studies leads students to academic success towards life-long competences and proves a team-based learning approach can be a useful and transformative tool for teaching Management. Keywords: team-based learning, third generation learning, Management

Introduction The modern competitive technological business world has changed demands towards specific business education. Nowadays, business education is focused not only on teaching different business disciplines, it is concentrated on provoking people to think, speak and behave in ways that support the growth, effective development and efficient maintenance of an organisation. Educational institutions face the specific objectives of how to cover all these requirements within the curriculum.

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One of the basic subjects in business education is Organisational Management, as it provides initial knowledge of this and many other transversal disciplines, such as economics, psychology, sociology and other behavioural sciences. Within the last 200 years since Management has been introduced as a discipline, the main approach in teachinglearning remained the traditional lecture-based format or teacher-centred approach. However, learning in and for the 21st century requires not only the basic 3 Rs skills, i,e, reading, writing and arithmetic skills, but the contemporary higher-order skills and abilities of the current century with the 4 Cs- communication, collaboration, critical thinking and creativity, which are demanded by workplaces, by educators and governmental agencies, which should be part of the learning process to meet the formulated criteria (Sarrico, McQueen and Samuelson, 2017). It is hard to develop these skills if the lecture is conducted in the form of monologue or presentation by the teacher and students are silent note-takers (Redish, 2002, 126). The students are learning only two skills – listening and writing in this case, rather than critical thinking, creativity and communication skills. Nevertheless, this traditional model in spite of being heavily criticised in recent time, still has its positive sides which might be represented by the enthusiastic lecturer, who can inspire the audience with his/her actor skills and enthusiasm; another advantage is the personal opinion and view of the lecturer on the subject as in-depth, quality information from an expert (Simpson Jackson and Aycock, 2005). Modern teaching in higher education is going through a transformational process (Taylor and Cranton, 2012) and it is crucial for traditional lecture-based teaching to give way to interactive teaching such as a flipped classroom, team-based learning or, in other words, third generation learning as it meets the demands of the modern digitalised world full of gadgets, devices and wi-fi. Third generation learning is a mode of learning which reflects the social changes in society, the needs and the demands of the learners, and the expectation from society concerning the outcome of the educational process. To keep up with the Joneses, Latvian higher education, being a part of European Union education and global education, has to mirror these social changes as well as alter the learning mode from the first and second generations to the third generation. The shift of generations of learning is presented in Table 1, describing how the values and teaching/learning modes have been changing since the end of 19thbeginning of 20th century till now. These features were presented by the American scientists Strauss and Howe (1991), who introduced the history of social generations and British academic, author, speaker and learning

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technologist Steve Wheeler (2011), who was the first scientist who mentioned the term Learning 3.0. Table 1 Educational and social generational features Features

Born Age (as of 2017)

Generations Traditional Earlier1945 71 and above

Baby boomers 1946-1964

Gen X

Gen Y

Gen Z

1965-1980

1981-2000

55-70

36-56

16-35

2000present 0-17

Values

Discipline, stability, logic

Questions authority, recognition, idealistic, optimistic

Flexibility, portability, scepticism

Change, diversity, motivated, freedom, realistic

Technology, multiprofiled

Teaching/ Learning modes

1st generationTeacher centred

2nd generation Teachercentred

Transfer from 2nd to 3rd generationStudentcentred

3rd generationTeamcentred

Transfer from 3rd to 4th generation Technologycentred

It is obvious from Table 1, that over time, society has been transformed and the educational process has mirrored this shift from first to third and even fourth generation learning modes. Interpreting the third generation learning mode as team-centred, the following typical characteristics are formulated: advanced testing system, communication in the process, preparation at home, high level of lecture attendance, high level of engagement and involvement, critical thinking, collaboration and creativity. It makes this approach all the more challenging for students and probably more interesting as it differs from the traditional one. Team-based learning enables realising the potential of blended learning and flipped classroom learning, when the preparatory materials for selfstudy (articles, videos, chapters from the textbooks) are provided electronically and students have to learn the basic content themselves at home and then collaborate onsite. In the lesson, the combination of individual tests verifying readiness (iRAT-readiness assurance tests) and identical group readiness assurance tests (gRAT) allow unleashing the power of social learning where students are learning from students and the teacher is rather a facilitator, who (Michaelsen, Bauman-Knight and Fink,

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2014) is arrangeing the learning environment, preparing the tests and appropriate tasks, developing skills, which are associated with deeper learning not with surface learning and which includes analytic reasoning, complex problem solving, and teamwork, not only knowledge-based academic skills which are typical for traditional lecturing. (Sweet and Michaelsen, 2012), Team-based learning (TBL) is a powerful pedagogical and instructional framework that gives some proven and reliable structures around which to build the course. TBL classroom activities are built on students giving students feedback, engaging them in the process and increasing the motivation to learn and achieve more (Sibley and Ostafichuk, 2014), whereas in lecture-based learning (LBL) the focus is on the teacher giving the information, triggering the process providing theoretical information and giving feedback, as well as motivating the students using visual and audial aids. The comparative analysis of TBL and LBL is provided in Table 2. Table 2 Team-Based Learning Criteria vs. Lecture-Based Learning

Criteria Activity Motivation Learning styles Source of information Content Trigger Type of acquisition

Team-Based Learning Active student Intrinsic Audial, visual, kinaesthetic Peers Theory and practice Question Productive

Lecture-Based Learning Active teacher Extrinsic Audial, visual Teacher Theory Answer Receptive

Analysing the criteria, is it obvious that TBL as a third generation learning tool makes students active and contribute to academic success by focusing on practice and asking a lot of questions to provoke the natural curiosity of the students. Learning is essentially a discovery process. All human beings are natural learners. As babies, students discover things by themselves before the things can be told (Schank 1995). The success of this mode is proven by the intrinsic student’s motivation and as a result in advantageous position are students and a teacher as the subject matter is learnt with interest and enthusiasm. Thus, there is a growing body of evidence for the necessity to transition from LBL to TBL by substituting

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the traditional lecturing with more interactive learning by doing via teamwork, cases, projects, communication, collaboration, critical thinking and creativity as it is an arranged progressive model that suits a wide range of learning abilities and holds the attention of students from a fast-paced, digital generation (Loveland, 2014). Such an interactive approach is particularly important for teaching and learning Management, as practice as performance in this discipline is important. Management has its own skills which are based on the knowledge of management and practices of management. There are two types of science: "the successful sciences"- for example, chemistry, physics, and physiology and "the unsuccessful sciences", for example, psychology and political science, etc. In successful sciences, both theory and practice are there, like in biology when students inevitably study in laboratories and gain experience, whereas in unsuccessful sciences students might spend hours in classrooms or libraries learning just theory. Management is rather close to unsuccessful sciences and for this reason particular attention should be given to how to change the pattern and make it more successful from an experiential point of view (Mayo, 1945). Thus, teaching management can be inspiring and frustrating at the same time. It can be inspiring as the future entrepreneurs take their first steps in the business world and are introduced to the basics of managerial science. On the other hand, it can be frustrating as it is a challenge to combine theory with practice and step off the beaten track of lecturing to interaction collaboration. The aim of the article is to present a grounded-theory investigation to trace if TBL is appropriate for Management teaching and, as well as what the priorities are and if the learners accept them. The paper is an example of interdisciplinary research and lies at the border of such areas as management, educational science, sociology and psychology.

Methodology The paper focuses on an illustration of TBL implementation in a Management course among the faculty of Business Administration at Latvian Business College. The research was conducted from September 2016 until January 2017. Ten first-year students, aged 20 to 32 years old, participated. This group was taught in English, as students were the representatives from different foreign countries: India, Lebanon, Brazil, Nigeria, Sri Lanka, Uzbekistan. Humanists (Maslow, 1968, Rogers, 1967, Knowles, 1980), constructivists (Vygotsky, 1997, Illeris, 2009, Jarvis, 1987, Edgerton, 2001) as well as

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social learning theories (Bandura and Walters, 1963, Mezirov, 1991, Tough, 1967) were applied within the framework of this research. The methods of the research included: 1) study, analysis and evaluation of scientific literature; 2) pre-course, mid-course and after-course questionnaires; 3) focus group discussion; 4) in-depth interviews, which were used to evaluate the expectations of the students towards TBL in Management teaching/learning and then the success of TBL in Management classes. The hypothesis of the research is: TBL is appropriate for creating dynamic links in the educational process leading to an effective way of incorporating peer-group teaching with enthusiasm for learning Management: • •

it arranges optimal educational settings for trust, mutual respect, interdependence and positive attitude towards learning; it challenges lecturers to be more creative and flexible with curriculum design.

The following criteria were formulated to measure the students’ achievements: knowledge of management theory and practice, critical thinking, team-work skills and perspective transformation.

Results To investigate the outcome of TBL application in teaching Management according to the settled criteria, an analysis of the pre-course questionnaires, mid-course questionnaires and post-course questionnaires, focus group discussion and in-depth interviews was conducted. In order to analyse the previous Management learning experience of the students, the students were asked if they had experienced any of these approaches: teacher-centred, student-centred, TBL, case-study learning, project-based learning, game-based learning, problem-based learning. The analysis showed that the majority experienced teacher-centred (8 responses), TBL (6 responses) and project-based learning (6 responses). Thus, students were familiar with this method. However, they experienced TBL in other disciplines, as most of the students had never studied Management. Then, the students provided information on their expectations from the course: to master business management theoretical background, to raise awareness and provide insight into the small and medium business organisations, to understand the organisational structure, to learn the functioning of management styles and techniques and to acquire the skills to manage small and medium-sized organisations, to learn to make decisions on the basis of acquired skills. Analysing their expectations and

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replies, it is obvious that the main skill the students desire to obtain is “knowledge of management theory and practice”, and then “skills to make a decision”. Answering the question about their expectations concerning the TBL approach in this particular subject, the students supposed that it could be useful, transformative, successful, however difficult and no one considered it to be boring. One student was afraid that this method might “make some students lazy when they work only in a team”. 100% of students expressed their opinion about a desire to work not only in teams, but individually as well. This request completely fits the purposes of TBL approach, as it includes iRAT as an individual work and gRAT as group work. The analysis of the outcome of the TBL approach in Management measuring the students’ achievements according to the established criteria is presented in the following graph (Fig. 1).

Percent

100.0% 90.0% 80.0% 70.0% 60.0% 50.0% 40.0% 30.0% 20.0% 10.0% 0.0%

Expected

Achieved

Achievement criteria

Figure 1. Analysis of TBL outcomes in Management

Analysing the results of the survey concerning the students’ achievements, it is possible to conclude that the main expectations of the students were justified and even over justified; just 40% of students expected to acquire the knowledge of management theory and practice in the pre-course survey and in the post-course survey 80% confirmed that

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Acquired skills

they had improved their knowledge. Also, 80% planned to acquire knowledge of organisational structure and management styles and techniques and 80% agreed that they had acquired these skills and knowledge. Moreover, 80% supposed that the TBL approach might be useful for improving the skills in managing a small sized organisation and the reality was even better as 90% found it upon completion of the course. Finally, 60% hoped to improve the ability to make managerial decisions and at the end of the course 80% of students confirmed their new ability. Summarising the main skills and knowledge the students acquired and students’ evaluation of the contribution of TBL in teaching-learning, according to the post-course questionnaires and focus group discussions, the students acquired some other skills and competences which they did not expect to acquire according to the pre-course questionnaires. The results of the analysis are reflected in the following graph (Fig. 2). Team-Work Skills Self-directed learning Collaboration Commmunication Motivation Envolvement Analytical and Critical Skills Understanding of the subject 0

2

4

6

8

10

Number of Participants

Figure 2. Analysis of acquired skills

Thus, it is possible to conclude that: x All participants think that lessons with TBL were clear and interesting and increased their understanding of the subject; x 9 out of 10 assume that lessons improved their analytical and critical skills; x 8 out of 10 confirm that they were actively involved in the learning process;

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x x x x

7 out of 10 believe that the lessons motivated them to study; 9 think that lessons improved their communication skills; 8 trust that lessons improved collaborative skills; 7 students out of 10 suppose that lessons contributed to their selfdirected learning; x 8 are certain that lessons with TBL improved their skills to learn in teams.

In order to obtain more information concerning the students’ attitude towards TBL and their feelings and emotions during the educational process and their achievements, in-depth face-to-face interviews were organised, where the students were asked how they felt during the lectures, where TBL was used, what they thought about it, if they were happy with their team and team members. The students were asked to describe their emotions concerning the course and lectures. They were asked what helped and distracted/confused them during those lectures, how TBL improved knowledge of Management. They were also asked how in their opinion TBL facilitated self-directed learning, communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and active involvement and, finally, if they would like to have another course taught in TBL. Analysing the interview results, 7 students out of 10 agree that they liked working in teams during the course and 7 acknowledge that TBL was useful and transformative as they expected at the beginning of the course and 9 students out of 10 would like to have another course taught via TBL. Summarising the received data, it can be said that TBL in teaching Management proved to be a successful tool as it assisted academic success in management, communication and understanding of the business discipline through teamwork and critical thinking.

Conclusions The TBL approach is a useful and transformative tool for teaching Management. However, despite the very positive feedback from a majority of students (70-100%), it is important to notice the minority of students (up to 30%) who gave neutral or negative feedback. It is crucial to understand the reasons why TBL was not so successful for their academic achievements. According to the results of focus group discussions and indepth interviews, the reasons are the following:

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x Personal preference to work independently, as “it helps better to focus on the subject and it is easier to concentrate and absorb new information”; x Poor attendance or not involved team members, who did not attend because of some personal reasons, such as work or process of adaptation, as most students were from abroad and had to adjust to the local realities. That is why they were not engaged in the process immediately after coming to the classroom. It reflected on the hardworking team-members, who had to do double the work and complained about it. x Attitude to studies, as not everyone prepared for RAT at home properly. x Personal characteristics – timidity, caused by the mentality and educational differences. As mentioned earlier the students in the group had different backgrounds. These differences in mentality did not allow them to participate properly in discussions and defend their opinions. On the other hand, some students were overconfident and even aggressive and participating in discussions forced others to accept their opinion. Moreover, according to the in depth-interview results, the students who gave neutral or negative feedback confirmed that at the beginning of the course they faced some problems, such as an angry team-member and they could not even argue with him, however after several classes, they learned how to deal with it, how to collaborate and communicate properly. The students who were timid and their mentality did not allow them to argue with classmates, had to make themselves be part of the group and as soon as they became more familiar with each other, it was easier to find the compromises and discuss the arguable issues. According to the feedback, step by step changes happened after 2-3 lectures, at approximately the fourth of the way through the course. The main reason why TBL was implemented in the class was not just to teach the discipline, but also to help the students to learn important skills for the modern competitive world: communication, collaboration, critical thinking and creativity. In order for teachers to contribute more to the success of TBL, they should: x prepare the RATs which cover not only the new theme, but also partly include the revision of the previous theme. Besides, the questions and multiple answers should be formulated in a creative and challenging way to provoke the analysis and as a consequence

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critical thinking of the problem, which leads to future active discussions supported by arguments. x create a friendly atmosphere, where students can talk freely sharing their ideas. Such a stress-free atmosphere challenges students to study with pleasure and acquire new knowledge faster and easier, as the brain functions differently in these circumstances. x form real teams, not pseudo-teams or groups, where students just pretend to be a team, not listening to each other and not getting involved. x support the students, motivate them with behaviour and enthusiasm, showing a good example of how interesting the learning process might be.

References Bandura, Albert, and Richard H. Walters. 1963. Social learning and personality development. New York: Holt, Renehart and Wineston, Inc. Edgerton, Russell. 2001. “Education White Paper.” Accessed April 12, 2017. http://www.faculty.umb.edu/john_saltmarsh/resources/Edgerton%20Hi gher%20Education%20White%20Paper.rtf Haidet, Paul, Karla Kubitz and Wayne T. McCormack 2014. “Analysis of the Team-Based Learning Literature: TBL Comes of Age. PubMed Central 25 (3-4): 303-33. Accessed April 12, 2017. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4643940/#R39 Howe, Neil, and William Strauss. 1991. Generations: The History of America's Future, 1584 to 2069. New York: William Morrow & Company. Illeris, Knud (Ed.) 2009. Contemporary Theories of Learning. Learning Theorists...in their Own Words. London: Routledge. Jarvis, Peter. 1987. Adult Learning in the Social Context. London: Croom Helm. Knowles, Malcolm. 1980. The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy (revised and updated). Englewood Cliffs: Cambridge Adult Education. Loveland, Jennifer L. 2014. “Traditional Lecture Versus an Activity Approach for Teaching Statistics: A Comparison of Outcomes.” Graduate Theses and Dissertations. Paper 2086. Logan: Utah State University. Accessed April 12, 2017.

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http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3089&cont ext=etd Maslow, Abraham H. 1968. Toward a Psychology of Being. New York: Litton Educational Publishing, Inc. Mayo, Elton. 1945. The Social Problems of an Industrial Civilization. Boston: Harvard University. Mezirow, Jack. 1991. Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. Michaelsen, Larry K., Arletta Bauman-Knight., and Dee L. Fink. 2004. “Team-based Learning: A Transformative Use of Small Groups in College Teaching.” Sterling: Stylus Publishing. Redish, Edward F. 2002. “Teaching Physics with the Physics Suite.” College Park: University of Maryland. Accessed April 12, 2017. http://www2.physics.umd.edu/~redish/Book/ Rogers, Carl R. 1967. A therapist’s view of psychotherapy. On becoming a person. London: Constable and Company Ltd. Sarrico, Claudia, Andrew McQueen, and Shane Samuelson. (Eds.) 2017. “State of Higher Education Programme.” Paris: OESD. Accessed April 12, 2017. https://www.oecd.org/edu/imhe/The%20State%20of%20Higher%20Ed ucation%202015-16.pdf Schank, Roger Carl. 1995. “What We Learn When We Learn by Doing.”. Technical Report No. 60, Northwestern University, Institute for Learning Sciences, Accessed April 12, 2017. http://cogprints.org/637/1/LearnbyDoing_Schank.html Sibley, Jim, and Pete Ostafichuk. 2014. Getting Started with Team-Based Learning. Sterling: Stylus Publishing. Simpson, Douglas J., Michael Jackson and Judy C. Aycock. 2005. John Dewey and the Art of Teaching. Toward Reflective and Imaginative Practice. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Sweet, Michael, and Larry K. Michaelsen (Eds.). 2012. Team-Based Learning in the Social Sciences and Humanities: Group Work that Works to Generate Critical Thinking and Engagement. Sterling: Stylus Publishing. Taylor, Edward W., and Patricia Cranton. 2012. The Handbook of Transformative Learning. Theory, Research, and Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. Tough, Allen. 1967. “Learning without a Teacher: A Study of Tasks and Assistance during Adult Self-Teaching Projects.” Toronto: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Accessed April 12, 2017. http://allentough.com/books/lwt/intro.pdf

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Vygotsky, Lev. 1997. Educational Psychology. Boca Raton: St. Lucie Press. Wheeler, Steve. 2012. “Next generation learning.” Accessed April 12, 2017. http://steve-wheeler.blogspot.co.uk/2012/11/next-generation-learning.html

CHAPTER EIGHT BENEFITS OF TIME MANAGEMENT SKILLS, TEAMWORK SKILLS AND PERSONAL INFORMATION MANAGEMENT PERCEIVED BY STUDENTS FROM THE POLISH-BELARUSIAN BORDERLAND ALICJA KORZENIECKA-BONDAR, BOĩENA TOàWIēSKA AND KATARZYNA BORAWSKA-KALBARCZYK

Abstract In our society, which is referred to as the information society, network society or knowledge society, but also individual society, the way of preparing young people for their future roles in different (personal and professional) areas of life is changing. The aim of the text is to present benefits of time management skills, teamwork skills and personal information management perceived by students from the Polish-Belarusian borderland. Keywords: education, students’ skills, time management, teamwork, personal information management

Introduction Information society, digital civilisation, globalisation, knowledgebased economy, media society and network society are just a few of the many terms defining the current social world. In the 21st century, humans experience extremely varied social, economic, cultural and technological phenomena, being both their originators and their participants or targets. This implies a change in the way of preparing young people to serve their future roles in all areas of life (personal and professional). We can see a

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change of emphasis in approaches to the quality of education offered by institutions at all levels: from providing students with knowledge to preparing them to understand the world and be able to control their lives. Educational institutions' failure to take into account the dynamically changing living conditions is bound to have negative consequences such as multiple difficulties young people face, or even social exclusion. Descriptions of the contemporary society, including critical analysis of its characteristics, are available in many sources (Bell 1973; Krzysztofek and SzczepaĔski 2002; Barney 2004; Goban-Klas 2005; van Dijk 2006; Castells 2009; 2010), so in the article we will only briefly refer to the phenomena we intend to counteract through educational processes related to the analysed skills. This will give us the background for discussion on the importance, place and role of the analysed skills in an individual's private as well as professional or educational life. The phenomena and processes mentioned in our chapter are generated by various factors, the most essential of which is the development of digital technologies, deeply modifying the temporal environment of humans and temporal functioning, acquiring and reception of information, as well as building community structures. We assume the significant conditions for optimum functioning in the complex current reality are the skills, knowledge and attitudes that help exercise effective control over one's own life. Applying this reflection in the field of education offered by institutions of all levels, we can see a change of emphasis from providing students with constant, unchanging resources of knowledge and skills to preparing them to understand the changing world and acquiring the ability to control their lives. According to Zygmunt Bauman, the thought that education can be a “product” that can be acquired and kept forever is offputting and it definitely does not attract people to institutionalised school education (Bauman 2011, 151). Success may depend on education oriented to the future and on creative formation of reality. With regard to the presented analyses, we decided that the development of time management skills, personal information management and team work during one’s university education may significantly facilitate good social functioning and prevent social exclusion. These are universal skills, useful for everyone in their professional and personal lives, especially when the overlapping of tasks as a result of merging the two spheres is a very evident characteristic of the contemporary world and is perceived as a difficulty. We hope that these skills will greatly contribute to the process of students creating the future, which requires conscious planning of a number of activities and selecting important pieces of information in collaboration with others. Therefore, the presented project involves the

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question of whether students can see the benefits of the skills, and if so, of which ones. Perceiving the analysed skills as significant, i.e., giving multiple benefits, could motivate students to engage in their development. In our society, which is referred to as information society, network society or knowledge society, but also individual society, the way of preparing young people for their future roles in different (personal and professional) areas of life is changing. Apart from the fragmentation of life, haste and the worship of the present, the contemporary culture is permeated with excess, surfeit, and overloading. This causes the multiplicity of options and difficulty making choices, and it gives rise to impatience and new temporal requirements. Skilful planning, time control and fast pace are highly esteemed in society, even considered as the sine qua non of being in the group of those who are “up to date” (Korzeniecka-Bondar 2015). Living in haste, the sense of discrepancy between efforts and results and the feeling of failure caused by inability to control time are even reflected in common phrases such as: “I have no time”, “it’s a waste of time”, “to gain some time” (Bauman 2007, 68) etc. This perception of time was captured by Nicole Aubert, who wrote that a contemporary human lives in a constant “state of emergency” (Bauman 2007, 93). We live in a specific chronometric space in which time is sensed and experienced in a different way than in the past. It is common now to live only in the present, without planning for the future or referring to the past. This lifestyle affects work, family life, even politics and consumption (Eriksen 2001). Jonathan Crary observes that a number of institutions of the developed world have been operating 24/7 – being active every day and round the clock. This mode, also affecting individuals, has been designed for incessant operation of markets and information networks (Crary 2013, 89). Modern capitalism even requires us to give up on sleep in order to work, act and consume all the time – with no let up, no limitations, and no sense of satisfaction. Three categories of employees are emerging now: the first one is workers who are the source of innovation and value, the second one is those who perform as instructed, and the third is people who are structurally unimportant from the point of view of profit making programmes of global capitalism – those who do not have adequate education and live in areas unimportant for global production or are too poor as consumers to become part of the market, or both (Castells 2009). Of key importance in this situation are time management skills. Our developing information society implicates the need to cope with the dynamics of changes in all areas of life. The response is the development

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of contemporary organisations in accord with the learning organisation model. It is also a challenge for educational institutions to display the characteristics of learning organisations, and to move the stress in educational processes from providing students with knowledge to preparing them to obtain the knowledge on their own, take innovative activities, and develop life management skills (DuFour 2004). These assumptions can be met thanks to teachers who attribute special value to activities taken in cooperation, without which it is impossible to accomplish many goals nowadays (ToáwiĔska 2016). But encouragement to collaborate is contradicted by attractive rewards such as ensuring a better market position in return for taking individual actions, which make an individual stand out (Bauman 2007). Teamwork has long been emphasised as a form of work that is beneficial for individuals and organisations. Recently, however, its significance has been highlighted not as an alternative form of work, but as a necessity, conditioning the achievement of many goals. According to Senge, the originator of the model of learning organisation regarded as the most relevant to the period of dynamic changes, teams are currently becoming the basic link in the process of learning (Senge 1990; 2012). Teamwork, however, requires proper conditions in the organisation, developed through bidirectional influences. Groups make an organisation, so the organisational culture is significant for the way they function, and the values and norms of behaviour brought to the organisation by the young generation may have a certain potential for change. Therefore, one of our research objectives was to find out students’ attitude toward teamwork, as they will soon become members of different teams at work. The analysis of literature shows that researchers have found multiple benefits of teamwork. Effective teamwork makes it possible to save individual's resources, mainly time and energy; people can be the source of knowledge and experience for each other; activation of a person's talents, even hidden ones; satisfying the need of acceptance and belonging to a group, which are strong motivational factors; better quality solutions – the synergy effect generated during team work, when the solution worked out together is much better than a solution by any of the individuals (Elsner 1999; Senge 1990; Czarniawski 2002; PáóciĔska and Rylke 2002). Working alone, we have at our disposal our own resources only, whereas groups can generate a special kind of energy: synergy (Cattell, 1948 cited in: Oyster 1999). That effect is not produced in all groups, but those that are able to generate it have the greatest successes. Wojciszke identifies such benefits of teamwork as the opportunity to spur team members to special effort and endurance through imitation, the use of unique skills,

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compensation of shortages and mutual stimulation, which means that the knowledge of the whole group produces a new, better quality (Wojciszke 2011). Another benefit from teamwork is the sense of participation in creating common goods and the growing level of social competence (Borkowski 2003). The contemporary society is a new structure of socio-economic organisation formed as a result of intensive development of methods of producing, storing, processing and transfer of information, regarded as the necessary condition of its functioning (Toffler 2006). Modern forms of communication, available thanks to the development of technology and eliminating barriers resulting from distance between its participants, have made information one of the most important goods of the information society. It is treated as a vital factor of creativity and innovation, the basic component of building human knowledge and an instrument used in the learning process, which enables individuals to achieve better results in different areas of their activity. While assuming that information is the basic category of the information society, we should also be aware of the adverse effects of utilising information. We live in a world full of information humans create through various media. Information is omnipresent and – what is even worse – excessive. Every day, we are flooded by information that may be false, worthless, inaccurate or that we may not need (Gleick 2011). The observed rapid growth in the amount of information, easy access and storage, as well as increased speed of information transfer have a number of negative psychological effects connected with hindered processes of information reception (LedziĔska 2009). The main expressions of the problems are difficulties in efficiently searching for, selecting and utilising information, treated as important foundations for the process of knowledge construction. People with low information literacy, poor skills of selective and critical approach to the analysis of the available information, are most susceptible to such problems (Borawska-Kalbarczyk 2015). Recently, there has been a marked increase in the need for the skills of efficient, quick and effective information search. It is connected with dynamic and often uncontrolled increments in information resulting from the development of digital information production, transfer, and reception. One of the concepts concerning the issue of individual skills related to working with information is the concept of PIM (Personal Information Management). It “refers to both the practice and the study of the activities a person performs in order to acquire or create, store, organize, maintain, retrieve, use, and distribute the information needed to complete tasks (work-related or not)

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Chapter Eight and fulfill various roles and responsibilities (for example, as parent, employee, friend, or community member)” (Jones 2007; quoted in ĝwigoĔ 2012, 193).

The concept concentrates on the ability to effectively collect and store different pieces of information which are relevant for a person, and problems discussed using the concept are connected with the creation of individual information collections and the related technological issues (ĝwigoĔ 2012, 194). Effective personal information management is possible thanks to the person's information competence, especially when collecting and organising information leads to the process of individual creation of knowledge. In contemporary publications, information literacy (IL) is treated as the key process or set of skills necessary for personal information management (cf. e.g., Boekhorst 2003; The Prague Declaration 2003; Johnston and Webber 2006; Batorowska 2009; 2013). It is noteworthy that IL is perceived as an integral part of lifelong learning and the management of professional development (Pauleen, Gorman and the contributors 2011, 249). It is also confirmed by research by Carol Kuhlthau, who analysed informationrelated behaviours of students and observed that IL was not a discrete set of skills but a way of lifelong learning (Kuhlthau 2007) based on the ability to utilise information (Rockman 2003).

Aim of the study The aim of the text is to present benefits of time management skills, teamwork skills and personal information management perceived by students from the Polish-Belarusian borderland.

Research design The presented results are part of a larger, international research project aimed to recognise the state of IL, teamwork skills and the recognition of temporal perspective as perceived by students living at the borderland, and to find out the determinants of development of those skills. The diagnostic poll method was used in the research, involving two techniques: selfevaluation scale concerning teamwork, information competence and the recognition of one's own temporal perspective, and a questionnaire to find out the determinants and benefits of their development. The research was carried out among 440 teacher students, at two universities located at the Polish-Belarusian borderland: University of Bialystok (Poland) and the

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Brest State University named after A. S. Pushkin (Belarus). The respondents represented different majors (such as Education, Polish Studies, Biology or Chemistry). The research involved two stages. In the first part (in 2014), 199 Belarusian students took part. The second one (2015/2016) was a continuation of the study involving 241 Polish students.

Results Many respondents from the University of Bialystok assess information management skills, time management skills, and teamwork skills as useful (Table 1). Approximately 60% of students from Brest are convinced of the usefulness of those skills. About every tenth respondent from Poland and every third student from Brest perceives the usefulness of the skills as average. There are also some individuals who do not see the usefulness of having such skills, especially teamwork skills.

Usefulness Place of study

Table 1. Evaluation of usefulness of the following skills in private or professional life

BI

Evaluation of usefulness very high N 84

%

high N

%

average N

%

Total

low N

%

very low N

%

N

%

34.6 129 53.5 27 11.2 1

0.4 -

-

241 100

24.1 79

1.0 -

-

199 100

3

0.7 -

-

440 100

A BR 48 Total B

208 47.3 97 22

BI 146 60.6 64

26.6 23 9.5

6

2.5 2

0.8

241 100

BR 65

34.2 57 28.6 9

4.5 -

-

199 100

0.5

440 100

Total C

132 30

39.7 70 35.2 2

32.7 68

211 48

132 30

80 18.2 15 3.4 2

BI 91

37.8 116 48.1 30 12.5 3

1.2 1

0.4

241 100

BR 52

26.1 92

4.0 2

1.0

199 100

46.2 45 22.6 8

Total 143 32.5 208 47.3 75 17 11 2.5 3 0.7 440 100 Source: authors’ original study. Legend: BI – students of the University of Bialystok; BR – students of the Brest State University (the acronyms are used in all the statistical tables presented in the article) A – information management skills; B – time management skills; C – teamwork skills

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Presumably this attitude is connected both with the university model of education (which will be discussed further in the work) and with individualism that is increasingly prevalent among young people. What benefits of those skills can the respondents see?

Benefits

Place of study

Table 2. Students' evaluation of the benefits of time management skills

A

BI BR

Total B BI BR Total C BI BR Total D BI BR Total E BI BR Total F BI BR Total

Evaluation of benefits Total

N 144

% 59.7

N 73

% 30.3

N 21

% 8.7

N 2

% 0.8

very low N % 1 0.4

84

42.2

76

38.2

32

16.1

5

2.5

2

1

199

100

228 124 95 219 123 79 202 114 41 155 89 34 123 97 52 149

51.8 51.4 47.7 49.8 51 39.7 45.9 47.3 20.6 35.2 36.9 17.1 28 40.2 26.1 33.9

149 82 64 146 86 77 163 81 79 160 97 81 178 95 73 168

33.9 34 32.2 33.2 35.7 38.7 37 33.6 39.7 36.4 40.2 40.7 40.5 39.4 36.7 38.2

53 30 35 65 27 31 58 41 64 105 43 64 107 43 58 101

12 12.4 17.6 14.8 11.2 15.6 13.2 17 32.2 23.9 17.8 32.2 24.3 17.8 29.1 22.9

7 4 4 8 5 9 14 5 11 16 9 16 25 4 12 16

1.6 1.7 2.0 1.8 2.1 4.5 3.2 2.1 5.5 3.6 3.7 8 5.7 1.7 6.0 3.6

3 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 3 4 7 2 4 6

0.7 0.4 0.5 0.5 1.5 0.7 2 0.9 1.2 2 1.6 0.8 2 1.4

440 241 199 440 241 199 440 241 199 440 241 199 440 241 199 440

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

very high

high

average

low

N 241

% 100

Source: authors’ original study Legend: A – conscious planning of one's own life B – achievement of goals that are important personally and socially C – saving resources (e.g., energy or money) D – making life choices E – ability to cope with crises F – greater independence from other people

Irrespective of the place of study, the respondents perceive a number of benefits from having time management skills. Only a few of them did not report such benefits (responses “low” and “very low”). The paper will focus on the answers “very high” and “high”, which will be added up for greater transparency of the analysis. The vast majority of the participants declare that conscious planning of their lives is a benefit of skilful time management (90% - BI; 80% - BR). A considerable part of each group can

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see that the skill helps them achieve goals that are important personally and socially (85.5% - BI; 79.6% - BR), save the resources they have (e.g., energy or money) (86.7% - BI; 78.9% - BR) and make life choices (80.9% - BI; 60.3% - BR). More than half of respondents from Brest University and over three fourths of those from the University of Bialystok agree that other benefits of skilful time management are the possibility to cope with crises (77.2% - BI; 57.8% - BR) and greater independence from other people (79.7% - BI; 62.8% - BR). It is interesting that the response “medium” was more rarely chosen by students from Bialystok (the mean of all the answers is about 14%) than students from Brest (on average, one fifth). A higher proportion of respondents from Poland than from Belarus can see the benefits of time management. Collaboration with others is an opportunity to intensify development opportunities if the participants perceive this form of doing tasks as valuable, engage in it, and can see the benefits instead of just working in a team for formal reasons. Therefore, the next stage is the analysis of whether students can see the benefits and which ones they perceive as the most important (Table 3).

Place of study

Benefits

Table 3. Students' evaluation of the benefits of teamwork skills Evaluation of benefits very high N

%

high N

%

average

low

very low

Total

N

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

BI

81

33.6 102 42.3

41

17.0

13

5.4

4

1.7

241

100

BR

40

20.1

43.2

51

25.6

16

8.0

6

3.0

199

100

121 27.5 188 42.7

92

20.9

29

6.6

10

2.3

440

100

BI

87

36.1 111 46.1

37

15.6

4

1.7

2

0.8

241

100

BR

58

29.2

47.2

34

17.1

8

4.0

5

2.5

199

100

145 33.0 205 46.6

71

16.1

12

2.7

7

1.6

440

100

BI

80

33.2 100 41.5

47

19.5

13

5.4

1

0.4

241

100

BR

45

22.6

47.2

46

23.1

9

4.5

5

2.5

199

100

125 28.4 194 44.1

93

21.1

22

5.0

6

1.4

440

100

A Total

86

B Total

94

C

Total

94

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100

BI

99

41.1 104 43.2

29

12.0

7

2.9

2

0.8

241

100

BR

53

26.6

40.2

51

25.6

10

5.0

5

2.5

199

100

152 34.5 184 41.8

80

18.2

17

3.9

7

1.6

440

100

BI

67

27.8

87

36.1

70

29.1

13

5.4

4

1.7

241

100

BR

57

28.6

75

37.7

47

23.6

13

6.5

7

3.5

199

100

124 28.2 162 36.8 117 26.6

26

5.9

11

2.5

440

100

61

25.3

96

39.8

54

22.4

26

10.8

4

1.7

241

100

50

25.1

70

35.2

59

D

Total

80

E Total F

BI BR

Total G

BI BR

29.7

12

6.0

8

4.0

199

100

111 25.2 166 37.7 113 25.7

38

8.6

12

2.7

440

100

71

29.5

95

39.4

52

21.6

14

5.8

9

3.7

241

100

31

15.6

78

39.2

71

35.7

12

6.0

7

3.5

199

100

102 23.2 173 39.3 123 28.0

26

5.9

16

3.6

440

100

BI

63

26.1

90

37.3

67

27.8

14

5.8

7

2.9

241

100

BR

39

19.6

73

36.7

66

33.2

15

7.5

6

3.0

199

100

102 23.2 163 37.0 133 30.2

29

6.6

13

3.0

440

100

BI

87

36.1 104 43.2

40

16.6

5

2.1

5

2.1

241

100

BR

46

23.1

39.7

56

28.1

13

6.5

5

2.5

199

100

133 30.2 183 41.6

96

21.8

18

4.1

10

2.3

440

100

Total H Total I

Total

79

Source: authors’ original study Legend: A – opportunity to find information quickly B – assistance in problem solving C – saving individual resources, mainly time and energy D – opportunity to use the knowledge and skills of others E – activation of the person's talents, even hidden ones F – feeling the synergy effect (the sense that working together has better effects than working alone) G – satisfying the need of acceptance and belonging to a group H – becoming aware of what makes us different from others I – opportunity to contribute to the task performed together

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According to students from the University of Bialystok (BI), the most important benefits of teamwork skills are (high and very high rates added up): opportunity to use the knowledge and skills of others (84.2%) and assistance in problem solving (82.2%). Other factors the students mentioned were: opportunity to contribute to the task performed together (79.3%), quick access to information (75.9%), saving individual resources, mainly time and energy (74.7%), satisfying the need of acceptance and belonging to a group (68.9%), feeling the synergy effect (the sense that working together has better effects that working alone) (65.1%), activation of the person’s talents, even hidden ones (63.9%) and becoming aware of what makes us different from others (63.5%). Students from Brest University (BR) can also see many benefits of teamwork skills, although fewer of them declared high or very high significance of different factors. For them, the most beneficial were the following factors: possible assistance in problem solving (76.4%), saving individual resources mainly time and energy (69.9%), opportunity to use the knowledge and skills of others (66.8%), activation of the person’s talents even hidden ones (66.3%), quick access to information (63.3%), opportunity to contribute to the task performed together (62.8%), feeling the synergy effect (the sense that working together has better effects that working alone) (60.3%), becoming aware of what makes us different from others (56.3%) and satisfying the need of acceptance and belonging to a group (54.8%). Considerable groups of students declared medium significance of individual factors, but there were more people with this view among students from the University of Bialystok. The last element of the research was to check how the studied groups assess the multiple benefits of information management skills (Table 4). The assessed benefits were: finding information more quickly, assistance in problem solving, counteracting information overload, easier selection of information, better time management, ability to plan one's own learning, and easier process of creating new contents. When analysing the first benefit – finding information more quickly – we found that both participating student groups rated it highly. More than half of the students from the University of Bialystok and nearly 40% of those from the Brest University regarded it as a very important benefit resulting from IL.

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Place of study

Benefits

Table 4. Students' evaluation of the benefits of information management skills

BI A BR Total BI B BR Total BI C BR Total BI D BR Total BI E BR Total BI F BR Total BI G BR Total

Evaluation of benefits Total very low 2 0.8 2 1.0 4 0.9 3 1.5 3 0.7 4 2.0 4 0.9 1 0.5 1 0.2 1 0.4 1 0.5 2 0.4 3 1.5 3 0.7 1 0.4 3 1.5 4 0.9

low 4 4 8 4 4 8 14 21 35 6 11 17 9 8 17 9 6 15 15 8 23

1.7 2.0 1.8 1.7 2.0 1.8 5.8 10.6 7.9 2.5 5.5 3.9 3.7 4.0 3.9 3.7 3.0 3.4 6.2 4.0 5.2

average 15 23 38 25 41 66 68 84 152 35 44 79 41 45 86 39 50 89 37 54 91

6.2 11.6 8.6 10.4 20.6 15.0 28.2 42.2 34.6 14.5 22.1 17.9 17.0 22.6 19.6 16.1 25.1 20.2 15.3 27.1 20.7

high 93 91 184 108 103 211 89 65 154 109 87 196 91 82 173 100 81 181 115 81 196

38.6 45.7 41.8 44.8 51.8 47.9 36.9 32.7 35.0 45.2 43.7 44.5 37.8 41.2 39.3 41.5 40.7 41.1 47.7 40.7 44.5

very high 127 79 206 104 48 152 70 24 94 91 55 146 99 63 162 93 59 152 73 53 126

52.7 39.7 46.8 43.1 24.1 34.5 29.0 12.0 21.4 37.8 27.6 33.2 41.1 31.7 36.8 38.6 29.7 34.5 30.3 26.6 28.6

241 199 440 241 199 440 241 199 440 241 199 440 241 199 440 241 199 440 241 199 440

100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

Source: authors’ original study. Legend: A – finding information more quickly B – assistance in problem solving C – counteracting information overload D – easier selection of information E – better time management F – ability to plan one's own learning G – easier process of creating new contents

More than twice as many students from Bialystok (43.1%) as those from Brest (24.1%) declared that assistance in problem solving was a significant benefit of well-developed information competence. Thus, a higher proportion of students from Poland rated it higher in the context of their own information management (88.0% vs 75.9%). An important aspect of highly developed information competence is the individual's participation in activities aimed to counteract information overload. A person who has well-developed information awareness is able

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to effectively filter information, selecting pieces of information that are useful in the achievement of certain goals. The highest proportion of students from Poland rated it as average (42.2%). The differences in high ratings are negligible, and the greatest diversity is visible at the very high rating. Nearly three times more students from University of Bialystok (29.1% vs 12.1%) declared this benefit was very important for the process of information management. Counteracting information overload is accompanied by selecting information, which is crucial in the context of current information “garbage” faced whenever we go online. A similar number of students from both groups (approx. 44%) rated this benefit highly, but the proportion of students from Bialystok who rated it very highly is greater (37.8%). The skill of better time management, strongly connected with the discussed process of information management, is especially important in the context of omnipresent expressions of hyperculture and visible effects of a hectic lifestyle. No differences in numbers are evident with respect to the rating of this benefit: both groups assess it highly (three fourths of all the students). In addition, information management skills enable to plan one's own learning based on competence connected with searching for, selecting, evaluating and processing information. Those benefits were rated highly by approx. 40% of the respondents from both groups. There is a higher proportion of students from University of Bialystok who gave planning their learning the highest score (38.6%). The information management skills also result in creating new contents easily on the basis of aggregated “raw” information. This is more visible among students from Bialystok (78.6% of them rated it highly or very highly). The highest proportion of students from University of Bialystok rated the following benefits resulting from IL the highest:     

finding information more quickly (52.7%); assistance in problem solving (43.1%); better time management (41.1%); ability to plan one's own learning (38.6%); easier selection of information (37.8%).

In the sample of students from the Brest University, the ranking is as follows:

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finding information more quickly (39.7%); better time management (31.7%); ability to plan one's own learning (29.7%); easier selection of information (27.6%); easier process of creating new contents (26.6%).

Finally, the vast majority of the benefits the students were requested to assess were not rated very lowly, and the proportion of people who assessed them critically did not exceed 6%. The only exception is “counteracting information overload”, which received a low rating by 10% of students from Brest.

Conclusions The vast majority of the participants declare that conscious planning of their lives is a benefit of skilful time management. A considerable part of each group can see that the skill helps them achieve goals that are important from a personal point of view and significant from a social one, save the resources they have (e.g., energy or money) and make life choices. Currently, soft competencies are among the key qualities demanded from employees. Among them teamwork is definitely a crucial attribute of a good worker. The analysis of benefits of teamwork perceived by young people shows they tend to have an individualistic attitude. It is reflected in perceiving far more objective benefits connected with easier performance of tasks, saving resources, or multiplying them. It can be said that teamwork pays off. As for benefits such as satisfying the need of acceptance and belonging to a group (BI 68.9%. BR 54.8%) or becoming aware of what makes us different from others (BI 63.5%. BR 56.3%.), they are not regarded as important. This is more evident among students from Brest. Nearly 60% in both groups point to the possibility of developing this skill through changing the common attitude to the educational process and more frequent preparation of university projects in teams instead of individually – 59.3% BI and 55.3% BR. In the final analysis of the assessment of benefits from information management, we can conclude that the four profits assessed the highest by both studied groups are perceived as more significant by students from University of Bialystok. Both finding information more quickly and skills connected with the selection of information such as time management or planning one’s own learning are a strong foundation for the process of autonomous creation of knowledge as the supreme skill developed as part

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of academic education. Information is the basic “material” for the modelling of various material and non-material objects analysed by humans in thought processes, which are being discovered or just planned. The awareness of benefits from information management skills helps the person engage in activity counteracting information overload. According to the authors, acquiring, building and improvement of those three groups of skills is currently a necessary and very profitable investment for success in the labour market (student's individual perspective as a future employee) and allows to build and maintain a competitive advantage in the changing and globalising economy (collective advantage of the organisation or workplace), and first of all enable one to lead a satisfying life.

References Barney, D. 2004. The Network Society. Cambridge: Polity Press Ltd. Batorowska, H. 2009. Kultura informacyjna w perspektywie zmian w edukacji. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Stowarzyszenia Bibliotekarzy Polskich. (in Polish). —. 2013. Od alfabetyzacji informacyjnej do kultury informacyjnej. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo SBP. (in Polish). Bauman. Z. 2007. Consuming Life. Cambridge: Polity Press. —. 2011. 44 listy ze Ğwiata. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie. Bell, D. 1973. The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting. New York: Basic Books. Boekhorst, A.K. 2003. Becoming information literate in the Netherlands. Library Review, 52, (7): 298-309. Borawska-Kalbarczyk, K. 2015. Kompetencje informacyjne uczniów w perspektywie zmian szkolnego Ğrodowiska uczenia siĊ. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Akademickie. (in Polish). Borkowski, J. 2003. Podstawy psychologii spoáecznej. Warszawa: Elipsa. (in Polish). Castells, M. 2009. Communication Power. Oxford. New York: Oxford University Press. —. 2010. The Rise of the Network Society. Chichester: Blackwell Publishing. Crary, J. 2013. 24/7 Late Capitalism and the Ends of Sleep. London - New York: VERSO. Czarniawski, H. 2002. Wspóádziaáanie potrzebą czasu. Lublin: Norbertinum. (in Polish).

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Dijk, van J. 2006. The Network Society: Social Aspects of New Media. London: SAGE Publication. DuFour, R. 2004. What Is a Professional Learning Community? Educational Leadership, 61, No 8: 6-11. Elsner, D. 1999. Doskonalenie kierowania placówką oĞwiatową. Wokóá nowych pojĊü i znaczeĔ. Chorzów: Wydawnictwo Mentor. (in Polish). Eriksen. T. H. 2001. Tyranny of the moment. Fast and slow time in the information age. London: Pluto. Gleick, J. 2011. The Information. History. Theory, A Flood. New York: Pantheon Books. Goban-Klas, T. 2005. Cywilizacja medialna. Geneza, ewolucja, eksplozja. Warszawa: WSiP. (in Polish). Johnston B., and S. Webber. 2006. As we may think: Information Literacy as a discipline for the information age. Research Strategies, 20, No. 3: 108-21. Korzeniecka-Bondar, A. 2015. Temporalne porządkowanie codziennoĞci szkolnej w gimnazjum – perspektywa nauczycieli. Forum OĞwiatowe. 27. No 2: 103-14. (in Polish). Krzysztofek, K., and M. S. SzczepaĔski. 2002. Zrozumieü rozwój. Od spoáeczeĔstw tradycyjnych do informacyjnych. Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu ĝląskiego. (in Polish). Kuhlthau, C., Maniotes, L. K., Caspari, A. K. 2007. Guided Inquiry: Learning in the 21st century. Westport, Conn.: Libraries Unlimited. LedziĔska, M. 2009. Czáowiek wspóáczesny w obliczu stresu informacyjnego. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Instytutu Psychologii PAN. (in Polish). Oyster, C.K. 1999. Groups: A User's Guide. New York City: McGrawHill. Pauleen, D. J., Gorman, G. E. (edt.). 2011. Personal knowledge management: individual, organizational and social perspectives. Farnham: Gower Publishing Limited. PáóciĔska, M. and H. Rylke. 2002. Czas wspóápracy i czas zmian. Warszawa: WSiP. (in Polish). Rockman, I. F. 2003. Information literacy, a worldwide priority for the twenty-first century. Reference Services Review 31 (3): 209-10. Senge, P. M. 1990. The Fifth Discipline. The Art and Practice of The Learning Organization. New York: Doubleday. —. 2012. “Creating the schools of the future: Education for a sustainable society.” Leader to Leader. No 65, p. 44-49. ĝwigoĔ, M. 2012. Zarządzanie informacją i wiedzą. Olsztyn: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu WarmiĔsko-Mazurskiego w Olsztynie. (in Polish).

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The Prague Declaration. 2003. Towards an information literate society. Accessed May 19, 2005. http://www.infolit.org/InternationalConference/PragueNewsRelease.doc. Toffler, A. 2006. Trzecia fala. PoznaĔ: Wydawnictwo Kurpisz. (in Polish). ToáwiĔska, B. 2016. Overcoming organisational silence– looking for opportunities to change school culture. In: Selected Papers of the Association for Teacher Education in Europe. Spring Conference 2015, edited by Linda Daniela, Lnjcija Rutka, 209-21. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Wojciszke, B. 2011. Psychologia spoáeczna. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar. (in Polish).

CHAPTER NINE EDUCATION FOR CREATIVITY: TOURISM EMPLOYERS’ PREFERENCES KAMILA PEREDERENKO AND INETA LUKA

Abstract The development of creativity in tourism higher education is a topical issue as tourism institutions’ graduates cannot fulfil the industry needs in terms of quality and quantity. The purpose of the research is to study the preferences of tourism employers on creativity and create a model for creativity development. A qualitative approach (interviews with 25 tourism specialists) was applied. The main findings identified that resources, management practices and organisational motivation are important for creativity development. The model created may further creativity development in the organisations. Key words: creativity, tourism, creativity development, tourism higher education

Introduction The tourism industry is an important sector in the global economy and highly contributes to employment worldwide (Donina and Luka 2014, 303). That is why development of domain-specific competencies and high level professional knowledge in tourism higher education plays a crucial role. Skill shortages have caused significant numbers of tourism establishments worldwide to have difficulties meeting quality standards (WTTC 2015, 15-17). Employers in the European Union experience skill shortages related to increasing specialisation within the industry or due to the fact that education curricula have not kept pace with the technological or innovative development of the sector (Labor Market Shortages in the European Union 2015, 26). In Latvia a gap between supply and demand for quality personnel has been observed as well. Graduates from tourism education institutions and vocational training schools cannot completely

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fulfil industry needs in terms of quality and quantity (Dombrovsky 2009, 5). Therefore, in order to be more competitive, tourism education should be tailored to meet the needs of the tourism industry in terms of the professional skills required (Lo 2005). This idea has been extended by Wang (2008) to the dialogue between the tourism industry and tourism education for the design of tourism curriculum in compliance with the stakeholders’ needs that will contribute to the development of the tourism industry. In Latvia, Donina and Luka (2014, 326) concluded that qualitative cooperation of tourism education with industry is essential and will benefit all stakeholders involved. Therefore, the first step in the task of constructing a competitive tourism education system must be its management, based on identifying the needs and expectations of the different stakeholders involved in the system – the employers, students and educators. Furthermore, tourism as a fast-growing sector of the market economy requires innovations and technology development (Richards and Wilson 2006). That is why creativity is an important aspect for tourism development. Creative specialists are in high demand on the tourism labour market because they can generate new ideas and technologies, bring them to the market and implement them in the workplace, and be able to adapt to technological and structural changes in society (OECD Innovation Strategy 2015, 7). In particular, issues regarding sustainability of creativity within a system cannot be separated from the role of education, which is not always integrated with the players and the dynamics of the territory to which it refers, although it is always a critical factor for the territory’s economic and competitive development (Minguzzi and Presenza 2012). Unfortunately, the Latvian tourism industry lacks innovation performance and as shown in previous studies (Chlaidze, Utinane-Sukharevska and Linde 2008; Dombrovsky 2009; Luka and Donina 2012; Donina and Luka 2014) the fostering of employability and creativity related skills in education does not meet the industry needs. The current research focuses on the perceptions of creativity and factors influencing its development among tourism employers.

Theoretical framework A major area in the current research concerns organisational creativity and factors influencing it. Creativity and innovations refer to the fullment of novel ideas held within an organisation. Christensen (1999, 341)

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stresses the key role that creativity plays in the innovation process; it is connected with finding: “…ideas for new products and services that will be unique and valued in their markets”.

Creativity drives innovation both by underpinning the individual and organisational skills needed to adapt to the pace and nature of change in the modern world (Carnevale, Gainer and Meltzer 1990, 193), and by acting as a key ingredient in the process of generating new business opportunities, whether in the form of a product, process, system or service. In an organisation, creativity can add value to products and services of companies because it helps to create a new look for products that will stand out from those of competitors. Thus, creativity in combination with business strategy and an operating model is important for creating innovation and effective development of enterprises (Wattanasupachoke 2012). The results of the pilot study conducted illustrated that organisational creativity is a specific combination of creative individuals with creative support from the manager. It means a combination of individual and collective creativity. Collaboration in such an organisation should be built up for the enhancement of individual’s creativity from one side and a systematic search for ideation, optimisation and innovations from the other side (cf. Perederenko 2016). These ideas address issues that encourage new administration processes that mobilise support for change, that increase the need to overcome challenges and that involve individuals within organisations; in addition, all of these ideas can equally contribute to creativity (Horng et al. 2016). Thus, a large body of research has attempted to identify the structural components of creativity in the organisations both on the individual and collective level. This is in line with Amabile’s (1988) componential theory of creativity and innovation. According to the theory, three key elements comprise creativity on the organisational level: organisational motivation, management practices and resources. In addition, each of these elements is essential for innovation in any eld. According to Amabile (1988, 153) organisational motivation refers to basic attitudes, orientations and support for organisational innovation processes and activities. According to prior studies (Amabile 1997; Amabile et al. 2005) organisational motivation comprises the basic orientation of the organisation towards innovation, as well as support for creativity and innovation throughout the organisation. The orientation towards innovation must come, primarily, from the highest levels of management,

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but lower levels can also be important in communicating and interpreting that vision. Most importantly, organisational support for innovation establishes a friendly environment for encouraging information exchange and communication of ideas, as well as a reward system for recognising the initiation of creative ideas. In the tourism industry, in particular, innovation continues to emerge as an important means of maintaining a sustainable competitive advantage (Bascavusoglu-Moreau, Kopera and Wszendybyl-Skulska 2013). So it is an essential requirement for managers and leaders of tourism enterprises in a rapidly-changing market to provide clear visions for innovations. The second component relates to management practices, which refer to the management activities of all departments in an organisation. Later, Amabile (1997, 48) proposed challenge, freedom, resources, work-group features, supervisory encouragement, and organisational support as a means to foster creativity as representations of management practices. In turn, Tan (1998, 24-27) identied three major types of management practices, with regard to culture, organisation and design, and training development. In addition, allowing employees to trust and communicate with colleagues, creating work teams with diverse skills and interests, challenging others through constructive thinking and performing tasks with commitment also constitute management practices (Horng et al. 2016). Thus, the development of useful and creative products, services and procedures in the tourism industry may depend on proper management practices. In addition, tourism managers must adopt the aforementioned methods to encourage creativity, meet customer requirements, enhance operational profitability levels and add value for companies. Finally, the resource component includes everything that the organisation has available to the work domain regarding innovation (Amabile 1997). Sufcient resources create high potential for success in innovation. Thus, scholars have shown that organisations can offer funds and time for initiating creative ideas, can hire experienced employees with the required capabilities, can supply necessary materials and information and can offer mechanisms of on-the-job training (ibid, 48-50). As to the services in the tourism industry, despite mounting efforts in both service innovation and novel product development, more focus must be placed on resources needed to maintain this process. Furthermore, with sufcient knowledge and experience in arranging resources for creative products and services in the industry, customers can experience more satisfaction and loyalty. Based on Amabile’s componential theory of creativity and innovation (1988, 123-167), Horng et al. (2016, 5) grounded the characteristics of

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each concept in three dimensions: (1) organisational motivation includes the characteristics of market position, customer satisfaction, service culture and environmental thinking; (2) management practices include the characteristics of employee involvement, incentive mechanism, human resource development and environmental services; and (3) resources are related to the characteristics of cultural resource management, government policy and school education. The authors applied this model for studying process innovation in the hotel industry. Accordingly, in integrating Amabile’s (1988) componential theory of creativity and innovation and Horng et al.’s (2016) extensions with professional opinions on creativity development, this study provides a perspective that augments management of creativity in tourism higher education.

Aim of the research The aim of the current study is to explore the Latvian tourism employers’ preferences on creativity and create a model for creativity development.

Research questions 1. What is the tourism employers’ perception of creativity in tourism operations? 2. How can employers’ practices be applied for creativity development?

Materials and Methods The current exploratory study is a valuable means of asking questions and finding out new insights for creativity in the context of tourism higher education (Robson 2002, 59). Qualitative methods have been applied for data collection and data analysis due to small-scale thematic research (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill 2009, 482; O’Leary 2004, 99). Data has been collected via interviews with 25 specialists engaged in the tourism industry. A handpicked sampling strategy was applied for the interviewee selection because “the selection of such cases allows researchers to study intrinsically interesting cases” (O’Leary 2004, 110).

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The main reason for this choice was the wide range of the interviewees in order to cover several sectors of the tourism industry. The pilot study conducted among five informants showed that the research is more general than focused. So, the sample size should be between 25 and 30 interviews (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill 2009, 384). Table 1. Background information of study informants

Interviewee ELI JVA DVI AKA JBO AGI ZBA OBO DSI IKR IBA MPL RPU VTR VRO VBO VRU AMU JLI AKH DKU MPA PJA SLI GBU

Sector of organisation tour operator accommodation information and guiding accommodation entertainment tour operator accommodation travel agency entertainment tour operator information and guiding accommodation information and guiding information and guiding entertainment accommodation travel agency accommodation tour operator information and guiding accommodation travel agency tour operator tour operator travel agency

Experience in tourism 15 years 6 years 20 years 25 years 4 years 6 years 16 years 8 years 4 years 10 years 14 years 37 years 4 years 15 years 5 years 8 years 7 years 26 years 8 years 12 years 5 years 20 years 16 years 10 years 17 years

Interviews were unstructured, informal and face-to-face (ibid, 321) and held in Riga from 3 December 2015 till 21 March 2017. Informants are representatives of organisations operating in different sectors of the tourism industry (refer to Table 1) such as tour operator (6 interviewees), accommodation (7), travel agency (4), information and guiding (5), and entertainment (3). They also deal with different types of tourism including

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some speciaal interest onnes such as sp port tourism (1), food tou urism (1), social tourissm (2), and event tourism m (4). All off the intervieewees are experiencedd in the tourissm field (from m 4 years up to 37 years). Some of them (5) haave practiced in several sectors of touriism, some of them (8) have been w working in sevveral positionss in one sectorr, and some off them (6) also give lecctures to tourissm students. Content analysis has been applied d for thematicc analysis off the data collected thrrough coding (Krippendorfff 1989, 405).. After transcrribing the interviews, the data werre categorised d into ten coontent categories. The current papeer analyses finndings from th he following ggroups of mean ning: x x x x x x

Emplloyers’ backgrround in touriism industry; Emplloyers’ percepption on creatiivity; Exam mples of applyying creativity y in tourism inndustry; Impoortance of creaativity for opeeration in the iindustry; Emplloyers’ percepption on qualiffied tourism ppersonnel; Factoors that promoote and inhibitt creativity in the workplacee.

Reesults and Discussion D The resuults of the quualitative anaalysis demonsstrated the em mployers’ perception oof creativity to build com mpetitive busiinesses in thee tourism industry. Thhe categories discussed ab bove applied to the analyssis of the conception of creativitty are attrib buted to em mployers’ pro ofessional knowledge or past experrience in prom moting innovvation and maaintaining effective opperation in tourism. Th he professionnals’ concepttions are summarisedd in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Empployers’ percepption on creativity

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Informants’ ideas about creativity have been grouped in relation to 15 keywords. The figure illustrates how often the keyword appeared in the discussions. The bigger letters mean the more frequently it was used. The informants repeatedly stressed the words and collocations such as creativity, unusual ideas, something new, to be different. The employers recognised their significance in creating a new product and finding unique ways of how to sell it to their customers. When defining creativity, the interviewees expressed ideas that are connected more with personal and product characteristics. Mostly they concentrated on the new and novel aspect of creativity (refer to Fig. 1). They also stressed the importance of placing the “tourist and his/her needs in the centre” (AKA). Furthermore, the crucial role of creativity in competitive advantage creation has appeared several times in the discussions. Product differentiation is key to standing out among competitors, especially for small and medium enterprises. These findings coincide with Horng et al. (2016) that innovation and creativity are the heart of success in the hospitality industry. It enables companies to adopt novel ideas, improve service processes, enhance operational efciency levels, meet customer needs, earn sales and achieve protability, engage in corporate social responsibility and maintain competitive advantages in rapidly-changing markets. Regarding the importance of creativity in their work, all interviewees were positive. Some of them (ELI, IBA, RPU, DKU) confirmed the importance of creativity in tourism in general, but also added that they have a lot of instructions and prescriptions to follow which are the opposite of creativity. So, they need to care about regular work responsibilities instead of developing creative modifications. The most difficult part here is to create something new in the chain enterprises. But at the same time those informants gave the comments that even in every day work they meet force majeure situations when they need to quickly find an appropriate solution. For example, “an interesting tour has been prepared for the tourist group but suddenly the weather conditions have changed”. Tourism specialists have to be prepared to react quickly and solve the problem with few loses. So, these interviewees highlighted the importance of the problem-solving aspect of creativity. Others felt that creativity plays a major role in tourism business. “There is a huge number of competitors on the tourism market. It is needed to stand out among others in order to attract attention of your potential customers”. Hereby, most interviewees (20 interviewees) highly evaluated the importance of creativity. Just one of them (MPA) was unsure about it. He stated that eighty per cent of their turnover is made by classical, regular services.

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Later, during the interview the same interviewee mentioned that he expected from his employees “to do the job they had been hired for and find solutions to have good results”. And this is also highly connected with creativity. The interviewees found it really difficult to provide examples of application of creativity use in tourism operations, but they proposed some branches where it is more crucial. See the main results in Table 2. Table 2. Tourism employers’ perception on application of creativity in tourism operations

Tourism branch Tour organising

Accommodation facilities Food & Beverage Marketing Event planning Guiding

Examples New destinations, new experiences, unusual means of travel, extra services, co-creation, creative approach to communication with clients, special interest Unique hotels, crowd-sourcing, creative incubators, compliments for loyal clients, extra services New tastes, creative presentation, co-creation New marketing tools, creative approach for advertising, “virus” marketing, exhibitions Application of creative media, creative approach, cocreation New means of guiding, creative performance, cocreation, new routes, thematic excursions, IT application

Communication with clients is another area that, according to interviewees, highly demands creativity which was mentioned by every second interviewee. However, it is not evident at the first glance. One informant (IBA) said that “the most important is to feel the moment, to know what to say and how to say, how to present yourself, how to act, how to let others hear you”. Many employers agree that providing high quality services for customers and satisfying them are critical missions for their companies. Strengthening customer satisfaction may be valuable to managers in establishing their reputations, positive corporate image and even growth and stability. This idea coincides with the findings of Horng et al.’s (2016) research that tourism companies should focus on creative approaches to services that incorporate more concern about customers’ feelings, meeting their expectations and enhancing their loyalty. These findings on creativity application in tourism correlate with examples given by Richards and Wilson (2006, 1410):

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• creativity as a product; • creativity as an experience; • creativity as innovation; • creativity as a marketing strategy; • creativity as an industry sector; • creativity as a social development strategy; • creativity as a landscape; • creativity as problem-solving; • creativity as a blanket term for heritage and cultural tourism; • creativity as a challenge to identity; • creativity as difference and diversity. Compared with the pilot study where almost all the interviewees had been convinced of their employees’ creativity (Perederenko 2016) in the current study more than one third (10 interviewees) evaluated their employees as less creative. The reasons they proposed are the lack of motivation, laziness, passivity, lack of experience, lack of inspiration, fear to take responsibility, etc. Another problem with personnel found is that “young job applicants are not ready to make a job career, they want immediately become a director without real work experience in other positions”. The most important factor for employee selection in most tourism companies is foreign language skills. Sometimes a good command of three or even four languages is needed. So, it is difficult to find educated, experienced employees with good language skills and in addition creative. Furthermore, a gap between universities’ programmes and the practical industry has been identified. This coincides with the findings of Horng et al.’s research (2016) wherein experts have discovered that the real problem in hospitality education could be the lack of connection with the real world. Therefore, employers suggest that universities exert more efforts in understanding the demand of tourism industry, enhancing students’ language abilities, providing students with opportunities to study overseas, developing strong internship projects and linking the curriculum to practical training in hospitality education. Employers’ perception on qualified tourism personnel is summarised in Table 3.

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Table 3. Employers’ perception of qualified tourism personnel

Personal Hospitality, politeness Openness to new things, changes, creativity Intelligence, holistic development Communication Travel experience, willingness to travel Social activity (Facebook also) Attractiveness, self-presentation Ability to quickly find solutions Awareness of information technologies

Professional Tourist-centred approach Good command of foreign languages Work experience (not exactly in tourism) Cultural awareness Motivation to find better solutions Customer orientation “Like what you do” Synthesis of knowledge from different fields Domain-specific skills

Studying the factors influencing creativity in the workplace (refer to Table 4) shows that the most significant one is freedom (19 interviewees). Interviewees expressed the ideas that “creativity is going over the rules” (MPL) and instructions and prescriptions are something opposite to creativity. This finding fits with Amabile’s (1988, 147) research where freedom was highlighted by 74% of the respondents. Freedom in the case of creativity means acting without control over one’s own work and ideas and freedom in deciding how to achieve the goals. The choice factor is very close to the first one but more related to availability of time for creativity. So, sometimes “employees don’t have much time to think about anything extra because they need to concentrate only on their usual work” (ELI). This is in line with Amabile’s “time pressure”: insufficient time to think creatively about the problem (ibid, 148). Working creatively in teams should be supported by good project management with an “appropriate distribution of the roles and tasks” (RPU), right communication and supervising but not control. The flexibility factor is related to an organisational environment that supports freedom, changes, new ideas and innovation. Sometimes employees are afraid of changes or “there is a need to hold on to the old and safe practices” (ZBA) Explaining the task providing an example shows how the work could be done and it also leaves space for modification. “Good example could inspire employees for finding better solutions” (DVI).

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Table 4. Comparing the findings of the study with Amabile’s findings on factors influencing creativity

Promote creativity Study findings Amabile’s (1988, 146-148) findings Freedom Freedom Choice Sufficient resources Teamwork Good project management Flexibility Various organisational characteristics Example Challenge

Inhibit creativity Study Amabile’s findings (1988, 146-148) findings Instruction Constraint Routine work Time pressure

Involvement Feedback

Detachment Ignorance

Encouragement Recognition

Isolation Inflexibility

Sample

Poor project management Various organisational characteristics Overemphasis of status quo Evaluation Organisational disinterest

Involvement and feedback are also very significant factors for employee motivation. They are about how the manager and the organisation meet and support the employee’s ideas and job performance. It is very important for the employee not only to get the reward and recognition of the work done but “some compliments and appropriate feedback” (DSI). Ignorance and disinterest from the organisation resulted in the employee’s apathy towards the project (Amabile 1988, 148). The results of our qualitative analysis demonstrated the opinions of employers with regard to creativity in the tourism industry. Based on Amabile’s (1988) componential theory of creativity and innovation, the characteristics of each concept were grounded in three dimensions: (1) organisational motivation includes the characteristics of market position, customer satisfaction, service quality; (2) management practices included the characteristics of employee involvement, incentive mechanism, leadership; and (3) resources are related to the characteristics of organisational climate, innovation orientation and education and training. The analysis of these characteristics is attributed to informants’ professional knowledge or past experience in promoting creativity in the tourism business. Their conceptions are summarised in Table 5.

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Table 5. Summary of employers’ perception on organisational creativity

ELI

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JVA DVI

Ɣ

AKA JBO

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AGI

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ZBA OBO

Ɣ

DSI IKR

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Ɣ

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Ɣ

Ɣ

Ɣ

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Ɣ Ɣ

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RPU

Ɣ

Ɣ Ɣ Ɣ

VRU

Ɣ

AMU

Ɣ

Ɣ

JLI

Ɣ

Ɣ

Ɣ

Ɣ

Ɣ

Ɣ

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Ɣ

Ɣ

Ɣ

Ɣ

Ɣ

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Ɣ Ɣ

Ɣ Ɣ

Ɣ Ɣ Ɣ

Ɣ

Ɣ

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Ɣ

Ɣ

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VBO

Education and Training

Innovation Orientation

Organisational Climate

Leadership

Ɣ

Ɣ

Ɣ

Ɣ

Ɣ

Ɣ

Ɣ

VTR

Resources

Ɣ

Ɣ

MPL

AKH

Incentive Mechanism

Ɣ

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IBA

VRO

Management Practices Employee Involvement

Service Quality

Customer Satisfaction

Market Position

Interviewee

Organisational Motivation

Ɣ Ɣ

Ɣ

Ɣ

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Education for Creativity: Tourism Employers’ Preferences

DKU

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MPA

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PJA

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21

17

17

16

SLI GBU

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Total

17

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19

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121

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16

15

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In this way many interviewees (17) revealed that a clear market position was a vital characteristic for creativity in tourism organisations. Market position means choosing a proper and competitive business strategy. “In order to attract customers, it is necessary to stand out among your competitors. Consumers see your uniqueness or your differences. And if you have this difference you won’t have to compete with others only based on price orientation” (JVA). Also, many informants agree that providing high quality services for customers (19 informants) and satisfying them (21 informants) are critical missions for tourism enterprises. Therefore, companies should focus on the services that incorporate more concern about customers’ feelings, meeting their expectations and enhancing their loyalty. “If your products and services are not creative, you can’t meet the needs of your customers. You have to keep ahead of your competitors, and let your customers feel your company is the best in the market” (VRO). Incentive mechanisms include meetings, discussions, brainstorming and other instruments help employee to generate creative ideas. Thus, more than half of employers (17) agree that developing a friendly environment and strong reward system will stimulate employees to express their ideas and ultimately contribute to the company’s future operations.

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Figure 2. Model for creativity development in the organisations

Finally, the findings of this study identified the following organisational creativity characteristics: characteristics of market positions, customer satisfaction and service quality for the component of organisational motivation; characteristics of employee involvement, incentive mechanism, and leadership for the component of management practices; and characteristics of organisational climate, innovation orientation and education and training for the component of resources (refer to Figure 2). In applying content analysis to assess the research conclusions, the three key components of organisational creativity (organisational motivation, management practices and resources) were adopted from Amabile’s (1988) componential theory to establish the model for creativity development. Each component includes three directions wherein amendments should be delivered. So, market position in the frame of the current research means choosing a proper and competitive posture for the business’ long-term

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prot. Application of creativity for customer satisfaction indicates more concern about customers’ feelings, meeting their expectations and enhancing their loyalty. Service quality contributes to the success of enterprises, the objective of managers is to integrate the characteristics of service quality, as well as creative efforts for the development of new services. Employee involvement is one of the key attributes of employee participation. Higher involvement by employees can lead to the success of implementing creativity, employee job satisfaction and performance. Incentive mechanisms can encourage individuals to provide more new and outstanding approaches for enterprise growth. The major features of leadership in this case were based on organisational support, encouragement and trust for the employees. Thus, developing a friendly climate for innovation will stimulate employees to express their ideas and ultimately contribute to the company’s future operations. Intention for education and training means enhancing future specialists’ language abilities, developing strong internship projects and linking the curriculum to practical training in hospitality education. Through the constructive feedback of new ideas expressed, through an appropriate reward system for creative work and through the development of new process and services, these characteristics can supplement one another and promote the success of creativity in tourism operations.

Conclusions This study has been designed to identify the Latvian tourism employers’ preferences on creativity and create a model for creativity development. The findings show that the creation of services in tourism should be focused on customers and their needs. Regarding potential tourism employees, they have problems with management of challenges, openness to changes, motivation, understanding of the customer needs and career building. The use of creativity is highly required in product development and marketing departments in different types of tourism enterprises. Creativity as a tool for competitive advantage should be applied for improving the service and standing out. In this case motivation of future tourism specialists plays a crucial role. Providing feedback on creative works, reward system, orientation to customer needs and quality of products, and flexible work environment are the factors developing creativity in the tourism companies. Emphasising the importance of creativity in tourism operations will allow modifying the education design according to the industry needs in the future. Such amendments will help to build a greater dialogue between

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the industry and higher education institutions and apply them both for higher employment rates and innovative growth of the industry. Factors that promote creativity in organisations could be applied both by tourism managers as well as by teachers in order to develop creativity in classes. Based on the results of the research, a conceptual model for the development of creativity in the organisations has been designed. We argue that the model will provide more benefits to improve the creative performance of tourism enterprises. The model’s application in higher education processes could be examined in further studies. The approach will enable higher education institutions to proactively respond to the modern economy needs.

References Amabile, M. Teresa. 1988. “A Model of Creativity and Innovation in Organizations”. Research in Organizational Behavior 10: 123-67. —. 1997. “Motivating Creativity in Organizations: On Doing What You Love and Loving What You Do”. California Management Review 40 (1): 39-58. Amabile, M. Teresa, G. Sigal Barsade, S. Jennifer Mueller, and M. Barry Staw. 2005. “Affect and Creativity at Work”. Administrative Science Quarterly 50 (3): 67-403. Bascavusoglu-Moreau, Elif, Sebastian Kopera, and Ewa WszendybylSkulska. 2013. “The role of creativity in development of innovation in tourism”. Journal of Entrepreneurship Management and Innovation 9 (1): 5-15. Carnevale, A.P., L.J. Gainer and A.S. Meltzer. 1990. The Essential Skills Employers Want. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publisher. Chlaidze, Viktor, Utinane-Sukharevska, Inara and Linde, Ivars. 2008. “Tourism Education Quality Standards and Higher education in Latvia”. Information Technologies, Management and Society 1 (1): 6771. Christensen, C. M. 1999. Innovation and the General Manager. Boston, MA: Irwin McGraw-Hill. Dombrovsky, Vyacheslav. 2009. “Is anything wrong with higher education in Latvia?”. Baltic Journal of Economics 9 (2): 5-24. Donina, Agita and Ineta, Luka. 2014. “The Compliance of Tourism Education with Industry Needs in Latvia”. European Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation. EJTHR Tourism Research 5 (3): 303-30.

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Horng Jeou-Shyan, Wang Chung-Jen, Liu Chih-Hsing, Chou Sheng-Fang and Tsai Chang-Yen. 2016. “The Role of Sustainable Service Innovation in Crafting the Vision of the Hospitality Industry”. Sustainability 8 (3): 1-18. Krippendorff, Klaus. 1989. “Content analysis”. In International encyclopedia of communication, edited by Erik Barnouw, George Gerbner, Wilbur Schramm, L. Tobia Worth, and Larry Gross, 403-07. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Labor Market Shortages in the European Union. 2015. Labor market shortages in the European Union. Accessed June 15, 2017. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2015/542202/IP OL_STU(2015)542202_EN.pdf Lo, Ada. 2005. “The past, present, and future of hospitality and tourism higher education in Hong Kong”. Journal of Teaching in Travel & Tourism 5 (1): 137-66. Luka, Ineta and Donina, Agita. 2012. “Challenges of tourism education: Conformity of tourism curriculum to business needs”. Academica Turistica. Tourism @ Innovation Journal 5 (1): 85-101. Minguzzi, Andrea and Angelo Presenza,. 2012. “Destination building. A strategic approach to the sustainable development of a tourism destination”. In Advances in tourism studies, edited by Alfonso Morvillo, 516. Milano: McGrow-Hill. O’Leary, Zina. 2004. The essential guide to doing research. London, CA: Sage Publications. OECD Innovation Strategy. 2015. OECD Innovation Strategy 2015 and Agenda for Policy Action. Accessed January 29, 2016. https://www.oecd.org/sti/OECD-Innovation-Strategy-2015CMIN2015-7.pdf Perederenko, Kamila. 2016. “Creativity in tourism for business competitiveness”. Proceedings of the XVII Turiba University Conference Competitive Enterprises in a Competitive Country, 188-94. Richards, Greg, and Julia Wilson. 2006. “Developing creativity in tourist experiences: A solution to the serial reproduction of culture?”. Tourism Management 27: 1408-13. Robson, Colin. 2002. Real World Research: A Resource for Social Scientists and Practitioner Researchers. Oxford: Blackwell. Saunders, Mark, Phillip Lewis, and Adrian Thornhill. 2009. Research methods for business students, 5th edition. Edinburgh: Pearson Education. Tan, Gilbert. 1998. “Managing Creativity in Organizations: a Total System Approach”. Creativity and Innovation Management 7 (1): 23-31.

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Wang, Jia. 2008. Is tourism education meeting the needs of the tourism industry? Thesis submitted at the University of Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia. Accessed January 10, 2017. http://www.canberra.edu.au/researchrepository/file/1d7eef38-6d47552b-673e-adb17f0c721a/1/full_text.pdf Wattanasupachoke, Teerayout. 2012. “Design thinking, innovativeness and performance: An empirical examination”. International Journal of Management 4 (1): 1-14. WTTC. 2015. Global Talent Trends and Issues for the Travel & Tourism Sector. Accessed June 15, 2017. https://www.wttc.org/-/media/382bb 1e90c374262bc951226a6618201.ashx

CHAPTER TEN PROFESSIONAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION IN BRAZIL: THE EXPANSION OF THE FEDERAL INSTITUTE ADRIANO A. R. BARBOSA

Abstract The Federal Institutes of Education, Science and Technology of Brazil are professional schools concentrated in secondary/technical education, technical bachelor’s degrees, and short-cycle higher education. They are directly linked to the Ministry of Education and were created with the idea that professional education should train professionals to be capable of both working in the labour market and promoting regional development. Thus, the courses offered by the units must be considered in the context of the job market demanded by their region. This article presents the education system in Brazil and some elements of the historical, social, and economic context in the creation of the Federal Institute. The organisational model proposed, its growth figures in recent years, and the main challenges of achieving good results with this expansion of professional education in the country, will be illustrated. These federal educational institutions have been remodelled and expanded widely. Since 2002, these schools represent the new model of professional and technological education in Brazil, which is experiencing the greatest expansion of vocational education institutions in its history. In less than two decades, the number of teaching units deployed reached 644, and in 2016, there was an increase of 377% in the municipalities served throughout the country. The development, recognition, and consolidation of the Federal Institutes are linked to a set of actions of the government, companies, and society. The aim is to foment educational projects of social insertion for the community as a whole, by the contemporary educational model, preparing its agents and students not only for society, the market, and the world today, but also for the future, in the continuous pursuit of knowledge, innovations, and development towards the country's growth. Keywords: Professional Education; Brazil; Public Management.

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Federal Institutes of professional education in Brazil In 1919, with the creation of 19 apprenticeship schools in several States of the country, the federal network of professional education in Brazil began. With the advances and difficulties of Brazilian society in the twentieth century, only in 1959 was the transformation and recognition of the institutions for Federal Technical Schools, with didactic, administrative, and financial autonomy, since then they have been developing with didactic, administrative, and financial autonomy and support from the federal ministry of education (MEC 2016). For a long time, the government implemented professional education systems in the country, but did not meet the demand necessary to leverage the economic growth and productivity of companies. Based on the recognised success of renowned institutions such as the Technologie de Compiègne, France, and Fachhochschulen, Germany, in 1997 there was a reform of vocational education institutions, which could be maintained by municipalities and become universities. The Brazilian government was convinced that it would contribute decisively to the development of the country and would open a dialogue with other countries (Pacheco 2010). However, the lack of structure and dialogue with companies made it difficult to develop this model in a developing country. In 2005, the Ministry of Education initiated the Expansion Plan of the Federal Network of Professional and Technological Education in Brazil. In 2007, the Education Development Plan (PDE) was launched by the Ministry of Education. In the Expansion Plan, technical and statistical criteria were prioritised to the detriment of local, political and business criteria, to identify the regions and cities in the implementation of new units and the areas of action of the courses, to contribute to the growth of vocational education institutions throughout the country. In 2008, there was a new transformation and expansion of professional education in Brazil, within the federal educational system, as the Federal Network of Vocational, Scientific and Technological Education, linked to the Ministry of Education, comprising the 38 Rectories of Federal Institutes and Centers of Associated Technological Education in all the states of Brazil. In this new configuration of professional education institutions, there were profound changes in the management and performance of the institutions. In the coming years, the regional units will be reorganized in multi-campus structures to meet the goals and objectives determined by the government, in relation to the percentages of available positions, having to reach 50% for the technical courses, as well as a minimum of 20% of posts in higher education for undergraduate courses

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or special pedagogical training programs. There is a long way to go in order to meet the Federal Government's requirements for the Federal Institutes of Education, Science, and Technology, especially with their unique identity and multi-campus structure. This requires an innovative administrative organisation, with its own network.

The global vision of professional education and regional development in Brazil The Federal Institutes were created with the idea that professional education should train professionals to be capable of both working in the labour market and promoting regional development. Thus, the courses offered by the units must be considered in the context of the job market demanded by their region. In general terms, the concept of regional development currently encompasses the valorisation of local initiatives in light of competitiveness. Participatory management, promotion of the population's access to basic services, and environmental awareness are seen as drivers in the reduction of inequalities. In Latin America, public policies linked to regional development were strongly influenced by CEPAL (Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean). The new concepts of regional development tend towards the need for multidisciplinary approaches to identify aspects such as regional possibilities and problems, as well as demands for actions that integrate economic, social, educational, and environmental aspects, with a view to acting on these aspects. As a consequence, various ministries and organisations subordinate to Federal, State, and Municipal Governments have been involved in the issue of regional development and planning (Cardoso 2010). The predominant view of the Government of Brazil on the role of education is that it must be linked to the strategic objectives of a project that seeks not only social inclusion, but the construction of a new society based on more social, cultural, political, and economic equality. One of the great challenges of this new perspective for professional education in Brazil is to build a vision of vocational training and work that goes beyond the needs of the market and contributes to the strengthening of workers' citizenship and the democratisation of knowledge in all fields. For this reason, the articulation of professional education policies with the programmes on work, employment, income, inclusion, and social development is considered fundamental (Pacheco 2010; Alfantookh and Bakry 2016). The operationalisation of this new strategic vision requires that vocational education be strengthened at all levels and forms, aiming to

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integrate, in an isonomic way, the various social segments, especially those who have historically been situated at the margins of educational offerings. This strengthening is due to the democratisation of the offer of vocational education, the adoption of differentiated policies in order to ensure access and permanence, and the maintenance of the quality of the education offered, which necessarily implies the expansion of the public network of professional education, as has been happening all over the country (MEC 2016).

General information about Brazil From colonisation to the Portuguese language, the country currently has a Presidential government, formed by the union of 26 states and 5,570 municipalities. It is the largest country in South America, being the fifth largest in the world in territorial area, with a population of 200 million inhabitants. It is one of the most multicultural and ethnically diverse nations, due to strong immigration from various countries, where 81.25% of the population live in urban areas. The main economic region of the country, the cities of Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, are located in the Southeast, where 55% of national GDP is generated and 80.35 million people live. In 2015, the average unemployment rate in the country was 7.8% (IBGE 2015). The expenditure on education was about 5.2% of GDP which represented 16.1% of the total government expenditure. The average salary of a teacher in lower secondary public education in Brazil is USD 30,750/year. The percentage of students in public education in Brazil are: (a) 88.4% in primary education, (b) 83.2% in lower secondary education and (c) 82% in upper secondary education. The average percentage of student enrolments, in relation to the whole corresponding population are: (a) 95.6% in primary education and (b) 76.4% in secondary education (OECD 2010).

The Brazilian educational system The organisation of education in Brazil consists of Federal, State, and Municipal teaching. The Brazilian Federal Constitution and the Law of Guidelines and Bases of National Education are the major laws that regulate the current system in the country. The structure of the regular educational system consists of Preschool, Basic education, Secondary/ Technical education, and Higher education. Preschool and Basic education are the responsibility of municipalities, while the States are responsible for secondary/technical education (MEC 1996). The Federal Government

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provides technical and financial assistance to States and Municipalities in addition to organising the system of higher education (Federative Republic of Brazil 1988). Figure 1 illustrates the Brazilian educational system in its educational levels.

Figure 1. Brazil’s education system.

The focus of Federal Institutes is concentrated in Secondary/Technical, Technical Bachelor´s, and Short-cycle higher education. However, some units of the Federal Institute, due to the adherence, location, and qualification of the teachers, have been increasing their focus at University Bachelor / Master levels. Some programmes of the Federal Government, such as PRONATEC (National Program of Access to Technical Education and Employment), offer initial and continuing training and professional qualification courses for training the workforce and improving working conditions for the unemployed. In some cases, courses of this nature are extended to other institutions of public and private education, available in various States, and financial incentives both for students and the unit offering the course (MEC 2016).

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Organisation of the Federal Institute The Federal Institute is directly linked to the Ministry of Education through the Secretariat of Professional and Technological Education. The Rectors and Managing Directors of the units of the Federal Institute are elected by the students, administrative professionals, and professors (MEC 2016). The campus of the Federal Institute has a decentralised administration, but is always linked to the strategies and planning of the Rectory of their State. However, they have the autonomy to create courses using strategies pre-defined by the regime. The school units also hold Public Hearings, attended by representatives of the school community, society, and political and class representative organisations. Each campus has an annual budget of about US$500 per student for administrative expenses, purchase of equipment, consumables, and maintenance on campus, in addition to the costs of administration staff, educational staff, and teachers. This is funded by the Federal Government. Each teaching unit has an average of 40 administrative and educational staff, and 60 teachers, in addition to outsourced personnel for surveillance, cleaning, and maintenance. The calculation considers 1,200 students per campus, one teacher for every 20 students, and one administrative professional for every 30 students. The activity of the teacher is distributed in Teaching and Researches. Teaching activities include actions directly linked to regular courses and programmes, at all levels of education, such as classes, student service and maintenance of teaching activities. The Research Activities are actions carried out individually or, preferably, in research groups, meeting the demands of the productive, social and cultural arrangements of the territory in which the campus is inserted and on institutional interest. The functional organisation of the units of the Federal Institutes in the Municipalities and the Rectory in the States is illustrated in Figure 2.

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o Rectory R in the SStates and Cam mpus in the Figure 2. Fedderal Institute organisation: Municipalitiees

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The expansion of the Federal Institutes The Federal Institute is experiencing the greatest expansion of its history. From 1909 to 2002, 140 Technical Schools were built in the country. Between 2003 and 2016, the Ministry of Education completed the construction of more than 500 new units related to the Professional Education Expansion Plan, totalling 644 campuses in operation. This network is still formed by institutions that have adhered to the proposed model, and which also offer professional education at all levels. The Federal Institute’s expansion of school units is detailed in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Expansion of Federal Institutes by school units.

The Federal Institute’s expansion in Municipalities served is illustrated in Table 1. Table 1. Expansion of Federal Institutes by Municipalities served. Period From 1909 to 2002 From 2003 to 2010 From 2011 to 2014 From 2011 to 2014

Municipalities served 119 321 511 568

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According to the Ministry of Education (MEC 2016), until 2015 the expansion of the Federal Institutes in Brazil was able to offer 715,000 annual new vacancies for students. Period in which the school units had about 45,000 teachers in the different courses offered.

The Challenges faced by the Federal Institute Professional education has enormous potential to revolutionise Brazilian education. The capability of the Federal Network is strong, and currently there are institutions that offer technical education at a medium level in previously unattainable regions in the interior of Brazil. However, some challenges that the government must prioritise to ensure the effectiveness of the Federal Institute in the country must be mentioned: a) Improving the basic education currently offered in the country; b) Ensuring relevant improvements in language, mathematics, and general knowledge at all levels of education, especially initial training and increasing the interdisciplinarity of students at a fundamental level; c) Further developing citizenship and culture at all levels of education; d) Incentivising private sector institutions to develop applied labour market research; e) Reducing the shortage of skilled labour in the market; f) Increasing the supply of undergraduate courses; g) Improving the efficiency of the Government's administrative management in order to ensure more economical/faster procurement processes and contracting services; h) Guaranteeing actions aimed at energy efficiency, which guarantee more pedagogical and budgetary savings; i) Enabling continuous provision of training for teachers and administrative staff; j) Disseminating institutionally successful ideas and practices for the advancement of professional education. It should be emphasised that Brazil has been facing economic and institutional difficulties in relation to the crisis and transition of the Federal Government, due to corruption among Representatives (Mota Prado and Carson 2016). This fact has made it difficult to invest in the short term in order to continue the expansion of the network. However, the regionally installed units must reinforce State and Municipal Government

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support, and business agreements, to maintain their offerings and professional standing.

Conclusions The Federal Institutes in Brazil offer broad possibilities for the development of professional and technological education in the country. However, strategic actions and management will be needed to consolidate regional and national development in terms of citizenship, culture, science and technology. The model of education is relevant, but the challenges of improving professional inclusion, meeting the demands of companies, reducing the dropping out of students, and the deficiency in basic education, are essential for the success of this professional education network. The development, recognition and consolidation of the Federal Institutes are linked to a set of actions by the Federal and Regional Government, companies, and a society aiming to foster educational projects of social insertion for the community as a whole. This is achieved by using a contemporary educational model, preparing its agents and students not only for society, the market and the world today, but also for the future, in the continuous pursuit of knowledge, innovations, and development towards the country's growth.

References Alfantookh, A., and S. H. Bakry. 2016. Knowledge Cooperation Opportunities between Saudi Arabia and the BRICS. International Journal of Knowledge Society Research 3 (7): 31-46. doi:10.4018/IJKSR.2016070103 Cardoso, B. B. V. 2010. School evasion and the labour market: The role of the technical school in regional development. X EPG - Latin American Postgraduate meeting. S.J. Campos/ Sao Paulo: Univap. Federative Republic of Brazil. 1988. Federal Constitution. Brasília: Official press of Brazil. IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics). 2015. Annual Survey. Rio de Janeiro: Ministry of Planning, Budget and Management. MEC (Ministry of Education of Brazil). 1996. National Curricular Parameters. Brasília: MEC. —. 2016. Actions and Programs of SETEC / MEC. Brasília: Federal Network of Professional, Scientific and Technological Education.

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Mota Prado, M. and L. Carson. 2016. Brazilian anti-corruption legislation and its enforcement: potential lessons for institutional design. Frankfurt: Book of Self-Governance & Management Economics. OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2010 Brazil: Encouraging Lessons from a Large Federal System. Strong performers and successful reformers in education: lessons from Pisa for the United States. Paris, France: OECD. Pacheco, E. P. 2010. Bases for a national policy on professional and technological education. Linhas Críticas Journal. Brasília: UnB.

CHAPTER ELEVEN ROBOT AS AGENT IN REDUCING RISKS OF EARLY SCHOOL LEAVING LINDA DANIELA AND RAIMONDS STRODS

Abstract The project "Robotics-based learning interventions for preventing school failure and early school leaving” (ROBOESL) mainly emphasises using educational robotics as learning agents to lessen the risks of school failure and early school leaving (ESL). The reason that this principle was chosen is that students, who are exposed to these risks, are often disappointed by the educational system and the traditional methods used by the educators, and have lost their learning motivation. It is common practice to use educational robotics while working with students who have expressed an interest in programming, electronics, etc.; however there are only a few studies on the role of robotics in working with students in the ESL risk group, which is why the results summarised in this study are a significant contribution for further understanding this matter. During the project, teachers were prepared to use robots as learning agents to promote the active involvement of students in the learning process by giving them the opportunity to test their acquired knowledge in practice, by constructing the robots and programming their activities. Thus, the educators promoted the students’ comprehension of subjects, such as math, physics and programming by using learning agents, while at the same time promoting the development of students’ mutual cooperation, peer learning and self-efficacy. This had a positive impact on students assuming responsibility for their learning achievements which resulted in lessening the risks of school failure and ESL. The aim of this study was to investigate how the robot can be involved in the learning process as a learning agent to reduce school failure and ESL risks. A mix of research tools were used including mainly questionnaires before and after activities for students and teachers who were involved and a structured observation tool to collect data from the activity observation. SPSS was used to analyse data from observations and discussions with teachers, collected using both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Data from student and teacher

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questionnaires are analysed in the present paper. The findings include descriptive analysis, verification of the data, interpretations, illustrations, and conclusions. Keywords: robot as an agent, early school leaving, robotics-based learning

Introduction We believe that teachers have always helped students to solve study problems and have motivated them to improve their academic achievements, etc. But what about technologies? Many studies show that digitalisation of education is the most popular trend in the development of education but there are studies which show that teachers are not ready for this shift in educational reality. Currently, we are living in two spaces or worlds: the real world and the virtual world. As researchers we know what role and power teachers have to improve students’ competencies and to improve the quality of students’ life in general. Do technologies have the potential to improve the study process? The main goal of Technology Enhanced Learning is not to replace someone or something with technologies but to use them meaningfully, to achieve educational goals and in this case to decrease early school leaving risks. In the ROBOESL project, the main emphasis was on the use of technologies (in this case LEGO robots) to enrich the learning process and apply innovative solutions.

Research context On average, 11.0 % of young people (18-24 years old) in the European Union (EU) left education and training early in 2015. In Latvia, 9.9 % of young people have completed only lower secondary education or less. The EU defines early school leavers as people aged 18-24 who have only lower secondary education or less and are no longer in education or training (Eurostat 2015). Reducing the average European rate of early school leavers to less than 10% by 2020 is one of the education targets of the Europe 2020 Strategy. The project Robotics-based learning interventions for preventing school failure and Early School Leaving (RoboESL) is implemented in the framework of the Erasmus+ programme with participants from three countries – Italy, Greece and Latvia – and the following cooperation partners: Liceo E. Fermi (coordinator; Italy); Scuola di Robotica (Italy); Università degli studi di Padova (Italy); Edumotiva- European Lab for Educational Technology (Greece); 6EK A PEIRAIA (Greece); 7th

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Secondary Education School Committee of Athens Municipality (Greece); 5th Secondary School of Valmiera (Latvia); University of Latvia (Latvia). The RoboESL project aims at exploiting the potential of robotics for developing extra-curricular constructivist learning activities in schools that could help children at risk of failure or Early School Leaving (ESL) to practice and develop their creativity skills, raise self-esteem, motivate their interest in schooling, and finally to encourage them to stay in school. Project partners' experience in the development of robotics-based projects in schools has shown that educational robotics (ER), if deployed in a constructivist/constructionist learning environment (Papert 1984) and within a project-based learning methodology, can offer learning opportunities for children and support the development of basic and transversal skills such as creativity, teamwork, problem solving and more, and keep students interested and motivated with hands-on learning, learning by doing and other fun learning activities (Alimisis 2014). Using the tools for evaluating the ESL risks developed in the project (Daniela 2016), students who are most exposed to risk were selected and they could participate in extracurricular activities and learn to work with LEGO Mindstorm robots. From the point of view of social exclusion, it is not a good idea to separate groups that are most exposed to the risk and organise special activities for those members because it creates new social exclusion risks for them (Daniela, NƯmante, and KraƧe 2014); however, this approach was chosen in the RoboESL project because robotic activities are not included in the compulsory learning content and therefore it was necessary to examine the developed teaching/learning curricula by organising out-of-class activities that, on the one hand, created several risks – even a deeper marginalisation of ESL students, the potential unwillingness to participate in additional activities which demand cognitive effort and the necessity to stay on school premises for a longer period of time, etc. However, on the other hand, the learning process had a prospective positive effect because students exposed to the ESL risk cooperated with similar students who also had poor social links with the rest of the students and they developed new relations that promoted their willingness to learn and to cooperate. Secondly, students’ knowledge and academic achievement were not formally assessed in the learning process which was organised in such a way that decreased the possible stress. By using robots as social agents for developing these relations, the students of the target group did not have to compete with those students whose learning motivation is high and who have faster cognitive processes thus exerting an indirect impact on the self-esteem of students whose cognitive

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processes are slower and thus also on their learning motivation. Students exposed to ESL risk were not exposed to these stressors.

Theoretical framework ESL tends to result from a range of frequently interconnected personal, social, economic, cultural, educational, gender-related and family-related factors. But one of the most serious factors is the lack of study motivation. During the last 30 years, the social-cognitive view on motivation has dominated which means that the individual’s conviction about his/her abilities, the desire for achievement and assumptions about the level of intellectual capacities influence his/her academic achievements and study motivation in general (Bandura 1986). To ensure that students start to be active actors of their learning process, in this project we have chosen to use robots as non-human agents to reduce the risks of ESL. The research question was: How can LEGO robots as learning agents be used to work with students with high ESL risk in order to: -

-

promote the formation of a positive attitude to learning; promote engagement in education the formation of the attachment network to the education process in order to decrease the impact of ESL risks and to avoid school leaving risks; promote the awareness about practical application of knowledge (mathematics, physics, computing, etc.).

Two dimensions will be analysed in the present paper: the role of robots as agents in lessening the ESL risks and applying Lego Mindstorm robots as active learning strategies.

Ideas from the agent theory As indicated by Macal and North (2005), agents have different dimensions that are characteristic to the human, for example, the agent is identified as a concrete individual who is able to manage his behaviour and is able to make decisions; it is possible to understand clearly the limits of the agent’s activities; the agents cooperate and communicate with other agents, they are able to recognise other agents, they are able to act independently in the environment and they possess the ability to learn (Macal and North 2005). From this perspective, LEGO robots cannot be an independent agent that facilitates students’ learning. However, other studies show that autonomous technical systems, such as software or

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robots, pressent a challeenge to psycchology, sociiology and pedagogy p because theey raise the isssue of agenccy of technollogy (Fink an nd Weyer 2014). The authors of the chapter pro opose that Minndstorm robots can be used as ageents in the intteraction with h the students exposed to the t social exclusion riisk, using the teacher as an n intermediaryy for this pro ocess (see Fig. 1). Figure 1. Thee robot as an ageent in the learniing process (Daaniela and Strod ds)

On the oone hand, onee may ask wh hy an intermeediary is neceessary (in this case thee Mindstorm robots) r in the interaction beetween the teaacher and students if thhe teacher is responsible fo or the teachinng/learning pro ocess and equal involvvement of all students. s It is important to rremember thatt students who were innvolved in thee robotics actiivities in this pproject have high h ESL risk and thhus have low wer learning motivation; they have often o lost confidence in the traditional teaching g/learning proocess and they have a rather negattive attitude towards t teach hers. Thereforre, the involv vement of such agentss is used to decrease the impact of E ESL risks, to o develop

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students’ willingness to learn and thus facilitate the development of metacognitive processes. When working with students who are exposed to ESL risk, such students also have a limited range of social links with their peers at school; Sherif’s experiment in 1935 showed that groups form around the accepted norms and values (Sherif 1935; see also Latané 1981; Farmer et al. 1996; Tseng et al. 2014). School is the environment in which the most support and appreciation goes to those who succeed in learning, who are able to cooperate positively with the teachers. Students who fail to succeed in the learning process, in turn, frequently are gradually pushed aside from the network of the successful students. The use of robots as agents can help to form this attachment to the learning process. Therefore not only the role of these agents is important but also the role of the teachers who help the learners work with the robots yet being less active transmitters of knowledge and the role of the peers which, to a certain extent, could also be considered the process of embodying the multi-agent theory (robot and teacher in our case) in the teaching/learning process using the social comparison theory (SCT) in which both the individual psychological processes and the interpersonal relation processes play a relevant role (Van Rooy, Wood, and Tran, 2016). According to Smith and Conrey (2007), anything and at any level could be an agent and give the example that on a lower level it can be neural networks and on a higher level – social groups, organisational and economic actors. In this case robots are used on the meso level and students mutually cooperate to learn to programme these robots. The teacher is the manager of the network of these robots-agents who ensures that the given tasks are not too complicated which would then lower the students’ motivation to act while also ensuring that the given tasks are promoting the development of the metacognitive process and correspond to the students’ zone of proximal development (Vygotsky 1962). One of the reasons why ER is an effective learning tool is that they help to create a fun and engaging learning environment that keeps students interested and engaged in learning. ER improves study motivation because it provides a learning by doing approach. Also, it is a great tool for projectbased learning. With project-based learning, students work in groups to explore real-world problems and challenges. With this type of active and engaged learning, students are inspired to obtain a deeper knowledge of the subjects they are studying and to demonstrate their learning through the robots they have developed. It is also important to remember the conclusions drawn by Macy and Willer (2002) that moderate doses of influence reduce the coordination complexity of self-organised collective action and help the network to achieve satisfactory levels of cooperation.

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High doses, however, undermine the agent-based learning required to find cooperative solutions. Increasing the group size also diminished compliance due to increased complexity, with larger groups requiring more influence to overcome the coordination problem (Macy and Willer 2002). Rooy et al. (2016, analysing the group dynamics in the context of SCT, concluded that those agents who share a similar attitude form closer mutual links and in the long-term they also have a greater influence on each other; thus the group of agents (in the RoboESL project these were the robots and teachers who taught students to work with the robots) reciprocally form adaptive networks in which knowledge is constructed and their attitude to learning is developed (Rooy et al. 2016. The use of robots as agents in the teaching/learning process helps students to analyse, assimilate, contextualise and synthesise, thus ensuring the development of new levels of thinking and also positively affecting the students’ study motivation by forming a deeper awareness about the application of concrete knowledge and thus raising the students’ self-esteem.

Active learning strategies Active learning principles are based on different learning theories such as constructivism, behaviourist theories, motivation and humanistic theories, design theories, media, and collaboration theories. The common feature of all these theories is the interactivity of learning that takes place in the social environment in which the learner cooperates with the teacher, peers, and the elements of the environment (Vygotsky 1978). The authors who have researched the principles of active learning (Misseyanni et al. 2017) maintain that the use of ICT in the classroom context is considered to be an active learning strategy and LEGO Mindstorm robots that need online software are regarded as one of the agents of such active learning. Van den Bergh, Ros, and Beijaard (2013) stated that feedback ensures active learning. In this project, feedback is ensured by using robots because if students have made a mistake in programming and calculations the robot will show this mistake when it is unable to perform the students’ intention and students can learn from their mistakes by receiving immediate and visible feedback. This feedback is important when working with students who are exposed to ESL risk. Other authors suggest using simulations in the classroom (Michalík 2015) to show students how to model different situations and to see the result of their work by receiving immediate feedback. However, to use ICT solutions meaningfully not only as a replacement of old forms with

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new ones, it is important to educate teachers who are able to provide support to the learners with meaningful use of ICT in an active teaching/learning process (Bottino, Ott and Tavella 2011). Analysing the studies and observing the situation in practice, two approaches to integrating technologies in the teaching/learning process were identified. In the first approach, technologies are used as the support tools for the teaching process, for example: visualising the information using the data projector, but that does not promote the development of any competencies for students. For the technology integration to be meaningful, ICT must be a direct learning tool. Teachers have to use specific pedagogical strategies to allow students to become active participants in the study process and gain experience in using technologies for learning purposes (Rubene and Strods 2017). ER opens a door for helping children to learn about mathematics, physics, mechanical engineering, and also critical academic skills, such as writing, reading, research, creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, decision making, problem solving, communication skills, and scientific concepts through the method of inquiry as well as for developing technological fluency. As Alimisis (2013) and other authors state, the role of ER should be seen as a tool to foster essential life skills (cognitive and personal development, team working) through which people can develop their potential to use their imagination, to express themselves and make original and valued choices in their lives (Alimisis 2013; Karampinis 2018; Karkazis et al. 2018).

Methodology In order to verify whether the aim for this project – to decrease ESL risk – has been reached and the learning motivation of the involved students has increased, several research tools have been developed that were filled out by both students and teachers. Students had to fill out the questionnaire before and after participation in the project activities. Questions on both questionnaires were formulated in a different way so as to avoid a situation where students give the same answers both before and after the project activities and secondly students did not have prior knowledge of robotics and thus would not know how learning would take place and what activities would be included in the lessons. Therefore, the before questionnaire asked about the students’ attitude to learning, about their learning motivation and problems they faced in everyday learning process. After the participation in the project activities, students again were asked to fill out the questionnaire in which some questions though

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formulated differently contained the same idea that was expressed in the initial questionnaire in order to compare whether there had been changes in the students’ attitude while other questions were specific to robotics activities and to find out how students assessed their progress (for instance, whether students consider that they had improved their knowledge in mathematics). The statements included in the questionnaire used a Likert scale where 5 meant fully agree and 1 fully disagree. Teachers were asked to fill out several research instruments: 1. The evaluation of student’s risks, in which teachers had to provide information about the level of student’s academic achievement, the missed lessons, the special needs and the subjects in which the student had the highest and the lowest academic achievements. Teachers were asked to fill out the evaluation about the student’s special needs only at the beginning of the project informing whether the student had any special needs. Teachers provided information for the rest both before and after the robotics activities in order to assess average achievement and the number of missed lessons to record changes in students’ academic achievements and thus draw conclusions about changes in learning motivation. 2. The evaluation of students’ attitude to learning, motivation and problem-solving strategies before and after the robotics activities. The statements were answered using a Likert scale where 5 meant observable (considerable improvements are observed) in all situations, and 1 – not observable (no improvements are observed) in any of the situations for the initial questionnaire before students’ involvement in the robotics activities (and after participation). This questionnaire recorded changes in students’ attitude because it had been predicted that probably it would not be possible to observe essential changes in the academic achievements in such a short amount of time. 3. A structured observation in which teachers had to evaluate students’ attitude to learning, motivation and problem-solving strategies during the implementation of each particular teaching/learning module of robotics when teachers had to assess students’ actions using a Likert scale from 0 to 4, where 4 meant does more than is expected from him/her and 0 meant the activity is not observed. This observation was necessary in order to see changes in students’ attitude in dynamics as well as to understand whether the developed teaching/learning modules were appropriate for the students included in the ESL risk group. 4. The assessment of the introduction process of the robotics activities in which teachers could freely express their thoughts about the whole process giving answers to 10 questions aimed at assessing teachers’

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opinion about the developed teaching/learning modules, the solutions that were used to address challenges as well as whether the developed teaching/learning modules corresponded to the students’ of the project target group learning goals (Daniela and Strods 2016). The present article analyses the assessment given to students and teachers about the progress during the project activities using SPSS 22 software for summarising the results. The other findings will be described in upcoming articles continuing the discussion about the benefits of using robots in a transformative learning process.

Results Several outcomes were planned for the RoboESL project which mutually affected each other. Firstly, the methodology for assessing the ESL risks was developed as mentioned above. The researchers worked out the methodology of evaluating the project results. Ten curricula were developed (Roborail, Sunflower, Desert scout, Go to park, Play and dance etc.) in which students had to learn to programme the Mindstorms robots with an increasing degree of complexity (Moro, Agatolio, and Menegatti 2018). Two teacher training sessions were organised, each lasting 5 days in which teachers were prepared for the developed curricula. The following aspects have to be taken into consideration when evaluating the project outcomes: -

-

-

teachers of different school subjects (e.g., informatics, philosophy, literature, physics, home economics, etc.) who showed a willingness to learn how to work with robots so that afterwards they could work with the students of the project target group participated in the project. project experts (M. Moro, D. Alimisis, E. Micheli) worked out 10 curricula specifically for the needs of the project which the involved teachers approbated in their training sessions to use later in their work with the students exposed to the ESL risk. teachers had the possibility to consult with the developers of the curricula as well as with colleagues from other partner countries in the online forum thus ensuring a continuous exchange of experience and reciprocal learning.

Taking these into consideration, technologies, in this case Lego Minsdstorms robots, can be used meaningfully as agents in the learning process in order to reduce social exclusion risks.

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Overall, 142 students participated in the project activities in both rounds. This chapter analyses the results that were obtained during the second round in which 92 students from the three project partner countries participated without assessing the results of individual countries. All teachers who worked every day with the students selected for the project were asked to give their assessment of the students who participated in the project activities. Before the project activities, 242 responses from teachers were received and after the activities 278 teachers responded. Table 1 summarises the data about some of the questions included in the questionnaire that describe the students’ attitude to learning, their motivation and problem-solving skills before and after participation in the project activities. As described above, the questions were not the same but were mutually comparable. In the table, the questions that were asked before participation in the activities are given on top while those below were asked after participation in the project activities. Although there was no statistically significant improvement, some parameters did show improvement. For example, in the question about learning being an exciting process, the mean increased from 3.32 to 4.40, which indicates that changing the traditional learning forms to activities in which the student is an active participant of the study process using learning agents (Lego robots) as intermediaries it is ensured that students regard the teaching/learning process as exciting. The question about searching for additional information that is necessary for the learning process increased from 2.88 to 3.48, indicating that students’ enthusiasm and interest in robotics activities can compel students to seek additional information and take responsibility for constructing their knowledge. It is especially important in the context of students with a low learning motivation and confirms the role of robots as agents in the learning process. The obtained results show that students have a desire to find out and learn something more, thus it is possible to assume that students will develop new neural connections that will help them in other learning contexts. This was also confirmed in the opinion expressed by students about the statement “I can use the gained knowledge in other activities”, in which the mean was 3.72. The question about solving learning problems at the beginning was 2.91 but after the participation in the project was 3.44. The obtained results confirm the positive role of the chosen strategy of using robots as agents of learning. Students who are exposed to ESL risk often have acquired avoidance motivation strategies; they avoid solving different problems, including learning problems. If the involved students consider that this skill has developed as a result of the project activities, then this skill might also be used in other contexts and help to reduce ESL risks.

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Mutual cooperation with classmates only slightly improved (at the beginning the mean was 3.94, and increased to 4.10). Students at the beginning of the project were not asked to evaluate cooperation with teachers (those who led the robotics classes). The mean was 4.25 and proves the necessity for the teachers’ support and individual attention that was possible in the activities organised in this particular way and that was specifically taught to teachers during the training activities. This result is also compulsory for the evaluation of the teaching/learning context because it confirms that changing the teachers’ attitude to students, organising an interesting teaching/learning process, allowing students themselves to be active participants of the teaching/learning process, engaging robots as agents of the learning process and balancing the mutual student/teacher relations, reducing the division of the hierarchic relations students perceive teachers more as the cooperation partners. .

Table 1. Students’ perceptions of robotic activities (after)

Descriptive Statistics (N 92):

Mean (before)

Std. Mean Deviation (after) (before)

Std. Deviation (after)

3.32

4.40

.999

.836

3.94

4.34

.988

1.030

2.88

3.48

1.202

1.158

Learning is fun Learning by using robots was exciting I like to cooperate with my classmates in lessons I liked to work in groups during the robotic activities I like to look for extra information needed for learning I liked to look for additional information to improve my knowledge about robotics

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I like to solve learning problems by myself 2.91

3.44

1.050

1.101

3.94

4.10

.988

.989

Improvement of collaboration skills with teachers’

-

4.25

-

.788

I can use the gained knowledge in other activities

-

3.72

-

1.201

I liked to solve problems during coding process by myself I like to colaborate with my classmates in lessons Improvement of collaboration skills with classmates

Questions that were asked only after the participation in the project activities, for example, whether students learned to programme the robots cannot be assessed in this case (see Table 2). The questions were formulated in the following way: Activities with robots helped me to improve my: and students had to evaluate the possibilities using a Likert scale from 1-completely disagree to 5-completely agree. The results showed that students assessed very positively both the improvement of knowledge in mathematics (mean 3.21) and physics (mean 3.05), but the highest assessment was for “skills to programme robots” (mean 3.89) and “Knowledge of information technologies” (mean 4.06). These results, too, serve as indicators that the use of robots as agents of learning in the work with students exposed to ESL risk does provide results despite the rather short period of time when these activities were organised.

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Table 2. Students’ perceptions of robotic activities (after)

Robotic activities helped to improve:

Mean

Std. Deviation

Variance

Knowledge in math

3.21

1.166

1.359

Knowledge in physics

3.05

1.311

1.719

Knowledge of information technologies

4.06

.946

.895

Skills to programme robots

3.89

.842

.709

Analysing the teachers’ opinion about the changes that they see in students who had participated in the project activities indicated no significant changes in teachers’ opinions about differences in students’ attitude to learning or their cooperation skills with other students and teachers. The mean changed by 0.15 points (see Table 3). On the one hand, these results indicate the robots made no difference, but the context in which the data were collected should be considered. Firstly, the questionnaires were filled out by all teachers who worked with students exposed to the ESL risk but who themselves were not involved in the project activities. Secondly, the activities with robots were organised in an extra-curricular format without introducing changes in the compulsory study process. Thirdly, the students’ involvement in the project activities was rather short (3 months) and this is a very short period of time, especially if one has to work with students who are in the ESL risk group. Fourthly, students exposed to the ESL risk often have already developed a negative attitude to the compulsory teaching/learning process which is also expressed in their learning, attitude and behaviour during the lessons thus it does not allow teachers to assess changes in students because they are not very evident. Fifthly, all activities that are performed in the pedagogical process and especially in work with students who need special support have a time-shift which means that they can appear after a longer period of time after performing these activities. These results cannot be used to recommend radical changes in the compulsory study process; however students with ESL risks did not worsen and therefore including more practical activities in which students themselves can be active and be responsible for their academic achievement can be recommended as students’ answers show that after working with robots they wanted to seek additional information thus

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becoming active participants in the learning process. It is necessary to give teachers additional pedagogical knowledge about how to work with students who have low learning motivation and how to promote their interest to develop the achievement motivation. Table 3. Teachers’ perception of changes in students’ attitude before and after robotics activities

Descriptive Statistics:

Mean (before)

Mean (after)

Std. Std. Deviation Deviation (before) (after)

Cooperates with classmates during 3.54 lessons in a positive way

3.71

1.027

1.066

Is ready to join out of class/school activities together with other 3.65 classmates

3.79

.979

.890

Is ready for work in lessons

3.58

3.68

1.056

1.140

Asks for help from teachers

3.14

3.30

1.032

1.028

Solves the learning problems by himself/herself

3.30

3.50

1.143

1.142

Solves conflicts in a calm way

3.94

4.20

1.072

.921

Conclusions The results illustrated that the use of robots as agents is successful in changing the attitude of students with ESL risk, to promote the development of learning motivation and problem-solving skills despite the fact that students were involved in these activities for only three months on average (1-2 times a week) which is a very short period of time to achieve significant changes in students’ attitude and motivation. Although there could be critical remarks that students’ motivation in the compulsory and non-formal learning process cannot be compared because the context is different, working with robots was organised after the lessons and students did not have the obligatory tasks that are assessed it still makes the researchers think about the organisational principles of the compulsory teaching/learning process that creates a negative attitude to it in students. By changing the organisational principles of the teaching/learning process, engaging students in an active study process and changing the hierarchy of student-teacher relations using robots as agents of learning,

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changes in students’ attitude to learning are attained and students’ learning motivation is improved. This may have a positive impact on the ESL risks because it shows students that the learning process can be interesting and meaningful and that the teacher can be a cooperation partner. Future research should explore how to use robots (or other non-human agents) in the compulsory teaching/learning process in order to change responsibility from the teacher who is responsible for the organisation of the teaching/learning process to the student who is responsible for the construction of his/her knowledge. A robot can be used in the teaching/learning process not only as a non-human agent of learning but also as a learning tool because it helps to improve the student’s knowledge in different school subjects – not only in the science subjects but also arts and social subjects, e.g., English, geography, etc. because the focus of the developed curricula is for students to solve real life problems while constructing and programming the robots. Robots as a learning tool help to implement immediate feedback which the students need in practice to form awareness about the construction of knowledge as a personally significant process. The fact that students acknowledge the positive impact of working with robots but teachers who are together with students only during the compulsory teaching/learning process assess this impact as less significant can be explained by the fact that a small number of teachers was involved in the project with students but the answers were provided by all teachers whoa re working at schools. The teachers who work with students everyday during the compulsory teaching/learning process without changing either the content of learning or the teaching methods may not notice fast changes in students’ attitude because the time period was too short and they had already formed a concrete attitude about students exposed to ESL risk. Another aspect that has not been verified in this research, but which cannot be excluded is that teachers treat students who are exposed to ESL risk more negatively thus, to a certain extent, even making these ESL risks stronger. This, in turn, creates challenges in the process of acquiring education for students who do not feel accepted, whose learning motivation is low and who have experienced that it is possible to learn differently. This, to a certain extent, can even intensify the impact of risks if there are no changes. Many countries give more and more importance to the improvement of teachers’ pedagogical competence in teacher education, putting more emphasis on the subject knowledge but this creates even new exclusion risks. If teachers do not know how to use the latest research developments, technologies and technological solutions to motivate all their students,

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including not just those who are inquisitive and motivated, then new groups of students can be excluded.

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Arduino approach for the irrigation of a field.” International Journal of Smart Education and Urban Society Volume 9(1) 25-36-DOI: 10.4018/IJSEUS Latané, Bibb. 1981. "The Psychology of Social Impact." American Psychologist 36, no. 4: 343-56. Macal, C. M., & North, M. J. 2005. “Tutorial on agent based modeling and simulation.” Paper presented at the Winter Simulation Conference, Orlando. http://www.informs-sim.org/wsc05papers/002.pdf Macy, M and R. Willer. 2002. "From Factors to Actors: Computational Sociology and Agent-based Modeling." Annual Review of Sociology 28: 143-66. Doi: 10.1146/annurev.soc.28.110601.141117 Michalík, P. 2015. “Behaviour of an Educational Simulation Model Depending on the Initial Conditions of the Simulation”. International Journal of Knowledge Society Research 2 (6): 94-103. doi:10.4018/IJKSR.2015040106 Misseyanni, A., Daniela, L., Lytras, M., Papadopoulou, P., Marouli, C. 2017. “Analyzing Active Learning Strategies in Greece and Latvia: Lessons Learnt and the Way Ahead.” INTED 11th International Technology, Education and Development Conference,. doi: 10.21125/inted.2017.0940 Moro, M., Agatolio, F., Menegatti, E. 2018. “The development of robotic enhanced curricula for the RoboESL project: overall evaluation and expected outcomes,” International Journal of Smart Education and Urban Society Volume 9(1) 48-60 (IJSEUS), DOI: 10.4018/IJSEUS Papert, S. 1984. “New Theories for New Learnings,” School Psychology Review 13 (4): 422-28 Rubene, Z., and Strods, R. 2017. “Transformations of Digital Culture in Doctoral Studies in Pedagogy: Case of the University of Latvia”. Acta Paedagogica Vilnensia, Volume 38: 143-58. ISSN 1392-5016 Smith, Eliot R., and Frederica R. Conrey. 2007. "Agent-Based Modeling: A New Approach for Theory Building in Social Psychology." Personality and Social Psychology Review 11, no. 1: 87-104. Van Rooy, Dirk, Ian Wood, and Eric Tran. 2016. "Modelling the Emergence of Shared Attitudes from Group Dynamics Using an Agent-Based Model of Social Comparison Theory." Systems Research And Behavioral Science 33, no. 1: 188-204. Doi: 10.1002/sres.2321. Sherif M. 1935. “A study of some social factors in perception.” Archives of Psychology 27 (187): 23-46. Tseng, Shih-Hsien, Chien-Kuo Chen, Jia-Chen Yu, and Ying-Chi Wang. "Applying the Agent-based Social Impact Theory Model to the

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Bullying Phenomenon in K–12 Classrooms." SIMULATION 90, no. 4 (2014): 425-37. Doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0037549714524452 Van Den Bergh, Linda, Anje Ros, and Douwe Beijaard. 2013. "Feedback during Active Learning: Elementary School Teachers’ Beliefs and Perceived Problems." Educational Studies 39, no. 4: 418-30. DOI: 10.1080/03055698.2013.767188 Vygotsky, L.S. 1962. Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/11193-000 —. 1978. “Interaction between learning and development.” Mind and Society, (1978): 79-91.

CHAPTER TWELVE ROBOESL IN OUR SCHOOL COMMUNITY: FOLLOW UP AND SUSTAINABILITY MICHELE LATTARULO, GIOVANNI MASSIDDA AND ERICA SOZZI

Abstract This report focuses on the organisation and impact of the RoboESL project in Liceo E. Fermi and it highlights the our impressions about the effectiveness of the activities linked to the project in preventing Early School Leaving. In particular, the paper analyses how some students taking part in the project got involved in further individual activities as a consequence of the enthusiasm aroused by what they did while working on the project. Even teachers who at first were not really inclined to be involved in the project have eventually become interested in educational robotics and they have started to cooperate in the project. Liceo Fermi will base on the experience derived from the RoboESL project some of its learning activities even after the end of the project. The logic of inclusion wants the learner to become an active protagonist, voluntary, participatory and interested in educational actions. The paper describes how we tried to implement a variety of forms of education, so that students can adapt their learning to their aspirations. RoboESL showed us that young people are able to learn more in an environment that is most suited to their needs and abilities and, thus, can ensure that they remain motivated to stay in education. On the other hand, we need to study in greater depth what aspects of educational robotics work with what types of audiences and under what conditions. The paper suggests dissemination strategies for the future, starting from our experience about the effectiveness of collaborative learning and the positive environment that educational robotics creates: by learning together in a project-based task, students tend to learn more. Keywords: Early School Leaving; education; educational robotics; inclusion; collaborative learning; dissemination; follow-up; sustainability.

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Introduction Liceo Fermi in Genoa is the coordinator of the RoboESL Erasmus+ project. Our school is attended by students from various backgrounds including people from immigrant families (in particular from Albania – about 4% in relation to the total number of students, Ecuador – about 2%, Morocco – about 1%). Data from our school confirm that male students are more likely to be early leavers than female students and that social groups such as migrants are more vulnerable: foreign students comprise about 8% of total students but foreign students have a 20% higher risk of early leaving. These data are in agreement with national and international data that show girls tend to outperform boys at school and young people born abroad are largely overrepresented among the early leavers. For these reasons, Liceo Fermi can be considered a suitable environment to check the effectiveness of a project that is designed for innovative and creative use of technology to provide an attractive learning environment suitable for involving students at risk of school failure/ESL. Liceo Fermi has dayto-day experience in taking care of pupils who are confronted with school difficulties. This is the basis of the contribution that our school brought to the project.

Robotics activities at Liceo Fermi Robotics activities at Liceo Fermi were organised as described below. First round (April 2016): • • •

•

36 students from 6 classes, aged 16 (from our second class); 12-hour course (four three-hour lessons); lessons started at 12:30 and went till 15:30 (in our school classes are usually dismissed at 13:50): we adopted this schedule, which partly overlapped with ordinary classes, to facilitate students’ participation and to avoid making their school days too hard and tiresome; curricula checked: Roborail, Go to Park, Desert Scout.

Second round (from December 2016 to February 2017): • •

34 students from 11 classes, aged 15-16 (from our first and second classes); 16-hour course (four three-hour lessons + two two-hour lessons);

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• •

three-hour lessons started at 12:30 and went till 15:30; two-hour lessons were from 14:30 to 16:30; curricula checked: Roborail, Go to Park, Desert Scout; Let’s Play and Dance; The Sunflower.

We selected the students on the basis of proficiency according to school reports and teachers’ further evaluation. We formed small groups (three or four students per group) with students from different classes to be able to test their aptitude for collaboration. Five teachers supported the students during the training. Teachers involved in the project teach different disciplines: history and philosophy, mathematics and physics, science, drawing and art history. During the activities: • • • • •

most of the students seemed excited and positively involved; few students seemed little involved; some students appeared very creative: they sought personal solutions and attempted to alter in a personal way what was proposed; the students appeared very responsible: nothing was broken or lost; usually students were seeking the correct values of the parameters by trial; only rarely they sought a mathematical solution.

Involvement of teachers in robotics activities at Liceo Fermi Sometimes teachers are not confident with their own technical skills and are intimidated by the training (Alimisis 2013). We noted the same attitude in our teachers. But after the initial hesitation, even teachers at first not really inclined to be involved in the project eventually became interested in educational robotics and they started to cooperate in the project. At the same time, the enthusiasm of the teachers involved from the beginning increased. So they participated in some events concerning educational robotics, e.g., they were members of the jury of a contest in Robotics Tournaments (Nao Challenge, organised by Scuola di Robotica). It is clear that technology now permeates every aspect of our lives. Although our students are digital natives, they rarely stop to think about how their devices actually work (Eguchi 2014). So, teachers have the task of turning students from passive users into active users of technological tools.

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Related activities Some students taking part in the project got involved in further activities as a consequence of the enthusiasm aroused by what they did while working on the project. The main activities were: •

•

School orientation activities for students from middle school, aged 12-13 (November 2016): our students realised an Open Lab with a focus on roboethics, ev3, scratch/arduino. They have been able to involve younger pupils by passing on to them a positive enthusiasm for the use of robots. Robotic activities (in collaboration with Scuola di Robotica) with visually impaired children at the Chiossone Institute, an education centre for assistance to visual impaired people. Our students got involved in a new engaging and challenging situation and they have proven to be up to their task.

Follow up In the next school year, we plan to: • •

organise robotics activities as an after-school programme, to continue providing meaningful robotics opportunities for students; implement the use of robots in lab activities (science, computer science) to include robotics in the curriculum and improve it.

There is no systematic introduction of robotics in school curricula within the European school systems (Rusk et al. 2008). However, robotic toolkits with friendly designs have increased the popularity of robotics among students. The implementation of robotics activities in after-school classes only for certain students seems more convenient (Ebelt, 2012). This opinion is usually accompanied by the perception that robotics is hard, highly gender-biased and not inviting for most students. But our project has shown that all students can be positively involved in robotics activities, not only pupils talented in science and technology. Certainly, we will have to check what topics are suitable for a robotic approach, because, although we are pleased with the results obtained with the use of robots initially, robotics is not a panacea suitable for solving all educational problems. Furthermore, it should not be forgotten that the problem to be solved with robots illustrates only the principles to be explained and is not the goal in itself: you have to make sure that students do not miss the

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correct perspective and they learn what we want them to learn. You have to balance practice and theoretical knowledge, while remaining in the context of a constructivist approach. From this point of view, the assessment process is of great importance. Within the RoboESL project, students have worked free from the thought of being assessed, thus expressing their potential without constraints. However, a careful evaluation can be a further stimulus for learning. A thorough reflection on this is needed. The approach to robot activities should be diversified to meet the different interests and attitudes of students. For example, pupils who are not interested in traditional approaches to robotics could become motivated when robotics activities are introduced in connection with other disciplines and interest areas: in this regard the approach highlighted by RoboESL curricula is positive. In fact, you can stimulate interest in technology showing technological applications in different contexts and disciplines: working with robots does not necessarily mean manoeuvring a car; it can mean creating a programmable musical instrument or robotic characters based on a book or movie. Last but not least, it seems appropriate to emphasise that robotic-based courses require more resources than other courses. They require more financial support, more space, more preparation work and if possible more teachers. Thus, you need to design and manage them in the best way.

Conclusions Educational robotics can expand learning opportunities and teaching practices. When students work with robots, they have the opportunity to think deeply about technology and apply theoretical knowledge in an exciting way. Robotics lessons can integrate STEM with many other disciplines, giving students the opportunity to express themselves in a variety of ways and to find the most suitable way to bring out their potential.

References Alimisis, Dimitris. 2013. “Educational Robotics: new challenges and trends.” Themes in Science and Technology Education 6 (1): 63-71. http://earthlab.uoi.gr/theste Ebelt, Kaye R. 2012 The effects of a robotics program on students skills in STEM, problem solving and teamwork: Montana State University 1-54.

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Eguchi, Amy. 2014. Robotics as a Learning Tool for Educational Transformation. Proceeding of 4th International Workshop Teaching Robotics, Teaching with Robotics & 5th International Conference Robotics in Education Padova (Italy). 2014. Rusk, Natalie, Mitchel Resnick, Robbie Berg, and Margaret Pezalla-Granlund. 2008. “New Pathways into Robotics: Strategies for Broadening Participation.” Journal of Science Education and Technology, February 2008 Project “RoboESL - Robotics-based learning interventions for preventing schoolfailure and Early School Leaving” – Project Code 2015-1-IT02KA201-015141 – Co-funded by the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union

CHAPTER THIRTEEN FROM BEING PAST ROBOESL STUDENTS TO BECOMING ROBOTICS-TEACHER ASSISTANTS GEORGIOS IOANNOU FRAGKAKIS

Abstract Robotics-based learning provides a very useful tool in education. The impact on students’ attitude is very vivid that they often become teacher assistants in new to Robotics pupils. With this study the author presents how previous prone to failure students (from a RoboESL Programme) became active Robotics-teacher assistants. Keywords: Robotics, Robotics-based learning, Early School Leaving, School Failure, educational robotics, RoboESL

Introduction From day to day, interest in Robotics is widely increasing in all fields. We are surrounded by technological inventions, automation systems, etc. With that in mind, one could suggest today’s young students need to be prepared and open minded to new technologies. And this is where Robotics in Education plays a significant role. The principle is simple: A student can construct and programme Robots while at the same time learning Physics, Mathematics, Trigonometry, Mechanics, etc. In the past few years, new methodologies, courses and competitions have increasingly been created under the educational robotics general framework. Therefore, a variety of educational material is widely available, adapted according to the level, age and educational goals. All these activities provide very powerful stimuli, largely triggering students' potential and creativity (Bredenfeld, Hofmann and Steinbauer 2010). During the 2015-2016 school year in the 23rd Athens Junior High School (Gymnasium), a RoboESL programme took place. This project

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was about organising learning activities applicable to students prone to school failure and dropout, stimulating their interest in sciences, technology and school in general, through robotics. The programme proved very successful, according to statistical student improvement. The current paper will present how these “first generation” RoboESL students loved Robotics so much that they became teacher assistants to another beginner-level class.

Pedagogical Perspectives Working with robotics is inspired by the constructivist theories of Piaget and Papert. According to them, learning for humans is not a result of sharing knowledge, but an active process of constructing knowledge based on experience (Piaget 1972). Gaining new knowledge is more effectively achieved when the learners build products that have a personal meaning to them. The aim of constructivism is to provide children with the appropriate things to do in order to learn in practice and more effectively than before. In this theoretical framework, a social-constructivist approach (Vygotsky 1978) is adopted where learning is not individualised but is treated as a social and socialised activity; in other words learning takes place within a social environment. In this framework, using educational robotics will have a positive influence not only cognitively but also emotionally (selfesteem, self-confidence) and socially (socialisation, debunking myths). When children design, build and programme robots, they have the opportunity to learn through playing and develop their technical/social skills. Students can explore, experiment and enjoy the fruits of their labour immediately. Each and every activity or problem can be approached in multiple ways and so students discover or want to know alternative solutions. The teacher stands beside them guiding and encouraging, assisting them on learning how to learn. There are multiple possibilities that can offer versatility and adaptability at every student level. For instance, the assigned linear movement of a robot can be achieved in ways of varying difficulty: altering power, rotation or rotation angle. Working with activities on robotics fosters teaching various concepts of other sciences and cognitive fields (Physics, Mathematics, Geometry, Technology, Mechanics etc.) as long as they can be part of a well-designed curriculum (Fragkakis 2016; Samra et al. 2017).

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Discussion – Preliminary Arrangements Previous RoboESL students showed much interest in continuing and attending similar robotics courses. So, there was a meeting among the previous students and me. There, we discussed how this could be achieved. We then agreed and decided: -

To continue Robotic lessons in after school-hours meetings, To find a way to attract new students, To present our work to the public.

This was done by organising new classes, where ex-students would now be active teacher assistants. In fact, they proved to be very helpful in all stages, as they adequately supported the whole educational procedure. To begin with, they visited every classroom and shared their experience of Robotics-based learning, in order to attract new students.

Designing, Preparing Educational Material and Logistical Infrastructure The activities took place in the school's Computer Lab, so the space was arranged as necessary. Some of the arrangements made were: -

Placing school desks in a pattern appropriate for building robotic structures in teams (2-4 desks joined together), Creating lanes (improvised tracks) on the desks to carry out the projects etc., Likewise, worksheets, supporting material, instructions, questionnaires etc. were prepared.

The robotic equipment used was LEGO Mindstorms. The educational course was designed to consist of two projects involving Robotic activities. These were the exact same projects that previous students (currently teacher assistants) had already completed. The time to accomplish this was 12-14 hours. Lessons were carried out outside school curriculum, after the end of the school day.

Classroom implementation I decided that two projects already known and completed by exstudents would be the teaching material for the current students. The

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projects would be the Automatic Train and the Automatic Car Park. Three previous students were involved in this. They were given guidance on how to help with the new class. At the end they agreed to play a very active role. Nine new students (mainly from first grade) enrolled in this new course. During the first meeting, students were welcomed and introduced to the subject. A brief introductory video with robots in action triggered students' interest even more. Group formation followed. Again, there was an activity aimed to do that but since the students already knew each other (they were mainly from the first grade), three groups were easily formed without much teacher intervention. Good practices of group working have to be maintained. Having that in mind, should any team-related problem occur, the teams would have to be modified. But this did not happen throughout the course. Lastly, every team had a teacher assistant allocated (former students served as teaching assistants).

Projects Description (In Brief) The two projects were about: 1. An Automatic train. This activity was about building and programming a train-robot which would begin moving from a start line, stop automatically at every station, wait awhile and continue until the finish line. At the finish line, after waiting a little longer, it would reverse its route (going in reverse gear) returning to the start line where it would completely stop. It was assumed that there was equal distance between the stations and that the train moved at a steady speed. 2. Automatic Car Parking. The aim was to build and programme a threewheel robot (car) which would be able to detect an empty parking space and park automatically. It was assumed that the parking was fixed with parking spaces of specific width/length. The empty space tracing was performed by an ultrasound sensor (which measured the distance from an obstacle). The vehicle rotated initially in a 90° angle in front of the potential parking space. The sensor measured and, if there was an obstacle (i.e. the parking space was occupied), the car rotated back to its initial position and moved on to the next space. When it found an empty parking space, it would park and stop.

Results The course proved to be successful, as all teams completed both projects on time. The experienced students helped – when needed – the

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newcomers. At the end, previous students answered a questionnaire. This helped to evaluate the whole educational attempt, in terms of how they liked being teacher assistants. This can be very clearly depicted from the following figures (Fig. 1 – Fig.6). Most students answered positively.

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Conclusions The vast majority of students were particularly interested and eager about robotics from the very beginning. They felt more free and spontaneous in class – without crossing the line or becoming undisciplined. Feelings of team-spirit, collaboration and mutual aid were cultivated, without undermining individuality, self-motivation and, in the case of charismatic students, innovation. The nature of robotics played a major role in everything: they treated it much more as a group game which enabled them to gain new knowledge and skills. Building a construction that can move and execute commands in the real world, a construction that was just designed and built a few moments ago, provides a very powerful stimulus (Fragkakis 2016). From the first day, there was a positive feeling and a sense of creativity in the class, with the teacher assuming a more consultative and guiding role, as a coordinator of the educational process, rather than a teacher who merely lectures. And this was even further supported by the help of teacher-assistant students. The latter students were particularly focused on helping and collaborating in various ways (arranging, demonstrating, correcting mistakes, etc.), while at the same time maintaining a very pleasant and warm classroom atmosphere. The whole course ran smoothly, cultivating a relaxed, well-poised and enthusiastic learning environment. The relationship between teacher and students was strengthened even further with the school's participation in the Athens Science Festival. There the students were asked to present and explain their robot operation to the visitors. This activity reinforced their sense of responsibility and maturity and they all behaved in a very mature and trustworthy manner. Their social skills were developed as they were interviewed; they also talked and explained their work to the public. Lastly, taking into consideration all the above observation points and outcomes, one can say that there is a good chance of “robotics-in-education” project sustainability.

References Bredenfeld, A., A. Hofmann, and G. Steinbauer. 2010. Robotics in Education Initiatives in Europe - Status, Shortcomings and Open Questions. Proceedings of SIMPAR 2010 Workshops, International Conference on SIMULATION, MODELING and PROGRAMMING for AUTONOMOUS ROBOTS.

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Fragkakis, G. 2016. Experiences from ROBOESL project implementation in the 23rd Athens Junior High School. Robotics-based learning interventions for preventing school failure and early school leaving. Proceedings of RoboESL Conference, 14-20. Piaget, J. 1972. Psychology and Epistemology. Towards a Theory of Knowledge. Harmondsworth: Penguin Samra, H. E., A. S. Li, B. Soh, and M. A. AlZain. 2017. “A Cloud-Based Architecture for Interactive E-Training.” International Journal of Knowledge Society Research 1 (8): 67-78. doi:10.4018/IJKSR.2017010104 Vygotsky, L. S. 1978. Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. This project is directly related with the Erasmus+ project “Robotics-based learning interventions for preventing school failure and Early School Leaving” - ROBOESL Project (PROJECT CODE 2015-1- IT02-KA201015141)

CHAPTER FOURTEEN LEGO ROBOT AS TEACHING TOOLS IN VOCATIONAL TEACHER EDUCATION IN UGANDA: OBJECTS TO THINK WITH BIRGER BREVIK

Abstract This study explores the use of LEGO in general and LEGO Mindstorms, especially as a technological learning tool at vocational teacher training in Uganda. An earlier study on the use of LEGO Mindstorms in elementary schools was established to stimulate the pupils’ interest in technological education. The results from this study show that LEGO Mindstorms is an appropriate tool for this purpose. The same applies to the use of LEGO Mindstorms as a teaching tool in secondary vocational school, where teachers found this to be a useful tool for simulation of technological work processes. Based on the results from the previous study we have established two technological learning workshops where LEGO Mindstorms are the central learning tool, linked to vocational teacher training, respectively in Norway and Uganda. Informants in this study are master’s students in vocational education from Uganda who attended a workshop where they were introduced to LEGO and LEGO Mindstorms as a learning tool. The main question was: Can LEGO and LEGO Mindstorms be used as teaching tools in vocational education in Uganda? To answer this question, I interviewed in December 2016 five students from Uganda about their opinion on the use of LEGO as a learning tool. Four of these five students attended a LEGO workshop in Norway while one student had previously attended a similar event in Uganda. Both workshops in Norway and Uganda were facilitated by the author and conducted with the same equipment. Interviews were recorded as MP3 files, and analysed using the software atlas.ti, and the constant comparative method. As a theoretical framework I used Papert’s constructionism learning philosophy. A brief answer to the issue I have posed is a quote from one of the informants “LEGO fits and is suitable in all dimensions at our school”. The informants in this

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study told me that after their stay in Norway, they want to return to Uganda and make a change in the educational system. They want development in their home country, and as a part of that they want to implement new technologies with computer programmes, programming and robotics. Keywords Teacher training, LEGO, learning tools, robots

Introduction In 2017, just as in 1987, we are engaged in implementing the use of computers in education at all levels. When I completed a study in computer technology for teachers in 2000, the subject was JAVA programming and database design. A couple of years later, I studied Information Technology for teachers at a college, and then there was HTML coding and advanced use of Excel spreadsheets as topics. Information technology for teachers focused on pedagogical use for teachers, and was a course offered at many of the Norwegian teachers’ colleges. I have made good advanced use of Excel as a teacher in organising and planning teaching, and to some extent teaching students in high school. In the Norwegian core curriculum for vocational education, digital skills are one of five basic skills, together with expressing themselves verbally, in writing, reading and mathematical skills. Question: What kind of digital literacy do student teachers and teacher educators need? From January 2004 to June 2007, I worked with a competence project, Teknobuss. We visited all primary schools in three municipalities in Norway each year, together with more than 3,000 students and their teachers. The idea behind the project was to introduce basic digital skills by allowing students to programme a LEGO robot to solve various practical tasks. An example of such a practical task was that students should programme a LEGO robot to drive a distance of 2 metres, pick up an object, turn the robot, and return with the object to the starting point. All student groups solved their tasks with more or less assistance. As a didactic framework factor, we decided that students should solve the tasks of programming and testing in groups of three students, and no less than two students in a group. A portable classroom of 54 square metres was set up with workplaces for five groups of three students. The work on this project, Teknobuss, formed the basis for a project based on the same ideas and basic principles with the following problem: How can teachers in high school use LEGO Mindstorms as a learning tool in upper secondary school? (Brevik 2014a). As a result of this study, a technological learning workshop was established following the same model as the mobile Technology bus, now as a permanent workshop at a university college. The room was intended for use by teachers, teachers

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and primary school students in the vicinity of the university college. The local municipality responsible for primary schools paid for the LEGO equipment, today located at the college's technology room (TLK). In October 2015, following intense work, we got a similar Lego Education Center (LEC) at Kyambogo University (KYU) in Uganda. A workshop was equipped in the same way as TLK in Norway and based on the former mobile classroom Teknobuss. Although LEC in Uganda was not established before autumn 2015, both students and teachers at KYU learned about LEGO as a learning tool at school. Since autumn 2014 I have completed several trips to Uganda for the purpose of introducing LEGO as a learning tool for teachers and students at Kyambogo University, linked to graduates and mentors at the master's programme in vocational pedagogy MVP. All of them were introduced to the use of LEGO material as a technological learning tool in the school through twoday seminars, with limited access to LEGO material. In addition, similar seminars were conducted for exchange students from Uganda to Norway at Oslo University College and Akershus University. On this background, I ask the following: Are LEGO and LEGO Mindstorms suitable teaching tools in vocational education in Uganda? The purpose of this development project is not to educate programmers, but to focus on students' digital skills, and to give them examples of how students can apply technological learning tools.

Context, concepts and theoretical framework Vocational teacher education in Uganda (MVP) Oslo and Akershus university college has offered a master’s in vocational education (MAYP) for many years. This master's degree program originally intended for vocational teachers in high school to qualify as lecturers at the high school level, and also as university lecturers. Vocational teachers usually have a background holding trade certificate and vocational schools from the profession they teach, such as electricians, carpenters or cooks. The students have a vocational education and not an academic education, other than a one-year practical pedagogical education. This provides teaching competence as a teacher, equivalent to 3-4 years of teacher education at the university or university college EQF level 6 (EQF 2012). An academic lecturer holds a master's degree at EQF level 7 with a

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minimum of 5 years of university or university education. MVP at Kyambogo University is drafted according to the same model and for the same target group as MAYP in Norway. The students who took part in this study were enlisted in a MAYP study at HiOA where the first and last semesters took place in Norway, while the two middle semesters were conducted in their own home country, Uganda, mainly related to data collection and analysis.

LEGO robotics - Objects to think with The compendium titled “Objects to think with” consists of six articles. The articles function as a theoretical tool for MVP students at Kyambogo University and an introduction to LEGO and LEGO Mindstorms as an educational learning tool (Brevik 2014b). The first article explains the background for the first educational version of LEGO Mindstorms (Erwin, Cyr, and Rogers 2000). One of the authors, Chris Rogers, is recognised as the “father” of RoboLab, the software for the first generation of LEGO Mindstorms for Schools (later LEGO Education). It should be mentioned that RoboLab is based on the same software, LabView, which also is the core software in today’s (2017) third generation of programming software for LEGO Mindstorms EV3. The author of the second article, Fred Martin, was one of the researchers who developed the prototype of today’s LEGO Mindstorms EV3 programmable brick (Martin 1999). In his article, Martin shows creative ways of using LEGO-bricks in building advanced LEGO constructions. The third article presents a practical example of using LEGO Mindstorms for earthquake simulation (Wickert 2009). The article deals with the second generation LEGO Mindstorms programmable brick (NXT). Due to its similarity with the third generation brick, it also serves as a useful guide for LEGO construction utilising EV3. The most interesting aspect of article four is Morgan Hynes’ introduction to Engineering Design Process, and how to use it in educational fields (Hynes 2012). The model is suitable for structuring project-based learning strategies, something the students in this study were introduced to during their workshop. Since the target group for the training in LEGO robotic is a master's student, I found it appropriate to include an article presenting a study of student use of LEGO robotics (Wang 2001). The article presents a course for first year bachelor students in Mechanical Engineering. Although it describes use of first generation LEGO Mindstorms, it is interesting to notice how such learning tools can be employed in higher education.

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The last article in the compendium describes how a technological learning workshop was established at Kyambogo University (Brevik and Holtet 2015). Two other themes of interest are the background for the development of LEGO Mindstorms, and a brief introduction to Seymour Papert’s learning philosophy, Constructionism.

Constructionism – constructionist vision of learning – learning by making Seymour Papert’s Learning Philosophy Constructionism can be described as Papert's principle: Some of the most crucial steps in mental growth are based not simply on acquiring new skills, but on acquiring new administrative ways to use what one already knows (Minsky 1988, 102). In other words, the key here is to provide the learner with a new administrative tool to take advantage of what he/she already knows within a given area. This competence of already acquired knowledge comes in addition to what the learner acquires as new skills. Papert’s learning philosophy of constructionism builds on Piaget's theory of children's knowledge development, constructivism. Some scholars therefore consider Papert's learning philosophy as a simplified version of Piaget's theory (Papert 1993). Papert's learning philosophy is a concretisation of Piaget's theory and both Piaget and Papert deal with two diverse phenomena (Ackermann 2001). While Piaget's theory is a theory on knowledge development, Paper's theory is about learning and teaching (Kafai 2006, 35). Since Papert's constructionism can be perceived as a simplified version of Piaget's constructivism, a quotation from Papert describes the difference between these two concepts: “Constructionism—the N word as opposed to the V word—shares constructivism ғs connotation of learning as building knowledge structures irrespective of the circumstances of learning. It then adds the idea that this happens especially felicitously in a context where the learner is consciously engaged in constructing a public entity, whether it is a sand castle on the beach or a theory of the universe” (Papert and Harel 1991, 1). Papert emphasises that teachers facing challenges in facilitating pupils' learning will benefit from changing their practice from instruction to counselling. Many researchers perceived Papert's early publication as saying there was no need for teaching, which according to Clements and Sarama, this is not the case (1999). Clements and Sarama therefore underline that the definition of teaching is crucial and claim that it is not about “… teaching by telling in a narrow sense or guiding learning in the broadest sense” (28), but about going “… away from the transmission and

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acquisition style associated with lectures and quizzes, to a more active, participatory learning style” as Kafai claims (2006, 35). This means that Papert believes that teachers should not leave all learning activities to the students alone but have an active participatory learning style. Another description of the constructionist learning philosophy is how Papert describes “The simplest definition of constructionism evokes the idea of learning-by-making...” (Papert and Harel 1991, 6), which includes two meanings of the term construction. One constitutes the construction of the student's intellectual structure (mental construction). It takes place while the students construct a personal and meaningful artefact (physical construction), which is also meaningful to them in the first meaning of construction (Kafai and Resnick 1996, 1). Ackermann believes this is a change from universal learning to individual learning, where the individual has a “…conversation with their own favorite representations, artifacts, or objects-to-think with” (2001, 4). This quote inspired the title of my article, using artefacts as a learning tool to concretise and practice traditional teaching methods.

Methods To answer the research question, I have chosen a qualitative research design where I interviewed five master’s students from Uganda (Kvale and Brinkmann 2009). The students have completed a master's degree in vocational education where half the study time was in Norway and the other in Uganda. The informants have all participated in a practical seminar where they were introduced to LEGO as a learning tool in school, either in Norway (HiOA) or in Uganda (KYU). In addition to this, I have used separate logs from the development work in Norway and Uganda. These logs are mainly in the form of pictures taken during my travels to Uganda and the implementation of the seminars in Norway. The images are used as stimulated recall from the various events that are documented (Haglund 2003). In order to structure the interview survey, I prepared an interview guide with the following topics: Participation in a workshop, either at HiOA or KYU, Students' knowledge of a compendium, what usefulness do the students think this concept has. The last question was: Can you imagine using materials from LEGO Education as a teacher in Uganda? In addition to what was directly relevant for answering this issue, I also asked about the students' general experience with the MVP study. Included were questions about the student's future plans after completing their education,

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and what relevant job opportunities the students envision after completing MVP education. The interviews were conducted on 5 December, 2016 at Kjeller in Norway just before the students returned to their native Uganda after completing the exam (Table 1). Furthermore, the interviews were recorded on a separate MP3 recorder intended for research interviews (not smartphone) and transferred to a computer for further analysis with the Atlas.ti computer programme. The study has been reported to the Norwegian Center for Research Data in Norway, and evaluated to satisfy research ethical issues regarding processing, data storage and the protection of informants' privacy. Table 1: List of informants

Id. I1 I2 I3 I4 I5

Attended Workshop at: HiOA HiOA KYU Both KYU and HiOA Both KYU and HiOA

Vocation / background Hotel – bakery Pedagogy Art & Design Art & Design

Gender F M M M

Interview length 24 minutes 23 minutes 52 minutes 26 minutes

Hotel – bakery

M

28 minutes

The workshops at Kyambogo University focused on programming robots and mechanical construction of robots. At HiOA, the completed work job focused on mechanical construction with LEGO material, and demonstration of LEGO robots (Brevik, Sjøberg, and Tarrou 2008).

Analysis of the interviews After the interviews, the audio files were exported to the database Atlas.ti analysis programme as primary documents (www.atlasti.com). I chose to analyse the audio files directly, and not go the more traditional way through transcribed text documents and then analyse them. The reason I chose to analyse the audio files directly was to have the opportunity to listen to the statements again and not just read my transcripts. With all transcripts of audio files, you will lose some of the information, even with detailed transcripts with tags. The only text transcript in this study is transcription of the informants' statements used in this article.

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The analysis has been performed using methods described as constant comparative method (Glaser and Strauss 1967; Charmaz 2014). This is a systematic analysis process described as ‘Grounded Theory’ (Glaser and Strauss 1967). The software used in the analyses, Atlas.ti, is based on Grounded Theory, but is also used in other research designs, such as Case Study (Yin, 2009). I would describe my study as a qualitative interview study in which I have used the constant comparative method of categorising the collected empirical data. The constant comparative method is described as a three-step process with open, axial and selective coding. First, I listened to the interviews and encoded every meaningful statement that is relevant to this study (Open coding). At the same time as the open coding, I transcribed the quotes that I found representative of the informants about the various topics during the interview. In the Atlas.ti software this is called a memo. Software Atlas.ti operates with five different units: Documents, Quotations, Codes, Memos and Network (Friese 2011). For this study, the five MP3 files are Documents. Quotations are cropped small sections of the audio file lasting a few seconds. Codes are the tags I have attached to each quotation. I have used from 1 to 5 codes on the individual quotations. Memos are used as researchers' notes and reflections during the code process (Hartman 2001), but in this study, as mentioned earlier, memos were used to gather quotes from the informants. After the open coding session, an axial process was completed combining codes to group the codes into various themes. Finally, I named the different themes, and found some key categories through selective coding. However, this is not a linear process, as the three different steps in the analysis process were repeated several times before arriving at my chosen categories. I found the following key categories which are used to systematically present the results: x x x

Robotics and LEGO Expectations The Societal needs

Results Robotics and LEGO Use of LEGO Mindstorms as a learning tool was known to several of the informants before being introduced to this through our seminar. One of

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the informants referred to colleagues at a high school in Kampala using LEGO Mindstorms in teaching technology. However, she herself had not used this in her own teaching. An informant attending one of the Seminaries in Kampala took me to an acquaintance who has established a Maker-Space workshop for children and young people in Kampala. They used many different systems for robot management, including LEGO Mindstorms. One of the purposes of this workshop was to teach children and youngsters creativity by constructing various robot systems based on used and new electronic components. Asking about possible use of LEGO material for youth and high school in Uganda, one of the informants answered the following: “If we look at it as a pedagogical learning material I think it's time to do something.” (I3) Two of the informants had education and experience from Art & Design. One had taught students in Art & Design, and found LEGO and robotics added a new dimension to the subject; “I realise robotics and LEGO assist in making functional sculptures... Art can be fused with technology to enhance the production.” (I4). He expressed excitement about the possibilities of this tool: “It caught my heart, and maybe I need more lessons in robotics” (I4) It turned out that none of the informants were familiar with the theoretical compendium developed in conjunction with the workshop for students at KYU. However, after explaining what this meant, the informants expressed that this would be a useful tool for their work with LEGO robotics and LEGO construction in Ugandan teaching situations. One of the informants with an Art & Design background expressed this need: “Absolutely yes, it can give me the general background ... It can lead me into understanding the technology behind LEGO and the robotics... (to) reach the knowledge I need to understand better before I start teaching my learners.” (I4). I asked if he could use such a compendium or equivalent in his own teaching: “First of all be informed theoretically and then they can take informed decisions while they are doing practical tasks” (I4). Several of the articles in the compendium can be viewed as didactic articles, but they still do not contain comprehensive recipes of the described artefacts. However, I have a suspicion that it is complete recipes the informants want. The reasons for my suspicions are the requests I received from the participants during the LEGO Workshop hosted in Uganda. The students in vain called for recipes and detailed descriptions of how different issues can be solved. The way of teaching was according to Papert's learning philosophy, where the learner him/herself should conceive a meaningful artefact and not copy the artefact of others or teachers (Papert & Harel

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1991). This understanding and use of LEGO and LEGO Mindstorms as learning tools is probably the same as informant I3 asserts: About LEGO more generally: “When you look at LEGO as an artist, you have a desire to create and build”. (I3) When I asked one of the informants if he would like to use what he experienced at the LEGO workshop in his own teaching, he answered: “Actually...that is one of the reasons ... why I want to establish that department ... of pedagogy” (I5). One of the other informants also believed that LEGO robotics are applicable to learners of all ages: “When you know what it is, it allows you to participate at your level, and the ideas you have” (I3). He further stated that this learning tool could help harmonise education in Uganda with the rest of the world: “And if you want to compete, our students should be up to date on what is happening in the rest of the world” (I3).

Expectations The study gave strong indications on how the students experienced their teachers' expectations of the subjects they were going to work on. In Norway, they believed that the professors expected the students to work with the interest of each individual student. While in Uganda, the students expressed that the expectations of the professors were that the students worked on what the professors thought was best. One of the informants came with a remarkable statement about the Ugandan education system and claimed: “A big percentage of teachers, especially in rural areas, they can’t read and write (properly?).... it’s about survival” (I3). He had the impression that many worked as teachers only to earn an income, not because they wanted it or were qualified to teach. These teachers still were formally qualified as teachers. He continued: “You can imagine the outcome…” (I3). These statements came in conjunction with his observations of the Norwegian school system, where he expressed: “There’s something I appreciate the more I study here, that our professors and supervisors were more interested in our personal development, and us thinking critically” (I3). This shows an experienced difference between the Ugandan and Norwegian education systems. These experiences are probably the reasons for the informants' desire for a change in attitudes of teachers and education systems in their own country.

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Societal needs Informant I4 used the term "Transform community". After my observations in Uganda, they are already in the technological age with the use of mobile phones both in urban and rural areas. Signs and billboards for Mobile Money are seen everywhere. Even for those who do not have financial resources, mobile phone technology is available for a reasonable amount of money. For example, a mobile phone (with the possibility of Facebook activity) costs about 15 USD. Challenges in these countries, however, are access to electrical energy to charge the mobile phones. This, however, is avoided with large phone batteries enabling standby time of 21 to 80 days. According to my observations in Uganda many of our colleges at the university had two mobile telephones. I asked one of the university professors why, and he explained the problematic access to electrical energy for charging their mobile phones. Many people therefore keep one phone with long standby time for availability, and a smartphone for other uses. One of the informant groups introduced design and technology as part of the university (KYU) in order to address society's needs; as he expressed: “Now they can start using and developing products that are needed in the society” (I4). As Art & Design teachers at KYU, he was very concerned with what he described as “Functional design”. He defined its meaning: “Learners can produce products that are needed in their community, not just art and design for the sake of art itself” (I4). One of the informants wishing to continue with a PhD after his master’s expressed that he wanted to return to teaching after completion of the course: “After my PhD I’d like to go back and teach, and make changes, most especially in the curriculum” (I4). He also described how today's curricula in Uganda are not adapted to today's technological challenges: “Our curriculum is more silent when it comes to modern technology” (I4). Goodlad’s conceptual framework for studies for and development of curricula shows the necessity of such a context in which actors in society must influence both the formal, instructional (educational institutions), operational (teachers) and experiential (pupils and students) curriculum (Goodlad, Klein, and Tye 1979, 68). My recommendation to those who wish to develop new curricula is therefore to use Goodlad's framework for further work on developing new curricula (Goodlad 1979, 348-349).

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Discussion and conclusion The informants had mainly two different backgrounds, either from Art & Design or from vocational programs within hotel management and bakery. However, the feedback I received from the informants was relatively similar, and not dependent on the informants’ background. They expressed using LEGO material and LEGO robotics as useful in their own teaching at home in Uganda. More specifically, the informants with background from Art & Design considered it an opportunity to teach students functional design, that is to add technology into the design making it more functional. A relatively large problem is access to LEGO material for use in the teaching at VET schools. However, it is possible to obtain such materials even with limited resources. This study does not provide any answer to where these two different examples got hold of resources to acquire LEGO robotics (Mindstorms), yet give examples that schools can work with Lego robotics in Uganda. Can LEGO and LEGO Mindstorms be used as teaching tools in vocational education in Uganda? A brief answer to this issue is a quote from one of the informants: “LEGO fits within all dimensions in our school” (I5). Although the study has few informants from concrete contexts, I have found answers as to whether LEGO robotics are suitable as learning tools in other school contexts in Uganda. For the question about LEGO robotics being used elsewhere other than at university and some selected schools, one of the informants said: “If Kyambogo University can get the LEGO message to the secondary schools across, it will be more meaningful for our students” (I5). He expressed this further: “Some of the students are introduced to robotics at the university. We won’t find it at secondary schools, and that’s a very big gap... I think something can be done to introduce LEGO into secondary schools.” After my conversations with the informants, after graduating they want to return to Uganda to "make a change in the educational system there". They want development in their home country, and they want the implementation of new technologies that use computer programmes with programming and robotics.

References Ackermann, E. K. 2001. Piaget’s Constructivism, Papert’s Constructionism: What’s the difference? Boston: Future of learning group publication, MIT OpenCourseWare.

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Brevik, B. 2014a. LEGO & Læring: En kvalitativ studie av elektrofaglæreres bruk av LEGO Mindstorms som læringsverktøy i norsk videregående skole. Oslo: PhD diss., University of Oslo. Brevik, B. (Ed.) 2014b. Objects to think with. Oslo: HiOA. Brevik, B., and J. I. Holtet. 2015. Developing learning tasks in a technological learning workshop with LEGO Mindstorms and Additive Manufacturing as the main pedagogical tools. In Proceedings of the 39th Annual Conference of ATEE, edited by L. Leithe. Brussels: ATEE aisbl. Brevik, B., S. Sjøberg, and A. L. H. Tarrou. 2008. Technology education through open ended teaching strategies associated with practical learning tools. Paper presented at the XIII.IOSTE Symposium: The Use of Science and Technology Education for Peace and Sustainable Development. September 21-26, 2008, Kuúadas / Turkey. Charmaz, K. 2014. Constructing Grounded Theory (2nd ed.). London: SAGE. Clements, D. H., and J. Sarama. 1999. “Logo: Search and Research.” Logo Exchange 17 (2), 21-23. EQF. 2012. The european Qualifications framework for lifelong learning. Retrieved August 1, 2017 from http://www.eqavet.eu/gns/policycontext/european-vet-initiatives/european-qualificationsframework.aspx. Erwin, B., M. Cyr and C. Rogers. 2000. “Lego Engineer and RoboLab: Teaching Engineering with LabView from Kindergarten to Graduate School.” International Journal of Engineering Education 16 (2). Friese, S. 2011. ATLAS.ti 6: User Guide and Reference. Berlin: ATLAS.ti Scientific Software Development GmbH. Glaser, B. G., and A. L. Strauss. 1967. The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitiative Research. Chicago: Aldine. Goodlad, J. I. 1979. Coda: The Conceptual System for Curriculum Revisited. In Curriculum Inquiry: The Study of Curriculum Practice, edited by J. I. Goodlad, 343-64. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Goodlad, J. I., M. F. Klein, and K. A. Tye. 1979. “The Domains of Curriculum and Their Study.” In Curriculum Inquiry: The Study of Curriculum Practice, edited by J. I. Goodlad, 43-76. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Haglund, B. 2003. “Stimulated Recall: Några anteckningar om en metod att generera data.” Pedagogisk Forskning i Sverige 8 (3): 145-57. Hartman, J. 2001. Grundad teori: Teorigenerering på empirisk grund. Lund: Studentlitteratur.

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Hynes, M. 2012. “Middle-school teachers’ understanding and teaching of the engineering design process: A look at subject matter and pedagogical content knowledge.” International Journal of Technology and Design Education 22 (3): 345-60. Kafai, Y. B. 2006. “Constructionism.” In The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences, edited by R. K. Sawyer, 35-46. New York: Cambridge University Press. Kafai, Y. B., and M. Resnick (Eds.). 1996. Constructionism in Practice: Designing, Thinking, and Learning in a Digital World. New York: Routledge. Kvale, S., and S. Brinkmann. 2009. Det kvalitative forskningsintervju (T. M. Anderssen & J. Rygge, Trans.). Oslo: Gyldendal akademisk. Martin, F. 1999. The Art of LEGO Design. Logo Exchange 18 (1) 5-12. Minsky, M. 1988. The Society of Mind. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. Papert, S. 1993. Mindstorms: Children, Computers and Powerful Ideas (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books. Papert, S., and I. Harel. 1991. “Situating Constructionism.” In Constructionism, edited by I. Harel, New York City USA, Ablex Publishing Corporation. Wang, E. 2001. Teaching freshmen design, creativity and programming with LEGOS And LabView. Paper presented at the 31st ASEE/IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference, Reno, NV USA. Wickert, K. 2009. Real World Engineering: Using the NXT for Earthquake Simulation. LEGOengineering.com. Retrieved 1. August, 2017, http://www.legoengineering.com/ Yin, R. K. 2009. Case Study Research: Design and Methods (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications Inc.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN ROLE OF A PRINCIPAL IN FINANCIAL EDUCATION MANAGEMENT AGNESE KOZLOVSKA AND LINDA MIHNO

Abstract The role of the principal has been changing over the last few decades. A principal is no longer just a school administrator who performs certain administrative functions. Nowadays, the duties of a principal also include, for example, human resource planning, enforcement of regulations, setting the aim of the school, planning the school curriculum, teaching, classroom observation studies, evaluation of students, mentoring of teachers, encouraging professional development for teachers, and creation of teachers professional development plan. Financial education has become increasingly important, along with the rise of ICT in the development of financial services and opportunities. In the context of changes in financial education, it is important to recognise the role of the principal to understand what can be expected from the principal in this process. It is important to be aware of the role of the principal, or otherwise they would be required to perform things outside the scope of their competence. The rapid development of the financial environment and the major financial crises, which appear to be the key problems, encourage promotion of the development of financial education emphasising the need to include it in the school curriculum. Therefore, it is important to be aware of the role of the principal in the promotion of the development of financial education. To understand the roles of principals, a review of literature has been carried out and the data from the OECD PISA 2012 (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development Programme for International Student Assessment) principal survey data regarding financial education have been analysed. 211 school principals from Latvia participated in the OECD PISA 2012. The survey included questions about the school, its organisational processes, curricula, the implementation of the teaching and learning process, including financial education. The role of the principal in financial education is very important. Considering that school principals are in the position of opting for or against teaching financial

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education in the school, they are responsible for ensuring that students receive such financial education and also for its quality. The principal is responsible for the implementation and maintenance of financial education in the school. The financial literacy of students depends on the quality of the implementation and also on whether financial education is provided at all. Keywords: financial education, financial education management, financial literacy, principals' role, OECD PISA.

Introduction Increasingly research studies are addressing the principal and their role in the school due to changes in the last few decades. Over the last two decades, when education has been trying to adapt to the changing requirements in society, the expectations regarding schools and their managers have changed greatly (Pont, Nusche, and Hunter 2008: 16). In his study, Chang points out that the role of principals has changed from being merely a school administrator to being a versatile leader of the curriculum and technologies (Chang 2012). Furthermore, the principal has become a school leader who advances various processes in the school. Leadership theories have become increasingly popular over the last few decades, and various research studies have been conducted to identify what qualities principal have and what qualities they should have in order to be leaders and manage the school successfully. The theoretical sources more frequently discuss school leaders in the context of school management, which includes the administration and the staff involved in the decision-making processes. The authors of this paper assume that, ideally, such school leaders are the principals themselves who manage the school and organise the learning and teaching work successfully. In the 21st century, financial literacy has become one of the fundamental skills in life which is to be acquired at school. OECD PISA defines financial literacy as knowledge and understanding of financial concepts and risks, and the skills, motivation and confidence to apply such knowledge and understanding in order to make effective decisions across a range of financial contexts, to improve the financial well-being of individuals and society, and to enable participation in economic life (OECD 2014a, 2014b). Considering that financial education is not mandatory in Latvia, it is the school principal who can influence whether the students, while learning at a particular school, will acquire the respective skills necessary for them in order to build their financial wellbeing in the future. The aim of this research is to explore to what extent a principal can influence the development of financial literacy in students.

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Methodology The article is based on an analysis of theoretical sources on the roles and duties of a principal (29 sources analysed in total), and the division of roles offered by Sergiovanni (1987) has been used. The data from an OECD PISA study conducted in 2012 was also used in the research study. The data included the results of Latvian students in the financial module and the answers from the students to the questions included in the questionnaire regarding financial education as well as the data obtained from the survey conducted among school principals or administrative staff. The responses received from the school principals have been summarised, and their significance has been justified by the financial literacy results of the students from the respective school. The OECD PISA’s target audience is students aged between 15 years and three full months and 16 years and two full months and studying in seventh or higher forms of any type of educational institutions within the respective country at the time of the testing. This age range has been chosen to make it comparatively easier to include the students in the study sample based on their year of birth, without considering particular birth date of participant. 970 participants from 215 schools took part in the financial module in Latvia, and, of these, 84% were students of form 9, and 12% were students of form 8. Within two hours, each student taking part in the financial module had to fill out one of the four different brochures testing financial knowledge and containing different arrangements of the clusters. Each brochure included four clusters of tasks: two clusters of financial tasks (40 tasks in total), one mathematical and one reading task cluster. Also a brief survey about the experience of the students in money matters was included.

Results Much attention is paid to the role of principals in educational institutions in the theoretical sources. Scopes of research studies include, for example, principals in multicultural education (McCray and Beachum 2010) and also isolation of principals when they need to handle all matters on their own, thus increasing the likelihood of burnout (Bauer and Stephenson 2010). Larger amounts of tasks assigned to principals increase the liability of the principals. They are to act as strategic, organisational and political leaders. According to Kafka, great things are expected from principals nowadays, just like from schools (Kafka 2009). Principals are

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forced to compete for students and for support from parents and the society as well as face the risk of losing students. The significance of principals’ individual success or failure at school has increased considerably (Kafka 2009). The public demands are increasing not only with regard to daily necessities, such as technologies, but also with regard to education. Schools start competing in an attempt to attract students and also to have better student achievements. Improvement of students’ achievements is a new challenge for school principals. In the theoretical sources (Orr et al. 2005; Soehner and Ryan 2011; Dhuey and Smith 2014; O’Malley, Long, and King 2015), insufficient attention is paid to the role of school principals in the improvement of students’ achievements. Greater autonomy of schools increases the liability of the principals. Consequently, the principal has several roles which include not only administrative, but also other functions. As the lead administrator in the school, the principal is, despite many other matters, responsible, for example, for support to teachers, maintenance and improvement of the quality of teachers work, the behaviour of the students in the school, and the implementation of the programme of education (Dhuey and Smith 2014). The theoretical sources cite several divisions of leadership roles; Mintzberg distinguishes ten roles – main manager, leader, intermediary, monitor, disseminator of information, representative, entrepreneur, handler of disturbance, divider of resources, negotiator (1975). Californian researchers have addressed the versatile roles of new principals (Gentilucci, Denti, and Guaglianone, 2013). In his study about principals in South Australia, Burhanuddin has, based on theoretical literature (Gay, 1987), distinguished ten roles of principals: exerciser of authority, decisionmaker, manager, strategist, educational leader, supervisor, organizer, administrator, team leader, initiator (1997). The roles by Mintzberg may be attributed to principals as well, whereas Burhanuddin attributes these roles specifically to principals. Sergiovanni (1987), however, highlights the most typical roles of principals, covering the most significant duties and functions of school principals. The first role is a public person. A principal is primarily responsible for the mission of the school, philosophy, programme of education, values, views as well as the quality and compliance of the targets and objectives of the school. Furthermore, a principal is also responsible for the acquisition of the necessary resources and development of the policy (Sergiovanni 1987). Theoretical sources emphasise the role of a principal in the planning of the school programmes, setting the targets

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of the school, administration of finances (OECD 2014c; Radinger 2014) as well as the development of a plan for the implementation of various innovations, such as technologies (Machado and Chung 2015). As the lead administrator and manager in the school, the principal is responsible for the duties included in this role, and, furthermore, it is essential for the management to be stable. For example, schools with a stable management have higher mean achievements of the students (Brockmeier et al. 2013). The school principal is responsible for compliance with the national targets, namely, whether the school is capable of meeting the needs of the state. Thus, if strategic targets are approved at the national level where financial education has a priority role, then the school principal is responsible for the provision of financial education in the school. According to the OECD PISA 2012 cycle data, 29% of school principals state that financial education is not available in their schools, 37% state that financial education has been available for less than 2 years, whereas 34% state that it has been available for more than two years. 31% of the principals state that financial education is mandatory in their schools. One should take into account that the respective national memoranda (Latvijas iedzƯvotƗju finanšu pratƯbas stratƝƧija 2014) and strategies with regard to financial education were adopted in Latvia in 2012 only. The second role is educational management. The principal is responsible for the development of the school and the implementation of the educational programme, the teaching and learning targets, the organisation of the content, the methods, classroom climate, and evaluation (Sergiovanni 1987). Cotton, in an analysis of studies conducted between 1970s and 1990s in the United States of America, describes common attributes which are characteristic of schools with high achievements. They include powerful administration, safe and orderly school environment with the main emphasis on learning, focusing of the resources on the attainment of the main targets, regular monitoring of the learning progress of the students as well as positive school climate (Cotton 2003). Moreover, Hockett emphasises that, historically, the role of principals was to assure stability and overall management of the school and its programmes, whereas, currently, principles are oftentimes the ones who can facilitate changes (Hockett 2015). Several studies have emphasised that principals are also responsible for the evaluation of students, teaching, classroom observations, study programme improvements, preparation of class schedules (OECD 2014c), the implementation and assurance of the educational programme, and the behaviour of the students at school (Dhuey and Smith 2014). Moreover, higher achievements among students can be related to the involvement of the principal in the

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monitoring of the progress of the students, observation of the study time, and stimulation of learning (Shatzer et al. 2014). OECD PISA 2012 results in Latvia show that only 18% of the principals state that they are responsible for the determination of the school subject content, and 53% state that they can make choices regarding the offered school subjects. Apparently, the principals consider that the teacher is responsible or that the National Centre for the Content of Education is responsible for the content of the school subjects, even though the standards of education and the sample curricula only define the skills and knowledge to be acquired by the students and do not limit the content. Only 53% of the principals state that they can make choices regarding the available school subjects because the rest are limited by the school regulations or by-laws which require coordinating the choices with the parental council. The third role is management of supervision. This role implies principals work with teachers to attain the targets of the schools, including motivating them to attain such targets. This role also includes personnel development and supervision (Sergiovanni 1987). This role has been addressed by several researchers, who have indicated that high requirements towards and expectations from the students and teachers are required from principals (Goodwin, Englert and Cicchinelli 2003; Cotton 2003). If the atmosphere prevailing in the school is positive, the principal encourages the teachers to take risks (Cotton 2003). The principal authorises the teachers to participate in the management of the school and decision-making, creates a school environment which is focused on cooperation (Cotton 2003; Schleicher, 2015; Khan and Shaheen 2016), encourages the teachers to improve professionally, carries out mentoring of the teachers, and is responsible for planning of human resources (OECD 2014c; Radinger 2014; Dhuey and Smith 2014). Nearly all of the principals in the PISA study state that they are responsible for the hiring and dismissal of teachers. The principals were asked about who teaches financial education in their schools. 95% of the principals stated that the teachers do. However, people from other institutions also were involved. 28% mentioned people from private financial institutions, 12% mentioned people from public financial institutions, and 18% stated people from non-governmental organisations. Consequently, the financial education of the students largely determines what teachers work in the school and whether they have received adequate training to be able to teach financial education to the students. This is essential because almost all the principals state that financial education is not taught as a separate subject in their schools, and, thus, a small part of

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the teachers discuss financial matters as interdisciplinary or as part of the business or economics subject. Many hours are spent on financial education during mathematics lessons and other social, arts and/or literature lessons. Consequently, teachers with no financial or economic education need to have sufficient financial literacy to be able to explain financial matters to their students. It is interesting that students from the schools whose principals have stated that financial matters are taught by representatives of private financial sectors in their schools have better achievements. This might suggest that such experts are best capable of explaining financial matters to students. It is even more interesting that the achievements of the students whose principals state that the students have no financial education at all are higher (531 points) than those of others (below 500 points), but still they are the highest among those whose principals state that their students receive financial education from the teachers and representatives of private, public and non-governmental financial sectors (546 points). The fourth role is organisational management. Principals have to make sure that the needs, targets and job requirements of the school are reflected in the organisational structure (Sergiovanni 1987). The researchers do not address this role, and it is left to the principal. The fifth role is administrative management. This role is important in order to ensure system and organisational efficiency (Sergiovanni 1987). Studies have emphasised that principals are to assume responsibility for administrative matters, study matters (Dunklee 2000; Cotton 2003; Donaldson 2006), and also for compliance with regulations (OECD 2014c). Nearly all the principals state various measures are implemented in their schools in support of the quality and development of the school. For example, more than 95% of the principals state that the school has an internal evaluation/self-evaluation system, the content of studies and the aims of education are published regularly. Also various statistical data regarding the teachers and students are collected systematically. Slightly more than 80% of the principals state that external evaluation takes place in their schools, but only 66% of the school principals state that mentoring of the teachers is performed. 75% of the principals state that written feedback is provided by the students regarding the lessons, teachers or study resources. 56% of the principals state that they are responsible for the development of the strategy for the evaluation of the students. The PISA data suggest that school principals organise various activities to facilitate the development of the schools and assure quality in

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the implementation of the study process, but the questions of how formal such activities are and how seriously the collected data are analysed and used for the improvement of the quality and development still remain open. The sixth role is team management. As a team leader, the principal helps teachers to improve mutual support and trust in working together to create an efficient and successful school (Sergiovanni 1987). This role is addressed by many researchers, as principals can facilitate changes in the school (Hockett 2015) and encourage teachers to take risks (Cotton 2003). The principal is the one who can implement innovations in the school, and, furthermore, the more the principal gets involved, the more creative the teachers are (Koch, Binnewies, and Dormann 2015). Moreover, the principal encourages the teachers to participate in decisionmaking and organisation of the teaching and learning work (Cotton 2003; Schleicher 2015; Khan and Shaheen 2016) as well as provides a stimulus for the teachers (Shatzer et al. 2014). Browning speaks about trust, which is a seemingly abstract and difficult-to-define term. He points out that it is highly important for the teachers and the school staff to trust the principal (Browning 2014), whereas Khan and Shaheen indicate that it is also important that the principal trusts their teachers (2016). Moreover, the principal needs to ensure training for the teachers to increase the motivation of the teachers (Arbabi and Mehdinezhad 2015) and create an environment in which teachers can share ideas, resources, suggestions and encouragement as well as devote time for such teacher activities (Puzio, Newcomer, and Goff 2015). Principals should be closer to the teaching and learning process, involve teachers and others in quality development, improve formative evaluation and appreciation of teaching and learning as well as develop the internal organisation of the school to facilitate learning (Leo 2015). Additionally, the results of the study conducted in Californian schools by Olsen and Chrispeels (2009) suggest that increasing the social and intellectual capital may help schools carry out successful reforms. No surveys have been conducted among school teachers within the PISA study in Latvia, and, therefore, it is unknown what role the principal has in Latvia particularly in facilitating cooperation between subject teachers to ensure successful financial education, which, as concluded previously, is provided as part of various school subjects. But, according to the PISA data, few schools offer further training courses associated with financial education. This possibly has to do with the supply of the further training courses which offer financial education. The role of the manager of an educational institution in the achievements of the students is not unequivocal, but the research allows

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concluding that principals do have an impact on the achievements of the students. Principals may not only facilitate changes in the school, but also the achievements of the students by creating conditions in which all students have the right to education and the teachers and the principal have high expectations regarding each student. The influence of the principal in the achievements of the students is indirect, but noteworthy when speaking about the curricula of the school, the organisation of the teaching and learning process, the climate, traditions etc. Theoretically, principals are responsible for whether financial education is provided by the school, and, consequently, they have a certain degree of responsibility for the achievements of the students in the area of finance, taking into account their decision not to provide financial education in the school. But, according to the data of OECD PISA 2012, the mean achievement score of the students in the schools whose principals state that financial education is not available is 494 points, 503 points when it has been provided for less than two years, and 499 points when it has been provided for more than 2 years. Achievements depend on the decision of the principal to provide financial education in the school. Consequently, setting the targets of the school is essential in the process of provision of financial education. The school targets should be in line with the national targets in the field of education.

Conclusions In conclusion, principals have many roles in schools. While still the main administrator in the school, the principal is a versatile manager whose duties include not only the organisational matters of the school or planning of human resources, but also defining the mission, vision and targets of the school, organisation of the process of teaching and learning etc. School administrators constantly face new challenges, including expectations from society and parents with regard to the school and an environment in which schools compete and try to retain the students in their schools in order not to lose funding. Several previously mentioned studies suggest that a principal needs to have various competencies and the ability to play various roles, while being aware that they can influence the implementation of innovations in the school, the professional activities of the teachers and the attainment of the targets of the school. A school principal plays a highly significant role in the process of teaching and learning by selecting the curricula and setting the targets and objectives of the school. Regarding financial education, Latvian school principals are the ones responsible for the level of financial literacy among

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students. The study data suggest that it is very important how the school principal organises the work in the school, as they are responsible for the implementation of the study processes (by setting the targets, defining the objectives, dividing the priorities and funding), for staff recruitment in order to provide their students with professional and knowledgeable teachers, and for the content of education the particular school offers.

References Arbabi, A. and V. Mehdinezhad. 2015. “The relationship between the school principals' collaborative leadership style and teachers' selfefficacy.” Palestrica of the Third Millennium Civilization and Sport 16 (2): 125-31 Bauer, S. C. and L. Stephenson. 2010. “The role of isolation in predicting new principals’ burnout.” International Journal of Education Policy and Leadership 5, No. 9: 1-17. https://doi.org/10.22230/ijepl.2010v5n9a275 Brockmeier, L. L., G. Starr, R. Green, J. L. Pate, and L. D. Leech. 2013. “Principal and School-Level Effects on Elementary School Student Achievement.” International Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation 8, No. 1: 49-61 Browning, P. 2014. “Why trust the head? Key practices for transformational school leaders build a purposeful relationship of trust.” International Journal of Leadership and Education. Theory and Practice 17 (4): 388-409, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2013.844275 Burhanuddin, B. 1997. “The Leadership Roles of a Principal in Improving School Effectiveness.” Jurnal Ilmu Pendidikan 4: 333-52, http://dx.doi.org/10.17977/jip.v4i0.1325 Chang, I. H. 2012. “The effect of principals’ technological leadership on teachers’ technological literacy and teaching effectiveness in Taiwanese elementary schools.” Journal of Educational Technology & Society 15, No. 2: 328-40, Athabasca University Cotton, K. 2003. Principals and student achievement: what the research says, 2003, Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Dhuey, E., and J. Smith. 2014. “How important are school principals in the production of student achievement?” Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue canadienne d'économique 47 (2): 634-63, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/caje.12086

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Donaldson, G. 2006. Cultivating leadership in schools: Connecting people, purpose, and programs (2nd ed.). New York: Teachers College Press Dunklee, D. 2000. If you want to lead, not just manage: A primer for principals. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press, Inc. Gay, L. R. 1987. Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Application. Columbus: Merrill Publishing Company Gentilucci, J. L., L. Denti, and C. L. Guaglianone. 2013. “New Principals’ Perspectives of Their Multifaceted Roles.” Educational Leadership and Administration: Teaching and Program Development 24: 75-85, Association of Professors of Educational Administration Goodwin, B., K. Englert, and L. F. Cicchinelli. 2003. Comprehensive accountability systems: A framework for evaluation (rev. ed.). Aurora CO: Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning Hockett, E. 2015. “Kenya Quaker Secondary School Peace Curriculum Pilot Project: Examining the Role of the Principal in the Successes and Challenges of the Implementation.” Journal of Research on Christian Education 24 (2): 125-43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10656219.2015.1052167 Kafka, J. 2009. “The Principalship in Historical Perspective.” Peabody Journal of Education 84, No. 3: 318-30. Khan, M., and A. Shaheen. 2016. “The Leadership Role of Secondary School Principals and Its Impact on Students’ Academic Achievement.” FWU Journal of Social Sciences 10, No. 1: 75-80. Koch, A. R., C. Binnewies, and C. Dormann. 2015. “Motivating innovation in schools: School principals’ work engagement as a motivator for schools’ innovation.” European Journal of Work & Organizational Psychology 24 (4): 505-17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2014.958471 Leo, U. 2015. “Professional norms guiding school principals’ pedagogical leadership.” International Journal of Educational Management 29, No. 4: 461-76, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-08-2014-0121 Machado, L. J., and Ch. J. Chung. 2015. “Integration technology: The Principals’ Role and Effect.” International Education Studies 8, No. 5: 43-53, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ies.v8n5p43 McCray, C. and F. Beachum 2010. “An Analysis of How the Gender and Race of School Principals Influences Their Perceptions of Multicultural Education.” International Journal of Education Policy and Leadership 5, No. 4: 1-10.

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Ministry of Education and Science, Latvijas iedzƯvotƗju finanšu pratƯbas stratƝƧija 2014–2020 [Latvian strategy of peoples Financial literacy 2014-2020], 2014 Mintzberg, H. 1975. “The manager’s job: folklore and fact.” Harward Business Review, 53 (4): 49-61. OECD. 2014a. PISA 2012 Results: Students and Money: Financial Literacy Skills for the 21st Century (Volume VI), PISA, OECD Publishing. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264208094-en —. 2014b. Financial Education for Youth: The Role of Schools, OECD Publishing, Paris. Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264174825-en —. 2014c. TALIS 2013 Results: An International Perspective on Teaching and Learning, TALIS, OECD Publishing, Available: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264196261-en Olsen, E. M., and J. H. Chrispeels. 2009. “A Pathway Forward to School Change: Leading Together and Achieving Goals.” Leadership and Policy in Schools 8 (4): 380-410. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15700760802663476 O’Malley, M., P., T. A. Long, and J. King. 2015.“'What Do You Do All Day?!’: Navigating the Challenges of School Leadership as an Early Career Principal.” Journal of Cases in Educational Leadership 18 (2): 107-21. https://doi.org/10.1177/1555458915584673 Orr, M., T., M. Byrne-Jimenez, P. McFarlane, and B. Brown. 2005. “Leading Out from Low-Performing Schools: The Urban Principal Experience.” Leadership and Policy in Schools 4 (1): 23-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15700760590924609 Pont, B., D. Nusche, and M. Hunter. 2008. Improving School Leadership, Vol. 1: Policy and Practice, 2008, Paris: OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264044715-2-en Puzio, K., S. N. Newcomer, and P. Goff. 2015. “Supporting Literacy Differentiation: The Principal’s Role in a Community of Practice.” Literacy Research and Instruction 54 (2): 135-62, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19388071.2014.997944 Radinger, T. 2014. “School Leader Appraisal – A Tool to Strengthen School Leaders’ Pedagogical Leadership and Skills for Teacher Management?” European Journal of Education 49 (3): 378-94, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/wol1/doi/10.1111/ejed.12085/abstract Schleicher, A. 2015. Schools for 21st-Century Learners: Strong Leaders, Confident Teachers, Innovative Approaches, International Summit on the Teaching Profession, 2015, Paris: OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264231191-en

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Sergiovanni, T. J. 1987. The Principalship: A Reflective Practice Perspective. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc. Shatzer, R. H., P. Caldarella, P. R. Hallam, and B. L. Brown. 2014. “Comparing the effects of instructional and transformational leadership on student achievement. Implications for practice.” Educational Management Administration and Leadership 42 (4): 44559. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143213502192 Soehner, D., and T. Ryan. 2011. “The Interdependence of Principal School Leadership and Student Achievement.” Scholar-Practitioner Quarterly 5, No. 3: 274-88.

CHAPTER SIXTEEN GOAL MANAGEMENT AND TEACHER COMPETENCE DEVELOPMENT IN SCHOOLS ANETE BUTKƜVIýA

Abstract In organisational studies, a general consensus exists that specific, meaningful and formalised goals are a distinctive component of any organisation (Scott 2003). Various research has pointed out that management of school goals is often characterised as a vague process and the goals tend to lack direction for concrete action. Furthermore, the main goals of a school should be linked to the development of human resources (i.e., teacher competence) and cooperative work among school members rather than just maintain formal positions and organisational infrastructure (Murphy and Torre, 2001, 73). This paper seeks to investigate how the process of managing goals is being carried out in Latvian schools. The investigation takes a qualitative approach to outline the perceptions and actions of the school management team. Empirical data was gathered by conducting face to face structured interviews with principals and middle management representatives (N=39) in ten schools from a large municipality in Latvia. The study included different types of schools: primary school, comprehensive school, selective secondary school, evening secondary school, and mixed language (Russian/Latvian language) school. The interviews consisted of three main inquiry themes: x school’s purpose, existence, main functions; x expectations from different stakeholders; x professional learning support for teachers (regarding the kind of support provided in the past, identifying additional learning needs and the most effective approach for professional learning). Interviews where held in schools between January-March, 2013. The average length of an interview was 30 minutes. The aim of data analysis was to answer the following research questions: x How does the school management team describe and interpret the main goals of their school? x How is teacher professional learning managed?

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How does the setting and attainment of goals relate to teacher professional learning and overall competence development? Analysis of the interviews gave first-hand insight into the current situation of the school management’s capacity to carry out goal management in relation to teacher competence development. The paper discusses the theoretical and practical importance of specificity of school goals, meaningful actions to achieve them and ways to align goals with development of teacher competence. Keywords: school management, goals, teacher competence development, organisational studies

Introduction School effectiveness, as a widely researched and discussed topic, has brought up varied and sometimes contradictory explanations for best practices of schooling. In educational sociology, there are two broader approaches to explain school effectiveness. The traditional point of view states that schools as education-providing institutions are limited in their success because the main determinant of student learning outcome is the social and economic background of the students and other out-of-school factors. An opposing point of view is that schools and pedagogues do influence the effectiveness of student learning outcomes. This mindset opened the way for analysing and theorising about the nature of schools as organisations (Angus 1993). This second mindset is the underlying belief guiding the rationale of this study, namely, that the way schools are organised influences the educational outcome. A central point of reference in studying organisations is the organisational goals in relation to management practices. This organisation element is one of the most important but also one of the most controversial, which if studied and explained would help to improve the effectiveness of an organisation. For this study, goals are defined as conceptions of desired ends accomplished by organisation members through performance of different task activities (Scott 2003). Turning to school effectiveness, researchers in this field have frequently made conclusions that schools tend to have complex and vague goals which hinder the power to plan and direct action, especially teachers’ actions relating to successful attainment of organisational goals (Murphy et al. 2001). A provisional assumption is made that the same problem applies to Latvian school management practices. On the other hand, effective school managers are characterised as setting specific and clear goals oriented toward teacher growth and thereby indirectly influencing student learning (Leithwood and Montgomery 1982).

Goall Management and a Teacher Co ompetence Devvelopment in Scchools 201

This stuudy investigattes the traditiional school m management practices regarding gooal management and how these practicees are being integrated i with teacherr competence developmentt through proffessional learrning (see Fig. 1) in L Latvian schoolls. This corressponds to the idea of neo-m modernist organisationn theories on human resou urce managem ment. An ind dividual’s (i.e., teacherr’s) effective membership in an organiisation (i.e., school) s is accomplisheed through the t top man nagement’s ab ability to dev velop an organisationnal vision as a means for fully integratingg employees within w the organisationn (McAuley, Duberley D and d Johnson 20007). It is assu umed that this effectivve membershhip can be accomplished a d by aligning g teacher professionall competencees with the school orgganisational goals g by providing apppropriate proofessional learrning possibiliities.

School managemeent team

Sch hool gooals

Teacher professional learning

Develloping teaccher compeetencies

Figure 1. A m model of schoool goal manag gement in termss of teacher co ompetence development

Goal deffining is view wed as one off the most infl fluential action ns school managemennt can do foor organisational effectivveness. Organ nisational effectivenesss in schools is understood as a productivve way of enccouraging ownership aamong teacheers and mobilising them too work toward ds school goals (for a review see Murphy M and To orre 2015). Thhe link betweeen teacher professionall learning and the actionss of school m management has been shown repeeatedly. Schoool managemeent can eitheer enable or constrain teacher profe fessionalism, foor example, by y providing m meaningful opp portunities for teacherss to continue learning (Taalbert and MccLaughlin 1994, 146). Therefore, thhe main functtion of schooll managers shhould be shifteed toward the developm ment of humaan resources including i teaccher competen ncies and away from tthe maintenannce of organisational infrasttructure (Murphy et al. 2001, 75) foor a more succcessful integ gration of teacchers working g towards school goalss. Similar tendencies appply to what has been em mpirically exp plored in Latvian schhools. Teacherrs in Latvia highlight h the importance of o school managemennt regarding their professio onal developm ment, improv vement of leadership qqualities and helping h to briing about innnovations by managing m the practicaal organisatioon of teacheer collaborattion and pro ofessional learning (Naamsone, ýakƗƗne, and Sarceeviþa-Kalviškee 2016; Namssone et al.

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2016; ButkƝviþa and Zobena 2017). These are important school effectiveness factors for implementing the national reform programme in Latvia in 2014-2020. The aim of the reform programme is to develop improved general education curricula through competence-based education (Cabinet of Ministers Regulation Nr. 331 2015).

Aim of the study The aim of this study is to investigate how the process of managing goals is being carried out in Latvian schools. Three research questions are proposed: 1. How does the school management team describe and interpret the main goals of their school? 2. How is teacher professional learning managed? 3. How does the management of goals relate to teacher professional learning and overall competence development? School goal management is viewed as the different actions and perceptions of school management teams regarding the school organisational functions, purpose and vision and linking them with teacher professional learning. Schools selected for the study provide national general education programmes.

Materials and Method This study adopted a qualitative approach to outline the perceptions and experience of the school management teams about their understanding of the purpose and vision of the school, its goals and past experience of acknowledging and supporting teacher professional learning needs. Empirical data was gathered by conducting face-to-face structured interviews with principals and middle management representatives (N=39) in ten schools that provide general education programmes in one municipality in Latvia. Selected schools are under the provision of one municipality, but they have slightly different historical origins, sizes and type (primary school, comprehensive school, selective secondary school, evening secondary school, and mixed language (Russian/Latvian language) school). Interview data was obtained from the archive of The Interdisciplinary Center for Educational Innovation at the University of Latvia (formerly The Center for Science and Mathematics Education). Interviews were conducted by the Center’s team in the period January-March, 2013. Data

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used in this study was gathered as a first stage activity of a larger, complex research project. Lasting an average of 30 minutes, interviews were audio recorded and transcribed. The interviews consisted of three main inquiry themes: x school’s purpose, existence, main functions; x expectations from different stakeholders; x professional learning support for teachers (regarding the kind of support provided in the past, identification of additional learning needs and the most effective approach to professional learning). Content of the interviews was coded in two cycles. In the initial coding of the data (first cycle), descriptive coding was applied to label the main topical themes for each interview question. A tabular catalogue of all codes was created for each interview question. In the second cycle, focused coding was applied to reorder and categorise coded data based on thematic similarity to develop major categories from the data (Saldaña 2009). This helped to identify the most prevalent themes to get a description of the traditional situation of the school management’s capacity to carry out goal management in relation to teacher’s professional learning possibilities.

Results Main findings of the interview data analysis are presented below. The results are organised according to the first and second research questions with example excerpts from the interview data and relevant inquiry themes. Answers to the third research question are presented in the conclusion section. Results reflect the perceptions and experience of the school management teams from 10 selected schools in Latvia about the goal and purpose of their school, and their experience of organising teacher professional learning. To answer the first research question, content from three interview questions was analysed: “Why does your school exist?”, “Why does society need your school?”, ''How would you explain what your school is accomplishing?''. Data analysis revealed the purpose and goal of the school as broadly based on four arguments made by the school management teams. The arguments are summarised and presented according to their prevalence. The school exists: 1) because it can support the needs of a particular community where the school is located such as socialisation and integration; 2) because it can offer something unique; 3)

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because its current existence is based on history and traditions; 4) because there are students and there is a demand for general education. Overall, minimal attention was given to continuing teacher professional learning or other approaches to human resource development as a means to reach school goals. The purpose of each school was characterised as answering society’s demand for providing general education for the local community or the nation. School management, when explaining the existence of the school, focused considerably on the school providing socialisation as well as formal and informal education activities. Additionally, the school’s purpose was framed as striving for high results on national tests. School management’s perception of their school can be interpreted as an oversimplified view of the school’s purpose of providing the traditional end result of schooling: ''there are children and it is the law that they need education'' [school J] ''bringing up for the best norms of behaviour, a child comes into this world to live in society, the school helps do this” [school C]

School management teams described the municipality’s expectations for the school as also putting emphasis on the end result of schooling. High results on national tests, reaching a high-ranking score among other schools nationally, gaining recognition nationally, gaining appreciation from parents and preparing well-educated students for the city and the country were among the most frequently cited expectations from the municipality. Additionally, the school management teams cited the municipality’s indifference towards the teaching-learning process, and for the real meaning of accomplishing student growth. In short, the municipality was indifferent to the difficulties and complications that arise when trying to achieve high national test results. Emphasis was not put on comparing national test results among the city schools but to the average scores at the national level. There were also indicators of how schools and especially teachers individually did not have a say in changing this situation. It is a distinctly top-down hierarchical relationship between the schools and the municipality. At the top level (municipality), focus and emphasis are put on the schools’ end result (national test results and ranking) as a quality indicator and popularity for the city on a national level. ''[municipality expects] to highlight the city’s popularity in the country, to polish the city’s name'' [school A]

Goal Management and Teacher Competence Development in Schools 205 ''[municipality expects] only results according to centralised test ratings (...) school network is not changed but high results are still expected'' [school J]

Among all coded interview data, there was one topical entry related to the professionality of teacher work as an expectation from the municipality. ''[municipality expects] good teacher work: success of the students. Trying out new teaching methods, creative work'' [school H]

Similar tendencies were observed when school management teams discussed perceptions about student and parent expectations for the school. Great emphasis was put on the end result of schooling – well prepared for national tests, for entering university, and getting a good job after finishing school. As indicated in the interviews, students expect to have a friendly environment, friendly and understanding teachers, extra-curricular activities, and interesting learning process; parents also expect to have good national test results, a friendly environment, good parent-teacher relationships and that the school sometimes does parenting-related duties. These varied expectations indicate the complex task of accomplishing quality schooling such that all stakeholders are satisfied. ''young parents expect the school to organise socialisation, that the teacher not only does teaching but is also a friend, as a substitute for parents'' [school J]

When describing the purpose of the school, management teams made references to the unique offers that make their school stand out. Different practical aspects of the school were highlighted: offer of best teachers; a special or convenient location; good facilities; a special focus on a particular subject area; curricula integrated with sports, music or environmental studies; extra-curricular activities; tradition-related activities (often in the form of socialisation or national celebrations); an individual and special approach to collaboration with parents; a positive and creative environment and atmosphere for students; convenient facilities; safety; openness. This can be interpreted as a way of creating a special image of the school such as ''city centre school'', ''environmental school'', ''a small friendly school'' for a strategic positioning among other local schools and their offers. ''a small school, every child is noticed. Strong or weak – everyone receives attention'' [school C]

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Another distinct topic regarding a school’s purpose was related to socialisation and integration. The school supports the community’s specific socio-economic needs and the particular ethnic group(s). This and the above outlined results can be interpreted as the school management teams' way of positioning their school among other schools according to its specific offer of education programmes. ''other schools have the wealthiest and most normal [students]. We have the poor ones. Here is the only chance for them to get an education'' [school D]

Interestingly, very often a reference to the schools' history, traditions and popularity was made. For the school management teams, school history and traditions serve as a basis for reputation and popularity. Strong traditions and long-term continuity of the school (generations of teachers and students) in the specific community are perceived as quality assurance for parents and students. ''reputation has been very good'' [school B] ''the school is special with traditions. There are 15 teachers [working] who graduated from this school'' [school G] ''a long-standing school as a symbol and a part of society. Name of the school has echoed over time'' [school J]

Overall, minimal attention was given to teachers’ professional learning. Few interview answers indicated that the schools offer professional learning for teachers and professional teachers in general. Regarding the expectations from students, parents and the municipality, emphasis on qualitative/professional teacher work was not made. On the other hand, when talking about the purpose of their schools, several school managers expressed their willingness to offer collaborative lesson observations with other schools in the city. This can be interpreted as being open to external school improvement strategies for professional development by creating partnerships and having a professional learning community of teachers as active practitioners (Chapman et al. 2016).

Goal Management and Teacher Competence Development in Schools 207 ''we can offer good knowledge and now as pedagogues we are ready to show our skills to teachers from other schools - that things can be different. We are open as much as others are open'' [school C]

To summarise and answer the first research question: "How does the school management team describe and interpret the main goals of their school?", the goal of the school was perceived as very broad and focused more on the end result rather than on the steps necessary to reach the goal. The perception of a school goal and purpose is an understanding of the school as an institution that has a function for providing good results on national tests, popularising the city through high school rankings, and providing socialisation for the local community. Emphasis was directed to the schools’ unique educational offers and facilities, its history, traditions and reputation, and less on teacher professionality and activities for their further professional growth. This indicates that development of teacher professional competences is not the main goal in these schools. When answering the interview question ''what do the municipality/ students/ parents expect from the school?'' school management teams mostly said good national test results and high school rankings which is the final outcome of what a school can offer and not the qualitative process of how this outcome is reached. School management teams showed an in-depth reflection about the complexity of answering the expectations of a municipality and that these expectations are not related to teacher growth but more to the end result of schooling. For the second research question ''how is teacher professional learning managed?”, the following interview questions were presented: ''what kind of learning possibilities have been provided to your teachers?'', ''in which areas of further learning do your teachers need support?'', ''what kind of learning support for your teachers would be most effective?''. Most professional learning possibilities offered to teachers in the past took the form of lectures and courses. Most answers stated providing various courses and lectures both in the school (a visiting lecturer) and outside the school. Content of these activities was mostly related to learning a foreign language, environmental studies and how to create an eco-friendly school, critical thinking, colleague consolidation activities, how to be a 21st century teacher, how to teach learning skills to students, how to effectively use the library and its resources, and student assessment approaches. In general, the content of professional learning activities provided in the past was very diverse reflecting a broad range of themes. The school management stated that professional learning needs have not yet been met but are based on a collaborative inquiry approach to learning, including: IT support, collaboration among teachers of the same grade or

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subject area, teacher collaboration with students, assessment methods, lesson observation, curricula knowledge, planning skills, and reflection skills. There was a misalignment and fragmentation of professional learning activities. A similar problematic finding on the focus of teacher professional development has been discussed previously (for a review see Schlager and Fusco 2003). An interesting aspect of the analysed interview content was the way professional learning activities were described. There are specific comments about the use of these lectures and courses, indicating a reflection of their utility or the benefit teachers get from participating in them. ''there are special programmes with seminars and courses. We are trying out what works best for them [teachers]'' [school C] ''courses according to subject areas. They came back very satisfied'' [school G]

On the other hand, the language use indicated a lack of concrete direction or lack of given arguments for the strategic purpose of these professional learning activities. Lack of purpose was more prevalent in the interview data than the concreteness of them. Generally, these activities tended to be described vaguely indicating a lack of systematic provision over the process of long-term professional learning. Other activities were related to ''retelling'' of information heard in events outside the school. There were also informal meetings but with a minimal systematic approach to its organisation and supervision. ''there is a collaboration group. It’s not like there are specific times for meetings. When there is a need [teachers] get together'' [school C] ''critical thinking courses, but a long time ago. Ten years ago (...) in our meetings somebody comes with a lecture'' [school G] ''courses for primary teachers (...) but they [teachers] did not come back with a feeling they gained something, no, not like that (...) there was a lecture in our school but I don’t remember the topic, nor the title'' [school A]

When asked about what professional learning possibilities would be most effective, interview answers did not include the topic of courses or lectures. The content of the answers went beyond this sort of professional learning approach and revealed a more diverse set of approaches to answer the professional learning needs of teachers. School management teams

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perceived the following learning support for teachers to be most effective: lesson observations and other forms of teacher collaboration within the school, teacher collaboration outside their school (except in one school), teacher collaboration within a subject group (except one school), receiving individual help (except five schools). They also wanted teachers to try out new teaching methods and for the teachers to understand the need to change and continue learning. These approaches are more in line with the teacher change model where changes in beliefs and attitudes happen through changing classroom practices and experiencing change in student learning outcomes (Guskey 2002). ''firstly, teachers need to understand that they need to learn'' [school A] ''in courses teachers are just reviewing something, but it is essential to push yourself to try out [new teaching methods]'' [school H] ''alone in your school you can’t be effective. We already know what's going on here. Of course it is better to [work] together with other schools'' [school I]

Organisation of collaborative lesson observation and planning within the school as well as outside the school has been provided but it is not a traditional practice. Such an approach to teacher professional learning has been regarded as an effective way for teacher instructional improvement and ownership of instructional methods (Lewis 2009). From the analysed interview data, there have been activities provided where teachers learn from each other through analysing each other's lessons and where they learn how to change their approach to teaching for their particular students. School management does acknowledge the practical challenges of organising such professional learning activities and a readiness to support teachers in this regard. ''mutual lesson observation (...) also in other city’s schools (...) Difficulties with scheduling time tables for it'' [school I] ''open lessons. We ask them to show their lessons. But it is not a tradition'' [school G] ''the most effective would be lesson observations. I have been inviting to do it, where [teachers] can discuss their problems. It’s inconvenient: time tables, schedules. But we as administration are ready to make adjustments'' [school E]

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Lesson observation is seen as untraditional practice and there is a reluctance from teachers to participate in it and open their classroom doors to others. Teachers enjoy the benefits of learning from each other, but this sort of professional practice is entering schools slowly. It is not a regular approach to analyse each other’s teaching methods, give and receive comments and critique; it gives teachers stress and fear and is perceived as a way of control. This can be due to the widespread culture of the teacher profession which is regarded as private and autonomous (Little 1990) which also applies to the Latvian school context. ''Observation is seen as a stress and as a control. Some [teachers] are cultivating and maintaining this feeling'' [school J]

A great deal has been done to provide support for integrating information technologies (IT) in the classroom. Support has been given both through courses and improving the work environment and technical support. Support is also received from the digital centre in the city. There is also a sceptical point of view expressed on the long-term benefit of IT support and on the potential applicability of it. ''courses in the digital centre – we had them, but later it does not work anymore, [technology] gets outdated, it’s not used anymore'' [school B] ''[teachers] have necessary IT skills, they just need the courage to do it, if they don’t use it regularly, these skills fade out'' [school G]

Teachers expect to receive administrational help from the school. Teachers expect to have clear working agreements regarding reforms and other forms of change, help when working with parents and dealing with conflicting situations, higher salaries, having a positive collegial environment, and IT support. Another part of help is related to receiving emotional support and feeling that their work is being appreciated. This sort of support is important in the school because teachers rarely receive it outside the school. Generally, this content reflects support that is practical and technical and not related to professional learning and growth. Several answers were related to teachers' expectations for a working environment with a possibility to express themselves creatively and professionally. ''[teachers expect] to be able to express themselves through initiative. That there is a supportive, creative environment (...) where you can prove yourself professionally'' [school G]

Goal Management and Teacher Competence Development in Schools 211 ''a working place just like everywhere else. Where you have likeminded colleagues where [teachers] can learn from each other'' [school D]

Interestingly, interviewees mentioned the need to stop feeling competitive among teachers and among schools and that it hinders the creation of a teacher’s professional community in the city. It can be suggested that this feeling of competition stems from the emphasis that is put on national test results, student competitions and similar activities and because school ratings and reputation relies on these activities. ''there is no teacher community, there is a big rivalry. Mathematics teacher relationships are based on jealousy. Especially after mathematics Olympics'' [school J]

Regarding the second research question ''How is teacher professional learning managed?”, past support does not reflect the current or most effective support needed for teacher professional learning. Major emphasis was given to courses, lectures with a diverse set of learning topics and IT support but the current needs and most effective approaches to learning are perceived to be related to changes in teachers’ beliefs, teacher collaboration within and outside the school, lesson observation, planning and reflection skills. A future challenge for school management will be to integrate lesson observation practices in their schools which are highly valued and at the same time are perceived as a very unconventional way of teacher professional growth. Overall, there teacher professional learning actives are fragmented. Language use sometimes indicated vague arguments for the systematic organisation and applicability of these activities.

Conclusions This study explored the ways school management teams described and perceived the purpose and main goals of their school and how it can be linked to teacher professional learning support. Overall, there were weak links between purpose and goals of the school and the appropriate content of teacher professional learning activities for achievement of those goals. The school goal was perceived as very broad and fragmented and only minimally related to human resource development as an equally important goal. This highlights the problem of fully integrating teachers as members of the school and its organisational goals (McAuley, Duberley and Johnson 2007) which should be one of the core practices of successful school leadership. Improvement of employee performance through understanding and developing people is a way for school management to

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indirectly improve teaching and learning quality (Leithwood, Harris and Hopkins 2008). Achieving school goals requires that teachers have an appropriate set of skills and competences and the school management should organise appropriate professional learning activities that are aligned for achievement of goals. The selected schools overemphasised the end result of schooling focusing on high results on national tests, school rankings, teacher behaviour such as being friendly toward students and collaborative with parents and fulfilling parenting related functions. This emphasis comes from the relationships with stakeholders: municipality, parents, students and their demands and expectations for what the school should accomplish. Expectations from stakeholders, as perceived by the school management teams, were related to teacher professional development or teacher quality. The complex teaching-learning process for how to achieve the end results were perceived as being of less importance. Also, school management teams emphasised the history, reputation, facilities, location and special education programmes as the purpose of the school and minimally expressed the school’s purpose as developing teachers professionally. At a conceptual level, school goals were not related to teacher development but on the end result of what the school offers to stakeholders. Thus, there was no link between school goals and teachers’ overall competence development in this study. The problematic vagueness and complexity of goals have been pointed out in the school effectiveness literature before (Bamburg and Andrews 1991; Murphy et al. 2001). Such a broad understanding of the school’s purpose can be conceptualised as having a low level of goal specificity. Specific goals help to guide decision making for selecting appropriate activities among many available options (Scott 2003). This also applies to schools; a school must be accountable to society and has a varied set of expectations to fulfil. In the selected schools for this study, past actions for teacher professional learning were fragmented, described vaguely, often in the format of courses and lectures and these activities did not reflect the currently needed nor the most effective approaches. On the other hand, school management did suggest implementing new approaches for teacher professional learning. Future activities included creating out of school collaboration, lesson observation and developing transversal competencies such as reflection, experimentation with new teaching methods, and change of beliefs.

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References Angus, Lawrence. 1993. "The sociology of school effectiveness." The Sociology of School Effectiveness 14, no. 3: 333-45. Bamburg, Jerry D., and Richard L. Andrews. 1991. "School goals, principals, and achievement." School Effectiveness and School Improvement 2, no. 3: 175-91. ButkƝviþa, Anete, and Aija Zobena. 2017. "Teacher Leaders as Agents of Innovation Diffusion." RURAL ENVIRONMENT. EDUCATION. PERSONALITY. Conference proceedings, Latvia, Jelgava, May: 56-62. Chapman, Christopher, Hannah Chestnutt, Niamh Friel, Stuart Hall, and Kevin Lowden. 2016. "Professional capital and collaborative inquiry networks for educational equity and improvement?." Journal of Professional Capital and Community 1, no. 3: 178-97. Guskey, Thomas R. 2002. "Professional development and teacher change." Teachers and Teaching 8, no. 3: 381-91. Leithwood, Kenneth A., and Deborah J. Montgomery. 1982. "The role of the elementary school principal in program improvement." Review of Educational Research 52, no. 3: 309-39. Leithwood, Kenneth, Alma Harris, and David Hopkins. 2008. "Seven strong claims about successful school leadership." School Leadership and Management 28, no. 1: 27-42. Lewis, Catherine. 2009. "What is the nature of knowledge development in lesson study?." Educational Action Research 17, no. 1: 95-110. Little, Judith W. 1990. "The persistence of privacy: Autonomy and initiative in teachers’ professional relations." Teachers College Record 91, no. 4: 509-36. McAuley, John, Joanne Duberley, and Phil Johnson. 2007. Organization theory: Challenges and perspectives. Harlow: Pearson Education. Murphy, Joseph, and Daniela Torre. 2015. "Vision: essential scaffolding." Educational Management Administration & Leadership 43, no. 2: 17797. Murphy, Joseph. 2001. The productive high school: Creating personalized academic communities. Thousand Oaks: Corwin Press. Namsone, Dace, LƯga ýakƗne, Ilze France, and Anete ButkƝviþa. 2016. "Lesson based professional development: helping primary teachers teach 21st century skills." Proceedings of ICERI 2016 Conference, Spain, Sevilla, November: 3892-902. Namsone, Dace, LƯga ýakƗne, Dina Sarceviþa-Kalviške. 2016. "Teacher teams and schools become leaders to disseminate innovative practice." SOCIETY. INTEGRATION. EDUCATION. Proceedings of the

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International Scientific Conference, Volume II, Latvia, Rezekne, May: 208-22. Saldaña, Johnny. 2009. The coding manual for qualitative researchers. Los Angeles: Sage. Schlager, Mark S., and Judith Fusco. 2003. "Teacher professional development, technology, and communities of practice: Are we putting the cart before the horse?." The Information Society 19, no. 3: 203-20. Scott, W. Richard. 2003. Organizations and organizing: Rational, natural and open systems perspectives (5th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education. Talbert, Joan E., and Milbrey W. McLaughlin. 1994. "Teacher professionalism in local school contexts." American journal of education 102, no. 2: 123-53. Cabinet of Ministers Regulation Nr. 331. 2015. "Regulations on guidelines for the development of education 2014-2020 implementation plan for 2015-2017," Retrieved March, 15, 2017 from https://likumi.lv/doc.php?id=274936 This research is supported by the Latvian National Research Program ''VPP INOSOCTEREHI 2014 – 2017'' and by the ERDF research project ''The Application of Principles for Information System Modeling to Structured and Goal-Oriented Competence Management'', agreement No. 1.1.1.1/16/A/252

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN PROSPECTIVE TEACHERS’ VIEW OF PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS IN LATVIA INETA HELMANE

Abstract The article describes and analyses theoretical and empirical materials about teachers’ view of pupils in primary school. In Latvia, primary school teachers reported that pupils’ were able to operate and manage ICT tools successfully and they even manage technology better than teachers. Teachers describe pupils as clever, impulsive, and very emotional. Regarding pupils’ social development, the teachers mention that pupils are socially open and pupils defy adults. Most teachers point out that primary school pupils prefer unhealthy food, pupils have poor posture and pupils are very active. Key words: prospective teachers, teachers view, pupils, primary school

Introduction The 21st century with its rapid processes of globalisation and changes in educational paradigm adds different important challenges to the wide range of tasks for schools. The desire for effective learning has become a driving force in the 21st century (Hunt, Touzel and Wiseman 2009; Mupa and Chinooneka 2015). In adapting new ways of teaching, teachers may be surprised that their pupils have already acquired the skills needed for 21st century learning from outside the classroom (Sheikh 2016). Schools sustain society by transferring the cultural background and values of the society to the future generations. Providing basic information and skills for the individuals, it increases the social and cultural level of the society (Boyac and Atalay 2016). Teachers must focus on the development of educational practices and programmes which will provide all students with the opportunity to develop the skills and knowledge

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necessary to contribute to a global economy and a diverse, ever-changing, world society (Hunt, Touzel and Wiseman 2009). The challenge for the teacher is not only to identify and develop mastery of certain instructional strategies and behaviours accepted as effective practices, but the teacher is also challenged to develop the ability to effectively match these strategies and behaviours, at the appropriate time, to individual students and student groups, in specific teaching situations as these relate to the teacher’s desired student learning outcomes (Hunt, Touzel and Wiseman 2009; Mupa, Chinooneka 2015).

Aim of the Study The aim of the research is to investigate prospective teachers’ opinion about pupils in primary school. With this in mind, the answers to the following research questions have been put forward: What are the perceptions of primary school teachers about primary school pupils?

Materials and Methods Essence of Effective Teaching Effective teaching is hard to define. It is argued that effective teaching is important for raising student achievement (Hande, Kamath and D’Souza 2014; Mupa and Chinooneka 2015). Effective teaching involves effective planning, communicating, managing, and evaluating, as well as the actual act or process of instructing. Each of these expectations is important in the successful pursuit of increased student learning (Hunt, Touzel and Wiseman 2009). Lorin (2004) suggested that effective teaching is one that produces demonstrable results in terms of the cognitive and affective development of the students and hence it is an important component in every teaching professional. It is argued that effective teaching involves far more than presenting content and methods used to convey that content. Equally important are the affective or emotional processes involved in learning, the integration and application of new information and social processes that take place between individuals and their environments (Illeris 2002; Mupa and Chinooneka 2015). The essence of teaching is human interaction (Dwyer and Villegas 1993; Tella 2008). The aim of teaching is simple: it is to make student learning possible (Ramsden 2003). Quality teaching has been defined as teaching that maximises learning for all students (Glatthorn and Fox 1996; Tella 2008). In considering effective teaching and learning we need to

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look at the content of what we teach as well as the way in which we teach it (Dean 2000). The objective of the school is to increase the quality of life of individuals; it increases the social and cultural level of the society (Boyac and Atalay 2016). Teaching entails engaging pupils as active learners to induce positive, comprehensive changes in their pre-existing knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Tella 2008). Primary schools have a significant function in the formation of future educational steps and due to the fact that the information and skills obtained at this level affect the future training experiences (Boyac and Atalay 2016). In reaching this end, teachers need to create environments in their classrooms that support and encourage success for all students, not just a few. Though a daunting challenge, teachers today are expected to maintain high and relevant standards for academic success while also maintaining student-centred, achievement-oriented classroom environments (Hunt, Touzel and Wiseman 2009). It is essential to create teaching / learning processes during which learners comprehend, understand and link the acquired skills as well as knowledge with the existing situations in reality.

Essence of Effective Teacher Teachers work at the core of a dynamic profession and hold the key position of responsibility for implementing high quality instruction for children (Hunt, Touzel and Wiseman 2009). Characteristics associated with personality play an important role in teacher effectiveness, as teacher personality can influence the classroom climate, and this impacts the teacher-student interaction (Milner and Tenore 2010; Jones 2017). Teachers with higher expectations for students have produced higher gains in student academic progress in school settings (Ingle and Rutledge 2010; Fuller, Young and Baker 2011; Donaldson 2013; Jones 2017). Classroom size, curriculum, and student attendance are all important factors that affect student outcomes, but these factors cannot compare to the teacher’s influence on students’ academic performance (Jacob, Rockoff, Taylor, Lindy & Rosen, 2016; Larson 2006; Ritter and Hancock 2007; Rushton, Morgan and Richards 2007; Jones 2017). Effective teachers are clear about their instructional goals, are knowledgeable about the content, communicate well, monitor students’ understanding, and are thoughtful and respectful about their teaching practices (Porter and Brophy 1988; Mupa and Chinooneka 2015). An effective teacher combines the best of human relations, intuition, sound judgement, knowledge of subject matter, and knowledge of how people

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learn, all in one simultaneous act. Effective teachers make the very difficult task of teaching appear easy. They are able to teach all kinds of children so effectively that children, in fact, do learn (Bella 2016). Effective teachers exhibit passion for their subjects, are knowledgeable about and care for students, use a variety of teaching strategies and help students appreciate the relevance of information to their own context (Fuhrman, Fuhrman and DeLay 2010; Mupa and Chinooneka 2015). Comprehensive changes (growth) are achieved by teachers who are able to build on learners’ experiences, abilities, interest, motivation and skills. Therefore, teachers must have mastered the basic skills of teaching and possess the ability to continuously adjust their teaching strategies to meet the diverse needs of their pupils (Tella 2008). Effective teachers possess knowledge, have an effective delivery style, organisation and are known for the amount of assigned homework (Pietrzak, Duncan and Korcuska, 2008; Mupa and Chinooneka 2015). Teachers should be able to continuously refine and enhance their skills of communication and collaboration. Personal and professional attributes that have been identified as being representative of teachers include: the ability to show a genuine interest in teaching and enthusiasm for learning, pride in one’s personal appearance, skills in adapting to change, accepting responsibility for actions both inside and outside the classroom, the desire to take a cooperative approach towards parents and school personnel, punctuality and regularity in attendance and the ability to establish a genuine rapport with pupils (Tella 2008). It is argued that for effective teaching and learning to take place, teachers need to possess some sufficient degree of experience (Mupa and Chinooneka 2015). Experience is one of the major factors contributing towards effective teaching (Mavhunditse 2014; Mupa and Chinooneka, 2015). The quality of teacher training has an impact on teaching methods and improvement of skills (Tshabalala 2014; Mupa and Chinooneka 2015). The Department of Education (2012) found that those teachers who had been recently trained and less experienced are more effective than the more experienced. Newly trained qualified personnel have more to offer since they have new knowledge, skills and experience as compared to those with longer experience (Mupa and Chinooneka 2015). DarlingHammond (2012) and Jacob (2007) noted that neither university curriculum nor student teaching programmes are preparing student teachers for success in all educational settings and that the benefits of university curriculum and student teacher programmes are not related to teacher effectiveness (Jones 2017).

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Students considered effective teachers as those who employ a variety of teaching styles and make real world applications. Effective teachers exhibit humour, enthusiasm, compassion, empathy and are interested in and concerned for students outside the classroom (Sprinkle 2009; Mupa and Chinooneka 2015). Students characterised effective teachers as those who have knowledge, prepare and manage instruction, promote learning and help students grow so they can learn independently (Saroyan, Dangenais and Zhou 2009; Mupa and Chinooneka 2015). Early childhood professionals are being asked to have an in-depth understanding of child development and learning as well as provide rich, meaningful educational experiences for all children in their care (Sheridan et al. 2009; Brown et al. 2017). The complexity of teaching children requires the ability to be reflective, active and enthusiastic in providing a setting that is cognitively challenging, engaging and appropriate (Brown et al. 2017). Teachers’ view of primary school pupils has an important influence on the teaching/learning process, behaviour and practices, motivation, and positive learners’ outcomes in primary school. The teachers should ensure proper development, satisfy pupils’ needs as well as interests within the teaching/learning process in the primary school. Teachers as well as prospective teachers should reflect on as well as accept and work on primary school pupils’ development tendencies in the 21st century.

Research of prospective teachers’ view about primary school pupils The research of prospective teachers’ view about primary school pupils was implemented at Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy (RTTEMA). The research was carried out in Riga, where fulltime students are studying, as well as in 8 RTTEMA branches in different cities and towns of Latvia (CƝsis, KuldƯga, Ventspils, Alnjksne, Bauska, JƝkabpils, RƯga, Tukums, Madona), where part-time students are studying (see Fig. 1). Thus, the research involved RTTEMA students from various regions of Latvia.

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MA branches in Latvia Fig. 1 RTTEM

The reseearch was carrried out during the periood from 2015 5 to 2016 when full-tiime students (n=23) and part-time p studdents (n=98) of study programme “Preschool and a primary school s teacherr” start to accquire the study coursee “Curriculum m and method dology of elem mentary math hematics”. The prospecctive full-timee teachers acq quire the studdy course “Cu urriculum and methodoology of elem mentary matheematics” in thhe 3rd-4th sem mesters of the second sstudy year, buut part-time students s in thee 5th-6th sem mesters of the third stuudy year. All the t prospectiv ve teachers innvolved in thee research had completted the same study courses beforehand and started to acquire the methodoology of prim mary school subjects. s Alsoo, they engaged in the research volluntarily. The dataa were obtainned through questionnairees and semi-sstructured interviews. The aim of thhe questionnaaires was to iddentify the prospective teachers’ viiew of primaary school pu upils. The aiim of semi-sstructured interviews w was to specifyy the prospectiive teachers’ vview of primaary school pupils. Data gatthering was prresented as a classroom moodelling activ vity in the first lecturee of the stuudy course “Curriculum “ and methodo ology of elementary mathematics””. The prospeective teacherrs were first asked to identify theiir personal oppinion of prim mary school ppupils nowadaays. After the questionnnaires were collected, c the students s discuussed their responses in small groupps. This alloowed the stu udents to beecome comfo ortable in

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vocalising their views. At the end of the first meeting, the class discussed as a whole the views that they had reported in the questionnaires. The discussion moved from reporting their opinions about primary school pupils to analysing them professionally as teachers. The prospective teachers began to connect their views about primary school pupils to pedagogy theory and the psychology of pedagogy that they had learned in previous courses. “The History of Education”, “Didactics”, “Developmental and physiological psychology”, and “The theory and practice of play” were all mentioned in the discussion and helped them develop their understanding of theory in practice. The theme about primary school pupils and how it affects learning mathematics was revisited many times during the course. The data obtained from questionnaires were complemented by semistructured interviews where the students supplemented the answers to the questions about primary school pupils. The peculiarity of this interview was that the questions included the main topic issues but were not formulated precisely and their sequence, too, was not strictly determined. However, during the interview the views of prospective teachers on peculiarities of primary school pupils and their manifestation become clear. Each interview was about 30 minutes long; it was recorded, transcribed and coded.

Results The data obtained from the survey of full-time and part-time students (n=121) enrolled in the study programme “Preschool and primary school teacher” revealed that there is no difference between the opinions and thoughts of full-time and part-time students about primary school pupils nowadays. Also, no differences were identified between the opinions of students from various RTTEMA branches in different regions of Latvia. In the survey, the prospective teachers characterised primary school pupils with key words or short, precise phrases, however, they expressed their thoughts and more clarified opinions during a semi-structured interview as well as in small group discussions during the lecture. A positive opinion predominates in the prospective teachers’ views about primary school pupils. The students point out pupils’ strengths in social, emotional and intellectual fields. However, a small number of negative opinions about pupils did emerge (see Table 1). In this article, we focus and analyse only those data for keywords that were mentioned by more than 50 % of the research sample.

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Table 1 Prospective teachers’ view about a primary school pupil

Characteristics of a primary school pupil Likes ICT Willing to do Diverse, different Active Emotional Hasty, fast, quick Communicative Inquisitive Hard to concentrate, keep attention Loud Junk food admirers Physically weak Characteristics associated with personality, for instance, ingenious, resourceful, demanding, picky Creative Interested Conscientious Absent-minded

% from total 94.2 82.5 81.8 78.5 76.0 75.2 73.5 71.9 70.2 68.5 68.5 64.4 61.6 60.3 56.2 52.0 51.2

We must evaluate positively and approvingly that the prospective teachers used key words expressing the dominant opinion that primary school pupils are different, diverse, and various. In a semi-structured interview, the prospective teachers pointed out that diversity is manifested in social, emotional and intellectual fields, for example, “one pupil thinks logically, but the other cannot understand regularities; one pupil will be sensitive, very emotional, easily touchable, the other one – less; a pupil can be very friendly, but it can also be otherwise when someone cannot find a friend so easily; a pupil is motivated or less motivated to acquire knowledge”. During the data processing, no other characteristics, clarifications for the words diversity or difference appeared. The prospective teachers characterised primary school pupils in general without highlighting gender, race, or national differences. In the prospective teachers’ views about a primary school pupil, the opinion predominates that a pupil is inquisitive, with personal experience, active and interested as well as willing to perform inquiry-based tasks. For example, “want to do by themselves, actively participate; More capable in studies than they do at school and in lessons; Active only if it interests him/her; Pupils are versatile- they want to know everything and a lot”.

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The students especially point out the pupils’ desire and motivation to acquire knowledge and skills in different school subjects. The prospective teachers think that primary school pupils willingly cooperate with their classmates and the teacher in the study process, as well as willingly engage in various activities where it is possible to actively acquire the study content, for example, “Studies which go along with time because contemporary pupils are willing to know what is going on today and now ... themes, which they are interested in, seem topical and exciting”. The prospective primary school teachers indicated that pupils have a good command of ICT and in comparison with their teachers, they manage it much better, for example, “They are better at ICT; they use ICT to find information; They like to work with ICT a lot; A pupil is “technological””. It is characteristic that very seldom the prospective teachers point to negative aspects of ICT and their effect on a pupil. In the negative views, there is no indication to addictions; they pay more attention to low quality and inappropriate ICT use for primary school pupils’ development and education, for example, “Negative affect of the internet; Pupils live in the virtual world”. The prospective teachers consider that, in terms of social aspects, pupils are socially open. Also, they unwillingly obey the instructions given by adults: “They like to talk very much; They don’t listen when teachers talk; They are sociable, not afraid of the audience”. In the teachers’ view, we can also find negative features related to pupils’ attention in terms of cognitive activity, as well as pupils’ physical condition. Especially, the prospective teachers pointed out that pupils have unstable attention, it is hard for them to concentrate and also, pupils tend to be absent-minded: “Lack of attention, often do not follow the assigned tasks; Are able to concentrate for a short while; Hard to concentrate attention on a specific action; Do not finish if they make a mistake, If they fail, they do not want anything”. The prospective teachers assessed and characterised primary school pupils’ physical condition negatively pointing out that pupils unwillingly engage and do different sport activities. The majority of the teachers point out that a primary school pupil prefers unhealthy food, has a bad posture: Prefers JUNK food; in a physically bad shape. In the prospective teachers’ views, we can find an extensive listing of various character and personality traits peculiar to pupils, for example, “ingenious, resourceful, demanding, picky, absent-minded, nice”. Reflection and discussion about the view of primary school pupils gave the prospective teachers an access point to understanding the essence of pupils. The focus of the discussion shifted naturally to their new roles as

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teachers of mathematics and they became open to learning in the methods course (Helmane and Cirulis 2016). As a result of the research, the following steps in working with prospective elementary teachers are recommended: x Understand one’s view of primary school pupils: prospective teachers need to recall their own view about pupils in primary school. x Search for the roots of the view: prospective teachers need to understand why they think the way they do, what elicited the opinion about pupils from the prospective of a professional teacher using their understanding of pedagogy and the psychology of the learner. x Recognise the effects of the view: prospective teachers need to realise the power of positive thinking in learning mathematics and how their instructional practices and personality in the classroom can influence the children they teach and plan accordingly. Analysing the connection of the view of primary school pupils with educational process, prospective teachers emphasise the successes of pedagogical activity which could be applied in further teaching/learning mathematics in primary school. Thus, by improving the learning quality, it is possible to enhance the quality of teaching mathematics in real pedagogical processes. The study showed that through reflection and discussion, students enrolled in the course “Curriculum and methodology of elementary mathematics” gained an understanding of how pupils acquire mathematics content as well as learn in primary school. Analysing the view of pupils in primary school, prospective teachers specify pedagogical activities that should be applied in teaching and learning mathematics in primary school. Thus, by improving the quality of the learning process, it is possible to enhance the quality of teaching mathematics in primary schools.

Conclusions Effective teaching maximises learning for all pupils. Effective teaching is one that produces demonstrable results in terms of the cognitive and affective development of the pupils. It involves presenting content and methods used to convey that content as well as affective or emotional processes, the integration and application of new information and social, cultural, economical aspects as real life processes.

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Effective teachers are clear about teaching learning goals, are knowledgeable about the content, communicate well, monitor students’ understanding, and are thoughtful and respectful about their teaching practices; they combine the best of human relations, intuition, sound judgement, knowledge of subject matter, and knowledge of how people learn, all in one simultaneous act. Effective teachers exhibit passion for their subjects, are knowledgeable about and care for students, use a variety of teaching strategies and help students appreciate the relevance of information to their own context. In primary school, teachers have an indepth understanding of child development and learning as well as provide rich, meaningful educational experiences for all pupils. A positive opinion predominates in the prospective teachers’ views about primary school pupils. The students point out pupils’ strengths in social, emotional and intellectual fields. In Latvia primary school teachers reported that pupils’ were able to operate and manage ICT tools successfully and they even manage technology better than teachers. Teachers describe pupils as clever, impulsive, and very emotional. In regards to pupils’ social development, the teachers mention that pupils are socially open but pupils defy adults. The majority of the teachers point out that primary school pupils prefer unhealthy food, have poor posture and pupils are very active. By focusing prospective teachers’ attention to the view of primary school pupils, it is possible to encourage them to actively build their educational practices that provide all learners with knowledge and skills necessary to contribute to the acquisition of mathematics content. It is essential to create mathematics teaching/learning content in which learners comprehend, understand and link the acquired skills as well as knowledge with the existing situations in reality. The mathematics content should ensure learners’ development, satisfy learners’ needs as well as interests within the study process.

References Bella, R. A. 2016. “Investigating Psychological Parameters of Effective Teaching in a Diverse Classroom Situation: The Case of the Higher Teachers’ Training College Maroua.” Cameroon Journal of Education and Practice 7 (23): 72-80. Boyac, S.D.B., and N. A. Atalay. 2016. “Scale Development for 21st Century Skills of Primary School Students: A Validity and Reliability Study.” International Journal of Instruction 9 (1): 1308-470.

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CHAPTER EIGHTEEN COMPETENT TEACHER FOR INCLUSIVE EDUCATION: WHAT DOES IT MEAN FOR LATVIA? DITA NƮMANTE

Abstract The most important factor for successful inclusive education is for general teacher professional competence to work in an inclusive setting. Vaivari Elementary School is one of the first Latvian inclusive schools, where children with special needs have been placed alongside other children since 1994. The aim of the study is to find out what personal characteristics and professional competencies are required of a teacher, so that he/she can work in an inclusive school in Latvian. There were 25 structured interviews conducted with Vaivari primary school teachers; interviews were transcribed and analysed qualitatively. As a result of the research, a list of personal characteristics of inclusive teachers and certain inclusive teacher knowledge, skills, and attitudes are provided, as well as a perception of inclusive education of Vaivary Elementary School teachers. Key words: teacher competences, inclusive education, personal characteristics

Introduction Inclusive education is topical for teachers in tertiary education institutions internationally (Rose and Florian 2012) and locally (Rubene et al. 2016). In that context, the social cognitive theory (Bandura 1999; Goburdhun and Ramsaha 2017) suggests that some individuals feel vulnerable and, because of that, tend to avoid situations in which they might have a lack of competence. They “do things they have seen succeed, and avoid those they have seen fail” (Bandura, 1999, 27). Therefore, teacher training is the core factor, so teachers feel secure and can assume responsibility for all learners involved, whatever their individual needs

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(Watkins, 2009). Tony Booth and Mel Ainscow in their work “Index for inclusion” argue that inclusion in education means increasing the participation of students and reducing their exclusion (2011). Inclusive teaching acknowledges the classroom reality of diversity (individual differences and special needs) for students by providing them with multiple ways to participate in the learning process, to access the content and demonstrate their learning according to their existing skills. Florian claims that teachers could use so-called inclusive pedagogy. She states that inclusive pedagogy focuses on improving the quality of mainstream education by reducing variability in practice (Florian 2015). Teacher training and comprehensive preparation for inclusion have become one of the most important questions in the teacher’s skillset when they are going through the process of preparation for their future career currently around the world and in Latvia in particular. Therefore, the question of what are the necessary competencies for teachers in an inclusive format is arising in Latvia. Competencies have been laid out in the past, and used widely in Latvia, providing the defined necessary skills, knowledge and understanding needed to do something successfully (UNESCO 2011). The topicality of the research is also based upon a contradiction – although inclusive education has been known in Latvia since 1998, there is still an assumption that because of a lack of common understanding, there is no credible practice based evidence of inclusive education in Latvia. Good practice in inclusive education is rather an exception than a general phenomenon. Although since 2014 the Guidelines for the Development of Education have defined what exactly an “inclusive education” is and have introduced the principle of inclusive education as a main task (Guidelines for the Development of Education for 2014 -2020 2013), it is not enough to change the existing teaching practices. Vaivari Elementary School is one of the first Latvian inclusive schools. Since 1994 there were integrated children with special needs and since 1998 the Vaivari Elementary School has been working towards the inclusive school following “Index for inclusion” ideas. With a 20-year long tradition of inclusive practices at Vaivari Elementary school, the Head of the school’ s management, the management team and the majority of teachers stayed there and have never been replaced. The aim of the study is to find out what are the personal characteristics and professional competencies required for every teacher to work in an inclusive school and classroom in Latvia.

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Methodology This qualitative research adopted a case study approach examining the case of Vaivari Elementary school. First, systematic literature reviews were conducted on the current research. Through a description and analysis of international literature (having it as wide and global as possible), an attempt has been made to address the precise research question: are there any specific requirements and what are the necessary competencies and personal characteristics required for teachers to be employed in inclusive schools in Latvia? Then, ten structured questions were created for an interview. Fifty 3rd year students of the University of Latvia from Pedagogical, Psychology and Art departments were included in conducting the research while participating in the University course “Diversity in the school pedagogical process” which took place in 2017. The structured interview questions were piloted, the results were discussed, the questions were clarified and the final set of seven questions was finalised. In March 2017, 25 structured interviews with Vaivari Elementary school primary and preschool teachers/special education teachers/ speech therapists were conducted and transcribed. The results were analysed using the content analyses method. Questions were as follows: 1. What personal traits should teachers have in order to work in an inclusive classroom? 2. What do you think are the knowledge and skills teachers should have to work in an inclusive classroom? 3. What do you think should be the attitude of a teacher who will be working in an inclusive classroom? 4. What kinds of knowledge and skills in practice should the teacher have to overcome the difficulties in an inclusive classroom? (Here you should provide concrete examples) 5. What do you think universities should give the highest priority to in the preparation of students for employment at inclusive schools? 6. What knowledge or skills do you lack and what should be improved for even better work in an inclusive classroom? 7. How do you understand what constitutes an inclusive class?

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Theoretical framework of the study According to Florian, the starting point for inclusive pedagogy is an “acknowledgement of the contested nature of inclusive education and the consequent variability in practice” (Florian 2015, 6). The teachers should first acknowledge the importance of inclusive education as such, by understanding the role of the teacher in inclusive education. As stated by several authors, for successful inclusion teacher attitudes are important to address the diverse needs of children (Sharma, Forlin, and Loreman 2008; Batanero 2013). Research has found a strong link between teachers perceived levels of confidence and knowledge and their attitudes and concerns about inclusion (Forlin, Chambers, 2011). As it is stated by Colin Low, “inclusion may fail because it is inadequately resourced or badly implemented” (Low 2007, 9). The teacher’s role is the most important factor in the success of inclusive education. If the teacher is professionally prepared to work in an inclusive setting and to educate a variety of students in the mainstream, this is the basis for successful inclusive education. Increasingly, there has been much dialogue about the particular skills and competencies needed by inclusive teachers (Forlin 2010). There are certain professional competences mentioned for teachers to be successful in an inclusive setting: ability to apply varied methods, techniques and strategies to achieve meaningful learning for all students (Batanero 2013), making curricular and instructional accommodations and modifications, (Fisher, Frey, and Thousand, 2003; Batanero 2013), innovation and creativity, implementation of lesson plans that are appropriate for diverse learners (Dingle et al. 2004), knowledge of general education assessment procedures (Dingle et al. 2004), skills to facilitate the physical classroom environment that allows for flexible scheduling and transition times, knowledge of procedures and regulations for reporting child abuse and the legal rights and responsibilities of teachers and students (Dingle et al. 2004), knowledge on classroom management, knowledge of diagnostic criteria and characteristics of specific disabilities (Peterson and Beloin 1998). These teachers require constant self-reflection and a constant reinforcement of competences, ability to learn (Batanero 2013), and collaboration with other teachers, students and parents (Hamill, Jantzen, and Bargerhuff 1999; Batanero 2013). It is quite difficult to draw one line for all teachers’ preparedness. Teachers will differ and research shows that competences needed for inclusive education will be not equally developed for teachers working at the same school (Bukviü 2014). Besides certain competencies, teachers

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who are working in an inclusive setting must have certain personal characteristics: openness, readiness to change and flexibility (Hamill, Jantzen, and Bargerhuff 1999; Batanero 2013). Project “Teacher education for inclusion” implemented by the European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education between 2010 and 2011 made 14 visits to different European countries; after that there were published material “Teacher Education for Inclusion Profile of Inclusive teachers” (Watkins 2012). Several competencies that an inclusive teacher must demonstrate in his/her professional work were listed. The four most important areas were: “1. Valuing learner diversity – learner differences are considered as a resource and an asset to education”;” 2. Supporting all students – teachers have high expectations for all learners’ achievements”; “3. Cooperation with others – collaboration and teamwork are essential approaches for all teachers”; 4. “Continuing personal, professional development – teaching is a learning activity and teachers should be taking responsibility for their students’ lifelong learning” (Watkins 2012, 7). As a result of the project “Development and implementation of the support programs for establishing the support system for the young people under the exclusion risk” in Latvia, certain guidelines for implementing inclusive education in teacher education were developed: to have a good knowledge of pupils’ development and learning; to have a good knowledge of the subject content and methods of teaching; planning, management, and evaluation of the teaching/learning process; development and maintaining and safe teaching/learning environment; assessment and evaluation of pupils’ learning; teachers’ professional development; teachers’ professional cooperation. Furthermore, “the well-grounded introduction of the values of inclusive education in the content of teacher education programs widens the implementation of an integrated and inclusive approach” (Rubene et al. 2016, 13). Many works have been carried out in relation to teaching competencies, although we still do not know what specific capacities or competences teachers should have to work in an inclusive setting. As admitted by Kershner, “inclusion can be particularly challenging for understanding the knowledge associated with teachers’ individual and collective activity in schools because of the diverse set of opinions, values and skills operating in a system of limited financial and human resources” (Kershner 2007, 491). There is still a lack of a common understanding about the specific necessary competencies for inclusive teachers, therefore it remains both a local and global problem (Das, Kuyini, and Desai 2013). Apart from certain personal characteristics of inclusive teachers and professional competences such as teacher’s knowledge, skills, values and

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attitudes for inclusive education, it is also important to examine the perception of inclusive education.

The results of qualitative data 1. First, there are several personal characteristics for effective inclusive teachers. Primarily teachers have mentioned a tolerance and an ability to accept all students despite their differences. The teachers should accept the child as she/he is. To do so the teacher should be very open and at the same time she/he has to have empathy towards all children. “The teacher needs to accept all children, regardless of nationality, race or needs.” “First and foremost, it must be acceptance: it is necessary to accept any situation, any child and accept it as he/she is, because if the teacher cannot do it then it is impossible to work fully - it is impossible to see the child and his/her needs, real needs.”

One of the teachers stated that there should be an opportunity to test an individual teacher in order to re-assure and to predict how humanistic and tolerant the person is before letting her/him work in the inclusive school. To work in the framework of inclusive settings, a teacher should have courage and perseverance, but most of all patience. “Patience. Even more than in a regular school, this is the only thing I understood.”

Responsibility and sense of humour were mentioned, which can be very essential. “Patience, sense of humour, strong nervous system, goodness, sensitivity, understanding, helpfulness, open eyes ...”

The sense of humour sometimes can help in unpleasant situations that can happen during the school day. Teachers should learn to separate personal feelings about what the children say to you and do not take it personally, but professionally. “.. not taking everything seriously, because they often say what they do not think. You also need to have a sense of humour, accept everything as a joke.”

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Overall such teachers should have so-called emotional intelligence. Only an emotionally intelligent teacher will fully understand the child and will be able to react in a correct and emotionally intelligent way. As stated by teachers, every person who is going to work in an inclusive setting should be emotionally persistence and calm. “The teacher must be calm and always ready to look for solutions to various problem situations.”

The main reason for that is a wide range of problems teachers are facing during the working day and even during the lessons. For example, even if you have a plan for the lesson, many things can happen during the lesson, so you will have to change the lesson plan and think of something else very quickly. The ability to be adaptable to a child’s needs and to be able to cooperate with children and other adults in the room becomes very important. There is a need to cooperate not only with children, other teachers, but with parents, teacher’s assistants, other support specialists as well in that context. “And you should be ready to work not only with pupils, but also with parents. And often work with parents will be heavier than work with kids.” “There are several parties in this class - parents, two assistants, two teachers. And students - everyone has their own opinion. All the time one has to work together with someone.”

Finally, humbleness was mentioned. It was explained as an ability to adapt to the child as he/she is, descending to his/her level, rather than setting teachers’ own ambitions for a child’s development. “Ready to act and look at the children from their needs, and not from ambitions you have, how much do you want to teach, so it is the best for your student, what is best specifically for him/her.” 2. Teacher’s knowledge, skills, values and attitudes for inclusive education and ability to use them to implement inclusive education successfully. In order to work in an inclusive class, teachers identified essential knowledge in both subject matter, in methodology and special pedagogy. This is essential for every teacher working in an inclusive classroom. As stated by teachers, it is important to understand the children you are working with. In an inclusive classroom, this means understanding both children with and without disorders. One of the first myths associated with

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inclusive school is that it applies only to children with special needs. Working in an inclusive classroom is not just about children with special needs. It is essential for teachers to understand how to work in such a diverse class and what it means. For example, if one of the kids is offered another task or other worksheets or special memos, then there is a clear need to explain to others why the teacher is doing so. The teacher must be able to communicate the diversity of other children in the classroom. “Inclusive education ultimately affects everyone, as children without special needs also fit in - they fit into the environment, because the environment is different, which they may not see at first, and can ask a lot of questions which should be answered. For example, ‘Why does he have a different worksheet?’, ‘Why does he not do that?’, ‘Why does he interrupt?’, ‘Why can he work with memos, but I cannot work with memos?’”

The teacher should communicate the diversity to the parents too, so parents know and fully understand what an inclusive education means. The teacher should explain that by providing the support to a child with special needs no one will be privileged, everyone will simply be offered equal opportunities to study. It is like an inclusive education ethical dilemma which has to be solved at the beginning. Secondly, teachers should be very knowledgeable about children who have additional needs in the classroom. Every class will be different, so there can be children with different disorders in one classroom. The inclusive teacher should have knowledge about every disorder children have in the classroom. "It is important to understand the disorder that children have. It helps predict their behaviour and understand their actions."

The better you understand the children, the better you will be able to adjust to child’s needs. To do so the teachers should learn new approaches and methods to deal with diversity. “There is an ongoing need to look for additional alternatives, other pedagogical thoughts, ideas.”

Teachers should know how to adjust the subject content to every child, for example, by making differentiated tasks. Classroom management skills are important too, so teachers are able to lead the classroom for learning despite the children who have behaviour problems, for example. The

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teachers should use certain methods for helping children to improve behaviour. The teacher in an inclusive classroom has to have an ability to learn continuously and to be able to apply new knowledge in a creative way into practice. It is possible that previous experience will not always work in an inclusive classroom. “When I came to this school, I thought I had all the necessary knowledge, I knew everything, I was working in pedagogy for about 17-18 years at all ages, with ninth, first-year students, kindergarten, with anything else, and I came believing that I could do everything, I know everything. Upon arriving here, I realised that I do not know anything, because everything is going on differently here, precisely because of the fact that there is a constant need for creativity that it is imperative to come up with something new, different. The strategies that worked in the normal school do not work in this school.”

To work inclusively means that the teacher always has to keep some kind a balance, to think of such pedagogical approaches and methods which help each child in the classroom to learn and develop. It is very important for an inclusive teacher to be flexible and never give up because there will never be two similar situations. In the inclusive classroom, sometimes there are very overcrowded conditions – there can be many adults present in the classroom. Besides teachers, there are teacher’s assistant and child assistants, special pedagogue and other support staff. Sometimes parents are present. The only way to work effectively is through effective communication and cooperation for finding the best way to support children in learning. As recognised by one of the teachers, the inclusive teacher must be able to reflect on what is going on in the classroom to evaluate the classroom process and then make improvements. It can be done by the teacher alone, but it can be done in cooperation with teacher’s assistants and other support stuff. “There must be supportive and professional staff working together in the classroom, who are able to give constructive feedback for his/her own work and others. In our class we have created a way in which we tell each other what to look for, what should be improved.”

In an inclusive school, there is a kind of open and teacher friendly environment. Teachers and other professional involved are open for consultations, they are ready to share their experience and help with

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different kinds of issues for solving the problems, to find the best solution possible. “It's not hard to ask for advice from others, it's extremely cool. I have been working at several schools, but this is practically the first school where I can come to any of my colleagues in an intermission and ask, ‘Listen, what should I do with that?’ You can ask really anyone, since one has had such a situation, the other is different, and then we exchange, and one idea is useful to another. And if you have an idea, an approach, or you know where to look for some information, it is good to share it with each other. It's happening here all the time. It is OK."

In the inclusive school teachers quite often are learning from each other and learning together. At different times the teachers can play different roles – to be an adviser, to be a case leader, to be a mentor, to be a problem solver, to be someone looking for advice. Especially important is the possibility to openly ask for advice as mentioned by the first-year teachers. Another key inclusive teacher's skill is cooperation. Highly important is communication with parents. The parents have the right to know the details of the child’s development, but also for teachers it is important to find out information on different aspects of child development outside of school, which can be very helpful in school. “And we do it very often, talk about the child's progress or regress at home, what extra hours they are attending, because we need to know what's going on with her. Communication is incredibly important.”

3. The teacher’s perception of an inclusive education were examined too. Most of the teachers who were interviewed perceived inclusive education as an education form where all children despite their educational needs are accepted in the school and learning together. “It is a school that does not reject any child. If the child is different than the school finds ways to adjust to child’s needs, by finding new methods, strategies, by changing the rules of the game.”

Teachers specifically stressed that the school had to change the socalled "rules of the game" in order to adapt to the needs of all children, so that everyone can learn.

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“We change the rules of the game and we do it so that everyone becomes as good as possible, learns as much as possible”

For teachers, it was important to create an inclusive environment in the school, where everyone feels welcomed including them as well. “Inclusive - that is, where everyone feels well, also a teacher. Everyone feels good and everyone is comfortable and they want to come to school. First of all this is an inclusive environment.”

The environment should be emotionally safe; an inclusive environment was described as “feels like home”. “Everyone feels like at home, no matter what their particular peculiarities or needs are, because each of us has some specific peculiarities. Where everybody can honour each other, and that's how we work”

Some of the teachers pointed to inclusive education as an opportunity for children with special needs to get along with others. “It is a classroom where children with special needs are integrated”. Teachers explained that it can be possible that students sometimes are learning separately during the classroom hours, but participate in certain events together with everyone else. “But they participate together in events, they want to come to ensembles, if they have such an opportunity, they are not locked in the corner they have their own school!”

As stated by one teacher: “We are all the same, we are all people who want education, and everyone needs it. We all go to class and learn. Everyone needs their own path, their approach, how can we each get knowledge.”

Inclusive education is understood in its broadest sense: “What does it mean ‘Inclusive class?’ It's like without borders. There anyone can learn, no matter if you are 80 years old, in a wheelchair, or a five-year-old child - a kindergarten genius somebody.”

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Conclusion Having analysed the case of Vaivari elementary school, some conclusions can be drawn about certain personal characteristics of inclusive teachers at Vaivari Elementary school (in this particular case study): • • • • • • • •

tolerance and an ability to accept all students despite their differences; openness; ability to cooperate with children, other school staff, parents; responsibility and empathy towards all children, even humbleness; courage and perseverance, but most of all patience; a sense of humour; emotional intelligence; persistence and emotional calmness.

Certain competencies (knowledge, skills, and attitudes) were mentioned by Vaivari Elementary school teachers that an inclusive teacher should have: • • •

• • •

•

• •

good knowledge of subject matter, methodology and special pedagogy; good understanding about an inclusive (diverse) classroom, which means to understand both children with and without disorders; good communication skills for the teacher to be able to communicate the diversity of other children in the classroom and to parents; ability to solve inclusive education’s ethical dilemmas; good knowledge about all children in the classroom, their learning needs, disorders; high ability to learn new approaches and methods to deal with diversity, learn continuously and to be able to apply new knowledge in a creative way into practice; skills to keep some kind of balance, to think of such pedagogical approaches and methods which help each child in the classroom to learn and develop; knowledge of how to adjust the subject content for children with special needs; good classroom management skills;

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• • •

241

good communication and collaboration skills (with other teachers, teacher assistants, parents, support specialists); good self-reflection skills, ability to evaluate own work, make constant improvements; ability to take up different roles: to be an adviser, to be a case leader, to be a mentor, to be a problem solver, to be someone looking for advice, openly and friendly, be able to collaborate, be involved in learning from each other and learning together.

As expected, the teacher’s perception of inclusive education in Vaivari Elementary school is generally connected with perception of inclusive education as full inclusion and integration. The inclusion is understood as a way of accepting everyone, learning together in a respectful and emotionally safe environment, by finding the necessary methods and strategies to accommodate all children’s learning needs. Perception of integration is connected with an understanding of integration of children with special needs into the school, by providing the opportunity to learn together and spend some time together with regular class children.

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Education in Europe Spring Conference 2015, Edited by Daniela, L. and Rutka, L., 1-16. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. http://www.cambridgescholars.com/selected-papers-of-the-associationfor-teacher-education-in-europe-spring-conference-2015 Sharma, U., Forlin, C. and Loreman, T. 2008. “Impact of training on preservice teachers' attitudes and concerns about inclusive education and sentiments about persons with disabilities.” Disability & Society 23 (7): 773-85. UNESCO. 2011. “UNESCO ICT competency framework for teachers.” The United Nations Educational. Scientific and Cultural Organization. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002134/213475E.pdf Watkins, A., ed. 2009. “Key Principles for Promoting Quality in Inclusive Education.” European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education. https://www.european-agency.org/sites/default/files/key-principles-forpromoting-quality-in-inclusive-education_key-principles-EN.pdf Watkins, A., ed. 2012. “Teacher Education for Inclusion Profile of Inclusive teachers.” European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education. http://www.european-agency.org/sites/default/files/teachereducationfor-inclusion_Profile-of-Inclusive-Teachers.pdf

CHAPTER NINETEEN EMPOWERING INCLUSIVE TEACHERS FOR TODAY AND TOMORROW (EITTT) IVETA LIEPINA, LAURA ZAVACKA AND ANNE RYAN

Abstract EiTTT (Empowering Inclusive Teachers for Today and Tomorrow) is the KA2 project which focuses on good practices. It involves teachers who teach inclusive education to future teachers and teachers who already work in inclusive education. In this publication, attention is paid to what kind of methods are used in inclusive education in mainstream schools and how lectures prepare teachers for inclusive education. After each research, made in meetings and learning activities, there are conclusions, based on information and materials gotten in each partners experience. Keywords: Inclusive education, Co-teaching, mainstream schools, cooperation, team work.

Introduction EiTTT (Empowering Inclusive Teachers for Today and Tomorrow) is a new European strategic partnership project funded under the Erasmus+ KA2 Education Programme of the European Commission. The Erasmus+ Programme encourages organisations across Europe to cooperate in forming strategic partnerships for the purposes of innovation and exchange of good practices. MIE leads this 30-month project which commenced in October 2016. It is the summary of the good practice where we will work with partner organisations as Belgium (University Colleges LeuvenLimburg & Karel de Grote University College), Cyprus (Dimotiko Sxoleio Anthoupolis KA), Latvia (Rigas 45. vidusskola) and Finland (Lukkarin koulu). The project partners, who represent three teacher education institutions and three schools, share a commitment to inclusive education

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and an understanding of priorities to be addressed if inclusion is to become intrinsic to school practice. EiTTT is focused on the development of mainstream schools as inclusive learning environments for all learners, including those with special needs and disabilities, those from socioeconomically disadvantaged backgrounds, and persons with a migrant background. The promotion of inclusive education is a key element of current EU education policy. However, as experienced educators, the project partners are motivated by an understanding that the effective implementation of this policy in school practice presents a considerable challenge to even the most experienced teachers. Our belief, therefore, is that high quality teacher education though vital, is not sufficient to the advancement of inclusion in schools. With a view to facilitating learning for all in the diverse population of contemporary classrooms, we know that schools themselves must also be enabled to provide support structures that can facilitate teachers’ inclusive practice. In this project, we, as a cross-sectoral group of educators, will present an evidence-based argument in favour of the diversification of available resources to provide for such a whole-system response. We will share what we believe are exemplary inclusive education practices in our respective teacher education institutions and schools, implement new learning arising from this exchange, and disseminate our learning nationally and transnationally to teacher educators, practising teachers, student teachers, school administrators and policy makers.

Project Objectives While co-teaching has been employed frequently in the special education domain, its use during student teaching is a practice still in its infancy. Co-teaching was originally proposed as an administrative arrangement facilitating the full inclusion of special education students into general education classrooms. Co-teaching has frequently been applied, with mixed results, combining the efforts of special- and general educators (Bacharac, Heck and Dahlberg 2010). Project partner groups have indicated some main objectives: 1. Highlight and address key challenges in advancing the inclusion agenda in schools: The project team comprises teachers drawn from three schools (two primary and one secondary) and teacher educators employed in three teacher education institutions. The teachers are working in mainstream classes of considerable learner diversity while the teacher educators have responsibility for Inclusive Education (pre- and in-service teacher education) in their respective institutions. As an experienced,

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international, cross-sectoral group of educational practitioners, we share an understanding of the challenges involved in advancing the inclusive agenda in schools. 2. Highlight and address the well-documented inadequacies in teacher confidence and competence with regard to inclusive practice in Europe's classrooms: Inclusive education inevitably rests on teacher commitment and capability. It requires that teachers hold appropriate attitudes and values regarding diversity in society and schools, as well as relevant knowledge and skills. As high quality teacher education is therefore a pre-requisite, one of the main objectives of the project group will be to share examples of, implement and disseminate learning about particular strategies which we believe are highly effective in teacher education for inclusive education. 3. Highlight and address the structural supports required in schools to facilitate classroom practitioners in their development of inclusive learning environments: It is the view of this project team that if inclusive education is to become intrinsic to school practice, appropriate teacher education is a fundamental but insufficient requirement. We have been motivated to undertake this project by a conviction that the greatest challenge to the advancement of inclusion in schools is teacher resistance, and that this is rooted not just in inadequacies in teacher education, but also in lack of support structures in schools. “Teacher education cannot work in isolation” (European Agency for Development of Special Needs Education, 2011). Even the most committed and capable new teachers are challenged by the process of learning to teach. The increasing diversity of learners in mainstream classes heightens this challenge. In the context of such complexity it is understandable if, irrespective of incoming attitudes and knowledge, new teachers quickly develop “coping” strategies which allow them to “survive” these early years as practitioners. Frustrated by trying to employ inclusive strategies and develop associated skills in increasingly more challenging classroom contexts, new teachers’ initial enthusiasm may quickly wane, and their potentially inclusive strategies dissipate. These difficulties are likely to negatively impact teacher attitudes so that a vicious cycle becomes established whereby relatively ineffective “strategies” become embedded as acceptable classroom practice, and the potential to develop the skills necessary to the creation of inclusive learning environments is lost. In tandem with effective teacher education therefore, we believe that appropriate whole-school and in-class structures must be in place if teachers are to realise their inclusive aims. Hence, in this project, partners will also share examples of, implement and

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disseminate learning about support structures and strategies which have been found to be particularly effective in our own schools. 4. Highlight the necessary interdependence of teacher education practice and in-school support structures in advancing inclusive education: We aim to draw attention to a range of currently disparate activities under way in our teacher education institutions and schools, which if applied cohesively could significantly advance inclusive education practice in schools. As our project team is comprised of practitioners drawn from each of these settings, our intention is to demonstrate how a more interrelated approach to inclusion has the potential to counter the theory/practice dichotomy that has traditionally undermined teacher education and hence continuing teacher development. Many of the activities we will share are particular to teacher education institutions and schools in our own countries and some are specific to our own institutions, and as such their impact and potential are presently limited. The transnational nature of our project will address this limitation and allow us to draw attention to a broad range of education practices and systems that if incorporated cohesively, could maximise educational potential and improve achievement for all learners. (EU Education Ministers [Paris Declaration] 2015).

Moving Minds The EiTTT project team together with colleagues from each of our institutions and schools travelled to the university town of Leuven, located 25 kilometres east of Brussels, in the province of Flemish Brabant. We were welcomed to UCLL by host partner Lijne Vloeberghs and her colleagues. Our base was the Hertogstraat campus in Heverlee, where the entire student body, of approximately 5,000 students, is enrolled in various teacher education programmes, in the largest teacher education institution in Flanders. The UCLL maxim, “Moving Minds”, refers to the college’s underlying philosophy of motivating people and turning ideas into action. This practical, profession-oriented vision fit well with the aims of the project team. In the course of oral and video presentations, round-table seminars with teacher educators, workshops, visits to schools and discussions with classroom teachers, we considered how the ideals of inclusion policy for education might be realised in school practice. In light of these developments, the purpose of our visit to UCLL was to explore the potential of co-teaching, particularly as a preparation strategy for inclusive educational practice. Co-teaching refers to two classroom

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practitioners (teachers; host teacher and student teacher; student teachers) sharing planning, teaching and evaluation activities. Therefore, the strategy may be employed for several purposes: to enhance teacher preparation; to serve more experienced teachers’ continuing professional development needs; and ultimately, to provide all pupils in the class with better learning opportunities. For student teachers working with host teachers, or in pairs, it also holds potential to advance their learning for inclusive practice. At UCLL, the promotion of co-teaching is designed to serve each of these purposes, and features particularly in a three-strand approach to the preparation of future teachers for inclusive practice. The project team considered various concepts of, and approaches to coteaching, including: 1.

One Teach, One Assist (see Fig. 1)

Fig. 1 “One Teach, One Assist”

This approach is used to assist individual pupils. The assisting teacher has specific expertise and the teacher observes and gives specific feedback to the partner teacher. It can be used in new co-teaching situations. When the particular lesson requires instruction from one person or when some pupils need more guidance.

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2.

One Teach, One Observe (see Fig. 2)

Fig. 2 “One Teach, One Observe”

This approach is good to gather information about class routines or specific pupils and to observe the interaction between pupils. This is the way to introduce co-teaching or answer questions about a particular pupil. Using this particular approach teachers can highlight learning difficulties. 3.

Station Teaching (see Fig. 3)

Fig. 3 “Station Teaching”

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This approach can be used as an opportunity to teach different subjects, aspects of subjects at the same time and when the lesson content is not hierarchical, pupils work in smaller groups. 4.

Parallel Teaching (see Fig. 4)

Fig. 4 “Parallel Teaching”

Teachers using this approach can increase participation at discussion time, follow and guide some pupils more closely and increase opportunities to communicate with pupils. This approach is good when the teacher is planning to introduce a new subject or topic.

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5.

Alternative Teaching (see Fig. 5)

Fig 5 “Alternative Teaching”

This approach is mostly used when some pupils need revision or enrichment of learning. It can be used to evaluate. Also, it is necessary for pre-teaching, revision of previous learning, newcomers or to accommodate particular expertise of teachers. 6.

Team Work (see Fig. 6)

Fig. 6 “Team work”

“Team work” is used to model collaborative engagement (teachers working together, interaction) and to emphasise equality between teachers. It is important to remember that each teacher brings particular expertise. It

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is useful if teachers work well together and for new subjects, broader themes (School of Education, California State University, Chico). Each approach has its merits. Decisions about strategies will depend on the characteristics and needs of pupils, the curriculum, the subject matter, practical classroom considerations and teacher preference. Teacher educators at UCLL frequently model co-teaching.

Co-Teaching and Continuing Professional Development In Flanders, continuing professional development (CPD) for teachers is encouraged but not mandated. At UCLL, co-teaching is promoted as an effective means of CPD. Teacher educators shared with us their experience of developing “professional learning communities” in schools in which experienced teachers had chosen to co-teach. They highlighted: -

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The value of engaging in co-teaching from the outset of one’s teaching career, as a means of CPD; The importance of “choice” in decisions about employing such an approach. As trust between partners is paramount, teachers should be given freedom in terms of opting for co-teaching and choosing teacher partners. Factors such as teacher personality, as well as working and teaching styles matter; That school climate also matters. It is helpful if school principals support and encourage the strategy, rather than seek to impose it; That co-teaching is most likely to be employed by experienced teachers when it is promoted as a means of developing more inclusive classroom practice.

Co-Teaching and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) The theory of UDL has recently been introduced to teacher education programmes at UCLL. It is based on the principle that diversity in classrooms is the norm. Therefore, teachers should think and plan accordingly. Student teachers at UCLL are encouraged to plan lessons for classroom practice in accordance with the UDL framework, i.e., to provide Multiple Means of: Representation of knowledge (options for perception, language, mathematical expression, symbols, comprehension)

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Action and expression (options for physical action, expression and communication) Engagement (options for recruiting interest, sustaining effort and persistence, self-regulation) The theory of UDL is indisputable. However, the project team members concurred that the important matter of how beginning teachers might learn to enact it remains an issue. Without adequate support, efforts to incorporate the framework in planning and subsequent practice may simply exacerbate the challenges involved in learning to teach. As student teachers invariably report: “You need to know your children first; You need good class management skills”; “You need experience. . .”. Student teachers could learn to employ valuable UDL principles in practice by co-teaching with host teachers during school experience.

Poverty and Education There is valuable research underway at UCLL which seeks to target the education system’s well-documented role as a potential instrument of social reproduction. The team of teacher educators / researchers undertaking these studies shared details with us about their dual approach, which involves targeting both teacher educators and student teachers. The research team explained that the focus of their work is the “hidden curriculum” in teacher education. As this may be communicated in the first instance, via potentially middle-class perspectives of teacher educators, their research has provided both teacher educators and future teachers with an opportunity to engage in community-based activities (i.e., in local homes) in conjunction with “t lampeke”- a Leuven-based nonprofit, community outreach organisation that aims to combat poverty. While acknowledging the value of this initiative, the project team concluded that enlightened, committed teachers may be no less challenged by the prospect of engaging effectively in inclusive classroom practice. We reiterate our belief therefore, that such teacher development opportunities should ideally be complemented by school-based responses, e.g., via provision for, and encouragement of co-teaching: 1. Two teachers see more than one. 2. Two teachers can learn more via shared reflection on children’s learning in classrooms. 3. Two teachers working in partnership will potentially reach all children more effectively.

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Co-Teaching - Inclusive Classroom Practice The second learning activity at Lukkari Primary School in Nurmijärvi, Finland took place from 6th-10th February 2017. EiTTT partners and colleagues from across Europe gathered in Finland in February 2017 for the second Learning Activity of our project. While we were based in Helsinki in southern Finland, our daily destination was Lukkari Primary School in Nurmijarvi, a rural municipality with a population of 41,000 people, located approximately 37 km north of the capital city. For most of us therefore, it was a very different type of journey to work every day through a pristine winter wonderland of deep snow and sub-zero temperatures (-14 -18)! Our week-long learning journey about Finland, its people and its education system, was enhanced by the wonderfully warm welcome extended to the team by teacher and project partner Kirsi Lemponen, her colleague Satu Kastikainen, school principal Tiina Nordgren and all the pupils and staff of Lukkari school. With our Finnish partners and colleagues, we comprised a project team of twenty people. Our focus was a study of the school’s successful model of “co-teaching for inclusion”, whereby a mainstream teacher and an experienced special education teacher, supported by a classroom assistant, work on a full-time basis in mainstream classes. In each of these classes there are approximately twenty-four children, 7–10 of whom have special educational needs. We were privileged with many opportunities to observe teacher / pupil interaction in a variety of classrooms and to be afforded time to discuss our daily observations with teachers and the school principal. Our learning was extended during teacher presentations and an inclusion seminar and during our engagement with the students, teachers and the principal teacher of the special school, “Kivenpuisto”, which shares the Lukkari school campus. In Lukkari school, as in Finland generally, children commence their primary schooling at age 7 (or sometimes 6) and proceed through grades 1-6 before transferring to second-level school. Like most primary schools in Finland, Lukkari school is, by European standards, a relatively small- to medium-sized school with a current enrolment of 278 pupils aged between 6 and 13 years. Nineteen teachers and eight classroom assistants together with the principal teacher are employed there. The school day extends from 8.00am–2.55pm, and offers a staggered timetable of between 19 and 25 hours per week, depending on the age of the child. Each lesson lasts 45 minutes. Other than in very exceptional (weather-related) circumstances, the children spend all recess periods (15-20 minutes each) outdoors.

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As well as the mandated curriculum subjects, primary schools in Finland are required to offer a selection of elective subjects / activities during the school week. In Lukkari school these electives are rotated weekly so that all children in 3rd, 4th and 5th grades can experience a range of learning opportunities in visual art, cookery, woodwork, dance, etc. This structure to the school programme was of much interest to the team, as were the following facts: The basic principle of Finnish education is one of equal access to high quality education for all citizens. Hence, most children are educated in public schools, a school system developed in the 1970s. The provision of resources to schools aims to be of similar standard across the country. Equality of educational opportunity is the aspiration, regardless of family background or place of residence. For the project team, equality was palpable in every aspect of life in the school. It was evident in the respect shown to each child and in the regard for their individuality and independence. Transitions from classroom to outdoor recess were managed effortlessly, with children quietly leaving the classroom and happily returning without reminders about appropriate behaviour or stipulations to form rigid lines. The school lunch time seating arrangement provided for a convivial atmosphere in which children, teachers (and project team members!) of all ages mixed and conversed. Children from grades 3rd, 4th and 5th grades were also mixed for elective subjects. As we observed, children in Lukkari school are held in high esteem by all school staff and this is thoroughly reciprocated. We learned that with a view to educational and social equality, there are steps of support in place in the Finnish school system to enable each child to maximise his or her potential. A holistic concept of educational potential prevails, with an emphasis on providing for the balanced development of the individual. The level of support offered to each child must be clearly warranted and documented, with considerable justification required for separate specialised support in a special class or school. The “step” on which a child is placed is reviewed regularly, with much parental input in these decisions. Children can be moved up or down “steps” as necessary. With a focus on providing appropriate support for each child at the earliest stage, the steps of support at primary school level are as follows: General Support in mainstream classes (pedagogical discussion and evaluation; differentiation; guidance counselling; part-time learning support or special education; special needs assistance; student welfare; planning for learning).

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Intensified Support (as above, with enhanced support, further testing and planning for learning, children must reach minimum goals in each curriculum area, goals are regularly reviewed). Special Support with recommendation from student’s welfare team together with parental support (the highest level of support with multiprofessional pedagogical discussion and observation, compulsory individual education planning, support may be provided in mainstream class, special class or special school). Each municipality is required to report on a yearly basis to the national government on the numbers of students receiving intensified and special educational support.

Co-teaching at Lukkari school In an alternative to separate special class provision, four of the five special education teachers at Lukkari school teach on a full-time basis alongside class teachers in mainstream classes. A decision to introduce this co-teaching model in grades 1-4 in the school was taken some years ago as a consequence of dissatisfaction on the part of special education teachers with the performance and behaviour of children in special classes. Following parental consultation, four “new” mainstream classes were formed, each of which includes up to ten children who would previously have been placed in special classes on a full-time basis. In each of these co-taught classes there are three adults, i.e. two teachers and a classroom assistant available to all children. Co-teaching is a methodology which is highly recommended in Finland’s revised national curriculum. The project team spent much of the week observing these classes and considering the merits and challenges of this approach in the context of “inclusive education”. We observed a variety of co-teaching approaches employed by each team of teachers (e.g., One teach–one assist; Team teaching; Flexible grouping; Station teaching). Seamless interaction and wordless communication between co- teachers and between these teachers and assistants, allowed co-taught lessons to flow without interruption. Each teacher instinctively knew when to take the lead with the whole class or group, when to assist, when to move in to provide individual support to a child or distribute materials, etc. The impression was of a carefully choreographed performance that saw the needs of every child in the room accommodated at all times. We were assured however that there had been no rehearsal before our visit (!), that each co-teaching pair had selected to work together when the model was first introduced, and had taught together for several years. Teachers reported that this level of cooperation

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initially entailed a considerable degree of planning on a daily basis after school hours. However, with experience, the time required for such planning has significantly decreased. Familiarity and shared experience are important for effective coteaching. Children in Lukkari school address teachers and classroom assistants by their first names. Teachers support each other. A team member observed: “One teacher notices that the classroom assistant has been working with a particular child, and makes sure to call on this child for an answer when it is apparent he is ready to contribute”. The invaluable role of the classroom assistant sometimes contributed equally with teachers to activities in the lesson, and at other times engaged in a relatively low key, background role; the assistant was highly attentive but not drawing attention. The possibilities for heterogeneous group work. A small break-out room in each mainstream classroom, with doors left between the two rooms. This space facilitates specialised group and one-to-one activities with a teacher or assistant. Such support during lessons is available for all children whether or not they have special needs. Genuine inclusion: Team members reported spending several hours in each classroom before any “special” needs of children became evident, as all children were receiving more individualised support. Moreover, the needs of individual children were immediately acknowledged and accommodated. A team member described the following intervention: “One child has gone very quickly from being content to tearful and throws a glue stick to the ground. The classroom assistant is quick to respond and goes to work quietly with the child, leaving the teacher to proceed with the class. Although the assistant moves in to deflect attention away from the child and encourage the class to listen instead to the teacher - all three adults cooperate so that there is minimal disruption to the class - still the individual child’s needs are being met (rather than being shut down). Fascinating to observe, beneficial to teaching and learning, and responsive to the child”. The mainstream class setting was beneficial in other ways. One of the team noticed that, “One of the boys is restless during writing practice, but the girl beside him encourages him to stay on task. He turns out to be (Child named) who in preschool had serious issues with biting and kicking, and was considered perhaps unsuitable for inclusion in mainstream. Now, however, the child beside him has greatly influenced his behaviour, looking after him and making sure he fits in”.

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Differentiated textbooks are used for Maths, Finnish and English. These books are very similar in appearance as the book covers and the first page of each chapter are identical. In the “easier” version, exercises are simplified (more support, fewer choices) and there are fewer tasks to be completed. The font size of the text is also slightly enlarged in this version. These textbooks greatly facilitate effective co-teaching and practical inclusion.

Conclusions Co-teaching as practised in Lukkari School is highly beneficial for pupils. It provides learning opportunities for all children in the classroom – i.e. genuine inclusion. During observation in these classrooms it was not possible for the project team members to distinguish between children with and without special educational needs. All children in these classrooms were offered equal learning opportunities. 1. Children with special needs are not only “socially” included, they are practically included in class learning. 2. It facilitates children’s different learning styles. 3. It provides opportunity for supported group work. 4. It enables peer tutoring and learning from a variety of “role models” including teachers in collaborative roles. 5. Diversity: Children can learn to accept “difference” as the norm. This can facilitate the development of more heterogeneous friendship patterns and a sense of empathy at an early age. 6. It provides for a multiplicity of abilities, rather than defining any one child as “special” in a universal sense. Therefore, it is likely to enhance self-esteem, as all children (and not least those with special needs) will gain confidence from having their strengths in different curriculum areas acknowledged in a mainstream context. 7. Co–teaching is a valuable alternative approach to separate special class support in mainstream schools. 8. Co-teaching is also beneficial for teachers. 9. It enables shared assessment of, and planning for children’s needs for more effective teaching, learning, differentiation, and inclusive education. 10. It provides more opportunity to get to know individual children – can better address the needs of individuals – genuine inclusion. 11. At all times, the focus can be on teaching and learning, as the classroom assistant provides support with administrative tasks.

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12. It provides opportunity to manage the class / children’s behaviour more discreetly so that learning is not negatively impacted. 13. Teachers can learn in practice from one another – sharing curriculum knowledge, methodologies and interests. 14. It provides for flexibility of practice. Co-teaching approaches may be designed in accordance with varied teaching and learning styles. 15. Support – there is opportunity to share the pressures and challenges of classroom life – always someone to talk to. 16. It can facilitate better self-evaluation via ongoing critical reflection with a teaching colleague. 17. Co-teaching requires certain teacher competences and commitments such as trust between teacher colleagues, open-mindedness, interest in working together, shared values, similar work ethic, daily pedagogical discussion and willingness to share full responsibility for students and for liaising with parents. The practice of co-teaching in such classes can offer much potential for advancing the learning of all children in these classes. The shared expertise and commitment of two different teachers and a classroom assistant in a context of considerable pupil diversity can make inclusive education a realisable goal. We recommend therefore that school leaders consider the strategy of co-teaching as a potential means of giving more practical effect to the policy of inclusive education in their schools.

References Nancy L. Bacharach, Teresa W. Heck, Kathryn Dahlberg. Changing the Face of Student Teaching Through Co-Teaching, 2010. California State University School of Education, Chico European Agency for Development of Special Needs Education, 2011 Paris Declaration EU Education Ministers, 2015

The EITTT partners The EITTT project group comprises three schools and three teacher education institutions (TEIs) who share a commitment to inclusive education and an understanding of priorities to be addressed if such an educational approach is to become implicit in school practice:

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1. Marino Institute of Education (MIE), Ireland, Dr Anne Ryan, Overall Project Coordinator, Dr. Anne Ryan ([email protected]). Marino Institute of Education (MIE) is a Higher Education Institution involved in teaching, learning and research. Located in Dublin, Ireland, it is an Associated College of the University of Dublin, Trinity College (TCD). MIE's mission is focused on promoting “Inclusion and Excellence in Education”. 2. Lukkarin koulu, Kirsi Lemponen ([email protected]). Lukkarin koulu is a mainstream primary school located in the southern part of Finland, 30km north of the capital city, Helsinki. It is a public school with 300 pupils, nineteen teachers and eight special needs assistants. 3. Karel de Grote University College, Antwerp, Belgium, Leen Stoffels ([email protected]). Karel de Grote University College (KdG) is a large-scale Higher Education Institution in the northern part of Belgium. It has 1,100 staff and 13,500 students. 4. Dimotiko Sxoleio Anthoupolis KA, Nicosia, Cyprus, Chrysoula Miltiadou ([email protected]). Dimotiko Sxoleio Anthoupolis KA is a mainstream primary school located in a southern suburb of Nicosia, Cyprus. 5. University College Leuven-Limburg, Leuven, Belgium, Lijne Vloeberghs ([email protected]). UC Leuven (formerly KHLeuven) is a Higher Education Institution (HEI) in Flanders, collaborating under the name UC Leuven-Limburg with two other HEIs: Vzw UC Limburg (formerly KHLim) and Vzw UC Leuven Comenius Lerarenopleidingen (formerly Group T). 6. Riga Secondary school Nr.45, Riga, Latvia,Iveta Liepina ([email protected]) and Laura Zavacka ([email protected]). Riga Secondary School Nr.45 is a mainstream school providing general secondary education in Riga, Latvia. The school was founded in 1951 and there are presently 685 students enrolled.

CHAPTER TWENTY THE PHILOSOPHICAL UNDERPINNINGS OF SCHOOL-BASED HEALTH EDUCATION INESE STARS

Abstract Identifying philosophical and theoretical orientations which underpin schoolbased health education can increase understanding of it and improve teaching approaches. It traditionally has focused on different philosophical approaches (cognitive-based; decision-making; behaviour change; social change). The analysis and critical examination of school-based health education philosophies is required to provide a practice with the most supportable philosophical foundation that would help guide it. The aim of the study is to identify and highlight some of the most influential philosophical approaches of school-based health education. This scientific article is based on a theoretical study of scientific, peer-reviewed literature on health education, school-based health education and its philosophical underpinnings. Keywords: philosophy, school, health education

Introduction Schools have long been regarded as a fundamental institution for the provision of health education among children, adolescents and young people (St. Leger 2001; Willgoose 2010). Schools form an important context for the teaching and learning of health literacy skills (Borzekowski 2009; Bruselius-Jenses et al. 2017). Health education and health literacy are closely interconnected. Health education is directed towards improving levels of health literacy. Health literacy is presented as one of the key outcomes of health education interventions and policies, including all health literacy dimensions – functional, interactive and critical (Nutbeam 2000).

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In general, health education encompasses opportunities for teaching and learning designed to promote health literacy, including increased health knowledge and the development of life skills that lead to better health outcomes (Šveikauskas 2005). Thus, health education strives to enhance individual's and communities’ abilities to maintain and enhance their health and quality of life. This is accomplished by promoting the development of people’s positive attitudes, knowledge and skills regarding their health, health decisions and behaviour necessary to lead healthy lifestyles. Furthermore, health literacy can be conceptualised as a learning outcome in schools and five core components of health literacy should be reached: theoretical knowledge, practical knowledge, critical thinking, self-awareness and citizenship (Paakkari and Paakkari 2012). Health education is a constituent dimension of citizenship education (Jourdan 2011). It promotes pupils’ responsibility for their own and other people’s health and well-being. The objective of school-based health education is a health literate pupil (Paakkari 2012). As mentioned by Simonds (1974) health education in school is a crucial policy issue. It means that pupils would not only be educated in the traditional curriculum subjects (history, mathematics, languages etc.), but also in basic health issues (hygiene, nutrition, physical activities, safety, tobacco use etc.). As a result of this education pupils will become literate in health (Simonds 1974). School-based health education is a subset of health education. It is a planned, sequential curriculum presented by trained facilitators in the preschool, school, or college setting (Green and Iverson 1982) to provide students with health knowledge, skills, positive attitudes towards health and well-being (WHO 2003). Studies have established the significance of early learning of health literacy for future health. Behaviours and attitudes about health that are initiated during adolescence period are responsible for many serious adult health issues (Wharf-Higgins et al. 2009). These health-related behaviours include, for example, alcohol and other drug use, smoking, inadequate nutrition habits, obesity and sedentary lifestyle, injury and violence, and high-risk sexual behaviour (Marx et al. 2007, as cited in Marks 2012). School-based health education is an essential part of improving the health of nation's citizens (Schall 1994). Health education literally empowers students (St. Leger 2001) to avoid health risks, support health promoting activities, increase one’s ability to make “sound health decisions” (Kickbusch and Maag 2008, 205) and informed health-related choices (Skopelja et al. 2008) in the context of everyday life. The idea that positive health behaviour can be acquired in childhood (Jourdan 2011) is a leading-motive for health education in school.

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Health-related education is constantly changing and it does not remain static: “[Health education] has taken different forms at different times, and must be re-assessed constantly” (Jourdan 2011, 23).

Health education programmes should be based upon local health needs within the school age population and must be reflective of community cultural issues regarding health and health-related behaviour (Jahan 2000). School-based health education has its own philosophical foundations. Identifying philosophical orientations that inform this subset of health education can increase understanding of and improve teaching and learning approaches. Any discipline (including health education) without a philosophy lacks direction and clear focus, even more – it loses consensus on its purpose (Oberteuffer 1977, as cited in Welle et al. 1995). Changes in health education philosophical orientations lead, in turn, to changes in the approaches to its teaching, learning and content. As school-based health education is closely related to philosophical positions of adult health education, these philosophical positions act as a set of principles which also guide professional action (Governali et al. 2005). School-based health education, as well as adult health education, is operating under several different philosophical positions. Understanding the major health education philosophical trends is extremely important. Clearly delineated philosophy of health education would help guide the profession in its activities (Shirreffs 1988, as cited in Welle et al. 1995). The situation is complicated by the fact that health education works in a variety of settings (Mullen et al. 1995), therefore a single philosophy does not seem possible or even desirable (Welle et al. 1995). Changes in philosophical orientations can lead to changes in the curriculum content and learning methodology. Discussions about philosophical underpinnings of school-based health education reveal an in-depth nature of this practice.

Aim of the Study The aim of the study is to identify and highlight some of the most influential philosophical approaches towards school-based health education.

Materials and Methods A theoretical study of scientific, peer-reviewed literature on health education, school-based health education and its philosophical underpinnings

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was undertaken. Seven databases (PubMed, SAGE, EBSCO, Oxford Academic, Emerald Insight, Wiley Online, ERIC) were searched with relevant search terms in English. A total of 23 articles were selected for an in-depth theoretical analysis.

Results Although the philosophical grounding of health education and schoolbased health education has long been debated, there is no consensus among researchers regarding the best or the most appropriate philosophical foundation for health education practice (Governali et al. 2005). The reasons for this ambiguity are different. Firstly, the field of health education is very complex and diverse. It incorporates elements of biology, medicine, environmental science, psychology, sociology and education. It also compromises several dimensions, including philosophical, political, social, religious and cultural dimensions (Salci et al. 2013). Consequently, different and sometimes even contradictory theoretical and practical orientations form a basis for health education, as well as schoolbased health education. Secondly, many ambitious questions on health education issues arise, for example, what is health and why it is important to be healthy; what is health education and what is the purpose of health education (Buchanan 2006); is health education universal or context specific; what are school’s responsibility for health education and do we need health education programmes taught in the schools (Jourdan 2011); what values are taught in school-based health education? Different answers to these questions will influence patterns of health education. Thirdly, health education is clearly not value free; it is not defined in a neutral mode and cannot work in a vacuum (Tones et al. 1990) in the same way as health does not exist in a social vacuum. There are many social and cultural aspects of health and well-being in current societies and cultures, in which people with different philosophical, cultural and religious values live together and have diverse values and opinions related to health and health education (Taylor et al. 2012). Theoretical assumptions and practical realisation of health education are affected by political principles and power relations embedded in the social structure of society. It is noted that health education has an ideological and normative content which reflects the concern of some power groups in social structure (Riska 1982). There is an ideology in health education: “Ideology, therefore, not only determines the model of health education adopted but also whether or not any intervention to promote health is desirable, worthwhile or even ethical” (Tones 1990, 3).

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Hidden ideology forms the views about the goals of health education and shapes current approaches to health education. Health education models and health education rationale are ideologically influenced (Tones et al. 1990). The choice of an appropriate health education model reflects underlying ideology, furthermore underlying values represent a dominant ideology or promote some challenge to a dominant ideology (Tones and Tilford 1994). An excellent example of this change is the ideological movement from the medical model of health education, which is extremely individualistically focused, towards more social models with a political-radical model of health education, which emphasises social determinants of health, and empowerment model of health education (Tones and Tilford 1994). Thereby, as Tones and Tilford (1994) concluded, “different philosophies have underpinned health education according to the relative power of different ideologies” (12)

Health education can be performed in a variety of settings and school is one of them (Mullen et al. 1995). Schools are an important arena in providing health education and developing health literacy skills in young people (Kannas n.d.). School-based health education involves children’s teaching and learning about health and health-related behaviours and enable children and young people to become healthy, effective and productive citizens. Traditionally, health education in school includes a list of topics such as personal health, as well as family, community and environmental health issues, sexual and reproductive education, mental and emotional health, injury and violence prevention, safety, nutrition, prevention and control of disease, and avoidance of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs (Benham-Deal and Hodges n.d.; National Health Education Standards 2007). However, the content of school-based health education can be influenced by a country’s specific health needs and/or political and ideological assumptions, historical events, values, attitudes and beliefs towards health, health-behaviour and health related education. Also, school curriculum reflects the current values and priorities of the national education system (Kannas 2016). Despite a general acceptance of the need for health education in school (WHO 2003), there are discussions that reflect doubts about its necessity and position in school, as Kannas pointed out: “Learning in the health area has a history of being on the periphery, lacking in coherence and generally without real importance in the hierarchy of school subjects” (Kannas n.d.).

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There is an opinion that school-based health education is undervalued because it has not been sufficiently recognised and has never reached the status it deserves in the school (Kannas 2016). Convictions on health education value are inconsistent, consequently its value and recognition should be promoted and strengthened in all possible ways. Philosophical issues can help to better understand the motivations of health education. There are many kinds of motivation to involve schools in health and lifestyle issues, for example, early prevention of diseases and reduction of health costs; better quality of life; necessary changes in social determinants of health etc. These motivations are closely related to different educational paradigms and values incorporated in these paradigms (Fortin 2004, as cited in Jourdan 2011). School-based health education is embedded in different educational paradigms – rational; humanist; social dialectic; ecological – and each of them affects content, teaching and learning styles, and planned learning outcomes (Jourdan 2011). The rational paradigm uses traditional educational models which are characterised by top-down pedagogy and direct dissemination of factual knowledge. This paradigm is strictly based on a medicalised discourse, where experts are authorities, but recipients – pupils – remain passive. There dominates individualisation (health as individual responsibility and choice) and concentration on health behaviour (Hagquist and Starrin 1997; Jourdan 2011). On the contrary, the humanist paradigm is oriented towards the individual’s desires, emotions, needs, interests, experience and perceptions. Pupils are perceived as active participants in learning process and construction of health-related knowledge. Self-actualisation, selfesteem, self-affirmation and subject’s autonomy are concepts widely used in this paradigm (Jourdan 2011). The social dialectic paradigm actualises relationships between humans and their environment. The challenging concept “empowerment” is an essential part of this educational paradigm (Jourdan 2011). At the centre of the ecological paradigm is cognition of ecosystem. The educational process is a systemic process – it incorporates all aspects of the development of person, but school should be a place for health promotion (Jourdan 2011). Tones and Tilford (1994) argued that philosophical and ideological assumptions affect the choice of health education models which in turn direct health education practice. They named four health education models – medical/preventive model; political - radical model; educational model and empowerment model – and concluded that school-based health education needs to rethink these models and its philosophical underpinnings in light of child-centred education (Tones and Tilford 1994). These models are not static, they change. These models are affected

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by dynamic and changing policies of health and education. As Hagquist and Starrin advocated (1997), there is a need to move from information models to empowerment models which are characterised by a bottom-up pedagogical approach (Hagquist and Starrin 1997). Health education in school should not be organised as “banking education” – a concept named by Paulo Freire to describe a situation in which education becomes an act of depositing, but the students are the depositories and the teacher is the depositor. In this educational pedagogy, the teacher is the “subject”, but “student” is object. Teachers are like monopolists and providers of knowledge, while students remain passive. Students receive a large amount of knowledge and facts which might be used later in their lives. In this way, banking education reproduces the oppressiveness of the dominant society. It is an instrument of social control which teaches accepting a passive role and not to challenge or question (Freire 2005). Instead, Freire advocated problem-posing education which allows active learner participation in learning processes and encourages learners to be aware of and critically analyse their social circumstances and achieve so called consientisation process (Roberts 1996, as cited in van Wyk 1999). Health education can be conceptualised as empowering education – it includes much more than individual’s health behaviour, namely, individuals, group and structural changes (Ickes 2011) and recognises that health and disease are socially determined. Through health education, people are empowered to engage in determining their health needs, define health priorities and require necessary changes. Empowerment is a tool against oppression (Freire 2005) and it is a leading aspect of critical health literacy (Nutbeam 2000; Crondahl and Karlsson 2016). Freirean threephase model of critical pedagogy can be adapted to general health education (Matthews 2014; Anflor et al. 2015), as well as to health education in schools (Wallerstein and Bernstein 1988). It is crucial that school-based health education has a clear, consistent operating philosophy and well-outlined mission in order to justify the need for health education (Governali et al. 2005). School-based health education philosophies are related to adult health education philosophies. Welle et al. (1995), who carried out the study on general health education philosophies, concluded that health education philosophies are analogous to adult education philosophies. The authors presented and explored five major philosophical positions of health education: cognitive-based; decision-making; behaviour-change; freeing/functioning and social change philosophy (Welle et al. 1995). Governali et al. discussed four “traditional” school-based health education philosophies – cognitive-based (its main goal is to increase health-related knowledge and provide pupils

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with evidence-based information); skill development (focuses on developing skills that could be used in different health situations and uses “learning by doing” pedagogy (WHO 2003)); behaviour change (emphasises health habit modifications) and social change philosophy (focuses on awareness of social determinants of health and recognises health as a social issue). The authors argued that there is a need for more integrated philosophy. They presented a new, eclectic philosophy – an integrated / ecological behavioural philosophy of school-based health education. The authors insisted that this philosophical thought combines and integrates aspects of all previous theoretical perspectives and uses an ecological focus that reveals multidimensionality of health education and recognises reciprocal relationships between individual and environment. They proposed that a behaviourally focused / ecologically grounded / integrated philosophy is more consistent with student’s needs, society’s interests and health educational goals. It can guide school-based health education practice (Governali et al. 2005). Health education can be organised in many ways in schools. Usually school-based health education practice derives from more than one philosophical approach because relying only on one philosophy can be restrictive, for example, an emphasis on cognitive learning and lectureoriented teaching methods can be perceived as a constraint in the contemporary dynamic and digital society. It should be considered that health needs are changing. The traditional topics of health education, such as, personal hygiene and communicable diseases, are complemented by chronic diseases or “diseases of civilisation”, consequently, the focus is shifted from diseases to risk-taking behaviours considered responsible for the chronic diseases. Health education philosophy which emphasises modification of health-related behaviour is too narrow. There is a need for a more socially oriented health education which reveals the importance of social determinants of health and promote a safe and healthy school environment. Health education in school should reflect the best of modern thinking about contemporary health education. The question of whether a single universal school-based health education philosophy is needed and possible is debatable. In today's changing globalised, multicultural world, perhaps it is more appropriate to talk about the need for philosophies which are context sensitive. There is a need for a well thought-out and well-argued school-based health education philosophy that integrates national, social, political, historical, economic conditions, specific health needs and available resources. Discussions about the school-based health education philosophical underpinnings will strengthen the position of this practice at national and international levels.

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Conclusions Schools are one of the main places in which health education takes place. Schools have an opportunity to develop and promote pupils’ health literacy through the curriculum and a supportive school environment. However, health education in school is quite a controversial subject taught in schools. It is influenced by many of society’s social and structural factors, ideological positions, dominant values, education and health policies, etc. Gaining consensus on the basic values that should be reflected in school-based health education is not an easy task. Despite its controversial nature, health education should be recognised as an important aspect of the school curricula and should not be underestimated. Health education in school is vital for pupils as it builds their health literacy and directly impacts pupils’ health related knowledge and skills. There is a constellation of philosophical and theoretical trends that support theoretical and practical foundations of health education. Within the field of health education in school there are different approaches, methods, models and directions used currently. It is guided by a number of different and diverse philosophical orientations. The analysis and critical examination of school-based health education philosophies is required to provide this practice with the most reasonable and supportable philosophical foundation, that would help guide it. Investigating philosophical ideas of school-based health education is necessary for its theoretical and professional development. School-based health education has experienced a paradigm shift from an informational approach to interactive and empowerment health education approaches. School-based health education may be diverse, especially in multicultural societies. Therefore, a question arises of whether only one philosophy is possible and desirable. For school-based health education to be effective, it should be planned and realised with an in-depth understanding of beliefs and values of the current society, health needs of target audiences, knowledge, skills and attitudes towards health issues, health and social characteristics of society. School-based health education is context sensitive. It should reflect contemporary health problems and should include contemporary topics in health education curricula. Discussions about school-based health education philosophy are vital for strengthening this practice and enriching its theoretical background.

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References Anflor, P. E., Algeri S., and Dartora J. W. 2015. “The importance of Paulo Freire ideas for health education in Brazil.” International Journal for Innovation Education and Research 3, No. 10, 27-31. Benham-Deal, T., and Hodges B. Role of schools in promoting health literacy. National Education Association Health Information Network. Borzekowski, D. 2009. “Considering Children and Health Literacy: A Theoretical Approach.” Pediatrics 124, Supplement 3, S282-S288. Bruselius-Jensen, M., Bonde H.A., and Christensen H.J. 2017. “Promoting health literacy in the classroom.” Health Education Journal 76, Issue 2, 56-168. Buchanan, R. D. 2006. “A New Ethic for Health Promotion: Reflections on a Philosophy of Health Education for the 21st Century.” Health Education & Behavior 33 (3), 290-304. Crondahl, K., and Karlsson E. L. 2016. “The Nexus Between Health Literacy and Empowerment: A Scoping Review.” SAGE Open, 2016, April-June, p. 1-7. Accessed June 20, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244016646410 Freire, P. 2005. Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 30th Anniversary Edition. New York: Continuum. Governali, J. F., Hodges B. C., and Videto D. M. 2005. “Health education and behavior: are school health educators in denial?” American Journal of Health Education 36 (4): 210-14. Green, L. W., and Iverson D. C. 1982. “School health education.” Annual Review of Public Health 3 (May): 321-38. Hagquist, C., and Starrin B. 1997. “Health education in schools - from information to empowerment models.” Health Promotion International 12 (3): 225-32. Jahan, A. 2000. “Health Literacy. Promoting health literacy: a case study in the prevention of diarrhoeal disease from Bangladesh.” Health Promotion International 15 (4): 285-91. Jourdan, D. 2011. Health education in schools. The challenge of teacher training. France: Saint-Denis. Ickes, J.M. 2011. “The Freirian model--a place in health promotion and education.” American Journal of Health Studies 26 (1). Accessed June 30, 2017. http://www.biomedsearch.com/article/Freirian-model-placein-health/308741535.html Kannas, L. n.d. “Health Education as a stand-alone School Subject to improve Health Literacy of Future Generations: Lessons to learn from Finland,” (abstract) Accessed June 2, 2017

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https://www.jyu.fi/sport/laitokset/terveys/en/NHPRC/symposium_page s/Keynotepres.1806.pdf Kannas, L. 2016. “How to promote health literacy in schools in Finland? An introduction of unique stand-alone school subject health education.” Health Education University of Jyväskylä, Finland. Accessed June 7, 2017 https://www.ntnu.edu/documents/8445058/1271135135/Presentation+f rom+Lasse+Kannas Kickbusch, I., and Maag D. 2008. “Health Literacy.” In International Encyclopedia of Public Health. Vol. 3., edited by K. Heggenhougen and S. Quah, 204-211. San Diego: Academic Press. Marks, R. (ed.). 2012. Health Literacy and School-based Health Education. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing. Matthews, C. 2014. “Critical pedagogy in health education.” Health Education Journal 73, Issue 5: 600-609. Mullen, P.D., Evans D., Forster J., Gottlieb N.H., Kreuter M., Moon R., O'Rourke T., and Strecher V.J. 1995. “Settings as an important dimension in health education/promotion policy, programs, and research.” Health Education Quarterly 22(3): 329-45. National Health Education Standards (NHES) - Achieving Excellence; Joint Committee on National Health Education Stand, 2007. Accessed June 7, 2017 http://www.sparkpe.org/wp-content/uploads/NHES_CD.pdf Nutbeam, D. 2000. “Health literacy as a public health goal: A challenge for contemporary health education and communication strategies in the 21st century.” Health Promotion International 15: 259-67. Paakkari, L., and Paakkari O. 2012. “Health literacy as a learning outcome in schools.” Health Education 112 (2): 133-52. Paakkari, L. 2012. Widening horizons: a phenomenographic study of student teachers' conceptions of health education and its teaching and learning. University of Jyväskylä, Finland: Publishing Unit, University Library of Jyväskylä. Riska, E. 1982. “Health Education and its Ideological Content.” Acta Sociologica 25, Supplement: 41-6. (abstract) Salci, A. M., Maceno P., Rozza G. S., Silva D. M., Boehs A. E., and Heidemann I. T. 2013. “Health education and its theoretical perspectives: a few reflections.” Texto contexto – enfermagem 22, no.1 Florianópolis Jan./Mar. Accessed June 2, 2017 http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0104-07072013000100027 Schall, E. 1994. School-based health education: what works? American Journal of Preventive Medicine 10 (3 Suppl): 30-32.

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CHAPTER TWENTY ONE A PROPOSAL FOR AN IN-SERVICE TEACHER TRAINING COURSE ON SEXUALITY AND DISABILITY BASED ON A REVIEW AND META-ANALYSIS OF INTERVENTION STUDIES ANA CLÁUDIA BORTOLOZZI MAIA AND TERESA VILAÇA

Abstract The relationship between sexuality and disability is still complex, especially in the school context, where teachers who are generally not trained in this area must undertake sexuality education (SE). Therefore, this research was carried out to attain the following objectives: i) to analyse the existing literature on SE in schools for students with disabilities; and 2) to plan a proposal for an in-service teacher training and formation course for teachers working with students with disabilities, together with all students within an inclusive school. This study is a systematic review of literature and will be presented here in part. Some relevant databases in the area of Education were selected through the access portal of the University of Minho Library (UMinho, Braga, Portugal): Emerald, Science Direct, Springer, Taylor and Francis and Scielo. After this selection, two keywords were used to collect the papers: “sexuality education” and “disability”. From this initial survey, we obtained 891 references and excluded those that did not refer to "complete papers", resulting in 315 papers. Also, the papers that were repeated and those that were not in English were excluded, resulting in a final number of 82 papers. In all these steps, two independent authors reviewed these papers for data extraction. The number of papers found was balanced in the “sexuality education”, “professional and family” and “sexuality aspects of people with disabilities” categories, but lacking in the category “theoretical questions”. Among the disabilities, the most cited was intellectual disability, followed by physical disability, autism, unspecified, hearing/deafness disability, and visual

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disability. In this paper, for the specific analysis of the topic “sexuality education”, we selected the papers that were about empirical studies in sexuality education (n = 6), about intellectual disability, hearing loss and autism spectrum disorder. No papers with multiple disabilities were found. Proposals for actions, materials and methods were based on the users' discourse or on the curriculum and/or material adaptation, and were primarily aimed at health professionals and, in some cases, teachers. Therefore it is necessary that researchers publish papers regarding in-service teacher training and formation on sexuality education from the perspective of inclusive education, contributing to overcome the lack of theoretical and empirical support still existing in this area. Key words: Sexuality education, individuals with disabilities, in-service teacher training, inclusive schools, Portugal, Brazil

Introduction An inclusive society guarantees the rights of all individuals regardless of their conditions. Individuals with disabilities have been approached with different actions from researchers, professionals of different areas and educators in order to provide them with better possibilities of experiencing a full citizenship. However, sexual and reproductive rights are one human right that is still not widely discussed. Individuals with disabilities are sexual beings like any other, and have an erotic body, the desire to establish love relationships and sexual relationships, expectations about their sexual and reproductive health, and the need to receive information about sexuality (Blackburn 2002; Gesser and Nuernberg 2014; Maia 2016). According to the World Health Organization (WHO 2009), sexual health is not only "absence of disease", but it implies conditions that enable all to exercise sexuality in a pleasurable and healthy way. Providing effective sexual education for individuals with disabilities is one way to guarantee their rights. In the case of individuals with intellectual disabilities, sexuality education can enable them to understand body changes, to learn about body hygiene care and to learn appropriate social behaviours (such as privacy), and to prevent against sexual abuse to which, in general, they are vulnerable. Therefore, several authors (Anderson 2000; Hatton and Tector 2010; Wilson and Burns 2011; Pereira and Vilaça 2012; Vieira and Coelho 2014; Maia 2016) advocate for the importance of sexuality education for students with disabilities to prevent sexual abuse, sexual transmission of infections such as HIV / AIDS, the occurrence of unplanned pregnancies and to promote the construction of adequate knowledge and the development of skills for a healthy and

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pleasurable sexual expression. However, according to Wolfe and Blanchett (2003), although many educators recognise the importance of sex education for these students, it is still complex for them to take up this education, to develop a curriculum and to obtain appropriate materials to meet the needs of these students. In this sense, sexuality education for individuals with disabilities is often neglected by educators for various reasons: Firstly, there are misconceptions about sexuality of individuals with disabilities and these beliefs "justify" the discourse that sexual education would be unnecessary for this population, and these myths and beliefs contribute to the understanding that these individuals have an "atypical" sexuality, increasing the prejudice that surrounds this theme (Anderson 2000; Blackburn 2002; Kaufman et al. 2003; Maia and Ribeiro 2010). One of these beliefs is that individuals with intellectual disabilities would be "asexual", that is, it would be impossible for them to exercise their own sexuality and they would not be interested in this subject (Maia and Ribeiro 2010; Schaafsma et al. 2014). On the opposite side, the belief would be that people with intellectual disabilities would have "exaggerated" sexuality and because of this, talking about sexuality could encourage them to exhibit more problematic and promiscuous sexual behaviours (Schaafsma et al. 2014). However, it is known that it is precisely the absence of dialogue that increases the occurrences of inappropriate and risky sexual behaviours, as well as creating fanciful expectations and anxieties that undermine satisfactory sexual manifestations in people with disabilities (Maia 2011, 2016). There is no direct relation between intellectual deficiency and asexuality or hypersexuality (Anderson 2000; Kaufman et al. 2003; Couwenhoven 2007; Schwier and Hingsburger 2007). Secondly, there is a personal difficulty among adults in dealing with their own sexuality, so sexuality education knowledge is permeated by subjective issues, that often limit adults' willingness to implement it. Educators and professionals involved in sexuality education processes should be technically prepared and recognise in themselves their own beliefs, values and limitations regarding sexuality (Koller 2000; Maia and Aranha 2005), as these difficulties often arise and impair their willingness to act as sex educators. According to Koller (2000, 133): "those wishing to provide sexuality education for this population must first examine their own attitudes, values, and motives”. Third, and not least, there is a lack of education and training of the educator both around sexuality and in the areas of science, health and the resources that are necessary for the planning and realisation of education

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for young people with disabilities. Chirawu et al. (2014) claimed that teachers are in favour of sexuality education for students with disabilities but do not know how to do it. For example, they are more likely to discuss milder topics such as hygiene than talking about sexual behaviour, and acknowledge that they lack the necessary training and formation to promote an adequate and accessible sexuality education for students with disabilities. There are various studies that give voice to the disabled individuals themselves about their specific needs that could be met in sexuality education programmes. In addition, they report that they seek information about sexuality with close friends, in the media, and in some cases with some relatives (Krupa and Esmail 2010; Maia 2016), reinforcing the need for a space in the school for this education. Löfgren-Martenson (2012) argued that sexuality education is usually based on biological aspects, prioritising protected sex (contraception and sexually transmitted infections) and young people with intellectual disabilities want to understand about the functioning of the reproductive body, but also about relationships. The author concluded that beyond the knowledge of physiology, it is necessary for a critical pedagogy to discuss social issues thinking about the needs of these young people. Krupa and Esmail (2010) commented that students with visual disability criticised the sexuality education received because they would need materials adapted to better understand the information. Porat et al. (2012) argued that there are physical barriers to accessing health services including clinic transportation, few ramps, as well as limited information material in Braille or in enlarged letters, using simple language and model figures, or with sign language interpreters. Sexuality education in schools, when it occurs, is not directed towards individuals with disabilities, although this population being especially vulnerable has the right to receive it. One of the reasons is that many teachers, due to precarious formation and training in this area, have difficulties in assuming the responsibility of planning, describing and implementing a systematised sexuality education programme for students when they have a disability (Koller 2000; Kaufman et al. 2003; Maia and Aranha 2005; Couwenhoven 2007; Walker-Hirsch 2007; Heighway and Webster 2008; Maia 2011; Wilkenfeld and Ballan 2011; Chirawu et al. 2014; Vilaça 2016). Due to this, pre-service and in-service teacher training and formation is fundamental (Albuquerque and Almeida 2010; Maia et al. 2015). In an effort to eliminate this gap in teacher training, it is important that we also know the best way to do this. An investigation into successful sexuality education proposals for these young people can help to provide a more solid basis for in-service teacher training and formation. From this

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theoretical justification, this research was carried out to attain the following objectives: i) to analyse the existing literature on sexuality education in schools for students with disabilities; and 2) to plan a proposal for an in-service teacher training and formation course for teachers working with students with disabilities, together with all students within an inclusive school.

Materials and Methods This study is a systematic review of literature and will be presented here in part. Some relevant databases in the area of Education were selected through the access portal of the University of Minho Library (UMinho, Braga, Portugal): Emerald, Science Direct, Springer, Taylor and Francis and Scielo. After this selection, two keywords were used to collect the papers: “sexuality education” and “disability”. From this initial survey, we obtained 891 references and excluded those that did not refer to "complete papers", which present books and/or reviews and those that were limited to interviews, reviews, editorials, etc., resulting in 315 papers. Also, the papers that were repeated and those that were not in English were excluded, resulting in a final number of 82 papers. In all these steps, two independent authors reviewed these papers for data extraction. The analysis of data consisted of the organisation of these papers by thematic categories, as proposed by Bardin (2011), in the following steps: a) reading and pre-analysis (floating reading, choice of documents, selection of what will be analysed and elaboration of indicators); b) grouping and exploitation of the material, elaborating mutually exclusive thematic categories.

Results 1 General Analysis The 82 papers were read in full and grouped into four categories: 1) sexuality education, with 22 papers, encompassing information on sexuality education processes for individuals with disabilities; 2) professionals and family, including 27 papers, considering the conceptions, opinions and training for teachers, family and professionals involved with individuals with disability; 3) aspects of sexuality of individuals with disabilities, with 27 papers, referring to descriptions, investigations or discussions on specific aspects related to individuals with

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disabilities and 4) theoretical questions, including 6 papers with theoretical arguments related to disabilities. The number of papers found was balanced in the “sexuality education”, “professional and family” and “sexuality aspects of people with disabilities” categories, but lacking in the category “theoretical questions”. Among the disabilities, the most cited was intellectual disability (42 papers), followed by physical disability (14 papers), autism (9 papers), unspecified (8 papers), hearing/deafness disability (5 papers), and visual disability (4 papers). The range of all publications was from 1996 to 2006. In this paper, we present a more in-depth analysis of the category “sexuality education” (22 papers) (see Table 1). Table 1. Description of the papers (n = 22) that make up the category sexuality education. Papers=22 A1

Year of Publication 1999

Disabilities ID

Theme

Kind of study Theoretical

Procedure and materials A2 2001 ID Procedure Theoretical A3 2015 ID Procedure Theoretical A4 2003 NS Curriculum Theoretical A5 1997 PD Procedure and Theoretical materials A6 1997 PD Procedure and Theoretical materials A7 1998 H/DD Proposal / Program Theoretical A8 1998 PD Proposal / Program Theoretical A9 1998 H/DD Material/ Resources Empirical A10 1998 H/DD Proposal / Program Theoretical A11 2011 ID Analysis / Evaluation Empirical A12 2014 ID Proposal / Program Empirical A13 2009 ID Curriculum Theoretical A14 2006 ID Analysis / Evaluation Theoretical A15 2008 A Material/ Resources Theoretical A16 1998 NS Proposal / Program Theoretical A17 2010 A Proposal / Program Empirical A18 2012 A Proposal / Program Empirical A19 2009 ID Analysis / Evaluation Empirical A20 2000 A Proposal / Program Theoretical A21 1993 ID Analysis / Evaluation Theoretical A22 2014 ID Curriculum Theoretical Legend: ID - Intellectual Disability; PD - Physical Disability; A - Autistic Spectrum Disorder; H /DD - Hearing / Deafness Disability; and NS - Not Specified.

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In this group, the range of publications was between 1998 and 2015 and almost half dealt with intellectual disability (n = 10) in addition to autistic spectrum disorder (n = 4), physical disability (n = 3), Hearing/Deafness Disability (n = 3), two “not specified” but no visual disability. After reading in full, the papers were grouped into subcategories: material procedures/ resources (n = 7); sexuality education programmes/ proposal (n = 8); analysis/ evaluation of a sexuality education programme (n = 4); and sexuality education in the curriculum (n = 3). Of the 22 papers, 16 were theoretical and 6 empirical.

2 The Analysis of Papers on Sexuality Education For the specific analysis of the topic “sexuality education”, we selected the papers that were about empirical studies (n = 6), described in more detail in Table 2. Table 2. Description of the empirical studies (n = 6) to deepen the analysis in the category sexuality education. Papers

Year of Pub.

Authors

Journal

Page

Nation

Disability

A9

1998

Sexuality and Disability

269281

USA

H/DD

A11

2011

Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability

1119

Japan

ID

PH

A12

2014

Getch, Y.Q.; Young, M. & Denny, G. Hayashi, M.; Arakida, M. & Ohashi, K. Frawley, P. & Bigby, C.

Who does Sexuality Ed T

167176

Australia

ID

PH

A17

2010

Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability British Journal of Special Education

6976

USA

A

T

A18

2012

Sexuality and Disability

319336

USA

A

PH/F

Hatton, S. & Tector, A. Klett, L.S. & Turan, Y.

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2009

Dukes, E. & McGuire, B. E.

Journal of Intellectual Disability Research

727734

Ireland

ID

PH

Legend: ID - Intellectual Disability; A - Autistic Spectrum Disorder; H/DD Hearing / Deafness Disability; T - Teacher; PH - Professional Health; F - Family

The convergent aspects of the six papers analysed (papers 9, 11, 12, 17, 18 and 19) were then raised, with regard to the sexuality education programmes for students with disabilities, which will be discussed below according to the following categories: theoretical justification; objectives of the programme; materials used; procedures/ methods; results obtained and evaluation. 2.1 Theoretical Justification As expected, all papers were based on a literature review and presented theoretical arguments to justify the study. The convergent point in these theoretical justifications was the defence of sexuality education in the socialisation of people with disabilities, emphasising the following aspects: • • • • • • •

Sexuality education is a necessity and a right of individuals with disabilities; Individuals with disabilities have less access to information about sexuality; Sexuality education helps to reduce inappropriate behaviour of individuals with disabilities; Specific conditions of disability hinder the expression of sexuality and sexuality education can help; Sexuality education reduces the vulnerability of people with disabilities; Hypersexuality or asexuality beliefs discourage the offering of sexuality education; The need for research and proposals for sexuality education that meet the specific conditions of the different disabilities.

2.2 Objectives of the Programmes The objectives of the sexuality education programme were not always described, analysed or proposed and, in some cases, it was after the full

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reading that the objectives were identified and/or extracted. In summary, the converging points on the objectives were to: • • • •

Inform about sexuality issues in general; Develop social skills that work together for loving and caring relationships; Promote sexual health; Prevent sexual violence.

2.3 Contents / Curriculum The proposed contents involve the biological issues of the body, but also the behaviours in relation to other people (communication and violence, for example) and the internal behaviours related to the expression of emotions. The subjects proposed were diverse, but they were mainly focused on the following themes: • • • • • • • •

Hygiene; Anatomy and human body; Puberty/menstruation/wet dreams (a spontaneous orgasm during sleep that includes ejaculation for a male) Communication/assertiveness; Self-esteem/emotions; Birth control and disease prevention; Privacy; Sexual violence.

2.4 Materials Used Generally, the authors did not delimit or describe the materials used in the sexuality education programmes, especially the specific ones used in the sessions and/or meetings. Many materials were cited generally and without specifications or authorship. In some cases, the materials cited refer to the evaluation instruments and not those used for the development of teaching, with the exception of one that describes the elaboration and use of social stories as an important resource. The main materials found were the following: • • •

Books and teaching materials; Scales, evaluation sheets and registration sheets; Social stories;

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• •

Anatomical model of the human body; Videos.

2.5 Procedures/methods The procedures and methods used for sexuality education are not always presented in an organised way. Sometimes it was only possible to understand the procedures used in the description of the results of the papers. Unlike other subcategories, the procedures were not fully convergent and, to a large extent, depended on the population to be served. Below we list the following procedures quoted in sexuality education based on “Who does?”, “For whom?” and “How to do it?”: • • • • • • • •

Adaptation of available materials; Assessment of users' needs and knowledge; Training of the team that will work in sexuality education; Group work (with small numbers of young people); Individual work; Use of dynamics and role-play inside and outside the institution; Co-participation of peer educators; At the school: sexuality education inserted in classes already existing or proposed to be carry out at a separate time.

2.6 Results obtained These papers described the results obtained and, almost always, they were described as favourable and satisfactory. However, some papers also referred to the limitations and changes that would be needed. In summary, the results were: • • •

•

Sexuality education was rewarding, but the need for accessible materials and videos with deaf people is emphasised; Some topics are easier to address (e.g., hygiene) and others more complex (e.g., privacy, sexual abuse); Sexuality education enables participants to learn social skills, develop self-care skills, increase knowledge and develop decisionmaking skills; Co-educators (other young people with intellectual disability and mothers of autistic individuals) feel empowered and facilitate the process when they participate in sexuality education.

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2.7 Evaluation It is interesting to note that there was a concern with the creation of evaluation measures of sexuality education programmes recording data before, during and after the programme, in an organised and planned way. In some cases, this evaluation was the methodological part of the study described. These evaluations involved: • • • •

Pre- and post-test, control vs. experimental groups, methodological control; Scales, questionnaires, registration forms; Procedural assessment, verbal or non-verbal; Follow up.

3 A Proposal for an In-service Teacher Training and Formation Course on Inclusive Sexuality Education Involving Students with Disabilities The analysis of these papers about the planned and/or realised sexuality education programmes allow us to raise the limits and possibilities, difficulties, needs and conditions that would be more favourable for teachers’ training and formation that, in fact, educate them to assume this task. Together with the analysis of the “Professionals and families” category (Maia and Vilaça in press), we can think about an action strategy that involves the following phases: initial evaluation, definition of the theoretical background, planning context-based actions, pedagogic supervision of the pedagogical practice and, monitoring of the process of teaching and final process evaluation. These phases could be operationalised in the following ways: • • •

•

Reflecting on the history of sexuality education received; Identifying knowledge, beliefs, barriers and facilitating factors to teach sexuality education; Offering theoretical pedagogical content knowledge about sexuality education and the use of information and communication technologies in school; Providing content theoretical knowledge (e.g., promotion of sexual health regarding the development of sexuality of children and young people with different disabilities and without disability; prevention of cancer associated with the reproductive system,

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• • • •

•

•

unplanned pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases and sexual abuse; inclusive education and human rights); Thinking about strategies for dialogue with family members; Looking for resources and procedures that are accessible and meet the needs of students with disabilities; Using pedagogical strategies and resources that can be acquired: films and documentaries, case studies, role-playing; Promoting a discussion on the subject in a group of teachers and school staff aiming to support the school and the leadership in assuming sexuality education in the pedagogical policy proposal of the institution; Collaboration in the planning of sexuality education programmes with relevant objectives and developed from the needs of all students including those with disabilities; Supervision and monitoring actions based on the procedural and final evaluation of the implementation of a sexuality education programme (Maia and Vilaça in press)

From the analysis of the papers referred to above, these were the central actions that we consider to be relevant to construct an in-service teacher training and formation course on inclusive sexuality education involving students with and without disabilities.

Discussion The selection of the papers was based on “sexuality education” and “disability”. This education appeared in contexts other than school: diverse institutions and/or rehabilitation centres. Although sexuality education is a task for teachers in the school context (Maia 2011; Vilaça 2017), this was not the target population of the studies analysed. Most of the papers referred to intellectual disability, and in the subcategory sexuality education, the disabilities that appeared were intellectual disability, hearing loss and autism spectrum disorder. No papers with multiple disabilities were found, showing that there is currently a more complex situation regarding these students that ultimately makes them invisible in school. Proposals for actions, materials and methods were based on the users' discourse or on the curriculum and/or material adaptation, and were primarily aimed at health professionals (doctors, nurses, etc.) and, in some cases, educators and in schools (Maia and Aranha 2005; Albuquerque and Almeida 2010; Chirawu et al. 2014; Maia et al. 2015). A positive point to

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highlight is that in several papers the evaluation of the sexuality education programmes was proposed in a systematic way and this reinforces the validity of the proposal described (Vilaça 2014, 2016, 2017). The studies analysed were qualitative, with 16 being theoretical and 10 empirical. Perhaps due to the difficulty of access to the population with disabilities and/or the implementation of sexuality education, the theoretical studies were more frequent. One last observation is that despite the wide gap in the period of publications, the discussions and results found were similar, without any innovative data, which is worrisome, given the advances in assistive technology, the dissemination of principles and actions in inclusive education and the broad debate on human rights. Obstacles when it comes to sexuality education for people with disabilities are still found.

Conclusions The analysis of these papers contributed to a more general review of the research carried out over the last 20 years on sexuality education and disabilities, showing the distribution of these studies a specific knowledge organised into three categories: in the sexuality education programmes planed or carried out; in the training and conceptions of professionals and families; and in describing specific aspects of the sexuality of individuals with disabilities. In the analysis of these papers, initiatives to put sexuality education programmes for students with disabilities into practice appeared. The authors provided similar guidelines and concerns. Taking into account the emerging issues showed in the reviewed papers, we proposed some guidelines for an in-service teacher training and formation course on inclusive sexuality education involving students with disabilities. These theoretical-practical guidelines for the in-service teacher training and formation course are based on a historical-cultural approach and integrates the previous knowledge to be applied in later studies. It is necessary that researchers publish papers in the international arena with their research and practices regarding in-service teacher training and formation on sexuality education from the perspective of inclusive education, contributing to overcome the lack of theoretical and empirical support still existing in this area.

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Löfgren-Martenson, Lotta. 2012. “I want to do it right!- a pilot study of Swedish Sex Education and Young people with intellectual disabilities”. Sexuality and Disability 30: 209-25. Doi 10.1007/s11195011-9239-z Maia, Ana Cláudia Bortolozzi. 2006. “Sexualidade e Deficiências”. 1st ed. São Paulo: Ed. Unesp. —. 2011. “Inclusão e Sexualidade na voz de pessoas com deficiência física”. 1st ed. Curitiba: Ed. Juruá. —. 2016. “Vivência da sexualidade a partir do relato de pessoas com deficiência intellectual”. Revista Psicologia em Estudo 21 (1): 77-88. Doi: 10.4025/psicolestud.v21i1.29480. Maia, Ana Cláudia Bortolozzi, and Maria Salete Fábio Aranha. 2005. “Relatos de professores sobre manifestações sexuais de alunos com deficiência no contexto escolar”. Revista Interação 9 (1): 103-16 Retrieved from: file:///C:/Users/Ana%20Claudia/Downloads/32906432-1-PB.pdf Maia, Ana Cláudia Bortolozzi, Verônica Lima Reis-Yamauti, Rafaela A. Schiavo, Vera Lúcia Messias Fialho Capellini, and Tânia Grace Valle. 2015. “Teacher opinions on sexuality and Sexual Education of students with intelectual disability”. Estudos de Psicologia 32 (3): 427-35. Doi: 10.1590/0103-166X2015000300008. Maia, Ana Cláudia Bortolozzi, and Paulo Rennes Marçal Ribeiro. 2010. “Desfazendo mitos para minimizar o preconceito sobre a sexualidade de pessoas com deficiências”. Revista Brasileira de Educação Especial 16: 169-76. Doi: 10.1590/S1413-65382010000200002. Maia, Ana Cláudia Bortolozzi, and Teresa Vilaça. (in press). “Revisão da literatura sobre as concepções de professores/as em relação à sexualidade de alunos/as com deficiência intelectual para um quadro conceitual de formação de professores/as em educação inclusive”. Revista Educação Especial, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria. Pereira, Teresa Adelaide Ribeiro and Teresa Vilaça. 2012. “Percepções sobre a abordagem educativa na reabilitação da sexualidade em contexto hospitalar”. Revista Ibero-Americana de Estudos em Educação 7 (2): 14-31. Doi: 10.21723 Porat, Omer, Rafael Heruti, Hagit Navon-Porat, and Daniel Hardoff. 2012. “Counseling Young People with Physical Disabilities Regarding Relationships and Sexuality Issues: Utilization of a Novel Service”. Sexuality and Disability 30 (3): 311-17. Doi: 10.1007/s11195-0119241-5. Schaafsma, Dilana, Gerjo Kok, Joke M. T. Stoffelen, Paulien Van Doorn, and Leopold M. G. Curfs. 2014. “Identifying the important factors

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associated with teaching sex education to people with intellectual disability: A cross-sectional survey among paid care staff”. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability 39 (2): 157-66. Doi: 10.3109/13668250.2014.899566 Schwier, Karen Melberg, and David Hingsburger. 2007. Sexuality - your sons and daughters with intellectual disabilities. 3rd ed. Baltimore, Maryland: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. Vieira, Camila Mugnai, and Marili André Coelho. 2014. “Sexualidade e deficiência intelectual: concepções, vivências e o papel da educação”. Revista Tempos e Espaços em Educação 7 (13): 201-11. Retrieved from: file:///C:/Users/Ana%20Claudia/Downloads/3268-9159-1-SM% 20(1).pdf Vilaça, Teresa. 2014. “Percepções de professores/as sobre as diferenças de género na educação em sexualidade em escolas portuguesas”. Educação: Teoria e Prática 24 (45): 23-39. Retrieved from: http://repositorium.sdum.uminho.pt/bitstream/1822/32543/1/Vila%C3 %A7a%2C%20T.%20%282014%29_24%2845%29%2C%202339.pdf —. 2016. “InterAção no núcleo da promoção de sexualidades saudáveis: competência para a ação e uso das tecnologias de informação e comunicação na escola”. Revista Linhas 17(34) 28-57. Doi: 10.5965/1984723817342016028. —. 2017. “A multiple case study based on action-oriented sexuality education: Perspectives of Portuguese teachers”. Health Education 117 (1): 110-26. doi: 10.1108/HE-02-2016-0006. Walker-Hirsch, Leslie. 2007. “The Facts of Life...and more – sexuality and intimacy for people with intellectual disabilities”.London: Paul H. Brookes. Wilkenfeld, B. Fader, and Michelle S. Ballan 2011. “Educators’ attitudes and beliefs towards the sexuality of individuals with developmental disabilities”. Sexuality and Disability 29: 351-61. Doi: 10.1007/s11195-011-9211-y Wilson, Robin J., and Michele Burns. 2011. “Intellectual Disability and Problems in Sexual Behaviour – assessment, treatment and promotion of healthy sexuality”. Fitchburg, Massachusetts, USA: NEARI Press. Wolfe, Pamela S., and Wanda J. Blanchett. 2003. “Sex Education for students with disabilities- an Evaluation Guide”. Teaching Exceptional Children 36 (1): 46-51. Doi: 10.1177/004005990303600106 World Health Organization (WHO). 2009. “Sexual and Reproductive Health”. Accessed May 9, 2017. http://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/en/

CHAPTER TWENTY TWO HOW DO TEACHERS USE SOAP OPERA AS A POLITICAL AND EDUCATIONAL DEVICE AFTER AN IN-SERVICE TEACHER-TRAINING COURSE ON SEXUALITY EDUCATION? TERESA VILAÇA, ELIZANE DE ANDRADE AND SONIA MARIA MARTINS DE MELO

Abstract Foucault's sexuality device consists of a relationship between forces of power and resistance that becomes a strategy of management and control of the body and ways of being, and control of populations. This device can be established in what is said and not said including discourses, institutions, laws, scientific, philosophical and moral statements and philanthropic propositions. Media as a pedagogical device, and in particular television, influence the formation of individuals and subjectivities producing knowledge that contributes to educate individuals about their ways of living and being in their culture. Therefore, this paper aims to characterize teachers' perceptions on the potentials of the topics developed in a workshop to plan, implement and evaluate a school sexuality education (SE) intervention programme using a soap opera as a pedagogical device and to describe the type of SE interventions carried out. This study is participatory action-research which commenced with a previously validated exploratory semi-structured interview, applied to teachers interested in attending the in-service teacher training workshop in SE (n=15). The results obtained were used to plan the workshop (25 hours, face-to-face and 25 hours in the school context), which was organised into four main topics: paradigms of SE and participatory and action-oriented SE projects; sexual rights as human rights; the Gabriela soap opera as a political and educational device; and planning the school-based SE project and its pedagogical supervision. During this training, teachers were organised in small groups from the same school (n=4), and at the end of the formation they planned the SE intervention to be developed, including the selection of the soap opera characters they wanted to explore pedagogically.

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Throughout these two phases, data were collected through the teachers' and researchers’ journals, the documents produced by teachers and students, and a final semi-structured interview and a follow-up interview applied to teachers. It was observed that although all these teachers consider action-oriented projects with the use of soap opera as the most adequate methodology for SE, teachers in secondary schools were not able to apply this methodology due to the characteristics of the curriculum. In addition, it was observed that all groups of teachers opted for the particular soap opera characters that allowed them to promote students’ (de) construction of gender and sexual identities stereotypes. Therefore, this study has great importance as it contributes to the evidence regarding the use of soap operas as a political and educational device in SE. Key words: Sexuality education, sexuality device, pedagogical device, inservice teacher training, Portugal

Introduction According to the International Technical Guidance on Sexuality Education (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization 2009a, 2009b), and the orientation in Portugal of the Administrative Rule no. 196A / 2010 of the Ministries of Health and Education, sexuality education should consider sexuality as a fundamental aspect of human life (which includes physical, psychological and spiritual aspects and the social, economic, political and cultural dimensions) and to always be understood with reference to gender and diversity (as one of its fundamental characteristics) while taking into account that sexual behaviour differs widely between and within cultures, and that no behaviour should be excluded from the debate in the context of sexuality education. In this perspective, these programmes should have several mutually reinforcing objectives: to increase knowledge and understanding about sexuality; to explain and clarify feelings, values and attitudes; to develop or strengthen skills; and to promote and maintain risk-reducing behaviour (Vilaça 2016). In this sense, sexuality education programmes should be based on the vision that the threat to the lives and wellbeing of children and young people exists in a wide variety of contexts, including abusive relationships, health risks associated with sexual risk factors or stigma, and discrimination based on their sexual or gender identities (Vilaça 2017). These principles are reinforced by the Guidelines for Sexuality Education in Europe (WHO-Europe & Federal Centre for Health Education, BZgA 2010). In the International Technical Guidance on Sexuality Education (United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization 2009a; 2009b), the need to include values in the planning activities that are sensitive to the community, and consistent with available resources, such

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as teacher availability, skills, facility space and materials are also reinforced. Given that television is a vehicle that has revolutionised communication, capable of arousing feelings and stimulating affection, anger, sadness and joy through images, narratives and sounds elaborated for this purpose, the messages sent by its programmes are quick and easy to understand and conquer the viewer with a simple language that translates dynamism, reaching the subjective, presenting modes of conduct and spreading ideologies (Bucci 1997). According to Andrade (2014), television, with its programmes that speak about everything and show everything, responds to questions that sometimes have not even been asked by adolescents, and occupy an increasingly important time and space in their lives, because with its uninterrupted narrative it ends up filling and replacing the space of dialogue between people. According to this researcher, television is a powerful media device and works not only as a store of desire and entertainment, but also as a great normative institution which reinforces conservative theses present in the social and cultural imaginary, because the communicators are human beings, always sexed and also fruits of a constant "sexual miseducation" in our society, reproducing many times, the same pattern. Moreover, it institutionalises the truths that are perpetuated from the statements inculcated by the expressions of normative institutions, just as are the media in their television productions. The soap opera, among its programmes, has a national reach in Portugal that could function as the cultural identity of the country which is described, establishing the way in which the dialogue with these countries and the world is established (Costa 2013). Fischer (2002) discusses this concept of media as a pedagogical device, based on Foucault's concept of a sexuality device and modes of subjectivation. Foucault's sexuality device consists of a relationship of forces between power and resistance forces that becomes a strategy of management and control of the body and ways of being, and control of populations (Foucault 1999). Foucault (1984) associates sexuality with a historical device, constituted as a discursiveinstitutional creation, with the function of execution and control of individuals and populations. In his perspective, the estimation of bodies, the intensification of pleasures, the formation of knowledge, the controls and resistances are linked to each other according to the great strategies of “knowing” and “power” that act on bodies and populations and produce norms and ways of life. In this sense, the sexuality device can be established between what is said and not said including discourses, institutions, architectural organisations, regulatory decisions, laws, administrative measures, scientific, philosophical and moral statements

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and philanthropic propositions (Louro 2003, 2008). Based on Foucault's concept, Fischer (2002) argues that media are a pedagogical device, showing how media and in particular television, influence the formation of individuals and subjectivities producing knowledge that contributes to educate individuals about their ways of living and being in their culture. In her recent research, she shows TV as a means of social communication, or as a specific audio visual language or as a simple household appliance manipulated by people whose images they consume on a daily basis, plays a decisive role in the formation of individuals and in the constitution of the contemporary subject, because television emerges as an integral and fundamental part of complex processes of conveyance and the production of meanings, which in turn are related to modes of being, ways of thinking, ways of knowing the world and ways individuals relate to life. Participatory and action-oriented project-based learning (AoPjBL) was the sexuality education pedagogical methodology selected to use soap opera as a pedagogical device. According to Vilaça (2017), the first argument in selecting this methodology to teach sexuality education is the link it creates between genuine participation and the socio-historical construction of knowledge, because “it allows students to learn by themselves regarding what the problem is and how to act to resolve it (action-oriented knowledge), questioning the dominant concepts of society related to sexuality and understanding the overlapping of disciplinary boundaries and the rejection of ideas assumed as normal by society, which should be critically questioned” (Vilaça 2017, 112).

Action-oriented project-based learning follows the IVAC approach (investigation, vision, action and change) created by Jensen (1994a, 1994b), based on the experience of a great number of study groups, within the Health Promoting Schools Project and other connections regarding the environmental education area. The first dimension of this action-oriented project – investigation – consists of investigating the effects of the problem in order to achieve a common perception concerning the real problem that is being dealt with. It must make clear why students feel that the current condition represents a problem and to whom it represents a problem. Scientific observations have an important role in this point to delimit the range and extension of the problem (Jensen 1994a). This type of knowledge typically makes us consider statements such as: “If I do this, this will happen” or “if these are the conditions or circumstances, the risks of this happening may increase” (Simovska and Jensen 2003). The classroom activities focused on student

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research-groups, followed by a class assembly in order to share and negotiate the new knowledge, have given way to positive results in the construction of this knowledge regarding a specific type of problem (Vilaça 2014). It is also important to investigate the causes of the chosen problem (social determinants) as soon as possible (Jensen 1994b) because they could be associated with social factors underlying our behaviour. Even if the problem is displayed in class or at school (e.g., not having the ability to speak against her/his colleagues who discriminate her/his sexual identity), the underlying causes are quite often found outside these domains. Consequently, according to Jensen (1994b), the social observation methods, where health and environmental problems display economic, social and cultural structures in which they develop, are important. Vilaça’s studies (2014, 2016, 2017) have shown that social inquiries and interviews, participant observation and life stories collected by student research-groups, working outside the classroom, have given positive results in the construction of a common understanding about the reasons why problems exist. The second dimension – knowledge about strategies of change – also needs to be investigated. It includes the current change process, which means knowledge about how to have control over our own lives, how to influence the school environment or how to contribute to changing the living conditions in society (Jensen 2000; Simovska and Jensen 2003; Vilaça 2017). This knowledge includes how structures cooperate, how they develop and organise strategies, how to analyse and use power relationships, etc. This kind of knowledge is particularly related to the field of psychology and sociology. Activities focused on the Internet such as talking with colleagues from other countries, consulting other similar projects and informal conversations with school or community leaders, followed by a class assembly in order to balance the pros and cons of the development of these change strategies directed towards the causes of the problem, have shown positive results (Vilaça 2014). The third dimension – alternatives and visions – deals with the development of students’ ideas, dreams and perceptions regarding their future life and the society in which they will grow up (Jensen 1994b). An important prerequisite for the desire and ability to initiate changes is that a person must have real possibilities, including the necessary support and energy to develop and mould their own dreams and ideas for the future regarding their own life, work, family and society. This dimension may include knowledge concerning the circumstances in the school, neighbourhood or concerning how the issue can be dealt with in other cultures, near and distant, as long as the knowledge concerning such

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circumstances can be a source of inspiration to develop our personal visions (Jensen 2000; Simovska and Jensen 2003). In the fourth dimension – action & change, it is also important that imagination is allowed in order to give rise to a group of several healthy actions and to accomplish some visions that were outlined. It is of great importance that all suggestions are brought out in class discussion and that the different actions be discussed according to the effects and barriers that may appear. Finally, the development of one or more actions will be decided (Vilaça, Sequeira and Jensen 2011). These perspectives do not necessarily represent steps that should be worked out following a certain order, but issues that must be dealt with during the learning process (Jensen 2000). Dealing with these perspectives means creating some important preconditions in order to develop action competence in health and sexual health (and environmental) education. Therefore, the soap opera could be pedagogically used as a cultural and political device to encourage students to identify problems to work on in sexuality education, and to make a preliminary analysis regarding the consequences and causes of the problems identified and think creatively in order to identify similar problems in their own lives or those of their communities which they want to help to solve and develop visions regarding them and act in order to reach these visions. Therefore, this paper aims to characterise teachers' perceptions of the potentials of the topics developed in a workshop to plan, implement and evaluate a school sexuality education (SE) intervention programme using a soap opera as a pedagogical device; 2) to describe the type of SE interventions carried out.

Methodology Research design This study is participatory action-research which commenced with a previously validated exploratory semi-structured interview, applied to teachers interested in attending the in-service teacher training workshop in SE (N=15). The results obtained were used to plan the workshop (25 hours, face-to-face and 25 hours in the school context), which was organised into four main topics: paradigms of SE and participatory and action-oriented SE projects; sexual rights as human rights; the Gabriela soap opera as a political and educational device; and planning the schoolbased SE project and its pedagogical supervision. During this training, teachers were organised in small groups from the same school (N=4), and

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at the end of the formation they planned the SE intervention to be developed, including the selection of the soap opera characters they wanted to explore pedagogically. Throughout these two phases, data were collected through the teachers' and researchers’ journals, the documents produced by teachers and students, and a final semi-structured interview and a follow-up interview applied to teachers.

Participants The criteria for the selection of teachers to participate in this study were: i) they voluntarily decided to participate in the initial exploratory interview; ii) they wanted to participate with other teachers at the same school in the in-service teacher training workshop; iii) to be teachers from the 7th to 12th grades in schools of the Braga district (the district is the structure of the administrative division in Portugal, with 18 districts in the country), where the university is located where the training was held; iv) they voluntarily decided to participate anonymously in all phases of this research, with the guarantee of being able to resign from the project, at any stage, without any type of repercussions. Fifteen teachers, teaching different school subjects from two preparatory (A and B) and two secondary schools (C and D) from the Braga Municipality participated voluntarily in this study. The context of the implementation of the school project of the four schools is very different, as described by teachers below, according to the information included in the planning of the SE projects elaborated at the end of the face-to-face inservice teacher training and formation workshop. School A. This was a preparatory school located in the city of Braga containing 921 students (from the 5th to 9th grade), from urban and semirural areas. Two female teachers were involved in this project. The SE project involved one 9th year class consisting of 18 students. Most parents of these students had completed the 6th or 9th grade and had professions related to manual labour, and there were four unemployed mothers. School B. This preparatory school was located in a parish away from the city of Braga. The economy of this parish presented two essentially distinct facets. In the northern part, an agro-pastoral based economy predominated. In the south, the rural feature of the territory was attenuated to a greater preponderance of industry, commerce and services. The school consisted of 1346 students (from the 5th to 9th grade) from the rural area. Two male teachers and four female teachers participated in this research project. They taught Geography, History, Mathematics and Natural Sciences subjects and held the following positions in the school: Coordinator of the

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school and Coordinator of the Department of Mathematics and Experimental Sciences. The project was developed in all classes from 5th to 9th grade (9-15 years of age) and in the class "Gardening and Space" Education and Training Course. School C. This was a secondary school located in the city of Braga with 1800 students (from the 10th to 12th grades) from urban and semirural areas. One male teacher and three female teachers participated in this research project. They worked with their own class, involving four classes (one from the 10th grade, one from the 11th grade, and two from the 12th grade). School D. This was a preparatory and secondary school (from the 5th to 12th grades) located in a parish away from the city of Braga. The low economic income with which the majority of the families lived, led in some cases to emigration that can result in high drop-out levels at school, as well as in a reduced follow-up and attention to the study and the social life of the young people by parents, mothers and caregivers. This school had 186 students from the 5th to 6th grades, 365 from the 7th to 9th and 317 from the 10th to 12th. Two female teachers participated in this research project. They worked with all classes in 11th and 12th grades during two 90-minute sessions in the context of the school's library dynamics plan.

Characterisation of the in-service teacher training methodology The workshop (25 hours, face-to-face and 25 hours in the school context), based on the analysis of the results obtained in a previous exploratory semi-structured interview, was organised into five face-to-face sessions focused on the following four main topics: Topic 1. The paradigms of SE and participatory and action-oriented SE projects. Starting from the characteristics of sexuality in each historical period, as described by Nunes (2003), the framework of an emancipatory sexuality education (Melo 2004) was discussed and the potentials of the IVAC approach and its forms of operationalisation in the ambit of an action-oriented project-based learning within the socio-critical pedagogy (Vilaça 2017) were explained. Methodologically, the method of discussion with the use of Power Points in a class assembly, together with small teamwork activities was used. Topic 2. Sexual rights as human rights. The Declaration of Sexual Rights (WAS 1999) as human rights, the socio-bio psychosexual evolution of children and adolescents, and the impact of culture and history on the construction of sexual and gender identities (Vilaça 2017) were discussed

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in small teamwork activities, followed by the sharing and discussion of ideas in a class assembly, as the theoretical framework that would be the starting point for the critical analysis of the excerpts from the soap opera Gabriela 2012 in the future. Topic 3. The Gabriela 2012 soap opera as a political and educational device. The Gabriela soap opera narrates the case of love between the Arab Nacib and the countrywoman Gabriela, and chronicles the golden period of cacao in the region of Ilhéus in Bahia. In addition, the picture of habits and profound changes in the social life of Bahia in the 1920s, involving the opening of the port to large ships that led to the rise of the Rio de Janeiro exporter Mundinho Falcão and the decline of the colonels, like Ramiro Bastos are vividly described. First, in the preparation of the in-service teacher training and formation, Andrade, one of the authors of this research, carried out exhaustive work involving hundreds of hours, visualising the entire soap opera and cutting and editing the story by character, using the Debut Video Capture Software free programme. Afterwards, she reduced these excerpts in order to show her/his story in a short period of time (between 17 and 40 minutes) to allow for the analysis of specific gender and sexuality issues that were more strongly associated with them. The following characters were analysed: i) Gabriela and Nacib. The Arab Nacib, owner of a bar in Ilhéus in the 1920s, a town in the interior of Bahia, Brazil, has an urgent need to employ a new cook and finds Gabriela who has just arrived in the city in search of work. It does not take long before Nacib falls in love with Gabriela's freedom, beauty and sensuality and becomes lovingly involved with her. He realises the fascination she arouses in all those who approach her, and in the natural way in which she lives her sexual life, without any form of social conditioning, devaluing, namely, marriage because she considers that it is not important in a loving relationship. Nacib feels jealous, convinces Gabriela to marry him to win the respect of society. During the soap opera, Nacib annuls the marriage and the soap opera ends with Nacib and Gabriela together as lovers in an engaging narrative that shows the influence of the cultural and historical contexts regarding the expressions and ways of experiencing sexuality. ii) Miss Pirangi. He is a homosexual who along with the prostitutes animates the Bataclã, whose owner is Maria Machadão. He is a friend of the "girls" but at the same time, gossips about everything to the mistress. In the course of the soap opera, a colonel falls in love with him and wants to get him out of the house of prostitutes to live with him in his cocoa farm. Miss Pirangi accepts emotionally, but at the last moment decides to

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stay in the house of prostitutes because he values more his friendship with them than his great love for the colonel. This character faces a double stigma of the 1920s society: he is a homosexual and a prostitute. iii) Malvina. She is the only daughter of Marialva and Melk, a cacao colonel. Malvina is an intelligent, rebellious and independent young woman who does not accept living according to the conventions of society and faces even her powerful father. She has liberal ideas and does not accept the impositions of women in the society of her time, namely not being able to go to the university or choose her husband or the books she wants to read, and lives in the shadow of her authoritarian father. There is strong conflict with her family when she falls in love with the outsider Rômulo Vieira, with whom she has sex and ends up finding out that he is already married. Faced with the pressures of her father to marry the man he has chosen, she flees from the house, goes to the train station of the city to go to Salvador city and finds Professor Josué. Both get on the train, sit down side by side and smile at each other. The couple then move towards a much more promising future. iv) Colonel Jesuino and his wife Sinhazinha. Sinhazinha is an elegant and charming woman who is dissatisfied with her life, because despite her submission to her husband, she suffers in her relationship with him. He is an old, violent and rude colonel who demands that his woman be a good cook and housewife, and forces her to have sex whenever he wants, even when she says she is sick, using the expression: “I am going ‘to use you’”. During the soap opera, Sinhazinha is deeply in love with Osmundo, and Jesuino kills them when he finds them having sexual intercourse. Everybody in the city comments on this murder and, for the first time, a judge convicts a colonel for this kind of crime. During these face-to-face sessions, teachers were organised in small groups of teachers from the same school (N=4), visualised each excerpt, identified problems regarding sexuality and gender education that emerged from the soap opera and elaborated questions to promote a discussion with their students in order to analyse, in a critical and reflexive way, the problems related to sexuality and gender that emerged in each excerpt from the soap opera, and the consequences and causes of those problems. In addition, they discussed which of the problems identified in 1920 were similar to problems currently encountered in their school and society, and what problems were different. Inspired by sexual rights guidelines, for each current problem identified, they discussed their consequences and causes and the strategies that could be implemented with their students to contribute to the elimination of these problems, acting on some of the causes that provoked them. In each of these phases, the conclusions of

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each group were shared in a class assembly and a synthesis was made. At the end of this phase, it was necessary to increase teachers’ scientific knowledge regarding sexual and gender identities. Topic 4. Planning the school-based sexuality education project and its pedagogical supervision. Teachers, organised in small groups from the same school (N=4), planned together with the first researcher, the schoolbased sexuality intervention to be developed, including how their intervention in the school context will be supervised by this researcher and by themselves, and the selection of the soap opera characters they wanted to explore pedagogically. The second author taught them how to use Debut Video Capture Software free programme, and teachers started cutting and editing the story according to the character they wanted to use in SE with their students. The second part of the in-service teacher training and education was developed in the school context (25 hours) consisting of the implementation and monitoring of the school-based SE project previously elaborated.

Data sources and treatment The qualitative methods and data sources included an exploratory semi-structured interview, previously validated, applied to teachers interested in attending the in-service teacher training and formation workshop on SE (N=15), organised in the following areas: i) sociodemographic and professional experience of teachers’ characterisation; ii) representations of teachers about their own SE; iii) representations of teachers' practices on SE; iv) potentials of using soap operas in SE; v) conceptions about (self) supervision in health education and sexuality. This interview was restructured and applied again to teachers after the end of the in-service teacher training and formation, emerging with the following areas of analysis: i) representations of teachers' practices on SE; ii) potentials of using soap operas in SE; iii) conceptions about (self) supervision in SE; iv) opinions regarding the in-service teacher training attended. Throughout both phases of the in-service teacher training and formation (face to face sessions and work in the school context), data were collected through the journals of teachers and researchers and the documents produced by teachers and students. The second author of this paper observed the teachers’ work in each school. The first author observed actions developed by students. Immediately following each observation, the researchers’ journals were written.

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Three months after the end of the teachers’ interventions on SE in their schools, a follow-up interview was carried out with them in each school (N=9), in order to collect data to attain the following objectives: i) to characterise the type of SE interventions carried out; ii) to characterise the perceptions of teachers regarding self and peer supervision and researchers/teacher trainers’ supervision during the in-service teacher training and formation; iii) to identify barriers and facilitating factors during the SE project/ activities carried out; iv) to identify the conceptions of teachers on this project in the future. The interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim. The transcripts were verified with the interviewees and their comments were integrated at the end of the interview. In order to attain the objectives of this paper, only the data collected throughout the in-service teacher training and in the follow-up interview will be presented. Qualitative data collected was categorised according to Bardin (2011) in a system of emergent categories and sub-categories. First the documents produced by teachers and their students were analysed and, after that, the same happened with the followup interview. All categories and sub-categories that emerged in the documental analysis continued in the interviews, however some new categories emerged in this analysis which were visible in the triangulation of results. The same process of analysis was followed in the follow-up interview. Two researchers carried out this categorisation independently. When the categorisation was different the researchers discussed their interpretations, and if they did not reach consensus this information was classified as ambiguous.

Results and discussion The potentials of the Gabriela 2012 soap opera on SE The planning of the projects on gender and SE using excerpts from the soap opera Gabriela 2012, carried out by the group of teachers of each school, included the themes/problems to be addressed, the objectives that the teachers wanted to achieve with the project, and the activities that would be implemented to achieve them, namely the excerpts of the soap opera characters who they wanted to explore with their students, and the trigger questions to explore them. The thematic categorisation of these questions gave rise to eight categories of analysis which showed teachers' perceptions about the themes/ problems that emerged from the soap opera with potentials for gender and SE (see Table 1).

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Table 1. Teachers' questions about the potential of the soap opera for sexuality education (SE) (N=264)

Categories Thinking about formal SE Rethinking nonformal and informal SE Domestic and dating violence and strategies to prevent them

Sexual rights as human rights

Thinking about historical/ social construction of norms Factors which contribute to healthy love / interpersonal relationships Deconstructing sexual identities

Deconstructing gender

Other

Examples of questions ƒ What could be improved in the schoolbased SE? ƒ What SE did Nacib have? ƒ Was Nacib educated for the “obligation to marry”? If yes, how? And Gabriela? ƒ What does Colonel Jesuino imply when he says to his wife Sinhazinha: "I'm going to use you?" ƒ When Colonel Melk hits Malvina and drags her from the beach to the house, no one interferes with his action. Why? ƒ In the plot involving these characters, are there elements that neglect sexual rights as human rights? ƒ In your opinion are the "denied" rights evidenced in these scenes? ƒ What are the arguments for and against the legalisation of prostitution? ƒ Why could Malvina not read the book: “The Crime of Father Amaro”? ƒ What reasons seem to be underlying this excerpt to extramarital affairs? ƒ What are the characteristics of “married life” evidenced in this excerpt? Can it be educational to exploit them? Why? ƒ What evidences exist that show that Miss Pirangi is homosexual? ƒ Is there any evidence to show that Miss Pirangi is a prostitute? ƒ Does this excerpt allow us to reflect on “any relationship between genital organs and the social roles”? Why? ƒ How can “female subalternity and male power” be explored in this excerpt?

f

%

4

1.5

8

3.0

16

6.1

19

7.2

26

9.8

30

11.4

48

18.2

110 3

41.7 1.1

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Thinking about formal (1.5%), non-formal and informal (3.1%), SE was the least visible potentiality for the critical analysis of the excerpts of this soap opera. In spite of this, when these questions emerged to critically analyse the characters of Nacib and Gabriela and Colonel Jesuino and Sinhazinha, they intentionally promoted the deconstruction of the educational role of family (e.g., What SE did Nacib have?; In our country, generally, who is most responsible in the family for the SE of daughters? And sons? Why?) and society (e.g., Do you consider that Nacib was educated to the “obligation of marriage”? If yes, how? And Gabriela?) in the naturalisation and control of the sexual behaviour and expressions of sexuality patterns, namely in relation to the conceptions regarding the type of families (e.g., traditional families, reconstructed families, single-parent family, same-sex parenting), and the legal bonds between loving partners (e.g., marriage, cohabitation). This deconstruction was deepened as teachers planned questions to consider the historical and social construction of norms regarding sexuality (9.8%), also analysing the characters Malvina and her parents and Miss Pirangi. According to the teachers, the life story of these characters allows them to encourage students to analyse how the assignment of specific tasks to women such as the education of children, the care of the house and the obedience to the husband, the power of men in society and in the family and, the social question of prostitution emerged and evolved to the present. According to the “sexuality device” of Foucault (1997, 1999) this correlation of forces, that also emerged in the analysis of this soap opera, between power and resistance forces, forms a management and control strategy, and of ways of being. Therefore, Foucault’s idea that the “body and sexuality are historical and cultural constructs rather than natural phenomena is a significant contribution to the (re)thinking of school-based pedagogical practices in the framework of a poststructuralist curriculum” (Vilaça 2017, 111) and that soap operas could be useful as a pedagogical device to attain this objective (Fischer 2002). In Portugal, domestic violence is a serious public health problem when in 2016, the greatest number of victims were women over 18 years old with 5226 reported physical assaults and men in the same age group with 826 reported physical assaults (APAV 2016). The episode associated with the characters Colonel Jesuino and his wife Sinhazinha are essentially based on scenes of domestic life involving psychological violence and the sexual abuse of the wife. However, this problem was not exploited extensively by the teachers (6.1%) for the SE of their students because, as explained by several teachers:

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“The scenes of conjugal violence portrayed, and the expression ‘I am going to use you’ are very aggressive. It is preferable to carry out sexuality education in a positive way (...) talking about sexual pleasure, respect for each other (…) to increase the self-esteem and self-confidence of students (...) If this happens, people do not become violent and the victims are more likely to ask for help and not allow the perpetrator of the violence to attack them psychologically, physically, socially or sexually (...)” (Follow up interview, School C, teacher 2)

A greater number of questions related to the analysis of protective factors and risk factors in healthy love and interpersonal relationships (11.4%) emerged (e.g., What reasons seem to be underlying this excerpt to extramarital affairs?; What are the characteristics of “married life” evidenced in this excerpt? Can it be educational to exploit them? Why?). This critical analysis seemed to be important in all schools because of the number of dating violence victims reported by the Portuguese National Institute of Forensic Medicine and Forensic Science that increased almost 60% in three years (between 2014 and 2016) and, in the last year alone there were 767 victims, representing an increase of almost 10% compared to 2015 (INMLCF 2016). The deconstruction of sexual identities (18.2%) was based on the Miss Pirangi’s life story (e.g., What are the evidences in the soap opera that show that Miss Pirangi is homosexual?). This critical reflection was extended to the discrimination based on sexual identities and to the legalisation, or not, of prostitution. The greater potentiality identified by the teachers in their projects in the plots developed by each character were related to the deconstruction of gender (n=110; 41.7%), with the following three sub-categories emerging (see table 2): “gender stereotypes and consequences of being discriminated against because of gender” (68.2%); “gender power relationships and the promotion of gender equity” (19.1%); and “What gender is” (12.7%). The issues related to gender had already emerged indirectly in the previously analysed categories; however, this category included the intentionally formulated questions for education in gender and citizenship. The teachers from school B used the textbooks produced by the Commission for Citizenship and Gender Equality of the Portuguese Presidency of the Council of Ministers to explore the soap opera Gabriela 2012.

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Table 2. Teachers' questions about the potential of the soap opera to deconstruct gender (N=110)

Sub-categories Gender stereotypes and consequences of being discriminated against because of gender Gender power relationships and the promotion of gender equity What gender is

Examples of questions ƒ In what ways does Malvina's mother, Dona Marialva, show an image of a different woman? ƒ What situations are there currently in our country where mothers and fathers educate their sons and daughters differently? What are they based on? ƒ How can “female subalternity and male power” be explored in this excerpt? ƒ What contributed to the denial of women’s right to vote? ƒ This excerpt from the soap opera allows us to make some reflection on whether there is any relation between the different genital organs and the different social roles? Why? ƒ Is there any difference between sex and gender?

f

%

75

68.2

21

19.1

14

12.7

The concerns of teachers, regarding the issues of gender and citizenship associated with SE have been observed in several studies (Vilaça 2016, 2017).

The type of SE interventions carried out At preparatory school A, one of the teachers involved did not apply the project while the other teacher decided to focus on the prevention of teenage pregnancy, not developing any of the themes / problems and materials prepared in the planning (see Table 3), considering that at that time this problem was a priority for her 9th grade class. At preparatory school B, the project was developed in all classes from 5th to 9th grade and in the class "Gardening and Space" Education and Training Course. To cover the largest number of students, the project was divided into two phases. In the first phase, classes from the 8th grade investigated the wide variety of themes/ problems mentioned in Table 3 and, in the second phase they implemented actions involving their

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colleagues from other grades. In secondary education (C and D) the variety of themes worked out was much smaller than in preparatory education and more focused on healthy love and interpersonal relationships, critically exploring gender violence and power relations in loving couples. Table 3. Themes/ problems of the SE carried out in schools

Categories Historical and social construction of norms regarding sexuality Factors which contribute to healthy love and interpersonal relationships Deconstructing gender What gender is Gender stereotypes and consequences of being discriminated against because of gender Gender power relationships and the promotion of gender equity Identifying evidences of the liberation of women Domestic and dating violence Deconstructing sexual identities Sexual rights as human rights Prevention of teenage pregnancy Rethinking the non-formal and informal SE

School A, B, D C, D A, B A, B, C, D A, B, C, D A, B A, B, C, D A, B A, B, C, D A A

The teachers from preparatory schools (A and B) opted for the development of a participatory and action-oriented gender and SE project, involving an average of six lessons per class and also including extracurricular activities (see Table 4). At school A, the students started from a problem selected by the teacher while at school B, problems were selected by the 8th grade students after exploring the excerpts from the soap opera previously selected by the teachers. The methodology used in schools A and B for students investigating the consequences and causes of the problem and the strategies that could be implemented to solve them were the same: the use of worksheets that the students chose to work on; research on the Internet, in books, and playing games; and inviting specialists to speak about the problem. In the action phase, both schools carried out peer education teaching their colleagues from other classes (A, B), carrying out an interview with adolescent mothers (A), distributing information/

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sensitisation leaflets (A), and the writing and staging of a Theatre Forum, followed by a debate that concluded with the elaboration of a contract between all the participants to show their commitment to changing specific behaviours and attitudes to solve the problem under study. These results are similar to other previous studies applying this methodology (Vilaça 2017). Table 4. Methodology and methods/ techniques of SE carried out

Categories Methodology Sequence of active student-centred activities Development of a participatory action-oriented project Methods/ Techniques Discussion in small groups of the soap opera excerpts Selection of one of the previously identified real problems that students wanted to help solve Investigation in small groups of the consequences and causes of the problem and strategies of change: ƒ through the use of worksheets that the students chose to work on ƒ on the Internet, in books, and playing games ƒ inviting specialists to speak about the problem Actions carried out by students Elaboration and distribution of information/ sensitisation leaflets Elaboration and application of an interview to adolescent mothers Elaboration of Power Points and videos to teach their colleagues from other classes how to implement and evaluate their actions Writing and dramatisation in a theatre-forum for the school followed by a discussion with invited specialists

School C, D A, B B, C, D A, B

A, B A, B A, B

A A

A, B B

At secondary schools (C and D) teachers opted for promoting a 90minute session to discuss the soap opera excerpts in small groups of students, followed by sharing ideas in a class assembly.

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Conclusions The teachers involved in the in-service teacher training and education workshop perceived the soap opera as a political and educational device in SE, emphasising their role in the construction of a critical understanding of the historical and cultural influence in the construction of gender and sexual identities, and in the ways of experiencing sexuality. It was observed that all groups of teachers considered that the biggest pedagogic potential of this soap opera was to promote students’ (de) construction of gender and sexual identities stereotypes. However, its potential to promote critical reflection on domestic and dating violence and strategies to prevent them, advocating sexual rights as human rights, understanding historical and social construction of norms regarding sexuality and factors which contribute to healthy love and interpersonal relationships were also recognised. It was also observed that although all these teachers had been encouraged to implement action-oriented projects with the use of soap opera as a pedagogical device as the most adequate methodology for SE, only teachers from preparatory schools had the opportunity to use actionoriented projects. In addition, data show that with this in-service teacher training and information workshop, if the curriculum of schools has the necessary conditions, teachers are able to plan, carry out and evaluate participatory and action-oriented projects with the use of soap operas as a pedagogical device. Therefore, this study has great importance as it contributes to increasing the evidence regarding the potentials of an in-service teachertraining workshop to develop action-oriented projects, and the use soap operas as a political and educational device in SE.

References Andrade, Elizane. 2014. “Concepções de Professores e Professoras Sobre a Utilização de Dispositivos Pedagógicos de Educação Sexual Produzidos com a Telenovela Gabriela de 2012: Um Estudo Comparativo Brasil/Portugal” PhD diss. project., Universidade do Minho - Braga, Portugal. APAV-Associação Portuguesa de Apoio à Vitima. 2016. Estatísticas APAV, Relatório Annual. Lisboa: APAV. Bardin, L. 2011. Análise de conteúdo. Lisboa: Edições 70. Bucci, Eugenio. 1997. Brasil em tempo de TV. São Paulo: Boitempo.

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Costa, Cristina Cortez. 2013. Educação, imagem e mídia: Aprender e ensinar com textos (2ª Edição). São Paulo, SP: Cortez. Fischer, Rosa 2002. “O dispositivo pedagógico da mídia: modos de educar na (e pela) TV.” Educação e Pesquisa 25 (1): 151-62. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1517-97022002000100011 Foucault, Michel. 1999. A História da Sexualidade I: A Vontade de Saber (13ª Ed.). Rio de Janeiro: Edições Graal. —. 1984. “Sobre a história da sexualidade”. In Microfísica do Poder, edited by Roberto Machado (4th Ed.), 243-76. Rio de Janeiro: Edições Graal. INMLCF- Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal e Ciência Forense. 2016. Seminário ‘E se a escola do namoro formasse profissionais em violência?’ Presentation slides. Coimbra: INMLCF. Jensen, B. B. 1994a. “Health promoting schools in Denmark: an action competence approach to health education.” In Ecological public health: from vision to practice, edited by C. Chu and K. R. Simpson, 132-141. Canadá e Australia: Institute of Applied Environmental Research, Griffith University & Centre for Health Promotion, Totonto, Canadá. Jensen, Bjarne Bruun. 1994b. “Action, action competence and change in the field of environmemtal and health educationlenge.” In Action and Action Competence as Key Concepts in Critical Pedagogy, edited by Bjarne Bruun Jensen, and K. Schnack, 73-85. Copenhagen: Didaktiske Studier, Studies in Educational Theory and Curriculum, Royal Danish School of Educational Studies. —. 2000. Participation, commitment and knowledge as components of pupil’s action competence. In Critical Environmental and Health Education. Research Issues and Challenges, edited by Bjarne Bruun Jensen, Karsten Schnack and Venka Simovska, 219-37. Copenhagen: The Danish University of Education. Louro, Guacira Lopes. 2003. Género, Sexualidade e Educação: Uma Perspetiva Pós-Estruturalista (6ª ed.). Petrópolis: Editora Vozes. —. 2008. “Gênero e sexualidade: pedagogias contemporâneas.” ProPosições 19 (2): 17-23. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S=103-73072008000200003. Melo, Sónia Maria Martins de. 2004. Corpos No Espelho - A Percepção da Corporeidade em Professoras (1ª. Ed). Campinas: Mercado de Letras. Nunes, Cesar Aparecido. 2003. Desvendando a sexualidade (5ª Ed.). Campinas: Ed. Papiros.

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Simovska, Venka and Bjarne Bruun Jensen. 2003. Youngminds.net/lessons learnt: Student participation, action and crosscultural collaboration in a virtual classroom. Copenhagen: Danish University of Education Press. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization – UNESCO. 2009a. International technical guidance on sexuality education. Rationale for sexuality education (Vol. I). Paris: UNESCO, Accessed May/ 01/2011 http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001832/183281e.pdf. —. 2009b. International technical guidance on sexuality education. Topics and learning objectives (Vol. II). Paris: UNESCO. Accessed May/01/2011. http://data.unaids.org/pub/ExternalDocument/2009/20091210_internati onal_guidance_sexuality_education_vol_2_en.pdf Vilaça, Teresa. 2014. “Percepções de professores/as sobre as diferenças de género na educação em sexualidade em escolas portuguesas.” Educação: Teoria e Prática 24 (45): 23-39. DOI: 10.18675/19818106.vol24.n45.p2339 —. 2016. “InterAção no núcleo da promoção de sexualidades saudáveis: competência para a ação e uso das tecnologias de informação e comunicação na escolar.” Revista Linhas 17 (34): 28-57. DOI: 10.5965/1984723817342016028 —. 2017. “A multiple case study based on action-oriented sexuality education: Perspectives of Portuguese teachers.” Health Education 117 (1): 110-26. DOI: 10.1108/HE0220160006 Vilaça, Teresa, Manuel Sequeira, and Bjarne Bruun Jensen. 2011. “Partnerships Between Teachers and the Community: In-Service Training in the Development of Participatory and Action-Oriented Sexual Education in Schools”. Doxa - Revista Brasileira de Psicologia e Educação 15 (1): 37-46. WAS – World Association of Sexology. 1999. Declaração dos direito sexuais como direitos humanos. Hong Kong: WAS. WHO Europe and Federal Centre for Health Education, BZgA. 2010. Standards for Sexuality Education in Europe. A framework for policy makers, educational and health authorities and specialists. Cologne: WHOEurope & Federal Centre for Health Education, BZgA.

CHAPTER TWENTY THREE NARRATIVES OF CONSUMERISM IN PARENTING: PERSPECTIVE FROM THE MAGAZINE “MY BABY” DACE MEDNE, NORA JANSONE-RATINIKA AND ILZE DINKA

Abstract Globalisation processes initiated by postmodernism have created such phenomena of culture (media, accessibility and diversity of information, consumerism) that can be considered both contributory to the development of the child’s personality and the risk factors turning them into the objects of consumerism thinking. Different aspects shaping the child’s personality that initially are formed by the artefacts of parenting culture in the family are interpreted with the help of media and consumption and the child internalises them in the process of growing up and developing. Therefore, the promotion of agency becomes a significant component of identity, including diminishing the potential risks. However, a differentiated discussion about the child’s agency in the modern society is only possible if the children’s experience with the consumption market and media is not marginalised. The involvement of children in social consumption has become an important market factor; however, consumption has been little analysed in the context of parenting, the child’s development and parent-children relations. These topical social trends encourage a discussion about the content and the form of competence of upbringing of the implementers - parents – to bring up children in the context of consuming. Therefore, this article analyses how consumerism is present in the magazine “My Baby” which has been a significant and stable mouth-piece of parenting discourse for the current and future parents in Latvia since 1994. Keywords. Consumption, parenting, parents’ competence in upbringing, personality, relationship between the child and parents, agency.

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Introduction Media in modern pedagogy are ever-present and influential components of the educational process emphasising their educational and instructional function. People, with the help of media as the carrier of information, form attitudes and viewpoints, obtain knowledge and acquire skills. Initially parents’ self-reflections and reflections about others are the ones that shape children’s attitudes, ideas and understanding about oneself, others and the world. Thus, a matter arises in parenting: what are parents’ attitudes and viewpoints regarding parenting issues in the information society saturated by media and how are they incorporated into parents’ competence to bring up their children? Different aspects shaping the child’s personality that initially are formed by the parents’ attitudes and viewpoints in the family are interpreted in media with the help of consumption, and the child internalises or refuses to accept them during the process of growing up and developing. Consumerism can be considered both contributory to the development of the child’s personality and a risk factor, for instance, turning them into the objects of consumerism thinking. The involvement of children in social consumption has become a widespread practice and they have become important actors. Despite the fact that such an approach has been practised in business commercialisation for a considerable period of time the topic of consumption has been little analysed in the context of parenting, the child’s development and parent-children relations. The current situation demonstrates more and more explicitly why the topicality of promoting critical thinking and social agency increases, putting it forward as an important personality component in diminishing the potential risks and exploring the resources both for the adults (parents) and the children. Probably due to this the childhood researchers have pointed out a paradox: exactly at the same time when the social theoreticians postulate the fragmentary (social) identity of the adult subject, the childhood researchers come out with the suggestion of children as competent actors (Hengst 2013). Therefore, it is important in this context to prioritise both the theoretical understanding about the parents’ competence to bring up children and performance of upbringing in practice. However, a differentiated discussion about the child’s status as an actor, his/her critical thinking and agency in modern societies is only possible if children’s experience with consumption and media is not held back or marginalised as well as if one analyses what forms the child’s experience in the context of consumption and how. Yet, the potential of the latest childhood studies in social sciences which reveals the satisfaction of the content of child’s

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development has been outstripped by the rapid development of the consumption sphere and failing to pay attention to media and consumption in the perspective of pedagogical research has been criticised again and again (Hengst 2013). Topical social trends and their ambiguity encourage a discussion about media as one of the components influencing parents’ competence to bring up children in the modern consumption situation. Therefore, the research aims: to identify the consumerism artefacts (the frequency of usage and mutual contextual meanings) in the only printed medium (magazine) for parents “My Baby” in Latvia in the context of the globalised, mediasaturated society and parenting.

Ontogenesis of consumption in parents-children relations Consumption nowadays is considered to be the integrating context of society and all generations, in which attention is paid to the diverse portraying and positioning of the consumer as a subject. Schrage has structured and analysed the ontogenesis of consumption; he interprets consumption as “the main factor shaping the modern society” (Schrage 2006, 443). Makropoulos attributes the “transcendental dimension” to consumption (2008, 8), namely, consumption is necessary for people’s experience, but it does not emerge from the experience. Siegrist, in turn, views consumption as a system for the society to orient from (1998, 29) and Vonderau as a kind of “prism through which to observe the transformation processes of the culture” (2010, 62). Böhme considers that consumer culture “already for a long time has become the most important uniting force of the modern societies” (2006, 350). Boltz points out that consumption forms “identities” nowadays (Bolz 2002, 102). Thus, consumption is positioned as a present space of experience that envelops the modern human and in which he/she develops his/her personality (attitude to oneself, the others and the world). Schülein has analysed consumption in parenting through the experience of modern parents getting ready for their first-born child. He indicates that “many desires, utopias and parents’ needs” are brought into the world in which the child has to be born (Schülein 2002, 159). “Almost no situation is so narcistically charged as the arranging of the ‘nest’ for the newborn baby who himself at the moment has not uttered his opinion and therefore there exist only projective anticipations” (Schülein 2002, 159). Artefacts that hold constitutive meaning in the families can be identified in these projective anticipations: expressing self-evidence, liking, love and belonging “through” consumer goods as well as the ideas of “the project of

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becoming a parent”: to give only the best to the child. However, the tossing between the romantic and rational, namely, functional orientators, operating in the consumption world has been outlined – thus, between the “advertisement of goods” and the “testing of goods”. This can be summed up in the statement that media as providers of information have a great influence on the formation of parents’ attitudes and viewpoints, which in turn, is the basis on which the parents’ competence of parenting rests. Already in an early age when the child is a baby, most of the care of young parents, especially mothers, is implemented with the help of the resources available in the market. Undeniably, the parents’ choice is not based of the wishes or needs expressed by the child but on the interpretation of what, according to the parents’ mind, the child might need. Thus, consumption and consumer goods before the children are able to distinguish them from other goods and understand what buying means or are able themselves to act as buyers are connected with definite people, most frequently, the parents. Cook states it is impossible to clearly understand mothering in the societies representing ethoses of different modern cultures without taking into consideration the everyday consumption dimension (Cook 2009, 317318). He states it is necessary to consider commercialism, mothering, care, feelings and children as components that merge in different processes and ways in everyday life. “Not all caring has a commercial component but neither is it severely segregated from things – goods, images, meanings – made available through market means” (Cook 2009, 332). Analysing the consumer societies and the position of children in them, Hengst stresses that children already from birth are members of society, but they should not be socialized into in the society from some pre-society or outside space, especially regarding the consumer experience (Hengst 2013, 59). This allows for concluding that nowadays consumption is considered to be the key component of modern culture and naturally joins in the components of the parents’ competence of parenting. Therefore, in order to develop the parenting discourse both in theory and practice it would be relevant to conceptualise the relations among the concepts: the development of the child – parenting – media – consumption.

The child in the consumer society The idea that nowadays is more topical than ever before is the following: the reproduction of consumer societies would almost be unable to function if the consumers were not created already at a very young age (Hengst 2013). Already Riesman in the second half of the 20th century stresses that these societies will regress if the production of consumers did

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not start in early childhood. He not only ascertains the erosion but is also certain about the retro-active socialisation mentioning that: “In the end a child as the ‘apprentice’ of the consumption in relation to the family consumption becomes the indicator of the direction, ‘he raises’ both the mother and the father” (Riesman 1958). Children and parents learn together and learn from each other in the conditions of a largely identical world of the offer (Riesman 1973 [1955]). Cook, too, expresses a similar idea that “children’s attitude to things, media, images and meanings that have arisen in the commercial world, pertain to this world and have intertwined with this world” has a decisive role “in the development of the personality and the moral position” (Cook 2004, 149). Bauman indicates that the reproduction of the consumer society depends on the fact that its members starting from a very young age are prepared “for life and functioning in their life space”, the space of the consumer experience (Bauman 2009). The family for a long time has stopped being a closed, autonomous internal space which the parents really can control. The external influence – media, products, themes, measures – as it is well known, starts by attending nursery school and increasing the contacts with “the third parties” becomes more and more important in general. However, the fact that the possibilities of the parents’ control diminish has not only external but also internal reasons. “New, still unequal but at the same time mutual relations” are being formed. Parents (at least in the beginning) remain the main people responsible; but as Schülein concludes, “the relations with parents are an all-embracing thing that lasts all day long; still the precondition for the children’s experience is the relations with parents” (Schülein 2002, 306). When children form their own notions and landmarks, the culture practices become complex, diverse; they become the subject of conversations and are brought into the families and society (D'Avanzo and Pilato 2016). Pugh analyses the dynamic triangle: parents, children and consumer culture. She concludes that consumption that has expanded forms a new environment of culture with new expectations and standards in relation to what parents should take care of, what the children would need and what it means if they own or do not own a certain thing. The penetration of the present-day childhood consumer has been consequently viewed from the perspective that is outside the individual. The author emphasises that a market does not infect children as a poisonous tincture but strikes roots and strengthens in the network of relations. Therefore, it is important to examine what meaning the parents and children give to concrete commercial offers in their everyday family life and how the commercial

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culture shapes its way/trajectory through the children’s emotional relations with their peers and parents (Pugh 2009, 5). As a result, Pugh defines the concept “economy of dignity” which is present in all places where children gather (for instance, school yards, play grounds and birthday parties). The concept “dignity” means the respect and appreciation that is important for the concrete person and which is received from the people of the same age. For instance, not being able to participate in the discussion does not differ much from not belonging; this makes the person “invisible” and there is a willingness to evade from this position or status as much as possible, not permitting this to happen. Pugh considers that children make their “economies of dignity” among themselves. They turn offers from the wide choice of pop culture into culture scripts (behaviour patterns that describe the course of action, give them meaning, and culturalise them). The basic meaning of these scripts is that they make the consumption offers accessible, which must be there, which should be known about, which one should be able to handle, about which one should be able to join in the conversation to be recognised and respected in order to feel belonging. Thus, belonging becomes the result of social interactions and refers to the relation categories about which the actors or the groups of actors agree. The operation with signs and scripts in the practices of the peer culture as indicated by ethnographical studies performed by Pugh is variable and depends on the context. Because children have to agree with their parents about many things that they need in order to feel belonging to the peer’s group. Thus, the question of how parents are confronted with the scripts that are in fashion at any given moment and how to deal with them becomes topical. It is emphasised that accepted “economies of dignity”, signs and scripts no longer represent simply the desires, but they have become the need. The study carried out by Pugh clearly shows that inequality and consumption in the everyday life of the family, if not simply linearly, are closely connected with each other. Low income families in comparison with their financial resources in general spend more money on their children than affluent families. At times when the budget is small, the fixed expenses in many households are spent for satisfying the children’s, not the adults’ needs. So far it is clear that market experts consider the market of children’s goods to be safe and relatively stable. “Bulletproof” is a concept that has spread to show that this market actually is resistant to economic crises because the parents’ love and pride do not restrict the resources spent on the children (Pugh 2009, 12).

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Methodology and course of the research In order to reach the aim of the research, the magazine “My Baby” was chosen as the research basis; its analysis allows exploring parenting in the family in different perspectives, explicitly showing how the topical trends of the consumer society influence parents’ competence to bring up children. The choice of the magazine as the mouth-piece of a significant discourse is justified by the theoretical thoughts about media as the translators of ideas. Mass media as the channels of interaction help people to construct their experience and schemes of culture (Rubene 2012), shaping their social ideas and viewpoints and influencing their everyday behaviour, forming and replicating ideas, opinions, judgments, norms, values and thus philosophically, didactically and ethically (ƶestere and ƖƷƯte 2012) regulating the public thought. Social viewpoints develop through communication, integrating new knowledge (Moscovici 1981). Social viewpoints mean “the body of notions, viewpoints, statements, explanations that are formed in the interpersonal communication in everyday life situations, and in modern society they are the equivalent of the traditional societal myths and beliefs” (Moscovici 1981, 181). Perception and self-assessment can and also does influence the objective processes in the lives of the individuals (Veenhoven 2010). It is the information expressed by media that has become one of the most important texts in modern culture – media as a text shapes the ideological network. Different media that are characteristic to one or another society take over the consumers’ consciousness and thus the society as a whole. Media hand over to consumers the schemes, values, ideas of culture and thus define public opinion (Rubene 2012). Therefore, media can be considered a significant translator of information in popularising the educational value (Medne 2012). Thus, it leads to the conclusion that pedagogical literature, both scientific and popular scientific, voicing and analysing topical trends influence the social viewpoints of parents, teachers and members of society about the statements of pedagogy at the same time influencing the practice of upbringing. The magazine “My Baby” can be considered a significant agent of the parenting discourse; according to the type of source and the target group of readers content-wise it can be compared in dynamics of time and consecutively it comprises the time period set within the limit of the research. 240 issues and 8432 content units of the article titles of the magazine “My Baby” have been chosen for the analysis. The magazine has been published since 1994 and it is still published. Initially it was published 4–6 times a year, but since 1997 it has been published once a

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month. “My Baby” is a stable illustrated popular scientific publication, a significant mouth-piece of the discourse of family pedagogy. The publisher of the magazine, “Santa”, has remained unchanged since the first issue. The price of the magazine is considered accessible to families with children with medium income. The source cannot be classified as professional pedagogical periodicals but more positioned as the magazine of parents’ life style, marking parallels with the magazines of male and female life styles that have gained attention in the media area (Veinberga 2010). The mission of the publication is “to reveal the child’s world starting with quite practical things and finishing with psychological discussions”, which can be implemented by passing the narrative to the potential target audience, both mothers and fathers, “contemporary parents”. The announcement of the magazine’s idea includes the appeal “to seek ways how to combine more successfully the desires of the personality with the mother’s mission” as well as the appeal, which is characteristic to the 90s of the 20th century, to treat together “the role of a devoted father in the family” (Vasile 1994), namely, to discuss from different viewpoints the components of the parents’ competence of parenting. The study uses a qualitative approach applying the methodology of content analysis and discourse analysis that allow comparing analytically and descriptively the thematic diversity expressed in the narratives of the magazine “My Baby”. Considering the bulk of data to be processed, the linguistic analysis of the titles of articles of the magazine “My Baby” has been performed in the qualitative data processing programme QSR NVivo 11. Several functional advantages determined the choice of the computer programme for performing the research: (1) it offers automatising the initial analysis of the data and at later stages of analysis to adjust them manually to the essence of the idea. This allows summarising and systematising the qualitative data easily using a simple content analysis, identifying the most frequently used words, the context and meaning of their usage; (2) it automatically filters methodologically precisely and in a short period of time large-volume data in different cross-sections and contexts thus considerably increasing their analysis and making it more objective; (3) the computer programme saves sequentially the history of commands, allowing the researcher to manage meaningfully the course of coding and analysis (Bazeley and Jackson 2013; Bryman 2016). Data processing and analysis have been implemented on several levels: (1) the content units of the titles of the publication have been imported in the NVivo file, the open coding has been performed sequentially; initially 3000 word frequency has been set up, then according to the proportion of

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the weighted frequency 184 words and 50 of them key words (codes) that in the content characterise the key codes of consumption have been identified and selected; (2) the hierarchical coding-grouping has been performed in order to define the mutually thematically interrelated key words and their groups, the frequency of their usage and mutual contextual meanings that reveal the essence of the content of the research focus ‘consumption’; (3) based on the code structure developed in the content analysis, the content has been interpreted and mutual connections have been explored in depth in the articles themselves in order to verify the content meanings of the titles and the validity of the identified tendencies. To perform the linguistic content analysis of the narratives of the magazine “My Baby”, the key codes evocative of the primary content associations and connected with consumerism – buy, sell, and test – were selected. Each code (that is offered by the NVivo 11 programme) in the context analysis in the secondary selection was scrutinised regarding the correspondence of the respective codes to the aim of the research, namely, whether this code was connected with the context of consumerism.

Research findings Research findings are presented in Table 1 which gives insight into the most frequently used words in the text, the number of text units, the frequency of each word (how many times it is mentioned in the text) and the weighted percentage of the word that indicates the frequency of the word in relation to the whole text. Table 1. Most frequently identified words Word

Length

Count

Weighted Percentage (%)

Child

5

312

4.38

Things

6

85

1.19

testing

5

80

1.12

informing

7

66

0.93

in fashion

5

56

0.79

practical

9

39

0.55

latest

8

37

0.52

Toys

11

32

0.45

Ideas

6

29

0.41

Narratives of Consumerism in Parenting Purse

6

26

0.36

for babies

8

23

0.32

presents

7

21

0.29

Toy-

10

21

0.29

Christmas

12

15

0.21

for the Baby

7

14

0.20

choice

6

14

0.20

new

7

14

0.20

festive

6

14

0.20

pampers

13

13

0.18

Books

8

13

0.18

expectant

9

11

0.15

Clothing

5

11

0.15

we are looking for

8

10

0.14

play-

6

10

0.14

present

6

9

0.13

holidays

6

7

0.10

in the shop

7

7

0.10

Underwear

5

7

0.10

Footwear

5

6

0.08

Balls

6

6

0.08

for the Baby

5

6

0.08

for the toddlers

8

6

0,08

Fashion

4

6

0.08

we buy

6

6

0.08

319

The most frequently used words are a child, things, testing, informing, in fashion, practically, latest, toys. The word child is used with a marked proportion of the prevalence frequency (the weighted percentage is 4.38). The frequency of using the word child naturally points to the target audience of the magazine “My Baby”. The frequency of using this word has been given to show vividly its proportional size in comparison with other words in the text. The frequent use of the words things and testing indicates the content that is often connected with the consumption

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perspective. This tendency is strengthened by the frequent use of other words that are also connected with consumption, for example, in fashion, practically, latest, toys, etc. There are several words among those frequently used words that can be linked to the factors influencing the parents’ choice, for example, ideas, choice, new, present, festivals, party, clothes, etc. However, the distribution of the frequency of words allows only presuming but does not allow drawing conclusions about the connection with other words and the choice factors of the consumer goods. For this particular reason, activities were performed in the programme in order to find out the distribution of the mutual connection of the most frequently used words; a scheme was developed that reflects the mutual connections in thematic blocks. The developed scheme points to two blocks of mutual connection of words in which the arrangement of words shows the subordination of connections between them. The common scheme developed in the programme in relation to the most frequently used word child is given as an example. For better visual portrayal, the scheme of the programme is manually narrowed to four blocks of mutual connection. Table 2. Distribution of the mutual connection of the most frequently used words

things

fashion practical

testing child

latest informing toys

Christmas pampers books clothes expectant we are looking for playing

The blocks of the mutual connections of words (their sequence is made according to their mutual subordination) comprise the following words: things, testing, informing. This indicates the fact that the focus is on the consumer activity: evaluating the things and informing about those that are meant for the target audience. The second block of the mutual connection of words is Things that are connected with fashion and practical usage. Words in the block of mutual connection Testing are connected with practical, latest. Words in the block of mutual connection Informing are connected with latest, toys. Most frequently, information is a resource for making the choice. This includes features and/or factors that influence the person’s ability to

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operate with information and impacts the choice as a result. After analysing the contextual meaning of the blocks of mutual connection of words, it is possible to conclude that the word testing can refer both to services and goods but it informs about the goods.

Conclusions Analysing theoretical literature and the only magazine in Latvia with parents as the target audience “My Baby”, it is possible to conclude that key relationships: parents’ competence to bring up children – the development of children’s personality, including their agency – media in their historical, topical, general and individual scope are to be looked upon as the interaction between the risks of the consumer society because consumption is the integrating medium of the whole society and all generations and shapes the parenting context in the family. Thus, the consumer society in the context of shaping the child’s personality is viewed both as the time and space of experience and possibilities. The rapid consumption in all strata of society where the offer (goods and services) is largely identical both for the children and adults causes a reduction in the distance between the past and the future which results in the fact that the “superiority” of knowledge and adviser’s competence of the older generation that is based on the experience decreases and the parents-children (adults-children) relations are explained with the help of mutual learning. The magazine “My Baby” is an informative agent influencing the consumer’s (parents’, indirectly children’s) choice and the following thematic aspects can be identified in its consumer narratives: accessibility and functionality. The fashion artefacts of the consumer society that exist in the market and which are offered by the magazine “My Baby” can be segmented in the following blocks: -

developing and educational (different games, interest groups promoting the children’s development), practically domestic (clothing, care and cleaning), entertainment (presents, joint possibilities of recreation).

The offer of the magazine “My Baby” defines the frame of parents’ choice but parents themselves make the choice which is worth further research, expanding the scenarios of how parents actually make their choice.

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These conclusions encourage asking several questions that are intrinsic for pedagogy science: (1) does the consumer society put forward some specific tasks for parenting? (2) How does the fast invasion of the consumer society expand parents’ competence to bring up children? (3) What are the ideals of parenting in the context of the consumer society? (4) How should parents use the possibilities offered by the consumer society to overcome the challenges created and influenced by it?

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Moscovici, Serge. 1981. "On social representations." In: Social Representations, edited by R. Farr and S. Moscovici. 181-210. Cambridge: Cambridge University press. Pugh, Allison. 2009. Longing and Belonging. Parents, children, and consumer culture, 5–12. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 2009. Riesman, David (zus. Mit Denney R. und Glazer N.). 1958 [1950]. Die einsame Masse. Eine Untersuchung zum Wandel des amerikanischen Sozialcharakters. Reinbeck: Rowohlt. Riesman, David (zus. Mit Roxborough H.). 1973 [1955]. Laufbahnen und Konsumverhalten. In: Wohlstandwofür? edited by D. Riesmann, 17-49. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. Rubene, Zanda. 2013. "HomoMedialiskƗ izpƝtes fenomens pedagoƧiskajƗ antropoloƧijƗ." In: LU raksti. PedagoƧija un skolotƗju izglƯtƯba. 781. sƝjums. Atb. red. KoƷe, T., KaƺƷe, B., 10–17. RƯga: LU akadƝmiskais apgƗds, 2012. Schrage, Dominik. 2006. "Überlegungen zum Zusammenhang von Konsum und Massenkultur." In: Karl-Siegbert Rehberg (Hrsg) Soziale Ungleichheit – Kulturelle Untershiede. Verhandlungendes 32. Kongresses der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Soziologiein München 2004. 437.-449. Frankfurt am Main und NewYork: Campus, 2006. Schülein, Johann August. 2002. Die Geburt der Eltern, 159.-306. Gieȕen: Psychosozial Verlag, 2002. Siegrist, Hannes. "Konsum, Kultur und Gesellschaft im modern Eiropa." In: Europäische Konsumgeschichte. Zur Gesellschafts - und Kulturgeschichte des Konsums (18. Bis 20. Jahrhundert). Siegrist, H., Kaelbe, H., Kocka, J. (Hrsg.). 13.-48. Frankfurt am Main uns New York: Campus, 1998. Vasile, RudƯte. Redaktora sleja (Editor’s Column) In: Mans Mazais. Nr. 1, 1.–2. RƯga: Santa, 1994. Veenhoven, Ruut. 2010. How universal is happiness? In: International differences in well-being, edited by Diener E., Helliwell J. F., Kahneman D. 328-350. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Veinberga, Sandra. 2010. Mediju misija. Preses attƯstƯbas tendences LatvijƗ pƝc valsts neatkarƯbas atjaunošanas (1990 – 2010). RƯga: Zvaigzne ABC. Vonderau, Asta. 2010. Leben im ‘neuen Europa’. Konsum, Lebensstile und Körpertechniken im Postsozialismus. Bielefeld: Transcript.

CHAPTER TWENTY FOUR GAME IN PEDAGOGICAL PILOT ACTIVITY FOR PRE-SCHOOL AGE CHILDREN WITH PHONETIC – PHONEMATIC INSUFFICIENCY ILZE VILKA

Abstract Spoken and written language is a primary tool of human communication. The development of speech and language is very important for children’s psychological development. Disorders of phonological perception are very complicated and require serious and patient intervention work. At the age 5 - 6 play and games are the main activities, in children, where they acquire knowledge, practical skills attitudes and their own life experience. Keywords: games, phonological perception, plays, preschool, intervention.

Introduction Language is a primary tool for human communication, however, language is not inherent therefore, a child must learn it in a relatively short period of time, like other things in life, such as walking or crawling. The development of speech and language is influenced by many factors: physical, social, emotional, cognitive development, as well as national characteristics, beliefs and principles in a particular country. Language performs a generalising, regulatory and communicative function, thus, it plays a very important role in a child's psychological development. With language, human beings can accomplish generalisation, comparison, analysis and synthesis capacity functions. First, children learn sounds, syllables, words and then, thanks to words, thoughts arise. Language and thoughts are a whole and they cannot exist without each other. By developing and improving a child's language, emotions and

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intellect develop, which are needed for further training and work. Speech and language disorders can be expressed in different forms – disturbed and insufficient vocabulary, problems with grammar due to language development delay, as well as insufficiency in phonological processes. In the theoretical part of the research, the author has analysed the theoretical aspects of language and speech, its role in a child’s development and impact on speech disorders. Attention is devoted to mistakes related to impaired phonological perception. In the empirical part, the author describes her practical research activities in pre-school education institutions by using games, which are based on findings obtained in the theoretical part. This research aims to theoretically and practically analyse, evaluate and update the role of games in promoting the phonemic perception of children at the senior preschool age the age of 5 - 6 years. Research tasks include: • • • •

analysing the scientific literature on the research topic. establishing criteria for children with phonological disabilities research and making an initial evaluation. verifying and confirming the effectiveness of game for children with phonological disabilities in intervention re-evaluating phonological processes in children after intervention, summarising and analysing the results.

Research methods include theoretical analysis of scientific literature and sources as well as empirical exploration of children's speech (emphasising examination of phonemic perception), observation, and practical work with children.

Background Pre-school age is the most intensive developmental period. The number of children with speech and language disorders is rapidly increasing in the world, including Latvia. According to the Central Statistical Bureau on preventive examinations of children (aged 3-14) "On the health condition of children", the results showed that 11,180 children had language disorders in 2015, and 11,832 children in 2016 (The statistics of health care, 2017). The structure of speech disorders has become more complex and complicated year by year. Articles provided on the website of the National Centre for Education: Methodological recommendations on the assessment of a child's

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achievements at the preschool (Valsts izglƯtƯbas satura centrs, 2011) and A Child at the age of six: from a game to education (the National Centre for Education, 2011), state that the child must obtain the ability to collaborate, speak, listen and distinguish different sounds of speech and in nature before starting school. The ability to collaborate, communicate and understand what is said is important in enabling the child to get involved in the learning process, to acquire new knowledge, to express the attitude to surrounded things, and to be able to discuss them. All these activities have the most direct impact on the development of speech and language. Advanced language and good communication skills are the key to success in life. If someone has poor language, or has communication problems of a different nature, it can seriously affect his/her relationship with others (Plaude 2009). Starting school, the child must have literacy and reading skills, and the level of the child's phonemic perception is the most important prerequisite for developing these skills, which significantly influences the process of a child's successful schooling. Aleksandrova notes that children with underdeveloped phonemic perception are not ready for school in a proper way (Ⱥɥɟɤɫɚɧɞɪɨɜɚ 2005). Sometimes there is no uniform interpretation of game and play concepts in pedagogical and psychological literature: game and play are used as synonyms when describing different activities in children (playing games – for example: checkers, circus or memory game; the second explanation - playing (it means playing with dolls, role play or jump rope) (Dzintere and Stangaine 2007). Pre-school age children are active, frank, spontaneous, curios and insistent, and game and play are the best activities for children to gain an experience (Ɋɭɛɢɧɲɬɟɣɧ, 2000). Although different terms are used: game, play, gaming, playing, there is a significant difference between game and play (play with creative elements but game with defined structure and goal). During the game players set goal for their activity, but during the play, goal is not raised. During play, the process is important, but during a game both - process and the goal (KƗposta 1993). The author of this study uses the concept of “game”, because the process and the goal are very important in corrective developmental work in speech therapy. Importance of phonological perception in speech and language development. Childhood is a special period characterised by peculiar activities, values, feelings, thinking and language. In early childhood, when the child has just begun speaking, one of the most important tasks is the development of hearing and speech. Auditory attention is the ability to react and focus on the various sounds and noises of the surrounding world,

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as well as the ability to distinguish the direction they came from. As experience expands, the ability to distinguish sound and noise sources develops more and more (ŠƝnveilers and Ptoks 2001). A human’s voice also belongs to the sounds of the surrounding world. When hearing a person's speech, a child who has adequate developed hearing focuses on the speaker and concentrates on the content of the speech. The phonematic hearing itself provides the ability to distinguish human speech from all surrounding sounds and noises, as well as to perceive and understand the meaning of the speech. Hearing attention and speech hearing development are closely related to the development of phonemic perception. Phonemic hearing develops along with language and speech, as they are closely interconnected. The phonemic hearing, later also phonemic perception, is formed and developed at preschool age when the correct speech and sound pronunciation develop most rapidly (Tnjbele 2008). KalniƼa and Skrube indicate that auditory attention develops together with the child’s development in entirety. The main components of auditory processes are developing unevenly therefore at the beginning attention should be paid to develop auditory attention (KalniƼa and Skrube 1983). The oldest pre-school age, 5 – 6 years of age, is defined as the optimum age for phonematic cognitive training and the development of sound perception. The majority of children at this age all mother tongue sounds pronounce correctly and phonological perception is developed. However, not all children have reached an appropriate level of speech development and it would affect all child’s psychic processes – memory, attention, coordination loses accuracy, slow work pace and ability (Tnjbele 2002). Some Latvian speech sounds change while speaking and phonemic perception helps to recognise the sound in different positions and options. One of the most important and complex stages in the development of a child is the acquisition of speech (Vilka 2014). Well-developed phonemic perception is important for the development of a child's speech and language. With a fully developed phonemic perception, the child will be able to participate in the learning process fully and without worries. S. Tnjbele points out that if phonemic perception is not developed or it has not developed sufficiently, the child begins to experience difficulties in acquiring letters. The child mixes letters with similar pronunciation (Tnjbele 2008). Phonological disorder is a complex disorder and intervention requires significant and patient work. Phonematic perception is underdeveloped, particularly regarding differentiation, which is very close to the pronunciation and acoustic characteristics; namely, a child confuses voiced and unvoiced

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consonants, hard and soft consonants, sibilants, long and short vowels (MiltiƼa and Pastare 1995). The phonemic perception of children develops gradually during the process of speech development (ɉɪɚɜɞɢɧɚ, 1973). The requirements for language acquisition are too fast, the necessary skills are exaggerated therefore children with underdeveloped phonemic perception start feeling dislike towards the learning process at compulsory schools (Tnjbele, 2006). At the age of 5 to 6, a pre-school institution implements a compulsory school preparation programme. At this age, children begin to learn reading and writing, and the most important precondition for the successful acquisition of these processes is a conducive development of speech and language and a proper phonemic perception is one of the main requirements to implement it. The content and the role of game/play in the improvement process of phonological perception. A game is an integral part of childhood. The child and the game are connected very tightly, because the game creates joy, gives energy, and supports the development of the child (Zhuhadar et. al 2016; Elison and Grey 1996). While playing, listening to the speech of adults and getting to know the world around them, children learn and improve their vocabulary through imitation, and promote speech activity. Through game child learns how to fit in a society, acquire and adapt to its accepted norms, and at the same time he is enrichening mental and emotional culture (Lnjse, MiltiƼa, and Tnjbele 2012, 316). The game plays an important role in the social and psychological development of children. It strengthens not only children's mental and physical development but also teaches children to take risks, dare, solve problems, promotes imagination, creativity and independence. Playing is as natural as breathing for children. It is a universal expression of children that overcomes differences in nationalities, language and other cultural aspects (Schaefer and Drewes 2010, 3). Teachers, psychologists, and philosophers have described and explained the importance of the game in the development process for children. The term "game" is not a scientific concept, more precisely, it is not scientifically substantiated enough. Already in the last century, representatives of various fields of science have sought to explore, define and describe the concept of "a game", but acknowledged that the exact explanation for the term "game" is impossible. Dunn points out that the game is play with rules that determine the beginning and the end of the game, and prescribes whether the course of the game will be changeable. The predictability of the game makes it easy to capture and understand it, as the child already predicts his/her expectations (Dunn 1991).

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The game is a creative activity with special techniques and rules, which has a developing and entertaining character (Skujina et al. 2000, 162). The game is a material activity with educational, entertaining character and the content of it fosters child’s development. The game is intellectually oriented, it requires a certain degree of preparedness (Golubina 2007). Analysing the ideas of different authors about the game (Dzintere and Stangaine 2007, Golubina 2007, KƗposta 1993, Schaefer and Drewes 2010, Dunn 1991 and et al), the author of this paper concludes that game is an important part of a child's development. The game and play are an integral part of a child's life. The game is a gradual and peculiar transition from playing to a learning activity, which includes new and interesting elements and solutions. In the context of the given research, the author of the research has defined the term “game” as a purposefully planned and managed activity based on the child's previous skills and abilities in order, to promote a well-developed personality. In a game, children acquire new knowledge and learning to use in practice. During the game, the child's physical, intellectual, emotional and social development is ensured. Each time the child engages in the activity, the brain’s nerve cells are stimulated. The process of playing develops fine and gross motor skills, language and speech development, listening skills and attention, awareness, emotional well-being, creativity, draws the child's attention to problem solving. While playing, children get to know their environment by practicing in different, repetitive actions. Schiller indicates that a person develops through a game (Schiller 1794). Froebel says that the game is the highest phase of the child’s development because human being is developing through game and representing his internal needs and incentives (Froebel 1907, 54). Rubinstein says that game sometimes is meaningless and necessary at the same time, but in spite, of this statement he assures that the game is one of the most important aspects of life (Ɋɭɛɢɧɲɬɟɣɧ 2000). Vygotsky indicates that there are special needs and incentives in pre-school age and these incentives are spontaneously in the game (Vygotsky 1966). A game is an activity with special rules and techniques, a set of particular actions that seeks to achieve the desired result. To achieve the results, specific knowledge, skills or coincidence of circumstances are used. Speech and language therapists, teachers also parents are using the game to develop language learning process, speech and creative abilities (SkujiƼa et al. 2011, 84). There are many simple games that can be played to develop speech and language indirectly. They can be played in a car while driving to

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kindergarten or when you are at a park or at the supermarket. In order, to develop speaking and language skills, there is no need for a special designed environment. A child needs a loving and understanding society with clear and correct language. Vygotsky points out that needs and impulses arise at pre-school age and they are spontaneous and could be pleased through game (Vygotsky 1966).

Research organisation, materials and methods Research was carried out in mainstream kinder-garden with fifty 5 – 6 years old pre-schoolers. In order, to start corrective development activities, an examination of the development of a child’s phonemic perception was performed. The criteria and indicators of the phonemic perception were determined by the author of this paper (table 1), grades were set and the assessment indicators were explained. Table 1: Testing criteria and indicators of phonological perception in children (Vilka, 2017)

Criteria Phonological apprehension Phonematic analysis

Phonematic synthesis

Indicators 1. Syllabic row repetition 2. Word naming with a particular sound 3. Acoustically similar word naming 4. Word naming with a specific number of sounds 1. Division of words into syllables 2. Short and long vowel differentiation 3. First and last sound determination 4. Determine sound sequence in word 1. Forming syllable from sounds 2. Forming word from syllable 3. Compound word formation 4. Generalization

Twelve tasks were included in the speech evaluation. Due to the limited size of article description of the tasks is not included. During the phonological perception verification, 48 points were maximum obtainable score, till 26 points - minimum (4 points was determined as maximum obtainable, 1 point as minimum for each task). The author of the research identified four ratings:

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4 points - a child’s task is carried out independently; 3 points - a child’s task is performed with the aid; 2 points - a child’s task is carried out with difficulty; 1 point - a child’s is unable to perform the task. In the same way, the author of the research identified the following evaluation indicators of phonological perception: 45 – 48 points – for all tasks - phonological perceptual disorders have not been identified; 37– 44 points – mild level of phonological awareness; 27 – 36 points – moderate level of phonological awareness; 0 – 26 points – low level of phonological awareness; Examination of the development of a child’s phonemic perception was performed two times - at the beginning and at the end of this research. The results of the initial phonological perception evaluation showed, that 34 children phonological perception disturbance were not identified, consequently, sixteen 5-6-year-old children with phonological impairment were involved in the research. The research intervention sought to develop phonematic concepts, phonematic analysis and phonematic synthesis. The impact of the game on the development of a child's phonemic perception was evaluated. It is important to include elements of play and a game while making developmental tasks for children of pre-school age. When improving a child's speech and language development (in this case the development of phonemic perception), the speech therapist or certain speech therapy exercises will not be enough. Exercises should be interesting and creative. The use of the elements of the game in speech therapy ensures a positive atmosphere, allows children to release emotionally and take on initiatives during the game. Each chosen game has a specific goal and specific tasks that the child must follow, therefore the game forces the child to concentrate and mobilise for activity. Although each child has the potential to play, some children need the teacher's help in explaining the tasks and rules of the game. 12 games were included in developmental remedial intervention. The selection of the games was based on the following criteria: age appropriate, interesting for children and educational. Each chosen game has defined and specific targets: games for phonological apprehension, phonematic analysis and phonematic synthesis (Table 2).

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Table 2: Games for phonological perception improvement (Vilka, 2017)

Game

Phonological apprehension

Phonematic analysis

Phonematic synthesis

x Be careful! x Remember the arrangements! x Listen to the word! x Listen, found, take! x Listen to the hand flap! x What sounded? x Vowel children. x Who is a better listener? y Find the friend! y Create a new word! y Guess the word! y Tell me, what it is!

The aim of all the games is to improve the skills of the child: x name words with a certain sound x name words with a specific number or sounds x determine word sound composition x determine the sound sequence in word y unite separate component to wholeness (syllable from sounds, word from syllable, et cetera).

Due to the limited size of article description of the games is not included. On the basis, of the criteria, laid down by the study's author, children’s phonematic perception was evaluated before and after the intervention and comparative date are given in figure 2. At the beginning of the intervention process, the phonological awareness in children was evaluated and stated by the criteria worked out by author. Evaluation in September 2016 showed that in five children impairment of phonological awareness was at a low stage; in eleven children impairment of phonological impairment was at a moderate stage. Repeated evaluation in April 2017 revealed that all children developed their phonological awareness and this means that the games used by the author are an effective instrument to improve phonological awareness.

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Conclusions Before sstarting the prrocess of corrrectional deveelopment of phonemic p perception aaccording to the t criteria deeveloped by thhe author of the t study, the degree oof severity off phonemic peerception disoorders for chilldren was identified annd determinedd. The resultss of the initiaal survey of phonemic p perception iin Septemberr 2016 showeed that 5 chilldren had a phonemic p perception ddisorder correesponding to a low degree; 11 children showed s a moderate deegree of phonemic perceptiion disorder. T The results off repeated phonemic pperception colllected in Aprril 2017 indiccated that alll children involved inn the study improved their t phonem mic perceptio on, thus, confirming that the gam mes used by author are an effective tool for promoting pphonemic percception. At each stage of life, the attitude to owards gamess is different, however, at the age off 5 – 6 years: x the ggame is seriouus work in which the childd lives on hiss/her own termss and is the booss of his/her activities a and behaviour; x the ggame is a chaallenge because you can pplay with your friends, choose what gamees to play; where and how w to play – eiither in a room m or outside, silently s or lou udly, seriouslyy or funny, with w effort or eff ffortlessly;

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x games change as children grow, they become more serious, longer, more complicated, more meaningful; x development of phonemic perception is very important for the child's development in general; x elements of the game contribute to perfection of phonemic perception, they create an emotionally favourable environment, develop the imagination, promote confidence and abilities, allow children to take initiative; x development of phonemic perception significantly promotes successful learning at school for a child; x during the game, the child improves new and already acquired skills, enriches the perceptions of life and its legitimacy, gets experience, analyses and interprets situations and events. The game is an instrument that has an educational, corrective and developing character. Games are important at the age of 5 – 6 years. Nevertheless, a game is the primary activity at the pre-school age and the result of this activity is the development of the child.

Summary Throughout the research process, the intervention had the following aims: phonematic concept development, phonematic analysis and phonematic synthesis. It was established that the game has an impact on the child's phonological awareness. Sixteen 5-6-year-old children with phonological impairment were involved in the research. Introductory intervention was organised as individual session. Later the intervention was constructed as a group work, or work in pairs, where child, rather than the speech therapist, was put as the leader of the game. At the start of the intervention, author developed a list of criteria for the phonological awareness in children to be evaluated. Evaluation in September 2016 revealed that in five children deterioration of phonological awareness was at a low level; in eleven children deterioration of phonological deterioration was at a middle level. After April 2017 when repeated evaluation was held, all children had expanded their phonological awareness, meaning that the game is an efficient tool for improvement in phonological awareness. Poorly developed phonological awareness may cause and encourage deterioration of speech sound pronunciation, negatively influence the possibility to comprehend sound analysis and, later, on interfere with procurement of writing and reading. Through games children are promoted

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in phonological awareness and inspired to act. They feel the sense of achievement and satisfaction with the work that is done. Furthermore, at the same time, cognitive processes and mechanisms are being developed. There are several aspects for games – developmental, communicative and educational. At different ages, there is also a different attitude and perception towards the game. In childhood, when the child lives with his/her own rules, controlling his/her own actions, the game is serious work and plays an important role in his/her development. In childhood, the game is an open challenge, where a child can choose and make decisions about different aspects of the process, such as, if it is possible to play with others, what type of game it is, if it is serious or silly, active or more passive, as well as the time and place for the game. The course of playing games changes throughout childhood, as it becomes more deliberate, complex fundamental. With the help of the game, the child is practicing his/her attitudes and abilities, consolidating and working on further development for already existing skills, acquiring new ones, enriching wisdom and life experience, analysing and construing various situations, environments and events. Considering statements of psychologists and pedagogues, it is clear, that the game has a crucial and significant role in a child's development. There are numerous types of games – adventurous, strategical, active, social, individual, communicative, encouraging, educational, imaginary, etc. It is important not to forget that the game is a tool with an educational and developmental character. Child has to play in childhood, to learn at school – to be successive human being at adulthood. Each stage of development is characterized with their own specific qualities and main type of action in pre-school children is game. Using game in the intervention process – the result will be – positive language development, and especially – improvement of phonological awareness.

References Dunn, O. 1991. Beginning English with Young Children. London: MacMillan. Dzintere, D. and I. Stangaine. 2007. Rotaƺa – bƝrna dzƯvesveids. RƯga: RaKa. Elisone, Š. and Dž. Greja. 1996. 365 radošo spƝƺu dienas bƝrniem no 2 gadu vecuma. RƯga: Iljus. Froebel, F. 1907. Education of man. p. 40 – 93. Accessed April 1 http://catalog.hathitrust.org (Haiti trust Digital Library).

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Golubina, V. 2007. Pirmsskolas skolotƗja rokasgrƗmata. RƯga: IzglƯtƯbas soƺi. KalniƼa, V. and Dz. Skrube. 1983. Pirmsskolas vecuma bƝrnu valodas attƯstƯšanas metodika. RƯga: Zvaigzne. KƗposta, I. 1993. DidaktiskƗ spƝle kƗ skolƝnu mƗcƯbu motivƗcijas veidotƗjs faktors. RƯga: Latvijas UniversitƗte. Lnjse, J., MiltiƼa I. and S. Tnjbele. 2012. LogopƝdijas terminu skaidrojošƗ vƗrdnƯca. RƯga: RaKa. MiltiƼa, I. and S. Pastare. 1995. Pirmie soƺi logopƝdijƗ. RƯga: IZGLƮTƮBAS ATTƮSTƮBAS INSTITNjTS. Plaude, A. 2009. BƝrns starp pieaugušajiem. RƯga: Zvaigzne ABC. Schaefer, C. E. and A. Drewes. 2010. The Therapeutic Powers of Play and Play. In: Therapy School Based Play Therapy. Ed. Drewes, Athena A and Schaefer Charles E. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc p. 3 -17. Schiller, Friedrich J. C. 1794. Letters upon the Aesthetic Education of man. Accessed March 20.2017. http;//www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/schiller-education.html (Modern History Sourcebook). ŠƝnveilers, R. and M. Ptoks. 2001. Foniatrija un pedagoƧiskƗ audioloƧija. RƯga: Rasa ABC. SkujiƼa, V., Beƺickis, I., Blnjma, D., KoƷe, T. and A. Blinkena. 2000. PedagoƧijas terminu skaidrojošƗ vƗrdnƯca. RƯga: Zvaigzne ABC. SkujiƼa, V., Anspoka, Z., KalnbƝrziƼa, V. and A. Šalme. 2011. Lingvodidaktikas terminu skaidrojošƗ vƗrdnƯca. RƯga: Latviešu valodas aƧentnjra. Tnjbele, S. 2002. SkolƝna runas attƯstƯbas vƝrtƝšana. RƯga: Raka. —. 2006. JaunƗko klašu skolƝnu runas un valodas traucƝjumu noteikšana un korekcijas iespƝjas. RƯga: Latvijas UniversitƗte. —. 2008. Disleksija vai lasƯšanas traucƝjumi. RƯga: RaKa. Valsts izglƯtƯbas satura centrs. 2011. BƝrns sešu gadu vecumƗ: no rotaƺƗm lƯdz mƗcƯbƗm. Accessed March 15.2017 www.visc.gov.lv VeselƯbas ekonomikas centrs. 2017. VeselƯbas aprnjpes statistika. Accessed May 16.2017 http://www.spkc.gov.lv/veselibas-aprupes-statistika / Vilka, I. 2014. FonemƗtiskƗs uztveres pilnveidošana pirmsskolas vecuma bƝrniem ar fonƝtiski fonemƗtiskiem traucƝjumiem. RƯga: Latvijas UniversitƗte. Vygotsky, Lev. 1966. Play and its role in the Mental Development of the Child. Accessed April 12.2017. https://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky/ .../play.htm

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Zhuhadar, L., Coleman, P. and S. Marklin. "Applicative Personalized Learning: How Gamification is Driving Learning," International Journal of Knowledge Society Research 4: 7. doi:10.4018/IJKSR.2016100103 Ⱥɥɟɤɫɚɧɞɪɨɜɚ, Ɍ. ȼ. 2005. ɀɢɜɵɟ ɡɜɭɤɢ, ɢɥɢ Ɏɨɧɟɬɢɤɚ ɞɥɹ ɞɨɲɤɨɥɶɧɢɤɨɜ. ɋɚɧɤɬ-ɉɟɬɟɪɛɭɪɝ: Ⱦɟɬɫɬɜɨ-ɩɪɟɫɫ. ɉɪɚɜɞɢɧɚ, Ɉ. B. 1973. Ʌɨɝɨɩɟɞɢɹ. Ɇɨɫɤɜɚ: ɉɪɨɫɜɟɳɟɧɢɟ. Ɋɭɛɢɧɲɬɟɣɧ, ɋ. Ʌ. 2000. Ɉɫɧɨɜɵ ɨɛɳɟɣ ɩɫɢɯɨɥɨɝɢɢ. ɋɚɧɤɬ-ɉɟɬɟɪɛɭɪɝ: ɉɢɬɟɪ.

CHAPTER TWENTY FIVE THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE MEANING OF LEARNING BY STUDENTS AND SENIORS NOWADAYS MARTINS VEIDE

Abstract Taking into account that nowadays the focus in humanistic pedagogy is placed on the personal importance of the learning process and that the personal motivation to learn is closely linked to the understanding of the meaning of learning, the main aim of the article is to determine the understanding of the learning sense by Latvian students and seniors today. In order to get a better insight in students’ and seniors’ understanding of learning sense, a survey with one open question and one open-ended sentence was created. 307 students from five higher education institutions and 160 seniors with and without higher education from seven retirement homes and societies, as well as non-affiliated individuals in Latvian cities and countryside were invited to participate in the survey. Most students and most seniors considered learning to build an attitude towards other people and communication with them as the most important aspect. Important several concepts of the meaning of learning are self-development, living-learning, learning for work, satisfaction of interests, self-examination, knowledge learning and the satisfaction of self-esteem needs. The comparison of seniors and students’ answers gives an opportunity to evaluate the impact of life experience on the perceptions of people. Key words: meaning of learning, students, seniors, understanding, experience

Introduction In the 21st century, there is a contradictory sense of time, accompanied by a continuous evaluation and impetuous rush. In a democratic society, which is not subject to either theocracy or dictatorship, no one else other than the human being him/herself exposes oneself to continuous hard

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work, entertainment that does not provide fulfilment and permanent (although often latent) anxiety. Existentialists remind us about our relationship with time, inviting us to stop and reflect: what am I doing? What meaning does it have what I am doing? These issues are related to abiding to a certain balance to satisfy one’s own external and internal needs. The experience of time, which is individual, raises existential questions about personal choice and meaning in the context of learning. Parents with regards to the education of their children most often rely on the school system, whose ultimate goal is purely functional – in order to acquire certain skills and knowledge, so that he/she can become a good specialist. At school, indeed the pupil acquires knowledge in various subjects, which can help him/her later to compete. But the same cannot be said about the knowledge about oneself and about life, which are inseparable from the individual and are not subject to standard evaluation. Nowadays, teachers need to trade complex learning, teaching and research processes for a standard and easily measurable set of products (Ball 2007). When independent research and scientific discussions between scientists of different disciples are massively replaced with industry-oriented instructions, the university academic education idea is endangered (Rubene 2006). The reduction of the meaning of learning to obtain a practical result in order to move up the career ladder of political or business institutions can turn out to be too simplistic of a solution that does not take into account the unpredictability of life. Learning in all its diverse forms and processes tends to be hard to understand. Virtually all of our interactions with the world around us – with a person, object, phenomena or signs – are potentially a learning opportunity. When we are learning, for the most part we get to know something, acquire certain skills, learn something for life and something about learning itself. This is well reflected in the four dimensions of the learning concept, which Göhlich describes as historically systematic learning heuristic elements: knowledge-learning, abilities-learning, livinglearning and learning-learning (Göhlich and Zirfas 2007). The question of the meaning of personal learning raises the importance of self-learning in the context of the living-learning process, which makes it possible to live a more fulfilled life (Teilhard de Chardin 2008). Living learning and selflearning are also reflected in the UNESCO International Commission 21st century education pillar: learning to be (UNESCO Task Force 2017). A survey on the quality of life of Latvian citizens reveals a relatively low correlation between lifelong learning and the improvement of life quality. In addition, as the level of education increases, satisfaction with the quality of life by youth decreases (Bela- KrnjmiƼa et al. 2006). This

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raises the question of the importance of learning for improving one’s own life for both the younger generation and adults. Taking into account the average life expectancy and, hence, the increasing number of older but still able to work people, as well as mass migration of young people abroad, the opinion of students and seniors is topical in the context of both lifelong learning and a country’s human resource development. Motivation to learn is always closely linked to the understanding of the meaning of learning. The choice of sense, in turn, is always personal, subjective and free (Frankl 1967). This is consistent with the personal importance of the learning process, which is accentuated in humanistic pedagogy, which the scientific evidence of modern pedagogical process is based upon (Rutka 2012). Hence, the author puts forward the research aim: to determine the understanding of the learning sense by Latvian students and seniors today.

Methodology Perceptions about the sense of learning were explored by using two respondent groups. University students from the 2nd to 4th semester formed the first respondent group. Students, aged 20-24, from the law, mathematics, physics, medicine, psychology, pedagogy, sociology, English philology, computer science, graphic and interior design and entrepreneurship studies participated in the study. Students were selected using cluster random sampling method from five higher education institutions of Latvia. The total number of students participating in the survey was 307. 62% of all students were female. According to the central statistics bureau data, 61% of all students have been female in Latvia in the last 10 years (CentrƗlƗs statistikas pƗrvalde 2017). The second respondent group were seniors. Although in Latvia the average life expectancy among the EU Member States is the lowest, during the last 10 years it has continued to increase. The average age of dying has exceeded the limit of 70 years. Nevertheless for men, the average life expectancy is still under 70 years (Šulca 2016, 89). Therefore, for this respondent group, seniors aged 70 years or more were selected. According to the cluster random sample principle, seniors from seven retirement homes and societies, as well as non-affiliated individuals in Latvian cities and countryside were invited to participate in the survey. Overall, responses from 160 people, aged 70-95, were gathered. 80 of these respondents have higher education, 80 respondents secondary, professional, primary or incomplete primary education. 63% respondents are female. There are more female than male respondents due to the corresponding age group’s proportional division in Latvia. According to

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the Central Statistical Bureau data, 71% of all Latvian residents in the age group of 70 years or more are female (SpƗrƯte 2016, 8). 91% of respondents in this group are without a disability, that is, can live independently. In order to find out how seniors and students understand the sense of learning today, respondents were given questionnaires with one open question “What is the meaning to learn?” and one open-ended sentence “I believe that the most important thing that I have learned so far or that I still continue to learn in my life is…” When performing the content analysis of the forms, the learning sense concepts and their frequency were determined. Prior to the survey, respondents were informed about the objective of the study, the fact that participation in this survey is anonymous and voluntary and that respondents' answers would be used only in aggregate form. Oral informed consent was given during the meeting, when introducing the respondents with the survey questions. In addition to this information at the retirement homes, it was noted that the termination or refusal to participate in the study would have no adverse effects on the healthcare quality of the patients. In the student group, questionnaires were distributed at the beginning of a lecture. It took 7-10 minutes to fill these out. 100% of the questionnaires were returned and valid. In the senior group, respecting the respondents’ age and health condition, the respondents were given the opportunity to respond orally or write down the answers themselves. The wish of seniors to tell their life story and the challenges experienced in a narrative mode was respected. In some cases, in order to facilitate understanding, the interview was conducted in Russian. 192 seniors in total were approached, so 17% of the senior respondents refused to participate in the study.

Results and Discussions When collecting responses and the completed sentences in both respondent groups and when performing the content qualitative analysis, several concepts of the meaning of learning according to their motives could be determined. Frequency differences between the learning sense concepts as per the qualitative analysis based on the responses and completed sentences by both students and seniors are significant (a statistically significant difference between the frequencies according to the Ȥ2 test with p