Innovations for Metropolitan Areas: Intelligent Solutions for Mobility, Logistics and Infrastructure designed for Citizens [1st ed.] 9783662608050, 9783662608067

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Patrick Planing · Patrick Müller Payam Dehdari · Thomas Bäumer Eds.

Innovations for Metropolitan Areas Intelligent Solutions for Mobility, Logistics and Infrastructure designed for Citizens

Innovations for Metropolitan Areas

Patrick Planing • Patrick Müller Payam Dehdari • Thomas Bäumer Editors

Innovations for Metropolitan Areas Intelligent Solutions for Mobility, Logistics and Infrastructure designed for Citizens

Editors Patrick Planing HFT Stuttgart Stuttgart, Germany

Payam Dehdari HFT Stuttgart Stuttgart, Germany

Patrick Müller HFT Stuttgart Stuttgart, Germany

Thomas Bäumer HFT Stuttgart Stuttgart, Germany

ISBN 978-3-662-60805-0   ISBN 978-3-662-60806-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-60806-7 © Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer-Verlag GmbH, DE, part of Springer Nature. The registered company address is: Heidelberger Platz 3, 14197 Berlin, Germany

Foreword: Mobility-Innovations in Metropolitan Areas

Facing Change Mobility, as we used to know it, is changing: new vehicles are conquering the market, traffic is more interconnected, electro-mobility is growing, cities are becoming smarter and digitalisation is creating new forms of mobility. At the same time, awareness for climate justice and the need for clean and sustainable mobility is evolving. As such, it has never been more exciting to create new concepts concerning the future of our own mobility. This change is not without reason. First, every technical and intellectual evolution provides the opportunity to work on improving the status quo—after all, as it has been said, “There is no progress without change”. Furthermore, regarding our current mobility system, change is necessary. We know that there will be severe consequences if matters remain the same. This applies for both cities and rural areas. Especially in urban and metropolitan areas, modern streets are facing gridlock. After decades of neglecting public transportation and focussing primarily on increasing car traffic, missing alternatives and a slow process of rethinking mobility seem to be the problem. The emerging traffic congestions lead to noise, air pollution and stressful situations for all traffic users. In addition, with the ongoing and seemingly rapid climate change, we are facing the greatest challenge of the century. Traffic emissions play an essential role in making the situation worse, too. The good news is that, concerning the transport and mobility sector, a vast number of possibilities can enable change for a more environmentally and climate-friendly, affordable, economically efficient mobility that also preserves our quality of life. Nevertheless, change in the mobility system affects everyone in their daily life, and as such, many feel uncomfortable with suggested or imposed rearrangements of mobility patterns. Employees in the car industry, for instance, are concerned about

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their well-paid jobs. Regions depending highly on the automotive sector have discussed undergoing economic and social transformation towards new mobility and other vehicles. We have learned that this change is complex in nature. Therefore, it requires a clear ambition that has to turn into action now. Introducing New Mobility There is no uniform definition of the term “new mobility”. This concept often includes new possibilities via technological innovation, such as digital processes or electric engines. In addition, it can also cover a socially or ecologically motivated shift towards public transport, walking or biking. We interpret this as an assignment to all participants of traffic, including those driving a car, a bike or an E-Scooter, as well as those using public transportation or going by foot. New mobility does not happen by itself; it needs political support, regulation and investment on the local, regional and state levels. Moreover, it also demands reliable business models for the transportation providers and vehicle manufactures. New mobility represents a historical chance for a system change. Mobility is not just about moving people; it is linked to culture, leisure, work and meeting friends. For new concepts, linking different functions and a new method of doing things is necessary. As such, this requires new policies so that new mobility patterns can evolve. Since implementing new mobility is only beginning, we need experimental areas with densities that would enable more ambition in the forms of mobility with fewer cars. Cities and metropolitan areas offer the best conditions for developing and integrating innovations. They often possess an effective public transport sector and sufficient people to offer new mobility services by companies, the city or local initiatives. However, these services need to grow together and be more open. The affected stakeholders have to learn from each other, as well. Innovation often occurs at the interfaces and requires new tasks. Accordingly, we need people that are responsible for cooperation and overcome the borders of institutions and outdated regulations. In this context, we also have to consider the need for structural changes such as pricing signals and regulations on vehicles and streets. This will help to bring successful pilots into the status of the new normal. Make the Best out of Trends and Take the Chances Current trends can turn metropolitan areas into birthplaces of new mobility. However, implementing change requires time. Today, there are different areas in which we can act quickly, but we have to remain aware that allowing technologies to take the lead in transforming mobility by new business models will likely not lead

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towards an environmentally and socially intended situation. This can be illustrated in the following four topics: 1. Digital mobility On the one hand, digitalisation will allow better processes and easier access to intermodal alternatives to cars. On the other hand, it can also imply more delivery transports in both urban and rural areas, as well as a shift from public transport to cars. Therefore, providing access to mobility data for new services constitutes a relevant infrastructure. In addition, the rules in the transport market have to be readjusted to serve business opportunities and socially intended solutions as well. 2. Electric vehicles Electric cars are beginning to conquer parts of the automobile market. Each electric vehicle needs power, and the less power is needed, the better for the climate. Energy used for charging the vehicles has to be renewable in order to improve the ecological balance. Nevertheless, new mobility it is not just about changing the combustion engine into an electric one; it is primarily about needing fewer, smaller and more efficiently used cars in total. For some purposes, other vehicles could be used instead, such as electric bikes for goods and people. 3. Autonomous driving Implementing autonomous traffic into the existing traffic (within cities) represents a complex task. As of today, the focus of autonomous mobility should be on public transport. Autonomous public transport can likely offer a new quality of service. A professional operator can take care of the complex parameters that need to be taken into consideration. Furthermore, if autonomous driving will become reality in individual transport, this may lead to more traffic in the cities, even with empty cars. 4. Shared vehicles Pre-existing sharing systems demonstrate the pros and cons of the concept. Even the well-organised ones sometimes lack constant vehicle availability, especially in the city centre. Moreover, in many less dense suburban areas, there currently remains no economic business model for sharing solutions. Any effective sharing system needs priority space for parking the vehicles, whether cars, bikes or scooters. Car or ride pooling offers another possibility of shared transport. This often represents a convenient alternative for commuting into suburban or rural areas while also helping to reduce single-occupancy vehicles at the same time. These trends require framing to support politically intended developments. However, for a new mobility system, we have to keep in mind that the focus is not solely on the new and fancy options; existing solutions are still valid, and their uptake and improvement is more modern than ever.

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Improving What We Already Have Regarding change and trends, one often forgets about the alternatives that already exist. So, as we pursue the path of new mobility, we should ask ourselves how we can improve the existing mobility system. For instance, using public transport, such as buses, metros and trains, needs to become more attractive than other alternatives. The companies and municipalities could achieve this by assuring a reliable, highfrequented, modern, affordable and comfortable transport service. As for who owns the city, public space is for all people. Today, however, it is often largely used for private and commercial parking. Alterations in urban development should redistribute the public space into commonly used social spaces. Moreover, the existing distribution of street space appears to favour motorised traffic. Pedestrian and cycle traffic does not seem to receive nearly enough of what they need to evolve as an established part of city traffic. However, a city also depends on a smooth flow of goods and services, and so logistics and delivery always have to play a role in redesigning the streets and public spaces for new mobility. Overall, it is not a choice between building on the current state or inventing new trends; it is about combining the proven system with trends to evolve new mobility. Interconnection represents the key to future traffic mix. Especially in metropolitan areas, we assume that multi-use of spaces during the day, week or year will play an important role, as well as temporary solutions. This provides both flexibility during transformation and help to reinvent the cities to enable new mobility. It Is a Transformation! Every transformation features those who benefit and those who do not. However, it is not a gamble. We know that, in the end, more people will benefit than not. The groups that are afraid to suffer potential losses from such change are louder and more influential today. In this mindset, they may miss the opportunities needed to help design a better mobility system. Therefore, communication is important on all levels. This involves providing information about existing mobility solutions and building awareness for regulatory decisions. Social groups from the youth to the elderly will benefit from new mobility. They need to raise their voices in public and private debates. We also have to understand the fear of those that cannot continue their fossil-based mobility and related employment. However, these considerations should not stop the ongoing change. After all, every change offers opportunities, as well. In the transformation, many different stakeholders possess a role. Heading in the same direction would speed up the process, while underlying fundamental differences will slow down development. Besides common goals, financial and personal

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commitments are also relevant to make these opportunities for change visible in all regions, along with the different modes of transportation. 1. State New mobility represents a system change. Accordingly, we need to implement new policies for mobility patterns to evolve. These policies will be both formal and informal. Formal policies, such as regulations and pricing signals, are most relevant, but there remains a struggle for broad acceptance. Financial support for research, new and risky mobility business, and the efforts of cities and regions comprise additional formal policies. Policies that are more informal include moderation, support of local ideas, providing information and promoting good practices. 2. Mobility Business Especially in regions characterised by a strong automotive industry, this industry’s innovation potential is crucial and can offer opportunities to test other forms of mobility. To remain competitive, new business models and vehicles are relevant, while remaining with the old models is sustainable for neither the climate nor the industry. Many new players (e.g. with an IT background) are entering the market today, and public transport operators can also reconsider their role in an evolving mobility ecosystem. 3. Research There is no progress without research. We need certain analytical skills in order to understand new conditions and invent the technologies, activities and instruments necessary for new mobility. Collaborating with companies and institutions, as well as competition between research organisations, will help to ensure a broad range of new solutions. Evaluating also constitutes part of the research process and enables reflecting on whether new mobility solutions are efficient and effective. However, even more crucial today is consulting with numerous partners so as to upscale positive solutions by different stakeholders. 4. People Each decision made by every single traffic participant influences where the change will go and how quickly it will take place. Starting with daily routines, one has to decide about possible efficient, healthy and environmentally friendly travel modes and the right vehicle (e.g. for commuting to work, school or university). This involves deciding on whether it is necessary to own rather than use a transport vehicle, such as a car, bike or scooter. This also involves deciding where to live and whether long commuting distances can be avoided. Countless small and large decisions influence the future of mobility.

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5. Cities Cities constantly face new mobility options, such as larger cars or additional shared vehicles, or a demand for more bike routes. Mobility solutions represent an important aspect of urban development. Distributing public space for different traffic modes is also crucial for the evolving new mobility. Furthermore, there is a strong social component in how the urban environment is designed, since people with low income or health problems often depend on safe and secure walking conditions as well as available and affordable public transportation. Cities will play an increasing role as the facilitators and partners in mobility concepts. The solutions must fit the local conditions, but also respect the global goods. From Communication to Action There is a need for strategic dialogue between all stakeholders. Within different regions, already established institutionalised collaboration enables moving closer towards a common understanding of the needs and contributions of all parties concerned. A comprehensive approach with the intent of opening this growing innovation potential to all stakeholders will play a major role in identifying effective solutions for scaling in the right direction. Formal policies, such as new regulations and rules, need to be implemented to overcome the phase pilot projects without substantial follow-up. A key part of achieving this goal resides in communicating why the change is so important and how it will benefit the common good, individual freedom (pros and cons), safety, and most of all, long-term living conditions. We do not yet know what the future will look like. However, we should still work to make the world a better place. Mobility connects people and enables understanding other cultures, staying in touch and making the most out of talents and ideas. In order to meet climate goals and limit the negative effects for health, though, it needs to be re-organised today. This book covers topics of great importance. In it, one can find inspirations for sustainable mobility concepts for both people and goods, climate justice and sustainable innovations, promotion of sustainable consumer behaviour, the planning and managing of sustainable infrastructure, and developing digital solutions for the intelligent city of tomorrow.

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I wish to offer my thanks to all the authors and editors that have shared their views! We all need such exchanges of experiences and the reflection of our success and failures. I hope the ideas and solutions presented in this book will inspire countless politicians, planners, mobility providers, citizens and others to take their steps towards climate friendly mobility for all people. Winfried Hermann Minister of Transport for the state of Baden-Württemberg

Preface

Finding sustainable solutions for living, consuming, working and commuting in metropolitan areas represents a key challenge of the 21st century. Due to the inherent complexity involved, innovative approaches addressing these challenges require transdisciplinary teamwork. Universities of Applied Sciences, as HFT Stuttgart, can thus play a vital role in such an endeavour. For over 185 years, HFT Stuttgart has been committed to advancing and teaching knowledge related to planning, building and maintaining metropolitan infrastructure. The current book spans topics from metropolitan infrastructure planning, logistics and information technology to mobility and consumer behaviour. These and numerous other topics apply when addressing the challenges of metropolitan areas. I am therefore pleased that this book was not only initiated by researchers of HFT Stuttgart, but also drew numerous contributions from different departments of our university. One basis was our research program “i_city: intelligent city”, which works on solutions for central societal challenges of sustainable urban development. However, not only have authors from HFT Stuttgart contributed to this book, but so have authors from different Fraunhofer institutes, universities and companies as well. This corroborates the assumption that this type of research can best be conducted in transdisciplinary teams with a variety of expertise and perspectives. The knowledge transfer from universities into society (and vice versa) represents a complex activity requiring personnel and financial resources. We are thus grateful to the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research and the Ministry of Science Baden Wuerttemberg for funding such activities at HFT Stuttgart via the program “Innovative Hochschule”. Our infrastructure project M4_LAB strives to create an ecosystem for transfer with the development of a digital research portal and innovative activities to disseminate our research findings. It also seeks to identify new ways to allow society and businesses in the region participate more actively in the research process. The current book represents an example of such a transfer activity and was supported by the M4_LAB team. XIII

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I would like to express my sincere thanks to the editors and the entire M4_LAB team. In particular, this book would not have been possible without the persistent support and helpful assistance of the managing editor Christine Kraus. Her expertise and professional advice were invaluable. Furthermore, I would like to thank Fenna Weber, who supported the compilation and editing of the individual contributions. Reading the different contributions in this book offers an idea of the breath and complexity of the challenges involved in innovating metropolitan areas. We at HFT Stuttgart would like to not only contribute to the discussion and reaction to developments in this field, but also take on a proactive role in shaping metropolitan areas for a more sustainable future. I am confident that this book comprises an important step towards this goal. Stuttgart,  November 2019  



Prof. Rainer Franke President HFT Stuttgart University of Applied Sciences

Table of Contents

1

Introduction Editors  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1 Patrick Planing, Patrick Müller, Payam Dehdari, Thomas Bäumer 1.1 Developing Sustainable Mobility & Logistics  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  1 1.2 Promoting Sustainable Behaviour  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  2 1.3 Planning and Managing Sustainable Infrastructure  . . . . . . . . . . .  3 1.4 Developing Digital Solutions for the Intelligent City  . . . . . . . . .   4 1.5 Conclusion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  5

Part I 2

Developing Sustainable Mobility & Logistics  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  9

Social Transport. An Efficient Concept for Freight Transportation   11 Dario Aleo Horcas, Payam Dehdari, Thomas Bäumer, Helmut Wlcek 2.1 Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  12 2.2 Status Quo  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  13 2.2.1 Terminologies  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  13 2.2.2 Existing Providers and Ideas  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  13 2.3 Definition  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  16 2.4 Co‐Creation Workshop  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  17 2.4.1 Risks  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  18 2.4.2 Promoting Factors  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  18 2.4.3 Hindering Factors  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  19 2.5 Summary and Outlook  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  20 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  21

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The Importance of Process Data Collection Techniques for Urban Logistics Planning  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  25 Lars Mauch, Rebecca Litauer, Steffen Bengel, Bernd Bienzeisler 3.1 Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  26 3.2 State of Research  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  27 3.3 City Logistics Process Data  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  28 3.3.1 Search for Parking Spot  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  29 3.3.2 Loading and Unloading of Goods  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  29 3.4 Methodological Approaches for the Collection of Process Data   30 3.4.1 Accompanied Deliveries  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  31 3.4.2 GPS Data Collection  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  32 3.4.3 Logistics Tracker  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  33 3.5 Conclusion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   34 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  36

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Off-Peak Delivery as a Cornerstone for Sustainable Urban Logistics: Insights from Germany  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  39 Sebastian Stütz, Daniela Kirsch 4.1 Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   40 4.2 Defining OPD  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   41 4.2.1 OPD: Intended Benefits and Possible Disadvantages  . .   42 4.2.2 OPD Examples and Research  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   44 4.3 “GeNaLog”, a Recent OPD Trial in German with Electric Trucks  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   45 4.4 Conclusions: GeNaLog and Beyond  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   49 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  51

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Longer Trucks for Climate-Friendly Transports in Metropolitan Regions  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  55 Christoph Lindt, Maren-Linn Janka, Payam Dehdari 5.1 CO2e Savings due to Longer Trucks  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  56 5.2 Distribution Network of Lidl within Metropolitan Regions  . . . .  58 5.3 Status Quo of Longer Trucks in the European Union  . . . . . . . .  58 5.4 Methodology and Procedures  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  59 5.5 Potential Savings for Lidl  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  61 5.6 Recommendation for Action for Lidl  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  62 5.7 Conclusion and Outlook  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  63 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  63

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Electrified Ultralight Vehicles as a Key Element for Door-to-Door Solutions in Urban Areas  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  65 Sally Köhler, Axel Norkauer, Markus Schmidt, Verena Loidl 6.1 Mobility in Metropolitan Areas and its Impacts  . . . . . . . . . . . . .  66 6.2 Current Situation and Challenges for New Mobility Conceptsin Metropolitan Regions in Europe—A Case Study of E‐Scooters  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  67 6.3 Objectives and Methodology  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  69 6.4 Findings and Results  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  71 6.5 Necessity for Further Research  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  73 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   74

Part II Promoting Sustainable Behavior  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  77 7

The Intention to Adopt Battery Electric Vehicles in Germany: Driven by Consumer Expectancy, Social Influence, Facilitating Conditions and Ecological Norm Orientation  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  79 Leonie Sophie Wahl, Wei-Hsin Hsiang, Georg Hauer 7.1 Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  80 7.2 The Technology of Battery Electric Vehicles  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  80 7.3 Influencing Factors on the Adoption Intention  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  82 7.4 Integrated UTAUT‐NAM Model and Hypothesis Development   83 7.5 Data Collection and Operationalisation  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  85 7.6 Data Analysis and Results  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  86 7.7 Discussion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  89 7.8 Practical Implications  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  89 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  90

8

Air Taxis as a Mobility Solution for Cities—Empirical Research on Customer Acceptance of Urban Air Mobility  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  93 Jana Behme, Patrick Planing 8.1 Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   94 8.2 Urban Air Mobility  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  95 8.3 Methodology  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  95 8.4 Results  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  96 8.4.1 Results: Noise  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  97 8.4.2 Results: Need for safety  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  98 8.4.3 Results: Safety for air taxis with pilots  . . . . . . . . . . . . .  98 8.4.4 Results: Safety of autonomous air taxis  . . . . . . . . . . . .  98 8.4.5 Results: Need for individual mobility  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  99

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8.4.6 Results: Price sensitivity  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  99 8.4.7 Results: Manufacturer  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  100 8.4.8 Results: Performance expectation  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  100 8.4.9 Results: Age and gender  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  100 8.4.10 Further influencing aspects derived in this study  . . . .  100 8.5 Discussion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  101 8.6 Conclusion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  102 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  102 9

An Integrated Model of the Theory of Reasoned Action and Technology Acceptance Model to Predict the Consumers’ Intentions to Adopt Electric Carsharing in Taiwan  . . . . . . . . . . .  105 Samira Buschmann, Mei-Fang Chen, Georg Hauer 9.1 Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  106 9.2 Literature Review  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  107 9.2.1 Theory of Reasoned Action  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  107 9.2.2 Technology Acceptance Model  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  108 9.3 Theoretical Framework and Research Hypotheses  . . . . . . . . .  108 9.4 Methodology and Research Design  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  110 9.5 Data Analysis and Results  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  112 9.5.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  113 9.5.2 Structural Equation Modeling  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   114 9.6 Conclusions, Implications and Limitations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  115 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  117

10 Bike-Sharing Systems as Integral Components of Inner-City Mobility Concepts: An Analysis of the Intended User Behaviour of Potential and Actual Bike-Sharing Users  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  121 Johanna Weng, Thomas Bäumer, Patrick Müller 10.1 Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  122 10.2 Research Objectives  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  123 10.3 Bike‐Sharing Systems  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  123 10.4 Findings of Related Research  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   124 10.5 Methodology  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   124 10.5.1 Survey Design  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   124 10.5.2 Data Collection  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  125 10.6 Survey Results  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  126 10.6.1 Respondent Demographics  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  126 10.6.2 Preferred Trip Purposes  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  126 10.7 Discussion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  128

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10.8 Implications  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  129 10.9 Limitations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  130 10.10 Conclusion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  130 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  131 11 Trust in Partially Automated Driving Systems for Trucks: A Quantitative Empirical Study  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  133 Leonie Wendel, Patrick Planing, Harald Bräuchle 11.1 Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   134 11.2 Driver Assistance Systems for Trucks  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  135 11.3 Trust in Driver Assistance Systems  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  135 11.4 Methodology  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  137 11.5 Results  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  139 11.6 Discussion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   140 11.7 Conclusion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   141 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   141 12 Alternative Ways to Promote Sustainable Consumer Behaviour—Identifying Potentials Based on Spiral Dynamics  . .   145 Kristina Weichelt-Kosnick 12.1 Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   146 12.2 Spiral Dynamics  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   147 12.2.1 Background  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   147 12.2.2 An Overview of SD  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   147 12.3 SD and Sustainable Consumer Behaviour  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  152 12.4 Limitation  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   154 12.5 Conclusion and Recommendations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   154 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  155 13 Less Meat, Less Heat—The Potential of Social Marketing to Reduce Meat Consumption  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  157 Denise Meyer, Thomas Bäumer 13.1 Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  158 13.2 Research Objectives  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  159 13.3 Research Design  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  160 13.3.1 Study 1  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  160 13.3.2 Study 2  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  163 13.4 Discussion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   164 13.5 Conclusion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  165 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  166

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Part III Planning and Managing Sustainable Infrastructure  . . . . . .  169 14 What Makes an Inner City Attractive Today and in the Future?—Analysis of Emotional Hotspots Using the City of Stuttgart as an Example  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  171 Alisa Schumpp, Stephanie Huber, Brigitte Braun 14.1 Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  172 14.2 Literature Review  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   174 14.3 Study  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  175 14.3.1 Research Questions and Study Design  . . . . . . . . . . . .  175 14.3.2 Sample and Procedure  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  176 14.4 Results  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  177 14.5 Recommendations and Limitations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  180 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  182 15 Creation of a Scoring-Model to Measure the Attractiveness of Middle-Sized City-Centres for Consumers  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  185 Kai Kraus, Brigitte Braun, Thomas Bäumer 15.1 Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  186 15.2 Factors of Attractiveness  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  187 15.2.1 Method  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  187 15.2.2 Results  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  187 15.3 Creation of the Scoring‐Model  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  189 15.3.1 Survey  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  189 15.3.2 Method  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  190 15.4 The Scoring‐Model  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  192 15.5 Application of the Model  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  193 15.6 Usage, Limitations, and Potentials  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  195 15.7 Conclusion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  196 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  197 16 Transdisciplinary Living Labs in a Next Generation Cities Context—Ecosystems for Sustainable Innovation and Entrepreneurship  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  199 Tobias Popović, Michael Bossert, Uta Bronner 16.1 Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  200 16.2 Transformation through Innovation  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  201 16.3 Transdisciplinary Living Labsas the Basis for Creative Stakeholder Interaction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  201 16.4 Next Generation Cities as Regional Ecosystems for Sustainable Innovation  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  203

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16.5 Universities as “Hubs” of Ecosystems for Sustainable Innovations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   204 16.6 Case Studies  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  206 16.7 Conclusion and Outlook  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  207 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  209 17 Chances for Social Interaction in Public Space Through a Practice of Commoning  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  213 Carolin Lahode, Sarah Lang, Sarah Ann Sutter 17.1 Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   214 17.1.1 Chances by Urban Commons  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  215 17.1.2 Study Area Boeckinger Strasse  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  215 17.2 Method  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  217 17.2.1 General Context  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  217 17.2.2 Semi‐Structured Interviews  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  219 17.3 Results  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  220 17.3.1 Interviews  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  220 17.3.2 Experiment  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  221 17.4 Discussion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  225 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  226 18 Financing Sustainable Infrastructures in a Smart Cities’ Context—Innovative Concepts, Solutions and Instruments  . . . .  229 Laura Canas da Costa, Tobias Popović 18.1 Introduction: The Challenge of Unsustainable Infrastructure for Metropolitan Areas  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  230 18.2 Smart Sustainable Cities as Ecosystems for Innovation  . . . . . .  231 18.3 Need for Private Investments in Sustainable, Smart City Infrastructure Against the Background of Increasing Global Risks  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  232 18.4 Sustainable (Private) Finance—Bridging the Funding Gaps?  .  233 18.5 Applying Sustainable Finance to Smart City Infrastructure Investments: The Business Case for Sustainable Infrastructure   235 18.6 Case Studies: New Approachesto Making Sustainable Urban Infrastructure Finance Happen  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  236 18.7 (Policy) Recommendations, Conclusion and Outlook  . . . . . . .   240 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   240

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19 Building the City’s Business Networks: Using Visualisations for Business Ecosystem Governance  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   245 Sven-Volker Rehm, Anne Faber 19.1 Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   246 19.2 Theoretical Background  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   247 19.2.1 Ecosystems, Networks, and Platforms  . . . . . . . . . . . .   247 19.2.2 Visualising Business Ecosystems  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   248 19.3 Insights from Visualising Urban Ecosystems  . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   249 19.4 Using Visualisations for Business Ecosystem Governance  . . .  251 19.5 Conclusion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  252 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  253 Part IV Developing Digital Solutions for the Intelligent City  . . . . . .  257 20 Development of an Eco-Routing App to Support Sustainable Mobility Behaviour  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  259 Rebecca Heckmann, Lutz Gaspers, Jörn Schönberger 20.1 Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  260 20.1.1 Transport Challenges Facing European Metropolitan Regions  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  260 20.2 Aim of the Study, State of Research and Methodological Approach  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  261 20.2.1 Aim of the Study  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  261 20.2.2 State of Research  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  261 20.2.3 Methodological Approach  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  265 20.3 On Changing Mobility Behaviour in Metropolitan Regions  . .  265 20.3.1 Use Scenarios of Eco‐Route Planners in Metropolitan Regions  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  265 20.3.2 Calculation of Emission Saving Potentials Using the EmiLa‐App  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  266 20.3.3 Indirect Effects: Increasing Environmental Awareness and Transferring to Environmental Behaviour  . . . . . .  269 20.4 Outlook: The Metropolitan Region as a Pioneer for the Future Design of Mobility Systems Thanks to Changed Mobility Behaviour  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  270 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  271

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21 Promoting Objective and Subjective Safetyfor Cyclists in Metropolitan Areas  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  273 Jan Silberer, Thunyathep Santhanavanich, Patrick Müller, Thomas Bäumer 21.1 Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   274 21.2 Cycling Safety Application Vision Zero  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  275 21.2.1 Development Process  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  275 21.2.2 Integration of Objective and Subjective Data from Stuttgart  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  277 21.3 Discussion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  279 21.3.1 Limitations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  279 21.3.2 Outlook  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  280 21.4 Conclusion  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  281 References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  282

List of Contributors

Aleo Horcas, Dario  HFT Stuttgart Bäumer, Thomas  HFT Stuttgart Behme, Jana Carolin  HFT Stuttgart Bengel, Steffen  University of Stuttgart Bienzeisler, Bernd  Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Engineering IAO Bossert, Michael  Concordia University Montréal Bräuchle, Harald  Robert Bosch GmbH Braun, Brigitte  FORMENformen Ludwigsburg Bronner, Uta  HFT Stuttgart Buschmann, Samira  HFT Stuttgart Canas da Costa, Laura  HFT Stuttgart Chen, Mei-Fang  Tatung University, Taiwan Dehdari, Payam  HFT Stuttgart Faber, Anne  RWTH Aachen University Gaspers, Lutz  HFT Stuttgart Hauer, Georg  HFT Stuttgart Heckmann, Rebecca  HFT Stuttgart Hsiang, Wei-Hsin  Tatung University, Taiwan Huber, Stephanie  HFT Stuttgart Janka, Maren-Linn  Lidl Stiftung & Co. KG XXV

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Kirsch, Daniela  Fraunhofer Institute for Material Flow and Logistics IML Köhler, Sally  HFT Stuttgart Kraus, Kai  FORMENformen Ludwigsburg Lahode, Carolin  HFT Stuttgart Lang, Sarah  HFT Stuttgart Lindt, Christoph  HFT Stuttgart Litauer, Rebecca  Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Engineering IAO Loidl, Verena  HFT Stuttgart Mauch, Lars  Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Engineering IAO Meyer, Denise  Reutlingen University Müller, Patrick  HFT Stuttgart Norkauer, Axel  HFT Stuttgart Planing, Patrick  HFT Stuttgart Popović, Tobias   HFT Stuttgart Rehm, Sven-Volker  University of Strasbourg – EM Strasbourg Business School Santhanavanich, Thunyathep  HFT Stuttgart Schmidt, Markus  HFT Stuttgart Schönberger, Jörn  TU Dresden Schumpp, Alisa  HFT Stuttgart Silberer, Jan  HFT Stuttgart Stütz, Sebastian  Dortmund University of Applied Sciences, Fraunhofer Institute for Material Flow and Logistics IML Sutter, Sarah Ann  HFT Stuttgart Wahl, Leonie Sophie  HFT Stuttgart Weichelt-Kosnick, Kristina  HFT Stuttgart Wendel, Leonie  University of Hohenheim Weng, Johanna  HFT Stuttgart Wlcek, Helmut  University of Applied Sciences Esslingen

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Introduction Editors

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Patrick Planing, Patrick Müller, Payam Dehdari, Thomas Bäumer

Metropolitan areas today are becoming an increasingly dense home for more than half of the world’s population. This accelerating trend in turn leads to a series of challenges for municipalities as well as citizens, such as overcrowded traffic routes, limited building space and an increasingly difficult supply situation. With this book, we seek to answer the following question: How can people live in densely populated areas and meet their needs in terms of mobility, freedom, self‐determination, security, prosperity, and communication? In other words, how can metropolitan areas be made humane?

1.1

Developing Sustainable Mobility & Logistics

This first chapter focusses on sustainable mobility and logistics concepts in metropolitan regions. Social transport represents an innovative logistics concept exploiting synergies in last mile delivery by combining private, non‐commercial personal mobility with goods transport. The last mile is also highlighted by contributions by the Fraunhofer Institute IAO. By using an app to collect and analyse data directly at the logistics provider, this solution pursues more efficient and sustainable organisation of delivery process. Often, this delivery process also occurs at heavily loaded,

Patrick Planing ( ) · Patrick Müller · Payam Dehdari · Thomas Bäumer HFT Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected], [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020 P. Planing, P. Müller, P. Dehdari, T. Bäumer (Eds.), Innovations for Metropolitan Areas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-60806-7_1

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1  Introduction Editors

peak‐hour traffic times. The Fraunhofer Institute IML addressed this problem by contributing off‐peak delivery as a cornerstone for sustainable urban logistics. Their GeNaLog research project investigated whether individual retail deliveries can also be postponed to night‐time, thus aiming to reduce traffic problems by shifting deliveries to off‐peak hours. To ensure that goods reach the metropolitan region in a sustainable manner, use of long trucks can also provide a solution. The research article on longer trucks for climate‐friendly transports in metropolitan regions concluded that, in the food industry alone, a considerable reduction in CO2 emissions could be achieved using long trucks. In addition to freight transport, the article Electrified Ultralight Vehicles as a Key Element for a Door‐To‐Door Solution in Urban Areas examined the reduction of motorised private transport. Electrified, ultra‐light, foldable scooters could serve as a link between public transport and the last mile. In order to significantly change the mobility landscape, however, these technical innovations will depend on widespread acceptance and adoption by the general public. Therefore, it is necessary to develop an environment that fosters sustainable consumer behaviour.

1.2

Promoting Sustainable Behaviour

The second chapter focusses on promoting sustainable behaviour. This represents an important challenge for metropolitan areas seeking to reach higher levels of sustainability and possibly higher life quality and efficiency. It is difficult to reduce the environmental impact of many fields of metropolitan life without changing people’s current behavioural patterns. The aim of this chapter is to demonstrate how attitudes, social influences and current behavioural patterns can be assessed, analysed and possibly influenced in order to achieve this goal. One of the fields in which people’s behaviours strongly influence metropolitan sustainability is mobility. Therefore, this chapter’s first contribution concerns how we can gain more insight into attitudes, social influences and behaviours regarding the use of electric vehicles with batteries in Germany. The second contribution focusses on a similar research question, but concerning a new form of transportation—namely, air taxis. Both contributions provide an overview of the factors on which people base their transportation decisions, both for existing and novel modes of transportation. Sharing transportation vehicles instead of owning them also comprises an important field of sustainable mobility. The following two contributions examine the underlying psychological factors involved in using such systems.

1.3  Planning and Managing Sustainable Infrastructure

3

Specifically, the third contribution focusses on electric carsharing in Taiwan, while the fourth contribution examines bike‐sharing systems in a German metropolitan area. Meanwhile, this chapter’s fifth contribution more closely examines the question of how people might react to novel technologies when they had limited say in their adoption. This was demonstrated in a study on truck drivers’ acceptance of partially automated driving systems in trucks. The chapter’s final two contributions more broadly examine how to influence people’s behaviours in other fields of metropolitan life. First, the sixth contribution describes how a framework like Spiral Dynamics can provide useful insight into pathways to influence consumer behaviour to make it more sustainable. The final contribution of the chapter highlights the potential of social marketing in metropolitan areas for promoting sustainable consumption by illustrating how to convince people to eat less meat. In summary, creating an environment that fosters more sustainable consumer behaviour represents a major cornerstone on the journey to more liveable cities. Whether most innovations reach their full potential, however, depends on a modern and efficient metropolitan infrastructure, which should be centred on the needs of its inhabitants.

1.3

Planning and Managing Sustainable Infrastructure

Infrastructure comprises a fundamental prerequisite for liveable metropolitan areas. Our third chapter thus aims at answering the urging question of how to plan, create, finance and sustain a metropolitan area’s infrastructure in an effective, yet sustainable manner. Our journey starts with a clear focus on the citizens and their needs. The first study therefore examines the aspects that constitute inner city attractiveness, with an emphasis on so‐called “emotional hot spots”—in other words, factors that particularly stand out during a visit to the city centre and influence one’s assessment of its attractiveness. As an extension to this topic, the second contribution develops a mathematical model for an inner‐city attractiveness analysis based on the well‐established Kano‐method. This model allows authorities to objectively assess and understand a region’s shortcomings in attractiveness and identify areas for improvement. In order to realise these improvements, universities can serve as a trustable, long‐ term network hub, connecting a variety of different (regional) stakeholders while simultaneously creating and coordinating an ecosystem for innovations based on transdisciplinary processes.

4

1  Introduction Editors

One potential concept for such a transdisciplinary solution developed by a university and public authorities was tested by our contributors in an experimental approach in Stuttgart. The results demonstrated that creating a quality public space associated with social interaction and a sense of community can improve a metropolitan area’s perceived attractiveness and intensify neighbourly relations. However, the development of public spaces, as well as general improvement of a region’s infrastructure, imposes a variety of challenges on the administration. One key challenge is financing infrastructure, which can be supported by new and rather innovative concepts and instruments from the still young sub‐discipline of sustainable finance. The related contribution not only discusses the theoretical framework behind instruments such as green bonds, but also provides several case studies on innovative sustainable infrastructure projects. The final contribution in this chapter examines the business ecosystems in which firms, public authorities and other stakeholders form business networks to collaborate and innovate. These business networks serve as an underlying fundament for a city’s ability to attract and retain capital, businesses and human talent, and thus represent a contributing factor for the wider area’s competitiveness and attractiveness.

1.4

Developing Digital Solutions for the Intelligent City

The final chapter focusses on intelligent digital solutions that address citizens living in metropolitan areas. The described applications comprise examples of how digital tools might empower citizens in two ways. On the one hand, apps might be used to increase reflection of citizens’ less conscious decisions (e.g. which means of transport one uses). On the other hand, apps can also be used as a “democratic” tool enabling citizens to directly communicate their needs to decision‐makers in municipalities (e.g. where infrastructure needs improvement). Both aspects contribute to maintaining the long‐term liveability of metropolitan regions. The two contributions presented comprise part of the project i_city: Intelligent City at HFT Stuttgart. The first contribution in this chapter concerns how an app can support citizens in making more reflected, informed decisions in everyday life. Metropolitan areas often feature a large variety of transportation means (from motorised private transport via different forms of public transportation to bike‐sharing). As such, it can be challenging for citizens to make an informed decision. To this end, routing apps offer tools that help to compare different options, such as with regard to journey time and costs. However, the ecological sustainability aspect often remains ignored by these apps. Therefore, an eco‐routing app is introduced that should fill this gap.

1.5 Conclusion

5

This app has the potential to raise awareness of this ecological sustainability factor and make it another important aspect when individual deciding which means of transport to use. It also presents the benefits of sustainable transportation in an understandable fashion. Furthermore, the integrated benefit and gamification system has the potential to motivate the use of sustainable means of transportation even for those considering the subject of sustainability to be less important. The chapter’s second contribution strives to increase cycling safety—as an ecologically sustainable means of transport—in metropolitan areas. The goal is nothing less than reaching zero fatal accidents among cyclists. The app presented should function as a platform between citizens and decision‐makers in the municipality. The idea is to integrate subjective and objective safety on routes open to cyclists and display these within a 3D map of the city. This visualisation of risk‐levels can then be used by city‐planners in a municipality to initiate effective countermeasures. In addition, this could also provide a routing function for cyclists, who could then use safety as an additional factor when planning their routes. The subjective safety is based on feedback by cyclists, such as by a crowdsourcing function where they can upload information of dangerous hot spots in metropolitan areas. In this way, the cyclists’ needs can be directly communicated to decision‐makers. In the long term, this could increase safety and joy for cyclists, and thus lead to higher user acceptance.

1.5 Conclusion In summary, we believe that this book provides an important contribution to the ongoing discussion regarding how to create more liveable cities and metropolitan areas. The urbanisation trend will continue in the foreseeable future, but this book’s articles provide a wealth of examples for how technological progress and societal innovations could solve the urging needs of densely populated areas. By themselves, these examples might only offer fractional improvements, but taken together, they will shape the future of our living space. To be realised effectively, though, all solutions will require close collaboration of science, corporations, official authorities and the public. Only by forming new types of alliances will we be able to ensure a more sustainable future for our metropolitan areas.

6

1  Introduction Editors

1.5 Conclusion

7

The Editors Prof. Dr. Patrick Planing  is professor of business psychology at HFT Stuttgart. His research focusses on how humans want to, are able to and will interact with the technology of our future. Before his appointment in 2017, he held several responsible positions at Daimler AG, were he was most recently responsible for the digital transformation strategy. He advises companies in the field of innovation management and digital transformation and is the author of numerous scientific publications on different areas of business psychology. Prof. Dr. Patrick Müller  has been a professor of business psychology – HRM at HFT Stuttgart since 2012. He studied psychology and business administration in Mannheim and Waterloo, Canada. Following this, he completed his doctorate at the University of Mannheim on the subject of the formation of fairness judgments and their influence on economic decisions. After completing his doctorate, he researched and taught as an assistant professor at the University of Utrecht in the Netherlands. He then worked in an international HRM consultancy and as a manager in the recruiting department of a large service company. He advises companies on talent management issues and has authored numerous scientific publications on business psychology. After studying industrial management, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Payam Dehdari  specialised in logistics. For over 10 years, he was responsible for logistics topics in a company stretching across different industries, like automotive and industrial goods. Since 2018, he has been a professor for sustainable logistics and lean methods at HFT Stuttgart. His expertise is designing systems and optimising processes in transport, warehousing and inventory management. Prof. Dr. Thomas Bäumer  is a social psychologist with a focus on consumer and decision research. For almost 10 years, he worked at GIM (Gesellschaft für Innovative Marktforschung mbH) as a market researcher. For more than five years, he has been a professor for psychological market research at HFT Stuttgart. His expertise lies in the conception, execution and analysis of surveys with a focus on consumer understanding.

I

Part I Developing Sustainable Mobility & Logistics



Contents 2 3 4 5 6

Social Transport. An Efficient Concept for Freight Transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . Dario Aleo Horcas, Payam Dehdari, Thomas Bäumer, Helmut Wlcek The Importance of Process Data Collection Techniques for Urban Logistics Planning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lars Mauch, Rebecca Litauer, Steffen Bengel, Bernd Bienzeisler Off-Peak Delivery as a Cornerstone for Sustainable Urban Logistics: Insights from Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sebastian Stütz, Daniela Kirsch Longer Trucks for Climate-Friendly Transportsin Metropolitan Regions . . . . . . Christoph Lindt, Maren-Linn Janka, Payam Dehdari Electrified Ultralight Vehicles as a Key Elementfor Door-to-Door Solutions in Urban Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sally Köhler, Axel Norkauer, Markus Schmidt, Verena Loidl

 11  25  39  55  65

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Social Transport. An Efficient Concept for Freight Transportation

2

Dario Aleo Horcas, Payam Dehdari, Thomas Bäumer, Helmut Wlcek

Abstract

In recent decades, it has become apparent that urbanisation is increasingly becoming the focus of public attention against the backdrop of growing environmental awareness. Freight and passenger transport represent an important aspect of urban transport. With societal developments such as the emergence of the sharing economy, social transport is defined as a promising approach to delivery concepts that should make it possible to use current transport capacities more efficiently. Primarily, this article’s purpose is to explore what is already known as social transport and to identify concepts aiming to combine commercial freight and private passenger transport. After a broad research phase, concept ideas based on the definition of social transport were developed in a co‐ creation workshop. As a second task during the workshop, the participants used a case study to identify benefits and problems that a private courier can encounter in social transport. The subsequent evaluation demonstrated that implementing the social transport concept has to be as easy and effortless as possible for the courier so as to not discourage him from an additional obligation. The best

Dario Aleo Horcas ( ) · Payam Dehdari · Thomas Bäumer HFT Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Helmut Wlcek University of Applied Sciences Esslingen, Esslingen, Germany e-mail: [email protected] © Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020 P. Planing, P. Müller, P. Dehdari, T. Bäumer (Eds.), Innovations for Metropolitan Areas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-60806-7_2

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2  Social Transport. An Efficient Concept for Freight Transportation

possible approach is not to convey the monetary incentive as the main benefit, but rather to focus on the social aspects, such as supporting the environment and fellow human beings. The form in which couriers shall be remunerated, and whether the delivery only extends to acquaintances or also to strangers, requires further research. Keywords

Social Transport · Efficient Freight Transportation · Innovative Transportation · Crowd-Logistic · Crowdsourced Delivery · Urbanisation · Sharing Economy · Metropolitan Area

2.1 Introduction Last year’s “Fridays for Future” initiative (Wernicke 2019; Frankfurter Allgemeine 2019; Steuer et al. 2019), which organised numerous demonstrations regarding environmental climate around the world, placed the spotlight on the findings of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change—namely, that greenhouse gases are anthropogenic (Pachauri and Mayer 2014, p. 2). The World Climate Conference and Germany have thus established new climate targets (Welke and Beck 2019, pp. 17–24). At the same time, however, more emissions are caused by transport in connection with emerging online trade and growing urbanisation (Göpfert 2019, p. 265; World Bank and UN DESA 2018; Fraunhofer‐Institut für Materialfluss und Logistik IML 2016, p. 3; Bogdanski 2019, pp. 38–39). The concept of innovative logistics offers the potential to counteract the resulting challenges in metropolitan areas. The combination of commercial freight and passenger transport should instil both environmental and economic benefits without negatively affecting the needs of those involved. In the current paper, existing concepts were documented with the aid of a status quo analysis. Based on the existing concepts, a definition of social transport was derived. Finally, the ideas generated in a co‐creation workshop for implementation in a metropolitan region, as well as their advantages and disadvantages from the courier’s point of view within a case study, were presented.

2.2  Status Quo

2.2

13

Status Quo

2.2.1 Terminologies Various applications of the term “social transport” can be found in specialist literature and online publications. With this term, platforms predominantly offer transport options for people with and without need for assistance (Innovate UK 2019; Access Sydney Community Transport 2019; Stryder 2019; Social Transport 2019). However, there remains no generally accepted definition of social transport. Nevertheless, some logistical concepts already aim to combine freight and passenger transport under a different name. The following presents the concepts related to social transport. The term crowd‐logistic refers to outsourcing logistics services to a mass of private individuals, whereby coordination is supported by technical systems with the aim of achieving economic benefits for all parties involved (Danwitz 2017, p. 3; Chen and Pan 2016, p. 62; Punel and Stathopoulos 2017, p. 35). These concepts include crowdsourcing logistic activities, such as crowdsourced delivery, also known as crowd‐shipping (Puscher 2016). This involves delivering goods to consumers by means of non‐professional drivers who are already on the road and ready to deliver (Mladenow et al. 2015, p. 2). Another term, cargo‐hitching, refers to implementing and extending the concept of crowdsourced delivery using free public transportation, such as trams, metros, buses and taxi systems, in urban areas for freight transport (Mckinnon and Bilski 2015; Sampaio et al. 2019; Moderne Postkutsche? 2018). However, examples can also be found regarding shipping methods that combine the transport of goods and passengers (Ruff 2016, p. 40). In scheduled air traffic, for instance, it is standard for goods to be transported below the passenger deck.

2.2.2 Existing Providers and Ideas Some practical cases for deliveries on the last mile are described in Table 2.1. The search was based on terms such as social transport, urban transport, crowd‐logistic, crowd‐shipping, crowd‐delivery, crowdsourced receiving, freight and passenger transport, shared urban transport, mixed transport, shared mobility and cargo‐hitching. Google and Google Scholar in particular were used to search for outcomes. In addition, databases such as WISO, ScienceDirect and Statista were utilised. The cases were divided into crowdsourced delivery, cargo‐hitching, other field trials and theoretical approaches. As the division of providers and ideas demonstrates, they can be divided into different clusters. Some offer platforms where the crowd

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delivers packages with professional and private persons. Other providers feature companies such as Amazon or DHL, which also want to benefit from the last mile potentials (Danwitz 2017, p. 2; Göpfert 2019, p. 277). All these differences help to define social transport, as follows in the next chapter.

Table 2.1  Existing providers and ideas Crowdsourced Delivery: Algel:

Private couriers register on a platform, pick up groceries from supermarkets, and deliver them to private individuals needing assistance (Geyer 2014; Bottler 2014) Amazon Flex: Private couriers can supply Amazon Prime customers (only within Berlin and Munich in Germany) (Lierow 2019; Amazon.de 2019) BringHand/Myrobin/ Platforms that advertise both the take‐away and the shipping. ShipLoad/Trunksta/ The couriers should also take a package with them on their way—in other words, they should be travellers (Wilhelm ÜberBringer: 2017; Trunksta.de 2019; ubringr.com 2019; myrobin.com 2019; bringhand.de 2019; sharedload.com 2019) CoCarrier: Senders are looking for travellers (commuters/holidaymakers) via a platform to take a package with themselves (within Germany, but also international) (Meyer 2018; Brücken 2017; cocarrier.de 2019) Deliv/Postmates: American platforms for mediation between package senders and private couriers in urban regions (Bilanz 2015; Rougès and Montreuil 2014, p. 2). Deliv focusses on supplying shoppers with goods from shopping centres (deli.co 2019), and Postmates on groceries (postmates.com 2019) MyWays: DHL’s platform mediates C2C and B2C package shipments to commuters, who act as postal carriers (Voigt 2018, pp. 32–33; Wilhelm 2013; Mladenow et al. 2015) Nimber: Shippers indicate what they would like to send somewhere. Private couriers can deliver packages, which can lead to a new journey and, moreover, to an overnight booking in cooperation with Airbnb (Bilanz 2015; Puscher 2016, p. 44) Packator: Platform that mediates inner‐city transport, preferably by bicycle or metro as a private courier service (Brücken 2017; packator.de 2019; Meyer 2018) Piggybee: Air travellers with spare capacities who can be contracted as couriers for the transport of goods via a platform (Bilanz 2015) Roadie: Package take‐away is preferentially arranged for private persons with an app. Roadie works with retailers such as Wal‐ Mart, but also with airlines, where passengers take packages or luggage with them (The Economist 2019).

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2.2  Status Quo

Table 2.1  (continued) Tiramizoo: Wal‐Mart:

Cargo‐Hitching: Bussgods Service: Dabbawala‐System:

KombiBus: Postbus: Other Field Trials: Amsterdam Cargo Tram:

Platform that offers B2C shipping by private couriers. Focus is same‐day delivery within different cities in Germany (Schäfer 2019; Hornacek 2014, p. 3) 2013: Customer orders are to be delivered by other customers who live near the place of delivery in return for a discount (Barr and Wohl 2013). 2017: Employees can deliver packages at the end of a shift for an extra wage (Albert 2017). 2018: Commissioning of private couriers via existing platforms (Kiewitt 2018) Use of existing bus lines at the national level in Sweden, with transshipment points in various major cities (van Duin et al. 2018) A more than 100‐year‐old lunchbox delivery and return system that delivers lunch from one location by train to private individuals at another location. This is carried out by our own couriers (Baindur and Macário 2013) Carriage of goods on rural bus routes (Moderne Postkutsche? 2018, p. 26) DHL provides same‐day delivery on the route between Berlin and Hamburg. Senders can be a private person or a small company (TextilWirtschaft 2015)

Similar concept as in Dresden. In the pilot project, two freight trains through the city centre of Amsterdam were used to transport goods without affecting the timetables of passenger trams (Chiffi 2015) CarGoTram: In Dresden, parts are supplied to a Volkswagen location via rails for passenger transport (Westerheide 2019) Hurtigruten: Use of a mail ship that also carries passengers in addition to transporting goods (Hurtigruten.de 2019) Lufthansa Cargo: Offers to carry cargo in a passenger aircraft (Ruff 2016, p. 40) Theoretical Approaches: Mercedes: Electrically operated chassis that can autonomously drive and transport passengers or goods with the help of artificial intelligence (Straßengüterverkehr 2018, pp. 48–49) TaxiCrowdShipping: Taxis should also take packages with them by transporting a person when the destination is on the route (Chen and Pan 2016)

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2.3 Definition Based on the existing concepts, some characteristics of transports, as well as possible expressions thereof, were formulated and presented as morphological boxes (see Table 2.2). This overview does not claim to be exhaustive, but is instead only intended to enable and sharpen the definition of the term “social transport”. Following the basic idea of combining passenger and freight transport, and in order to do justice to the goal of ecological and economic advantage, the concept of social transport is defined as follows: Social transport defines all commercial goods transports conducted by private persons on their routes without any significant detours. A payment or other incentives is possible. Commercial payments making the delivery the main reason for the route are excluded. Table 2.2  Definition of Social Transport by Characteristics Characteristic

Possible form

Transport Object

Social Transport Goods

Service Reason for the Trip

Payment Route Size of the Distance Time Window of the Transport Sender Receiver Kind of Good Means of Transportation

No Social Transport Persons in need of assistance (disability or age), Person without need of help Transport Handling Commercial transport of Private trips: Free time (e.g. to the Shop- goods or passengers, Comping), Commuters to work, mercial trips (e.g. sales representatives), Regular Vacation service, Unofficial commercial journeys (main job/side job) Commercial Free of charge, Non‐commercial (e.g. cost sharing), Incentives Not relevant for definition of social transport

2.4  Co‐Creation Workshop

17

The word “social” is used in the definition of the transport performance of private individuals with non‐commercial remuneration. An ecological benefit is ensured if the transport does not require an additional journey, but only a small detour. This small detour is not precisely delimited; however, the additional distance should certainly be less than 10 km. Therefore, it is irrelevant whether a car is used for transport, or a more ecological means of transport, such as a train. Upon closer examination, other transport characteristics, such as the type of goods, whether the sender and receiver are commercial or private, the transport route, the size of the distance travelled, the means of transport used for this purpose, or how time‐critical a transport is, are also irrelevant to the definition of social transport. If one applies this definition to the aforementioned applications and ideas as an example (see Table 2.1), the following can be assigned to the social transport category: CoCarrier, MyWays, Piggybee, Trunksta, ÜberBringer, Myrobin, ShipLoad and BringHand. The following describes the implementation ideas for social transport identified through a co‐creation workshop.

2.4

Co‐Creation Workshop

Based on the definition of social transport, a co‐creation workshop was held with a group of experts and private individuals who, as couriers or senders and receivers of goods, represent potential users of a social transport concept. The goal of the co‐creation workshop was to generate as many insights as possible that would be relevant for implementing such a concept. Given that social transport remains unknown, the workshop study proved to be more target‐oriented than a survey. The participants (n = 7) were divided into two groups and provided the same tasks. Each group featured one person employed in logistics, one to two full‐time employees, and one student. With the support of moderators, questions that came up could be immediately clarified, and the results summarised. In particular, the participants had to identify risks and place themselves in the courier’s position. This was performed on the basis of a case study in order to identify promoting and hindering factors, derived from a modified model of the value proposition canvas (Osterwalder et al. 2014, pp. 15–33). All answers from the workshop were developed using the brainstorming method from design thinking.

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2.4.1 Risks A large number of risks from a courier’s perspective were identified, suggesting a certain scepticism towards social transport. This could be caused by the concept’s novelty and the associated uncertainty. The most important of these were questions such as, “But what happens when … • • • • •

… the package breaks?” … the package is late?” … the courier is involved in an accident?” … the detour is larger than expected?” … packages are not delivered?”

A successfully implemented concept must satisfactorily answer these questions in order to effectively dismiss expected scepticism. This could be accomplished with the help of insurance companies, online courier training and a clear process flow. Among other things, an app should enable customers to use functions such as online tracking, scan barcodes, verify or authorise users, and control incentives to prevent insecurities.

2.4.2 Promoting Factors In the workshop, the following main points were established as promoting factors that motivate the courier and provide a benefit: Monetary Aspect  The workshop participants felt it could be a significant incentive to earn money or to partially compensate travel costs on routes that have to be taken daily anyway. Social Aspect  Delivering a package makes people feel that they have performed a “good deed”. A suitable example from the workshop would be delivering chocolate for a child’s birthday party. The participants felt like “saviours of the children’s birthday” in this case. Time  Due to the short detours, the extra time required is small and did not reduce the participants’ motivation to take part in social transport. Environment  By making more efficient use of free car space, social transport delivery can prevent an additional journey by a package service, thus protecting the environment and increasing the courier’s motivation.

2.4  Co‐Creation Workshop

19

Donations  This aspect could be considered a possible incentive, as the participants identified in the workshop. This should allow saved kilometres or saved CO2 emissions to lead to donations. In summary, it can be said that the monetary aspect initially represented the focus of the topic’s introduction. Due to the initially one‐sided view of the concept as an additional source of income, however, considerations of the positive effect on the environment, urban traffic and the addressed people were neglected. During the workshop, the participants increasingly realised the actual intentions of social transport: the social aspects. Participants became increasingly aware of factors such as having performed a good deed for another person or for the environment, or even initiating a donation. Consequently, it is important to clarify that social transport, as the name suggests, represents a social concept, and so monetary compensation should not be in the foreground of the user. In the current market, with its cheap package service providers, implementing social transport can only succeed if the concepts’ social aspect are heavily stressed to the users.

2.4.3 Hindering Factors The workshop also identified the following points as factors that could motivate a courier to become a transporter in social transport systems: Additional Commitment  By adhering to the time and location requirements, the sense of obligation can lead to stress. The feeling of a “need to do something” is seen as a major inhibitor for potential couriers. A further obstacle would be the need to carry and present a required identification card to pick up a package. Special Circumstances  In group work, the workshop participants asked themselves what would happen if the package was damaged, or if the delivery was not possible due to illness or accident by the courier. These questions must be considered factors that need to be mitigated when implementing social transport. Missing Information  On one hand, the point of missing information concerns the package itself. This caused uncertainty for most participants, because they did not know the package’s content. If, for example, the courier knows that he is to deliver a parcel for a child’s birthday party, the motivation could be higher. On the other hand, a lack of communication can also lead to a lack of information. For example, in the case of a personal delivery to the front door, this could result in the recipient not being there, and thus the package not being accepted.

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Detours and Loss of Time  If a personal incentive is too small for the additional effort, this can be perceived as a loss of time and unnecessary detour, even if it is not a major detour or time loss for the courier. Data Protection  Social transport cannot be implemented without a platform. As early as the registration stage, participants were already concerned about data protection. Specifically, when journeys are entered and delivery points and other personal information revealed, the test participants were faced with uncertainties. Personal Fears  In the example, a package is delivered to a parking garage, which was in turn perceived as unpleasant by some participants. Parking garages are often associated with danger. Personal fears can occur unexpectedly in many forms and pose a considerable challenge during implementation. As a quintessence, the greatest inhibition was declared to be “entering into an additional commitment”. Since the participants are busy with their everyday lives, it is difficult for them to promise themselves further obligations. To counteract this, they suggested that a flexible time window and cancellation function be established in a possible app, which could reduce the pressure placed on couriers by making order processing more flexible. Again, it should be noted that a delivery for a person personally known to the courier offers a greater stimulation to deliver a package by social transport, as in this case, the social aspect is at the forefront. It is thus easier to accept an additional commitment, because the courier knows for whom or even for what reason the package is being delivered. In addition, mistakes made by the courier in conducting social transport in a circle of acquaintances are more likely to be forgiven than those made by two people who do not know each other. Likewise, the uncertainty aspect, such as with regard to personal data, would be eliminated since, in the best case, known persons are more likely to trust each other than a stranger.

2.5

Summary and Outlook

Simultaneous growth in online commerce, urbanisation, congestion and global warming are driving the challenges in logistics. Emerging trends such as the sharing economy can be used for innovative approaches. The present paper provides an initial formulation and multiple approaches to implementing social transport, offering a potential logistical solution that is already being implemented in initial concepts. With broad and intelligent implementation of this idea, the delivery of packages can change fundamentally, especially in urban regions. By taking along

References

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goods by private individuals with as little deviation as possible from the distances to be covered anyway, passenger cars can be used more efficiently, and the environment protected. Examining the co‐creation workshop results, the need for research concerning how social transport could be implemented becomes clear. The findings indicate that the inconvenience and expense for the courier must be kept as low as possible, as well as that, on the motivation side, the social incentive must be clearly rated higher than the monetary one. In the long term, solutions can be implemented much more easily in connection with autonomous and fully digitised vehicles, since a human courier will largely be replaced by the vehicle itself. The concept of social transport can also be used to derive more far‐reaching logistics concepts that are not limited to transport, but instead allow other logistics services to be conducted by private individuals. Under a term of “social logistics”, for example, the transhipment and storage of goods could be offered using private resources and assets, which could also lead to traffic and environment relief via more central locations closer to the final destinations in urban regions.

References Access Sydney Community Transport. (2019). Social Transport. https://accesssydney.org.au/ social-transport/. Accessed 13 August 2019. Albert, A. (2017). Wal-Mart-Angestellte sollen auf dem Nachhauseweg ausliefern: Nach Feierabend noch schnell ein paar Bestellungen abliefern: Die US-Supermarktkette WalMart spannt jetzt Angestellte ein, um ihren Kunden Lebensmittel vor die Tür zu bringen. https://www.spiegel.de/wirtschaft/unternehmen/wal-mart-laesst-angestellte-einkaeufeder-kunden-ausliefern-a-1150518.html. Accessed 12 August 2019. Amazon.de. (2019). Amazon Flex. https://flex.amazon.de/. Accessed 25 July 2019. Baindur, D., & Macário, R. M. (2013). Mumbai lunch box delivery system: A transferable benchmark in urban logistics? Research in Transportation Economics, 38, 110–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.retrec.2012.05.002. Barr, A., &  Wohl, J. (2013). Exclusive: Wal-Mart may get customers to deliver packages to online buyers. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-retail-walmart-delivery/ exclusive-wal-mart-may-get-customers-to-deliver-packages-to-online-buyersidUSBRE92R03820130328. Accessed 12 August 2019. Bilanz. (2015). Der Kampf der privaten Kurierdienste. https://www.bilanz.ch/kontributoren/ der-kampf-der-privaten-kurierdienste. Accessed 23 July 2019. Bogdanski, R. (2019). Stadtlogistik ohne Ideologiebrille. Logistik Heute (Heft 5), 38–39. Bottler, S. (2014). Wenn der Nachbar zum Paketboten wird. Verkehrs Rundschau (Heft 42), 28–29. bringhand.de. (2019). Bringhand. https://www.bringhand.de/. Accessed 29 July 2019.

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Brücken, T. (2017). Im Urlaub mal schnell ein Päckchen ausliefern. https://www.welt.de/ wirtschaft/webwelt/article167044740/Im-Urlaub-mal-schnell-ein-Paeckchen-ausliefern. html. Accessed 24 July 2019. Chen, C., & Pan, S. (2016). Using the Crowd of Taxis to Last Mile Delivery in E-Commerce: a methodological research. In T. Borangiu, D. Trentesaux, A. Thomas, & D. McFarlane (Eds.), Service Orientation in Holonic and Multi-Agent Manufacturing (Vol. 640, pp. 61–70, Studies in Computational Intelligence). Cham: Springer International Publishing. Chiffi, C. (2015). Delivering goods by cargo tram in Amsterdam (Netherlands). https://www. eltis.org/discover/case-studies/delivering-goods-cargo-tram-amsterdam-netherlands. Accessed 13 August 2019. cocarrier.de. (2019). Co Carrier. https://cocarrier.de/. Accessed 24 July 2019. Danwitz, S. von. (2017). Crowd-Logistik – Eine Potenzialanalyse für den deutschen KEPMarkt. Universität zu Köln, Köln. deli.co. (2019). Deliv. https://www.deliv.co/. Accessed 1 September 2019. van Duin, J.H.R., Wiegmans, B., Tavasszy, L. A., Hendriks, B., & He, Y. (2018). Evaluating New Participative City Logistics Concepts: The Case of Cargo Hitching. Szczecin, Poland. Frankfurter Allgemeine. (2019). Schüler und Studenten rufen Erwachsene zum Klima­ streik auf. https://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/inland/fridays-for-future-aktivisten-rufterwachsene-zum-klimastreik-auf-16203875.html. Accessed 24 June 2019. Fraunhofer- Institut für Materialfluss und Logistik IML. (2016). ZF-Zukunftsstudie 2016: Die letzte Meile. www.zf-zukunftsstudie.de. Geyer, J.-K. (2014). Mit der App in den Supermarkt: Griesheimer bringt „Besteller“ und Einkäufer zusammen. Darmstädter Echo. Göpfert, I. (2019). Logistik der Zukunft—Logistics for the Future. Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. Hornacek, H. (2014). Die Sendung mit der Maus 4.0. Verkehr. Hurtigruten.de. (2019). Hurtigruten. https://www.hurtigruten.de/. Accessed 11 September 2019. Innovate UK. (2019). Social Transport. http://futurecity.glasgow.gov.uk/social-transport/. Accessed 13 August 2019. IPCC. (2014). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)]. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland. Kiewitt, A. (2018). E-Commerce: Wal-Mart setzt auf private Fahrer. https://www. verkehrsrundschau.de/nachrichten/e-commerce-wal-mart-setzt-auf-private-fahrer-2212034. html. Accessed 12 August 2019. Lierow, M. (2019). Der nächste Coup. Verkehrs Rundschau (24), 17–19. Mckinnon, A., & Bilski, B. (2015). Innovations in global logistics. In H. van Breemen (Ed.), Breakthrough: from innovation to impact (pp. 19–38). Lunteren: The Owls Foundation. Meyer, L. (2018). Der Pendler als Paketbote: Berliner Start-up Co-Carrier macht Reisende zu privaten Zustellern. DVZ Deutsche Verkehrs-Zeitung (2), 12–13. Mladenow, A., Bauer, C., & Strauss, C. (2015). Crowdsourcing in logistics. In M. IndrawanSantiago & G. Anderst-Kotsis (Eds.), The 17th International Conference, Brussels, Belgium, 11.12.2015 - 13.12.2015 (pp. 1–8). New York, New York, USA, ACM Press. https:// doi.org/10.1145/2837185.2837242.

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Moderne Postkutsche? Neue Bus-Konzepte für den ländlichen Raum. (2018). https://issuu. com/behoerden_spiegel/docs/2018_september. Accessed 23 July 2019. myrobin.com. (2019). Myrobin. https://www.myrobin.com/. Accessed 24 July 2019. Osterwalder, A., Pigneur, Y., Bernarda, G., Smith, A., & Papadakos, P. (2014). Value proposition design: How to create products and services customers (Strategyzer series). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. packator.de. (2019). Packator. https://www.packator.de/. Accessed 24 July 2019. postmates.com. (2019). Postmates. https://postmates.com/. Accessed 1 September 2019. Punel, A., & Stathopoulos, A. (2017). Modeling the acceptability of crowdsourced goods deliveries: Role of context and experience effects. Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, 105, 18–38. Puscher, F. (2016). Crowdshipping: Nimmst du das mal mit?(6), 44. Rougès, J.-F., & Montreuil, B. (2014). Crowdsourcing delivery: New interconnected business modelsto reinvent deliver, Québec City, Canada, May, 28. Ruff, C. (2016). Ganze Frachträume zu vermieten. Der Standard, 40. Sampaio, A., Savelsbergh, M., Veelenturf, L., & van Woensel, T. (2019). Crowd-Based City Logistics. In Sustainable Transportation and Smart Logistics (pp. 381–400): Elsevier. Schäfer, A. (2019). Ein Start-up erfindet sich neu. DVZ Deutsche Verkehrs-Zeitung(BITL), 5. sharedload.com. (2019). sharedload. https://www.sharedload.com/faces/index.xhtml. Accessed 29 July 2019. Social Transport. (2019). Social Transport. http://socialtransport.com/. Accessed 13 August 2019. Steuer, H., Brächer, M., Louven, S., Meiritz, A., Siebenhaar, H.-P., & Volkery, C. (2019). So blickt die Welt auf Greta Thunberg und die Klimastreiks: In Japan finden sich kaum Schüler, die freitags für das Klima streiken. In Großbritannien wird die Bewegung immer größer. Ein Überblick unserer Korrespondenten. Fridays for Future. https://www.handelsblatt. com/politik/international/fridays-for-future-so-blickt-die-welt-auf-greta-thunberg-unddie-klimastreiks/24256674.html?ticket=ST-45317686-DvhdGcEPIcWryI9QLGWS-ap6. Accessed 25 October 2019. Straßengüterverkehr. (2018). Skaten in die Zukunft. https://www.wiso-net.de/document/ STGU__f2ab213b892c94dfa22c28b825c0f83a922baee6. Accessed 22 July 2019. Stryder. (2019). Social Transport. http://stryder.org.au/services/social-transport/. Accessed 13 August 2019. TextilWirtschaft. (2015). DHL: Postbus wird zum Paket-Kurier. https://www.wiso-net.de/ document/TWNE__100182. Accessed 12 August 2019. The Economist. (2019). Crowdshipping is the next stop for the sharing economy: Apps like Roadie tap into ordinary peopleʼs movements to speed up delivery of parcels. https://www. economist.com/business/2019/10/03/crowdshipping-is-the-next-stop-for-the-sharingeconomy. Accessed 15 January 2020. Trunksta.de. (2019). Trunksta. https://www.trunksta.de/. Accessed 24 July 2019. ubringr.com. (2019). ÜberBringer: Mitfahrgelegenheit für Gegenstände. https://www.ubringr. com/. Accessed 24 July 2019. Voigt, S. (2018). „Einladen statt verdonnern“. Verkehrs Rundschau (6), 32–33. Welke, M., & Beck, M. (2019). Klimaschutz in Zahlen: Fakten, Trends und Impulse deutscher Klimapolitik. Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und nukleare Sicherheit (BMU) Referat Öffentlichkeitsarbeit, Berlin.

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Wernicke, C. (2019). Den Planeten retten, sofort. https://www.sueddeutsche.de/politik/ fridays-for-future-klimaschutz-aachen-1.4494524. Accessed 24 June 2019. Westerheide, C. (2019). Das Paket fährt Tram. DVZ Deutsche Verkehrs-Zeitung (18), 6. Wilhelm, S. (2017). Bewegte Zeiten. Der Handel (9), 32–35. Wilhelm, S. (2013). DHL testet in Schweden neues Zustellkonzept. https://etailment.de/news/ stories/DHL-testet-in-Schweden-neues-Zustellkonzept-15005#. Accessed 21 July 2019. World Bank, & UN DESA. (2018). Urbanisierungsgrad: Anteil der Stadtbewohner an der Gesamtbevölkerung in Deutschland in den Jahren von 2000 bis 2017. https://de.statista. com/statistik/daten/studie/662560/umfrage/urbanisierung-in-deutschland/. Accessed 24 June 2019. Dario Aleo Horcas  is a student of business administration at HFT Stuttgart. He focussed his studies on service management, logistics and managerial accounting. During his studies, he gained work experience as a working student at a medium-sized company, and later at Robert Bosch GmbH. After his bachelor’s degree, he would like to pursue a master’s degree in logistics in combination with environmental-oriented fields. After studying industrial management, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Payam Dehdari  specialised in logistics. For over 10 years, he was responsible for logistics topics in a company stretching across different industries, like automotive and industrial goods. Since 2018, he has been a professor for sustainable logistics and lean methods at HFT Stuttgart. His expertise is designing systems and optimising processes in transport, warehousing and inventory management. Prof. Dr. Thomas Bäumer  is a social psychologist with a focus on consumer and decision research. For almost 10 years, he worked at GIM (Gesellschaft für Innovative Marktforschung mbH) as a market researcher. For more than five years, he has been a professor for psychological market research at HFT Stuttgart. His expertise lies in the conception, execution and analysis of surveys with a focus on consumer understanding. After studying mathematics and economics, Prof. Dr. Helmut Wlcek  specialised in logistics. For more than 15 years, he was responsible for logistics topics in companies from different industries, such as chemicals, automotive, industrial goods and logistics services. Since 2017, he has been a professor for logistics and production management at the University for Applied Sciences in Esslingen. His expertise is designing systems and optimising processes in transport, warehousing and inventory management.

3

The Importance of Process Data Collection Techniquesfor Urban Logistics Planning

3

Lars Mauch, Rebecca Litauer, Steffen Bengel, Bernd Bienzeisler

Abstract

Urbanisation, the rise of e‐commerce and the attempt to reduce air pollution in German cities has placed transportation in the spotlight of public debate. Logistics companies and vehicle manufacturers have since begun developing new concepts for distributing goods using emission‐free vehicles. Such concepts are often centred on an additional turnaround of goods within the city borders. As a result, the delivery process differs heavily from that of conventional goods distribution. Therefore, city planners and logistics companies require profound data to identify suitable areas for micro hubs, electric chargers or the optimisation of delivery routes. This paper describes how data from different sources can be used to develop new tools for decision making to reorganise the last mile. Keywords

Urban Logistics · Transportation · Parcel Delivery · Logistics Process Data · GPS Tracker · Survey Methods · Data Analysis

Lars Mauch ( ) · Rebecca Litauer · Bernd Bienzeisler Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Engineering IAO, Stuttgart, Germany e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] Steffen Bengel University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany e-mail: [email protected] © Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020 P. Planing, P. Müller, P. Dehdari, T. Bäumer (Eds.), Innovations for Metropolitan Areas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-60806-7_3

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3  The Importance of Process Data Collection Techniques

3.1 Introduction Urban logistics, as a fundamental component of cities’ supply infrastructure, is increasingly caught between the growing demand for logistics services on the one hand and the demands of politicians and residents for a liveable and sustainable city on the other (Fossheim and Andersen 2017). In the course of increasing electrification, and thus decarbonisation, of delivery processes on the last mile, a growing corpus of publications has specifically investigated how such a conversion affects companies and cities (Bernsmann et al. 2016). Efficient logistics infrastructures and a competitive logistics industry require location‐specific solution concepts (Hompel et al. 2014). These in turn demand an informational basis that can be generated by analysing data arising within the urban public space (Hadzik 2016). Currently, such data rests in the hands of different stakeholders, such as public authorities, logistics companies and commercial data providers, and it varies heavily in quality. Each of these actors typically possesses a limited overview of the relevance of their own data, as well as the methodological potentials that can result from combining this with data sets from other actors. In most cases, the approaches taken by municipals and entrepreneurs are rather one‐dimensional, neglecting the essential distinction between various stakeholders and process levels along the logistics chain (Anand et al. 2012). In order to be able to analyse and describe the interaction between inner‐city logistics and the associated effects at the municipal level, it is therefore necessary to take logistics process data and corresponding data sources, such as urban and mobility data, into consideration (ERTRAC 2017). Classically, such data are categorised as either qualitative or quantitative. Quantitative data (e.g. flows of goods, travelled distances and number of online orders) offers the advantage of being quantifiable and verifiable. Furthermore, they are suitable for a variety of analysis methods, including the use of classical statistical models and machine and deep learning. As all three data categories mentioned above comprise geo‐referenced data, the potentials behind the application of quantitative methods are rather straightforward. In particular, the intersection and cross‐analysis of such data offers numerous advantages for concept developments in city logistics. Based on these developments, this paper highlights the research gap concerning the analysis of logistics process data within urban spaces. In this way, we seek to determine how the collection of qualitative and quantitative data can be combined into one survey technique. First, we provide an overview of current developments within city logistics research and discuss the data relevant for urban logistics planning. In section three, we initially describe a logistics process and its defining parameters in greater detail. Subsequently, we illustrate both strengths and weaknesses of the

3.2  State of Research

27

various methods for gathering process data, including accompanied deliveries and GPS data collection. Finally, we propose a technology that combines the advantages of both survey methods.

3.2

State of Research

Despite how the field of logistics has been studied for several decades, it continues to receive significant attention due to both the increasing environmental issues cities are faced with and the developments in citizens’ habits regarding e‐commerce. In particular, the continuous technological emergence of innovative delivery concepts in the urban area, including the use of autonomous (electric) vehicles and drones, contributes significantly to the diversity of public discourse (van Meldert and Boeck 2016; Savelsbergh and van Woensel 2016). Subsequently, scientific literature on urban logistics has remained fairly fragmented and incoherent. Nevertheless, in the vast majority of cases, current research has emphasised phenomena related to inner‐city deliveries, focussing on alternative distribution structures such as the use of micro‐hubs for fine distribution as well as on urban consolidation centres handling larger good deliveries (Rezende Amaral et al. 2018; Triantafyllou et al. 2014; Allen et al. 2012; Panero et al. 2011). Apart from the thematic scope, the research methodology employed in a study represents a crucial indicator for the distinction of the various scientific approaches within the field of logistics (Lagorio et al. 2016). Even though classical surveying techniques comprise the most common methods, they possess their limits, particularly concerning both time and financial costs (Pluvinet et al. 2012). As a consequence, researchers’ efforts to implement statistical modelling approaches have intensified rapidly over the course of the last decade (Lagorio et al. 2016). Due to an increasing number of vehicles being equipped with in‐vehicle satellite navigation systems, GPS‐based methods are exceptionally relevant, as they enable the automatic collection of vehicle routes and stops. Analyses based on such data can, for example, provide new information regarding delivery hot spots and identify the roads that are frequently used for transportation. However, this does not provide a global overview of freight flows and operations. As a result, even though GPS‐based methods seem to feature several methodological advantages, they have rarely been applied in urban good distribution studies (Pluvinet et al. 2012). To acquire valuable results using these methodological approaches, it is necessary to consider the type of data being collected and used. To this day, the persistent

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3  The Importance of Process Data Collection Techniques

major challenge consists of identifying and providing already existing databases (Schieferdecker and Mattauch 2018). Spatial structural data, categorised as urban data, are particularly relevant for analysing processes within public spaces. They enable directly allocating traffic cells and support small‐scale geo‐referencing. By contrast, mobility data describe relevant flow characteristics, such as the actually realised or assumed traffic or mobility behaviour, including the number of journeys, distances travelled, destinations visited and means of transport used. While public actors are primarily oriented towards visible and measurable parameters of logistics processes, such as traffic obstructions and pollutant emissions, private actors largely depend on granular process data. The latter is mostly collected and analysed within logistics companies in order to monitor and evaluate distribution areas, and consequently improve performances by analysing the optimum number of parcels per tour and optimising distribution routes (Raiber 2015). As these represent highly sensitive company data, access to such data sources is often denied. Accordingly, current one‐sided research contributions primarily fail in favour of the analysis and problem solving of freely accessible or easily measurable consequences of inner‐city delivery traffic (Taniguchi et al. 2016). Furthermore, despite promising approaches in science and practice, the potential of integrating and analysing these data has not yet been fully exploited (Schieferdecker and Mattauch 2018). The following section provides an overview of the last mile delivery process as well as its most important key parameters required in order to analyse the performance and effects of urban deliveries.

3.3

City Logistics Process Data

The data arising in connection with planning and implementing logistical processes in urban space can generally be summarised into the following categories: urban data, mobility and process data (Leerkamp et al. 2015). While urban data represent material quantities (e.g. number of inhabitants and employees within a traffic cell, population density, income structures, household sizes and age structures), mobility data describe relevant characteristics of individuals taking part in the traffic to be observed (e.g. number of journeys by destination and by vehicle). City logistics process data, meanwhile, describe vehicle movements within delivery areas, as well as freight forwarders’ activities on the last mile. In order to analyse the performance of these activities and quantify environmental effects, certain key parameters are required. These parameters can include data on the vehicle’s movement, the driver’s behaviour and the transported goods.

3.3  City Logistics Process Data

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Fig. 3.1  Schematics of the last mile distribution process

Fig. 3.1 presents a simplified flow chart of a last mile distribution process. It starts from the moment the loaded vehicle leaves the carrier’s depot and drives to the delivery area. Usually, depots are located close to the city border with fast access to a highway. However, the driving distance to the delivery area depends on the depot’s placement and can vary significantly between cities. The distance driven, traffic congestion and the terrain’s elevation also heavily influence the time needed to reach the first delivery stop. These parameters in turn strongly influence fuel consumption and CO2 emission.

3.3.1 Search for Parking Spot When the driver is close to the first or next customer, he must search for a suitable parking spot. Depending on the customer type, loading and unloading goods can be performed either on or off street. While commercial recipients, such as shopping malls, possess dedicated off‐street loading bays, goods for retailers have to be unloaded on‐street. Due to the lack of dedicated loading zones in urban areas, drivers are often forced to double‐park their vehicle or use sidewalks to unload. Fig. 3.2 illustrates the distribution of different delivery spots based on a survey we performed in Stuttgart, Germany. Notably, one third of all deliveries were conducted while the vehicle was double‐parked. In order to quantify the obstruction of traffic, we must also take the duration and vehicle size into consideration (Ambrosini et al. 2010).

3.3.2 Loading and Unloading of Goods If the driver cannot find a suitable parking spot close to the customer, he must walk longer distances, which represents a common issue during parcel deliveries. After eventually finding a place to park, the driver must then search for the next delivery in the back of the vehicle. For pallet cargo, this is typically not an issue, but when delivering different‐sized parcels, the search time can be significant. This espe-

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Fig. 3.2  Average distribution of different delivery spots in Stuttgart

cially represents a problem when the vehicle is not equipped with a shelf system. Regarding loading bays, long waiting times can occur when the loading personnel is not ready to receive the cargo or when all loading bays are occupied. In this case, the driver parks the vehicle in a waiting position close to the loading bay on the customer’s premise, which generally causes no disturbance to other traffic. When unloading deliveries, the use and handling of a hand‐ or pallet truck also represents an important factor for consideration. After the last delivery is performed, the driver returns to the depot.

3.4

Methodological Approaches for the Collection of Process Data

A wide range of different techniques exist for collecting process data of urban deliveries. In this section, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of accompanied deliveries and GPS‐data collection. While accompanied deliveries can help us understand specific problems by providing descriptive data, new technologies like GPS offer the potential to provide significant amounts of process data at low cost. At the end of this section, we describe a new tool that helps us to improve accompanied deliveries by combining it with GPS data.

3.4  Methodological Approaches for the Collection of Process Data

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3.4.1 Accompanied Deliveries A rather basic method to collect process data is to accompany a driver on his delivery tour. This task is usually performed by a member of a research institution, who acts as a co‐driver. His responsibility is to document each step of the delivery process by filling out a standardised form, as seen in Fig. 3.3 (Allen and Browne 2008). By observing the delivery process, detailed information on the following data can be collected (Allen and Browne 2008): • General information on the tour, such as date, start and end time, and vehicle size. • The type and quantity of goods, including the number and size of pallets and parcels, as well as their packaging. • Obstructions by other traffic. • Parking situation (double‐parking, sidewalk, industry compound, etc.). • Information on the handling of goods (use of hand trucks, difficulties faced). • Unforeseen incidents can be noted as free text (reason for long waiting times). This technique features major disadvantages compared to modern data collection methods. For one, the data collection phase is highly labour intense, and as the results are documented on paper, they must be transferred to a computer manually for later analysis. Furthermore, this descriptive data is not suitable to be automatically processed by algorithms, nor is it useful to big data analyses, such as machine or deep learning. In addition, it is not possible to merge the data with geo‐coordinates, as the only information on hand is the delivery stop’s address.

Fig. 3.3  Standardised form to record process data. (Adapted from Schäfer et al. 2017)

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3  The Importance of Process Data Collection Techniques

3.4.2 GPS Data Collection Due to rapid developments in the field of microelectronics and information technologies, inexpensive methods for collecting vehicle movement data are now widely available (Taniguchi et al. 2016). Modern premium vehicles are often equipped with on‐board GPS units that transfer the vehicle’s position in real time to the car manufacturer (Hochgürtel 2018). As this data is not freely available to logistics companies and research institutions, additional recording devices have to be installed. These can be charged through a cigar lighter socket, however, so the recording time is only limited by the device’s memory capacity. In past surveys, we have used GPS data as a collection method for process data. The data set provides information such as date, time, latitude, longitude and speed. One advantage is that the data provided by the tracking device is usually saved as a csv‐file, so it can be easily analysed using programming languages like Python and R. By using self‐written programs, we can also automate data analysis and visualisation, and consequently minimise the need for manual data editing. First, our self‐written algorithm checks the data set for errors or missing data. A typical reason for missing data (coordinates) could be loss of the GPS signal due to the vehicle driving underground. In a second step, we extract and calculate the actual process parameters: • Delivery stops can be identified from the data set by filtering segments with a speed less than 3 km/h and a stop duration longer than 150 seconds. This excludes stops caused by traffic lights (Pluvinet et al. 2012). However, these criteria also apply to longer stops, such as lunch breaks or unplanned waiting times, which could thus be falsely interpreted as delivery stops. • Due to the GPS signal’s inaccuracy, there is often a cluster of coordinates surrounding the vehicle’s actual parking position. Those points have to be removed, as they would alter the result of further calculations (Raiber et al. 2016). • The total distance driven can be calculated as the sum of all distances between two coordinates. Similarly, we can also calculate the vehicle’s acceleration and speed. In the third step, we enrich the data set by adding information requested via application programming interfaces (APIs) from geospatial platform providers, such as Google Maps or open street maps: • Map‐matching functions allow us to smooth or reconstruct the track if coordinates are missing.

3.4  Methodological Approaches for the Collection of Process Data

33

Fig. 3.4 Elevation profile of a pallet cargo delivery tour in Stuttgart

• Altitudes are added to the corresponding coordinates. This enables us to create elevation profiles that are necessary to estimate fuel consumption, potentials for vehicle electrification and CO2 emissions. • In a final step, we use the function revers geocoding to add addresses to each delivery stop. Fig. 3.4 visualises an elevation profile that we created using the elevation API of Google Maps. The large points within the graph indicate automatically detected delivery stops. A considerable amount of information can be extracted from a GPS track. Nevertheless, the method lacks the insights that can only be generated by accompanied deliveries.

3.4.3 Logistics Tracker Merging quantitative data from GPS tracking devices and qualitative data from accompanied deliveries can provide a more in‐depth understanding of delivery processes on the last mile. Therefore, we developed a tool that combines the advantages of both techniques. We chose to use inexpensive Android smartphones as recording devices that run our self‐developed application “Logistics Tracker”, written in the programming language Java. Since no special equipment is needed, the tool can be easily made available to logistics companies and other research institutions. Fig. 3.5 illustrates our app’s user interface with selectable states that describe the current step within the delivery process. A frame around the state’s box always indicates the currently selected state. If a button is pressed, a drop‐down menu opens whereby the user can specify the selected state. The following states can be selected: • • • •

Engine (on/off) Driving (urban/highway) Manoeuvring (on street/off‐street) Delivery stop (double‐parking, parking spot, sidewalk)

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3  The Importance of Process Data Collection Techniques

Fig. 3.5  Logistics Tracker User Interface displayed on an Android Tablet

• Handling of goods (use of hand truck, nature of freight) • Barriers (traffic, obstacles) • Break Our goal was to develop an easy‐to‐use app. As such, we added some functionalities that help the observer to reliably select the correct status even during stressful and hectic periods of the delivery process. To this end, we chose to colour the state buttons differently to avoid incorrect status selections. If a false status has been selected, it can be deleted and altered in a sub‐menu (Fig. 3.5). Each state is saved in a data frame with its corresponding coordinates, date and time—similar to that of GPS devices. This enables us to differentiate between stops that were caused by a longer break and deliveries, which is not possible by solely analysing the GPS track. As an additional feature, we added functions to add pictures and voice memos to the data set. When the data collection is completed, the raw data is transferred over the smartphone’s Internet connection to our server, where it is automatically processed (Fig. 3.6).

3.5 Conclusion In the context of optimising urban logistics on the last mile, this paper offers a new perspective by highlighting the importance of logistics process data. While such data is commonly analysed within logistics companies, public stakeholders have not yet made sufficient use of this data despite their essentiality to more sustainably and efficiently plan distribution structures. Reasons for this could include the wide range of data and processing techniques, which require a considerable amount of personnel resources. Table 3.1 compares the three process data collection methods that provide suitable parameters to develop future logistics concepts.

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3.5 Conclusion

Fig. 3.6  Automatically generated overview of performance data

The ratings for each category range from 0 (less useful/high collection effort) up to +++ (useful/high level of automation). While accompanied deliveries can provide an in‐depth view due to the descriptive nature of the resulting data, GPS data collection can provide a sufficient basis for data analysis. Concerning data collection costs, accompanied deliveries always require personnel for data collection and manual digitisation (0), while data collected by the “Logistics Tracker” can be transferred effortlessly via an Internet connection (+). In particular, conducting large‐scale surveys is relatively easy, as the GPS devices only have to be handed out to the truck drivers, while the data analysis can be performed automatically (+++). We propose using GPS data collection methods Table 3.1  Comparison of different survey techniques for data collection. (Adapted from Pluvinet et al. 2012)

Geographical reference Nature of freight (2C/2B) Length and duration Hand truck used Stops (location/duration) Loading and unloading Data collection costs Data processing costs

Accompanied deliveries (observations) + ++

GPS‐Track +++ 0

Logistics‐Tracker (GPS‐Track + Digitised Observations) +++ +++

+ ++ + ++(+) 0 0

+++ 0 ++(+) 0 +++ +++

+++ +++ +++ ++(+) + +++

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3  The Importance of Process Data Collection Techniques

for larger surveys tracking fleets over a longer period of time. Based on the results of this analysis, delivery tours with unexpected parameters should be selected for future accompanied deliveries aided by the Logistics Tracker. As this method still relies on human input, however, we also encourage future research to continue developing methods that utilise new technologies in the field of outdoor localisation with the aim of further automising the collection of detailed process data.

References Allen, J., & Browne, M. (2008). Review of survey techniques used in urban freight studies. Allen, J., Browne, M., Woodburn, A., & Leonardi, J. (2012). The role of urban consolidation centres in sustainable freight transport. Transport Reviews, 32(4), 473–490. Ambrosini, C., Patier, D., & Routhier, J.-L. (2010). Urban freight establishment and tour based surveys for policy oriented modelling. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(3), 6013–6026. Anand, N., Quak, H., van Duin, R., & Tavasszy, L. (2012). City logistics modeling efforts: Trends and gaps-A review. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 39, 101–115. Bernsmann, A., Clausen, U., Heinrichmeyer, H., & Stütz, S. (2016). ZF Future Study 2016, Last Mile Logistics: Fraunhofer-Institut für Materialfluss und Logistik IML, Stuttgart. ERTRAC. (2017). Integrated Urban Mobility Roadmap: Joint ERTRAC-ERRAC-ALICE Working Group on Urban Mobility. Fossheim, K., & Andersen, J. (2017). Plan for sustainable urban logistics – comparing between Scandinavian and UK practices. European Transport Research Review, 9, 52. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12544-017-0270-8. Hadzik, T. (2016). Smart Cities: Eine Bestandsaufnahme von Smart City-Konzepten in der Praxis: epubli, Berlin. Hochgürtel, H. (2018). GPS-und Mobilfunkdaten in Verkehrsplanung und Verkehrsmanagement. In Mobilität und digitale Transformation (pp. 597–608): Springer. Hompel, M. ten, Kirsch, C., & Kirks, T. (2014). Zukunftspfade der Logistik–Technologien, Prozesse und Visionen zur vierten industriellen Revolution. In Enterprise-Integration (pp. 203–213): Springer. Lagorio, A., Pinto, R., & Golini, R. (2016). Research in urban logistics: a systematic literature review. International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, 46(10), 908–931. Leerkamp, B., Dahmen, B., Janßen, T., & Vollmer, R. (2015). Datenanforderungen an die Weiterentwicklung kleinräumiger Verkehrsnachfragemodelle des Wirtschaftsverkehrs. van Meldert, B., & Boeck, L. de. (2016). Introducing autonomous vehicles in logistics: a review from a broad perspective. FEB Research Report KBI_1618. Panero, M. A., SHin, H.-S., & Lopez, D. P. (2011). Urban distribution centers: a means to reducing freight vehicle miles traveled. Pluvinet, P., Gonzalez-Feliu, J., & Ambrosini, C. (2012). GPS data analysis for understanding urban goods movement. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 39, 450–462. Raiber, S. (2015). Kurzstudie Innenstadtlogistik Stuttgart. Räumliche Wechselwirkungen von Innenstadtlogistikkonzepten am Beispiel des Einsatzes von Lastenrädern in der Paketzustellung. IHK Region Stuttgart, Stuttgart.

References

37

Raiber, S., Feldwieser, M., Gattari, C., & Schif, S. (2016). Urbaner Logistischer Wirtschaftsverkehr. Das Projekt. Rezende Amaral, R., Šemanjski, I., Gautama, S., & Aghezzaf, E.-H. (2018). Urban Mobility and City Logistics – Trends and Case Study. PROMET—Traffic&Transportation, 30, 613–622. https://doi.org/10.7307/ptt.v30i5.2825. Savelsbergh, M., & van Woensel, T. (2016). 50th anniversary invited article—city logistics: Challenges and opportunities. Transportation Science, 50(2), 579–590. Schäfer, P.; Quitta, A.; Blume, S. (2017). Wirtschaftsverkehr 2.0: Analyse und Empfehlungen für Belieferungsstrategien der KEP-Branche im innerstädtischen Bereich (Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences, Fachbereich 1: Architektur, Bauingenieurwesen, Geomatik. Fachgruppe Neue Mobilität). Schieferdecker, I., & Mattauch, W. (2018). ICT for Smart Cities: Innovative Solutions in the Public Space. In Computation for Humanity (pp. 150–179): CRC Press, Boca Raton. Taniguchi, E., Thompson, R. G., & Yamada, T. (2016). New opportunities and challenges for city logistics. Transportation research procedia, 12, 5–13. Triantafyllou, M. K., Cherrett, T. J., & Browne, M. (2014). Urban freight consolidation centers: Case study in the UK retail sector. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2411(1), 34–44. Lars Mauch  is a research fellow in the Competence Centre Urban Delivery Systems at the Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Engineering IAO in Heilbronn, Germany. He studied Transportation Engineering at the Karlsruhe University of Applied Sciences, where he also worked as a research assistant in the field of autonomous maintenance vehicles. His research focusses on new concepts and technologies for last mile delivery in urban environments. Rebecca Litauer  is a research fellow in the Competence Centre Urban Delivery Systems at the Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Engineering IAO in Heilbronn, Germany. She completed her studies in social sciences at the University of Stuttgart, where she also worked as a research assistant. Simultaneously, she worked for the Fraunhofer IAO within the field of urban mobility. During her studies, she primarily focussed on data processing by means of various statistical methods, including machine and deep learning. Her current research addresses innovative delivery concepts based on data generated within the urban space. Steffen Bengel  is a research fellow in the Competence Centre Urban Delivery Systems at the Institute of Human Factors and Technology Management at the University of Stuttgart, Germany. He studied geography at the Universities of Freiburg and Münster. During his studies, his research primarily focussed on human mobility within the urban space. Apart from the analysis of spatial-temporal human mobility patterns, his current work largely comprises analyses of urban logistics processes. Dr. Bernd Bienzeisler  is the head of the newly founded Fraunhofer research and innovation centre for cognitive service systems in Heilbronn, Germany. He holds a degree in organisational science and a doctoral degree in business administration. His research and consulting work focusses on data-driven business models, innovative service concepts in logistics, and similar branches.

4

Off-Peak Delivery as a Cornerstone for Sustainable Urban Logistics: Insights from Germany

4

Sebastian Stütz, Daniela Kirsch

Abstract

“Off‐peak delivery” (OPD) is considered an approach to foster sustainability in urban transport. This article provides an introduction to current OPD research themes and presents both its beneficial and detrimental effects. It eventually focusses on the German research project “GeNaLog”, which explored the technical feasibility of night delivery (ND), a special case of OPD presenting the project’s approach and key results. Regarding ecological and social impacts, GeNaLog confirms the results of various other OPD trials. In contrast to results from Verlinde and Macharis (2016) or Bertazzo et  al. (2016), who indicated possible cost reductions through OPD, GeNaLog reported a 4.8% increase in delivery costs. Hence, following Taefi, the article concludes that mere cost reductions are insufficient to promote OPD. Rather, extending the existing legal framework, similar to the Dutch “PIEK” certificate, is required to make OPD an option for sustainable urban logistics.

Sebastian Stütz ( ) Fraunhofer Institute for Material Flow and Logistics IML, Dortmund University of Applied Sciences, Dortmund, Germany e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Daniela Kirsch Fraunhofer Institute for Material Flow and Logistics IML, Dortmund, Germany e-mail: [email protected] © Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020 P. Planing, P. Müller, P. Dehdari, T. Bäumer (Eds.), Innovations for Metropolitan Areas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-60806-7_4

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4  Off-Peak Delivery as a Cornerstone for Sustainable Urban Logistics

Keywords

Off-Peak Delivery · Sustainability · Urban Logistics · Transportation · Electric Trucks

4.1 Introduction Rapid urbanisation is increasing private transport as well as urban logistics. They share the same resources, with increasing negative ramifications for land use, traffic, noise pollution and air quality (Fossheim and Andersen 2017). The European Commission identified “significant potential to improve urban logistics operations”, and has therefore prioritised sustainable urban logistics in its mobility policy (EU 2013). Urban logistics is required to reduce the following: • Tailpipe emissions from freight vehicles, • Noise pollution from delivery processes, and • Negative impact on the quality of life of the local population (EU 2019).

Fig. 4.1  Policy categories to regulate urban logistics

4.2  Defining OPD

41

Various political options exist for reaching the sustainability goals, off‐peak delivery (OPD) being one of them (Papoutsis and Nathanail 2016; Filippi et al. 2010). For a detailed perspective on other policies, see Ogden (2017). The purpose of this article is to identify the prerequisites necessary to make a special case of OPD technically and economically feasible using key insights from a recent field test in Germany (“GeNaLog”), as well as from current OPD research. Off‐peak delivery usually involves managing system capacity (Fig. 4.1), which has moved the concept into the focus of companies and researchers (Taefi 2016; Holguín‐Veras and Aros‐Vera 2015). Following a brief definition of OPD, this article outlines possible benefits and drawbacks and provides examples of OPD in practice before turning to the key results from the research project “Geräuscharme Nachtlogistik” (GeNaLog), an OPD trial using electric trucks to meet German legal noise limits. The article concludes with requirements to make OPD a cornerstone of sustainable urban logistics.

4.2

Defining OPD

Verlinde (2015) defined OPD as “deliveries taking place at a time when there is no or little traffic congestion or as deliveries taking place outside regular business hours”. A detailed definition providing precise time spans does not exist, since infrastructures and their utilisation vary across different cities (Sánchez‐Díaz et al. 2017). Fig. 4.2 illustrates alternate specifications from different OPD projects.

Fig. 4.2  Alternate definitions for “off‐peak times” from different practical applications

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4  Off-Peak Delivery as a Cornerstone for Sustainable Urban Logistics

4.2.1 OPD: Intended Benefits and Possible Disadvantages While definitions differ in detail, the joint objective is to improve capacity utilisation of the local transport network, thereby reducing congestion‐induced effects during peak hours. Separating segments of freight delivery from commuter traffic is expected to yield several benefits, which largely stem from smoothing traffic flows with fewer stop‐and‐go phases. One purported benefit is increased transport efficiency, leading to higher average speeds, shorter travel times and decreased transport costs (Holguín‐Veras et al. 2014). In addition, this allows carriers to either provide the same transport performance in shorter periods of time or to increase transport performance within a specific shift length (Slávik and Gnap 2019). Likewise, punctuality is expected to increase, possibly allowing higher load factors (Ljubicic and Pavlovic 2015). Receivers would also benefit through increased reliability and less personnel being distracted from daily operations by deliveries during business hours (Holguín‐Veras et al. 2014). Additionally, less stop‐and‐go traffic is expected to lead to lower material wear‐out for the components of combustion vehicles (e.g. brake or clutch). The same argument has been used to explain possible fuel savings, at least during off‐peak hours (Bertazzo et al. 2016). Additionally, some have emphasised social benefits, such as road safety (Ljubicic and Pavlovic 2015) and less stress caused by searching for scarce parking spots (Taefi 2016). Moreover, noise nuisances caused by congestions can be reduced, improving the quality of living in the respective area, at least during peak hours (Slávik and Gnap 2019). From a corporate perspective, OPD’s disadvantages primarily result from increased labour costs (e.g. shift allowances) and extra planning efforts for carrier and receiver (Taefi 2016). In case of unattended OPD, appropriate security measures are required to shield the cargo from environmental impacts or even theft (Bertazzo et al. 2016). According to Kecklund and Axelsson (2016), OPD may also expose workers to increased risks, such as work accidents or various medical conditions (stroke, obesity, diabetes, etc.), largely due to desynchronised circadian rhythms. As Silva and Bastos (2018) explained, the latter also impoverishes social and family life through disrupted routines and fatigue reducing one’s time for filling social roles. Possible noise nuisances and light pollution will also affect the local population, albeit during off‐ rather than peak hours. In addition, lower ambient temperatures during OPD may even increase local concentration of air pollutants (Ljubicic and Pavlovic 2015). See Fig. 4.3 for a compact overview of desirable and less desirable effects attributed to OPD.

4.2  Defining OPD

43

Fig. 4.3  OPD advantages and disadvantages according to various sources

Considering the advantages and disadvantages of OPD, a substantial, albeit not the only, obstacle to broad application becomes obvious. Cost savings are primarily incurred for the logistics service provider (forwarder/carrier). By contrast, consignees need to adapt to OPD while receiving few tangible benefits, but probably increasing costs.

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4  Off-Peak Delivery as a Cornerstone for Sustainable Urban Logistics

4.2.2 OPD Examples and Research Various practical examples for OPD exist. Trimble’s (1956) doctoral thesis cited one of the first examples of the automotive era with Boston’s ban on (un)loading in central districts during business hours, similar to Beijing’s current regulations banning daytime road haulage. As rigid traffic bans only shift congestions into the night, the usual approach is to implement OPD as a voluntary concept (Domínguez et al. 2012). Current OPD research falls into two different categories (Verlinde 2015). The American view (illustrated by the following examples) focusses on economic feasibility of OPD concepts and stakeholder acceptance. It assesses expedient incentives for consignees and frames conditions to make OPD economically attractive for all supply chain parties (Holguín‐Veras et al. 2014): • The “Off‐Hour Deliveries Program” installed in 2011 by the city of New York to mitigate congestion and pollution (New York 2019). • The “Quiet Deliveries Demonstration Scheme” developed by the city of London in 2011 (Douglas 2011). OPD became a permanent measure of traffic regulation integrated into London’s congestion charge scheme (Transport for London 2019). • The “Traffic Mitigation Fee” introduced at the Los Angeles sea port of Long Beach to shave traffic peak loads at its container terminals (Holguín‐Veras et al. 2016). • A corporate initiative from a logistics company facing substantial delivery issues during the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil (Pierpass 2019; Bertazzo et al. 2016). The European view on OPD is different, focussing on OPD’s technical feasibility and overcoming implementation obstacles, as the following examples illustrate: • Stockholm’s initiative to lower air pollution by increasing transport efficiency and promoting the adoption of clean heavy vehicles (Stockholm Stad 2015). It is currently extended to prepare a regulatory framework for night delivery (ND), a special case of OPD, which regards night as the only off‐peak period (Billsjö 2019). • GeNaLog in Germany (discussed below). From the European perspective, knowing how to achieve legal compliance with strict European noise regulations represents a crucial precondition for OPD (Verlinde 2015). Recent contributions from Holguín‐Veras et al. (2018) and Slávik and Gnap (2019) have confirmed that more research in the field of noise‐reduced logistics and ND is required.

4.3  “GeNaLog”, a Recent OPD Trial in German with Electric Trucks

4.3

45

“GeNaLog”, a Recent OPD Trial in German with Electric Trucks

Noise‐reduced OPD through ND is exactly what the research project “Geräusch­ arme Logistikdienstleitungen für Innenstädte durch den Einsatz von Elektromobilität (GeNaLog)” (English: “Low noise logistics service for urban areas based on electric vehicles”) investigated. That project, co‐funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research, extended from December 2013 to February 2015 and from June 2015 to September 2017, led by the Fraunhofer Institutes IML and ISI. GeNaLog’s objective was to design and trial a new logistics service based on the principles of OPD in order to reduce noise nuisances and pollution by shifting food and non‐food deliveries to night time (10pm to 6am) using electric trucks. Strict German regulation on noise emissions represented both motivation and challenge for the project, as noise limits of 45 dB in urban and 35–40 dB in residential areas (10pm to 6am, TA 2017) applied. In contrast, Dutch low noise certification “PIEK”, broadly adopted outside the Netherlands, classifies a truck meeting a noise limit of 72 dB as “silent” (PIEK 2018). To illustrate, the German limit corresponds to noise of a conversation at 3 m distance, while PIEK’s is equivalent to road traffic at a distance of less than 15 m (Norton and Karczub 2003). This illustrates why GeNaLog’s consortium considered it pivotal to deploy electric delivery vehicles for the trials established in co‐operation with three German retailers. In order to develop a holistic view of the supply chain, GeNaLog was divided into four main tasks (cf. Fig. 4.4).

Fig. 4.4  GeNaLog’s main tasks

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4  Off-Peak Delivery as a Cornerstone for Sustainable Urban Logistics

Fig. 4.5  Noise sources identified in GeNaLog

The first step was to develop a detailed understanding of current delivery processes in order to identify opportunities for noise reduction before the actual trials. Fig. 4.5 illustrates key results from the process analysis highlighting the main noise sources. Based on these conceptual insights, the consortium analysed the sources during test runs in three separate daytime noise surveys. Under consideration of German regulations, these recorded noise emissions of 57 dB(A) revealed a clear need for substantial noise reduction before the trials. Subsequent surveys helped to identify effective noise‐reducing measures. First, the vehicle’s compressor was identified as a major noise source and could be effectively silenced using a proper muffler. Additionally, the tail lift accounted for various types of noises: 1. Tail lift touching the concrete ground of the loading bay 2. Fork lifts being dragged over the edge of the tail lift 3. Roller containers being moved over the edge of the tail lift 4. Moving the tail lift in order to open/close the cargo compartment 5. Tail lift touching the cargo compartment when being lifted Following the tests, the tail lift was silenced with absorbing mats and a rubber lip attached to its edges. Moreover, the roller containers were substituted by models

4.3  “GeNaLog”, a Recent OPD Trial in German with Electric Trucks

47

with soft rubber wheels. Noise surveys finally recorded a reduced noise level, confirming that legally compliant ND in Germany seemed infeasible with combustion engines. Electric trucks were found to be one part of the solution, but still, some noise issues remained: • A technical solution to silently closing the driver cabin’s door was missing. • Cabin radio should be turned off when approaching sensitive areas, such as through geo fencing. Truck manufacturers were contacted in the project, but they could not deliver a solution for either issue. The results of market research activities for suitable low‐noise appliances can be publicly accessed through GeNaLog’s technology database at http://plattform.genalog.de. The trials took place as a five‐week test phase in different areas of Cologne and could be integrated in current operations with minor process changes. In cooperation with the city of Cologne, three subsidiaries were selected following the production of a noise certificate. Vehicle dispatch modified delivery routes for the electric truck to serve two of the three subsidiaries each night. The trials’ one‐time nature helped to minimise process changes. However, it became evident that scaling up ND will bring about various changes. It remains unclear whether broad application of ND will replace all roller containers with silent counterparts or lead to different types of containers in the supply chain. The final decision will have to balance process costs of handling different container types and cost‐savings of using standard non‐ noise‐reduced equipment. Next, distribution centre capacities utilisation could be smoothed, reducing logistics costs once ND enables harmonising delivery time windows. While this touches a common issue of OPD (sharing benefits), for retail companies running their own logistics operations, such as in GeNaLog, this constitutes a non‐issue. Range and payload restrictions of electric trucks are known to make vehicle dispatch more complex. In contrast, range restrictions could turn out less critical due to route optimisation under broader (ND) time windows. Finally, larger ND application will affect the process of distribution network planning due to new requirements in terms of noise protection, but also in terms of electric charging or storage capabilities. Certified surveyors conducted noise surveys at three different stores in Cologne. All stores were located in different areas of Cologne so that different noise limits applied. As Table 4.1 illustrates, all trials were able to demonstrate legally compliant ND. GeNaLog integrated various stakeholders into the project. Several meetings with local authorities (Dortmund and Cologne) assessed perspectives on ND (results

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4  Off-Peak Delivery as a Cornerstone for Sustainable Urban Logistics

Table 4.1  Noise levels for the GeNaLog trials: limits, projected, and recorded noise levels Store location 1 2 3

Noise limit (TA 2017) in db(A) 40 45 50

Projected noise level in db(A) 40 45 44

Recorded noise level in db(A) 33 32–39 42–49

Fig. 4.6  Stakeholders’ view on night time delivery

summarised in Fig. 4.6). Local authorities shared the concept’s objectives to decouple deliveries and private traffic and expected this to reduce noise nuisances and emissions while maintaining current logistics service levels. As an additional result, the electric trucks were considered crucial to achieve legal compliance with noise regulations.

49

4.4  Conclusions: GeNaLog and Beyond

Table 4.2  GeNaLog’s effects on delivery costs and emissions, effect relative to standard delivery Greenhouse gas emissions (German energy mix 2016) Greenhouse gas emissions (100% renewable energy) Delivery costs

2017 (actual) in %   −7

2027 (projection) in % −11

−25

−25

   4.8

  −1.3

The local population was integrated into the project while preparing the trials. Households within reach of the respective stores and connecting roads were informed via mail (store location, date and time, project lead and contact details). Following the trials, no complaints were recorded. Rather, it was revealed that locals had not even noticed them at all and subsequently praised the general approach to shift deliveries into off‐hours in order to avoid interferences with customers and population. The project utilised structured interviews to collect information from drivers, who confirmed several aspects of stress reduction. These were primarily due to operating a low‐noise, vibration‐reduced truck through non‐congested roads with several traffic lights switched off. Loading and unloading at the distribution centre could be processed with less interferences, and the delivery process required less or no waiting time approaching the destination. As a new stress factor, drivers mentioned the process changes required ensuring noise‐reduced delivery. Having finished the trials, the GeNaLog determined changes in delivery costs and emissions. While greenhouse gas emissions could be cut by at least 7% compared to delivery with combustion vehicles, process changes and, notably, the deployment of electric trucks caused an increase of 4.8% in delivery costs (cf. Table 4.2). The underlying calculations are based on various cost components (vehicle, maintenance, tyres, fuel/electricity, bonuses for work at night, etc.). For an extensive presentation of the calculation model, see Vastag et al. (2017).

4.4

Conclusions: GeNaLog and Beyond

In summary, GeNaLog demonstrated that, in Germany, legally compliant ND is technically feasible if electric trucks are utilised. In contrast to Holguín‐Veras et al. (2016) or Verlinde et al. (2010), who reported tangible cost savings for logistics companies, GeNaLog’s results suggest that electrified ND is currently not economically attractive for logistics companies. Since cost projections suggest profitable

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4  Off-Peak Delivery as a Cornerstone for Sustainable Urban Logistics

ND in the near future, all retailers involved expressed ongoing interest in the concept. Not surprisingly, municipalities are interested in ND as a means to increase quality of life through reduced traffic and air pollution. Besides ecological benefits and smooth traffic flows, Holguín‐Veras et al. (2018) named contributions to road safety (fewer conflicts between pedestrians and freight vehicles) and benefits for the urban economy through (30–50%) lower last mile costs. Authorities usually require noise abatement measures for ND (Verlinde and Macharis 2016), but as LaBelle and Frève (2016) revealed in their review of numerous ND projects, complaints by local residents are exceptionally rare. This places the focus back on regulatory incentives, but requires a broader view than achieved by, for example, Holguín‐Veras et al. (2016), Domínguez et al. (2012) or Silas (2009), who, assuming that OPD is actually beneficial for the carrier, regarded the receiver as the crucial factor for creating OPD demand. According to GeNaLog, local authorities represent key players for ND being able to generate economic incentives for shippers and receivers alike. Since ND in Germany has to rely on special permits, whereas in the Netherlands, PIEK has been created to stimulate innovations in the field of sustainable delivery, one step towards creating incentives is evident: ND requires a commonly accepted legal standard allowing municipalities to issue licenses without having to rely on individual applications, measurements and special permits. Likewise, logistics companies and receivers benefit from investment security once specific processes or devices receive a formal seal of approval for ND applications. For logistics businesses, ND means innovation, because noise limitations require deploying electric vehicles, and thus adopting non‐standard hardware and processes to reduce noise. Most importantly, however, in the face of competitive pressure and questionable economic benefits of ND (according to GeNaLog), it is necessary to develop refined ND business models to ensure delivery cost savings and a positive return on investment. Since products and services from manufacturers of vehicles, vehicle bodies, and ancillary equipment (forklifts, roller containers etc.) support logistics companies in establishing legally compliant ND, they require guidance, such as in the exact requirements for legally compliant ND. Again, legally sanctioned standards for ND can provide orientation to develop suitable products. A drop in operating costs will not necessarily stimulate ND’s broad application in Germany, though its attractiveness will become apparent (Taefi 2016). The remaining administrative obstacles and investment insecurities have to be removed, too. To do so, an approach similar to the Dutch PIEK seems suitable.

References

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References Bertazzo, T., Hino, C., Lobão, T., Tacla, D., & Yoshizaki, H. (2016). Business case for night deliveries in the city of São Paulo during the 2014 World Cup. Transportation Research Procedia, 12, 533–543. Billsjö, R. (2019). Night-time deliveries using clean and silent vehicles, https://civitas.eu/ sites/default/files/sto_7.4_night-time_deliveries_using_clean_and_silent_vehicles.pdf. Accessed 10 September 2019. Domínguez, A., Holguín-Veras, J., Ibeas, Á., & dell’Olio, L. (2012). Receivers’ response to new urban freight policies. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 54: 886–896. Douglas, C. (2011). Quiet Deliveries Demonstration Scheme—Final Project Report. London: Department for Transport. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/ system/uploads/attachment_data/file/4007/quiet-deliveries-demo-scheme-final-projectreport.pdf. Accessed 10 September 2019. EU (2013). Together towards competitive and resource-efficient urban mobility. COM (2013) 913 final. https://ec.europa.eu/transport/sites/transport/files/themes/urban/doc/ump/ com%282013%29913_en.pdf. Accessed 10 September 2019. EU (2019). EU policies and actions.https://ec.europa.eu/sustainable-development/about_en. Accessed 10 September 2019. Filippi, F., Nuzzolo, A., Comi, A. et al. (2010). Ex-ante assessment of urban freight transport policies. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences 2(3), 6332–6342. Fossheim, K., & Andersen, J. (2017). Plan for sustainable urban logistics—comparing between Scandinavian and UK practices. European Transport Research Review, 9(4), 1–13. Holguín-Veras, J., & Aros-Vera, F. (2015). Self-supported freight demand management: pricing and incentives. Euro Journal on transportation and Logistics, 4(2), 237–260. Holguín-Veras, J., Wang, C., Browne, M., Hodge, S.D., & Wojtowicz, J. (2014). The New York city off-hour delivery project: lessons for city logistics. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 125, 36–48. Holguín-Veras, J., Sánchez-Díaz, I., & Browne, M. (2016). Sustainable urban freight systems and freight demand management. Transportation Research Procedia, 12, 40–52. Holguín-Veras, J., Encarnación, T., González-Calderón, CA., Winebrake, J., Wang, C., Kyle, S., Herazo-Padilla, N., Kalahasthi, L., Adarme, W., Cantillo, V., Yoshizaki, H., & Garrido, R. (2018). Direct impacts of off-hour deliveries on urban freight emissions. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 61, 84–103. Kecklund, G., & Axelsson, J. (2016). Health consequences of shift work and insufficient sleep. British Medical Journal, 355, i5210. LaBelle, J., & Frève, S.F. (2016). Exploring the potential for off peak delivery in Metropolitan Chicago: research findings and conclusions, NURail Project ID: NURail 2015-UIC-R15, Urban Transportation Center, University of Illinois, Chicago. Ljubicic, H., & Pavlovic, J. (2015). Urban logistics systems and night goods delivery. In 2nd Logistics International Conference, 321–326. New York (2019). Off-Hour Deliveries (OHD) Program.https://www1.nyc.gov/html/dot/html/ motorist/offhoursdelivery.shtml. Accessed 10 September 2019. Norton, M.P., & Karczub, DG. (2003). Fundamentals of noise and vibration analysis for engineers. Cambridge university press. Ogden, K.W. (2017). Urban Goods Movement: A guide to Policy and Planning. Routledge, New York.

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Papoutsis, K., & Nathanail, E. (2016). Facilitating the selection of city logistics measures through a concrete measures package: A generic approach. Transportation Research Procedia 12, 679–691. PIEK. (2018). Measurement methods for piek noise during loading and unloading (2018 update). Pierpass. (2019). Pierpass: OffPeak 2.0. https://www.pierpass.org/about/offpeak-2-0. Accessed 10 September 2019. Silas, M.A. (2009). An investigation on off-hour delivery policy design using optimal incentives and a behavioral micro-simulation approach. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy. Silva, I.S., & Bastos, R. (2018). Shift work—change from semi-continuous to continuous system. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 31(7), 1461–1470. Slávik, R., & Gnap, J. (2019). Selected Problems of Night-Time Distribution of Goods within City Logistics. Transportation Research Procedia, 40, 497–504. Stockholm Stad. (2015). Stockholm Freight Plan 2014–2017.https://frevue.eu/wp-content/ uploads/2016/02/The-Stockholm-Freight-Plan-2014-2017.pdf. Accessed 10 September 2019. Sánchez-Díaz, I., Georén, P., & Brolinson, M. (2017). Shifting urban freight deliveries to the off-peak hours: a review of theory and practice. Transport reviews, 37(4), 521–543. TA (2017). Sixth general administrative regulation of the Federal Immission Control Act of 26 August 1998—Technical instruction for the protection against noise—TA noise, amended 9 June 2017. Taefi, T.T. (2016). Viability of electric vehicles in combined day and night delivery: a total cost of ownership example in Germany. European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research, 16(4), 600–618. Transport for London (2019). Retiming deliveries.https://tfl.gov.uk/info-for/deliveries-inlondon/delivering-efficiently/retiming-deliveries. Accessed 10 September 2019. Trimble OM. (1956). Trucks and urban congestion (Doctoral dissertation, Georgia Institute of Technology). Vastag, A. (ed), Kirsch, D., Bernsmann, A., Moll, C., & Stockmann, M. (2017). Potenziale einer geräuscharmen Nachtlogistik, Fraunhofer, Stuttgart. Verlinde, S. (2015). Promising but challenging urban freight transport solutions: freight flow consolidation and off-hour deliveries (Doctoral dissertation, Ghent University). Verlinde, S., & Macharis, C. (2016). Innovation in urban freight transport: The triple Helix model. Transportation Research Procedia, 14, 1250–1259. Verlinde, S., Macharis, C., Debauche, W., Heemeryck, A., Van Hoeck, E., & Witlox, F. (2010). Night-time delivery as a potential option in Belgian urban distribution: a stakeholder approach. In Proceedings of the WCTR Conference, Lisbon, Portugal, 11–15. Dr. Sebastian Stütz  is deputy professor for business studies and logistics at Dortmund University of Applied Sciences. After his doctorate in production economics, he worked at different positions in revenue management and industrial engineering at the United Parcel Service Germany. Subsequently, he spent six years working as a scientist in the field of transportation logistics at Fraunhofer Institute for Material Flow and Logistics IML. He is an expert in urban logistics, electrified freight delivery and distribution logistics, notably for last mile delivery.

References

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Daniela Kirsch  leads the team ‘urban logistics and electromobility’ at Fraunhofer Institute for Material Flow and Logistics IML. She worked in the field of multi-modal logistics and electrified freight delivery for almost 10 years. She was responsible for the research project GeNaLog (night-time delivery with electric trucks) and possesses expertise in preparing future studies, last mile delivery and urban logistics.

5

Longer Trucks for Climate-Friendly Transportsin Metropolitan Regions

5

Christoph Lindt, Maren-Linn Janka, Payam Dehdari

Abstract

As a result of climate change, companies around the world are setting targets for reducing their carbon footprints, either voluntarily or due to action taken by their host countries. These businesses seek to reduce their CO2e (carbon dioxide equivalent) emissions and costs simultaneously by implementing sustainable and innovative concepts. The food trade can make a substantial contribution to reducing CO2e emissions with its significant share of the overall transport industry’s volume. Lidl, one of the largest German food retailers, features a particularly extensive distribution network within the metropolitan regions. One of these innovative concepts for reducing CO2e emissions involves the use of longer trucks, which could reduce the food industry’s emissions by 15–25%. This study’s goal is to analyse and assess the potential of this proposed change for Lidl and to develop recommendations for action. In addition to a comprehensive literature review, guided expert interviews were conducted with forwarding agents using the longer trucks. Following this, a quantitative analysis of transport routes was performed, and the distance‐based method was employed for CO2e calculations.

Christoph Lindt ( ) · Payam Dehdari HFT Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany e-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Maren-Linn Janka Lidl Stiftung & Co. KG, Neckarsulm, Germany e-mail: [email protected] © Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020 P. Planing, P. Müller, P. Dehdari, T. Bäumer (Eds.), Innovations for Metropolitan Areas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-60806-7_5

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5  Longer Trucks for Climate-Friendly Transports

In a  Germany‐wide transport system from one supplier to one hub, annual CO2e savings of 21.2% and cost savings of 29.8% can be achieved. Significantly more potential exists to extend the use of longer trucks to various other suppliers and hubs. For example, Lidl delivers to 36 other hubs in Germany. Challenges for longer trucks include restrictions on certain routes throughout Europe, weight limits and the general prohibition of inner‐city traffic. Keywords

Longer Truck · Sustainability · Green Logistics · Mobility · Metropolitan Region · Innovation · Retail

5.1

CO2e Savings due to Longer Trucks

Recognising the threat that climate change poses to the planet (Masson‐Delmotte et al. 2018), countries (BMWi n.d.) and companies (Robert Bosch GmbH 2019) have established goals for reducing greenhouse gases. To achieve these goals, they seek to reduce CO2e emissions and costs simultaneously by implementing innovative and sustainable concepts (Weidmann et al. 2009). According to the report of the “Bundesanstalt für Strassenwesen” (BAST), these innovative concepts could include the use of longer trucks, which can reduce CO2e emissions by an estimated 15–25% (Irzik et al. 2018). In Germany, a longer truck describes a vehicle or vehicle combination exceeding the usual length of 18.75 m, but with a potential maximum length of 25.25 m. As for weight, as with conventional trucks, the longer trucks must not exceed a total weight of 40 t. In combined transport, a total weight of 44 t is allowed. In other countries, the total weight may exceed 40 t, and so the vehicles are called longer and heavier trucks (Der Rat der Europäischen Union 1996). For this chapter, the term “longer truck” is used synonymously for a longer and/or heavier truck. The Richtlinie 96/53/EG provides the legal basis for dimensions and weights for heavy‐duty vehicles in Europe. For national long‐distance transports, it is possible for the individual member states to permit longer trucks with greater length and weight. Clear guidelines apply for cross‐border traffic in Europe. The total weight and length possess the same limits as in Germany. According to the Richtlinie 96/53/EG, cross‐border traffic with longer trucks between neighbouring states is not possible unless a bilateral agreement is reached with the neighbouring states. Transit through a third country is generally not permitted (Irzik et al. 2018; Der Rat der Europäischen Union 1996). In Germany there are five different types of longer trucks (Irzik et al. 2018) (Fig. 5.1). In addition to the described differences in length and total weight, a longer truck also features more pallet slots. A conventional truck usually offers 34 pallet slots,

5.1  CO2e Savings due to Longer Trucks

57

Fig. 5.1  Types of longer trucks in Germany. (Reproduced from Irzik et al. 2018)

but longer trucks of type two or three, which are primarily used in Germany, possess up to 53 pallets slots. As a result, more goods can be transported compared to conventional trucks (Kienzler et al. 2017). Since fewer trucks can be used to carry the same amount of transported goods, cost and environmental benefits can result (Irzik et al. 2018).

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5.2

5  Longer Trucks for Climate-Friendly Transports

Distribution Network of Lidl within Metropolitan Regions

The food trade can substantially contribute to reducing CO2e emissions with its significant share of the overall transport industry’s volume (Statistisches Bundesamt 2017). Furthermore, one of the largest German food retailers is Lidl. This company supplies all of its branch stores in Germany, as well as stores in other European countries, via certain order rhythms. The branch stores do not receive direct deliveries from the supplier, but rather from strategically located distribution centres. A total of 68.5% of the German population lives in metropolitan areas (Statistisches Bundesamt 2016; IKM 2016). Consequently, these areas feature a disproportionately high consumption of goods. To serve all these residents, Lidl must transport high volumes of consumer goods to these regions. Similarly, metropolitan regions also possess a disproportionately high number of branch stores and distribution centres. This relationship becomes particularly evident in the largest metropolitan region, Rhine‐Ruhr, possessing 12.8 million inhabitants (IKM 2016). As such, Lidl has located most of its distribution centres in this region. Due to the high transport volume of suppliers that must deliver to these distribution centres, their trucks represent the source of a significant amount of CO2e emissions. As a way to reduce these emissions, some distribution centres could be supplied by longer trucks.

5.3

Status Quo of Longer Trucks in the European Union

In Germany, longer trucks are allowed to move in the “Positivnetz”, translatable as “positive network”. This describes a road network consisting of approved routes from all federal states of Germany. Each federal state decides for itself whether and which road sections it releases. The positive network can be extended by approved applications from forwarding agents or companies from the “Bundesministerium für Verkehr und digitale Infrastruktur” (BMVI) (Irzik et al. 2018). In order to drive a longer truck on the positive network, some requirements must be met for the vehicle, driver, and goods. Furthermore, there is also a ban on overtaking. The differences in these requirements between the EU member states are minimal, but a uniform standard would still be advantageous (Experts 2019, personal interviews). Eight EU countries either permit longer trucks or are undergoing field trials to decide this (Tab. 5.1). Sweden, Finland and the Netherlands allow longer trucks to be used without any problems, as they possess few related restrictions. In Spain, Germany and Portugal—all of which allowed the use of longer trucks somewhat more recently—there

59

5.4  Methodology and Procedures

Table 5.1  Permission for longer trucks in EU countries. (OECD 2018; FIS 2018a, b) EU Member State Finland Sweden Netherlands Spain Germany Portugal Denmark Belgium

Permission

Allowed since

Allowed Allowed Allowed Allowed Allowed Allowed Trial periods Trial periods

1990s 1995 2011 2015 2017 2017 – –

Max. Length in m 25.25 25.25 25.25 25.25 25.25 25.25 25.25 25.25

Max. Weight in t 74 64 60 60 40 60 60 60

remains some regional differences regarding the legislation. Only parts of the entire route network are passable. Field trials are underway in Denmark and Belgium, but the conditions are similar to those in other countries where longer trucks are allowed. The use of longer trucks in inner‐city traffic is generally prohibited in all countries. The maximum weight of 40 t in Germany allows only the transport of light goods. Due to the higher empty weight of a longer truck compared to a conventional truck, this negatively affects the payload. All other countries permitting longer trucks feature a higher maximum weight. An increase in the maximum weight would be necessary for the efficient use of longer trucks (expert interviews 2019), but the partly poor infrastructure in Germany and other countries only permits this to a limited extent (Irzik et al. 2018). The use of longer trucks would also create planning difficulties for the forwarding agents, who would have to arrange for larger volumes for the return journeys, which could result in a higher proportion of empty runs. As one interviewee explained, “For the planning it can be difficult to load the longer truck for the return trip with 53 pallets” (expert interviews 2019).

5.4

Methodology and Procedures

The first step consisted of analysing the status quo regarding the use of longer trucks in Europe so as to identify where and under what conditions longer trucks could be used. Furthermore, the obstacles for the use of longer trucks were identified. In addition to a literature research, guided one‐on‐one interviews were conducted and subsequently evaluated with experts deemed qualified due to their profession (Niederberger and Wassermann 2015). A mixed form of a systematising expert

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5  Longer Trucks for Climate-Friendly Transports

interview, which provides expertise on a research topic, and the theory‐generating expert interview, which was employed to acquire and analyse subjective expert knowledge, was selected (Bogner et al. 2014). Additionally, the expert interviews were conducted with the use of a thematically structured interview guideline that served as an aid in the interview situation. These interview guidelines were sent to the experts in advance. The interviews were conducted by telephone, lasting 25–40 min. The experts consisted of three forwarding agents who are currently using longer trucks and have thus gained years of experience relevant to this research topic. In the second step, three transport routes for Lidl were derived from the results of step one. The transport routes were used to calculate the potential cost and CO2e savings achievable using the longer trucks. For this purpose, a quantitative analysis was conducted. Real transports of Lidl that are currently executed by conventional trucks were simulated by longer trucks and subsequently evaluated. The transport data for the analysis was provided by Lidl. The basis for determining the transport routes included the following criteria: Length of transport route The use of longer trucks makes particular sense for long journeys, as the positive effects of monetary and ecological savings increase for each kilometre driven (expert interviews 2019). Longer truck permission of countries to cross The transport routes should go as far as possible through countries where the use of long trucks is permitted or could be allowed in the near future. This increases the probability that these routes could be used in the future in case of a change in the law. Delivery volumes The delivery volumes should be high so as to use every pallet slot in order to achieve optimal truck capacity utilisation. This is important, because the longer trucks feature more pallet slots than conventional trucks (Irzik et al. 2018). Weight of transported goods The transported goods should be light goods or high‐volume goods that do not exceed a certain weight. Thus, the payloads of longer trucks are not exceeded, but the volume is still utilised to full capacity (Irzik et al. 2018). The quantitative analysis consists of a CO2e calculation and a cost calculation. The cost calculation was conducted based on comparative figures from the study “Analyse des Einsatzes von Lang‐Lkw im Hinblick auf seine Klimaeffekte”. The CO2e calculation was performed according to the standard “DIN EN 16258”.

5.5  Potential Savings for Lidl

61

Distance‐based method CO2e emissions were calculated based on the total mileage and emission factors from official databases that determine how much CO2e is emitted per used litre of fuel (Schmied and Knörr 2013). Well‐to‐wheel Well‐to‐wheel values were used to calculate the CO2e emissions. In addition to the tank‐to‐wheel emissions that occur during the transport, the well‐to‐tank emissions generated during the production of driving energy were also considered (Schmied and Knörr 2013). CO2 equivalents (CO2e) In addition to CO2 emissions, other greenhouse gases relevant for the transport were analysed. According to the DIN EN 16258, it is necessary to determine all harmful greenhouse gas emissions. Apart from CO2, other gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide, must also be considered when burning fuels. The total output of all of these gases is given as CO2e (Schmied and Knörr 2013). Criticism of the methodology  Because the distance‐based method uses average values, this method is not exact. Forwarding agents employing a more energy‐efficient driving style do not meet these average values. The fuel‐based method, which relies on actual consumption, would be more accurate. However, due to easier data collection, the distance‐based method is more common in practice. The comparative figures of the cost‐calculation refer to the driven km, and not the tkm. This means the different payload weights were not considered. Therefore, the results are slightly distorted. Furthermore, only transport routes suitable for longer trucks were evaluated. The potential of other transport routes was not considered.

5.5

Potential Savings for Lidl

For this chapter’s calculations, three transport routes were derived from Lidl according to the criteria described in the methodology and procedures. Route 1  The first route leads from Germany to Portugal (GER‐NED‐BEL‐FRA‐ ESP‐POR). The distance equals approximately 2,090 km. Route 2  The second route leads from Germany to Sweden (GER‐DEN‐SWE). The distance approximates 1,310 km. Route 3  The third route takes place in Germany (GER). The distance is roughly 550 km.

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5  Longer Trucks for Climate-Friendly Transports

Table 5.2  Results of the quantitative analysis in percent (quantitative analysis) Route 1 (GER‐POR) 15.95%

Annual CO2e savings (by percentage) Annual cost savings 29.87% (by percentage)

Route 2 (GER‐SWE) 22.6%

Route 3 (GER) 21.21%

29.89%

29.78%

Routes one and two are currently not feasible in practice due to cross‐border traffic. Route three, on the other hand, takes place exclusively in Germany. The motorway sections to be driven are in the positive network, while the short sections between supplier and the motorway, and from the motorway to the distribution centre, are not. It is possible that these sections could be approved by the BMVI by means of an application, which would make this section passable. The results of the quantitative analysis reveal the savings potential with the use of longer trucks compared to conventional trucks. The figures confirm the forecast of the aforementioned BAST report, which predicts CO2e savings of 15–25%, which is also the estimated percentage cost savings for diesel fuel (Tab. 5.2). The total cost savings for each route amount to just under 30%. These savings result from fewer trucks being used overall, as the longer trucks can transport more goods due to their size. Route two offers the greatest potential for both CO2e and cost savings. This route also provides the best conditions for longer trucks, especially regarding the low weight of the transported goods. For each of the three routes, only one supplier delivering to one distribution centre was considered. From there, fine distribution was carried out into the metropolitan regions. The supplier of route three alone delivers to 36 additional distribution centres throughout Germany. This shipment volume of the three routes accounts for less than 1% of the total volume at Lidl. Extended to all suppliers, distribution centres, and the entirety of Europe, use of longer trucks would offer significant potential to help reach carbon footprint reduction goals.

5.6

Recommendation for Action for Lidl

For Lidl, it is too early to use longer trucks on cross‐border routes. In Germany, longer trucks could be useful for certain goods and routes, but the 40 t weight limit presents an ambitious challenge. The savings potential in Germany is also significantly lower, as the route’s length within Germany is short, and many of the transports are made abroad. At present, Lidl has useful options for deploying

References

63

longer trucks only in the Netherlands, Finland and Sweden. Significant economic and ecological savings could be achieved only when more routes are opened and cross‐border traffic is permitted.

5.7

Conclusion and Outlook

It may take some time before longer trucks are allowed throughout much of Europe. Developments in recent years indicate that longer trucks have been permitted in more and more countries, even if this only applies to certain sections of the road. However, the problem of the 40 t restriction remains in Germany, where motor travel of longer trucks is hampered by poor infrastructure. The quantitative analysis has revealed high economic and ecological savings potential for Lidl, as the longer truck results would be transferable to many of the company’s other transport routes. However, this would only be possible if longer trucks are allowed to cross the borders and drive the routes of the countries to be crossed. Otherwise, the longer truck would remain a niche that could only be used for light high‐volume goods in Germany. Therefore, smaller conventional trucks would be necessary to supply the strategically important distribution centres in and around Germany’s metropolitan regions.

References BMWi (n. d.). Deutsche Klimaschutzpolitik. https://www.bmwi.de/Redaktion/DE/Artikel/ Industrie/klimaschutz-deutsche-klimaschutzpolitik.html. Accessed 2 September 2019. Bogner, A., Littig, B., & Menz, W. (2014). Interviews mit Experten:Eine praxisorientierte Einführung (Qualitative Sozialforschung). Wiesbaden: Springer VS. Der Rat der Europäischen Union (1996). Richtlinie 96/53/EG DES RA-TES vom 25. Juli 1996. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/DE/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:01996L005320150526&from=EN. Accessed 2 September 2019. Experts (2019). Personal interviews. FIS (2018a). Lastzugkombinationen in Skandinavien. https://www.forschungsinformationssystem. de/servlet/is/221383/. Accessed 2 September 2019. FIS (2018b). Lastzugkombinationen im restlichen Skandinavien. https://www. forschungsinformationssystem.de/servlet/is/255098/. Accessed 2 September 2019. IKM (2016). Statistik-Viewer der Metropolregionen in Deutschland. http://ftp.planungsverband. de/ia/m/bevoelkerungsentwicklung/atlas.html. Accessed 2 September 2019. Irzik, M., Kranz, T., Bühne, J. A., Glaeser, K. P., Limbeck, S., & Gail, J., et al. (2018). Feldversuch mit Lang-Lkw. Bundesanstalt für Straßenwesen, Bergisch Gladbach. Kienzler, H. P., Gutberlet, T., Labinsky, A., Faltenbacher, M., & Eckert, S. (2017). Analyse des Einsatzes von Lang-Lkw im Hinblick auf seine Klimaeffekte. LUBW Landesanstalt für Umwelt, Messungen und Naturschutz Baden-Württemberg and Daimler AG, Karlsruhe.

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Masson-Delmotte, V., Zhai, P., Pörtner, H. O., Roberts, D., Skea, J., Shukla, P. R., et al. (2018). Global warming of 1.5 °C (Special report). Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC. Niederberger, M., & Wassermann, S. (Eds.). (2015). Methoden der Experten- und Stakeholdereinbindung in der sozialwissenschaftlichen Forschung. Wiesbaden: Springer VS. OECD (2018). Inland and maritime transports and ports (OECD competition assessment reviews, Portugal / OECD; volume I). Paris: OECD Publishing. Robert Bosch GmbH (2019). Bosch invests billions in climate action and air quality. https:// www.bosch-presse.de/pressportal/de/en/bosch-invests-billions-in-climate-action-and-airquality-188736.html. Accessed 2 September 2019. Schmied, M., & Knörr, W. (2013). Berechnung von Treibhausgasemissionen in Spedition und Logistik gemäß DIN EN 16258: Begriffe, Methoden, Beispiele. DSLV Deutscher Speditions- und Logistikverband e.V., Bonn. Statistisches Bundesamt (2016). Bevölkerungsstand. https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/ Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Bevoelkerung/Bevoelkerungsstand/Tabellen/liste-zensus-geschlechtstaatsangehoerigkeit.html#fussnote-1-117110. Accessed 2 September 2019. Statistisches Bundesamt (2017). Handel setzt im Jahr 2015 rund 2 Billionen Euro um. https:// www.destatis.de/DE/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2017/07/PD17_238_45341.html. Accessed 2 September 2019. Weidmann, M., Renner, T., & Reiser, S. (2009). Klimaneutrale Unternehmen in Deutschland: Motivation, Methoden und Meinungen; eine Unternehmensbefragung (2nd ed.). Stuttgart: Fraunhofer-Verl. Christoph Lindt  is a master student of sustainable logistics at HFT Stuttgart. He completed his bachelor’s degree in business administration, specializing in purchasing and logistics at the University of Applied Science Pforzheim. His expertise lies in transport- and sustainable logistics. Maren-Linn Janka  received her master’s degree in international management at University of Applied Science Karlsruhe in 2017. Today, she works as a consultant in the Inbound Logistics Department of Lidl Stiftung & Co. KG. Her expertise resides in project management, KPIs and supply chain optimisation. After studying industrial management, Prof. Dr.-Ing. Payam Dehdari  specialised in logistics. For over 10 years, he was responsible for logistics topics in a company stretching across different industries, like automotive and industrial goods. Since 2018, he has been a professor for sustainable logistics and lean methods at HFT Stuttgart. His expertise is designing systems and optimising processes in transport, warehousing and inventory management.

6

Electrified Ultralight Vehicles as a Key Elementfor Door-to-Door Solutions in Urban Areas

6

Sally Köhler, Axel Norkauer, Markus Schmidt, Verena Loidl

Abstract

Finding sustainable and adaptive urban transportation solutions has the potential to shape the quality of life in cities. However, one major challenge involves reducing motorised private transportation in urban areas, which is largely responsible for noise and air pollution as well as increasingly long waiting times in congestion. To this end, innovative door‐to‐door solutions are essential to meet these challenges and offer incentives for alternatives to motorised private transportation. Electrified, ultralight, foldable scooters could offer a solution, as they could function as a practical connection between public transportation and the last mile. Particularly with regard to covering the last mile, e‐scooters with the aforementioned characteristics represent a missing link for closing the mobility chain. Moreover, they serve as a climate‐ and health‐friendly option for innovative mobility concepts in cities, since they are—compared to most other vehicles—quiet and do not emit direct gaseous emissions. The conducted study provides an overview of various use cases for e‐scooters. It summarises the conclusions drawn from fleet tests and presents the evaluation of traffic experts regarding e‐scooters’ potential. The fleet tests and the expert evaluation revealed that e‐scooters—like bicycles—represent an

Sally Köhler ( ) · Axel Norkauer · Markus Schmidt · Verena Loidl HFT Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] © Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020 P. Planing, P. Müller, P. Dehdari, T. Bäumer (Eds.), Innovations for Metropolitan Areas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-60806-7_6

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6  Electrified Ultralight Vehicles as a Key Element

additional mode of transportation, but are not expected to become a mass phenomenon. Since June 2019, Germany has officially permitted e‐scooters to use bicycle lanes or, in case these are not available, the road. This increasingly raises the question of equitable street and space distribution in metropolitan areas and represents an additional interdisciplinary field of research worth exploring. Keywords

Electrified Ultralight Vehicle · E-Mobility · Sustainable Mobility · Urban Transportation

6.1

Mobility in Metropolitan Areas and its Impacts

Mobility refers to both social and spatial contexts and is considered a basic human need (Frank 1997), (Schopf 2001). This essay concentrates on the spatial connotation, which can be segmented by three characteristics: mobility of purpose, pleasure and opportunity (Schopf 2001). In metropolitan regions, these types of mobility occur in high density and are covered by several modes of transport. Motorised private transportation (MPT) often retains the largest share of the modal split in cities. However, it should be noted that the larger the city, the smaller this share generally becomes (EPOMM 2011). The road transportation sector is also considered the largest emitter of nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions and contributes to emissions of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) (Eionet 2018b). Most of the related consequences of dense mobility directly influence their immediate surrounding (Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und nukleare Sicherheit (BMU) 2018a). The World Health Organisation (WHO) stated in their fact sheet regarding ambient air quality from 2018 that air pollution poses as a major health risk, being responsible for causing strokes, heart disease, lung cancer, and chronic as well as acute respiratory diseases, including asthma (World Health Organisation 2018). The European Environmental Agency even identified air pollution as “the single largest environmental risk to human health in Europe”, negatively affecting not only humans, but also vegetation and ecosystems (Eionet 2018b). Thus, mobility and transport not only negatively contribute to health issues, but also to climate protection matters. According to the ICPP report, the transportation sector accounts for 23% of the global energy‐related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions (Sims et al. 2014), while urban travel accounts for more than 60% of all kilometres travelled globally (Valeur 2013). In order to satisfy the Paris agreement in which climate

6.2  Current Situation and Challenges for New Mobility Concepts

67

protection goals were set and to which the global community committed itself in 2015, additional measures are needed, especially in this sector (Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und nukleare Sicherheit (BMU) 2018b). Apart from health risks due to air pollution and climate‐damaging CO2 emissions, MPT can adversely affect the quality of life in metropolitan areas as well (Innovationszentrum für Mobilität und gesellschaftlichen Wandel (InnoZ) GmbH 2016). Where MPT dominates the urban landscape, it emits noise and consumes a high proportion of the city’s space. The quality of stay decreases and requirements of other modes of transport and the needs of public space users cannot be fully met (Umweltbundesamt 2017). In the middle of the last century, auto‐mobilisation significantly affected cities and societies. Ever since, public space has primarily served the MPT and has changed not only the cityscape, but also mobility patterns. For a long time, urban structures were designed and planned largely to be car‐friendly (Reicher and Kemme 2009). Cars, however, occupy a great deal of space, and in the global trend of urbanisation and city densification, there is often insufficient space for other modes of transport now. Thus, not only do technical advancement, high investments and other external factors slow mobility’s evolution, but so does the factor of space (Rode et al. 2017). All these considerations of addressing air pollution, climate needs and improved quality of life in cities represents an essential catalyst for introducing and implementing new mobility concepts (Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und nukleare Sicherheit (BMU) 2018b). They also increase the desire for new options of transportation and mobility, particularly door‐to‐door solutions that could minimise individual covered distances per person by car. Micromobility, and especially e‐scooters, offer great potential for such a door‐to‐door solution, shifting the modal split towards more sustainable modes of transport as they close the gap of covering the so‐called “last mile” (Agora Verkehrswende 2019). The last mile describes a section of a multimodal route that is typically covered by foot, bicycle or scooter. The distance varies from a few hundred meters to two kilometres (Barth et al. 2018).

6.2

Current Situation and Challenges for New Mobility Conceptsin Metropolitan Regions in Europe—A Case Study of E‐Scooters

In Europe, the transportation sector is responsible for almost 30% of total CO2 emissions, 61% of which are caused via travelling by car (European Parliament 2019). Considering the absolute change in greenhouse gas emissions, this represents the only sector that has not yet achieved a reduction in CO2 emissions compared

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to 1990 (European Environment Agency 2016). In Germany, for example, transportation causes even more CO2 emissions compared to 1990 levels. Besides the energy sector, responsible for emitting 313 million tonnes of CO2 (41%) in 2017, the transportation sector, with 168 million tonnes (22%), was the second highest emitter of CO2 (Umweltbundesamt 2019). On the one hand, this demonstrates the potential for technological advancements and efficiency improvements, while on the other, it also illustrates that efforts and progress in the mobility sector have not been sufficient thus far. In particular, MPT’s role in cities needs to be reassessed, especially through its environmental and social impact (Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und nukleare Sicherheit (BMU) 2018b). In order to substitute a high share of MPT trips, cities and metropolitan regions are required to ensure the improvement of conditions for public transportation and active forms of mobility such as walking or cycling. The more comfortable and attractive sustainable forms of mobility become, and the less tempting the use of a private car is, the higher the probability of adopting such sustainable forms of mobility (Agora Verkehrswende 2019). Examining the 15 largest cities in Europe, most face the above‐mentioned problems. Historical data from the European Environment Agency indicates that these cities are troubled by poor air quality (Eionet 2018a). In particular, the annual mean of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) exceeds the limit of 40 micrograms per cubic meter set by the WHO (World Health Organisation 2006) in all cities where data was available, as seen in Table 6.1. Therefore, new mobility concepts in metropolitan regions endeavour to improve the stated situation. With the emergence of mobility options such as the sharing of cars, bikes, e‐bikes, and e‐scooters, the existing conflict regarding space demand and distribution increases. Moreover, most people are accustomed to the comfort of cars, and the majority of urban structures are designed for them. Consequently, people are used to the concept of a comfortable, door‐to‐door mobility solution. Developing new mobility concepts and products should therefore take into account not only sustainability or innovation aspects, but also their practicability. Electrified, ultralight, foldable scooters combined with public transportation offer high potential for closing the mobility gap (Kammerlander et al. 2015). They seem to offer an approach that addresses all of the abovementioned facets: They do not produce direct emissions, which is beneficial for air quality and CO2 emissions; they are relatively comfortable and easy to handle; and they could offer the missing link to close the gap for the last mile problem. Perhaps because of these arguments, all of Europe’s major cities have established e‐scooter sharing. However, e‐scooters emphasise the problem of space scarcity. Most countries have granted them use of either walkways or bike lanes, but in many cities, these spaces are already relatively saturated. E‐

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Table 6.1  15 largest cities and their air quality in 2017 No.

Name

1 2 3

Istanbul Moscow London

Inhabitants (million) 14,450a 12,288a    8916a

Country

Turkey Russia United Kingdom 4 Saint Petersburg    5315a Russia Germany 5 Berlin    3539a Spain 6 Madrid    3223c Ukraine 7 Kiev    2936a Italy 8 Rome    2319c France 9 Paris    2206b Romania 10 Bucharest    1828c Belarus 11 Minsk    1985a Austria 12 Vienna    1878a Germany 13 Hamburg    1791a Poland 14 Warsaw    1759a Hungary 15 Budapest    1755a a (United Nations, Department of Economic ans Social Affairs 2018) b (Maviel et al. 2017) c (Citypopulation 2019) d (Eionet 2018a)

NO2 annual mean (μg/m3)d NA NA > 50 NA 59 > 50 NA > 50 > 50 > 50 NA > 40 55 > 50 > 40

scooters will increase the density even further and might significantly influence the walkway and cycle‐infrastructure (Agora Verkehrswende 2019). In general, e‐scooter usage is divided into two application concepts: use of privately owned e‐scooters, and use of publicly shared e‐scooters. E‐scooter sharing systems have been introduced in European cities since autumn of 2017, and they are rapidly growing in number and availability. Private use has occasionally occurred earlier, but only to a limited extent. Germany was one of the last European countries to legalise e‐scooters in June of 2019 (Bundesministerium der Justiz und für Verbraucherschutz 2019).

6.3

Objectives and Methodology

This article explores whether e‐scooters present themselves as a new and sustainable mobility solution in urban areas. To do so, the experiences of e‐scooter sharing systems in other European cities are summarised. Furthermore, use‐cases of e‐scooter

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rental systems are examined in comparison to private usage. The following step presents the results obtained in a self‐conducted research project from 2016 to 2018 with e‐scooter fleet tests and surveys. This project focussed on electrified, ultra‐light, foldable scooters and their private usage. The aim was to scientifically verify the shifting or avoidance of individual distances covered by car through providing a new and legal mode of transportation in everyday life. In a final section, possibilities and challenges of implementing new mobility solutions like e‐scooters in an already existing urban structure are analysed. The research project was based on three fundamental components. A literature review on the topic of e‐scooters clarified the basics of relevant transportation sciences and technical requirements as well as the legal framework (see Fig. 6.1). On this foundation, two research approaches were pursued. One consists of the empirical perspective involving two fleet tests with e‐scooters. The other follows a methodical approach with an expert survey using the Delphi technique as well as a pedestrian and online survey. The Delphi method is a systematic, multi‐stage survey procedure with feedback loops and is especially suitable when researching future trends under the influence of uncertainties (Häder 2009). The findings of the field research and the methodological approach are presented and evaluated. Since there were no suitable e‐scooters on the European market in 2016, the “TrottiElec” research association between the Universities of Applied Sciences Esslingen and Stuttgart has developed light and ready‐for‐field‐testing prototypes. These prototypes were examined by TÜV‐Süd, leading to temporary special permission on pavements in Stuttgart and Esslingen, making them the only legally approved e‐scooters in Germany at that time. The fleet tests were conducted in autumn of 2016 and spring of 2017 as a four‐ week design with two groups of participants. The participants documented their daily mobility patterns in a diary and, each week, were provided either an e‐scooter,

Fig. 6.1  Description of the methodology

6.4  Findings and Results

71

Table 6.2  Research design and execution of the fleet test in 2017 Fleet test 2017 24.–30. April 01.–07. May 08.–14. May 15.–21. May Group 1 e‐scooter Without Without Kickscooter Group 2 Without Kickscooter e‐Scooter Without Without: no additional vehicle was provided Kickscooter: a kickscooter was provided as additional mode of transportation E‐scooter: an e‐scooter was provided as additional mode of transportation

a kickscooter or no additional vehicle. As an example, the execution scheme for the second fleet test is presented in Table 6.2. The expert survey employing the Delphi method was conducted in 2017 with two rounds of questions. The first round of questions contained 11 open questions regarding the potentials and risks of e‐scooters. The second round consisted of nine closed questions linked to the answers of the first round. The selected experts consisted of professors at universities of applied sciences with a focus on transportation sciences in Germany. The online and pedestrian surveys were based on the second round of the expert survey, with few adaptions in wording und understanding.

6.4

Findings and Results

Worldwide experiences of e‐scooter sharing systems illustrate that unregulated implementation can lead to massive problems (McFarland 2019). Many European cities already know that they have to limit the number of sharing providers and allowed e‐scooters per sharing provider, having learned by example from the US. Nevertheless, many cities are confronted with increasing numbers of complaints regarding wrongly parked e‐scooters and growing traffic conflicts and accidents (The Guardian 2019). Although Germany has only recently granted approval for e‐ scooters in public transport areas, similar problems have occurred (Hombach 2019). Therefore, in August 2019, the German Association of Towns and Municipalities published a detailed guideline with policy recommendations for local governments (Agora Verkehrswende 2019). However, even if all these recommendations for action are followed, further potential conflicts cannot be ruled out. In general, several use cases regarding e‐scooters are possible. While some might be more convenient with a sharing approach, others find it more suitable to use a private e‐scooter. In principle, e‐scooters prove useful regardless, especially when a city faces a challenging geographical typology. Typically, an e‐scooter can master slopes up to 10% easily (Barth et al. 2018). E‐scooter sharing also is practical for

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short distances in urban areas where residents simply want to visit the nearest restaurant or pay a short visit to, for instance, the bakery. This is attractive because no parking space is needed and the shared e‐scooter is comfortably left on the street without having to carry or lock it as one would a private e‐scooter. However, this advantage simultaneously represents a considerable disadvantage, as the user is typically less careful with rental e‐scooters than with private ones. It is largely for this reason that e‐scooters are often parked in the middle of the pedestrian path or in other inappropriate places. Hence, these e‐scooters have to be highly robust and resistant. Nonetheless, e‐scooters in a sharing system tend to experience a short life expectancy (Agora Verkehrswende 2019). Privately used e‐scooters, on the other hand, offer the advantage of users taking them as luggage onto public transportation systems without paying additional fees, thus making it possible to use them as an inter‐ and multimodal door‐to‐door solution. These e‐scooter models, unlike shared e‐scooters, must be as light as possible so that the user can carry and move them easily. The fleet tests analysed the private use of e‐scooters. Fig. 6.2 presents the results of the data gathered during the fleet test in Stuttgart, Germany. Most of the participants were employees between the ages of 25 and 65. In all three weekly scenarios, MPT achieved the highest share of usage. In weeks where participants possessed an additional mode of transportation, this share decreased slightly. The mode of walking reached the second highest share, while a minor decrease in weeks with an e‐scooter or kickscooter was also recognisable. This indicates that e‐scooters and kickscooters not only substitute the desired routes covered by car, but also routes covered on foot. Likewise, Fig. 6.2 indicates that both the kickscooter and e‐scooter possess a 6% share of the modal split. In first round of the expert survey, 32 out of 86 professors who were invited took part. A total of 44 professors responded to the second round, whereas 167 people answered the online and pedestrian survey questionnaires in full. Experts assumed that e‐scooters were primarily suitable for the last mile and that routes originally covered on foot or by bicycle were more frequently substituted by e‐scooters. Experts and non‐experts agreed that the most important criterion for a mode of transport for the last mile is availability. The second and third most important criteria were estimated by experts to be easy handling and road safety. In contrast, for non‐experts, low investment and independence were more important. Interestingly, experts rated the e‐scooter as last in suitability for covering the last mile, whereas non‐experts rated the e‐scooter in third place. Furthermore, non‐experts ranked the battery runtime, load securement and disposal of e‐scooters as the most troubling aspects. Experts, on the other hand, considered the small wheel size to be potentially hazardous and feared collisions with pedestrians. Load securement took the third place in their assessment. When asked about the general endangerment potential using an e‐scooter,

6.5  Necessity for Further Research

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Fig. 6.2  Results of the fleet tests 2017

both parties anticipated heightened risk if the density of other road users is high, such as in pedestrian zones or crossing traffic flows.

6.5

Necessity for Further Research

The results of the research project are only partially representative, as the legal framework has changed since the project ended. It also considered only the private usage of e‐scooters on pedestrian pathways at walking speed. The observed slight change in the modal split during the fleet tests is not directly transferable to e‐scooter sharing. The primarily investigated application case of e‐scooters in combination with public transport faced considerable obstacles in the sharing systems. In addition, the fleet tests took place under confined and special spatial conditions, meaning the results cannot be easily transferred to other cities. Therefore, further studies are necessary regarding how e‐scooters are able to influence the modal split. Furthermore, the question of equitable space distribution for various modes of transport still has to be answered. Since e‐scooters are obliged to use bicycle

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lanes or sideways in cities, space distribution for these modes of transport have to be discussed further. In particular, given that active forms of mobility and public transport remain more attractive in cities where urban space is safe and inviting, and not only dominated by MPT, a city first and foremost belongs to the people. Future city planning thus needs to focus on promoting sustainable, emission‐free and health‐promoting mobility (Umweltbundesamt 2017). The existing transport infrastructure needs a redesign in order to ensure equal access to various modes of mobility. Due to the long‐term infrastructure lifetime, the design of these spaces needs to be multifunctional, open and resilient so as to meet the needs of various modes of mobility in the future. Space should be equally distributed, adaptive to the number of people using it, designed such that the subjective judgement of safety is largely met. Regarding the already existing space shortages in cities and metropolitan regions, modes of transport exhibiting higher space efficiency need to be promoted. The more dense mobility becomes, the more social it must be. E‐scooters are not simply about whether we have enough space for more mobility, but rather about how we interact with people in an interwoven and complex mobility structure.

References Agora Verkehrswende. (2019). E-Tretroller im Stadtverkehr – Handungslempfehlungen für deutsche Städte und Gemeinden zum Umgang mit stationslosen Verleihsystemen, p. 9–20. Barth, D., Fluek, D., Kipp, J., Koehler, S., Legner, E., Linnhoff, K., . . . Zirn, O. (2018). TrottiElec: E-Ultraleichtfahrzeuge als Schlüsselelement geschlossener Wegeketten, p.38–121. Stuttgart: Hochschule für Technik Stuttgart, Hochschule Esslingen. Bundesministerium der Justiz und für Verbraucherschutz. (2019). Verordnung über die Teilnahme von Elektrokleinstfahrzeugen am Straßenverkehr (ElektrokleinstfahrzeugeVerordnung - eKFV). https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/ekfv/BJNR075610019.html. Accessed 3 September 2019. Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und nukleare Sicherheit (BMU). (2018). Umwelteinflüsse auf den Menschen (N. u. Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Editor). https:// www.umweltbundesamt.de/themen/gesundheit/umwelteinfluesse-auf-den-menschen. Accessed 3 September 2019. Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz und nukleare Sicherheit (BMU). (2018). Klimaschutz in Zahlen. Fakten, Trends und Impulse deutscher Klimapolitik. Berlin: Druckund Verlagshaus Zarbock GmbH & Co. KG. Citypopulation. (2019). https://www.citypopulation.de/en/romania/cities/?cityid=1527. Accessed 17 October 2019. Eionet. (2018a). Air quality statistics. (E. E. Network, Editor, & E. W. Team, Producer). https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/dashboards/air-quality-statistics. Accessed 3 September 2019.

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Eionet. (2018b). Air pollution: agriculture and transport emissions continue to pose problems in meeting agreed limits. (E. E. Network, Editor, & European Environment Agency). https://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/air-pollution-agriculture-and-transport#tab-datavisualisations. Accessed 4 September 2019. EPOMM. (2011). www.epomm.eu. (EPOMM, Editor, & F. M.-A.-A. GmbH, Producer). http:// www.epomm.eu/index.php?id=2774. Accessed 5 September 2019. European Environment Agency. (2016). Sectoral greenhouse gas emissions by IPCC sector. https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/daviz/change-of-co2-eq-emissions-2#tabchart_1. Accessed 28 October 2019. European Parliament. (2019). CO2 emissions from cars: facts and figures (infographics). http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/headlines/society/20190313STO31218/co2emissions-from-cars-facts-and-figures-infographics. Accessed 5 September 2019. Frank, D. (1997). Mobilität Grundbedürfnis des Menschen. Spektrum der Wissenschaft, 6, 34. https://www.spektrum.de/magazin/mobilitaet-grundbeduerfnis-des-menschen/823839. Accessed 2 September 2019. Häder, M. (2009). Delphi-Befragungen. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-531-91926-3. Hombach, S. (2019). Ein gefährlicher Spaß. Zeit online. https://www.zeit.de/ mobilitaet/2019-10/e-tretroller-unfaelle-gefahr-sicherheit-stadtverkehr-touristen. Accessed 29 October 2019. Innovationszentrum für Mobilität und gesellschaftlichen Wandel (InnoZ) GmbH. (2016). Zukunftsfenster in eine disruptive Mobilität. Berlin. Kammerlander, M., Schanes, K., Hartwig, F., Jäger, J., Omann, I., & O’Keeffe, M. (2015). A resource-efficient and sufficient future mobility system for improved well-being in Europe. European Journal of Futures Research, 3, 687. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40309-015-0065-x Maviel, N., C. Carez C., & Le Mitouard, E. (2017). Paris perd ses habitants, la faute à la démographie et aux… meublés touristiques pour la Ville. LeParisian. http://www. leparisien.fr. http://www.leparisien.fr/paris-75/paris-a-perdu-37-345-habitants-entre2010-et-2015-27-12-2017-7472928.php. Accessed 9 September 2019. McFarland, M. (2019). Scooters are a huge problem for cities. No one knows how to solve it yet. CNN Business. https://edition.cnn.com/2019/08/30/tech/scooter-management/index. html. Accessed 30 October 2019. Reicher, C., & Kemme, T. (2009). Der öffentliche Raum – Ideen, Konzepte, Projekte. Berlin: jovis Verlag GmbH. Rode, P., Floater, G., Thomopoulos, N., Docherty, J., Schwinger, P., Mahendra, A., & Fang, W. (2017). Accessibility in Cities: Tranport and Urban Form. In G. Meyer, & S. Shaheen (Eds.), Disrupting Mobility (pp. 239–244). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing AG. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-51602-8 Schopf, J. M. (2001). Mobilität und Verkehr – Begriffe im Wandel. (F. W. Umwelt, Ed.) Wissenschaft & Umwelt Interdisziplinär (3), 3–13. Sims, R., Schaeffer, R., Creutzig, F., Cruz-Núñez, X., D’Agosto, M., Dimitriu, D., . . . Tiwari, A. G. (2014). Tansport. In Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Edenhofer, O.; Pichs-Madruga, R.; Sokona, Y.; Farahani, E.; Kadner, S.; Seyboth, K.; Adler, A.; Baum, I.; Brunner, S.; Eickemeier, P.; Kriemann, B.; Savolainen, J.; Schlömer, S.; Stechow, C. von; T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.): Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

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The Guardian. (2019). Invasion of the electric scooter: can our cities cope? The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2019/jul/15/invasion-electric-scooter-backlash. Accessed 16 October 2019. Umweltbundesamt. (2017). Straßen und Plätze neu denken. Berlin: Rucksaldruck GmbH. Umweltbundesamt. (2019). Energiebedingte Emissionen. https://www.umweltbundesamt. de/daten/energie/energiebedingte-emissionen#textpart-2. Accessed 9 September 2019. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2018). Urban and Rural Populations. https://population.un.org/wup/Download/. Accessed 28 October 2019. United Nations. (2018). Revision of World Urbanization Prospects. https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html. Accessed 3 September 2019. Valeur, H. (2013). The horrendous costs of motorized transportation in (Indian) cities. The Global Urbanist. World Health Organisation. (2006). WHO Air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/69477/ WHO_SDE_PHE_OEH_06.02_eng.pdf;sequence=1. Accessed 9 September 2019. World Health Organisation. (2018). Ambient (outdoor) air pollution. https://www.who.int/ en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ambient-(outdoor)-air-quality-and-health. Accessed 6 September 2019. Sally Köhler  is a research associate and doctoral candidate at HFT Stuttgart. Since 2017, she has been working in the field of micromobility and energetic city quarter planning and simulation. From January 2017 until March 2018, she supported the research project ‘TrottiElec—Electrified, ultralight vehicles as key elements for a door-to-door solution in urban areas’ and supervised the set-up of a laboratory for micromobility. Prof. Dr.-Ing. Axel Norkauer  is a transportation engineer with a background in civil engineering. Before he began working for the road administrations of the federal states of Saarland and Hessia, he worked for several years as a consultant for engineering companies in Berlin, Stuttgart and Darmstadt. He has been a professor for transportation engineering at HFT Stuttgart since 2012 and specialises in the operation and maintenance of transportation infrastructures. Prof. Dr.-Ing. Markus Schmidt  studied civil engineering and economics in Aachen, London and Paris. For almost 20 years, he has worked for Drees & Sommer in project management and consulting for infrastructure and mobility projects. For 10 years, he has also been a professor for infrastructure management at HFT Stuttgart. His expertise lies in the conception and execution of mobility projects. He is a certified Project Management Professional (PMP®) and an expert in the field of new mobility. Verena Loidl  is a research associate at HFT Stuttgart. Since 2016, she has been working in the field of sustainable urban planning, design and mobility. From May 2017 until now, she has supported the research project ‘i_city – Sustainable Mobility in urban regions’, and from October 2018 until the present, she has been engaged in the research project ‘HFTmobil’, analysing the urban integration of sustainable mobility options.

II

Part II Promoting Sustainable Behavior



Contents 7

8 9

10

11 12 13

The Intention to Adopt Battery Electric Vehicles in Germany: Driven by Consumer Expectancy, Social Influence, Facilitating Conditions and Ecological Norm Orientation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  79 Leonie Sophie Wahl, Wei-Hsin Hsiang, Georg Hauer Air Taxis as a Mobility Solution for Cities—Empirical Research on Customer Acceptance of Urban Air Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  93 Jana Behme, Patrick Planing An Integrated Model of the Theory of Reasoned Actionand Technology Acceptance Model to Predict the Consumers’ Intentions to Adopt Electric Carsharing in Taiwan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  105 Samira Buschmann, Mei-Fang Chen, Georg Hauer Bike-Sharing Systemsas Integral Components of Inner-City Mobility Concepts: An Analysis of the Intended User Behaviour of Potential and Actual Bike-Sharing Users. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  121 Johanna Weng, Thomas Bäumer, Patrick Müller Trust in Partially Automated Driving Systems for Trucks: A Quantitative Empirical Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  133 Leonie Wendel, Patrick Planing, Harald Bräuchle Alternative Ways to Promote Sustainable Consumer Behaviour—Identifying Potentials Based on Spiral Dynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   145 Kristina Weichelt-Kosnick Less Meat, Less Heat—The Potential of Social Marketing to Reduce Meat Consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  157 Denise Meyer, Thomas Bäumer

The Intention to Adopt Battery Electric Vehicles in Germany: Driven by Consumer Expectancy, Social Influence, Facilitating Conditions and Ecological Norm Orientation

7

Leonie Sophie Wahl, Wei-Hsin Hsiang, Georg Hauer Abstract

With today’s growing automobile use, citizens of metropolitan areas are not only confronted with increasing air pollution and noise levels, but are also affected by global climate change. It is thus becoming crucial for society to explore effective ways to facilitate sustainable transport behaviour. To this end, the present study attempted to predict the intention to adopt battery electric vehicles in Germany through a comprehensive integrated research framework based on the norm activation model and the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology. Data from an online questionnaire of 349 consumers in Germany was collected to test the developed hypotheses using structural equitation modelling. The results suggested that the consumers’ expected performance, anticipated effort, facilitating conditions and personal norm significantly influence adoption intention. Hence, managerial implications suggest that a combination of awareness and education campaigns, and regulatory measures will lead to significant results by reaching the right consumers, achieving climate policy goals and mitigating greenhouse gas emission. Furthermore, these results contribute to

Leonie Sophie Wahl ( ) · Georg Hauer HFT Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany e-mail: [email protected]; e-mail: [email protected] Wei-Hsin Hsiang Tatung University, Taipeh, Taiwan e-mail: [email protected] © Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020 P. Planing, P. Müller, P. Dehdari, T. Bäumer (Eds.), Innovations for Metropolitan Areas, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-60806-7_7

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7  The Intention to Adopt Battery Electric Vehicles in Germany

theory development in the area of sustainable transport behaviour by providing a theoretical framework of reference for future studies.

7.1 Introduction Climate change represents one of the major challenges of the 21st century. This affects every country and the entire planet, such as through changing weather patterns, rising sea levels and extreme weather events. The influence of human activities on the climate system is clear, as anthropogenic GHG emissions comprise the dominant cause of global warming (IPCC 2014). It is estimated that GHG emissions by human activities today are the highest in history, and they are only continuing to rise (IPCC 2014, 2018). The transport sector constitutes an important source of GHG emissions, thus attracting increased concern regarding environmental protection. According to the German Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure, the transport sector in Germany is responsible for approximately 20% of GHG emissions (BMVI 2018). While this has been reduced in other sectors transportation emissions are still increasing. As a consequence, experts in environmental issues are calling for a significant reduction of conventional vehicles, such as by replacing them with more efficient electric vehicles (EVs). Nevertheless, recent observations have indicated that electromobility is not being adopted by consumers in Germany as quickly as needed. According to the latest numbers, EVs fill a share of only 0.63% obviously still retaining a subordinate status (Kraftfahrt‐Bundesamt 2018). Given the urgency of tackling climate change and the potential that electromobility offers in these efforts, it is becoming increasingly important to design strategies that support adoption of EVs. Understanding the factors that influence consumers’ decision making and adoption behaviour will help to successfully introduce EVs onto the mass market. So far, no comprehensive framework, integrating different theoretical models, has been proposed and used in research to predict the adoption intention for EVs. Hence, the main purpose of the present study is to complement the growing literature and help decision‐makers and the industry to introduce successful campaigns.

7.2

The Technology of Battery Electric Vehicles

When conducting research on EV‐related consumer behaviour it is important to distinguish the different types of vehicles. Because they differ in their functions, operation and environmental impact, the acceptance of EVs will also vary, in turn making it difficult to predict adoption behaviour for all types in total.

7.2  The Technology of Battery Electric Vehicles

81

All EVs derive motor power from an on‐board electrical battery, and they come in a variety of forms sortable into three types, as illustrated in Fig. 7.1: Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug‐in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) (Hensley et al. 2009). Hybrids feature both, an internal combustion engine (ICE) powertrain alongside an electric powertrain, consisting of an electric motor and a battery. BEVs possess an all‐electric powertrain on which they completely rely. The battery is charged from the electric supply by plugging it in. All EVs offer a likely substantial contribution to overcoming environmental problems (Harrison and Thiel 2017). In particular, BEVs possess considerable potential to make the transport sector more sustainable, as they improve fuel efficiency and reduce carbon across a wide scale. Therefore, this study’s focus is specifically on the technology of BEVs. It must be acknowledged that the environmental impact of BEVs cannot be measured solely by emissions during operation. More importantly, the pollution of all parts of the energy cycle during the lifetime needs to be considered. One of the key factors in determining the “green” nature of a BEV concerns where the energy comes from. BEVs can be considered sustainable alternatives to ICE vehicles when the amount of electricity based on renewable sources is increased (Scrosati et al. 2015). In fact, non‐renewable energy still dominates Germany’s power generation

Fig. 7.1  Different types of the electric powertrain. (Adapted from Kendall 2018)

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mix. However, a trend towards green sources is notable, and green power is poised for a larger share in the future. Making a concerted effort, to not only introduce BEVs, but also to use renewable power to energise them, will thus produce a real impact on the environment.

7.3

Influencing Factors on the Adoption Intention

Research concerning acceptance of new technologies has previously used several conceptual frameworks explaining individual acceptance. Venkatesh et al. (2003) reviewed the user acceptance literature in the field of technology acceptance to formulate a unified model, namely the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT), based on eight competing theoretical models. Four determinants, performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and facilitating conditions were expected to significantly influence user acceptance. The original UTAUT is depicted in Fig. 7.2. Performance expectancy represents the strongest predictor for adoption intention. This is defined as the “degree to which an individual thinks that using the technology will help to attain gains in performance” (Venkatesh et al. 2003, p. 447). The concept of effort expectancy describes the “degree of ease associated with the use of the system” (Venkatesh et al. 2003, p. 447). Social influence contains the

Fig. 7.2  Original UTAUT model. (Adapted from Venkatesh et al. 2003)

7.4  Integrated UTAUT‐NAM Model and Hypothesis Development

83

Fig. 7.3  General NAM. (Adapted from Schwartz 1977)

implicit or explicit notion that the individual’s behaviour is influenced by what he or she believes others will think as a result of using the technology (Venkatesh et al. 2003). Lastly, facilitating conditions specify the “degree to which an individual believes that an organisational and technical infrastructure exists to support the use of the system” (Venkatesh et al. 2003, p. 453). The second model utilised in the study is the norm activation model (NAM) developed by Schwartz (1977). This seeks to investigate pro‐social behaviour and primarily discovers how people sacrifice their own interest for the well‐being of others. The NAM consists of three constructs and is widely interpreted as a sequential model where awareness of consequences affects ascription of responsibility, which in turn activates personal norm. Personal norm presents a direct influencing factor of adoption intention (Steg and Groot 2010). Fig. 7.3 presents the three antecedents of the NAM. Awareness of consequences comprises the initial factor, describing the “tendency to become aware of the consequences of one’s behaviour for others” (Schwartz 1977, p. 227). Ascription of responsibility is defined as the “tendency to accept rationales for denying responsibility for the consequences of one’s behaviour” (Schwartz 1977, p. 230). In other words, only if people accept responsibility and are unlikely to neutralise their feelings of obligation, are personal norms and altruistic behaviour correlated. Lastly, personal norm refers to a person’s self‐expectation for a specific behaviour originated from norms and values. This manifests itself in feelings of moral obligation (Hunecke et al. 2001; Schwartz 1977).

7.4

Integrated UTAUT‐NAM Model and Hypothesis Development

Although UTAUT and NAM originate from different research areas and feature their own conceptual assumptions, they possess strong complementary values in explaining adoption intentions. Whereas the NAM explains behaviour intention motivated by altruistic norms, UTAUT factors are motivated out of self‐interest and personal utility (Udo et al. 2016).

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7  The Intention to Adopt Battery Electric Vehicles in Germany

Throughout mobility behaviour research, performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and facilitating conditions are considered strong determinants and have been the subject of several studies. The implication for this study is that people will more likely use a BEV if this helps them efficiently accomplish their personal performance objectives. Furthermore, adoption intention increases if vehicles are easily accessible in terms of the necessary energy and time needed to operate. Third, it was empirically proven that subjectively perceived expectations of significant others function as influencers of the intention to adopt a technology, and further, that facilitating conditions, such as a person’s resources and knowledge about BEVs, affect the adoption intention (Hunecke et al. 2001; Venkatesh et al. 2003). Among others, these relationships between the determinants and the intention to adopt a certain mobility behaviour were researched and proven in the area of electromobility by Riga (2015) regarding HEVs in South Africa, by Khazaei and Khazaei (2016) concerning the intention to use EVs in Malaysia, and by Wolf and Seebauer (2014) on the use of e‐bikes. Therefore, this study hypothesises the following. H1 Performance expectancy has a positive impact on the intention to adopt a BEV. H2 Effort expectancy has a negative impact on the intention to adopt a BEV. H3 Social influence has a positive impact on the intention to adopt a BEV. H4 Facilitating conditions have a positive impact on the intention to adopt a BEV. Several studies have indicated that personal norms are able to explain behaviour intention, such as sustainable transport behaviour (Liu et al. 2017; Nordlund and Garvill 2003). Applying this to the present study, feelings of moral obligation to choose a more environmentally friendly vehicle leads to higher adoption intention. The initial construct of activating an individual’s personal norm is awareness of consequences. Research has presented sufficient proof for this linkage (Gärling et al. 2003; Park and Ha 2014), as it is difficult to feel responsible for not performing a pro‐environmental behaviour without being aware of the consequences of said behaviour. The key factor for activating personal norm is ascription of responsibility. The causal relationship between ascription of responsibility and personal norm was, among others, proven by Onwezen et al. (2013), who found that an individual needs to feel responsible for environmental problems in order to activate feelings of pro‐environmental moral obligation. Consequently, the following is hypothesised. H5 Personal norm has a positive impact on the intention to adopt a BEV. H6 Awareness of consequences has a positive impact on ascription of responsibility.

7.5  Data Collection and Operationalisation

85

Fig. 7.4  Research framework

H7 Ascription of responsibility has a positive impact on personal norm. Based on the outcomes of the literature review, a research framework is depicted in Fig. 7.4.

7.5

Data Collection and Operationalisation

The present study utilised a quantitative method, employing an online questionnaire to collect data and test the hypotheses. This questionnaire, developed between March and April 2019, was administered by direct e‐mailing, advertising the questionnaire on popular online business forums, publishing it on online research portals, and asking respondents to forward the questionnaire to others. Criteria for inclusion of responses were that participants were either residents or citizens of Germany, at least 18 years old, and owned a valid driver’s license. The questionnaire included two parts: first, the demographic profile, obtained information on gender, age, employment status, and household income. Second, the proposed research model was investigated using a question framework based on the concepts of UTAUT and NAM. In the end, a final sample of 349 valid, completed questionnaires after data cleaning was collected from March to April 2019 and used in the analysis. Measures for the UTAUT constructs were adapted from the existing scales developed by Venkatesh et al. (2003) and further used by Marchewka and Kostiwa (2007) and Riga (2015). Accumulated research by Bamberg and Schmidt (2003),

86

7  The Intention to Adopt Battery Electric Vehicles in Germany

Bamberg et al. (2007), Hunecke et al. (2001), and Liu et al. (2017) served as a basis for formulating the items of the NAM variables. To match the research focus, slight adjustments were required to suit the use of BEVs. In the end, the final questionnaire comprised 25 items, all assessed by five‐point Likert scales.

7.6

Data Analysis and Results

The sample’s demographic characteristics are presented in Table 7.1. Among the respondents, 49.57% were female, and 50.42% were male. The participants’ age largely ranged between 18 and 25 years, followed by 46 to 55 years. In terms of Table 7.1  Participants’ Demographics Variable Gender Female Male Age 18–25 26–35 36–45 46–55 56–75 76 or older Employment status Unemployed Student Employed Self‐employed Retired Other Monthly household income Less than 500 € 500–1000 € 1001–1500 € 1501–2000 € 2001–3000 € 3001–4000 € 4001 € and above

Amount

Percentage

173 176

49.57 50.43

131  55  35  88  38   2

37.54 15.76 10.03 25.21 10.89  0.57

  3 149 141  37  12   7

 0.86 42.69 40.4 10.6   3.44  2.01

45 54 29 20 62 61 78

12.9 15.47  8.3  5.73 17.77 17.48 22.35

87

7.6  Data Analysis and Results

current employment status, 42.69% were students and 40.4% employees. Regarding the monthly household income, the largest response group reported an income above 4000 €. To test the combined model and the developed hypotheses, the statistical method of structural equitation modelling (SEM) was employed. Before testing the structural model for a significant relationship, the measurement model was evaluated. Therefore, possible measurement model issues were identified with a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). In order to ensure the sample data fits the model, modifications were made using modification indices (MIs) provided by AMOS. This study considered MIs greater than five for model re‐specification. Furthermore, correlations were only set between errors within the same construct. To test the goodness of fit, the present study selected six of the most popular indicators, stated in Table 7.2. The results indicated that the measurement model is satisfactory and well specified to test the hypotheses. As an analogue to the CFA, the goodness of fit indices were evaluated for the structural model. All indices were able to reach the suggested cut off, and it was concluded that the structural model is satisfactory overall. After approving the model fit of the structural model, the proposed hypotheses were tested using SEM. Fig. 7.5 illustrates the path coefficients of the structural model, including the p‐values indicating the predictive power of the structural equitation model. The results of the hypotheses tested within the SEM are further depicted in Table 7.3. In summary, the test results suggest that the integrated model based on UTAUT and NAM is almost completely supported by the collected data, as six out of seven hypotheses are supported. Table 7.2  Goodness of Fit Goodness Measurement of Fit Indicator Model Indices χ2/df 2.411 GFI 0.875 AGFI 0.834 NFI 0.893 CFI 0.934 RMSEA 0.064

Structural Model Indices

Fit Criteria

References

2.791 0.848 0.805 0.865 0.908 0.072

 0.80 > 0.80 > 0.85 > 0.85