Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning: Proceedings of the 11th INPUT Conference - Volume 1 (Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, 146) 3030688232, 9783030688233

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Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering

Daniele La Rosa Riccardo Privitera   Editors

Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning Proceedings of the 11th INPUT Conference—Volume 1

Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering Volume 146

Series Editors Marco di Prisco, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy Sheng-Hong Chen, School of Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China Ioannis Vayas, Institute of Steel Structures, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece Sanjay Kumar Shukla, School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia Anuj Sharma, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA Nagesh Kumar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science Bangalore, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Chien Ming Wang, School of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia

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Daniele La Rosa Riccardo Privitera •

Editors

Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning Proceedings of the 11th INPUT Conference— Volume 1

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Editors Daniele La Rosa Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture University of Catania Catania, Italy

Riccardo Privitera Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture University of Catania Catania, Italy

ISSN 2366-2557 ISSN 2366-2565 (electronic) Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering ISBN 978-3-030-68823-3 ISBN 978-3-030-68824-0 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Organization

Organizing Committee Laboratorio per la Pianificazione Territoriale e Ambientale, Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture—University of Catania Daniele La Rosa Riccardo Privitera Luca Barbarossa Viviana Pappalardo Francesco Martinico Paolo La Greca

Scientific Committee Ginevra Balletto, University of Cagliari Luca Barbarossa, University of Catania Ivan Blecic, University of Cagliari Dino Borri, Polytechnic University of Bari Domenico Camarda, Polytechnic University of Bari Michele Campagna, University of Cagliari Valerio Cutini, University of Pisa Andrea De Montis, University of Sassari Romano Fistola, University of Sannio Chiara Garau, University of Cagliari Carmela Gargiulo, University of Napoli “Federico” II Davide Geneletti, University of Trento Roberto Gerundo, University of Salerno Federica Gobattoni, Tuscia University Paolo La Greca, University of Catania

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Daniele La Rosa, University of Catania Sabrina Lai, University of Cagliari Giuseppe Las Casas, University of Basilicata Antonio Leone, University of Salento Giampiero Lombardini, University of Genova Beniamino Murgante, University of Basilicata Raffaele Pelorosso, Tuscia University Alessandro Plaisant, University of Sassari Riccardo Privitera, University of Catania Bernardino Romano, University of L’Aquila Francesco Scorza, University of Basilicata Maurizio Tira, University of Brescia Angioletta Voghera, Polytechnic University of Turin Corrado Zoppi, University of Cagliari Francesco Zullo, University of L’Aquila

Organization

Preface

The 11th Edition of the International Conference focuses on how to integrate nature-based solutions in urban and regional planning processes and science. Previously planned for September 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic the INPUT 2020 Conference will be hosted in 8–10 September 2021 by the University of Catania (Italy). The overarching theme of INPUT 2021 edition is “Integrating Nature-Based Solutions in Planning Science and Practice”. There is growing evidence that nature-based solutions (NBS) are strategic instruments to restore or improve the functionality of urban ecosystems towards more livable, healthier and resilient cities. Despite their many advantages, NBS are not widely implemented because the evidence of their effectiveness is not yet sufficiently diffused among policy-makers, city-planners and residents and because NBS are often overlooked due to the complexity of their design and lack of normative instruments supporting planning choices. In order to permanently incorporate NBS into planning instruments, more research and international discussion are required to consolidate the fragmented evidence that NBS can significantly improve the overall degree of environmental sustainability of contemporary cities. INPUT 2020 gathers international scholars in the fields of planning, civil engineering and architecture, ecology and social science, to build and consolidate the knowledge and evidence on NBS and to help an efficient implementation and replication of solutions. The INPUT 2020 Conference hosts 14 thematic sessions, namely: • • • • • • •

Enhancing the use of nature-based solutions in urban planning Modelling to innovate planning solutions for socio-ecological systems Input visions: new technologies, data and hybrid models for spatial planning Urban metabolism and simulation for decision-making in spatial planning Performance-based planning Computational planning Geodesign for informed collaborative spatial decision-making

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• Planning and design of ecosystems services: assessment frameworks, models, mapping and implications • Green infrastructure for planning healthy urban environments • The mitigation of peripheralization risk in urban and regional planning • Strategies and actions for climate change adaptation and mitigation in mediterranean regions • Analysis and planning of rural landscapes • Accessibility in urban planning: moving towards innovative approaches • Maintenance, upgrading and innovation in cultural heritage This book presents the first collection of 69 contributions submitted to the INPUT 2020 Conference, following the first call for paper launched in Winter 2020. The accepted articles, after a blind-review process, are here organized in 5 topical parts, which group together the 14 thematic sessions of the conference: • • • • •

Nature and Ecosystems for Urban Systems Models and Technologies for Spatial Planning Climate Change and Spatial Planning Peripheries, Rural and Cultural Landscapes Accessibility in Urban Planning

INPUT 2020 proceedings explores empirical as well as theoretical frameworks for NBS, their attitude to provide ecosystem services, to deal with climate change effects and to support mitigation and adaptation planning strategies. Integration of NBS in planning science and practice is investigated across different contexts and scales, from urban cores to peripheries as well as from rural to cultural landscapes. Above all, this collection presents the state of the art of modelling approaches and innovations employed in urban and spatial planning, with a trans-disciplinary, boundary-less character to face the complexity of contemporary socio-ecological systems and following a practice-oriented approach aimed to problem solving. INPUT is a group of Italian academic researchers and academics working in different fields related to the exploitation of innovation for urban and regional planning, with particular reference to geo-informatics and socio-ecological aspects of spatial planning. INPUT Conference is held every two years in Italy, with last editions been hosted in Viterbo (2018), Torino (2016), Cagliari (2014) and Potenza (2012). INPUT 2020 Conference is organized by LAPTA, a research laboratory of Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture of the University of Catania (Italy), working on sustainable urban and landscape planning. Catania, Italy December 2020

Daniele La Rosa Riccardo Privitera

Contents

Nature and Ecosystems for Urban Systems Blue-Green Roofs: Hydrological Evaluation of a Case Study in Viterbo, Central Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Raffaele Pelorosso, Andrea Petroselli, Ciro Apollonio, and Salvatore Grimaldi

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Reviewing the Performance of Nature-Based Solutions for Stormwater Management in Urban Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Susana Orta-Ortiz and Davide Geneletti

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Ecosystem-Based Adaptation Approach and Adaptation Planning Support Tools: Potential Implementation for the Urban Context . . . . . . Anna Giulia Castaldo, Israa Mahmoud, and Eugenio Morello

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Nature-Based Solutions for Healthy Cities: Cross Scale Interaction . . . . Roberto De Lotto, Caterina Pietra, and Elisabetta M. Venco

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Planning Accessible Urban Green Infrastructure for Healthy and Fair Historical Towns: The Study Case of Viterbo, Central Italy . . . . . . . . . Raffaele Pelorosso, Daniele La Rosa, Stefano Floris, and Nicola Cerino

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From Preferences of Social Groups to Planning and Management Solutions of Green Spaces in Bucharest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mariacristina Sipala and Daniele La Rosa

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A Methodology to Investigate the Human Health and Environmental Benefits by the Improvement of Urban Mobility and Ecosystem Services: A Case Study in Pisa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Greta Frosini, Luisa Santini, and Fabrizio Cinelli Designing a New Vision of an “Ordered” Nature with an Ecosystemic Approach for a Healthy City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Concetta Fallanca and Antonio Taccone

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The Challenges of Valuing Urban Nature: Accounting for Urban Ecosystem Services Within the Framework of a Cost-Benefit Analysis of Nature-Based Investments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jing Ma, John Henneberry, and Riccardo Privitera Bicycle Accessibility to Cultural Ecosystem Services in a Cross-Boundary Landscape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marcin Spyra and Adam Hamerla

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Policies to Decrease Land Surface Temperature Based on Land Cover Change: An Assessment Related to Sardinia, Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Sabrina Lai, Federica Leone, and Corrado Zoppi Planning of Protected Areas as a Mean of Addressing Concepts of Resilience and Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Federica Isola and Federica Leone Investigating the (Un)Integration Between Sectoral Policies with the Habitat Degradation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Francesco Scorza, Angela Pilogallo, Lucia Saganeiti, and Beniamino Murgante Slow Mobility Networks as Tools to Take Care About Cultural Landscape and to Resew Relationships Between Humans and the Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Giovanni Bruschi and Luisa Santini Research on the Global Green Market Based on Big Data . . . . . . . . . . 139 Gaochuan Zhang and Bao-Jie He A Strategic Performance-Based Planning Methodology to Promote the Regeneration of Fragile Territories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Marialuce Stanganelli, Francesca Torrieri, Carlo Gerundo, and Marco Rossitti Models and Technologies for Spatial Planning Envisaging Urban Changes for the Smart City: The Live City Information Modeling (LCIM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Romano Fistola and Andrea Rastelli New Tools to Analyse the Wastescapes of the Cities: The Case Study of the Metropolitan City of Naples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Maria Somma An Approach for Tackling the Risk of the Residential Building Stocks at the Urban Scale Exploiting Spatial and Typological Archive Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 G. Uva, V. Leggieri, and G. Mastrodonato

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From BIM to CIM: A New Instrument for Urban Planners and a New Bottom-Up Planning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Ida Zingariello A Hybrid Approach for the Acquisition and Analysis of Distributed Knowledge on Spatial Planning: The Case Study of the Master Plan for Brindisi (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Stefania Santoro, Dario Esposito, Domenico Camarda, and Dino Borri Reflections About Non-knowledge in Planning Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Maria Rosaria Stufano Melone and Domenico Camarda Use of Remotely Piloted Aircraft to Update Spatial Data in Areas of Social Fragility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Danilo Marques de Magalhães and Ana Clara Mourão Moura Space of Flows and Space of Places: Manuel Castells and the Information Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Alessandro Alfieri BIS—Management of Energy Consumption Data for Companies and Public Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Franco Guzzetti, Karen L. N. Anyabolu, Francesca Biolo, and Lara D’Ambrosio Understanding the Importance of Risk Perception in Coastal Socio-Ecological Systems Management: A Case Study in Southern Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Giulia Motta Zanin, Maria Francesca Bruno, and Alessandra Saponieri Urban Occupation Potential by UAV Data: Vale do Sereno—Nova Lima/MG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Pedro Benedito Casagrande, Maria Giovana Parisi, Ana Clara Mourão Moura, Lourdes Manresa Camargos, and Danilo Marques de Magalhães Co-creation of Ideas in Geodesign Process to Support Opinion and Decision Making: Case Study of a Slum in Minas Gerais, Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Ana Clara Mourão Moura and Christian Rezende Freitas Applying Geodesign in the City of Bologna (Italy): The Case Study of the Navile Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Alfio Conti, Ana Clara Mourão Moura, Gustavo Adolfo Tinoco Martinez, Simona Tondelli, and Susanna Patata Workshop of Geodesign: Geology as the Basis for Planning Alternatives Futures for the Quadrilátero Ferrífero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Pedro Benedito Casagrande and Ana Clara Mourão Moura

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Contents

Participation, Information, Action: A Collaborative Map to Evaluate Mobility Spots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Nadia Giuffrida, Simone Grasso, Enrico Muschella, Delia Valastro, Giuseppe Inturri, Riccardo Dell’Osso, Sebastiano D’Urso, and Matteo Ignaccolo Computational Planning Support Systems for Regional Analysis: Real-Estate Values Dynamics and Road-Networks Configuration . . . . . 291 Diego Altafini, Elisabetta Pozzobon, Simone Rusci, and Valerio Cutini Planning Ecological Corridors: A Cost Distance Method Based on Ecosystem Service Evaluation in the Sardinian Cork Oak Forests . . . . . 301 Luigi La Riccia, Angioletta Voghera, Emma Salizzoni, Gabriella Negrini, and Sara Maltoni Pricing the City: How Spatial Transformations Affect Real Estate Values in Urban Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Valerio Cutini, Valerio Di Pinto, and Simone Rusci Re-defining Spatial Typologies of Humanitarian Housing Plans Using Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 Camilla Pezzica, Valerio Cutini, Clarice Bleil de Souza, and Chiara Chioni Ex Post Evaluation of Cohesion Policies in the Strategic Planning of Italian Metropolitan Cities: Analysis for the Development of New Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Ginevra Balletto, Luigi Mundula, Alessandra Milesi, and Mara Ladu Assessing Urban Green Spaces Availability: A Comparison Between Planning Standards and a High-Fidelity Accessibility Evaluation . . . . . 339 Ivan Blečić and Valeria Saiu Climate Change and Spatial Planning Finding the Resilient City: A Proposal for Implementing “Adaptigation” in Spatial Plan. Case Studies from Sicily . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Luca Barbarossa and Viviana Pappalardo Local Climate Related Policies in the Mediterranean Region within the Covenant of Mayors Initiative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Valentina Palermo A Knowledge Management System as a Tool for Better Climate Change Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Aly A. Ahmed and Ahmed Elshazly Assessment of Public Awareness of Climate Change Impacts on Marine Environment in Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Ahmed Elshazly and Mohamed A. Hamza

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Nature Based Solutions for Coastal Adaptation to the SLR: A Case Study from the Northwest Mediterranean Coast of Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . 391 Ahmed Elshazly Mitigating the Impacts of Climate Change on Water Scarcity and Drought: Wastewater Treatment as an Exemplary Solution in the Mediterranean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 Amr I. Madi and Ahmed Elshazly Climate Change and Its Impact on Harmful Algae in the Egyptian Mediterranean Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 Amany A. Ismael A Methodological Framework for the Comprehensive Assessment of Actions and Territorial Target for the “Sustainable Energy and Climate Action Plan” (SECAP) of Potenza Municipality . . . . . . . . . 419 Luigi Santopietro and Francesco Scorza Greenery Systems for the Mitigation of the Urban Heat Island: A Simulation Experience for Southern Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Gianpiero Evola, Francesco Nocera, Vincenzo Costanzo, Maurizio Detommaso, Serena Bonaccorso, and Luigi Marletta The Effect of a Trees’ Shadows on the Indoor Heat Stress Probability and Buildings’ Cooling Loads Reduction in Santiago de Chile . . . . . . . 439 Massimo Palme Urban Changes to Control and Mitigate the Urban Heat Islands (UHI): Analysis in the Catania’s Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 Federica Leone and Fausto Carmelo Nigrelli Peripheries, Rural and Cultural Landscapes A Methodology for Analyzing the Role of Environmental Vulnerability in Urban and Metropolitan-Scale Peripheralization Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 Roberto Gerundo, Alessandra Marra, and Ottavia Giacomaniello Indicators for Analysing Rural Gentrification for Landscape Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 Hanna Elisabet Åberg Mitigating the Effects of Urban Diffusion—The Case Study of the Urban Agglomeration of Pará de Minas and Itaúna (Brazil) . . . . 477 Alfio Conti, Sónia Maria Carvalho Ribeiro, and Gustavo Adolfo Tinoco Martinez Between Crisis and In-Settlement-Speeding-Up: The Case of L’Aquila . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 Fabio Andreassi, Cinzia Barbara Bellone, and Fabio Naselli

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Contents

The Use of Lamination Basins for Mitigation of the Urban Flooding Risk: The Case Study of Peschici . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 Ciro Apollonio, Andrea Petroselli, Raffaele Pelorosso, Salvatore Grimaldi, Crescenzo Luca Frontuto, Giovanni Russo, Maria Di Modugno, Ciro Miroballo, and Marco Muciaccia A Configurational Approach for Measuring the Accessibility of Place as an Analysis Tool for Crime Risk Vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . 501 Francesca Coppola, Michele Grimaldi, and Isidoro Fasolino Qualitative Objectives to Preserve, Protect and Valorise the Lombardy Rural Landscapes in the Regional Landscape Plan . . . . 511 Viviana di Martino, Silvia Restelli, and Andrea Arcidiacono The Basin Contract as a Project-Oriented Tool for an Integrated and Sustainable Management of Water Resources. A Project for Productive Landscapes in Coros, Sardinia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521 Gian Francesco Faedda and Alessandro Plaisant Tourism and Rural Landscape: Sustainable Development and Territorial Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531 Selena Candia, Francesca Pirlone, and Ilenia Spadaro Identification and Assessment of Thematic Paths Through the Cultural Paths Assessment Tool (PAST). The Case Study of Cagliari, Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541 Alfonso Annunziata and Chiara Garau A Multicultural Tourism for Evaluating the Cultural Heritage: The Case Study of the Region of Sardinia (Italy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551 Chiara Garau, Giulia Desogus, Federica Banchiero, and Pasquale Mistretta Promoting Bottom-Up Initiatives for the Sustainable Conservation of Hidden Cultural Landscapes Using Ubiquitous Digital Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 Giovanni Bruschi, Daniele Amadio, and Camilla Pezzica A Multi Risk Analysis for the Planning, Management and Retrofit of Cultural Heritage in Historic Urban Districts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571 Dario Esposito, Elena Cantatore, and Alberico Sonnessa Accessibility in Urban Planning Urban Accessibility and Tourist Activity: An Application to the Metropolitan City of Naples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583 Rosa Anna La Rocca

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Multigenerational Urban Planning for Accessible Cities: Lessons from the Case of Milan and Its Senior Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 Fulvia Pinto and Mina Akhavan Age Inequalities of Accessibility to Essential Urban Services. The Case Study of Primary Health Care in the City of Milan for Older People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605 Gerardo Carpentieri and Carmen Guida Spatial Accessibility: Integrating Fuzzy AHP and GIS Techniques to Improve Elderly Walkability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615 Carmela Gargiulo, Federica Gaglione, and Floriana Zucaro Crossing Conditions and Kerb Delay Assessment for Better Safety and Accessibility of Road Pedestrian Crossings at Urban Intersections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 S. Leonardi, Giovanni Tesoriere, N. Distefano, G. Pulvirenti, A. Canale, and Tiziana Campisi A Behavioral and Explanatory Statistical Analysis Applied with the Advent of Sharing Mobility in Urban Contexts: Outcomes from an Under Thirty-Age Group Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . 633 Tiziana Campisi, Giovanni Tesoriere, Matteo Ignaccolo, Giuseppe Inturri, and Vincenza Torrisi Socio-Eco-Friendly Performance of E-Scooters in Palermo: Preliminary Statistical Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643 Tiziana Campisi, S. Basbas, A. Skoufas, Giovanni Tesoriere, and D. Ticali Urban and Territorial Accessibility. A New Role for the Marinas . . . . . 655 Luigi Mundula, Mara Ladu, Ginevra Balletto, and Alessandra Milesi

About the Editors

Daniele La Rosa (Ph.D. in Urban and Regional Planning) is Associate Professor of Urban and Environmental Planning at the Department Civil Engineering and Architecture of the University of Catania (Italy). He teaches spatial planning and urban design in Building Engineering M.Sc. Course at the University of Catania. His research interests include sustainable urban planning, ecosystem services, GIS applications for urban and landscape planning, environmental indicators, environmental strategic assessment, land-use science and landscape studies. He is Author of more than 80 publications on the above-mentioned topics. Riccardo Privitera is Research Fellow in Urban and Spatial Planning at the Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Catania (Italy). He holds a Ph.D. degree in Urban Planning, taught Urban Design as a Lecturer in Architecture M.Sc. Programme and got the Italian National Scientific Qualification as Associate Professor in Urban and Regional Planning. He is Member of the Italian Centre of Urban planning Studies, Member of the European Land-use Institute, Visiting Academic Researcher at the Department of Urban Studies and Planning, University of Sheffield (UK), and Visiting Professor at the Faculty of Science, University of Alexandria (Egypt). He has been working on several urban local plans for municipalities, provincial administrations and university, such as land-use plans, regeneration of historical centre plans and landscape protection plans. As Member of the coordination staff, he has been working on many European and UK projects. Among his scientific interests in the field of urban and regional planning are included: sustainable urban growth, non-urbanized area planning, urban green infrastructures, urban quality, green cities, climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies, ecosystem services, land cover analysis, urban morphology analysis, land suitability analysis, urban and peri-urban agriculture, farmland protection, real estate development processes, transfer of development rights, renewable energy sources and energy efficiency issues at urban scale. Based on these topics, he published more than fifty among scientific papers, proceedings, chapters and books.

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Nature and Ecosystems for Urban Systems

Blue-Green Roofs: Hydrological Evaluation of a Case Study in Viterbo, Central Italy Raffaele Pelorosso, Andrea Petroselli, Ciro Apollonio, and Salvatore Grimaldi

Abstract Green roofs can create more resilient hybrid infrastructures for the sustainable management of urban stormwater. Their permeation in urban design and planning practice depends on the roof capability in supplying multiple ecosystem services that are mainly affected by water availability and management. The blue-green roof is an innovative solution coupling a water storage below the green roof able to gather infiltrated rainfall and slowly release it out of the system. Infiltrated rainfall is then reused by green roof vegetation by capillary irrigation allowing plants survival in the dry period, increasing evapotranspiration and producing a cooling effect. The roof storage allows reducing flooding risk and overload of drainage system through storing and gradually releasing of water. This paper presents a simulation of different scenarios of green and blue-green roof in Viterbo (Central Italy) during critical rainfall. Results demonstrate (a) the almost double efficiency of the blue-green roof in reducing runoff with respect to the traditional green roof and (b) the benefits of an increased storage capacity of the blue-green roof in terms of runoff control. Future research lines for blue-green roof systems are reported and some urban planning considerations are suggested for the study area.










Keywords Green infrastructure Pluvial flooding SWMM Urban regeneration

R. Pelorosso (&)
C. Apollonio Department of Agriculture, Forests, Nature and Energy (DAFNE), University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy e-mail: [email protected] A. Petroselli Department of Economics, Engineering, Society and Business Organization (DEIM), University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy S. Grimaldi Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-Food and Forest Systems (DIBAF), University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_1

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1 Introduction Green roofs are Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) and Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) able to create more resilient hybrid grey-green-blue infrastructures for the sustainable management of urban stormwater (Krauze and Wagner 2018; Van der Jagt et al. 2019) by the enhancement of the so-called ecosystem services (Pelorosso et al. 2017). Green roof permeation in urban design and planning practice depends on several performance factors linked to climatic and structural conditions (Ascione et al. 2013; Pelorosso et al. 2016), but the blue component (i.e. water) represents a key factor for the applicability and diffusion of this kind of NBS (Cirkel et al. 2018). Water sustains vegetation and vegetated roofs during hot and dry periods have a better cooling effect than other roof solutions due to evaporation. Indeed, the evaporation phenomenon is linked with the latent heat flux and the sensible heat flux: more evaporation results in mitigation of the Urban Heat Island effects. Moreover, the water interception of the green roof increases with increasing substrate depth and plant coverage. Additionally, reduced water shortage periods allow different typologies of vegetation to be planted, creating more and more diversified and aesthetically attractive eco-urban landscapes. Flourishing and stable vegetation also characterizes an efficient green roof system in terms of control of air particulate and regeneration capability of underused and degraded areas for socialization (Li et al. 2014). Green roofs reduce pluvial flooding lowering the volume and peak of runoff and the drainage system load (Abualfaraj et al. 2018; Fu et al. 2019) thanks to the infiltration and storage processes and average retention value of precipitation ranging from 11.0 to 76.4% (Cipolla et al. 2016). Moreover, green roofs in densely urban districts are often the unique NBS able to adapt the urban system to climate and hydrological changes. The blue-green roof is an innovative NBS characterized by significant water storage below the green roof able to gather infiltrated rainfall and slowly release out of the system. Infiltrated rainfall can be reused by green roof vegetation by capillary irrigation allowing plants survival in the dry period, increasing evapotranspiration and producing a cooling effect (Cirkel et al. 2018). Additionally, the sub-roof storage potentially allows reducing flooding risk and overload of drainage system through storing and gradually release of water (Li et al. 2019). Different solutions of blue-green roofs can be realized taking into consideration the maximum allowable static load, the local climate, the usage (e.g. rainwater harvesting, urban cooling, food production, biodiversity or any combination thereof). Some extensive blue-green roofs modules have been developed (see Table 1) in northern Europe and North America. Table 1 Main typologies of extensive blue-green roof solutions Web site

Company

Name

http://www.vegetalid.us/green-roof-solutions/stormwaterVegetali.D Hydroventiv® management.html https://metropolder.com/polder-roof/#polderroof Metropolder Polder roof ® Source https://climateinnovationwindow.eu/topics/urban-areas. Retrieved on 26 June 2020

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These engineered blue-green solutions are characterized by a plastic storage layer (around 80 mm or more) with a high void ratio (around 95%) able to stock water infiltrated from the above soil and vegetation layer. The water level is then regulated by a weir system (also in remote) to limit the peak of runoff and reduce the load of the urban drainage system during critical rainfall events. In fact, the presence of ancient underground urban drainage system in cities implicates serious risks for public safety (Apollonio et al. 2017). In meantime, the weir system allows a reserve of water being used by roof vegetation (and potentially for other use) normally by passive irrigation through capillary forces that transport water from the storage layer to the substrate (Voeten et al. 2016). Few assessments of this kind of blue-green roof are reported in the scientific literature (Cirkel et al. 2018; Li et al. 2019) and, at our knowledge, modelling simulation of their hydrological behaviour in real study cases are not present. This paper presents the simulations of different scenarios of green and blue-green roofs in a real urban area characterized by a Mediterranean climate with the aim to assess: (a) the efficiency of the blue-green roof in reducing runoff with respect to the traditional green roof; (b) the benefits of an increased storage capacity of the blue-green roof in terms of runoff control.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1

The Conceptual Model of the Blue-Green Roof and the LID Bio-Retention Cell Module

The blue-green roof model is conceptualized in Fig. 1 to show the main processes and features simulated in this paper using the SWMM model. SWMM represents a valuable spatial decision support system with numerous applications in urban contexts which make it the most tested model internationally (Pelorosso 2020). The model setting takes into consideration the scientific literature on green roof modelling in SWMM to have results comparable with controlled data and, therefore, more reliable. Indeed, for practitioners, a green roof modelling tool based on generic materials would be preferable even if model parameters obtained at one site were only partly transferable to similar roofs at other sites and comparable climates (Johannessen et al. 2019). Thus, several SWMM parameters were collected from the paper of Cipolla et al. (2016) that simulated an extensive green roof using the LID Bio-Retention Cell module (LID_BRC) in Italy. In particular, we used the same parameters for the surface and soil layers also in blue-green roof simulations (Sedum vegetation in the surface layer, 100 mm of soil layer to support plant growth). LID_BRC module has shown its capability to simulate green roofs and the complex interactions among layers (Cipolla et al. 2016). Moreover, it allows defining specific storage and drain characteristics that are essential features of the blue-green roof. Thus, the LID_BRC module is here used to simulate both the green

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Fig. 1 Conceptual model of the proposed extensive blue-green roof

and blue-green roofs. The simulated blue-green roof presents a 100 mm storage layer of Permavoid units (Voeten et al. 2016). Furthermore, the drain outflow is regulated by specific control curves rapidly discharging the water over the predefined maximum storage levels (see Sect. 2.3).

2.2

Study Area

The study area is an urban catchment (around 10 ha) in the southern part of Viterbo city (Central Italy) (see Fig. 2) characterized by frequent floods at the outlet cross-section: the historical gate of “Porta San Pietro”, an important access point for the Viterbo medieval center enclosed by ancient walls. The consequent disservices and economic damages for structures and vehicles lead to criticism by residents and appropriate actions to reduce the flooding risk are then very welcomed (see http:// www.tusciaweb.eu/2019/09/porta-san-pietro-allagata-ragazzo-intrappolato-autodallacqua/). The catchment is a strongly impervious area with important transport nodes (e.g. train station), urban services (e.g. commercial areas, social-health district and police headquarter) and roads and parking areas. The urban catchment has been subdivided into five sub-catchments following the identified water flows (Fig. 2c). Satellite images, digital elevation model and technical maps have been used to set-up sub-catchments properties (slope, width, imperviousness and so on).

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Fig. 2 The urban catchment of Porta San Pietro. Numbers in (c) identify the five sub-catchments outlined in red; green areas—permeable surfaces; red areas—simulated green roofs

2.3

The Simulated Scenarios

The base scenario (actual state, characterized by no NBS) has been compared with different solutions of green roof systems considering the maximum greening of all the suitable flat roofs (around 6800 m2, 6.8% of the total area). The suitable roofs (i.e. flat) have been identified by recent Google Earth satellite images. These scenarios can then represent the hypothetical maximum benefit provided by NBS implemented in building roofs for the mitigation of flooding events. The traditional extensive green roof is simulated in Scenario 1. The Blue-green roof is simulated in the other two scenarios considering a water storage level at 30 mm and 80 mm, i.e. scenario 2 and scenario 3, respectively. Cirkel et al. (2018) report that a blue-green roof with a storage level of 30 mm could be suitable for roof having a maximum static load of 90 kg/m2. Thus, scenario 2 considers a situation where buildings have a sub-optimal static load, while scenario 3 considers the maximum water storage capacity for the Permavoid storage layer.

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The observed precipitation recorded by Viterbo raingauge in 1st September 2019 having a cumulative rainfall depth of 53.7 mm, a duration of 3 h and an estimated return period (based on available Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves) of 5 years is simulated in all the four scenarios. The selected rainfall provoked a significant flood at the outlet of the study area, consequently, the simulations aim at evaluating the potential benefit of the proposed green solutions in mitigating a real pluvial flooding event. Modelling results are compared in terms of urban sub-catchments runoff, a proxy of regulating ecosystem services for the water cycle (see Gobattoni et al. 2017).

3 Results The most relevant reduction of the runoff coefficient (i.e. the ratio between total runoff and total rainfall) at the whole catchment scale is obtained with the blue-green roof simulated in the scenario 3 (80 mm of water storage), characterized by a −7% with respect to the base scenario. Scenario 1 (traditional green roof) reduces the total runoff coefficient by 3.8%, while scenario 2 (blue-green roof with 30 mm of water storage) by 5.6% (see Fig. 3). Sub-catchment 1 presents the best performance due to higher intensity of the NBS: −12.8% of runoff coefficient and −12.5% of peak runoff for scenario 3 compared to the base scenario (Fig. 4). See Table 2 for a detailed comparison of scenarios and sub-catchments.

Fig. 3 Total runoff in the three green scenarios and scenario base

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Fig. 4 Runoff and drain outflow in sub-catchment no. 1 for the three green scenarios and scenario base. Note that the drain outflow coming from storage layer of the green and blue-green roof corresponds to the increased runoff peaks (Color figure online )

4 Discussion and Conclusions The blue-green roof with the maximum water storage of 80 mm shows an almost double efficiency than the traditional green roof in reducing the runoff coefficient. The results for the sub-catchment 1 highlight the potential impacts of the most intense NBS implementation (12.8% of the area converted to NBS). In this sub-catchment several relatively modern buildings (e.g. police headquarter, commercial area and social-health district) could host blue-green roof projects through urban regeneration actions. These urban regenerations could aim at improving multiple functions, as the energetic and aesthetical, in addition to the hydrological one. Indeed, as the results have shown, the impact of green roof and blue-green roof on pluvial flooding at catchment scale can be limited even considering the maximum allowed water storage. The real heavy rainfall (5 years return time) has allowed stressing the different configurations of the green roofs highlighting the capability of water storage in reducing and delaying peak runoff. However, the major benefits of NBS in managing stormwater are present under much frequent small rainfalls (Lee et al. 2017). Additionally, Smart Flow Control measures of the weir system are proposed for blue-green roofs (see websites of Table 1 for further descriptions). These systems aim at regulating the drain outflow at a slow rate and could help to manage the heavy rainfall. Further analyses are required to study blue-green roof in long periods, continuous rainfall data and varying weir system. For instance, a pilot blue-green roof of the Metropolder company was recently installed in Viterbo, at the experimental farm of Tuscia University. Since collected

Area (ha)/% NBS

3.89/12.8 2.95/5.1 1.88/– 1.06/3.4 0.16/– 9.95/6.8

Catchment

Sub-1 Sub-2 Sub-3 Sub-4 Sub-5 Whole

857.95 624.13 384.17 194.46 1272.82 3086.00

Base Scenario Peak Runoff (L/s) 0.98 0.95 0.97 0.90 1.00 0.96

Runoff Coeff. 750.83 593.93 384.17 188.73 1165.90 2851.66

Scenario 1 Peak Runoff (L/s)

Table 2 Peak runoff and runoff coefficients for scenarios and sub-catchments

0.91 0.92 0.97 0.88 1.00 0.92

Runoff Coeff. 750.83 593.93 384.17 188.73 1165.90 2851.66

Scenario 2 Peak Runoff (L/s) 0.88 0.91 0.97 0.88 1.00 0.91

Runoff Coeff.

750.83 593.93 384.17 188.73 1165.90 2851.66

Scenario 3 Peak Runoff (L/s)

0.85 0.90 0.97 0.87 1.00 0.89

Runoff Coeff.

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hydrological and climatic data of the pilot case study will be available, we will be able to calibrate and refine the proposed configuration LID_BRC module for the blue-green roof. The conducted analysis of the study area leads to some additional planning considerations. Although it is well established that an intense rainfall is one of the major underlying factors of urban floods, several other elements, mostly related with the land use (Apollonio et al. 2016; Novelli et al. 2016) and its management, affect pluvial flooding risk and the hydrological resilience (Gobattoni et al. 2016; Pelorosso et al. 2018; Haghighatafshar et al. 2020). For instance, the extension and distribution of pervious surfaces (green areas, NBS), the soil type, the morphological characteristics (e.g. slopes), the exposed urban and ecological values to pluvial flooding. The gully pot blockages can be the most common cause of floods than an intense rainfall. Thus, the maintenance and rehabilitation of the urban drainage system is a key factor to mitigate pluvial flooding, more than a climate change factor, difficult to be correctly predicted and considered in the grey infrastructure design (Haghighatafshar et al. 2020). In the study area, further analysis should verify the drainage system load and the influence of its maintenance in avoiding intense floods (and combined sewer overflow). Additional NBS could be employed to enhance the integration of grey and green infrastructure. As the abundance of parking areas in the catchment, the introduction of permeable pavements (also collecting flows from other impervious surfaces) seems a valuable solution. Moreover, multi-level car parking could release extra space for accessible, public and permeable green areas in a more holistic view of water-sensitive and sustainable urban regeneration. In conclusion, blue-green roofs can enhance the urban drainage system performance in managing stormwater with respect to the traditional green roofs. Anyway, the model simulations have displayed that also a large implementation of blue-green roofs (very hard to be realized in existent cities) could not sufficiently mitigate pluvial flooding risk. The trade-offs among different NBS, the re-design and the continuous management of the current urban drainage system are fundamental aspects for enhancing the hydrological functionality of urban basins. Consequently, a more comprehensive assessment of the multiple ecosystem services provided by blue-green roofs should be considered for their effective integration in urban projects and urban planning processes.

References Abualfaraj N, Cataldo J, Elborolosy Y, Fagan D, Woerdeman S, Carson T, Montalto FA (2018) Monitoring and modeling the long-term rainfall-runoff response of the Jacob K. Javits center green roof. Water (Switzerland) 10(11):1–23. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10111494 Apollonio C, Balacco G, Novelli A, Tarantino E, Piccinni AF (2016) Land use change impact on flooding areas: the case study of cervaro basin (Italy). Sustainability 8:996. https://doi.org/10. 3390/su8100996

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Apollonio C, Ferrante R, Piccinni AF (2017) Preventive approach to reduce risk caused by failure of a rainwater drainage system: the case study of Corato (Southern Italy). In: Gervasi O et al (eds) Computational science and its applications—ICCSA 2017. Lecture notes in computer science, vol 10405. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-62395-5_18 Ascione F, Bianco N, de’ Rossi F, Turni G, Vanoli GP (2013) Green roofs in European climates. Are effective solutions for the energy savings in air-conditioning? Appl Energy 104:845–859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.11.068 Cipolla SS, Maglionico M, Stojkov I (2016) A long-term hydrological modelling of an extensive green roof by means of SWMM. Ecol Eng 95:876–887. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016. 07.009 Cirkel DG, Voortman BR, van Veen T, Bartholomeus RP (2018) Evaporation from (blue-)green roofs: assessing the benefits of a storage and capillary irrigation system based on measurements and modeling. Water (Switzerland) 10(9):1–21. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10091253 Fu X, Goddard H, Wang X, Hopton ME (2019) Development of a scenario-based stormwater management planning support system for reducing combined sewer overflows (CSOs). J Environ Manage 236:571–580. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2018.12.089 Gobattoni F, Pelorosso R, Leone A (2016) Strategie di riqualificazione urbana clima-adattiva: nature-based solutions per città più resilienti, pp 101–110. Planum Gobattoni F, Pelorosso R, Piccinni AF, Leone A (2017) The sustainability of urban system from a hydrological point of view: a planning practice proposal. UPLanD J Urban Plann Landscape Environ Design 2(3):101–122 Haghighatafshar S, Becker P, Moddemeyer S, Persson A, Sörensen J, Aspegren H, Jönsson K (2020) Paradigm shift in engineering of pluvial floods: from historical recurrence intervals to risk-based design for an uncertain future. Sustain Cities Soc 61:102317. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.scs.2020.102317 Johannessen BG, Hamouz V, Gragne AS, Muthanna TM (2019) The transferability of SWMM model parameters between green roofs with similar build-up. J Hydrol 569:816–828. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.01.004 Krauze K, Wagner I (2018) From classical water-ecosystem theories to nature-based solutions— contextualizing nature-based solutions for sustainable city. Sci Total Environ 655:697–706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.187 Lee JG, Nietch CT, Panguluri S (2017) SWMM modeling methods for simulating green infrastructure at a suburban headwatershed: user’s guide (EPA/600/R-17/414). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, p 157 Li D, Bou-Zeid E, Oppenheimer M (2014) The effectiveness of cool and green roofs as urban heat island mitigation strategies. Environ Res Lett 9:16. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/9/5/ 055002 Li S, Qin H, Peng Y, Khu ST (2019) Modelling the combined effects of runoff reduction and increase in evapotranspiration for green roofs with a storage layer. Ecol Eng 127:302–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ECOLENG.2018.12.003 Novelli A, Tarantino E, Caradonna G, Apollonio C, Balacco G, Piccinni F (2016) Improving the ANN classification accuracy of landsat data through spectral indices and linear transformations (PCA and TCT) aimed at LU/LC monitoring of a river basin. In: Gervasi O et al (eds) Computational science and its applications—ICCSA 2016. ICCSA 2016. Lecture notes in computer science, vol 9787. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42108-7_32 Pelorosso R (2020) Modeling and urban planning: a systematic review of performance-based approaches. Sustain Cities Soc (52):101867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.101867 Pelorosso R, Gobattoni F, Leone A (2016) Green courtyards as urban cool islands: towards nature-based climate adaptation plans of compact cities. CSE J City Saf Energy 1:27–36 Pelorosso R, Gobattoni F, Leone A (2017) Low-entropy city: a thermodynamic approach to reconnect urban systems with nature. Landscape Urban Plann 168:22–30. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.landurbplan.2017.10.002 Pelorosso R, Gobattoni F, Leone A (2018) Increasing hydrological resilience employing nature-based solutions: a modelling approach to support spatial planning. In: Smart planning:

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sustainability and mobility in the age of change, pp 71–82. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-319-77682-8_5 Van der Jagt APN, Raven R, Dorst H, Runhaar H (2019) Nature-based innovation systems. Environ Innov Soc Transitions. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EIST.2019.09.005 Voeten JG, Van De Werken L, Newman AP (2016) Demonstrating the use of below-substrate water storage as a means of maintaining green roofs-performance data and a novel approach to achieve public understanding. World environmental and water resources congress 2016. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784479841.002

Reviewing the Performance of Nature-Based Solutions for Stormwater Management in Urban Areas M. Susana Orta-Ortiz and Davide Geneletti

Abstract The deployment of nature-based solutions in cities (through the creation of new green spaces) is promoted as a sustainable approach that support the stormwater management in dealing with the effects of climate change and increasing urbanization, while providing additional social, economic, and environmental benefits. These solutions operate many different ecosystem functions that regulate the urban hydrological cycle, reducing the risk of flooding and degradation of aquatic ecosystems. This study explores the performance of nature-based solutions (NbS) for managing stormwater and how it varies among diverse type of solutions. To this purpose, we conducted a literature review to extract information of the NbS functioning, runoff volume reduction rates, peak flow attenuation, and reduction of pollutant concentration. We particularly focused on the last 10 years of research in the stormwater management field considering urban forests, urban parks, street trees, green roofs, constructed wetlands, green walls, rain gardens, bioswales, and ponds. The review outcomes show that some solutions can have better performance in controlling water quality while others mainly target water quantity issues. Moreover, the effectiveness to achieve stormwater management goals is highly variable, even though considering the same type of solution. This variability can be attributed to factors intrinsic to the NbS and to characteristics of the local context. The review demonstrates the contribution that nature-based solutions (if properly designed) can have on reducing the burden on the urban drainage system. Some knowledge gaps remain in the literature regarding the design of suitable and effective solutions.







Keywords Nature-based solutions Stormwater management Runoff mitigation Water purification




M. Susana Orta-Ortiz
D. Geneletti (&) Department of Civil, Environmental and Mechanical Engineering, University of Trento, Via Mesiano, 77, 38123 Trento, Italy e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_2

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1 Introduction Nature-based solutions (NbS) promote the use of nature (and the ecosystem functions) to address multiple socio-economic challenges while preserving and enhancing the natural environment (European Commission 2015). In urban areas, these solutions can consist in greening interventions, such as the creation of green roofs, urban parks, rain gardens, etc. (Eggermont et al. 2015; Nature4Cities 2018). Specifically, these green spaces enhance the provision of ecosystem services, and provide benefits to tackle social cohesion, public health, and economic opportunities, air pollution, urban heat island, urban biodiversity loss, stormwater management (Raymond et al. 2017). Stormwater management (SWM) relies on the urban drainage system (e.g., channels, underground conduits, and storage facilities) to control the surface runoff, prevent flooding and the discharge of pollutants into water courses. However, the efficiency of this system is affected by the effects of climate change and increasing urbanization. Climate change increases the frequency and intensity of rainfall events while the land use-land cover changes reduce the permeability of urban soils, and the ability of urban ecosystems to buffer flood events. These factors cause flooding, sewer overflows, and erosion of streams and rivers (Guerreiro et al. 2018; Burian et al. 2013; van Ginkel et al. 2018; Andres et al. 2018). Moreover, as urbanization and economic activities intensify, the load and concentration of suspended solids, heavy metals, nutrients, and organic compounds increase (Müller et al. 2020). Under heavy rainfall events, combined sewer overflows may overwhelm the capacity of treatment plants. Thus, untreated sewer might be discharged to water bodies, carrying contaminants into the ecosystems. In this paper, we focus on the contribution of several NbS types (within the category of environmental projects) to managing stormwater in urban areas. Considering that nature-based solutions have different biophysical structures and ecosystem functions, we expect that the hydrological and water control performance and the effectiveness toward SWM goals will differ among solutions as well. This study aims to conduct a literature review to explore the functioning of diverse nature-based solutions and extract information of the quantitative performance in terms of runoff volume reduction, peak flow attenuation and delay, and reduction of load and concentration of water pollutants before reaching aquatic ecosystems downstream.

2 Method The review focuses on a group of nature-based solutions that were extracted from current NbS catalogs (Nature4Cities 2018; UNaLab (Urban Nature Labs) 2019; NWRM (Natural Water Retention Measures) 2013; Naturvation 2020; URBAN GreenUP 2018). The selected NbS are urban forest, street trees, urban parks,

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Table 1 Keywords used in the searching procedure of papers Nature-based solutions

Stormwater management issues

Water cycle and pollutant control

Urban forest, urban trees, street trees, urban parks, public parks, community gardens, urban allotments, green walls, green roofs, constructed wetlands, bioswales, detention ponds/ basins, retention ponds/ basins, infiltration basins, rain gardens

Water quality, water quantity, runoff, stormwater, water pollution, water purification, flood control, pollutant control, hydrological performance

Interception, infiltration, retention, detention, evaporation, transpiration, sedimentation, filtration, sorption, biological uptake, nitrification, denitrification

community gardens, green walls, green roofs, constructed wetlands, bioswales, basins, and rain gardens. Due to the predominance of biotic and abiotic attributes over conventional construction materials, selected solutions can be considered part of the green and blue infrastructure of cities. The search was conducted in the Web of Science database, referring to English articles published from 2009 to March 2020. We used keywords related to NbS types, SWM issues, and the water cycle and pollutant control processes (see Table 1), which were combined through the Boolean AND and OR, e.g. (“urban forest”) AND (“water quantity” OR water quality OR…”) OR (“interception OR infiltration OR…”). We read the titles and abstracts of the returned list of articles, starting from the most recent ones. We selected, for a full-text revision, those papers that (i) focus on stormwater in urban areas, and (ii) assess the hydrological or pollutant control performance. The selection process stops when we identified up to 30 papers for each NbS type. We extracted the following information from the selected papers: (i) type of ecosystem function, and (ii) any quantitative information about the NbS effectiveness towards SWM goals.

3 Results and Discussion The search returned a total of 185 selected papers unevenly distributed among NbS types. Constructed wetlands, rain gardens, ponds, green roofs, and urban forests account for a total of 147 articles. In contrast, street trees, urban parks, community gardens, bioswales, and green walls were less explored for their hydrological performances. The outcomes reported in Fig. 1 indicate the ecosystem functions that are acknowledged by the scientific literature. Based on them, we can distinguish three groups of NbS. The first one includes those solutions that are mainly studied for their hydrological benefits in terms of runoff volume reduction and peak flow

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Fig. 1 Percentage of paper assessing several ecosystem functions of the nature-based solutions

attenuation. It contains urban forest, green roofs, community gardens, street trees, and urban parks. The second group comprises constructed wetlands and green walls, which mainly target water purification processes. The third group includes rain gardens, basins, and bioswales, with a more significant number of studies investigating functions related to both runoff mitigation and water purification. Regarding the quantitative performance of NbS, we found highly variable rates for runoff reduction, peak flow attenuation, and pollutant concentration reduction for all types of solutions. Some studies suggest that urban forests can intercept rainfall from roughly 10–80% depending on rainfall intensities, canopy cover, tree species, and the scale of the assessment (Kermavnar and Vilhar 2017). For example, trees in a low-dense residential area in North Caroline, USA, intercept between 9.1– 21.4% of stormwater considering 14 storm events (Inkiläinen et al. 2013). However, if we downscale the assessment to the crown level, interception rates can reach 80% for coniferous species (Kuehler et al. 2017). As well, trees located in street canyons can have a substantial contribution in reducing the amount of water that enter the drainage system, e.g., 52.000 m3 of avoided runoff annually in the city of Barcelona, Spain (Baró et al. 2019).

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Green roofs are able to reduce runoff volume and attenuating peak flow on average between 45 and 80% of the total rainfall (Naranjo et al. 2020). The peak flow attenuation mainly relates to the type and depth of the substrate. A semi-intensive green roof can attenuate peak flow by 15–25% more than a conventional aluminum roof in the UK (Xing and Jones 2019), and delay the flow by 3–8 min for rainfall with intensities between 110 and 150 mm/min (da Silva et al. 2020). Constructed wetlands retain stormwater in water bodies for extended periods, supporting sedimentation of suspended solids and the pollutants attached to particulates. The presence of macrophytes and microbial communities enables the uptake of nutrients and the nitrification-denitrification processes. From the review, we found diverse studies that indicate a moderate to high removal efficiency for non-point source pollutants (Byeon and Nam 2020; Li et al. 2017; Al-Rubaei et al. 2017). Green walls remove pollutant through filtration, sorption, and biodegradation as stormwater percolates through the substrate of diverse plots. The removal process only involves the initial layer of the substrate (Prodanovic et al. 2020). Thereby, low wall heights are enough to provide good performance in terms of pollutant control performance. Bioswales and rain gardens capture and temporally storage runoff from a small catchment area (e.g., roofs, sidewalks, and roads) in soil depressions, supporting infiltration, evapotranspiration and reducing the volume of outflows from 40 to 100% (Shetty et al. 2019; Monrabal-Martinez et al. 2018; Jiang et al. 2017). The runoff control ratio in rain gardens can vary within the range of 20% to no overflows, depending on the local rainfall conditions, dimension of the area, and properties of soil (Zhang et al. 2019, 2020; Li et al. 2019). In the case of bioswale, the porosity of soil is the main design variable for reducing runoff volume (Xiao and McPherson 2011). These NbS are also highly effective at reducing the concentration and load of a broader set pollutants (Gilbreath et al. 2019; Li et al. 2018; Jiang et al. 2017; Kratky et al. 2017). Nutrients are most likely to be adsorbed by the filter media, while the plant uptake and microbial degradation remove a lower proportion of them (Guo et al. 2018). The presence of a saturated layer in the substrate enhances the removal of nitrogen-based pollutants (Tang and Li 2016). Instead, the vegetated component play a more important role in reducing suspended solid concentration (average reduction from 79 to 97%) by slowing down flow velocity and trapping sediments (Gilbreath et al. 2019). Ponds aim to hold runoff temporally or permanently from small to medium drainage areas. In the case of retention and infiltration ponds, overflows are controlled by an orifice at a higher level, and water outflows occur mainly through evaporation and infiltration. Detention ponds alternate dry and wet periods, slowly releasing stormwater into receiving watercourses. In a case study of an urban catchment area of 2.7 km2, the implementation of 13 infiltration ponds contribute to reduce by 49% combined sewer overflows (Radinja et al. 2019). Ponds can also act as bio-retention areas. The retention time allows sediments to settle down at the bottom surface, while the presence of vegetation encourages sorption and biodegradation of pollutants, as occurs in constructed wetlands. We found a strong

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variability of the pollutant removal effectiveness (from 0 to over 90%), highlighting in some cases even the leaching of contaminants (Schwartz et al. 2017; Souza et al. 2019; Wałęga and Wachulec 2018). The research outcomes do not reflect the dominant functions of each NbS, and suggest that there is no one-fits-all solution for stormwater management goals. The degree of performance and effectiveness toward stormwater management goals depend on design choices (even among the same type) of nature-based solutions. The reviewed articles highlight several factors that may affect the functioning of solutions. These factors relate to the structure of biotic and abiotic attributes that characterize the NbS (e.g., soil porosity, canopy cover and density, plant species, understory vegetation complexity), and the dimensions such the surface area and substrate depth of green roofs. Other factors refer to the local conditions (e.g., rainfall patterns, temperature, maintenance practices, integration with other NbS) and watershed characteristics such as the land uses and slope of the catchment. Nevertheless, there is still a knowledge gap related to relationship between these factors and the NbS performance.

4 Conclusions Cities are currently experiencing water-related issues that threaten human health, wellbeing and the quality of the urban environment. Nature-based solutions are promoted as an advantageous approach to support the urban drainage system in dealing with flooding and combined sewer overflow events and the high level of pollutants entering water bodies. This review demonstrates that NbS can be highly effective in mitigating and purifying runoff. However, suitable hydrological and pollutant control performances depend on a great variety of local and intrinsic factors of NbS. The scientific community should further investigate more accurately the quantitative effects that these factors may have of the functioning of nature-based solutions, and hence provide adequate information to urban planners during the design of suitable NbS. Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge funding from the Italian Ministry of Education, University and Research (MIUR) in the frame of the “Departments of Excellence” grant L. 232/ 2016.

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Baró F, Calderón-Argelich A, Langemeyer J, Connolly JJT (2019) Under one canopy? Assessing the distributional environmental justice implications of street tree benefits in barcelona. Environ Sci Policy 102(October):54–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2019.08.016 Burian SJ, Walsh T, Kalyanapu AJ, Larsen SG (2013) Climate vulnerabilities and adaptation of urban water infrastructure systems. Climate vulnerability: understanding and addressing threats to essential resources, vol 5. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384703-4.00509-8 Byeon CW, Nam BE (2020) An assessment of the ecological functions of a sustainable structured wetland biotope (SSB). Ecol Eng 145(November 2019):105723. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ecoleng.2020.105723 Eggermont H, Balian E, Azevedo JMN, Beumer V, Brodin T, Claudet J, Fady B et al (2015) Nature-based solutions : new influence for environmental management and research in Europe 243–48 European Commission (2015) Towards an EU research and innovation policy agenda for nature-based solutions & re-naturing cities. https://doi.org/10.2777/765301 Gilbreath A, McKee L, Shimabuku I, Lin D, Werbowski LM, Zhu X, Grbic J, Rochman C (2019) Multiyear water quality performance and mass accumulation of PCBs, mercury, methylmercury, copper, and microplastics in a bioretention rain garden. J Sustain Water Built Environ 5. https://doi.org/10.1061/JSWBAY.0000883 Ginkel KCH Van, Hoekstra AY, Buurman J, Hogeboom RJ (2018) Urban water security dashboard: systems approach to characterizing the water security of cities. J Water Resour Plann Manag 144(12). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0000997 Guerreiro SB, Dawson RJ, Kilsby C, Lewis E, Ford A (2018) Future heat-waves, droughts and floods in 571 European cities. Environ Res Lett 13(3). https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ aaaad3 Guo C, Li J, Li H, Zhang B, Ma M, Li F (2018) Seven-year running effect evaluation and fate analysis of rain gardens in Xi’an, Northwest China. Water (Switzerland) 10(7). https://doi.org/ 10.3390/w10070944 Inkiläinen ENM, McHale MR, Blank GB, James AL, Nikinmaa E (2013) The role of the residential urban forest in regulating throughfall: a case study in Raleigh, North Carolina, USA. Landscape Urban Plann 119:91–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2013.07.002 Jiang C, Li J, Li H, Li Y, Chen L (2017) Field performance of bioretention systems for runoff quantity regulation and pollutant removal. Water Air Soil Pollut 228(12). https://doi.org/10. 1007/s11270-017-3636-6 Kermavnar J, Vilhar U (2017) Canopy precipitation interception in urban forests in relation to stand structure. Urban Ecosyst 20(6):1373–1387. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-017-0689-7 Kratky H, Li Z, Chen Y, Wang C, Li X, Yu L (2017) A critical literature review of bioretention research for stormwater management in cold climate and future research recommendations. Front Environ Sci Eng 11(4):1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-017-0982-y Kuehler E, Hathaway J, Tirpak A (2017) Quantifying the benefits of urban forest systems as a component of the green infrastructure stormwater treatment network. Ecohydrology 10(3):1– 10. https://doi.org/10.1002/eco.1813 Li J, Ma M, Li Y, Zhang Z (2019) Influence analysis of different design conditions on urban runoff and nonpoint source pollution. Water Environ Res 91(11):1546–1557. https://doi.org/10.1002/ wer.1154 Li J, Zhang B, Li Y, Li H (2018) Simulation of rain garden effects in urbanized area based on mike flood. Water (Switzerland) 10(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/w10070860 Li YC, Zhang DQ, Wang M (2017) Performance evaluation of a full-scale constructed wetland for treating stormwater runoff. Clean Soil Air Water 45(11). https://doi.org/10.1002/clen. 201600740 Monrabal-Martinez C, Aberle J, Muthanna TM, Orts-Zamorano M (2018) Hydrological benefits of filtering swales for metal removal. Water Res 145:509–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres. 2018.08.051

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Müller A, Österlund H, Marsalek J, Viklander M (2020) The pollution conveyed by urban runoff: a review of sources. Sci Total Environ 709:136125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019. 136125 Naranjo A, Colonia A, Mesa J, Maury H, Maury-Ramírez A (2020) State-of-the-art green roofs: technical performance and certifications for sustainable construction. Coatings 10(1):1–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings10010069 Nature4Cities (2018) NbS multi-scalar and multi-thematic typology and associated database Naturvation (2020) Assessment of biophysical and ecological services provided by urban nature-based solutions : a review 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.97.133401 NWRM (Natural Water Retention Measures) (2013) Introducing natural water retention measures Prodanovic V, Hatt B, McCarthy D, Deletic A (2020) Green wall height and design optimisation for effective greywater pollution treatment and reuse. J Environ Manage 261(January):110173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110173 Radinja M, Comas J, Corominas L, Atanasova N (2019) Assessing stormwater control measures using modelling and a multi-criteria approach. J Environ Manage 243(May):257–268. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.04.102 Raymond CM, Berry P, Breil M, Nita MR, Kabisch N, de Bel M, Enzi V et al (2017) An impact evaluation framework to support planning and evaluation of nature-based solutions projects. report prepared by the EKLIPSE expert working group on nature-based solutions to promote climate resilience in urban areas. Horizon 2020. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.18682.08643 Schwartz D, Sample DJ, Grizzard TJ (2017) Evaluating the performance of a retrofitted stormwater wet pond for treatment of urban runoff. Environ Monit Assess 189(6). https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10661-017-5930-6 Shetty NH, Hu R, Mailloux BJ, Hsueh DY, McGillis WR, Wang M, Chandran K, Culligan PJ (2019) Studying the effect of bioswales on nutrient pollution in urban combined sewer systems. Sci Total Environ 665:944–958. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.121 Silva MD, Najjar MK, Ahmed WA Hammad, Haddad A, Vazquez E (2020) Assessing the retention capacity of an experimental green roof prototype. Water (Switzerland) 12(1). https:// doi.org/10.3390/w12010090 Pereira Souza F, Leite Costa ME, Koide S (2019) Hydrological modelling and evaluation of detention ponds to improve urban drainage system and water quality i:1–17 Tang NY, Li T (2016) Nitrogen removal by three types of bioretention columns under wetting and drying regimes. J Central South Univ 23(2):324–332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11771-0163077-1 UNaLab (Urban Nature Labs) (2019) Nature based solutions—technical handbook, Part II. https:// unalab.eu/system/files/2020-02/unalab-technical-handbook-nature-based-solutions2020-02-17. pdf URBAN GreenUP (2018) NbS Catalogue Wałęga A, Wachulec K (2018) Effect of a retention basin on removing pollutants from stormwater: a case study in Poland. Pol J Environ Stud 27(4):1795–1803. https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/ 76797 Xiao Q, McPherson EG (2011) Performance of engineered soil and trees in a parking lot bioswale. Urban Water J 8(4):241–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/1573062X.2011.596213 Xing Y, Jones P (2019) In-situ monitoring of energetic and hydrological performance of a semi-intensive green roof and a white roof during a heatwave event in the UK. Indoor Built Environ 0(0):1–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X19887218 Zhang L, Oyake Y, Morimoto Y, Niwa H, Shibata S (2019) Rainwater storage/infiltration function of rain gardens for management of urban storm runoff in Japan. Landscape Ecol Eng 15 (4):421–435. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11355-019-00391-w Zhang L, Oyake Y, Morimoto Y, Niwa H, Shibata S (2020) Flood mitigation function of rain gardens for management of urban storm runoff in Japan. Landscape Ecol Eng, Lid. https://doi. org/10.1007/s11355-020-00409-8

Ecosystem-Based Adaptation Approach and Adaptation Planning Support Tools: Potential Implementation for the Urban Context Anna Giulia Castaldo, Israa Mahmoud, and Eugenio Morello

Abstract Climate Change (CC) is having a progressively negative impact on natural resources management. It, indeed, worsens existing environmental challenges, placing socio-ecological systems in a situation of new risks. This process invites to reflect about the Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) approach, which combines concepts of sustainable land use and conservation in one integrated adaptation strategy. Challenges related to definition and integration of the EbA process into urban context exist, in particular concerning the necessity of a systemic methodology deployment in urban planning instruments and adaptation processes. As a possible entry point, this work aims to identify the adaptation planning support tools for building an EbA process at city scale, defining a possible methodology for tracing a shortlist of tools supporting EbA principles. The outcomes have demonstrated that tools, albeit not having exhaustive capacities, provide important directions for theoretical investigation and consequent actions. There is a need for tools explicitly addressed to the EbA approach, not still homogeneously supported in the various stages of the adaptation framework. Hence, they offer useful insights to establish a comprehensive adaptation process able to integrate EbA in urban planning practices. To date, this represents one of the triggering points for the implementation of an operational Nature-based Solution (NbS) framework.




Keywords Ecosystem-based adaptation Nature-based solutions planning support tools Biodiversity Urban planning








Adaptation

A. G. Castaldo (&)
I. Mahmoud
E. Morello Laboratorio di Simulazione Urbana Fausto Curti, Department of Architecture and Urban Studies (DAStU), Politecnico di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy e-mail: [email protected] I. Mahmoud e-mail: [email protected] E. Morello e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_3

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List of abbreviations CBD CC CEEP EbA ES FEBA GI IIED JNCC M&E NbS SuDS

Convention on Biological Diversity Climate Change Consultancy for Environmental Economics and Policy Ecosystem-based Adaptation Ecosystem Services Friends of Ecosystem-based Adaptation Green Infrastructure International Institute for Environment and Development Joint Nature Conservation Committee Monitoring and Evaluation Nature-based Solutions Sustainable urban Drainage Systems

1 Introduction Societies and ecosystems are increasingly affected by climate hazards, such as rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns and extreme weather events (Fedele et al. 2019) and as a result research is mainly focused on the allocation of adaptation strategies in cities. In this sense, Nature-based Solutions (NbS) actions, which work adaptively for societal and environmental challenges, can rely on Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) approach, defined, with its most common definition of Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) (2009), a nature-based approach using biodiversity and ecosystem services, able to help people adapt to the effects of Climate Change (CC). In the majority of cases EbA is a part of an overall adaptation strategy, implementable with engineered and hybrid approaches, in addition to social and institutional measures (GIZ et al. 2020). In particular as some have argued strongly, for instance Martin (2016), this adaptation approach is only effective as a combined action. This statement builds on EbA trait for which it can maximize the effectiveness of adaptation actions. Besides making an active use (FEBA 2017) of biodiversity in order to reduce climate risks, supporting sustainable practices, it offers additional co-benefits. It emphasizes in some instances societal ones, through the participation of the local community and the endogenous knowledge system contribution (CBD 2019). These interventions produce also financial and environmental advantages, since cost-effective and more sustainable in the long run. A significant gap in literature is represented by the lack of exhaustive work centred on the urban morphology, compared to other environments such as forests, mangroves, or particular geographical regions (Campbell et al. 2009; Doswald et al. 2014). In specific, research on EbA approach integration into urban adaptation planning is at an initial state (Brink et al. 2016; Zölch et al. 2018), with opening studies on the inclusion of EbA measures in adaptation plans

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(Geneletti and Zardo 2016). Other stages have to be pursued for the adoption and the mainstreaming of these interventions in CC frameworks for mitigation and adaptation. This article focusses on this latter perspective, highlighting the presence and usefulness of adaptation support tools, which can both embody valid assistance for empirical research of EbA and determine a change from framework/ approach to process/planning. Currently, the policy context for enhancing EbA approach is well nourished, composed by international agreements able to provide policy leverage effect to implement EbA, such as sustainable land management (Gurtner et al. 2011), the Sustainable Development Goals, and Conference of CBD. At present, it is also supported by analytical instruments, such as assessment frameworks for understanding socio-ecological systems, for instance the Systems Approach Framework, or results framework, as Theory of Change (GIZ et al. 2020), allowing to articulate how interventions can bring predicted and desired future change. Also a framework for applying a common set of EbA qualification criteria and standards has been developed, in the context of implementing the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Paris Agreement, Nationally Determined Contributions commitments, and national adaptation planning processes (FEBA 2017). Indicators of NbS concerning relationship with socio-ecological system have been studied (Raymond et al. 2017a, b). The intention here, indeed, follows the objective to examine Tools for EbA approach, from an adaptation planning perspective. Tools are conceived here as instruments able to process a set of information and produce an output, to support discussion in decision-making for an EbA process, for this reason, guidance documents, theoretical consultation tools are excluded. This accommodates the intention to implement NbS in urban adaptation planning supporting aspects of spreading technical products, ready to use and easy to be installed (Somarakis et al. 2019). Tools represent a category that needs more attention related to the EbA approach due to lack of post-implementation investigation and long-term impact generated by NbS. Hence, this paper aims to answer the following questions: (1) What are the parameters for the selection of urban adaptation EbA tools? (2) What are the detectable influences within tools of EbA approach?

2 Methodology The methodology (Fig. 1) is a qualitative evaluation to determine a shortlist of urban adaptation tools which support the EbA approach. Firstly, the most relevant tools inventories focused on the human-environment link, mentioning, and not-mentioning the term ‘EbA’, were defined. Tools were added also from external sources, through a research analysis on Web of Science and Scopus databases. In the time frame 2008–20201, 59 papers for environmental and social sciences were

1

The year 2008 is considered relevant since EbA emerges as concept in literature.

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Fig. 1 Methodology diagram. Elaboration by the authors

found, so it can be noticed that a low correlation of the words EbA and tools in research was found2. This can be attributed to the novelty of the term, and to the use of analogous concepts, which are often used in studies and researches EbA-related, such as Green Infrastructure (GI), Ecosystem Services (ES), and Biodiversity. In particular, the time frame with the most numerous contributions (2017–2018) addressed mainly themes related to marine spatial planning and coastal environment. Secondly, these tools were reviewed according to the three 2

In order to acquire a greater completeness, articles published on Web of Science and Scopus were examined in accordance with the following queries: “Ecosystem-based adaptation” and “Tool”, “Ecosystem-based adaptation” and “software”.

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main EbA qualification criteria, determined by the organization Friends of EbA (FEBA 2017). Finally, the work identified different categories of tools supporting EbA in urban context, but it sorted specifically a selected group, tackling the adaptation perspective. A final matrix for the shortlist of tools is produced.

2.1

Analysis of Tool Inventories for EbA in the Urban Environment

This part of the methodology had analysed the inventories, and here we reported the most important ones in term of compatible tools for city scale. FEBA (2017) affirms that a tool can represent an element part of ‘EbA standards’, along with guidelines and Monitoring & Evaluation (M&E) mechanisms. The necessity to study the tools field is considered supporting a foreseeable growing demand of adaptation practical instruments for cities to step from policymaking to adaptation interventions (van de Ven et al. 2016), and for missing studies on comparison of outputs of different tools applied in the same geographic location (Vorstius and Spray 2015). The inventories here described are: “Tool Assessor” provided from Ecosystem Knowledge UK, “EbA Navigator” from the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). Tool Assessor3 is the UK online inventory with analytical tools related to environmental assessment and societal implications, funded by the Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC). Its tools do not mention the term EbA, but rather related-terms such as natural capital, natural assets, green networks, GI, ES. Tool Assessor has the aim to help public, private and third sector organizations to manage the environment and its related services. The EbA Navigator4 is the result of the joint collaboration since 2017 among IIED and UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre, International Union for Conservation of Nature, the German International Climate Initiative. This is an inventory of EbA-relevant tools and methodologies, where many of the tools are general, namely applicable to a range of ecosystem types and contexts. The EbA Navigator has been created since tools information and the way to use them is not always accessible. Tools related to urban environment represent a small category, that needs to be further investigated, in its dimension (i.e. availability) and potential gaps.

2.2

Qualifying Parameters for the Selection of Urban EbA Tools

The second part of the methodology is represented by tools selection, so EbA-supportive tools are identified. Parameters take up the three main EbA 3

https://ecosystemsknowledge.net/tool. https://www.iied.org/tools-for-ecosystem-based-adaptation-new-navigator-now-available.

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qualification criteria according to the work of FEBA (2017). They initially reflect the 2009 CBD definition for EbA, where it is stated that (i) it helps people adapt to Climate Change (ii) by a use active and sustainable of biodiversity and ecosystem services, (iii) in the context of an overall adaptation strategy. The study has highlighted different sectors of tools EbA-supportive, showing, on the one hand, socioeconomic-environmental modelling tools, which work on nature conservation projects, where their outputs could support positive ecological and socio-economic benefits for adaptation. They are useful instruments providing environmental assessments and analysis linked to social services demand. On the other, CC adaptation tools, which focus on adaptation needs as priority aim.

3 Matrix of EbA Urban Tools The characteristics dropped for each tool are reported in the “Matrix of EbA Adaptation Tools” (Table 1). In Table 1, it can be remarked that the implementation of tools is supported by the role of different actors, where the embedding process involves mainly the research community and private companies, instead of municipal administrations, with the only exception of “Natural Capital Planning Tool”. It can also be noticed that two tools have been developed within broader projects, such as the case of “Adaptation Compass” with the project Future Cities, and Table 1 Matrix of EbA adaptation tools. Elaboration by the authors Tool

Tool tipology

Developers

Scale

EbA reference

Adaptation compass Adaptation Support Toolbox (AST) and Climate Adaptation App Alive

Excel application Web application

Future cities project

Mesoscale

No

Deltares, Alterra, Bosch Slabbers landscape architects, EIT Climate-KIC

Microscale

Yes

Cristal toolbox

Excel and Word application Software

Microscale Mesoscale Mesoscale

Yes

CLIMACT-Prio

International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) Cities Alliance

Mesoscale

No

Natural capital planning tool

Excel application

IISD, IUCN, Helvetas Swiss Intercooperation, SEI Consultancy for Environmental Economics and Policy (CEEP), University of Birmingham, Northumbria University, Birmingham City Council, Business Council for Sustainable Development (UK)

Microscale

No

Software

No

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“CLIMACT-prio”, where the Institute for Housing and Urban Development Studies of the University of Rotterdam represents the principal developer. ‘Scale’ category indicates that tools are mainly targeted to mesoscale (from regional to urban), respect to microscale (from neighbourhood to building). Another noteworthy aspect is the method by which tools deal with scale: on one side they operate with scale in terms of on-the-ground interventions definition (lower percentage); on the other, they support scale as capability to plan the adaptation process at a specific scale dimension (e.g. working as information repository to support specifically neighbourhood plan and/or local plan). The last category, based on the presence/absence of direct reference to the term or to the EbA approach in tool framework, shows that only two tools satisfy a positive response. In the case of “Adaptation Support Toolbox”, the EbA approach is mentioned in the scope that the tool arises. In the case of “Alive”, the tool is expressly designed to support the planning of EbA options within a broader EbA planning process.

3.1

EbA Influences in Adaptation Planning Support Tools

In order to define the influences of EbA in the adaptation tools, EbA measures have been traced in tools adaptation framework through the following categories: • • • •

Green design interventions at different scales; Ecosystem services mapping and studies; Ecosystem management activities; Awareness activities related to green strategies.

The diagram (Fig. 2) shows how tools fit the EbA approach and its features. This has shown discrepancies for processes underlying tools and the management of the EbA. Observing phases of tools general adaptation framework, “Alive” and “Adaptation Support Toolbox” are the main EbA supportive. They directly mention the EbA approach. “Alive”, in particular, is intended to be applied as a guide to define the EbA component. The tool defines a series of adaptation outcomes, based on impacts on ecosystems and livelihoods and supporting added actions, namely ‘EbA options’ (for restoration, conservation and management typologies). In the case of “Adaptation Support Toolbox”, EbA approach is supported in particular through the ecosystem management activity of sustainable water management, with performance indicators on water quality. The same aspect is also achieved in “CLIMACT-Prio” and NCPF. Another ecosystem management activity well-supported by tools is connectivity management. For instance, NCPF supports an indicator concerning areas of particular importance for ecological network. In this sense, the EbA measures, as defined by the precedent categories, play the role of maximizing the efficacy of adaptation strategies, considering that they restore, maintain, or enhance the capacity of ecosystem to produce services. They are activities which support the starting premise of NbS planning and implementation

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Fig. 2 Alluvial diagram illustrating EbA tools deployment in phases of adaptation framework. Elaboration by the authors

in urban areas. The main sector addressed by EbA approach, taking into consideration adaptation phases, is the “Identification and prioritization of adaptation strategies”, while the phases of “Implementation” and “Monitoring & Evaluation” are less considered.

4 Discussion and Conclusion The study, trying to respond to the challenge of enhancing the use of NbS in urban planning, has worked on the operational definition of the EbA approach, which may point out the benefits of NbS actions and related ecosystem services maximizations achievable through systematic management. This work has represented one of the few works about relationship between EbA approach and adaptation planning tools, considering the meaning given to the word ‘tool’, and for this reason it constitutes a valuable contribution for EbA literature. It has shown that several specific tools for an EbA planning process lack, in particular in which urban context is envisaged as the test-bed environment. Nevertheless, the tools presented in the research reveal relevant aspects to constitute an EbA process. Some phases of tools adaptation framework show consideration of vulnerability assessment of natural resources, e.g. including natural resources as vulnerable groups or ‘receptors’ of urban vulnerability to weather events, or through the inclusion of ecosystem management activities in adaptation strategies. It is important, citing this last aspect, the management activities

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supporting interventions such as Sustainable urban Drainage Systems (SuDS). Their limitations fall, as highlighted in the study, into some adaptation phases, such as in M&E phase. The methodology has served the aim of work. A possible way to implement the value of the approach could be use a nature-based intervention with one of the tools traced, as empirical case in a EbA process perspective. It would be useful to see the difference in terms of costs and benefits with or without the EbA approach. Unfortunately, there are not many urban EbA tools whit these classing features. Taking cue from EbA tools of different contexts may provide new frameworks to follow and then more applications in urban environment. Acknowledgements A.G.C. is grateful to Dr. Stuart Connop for kindly providing information on tools to support the discussion of this work.

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Raymond CM, Frantzeskaki N, Kabisch N, Berry P, Breil M, Nita MR et al (2017b) A framework for assessing and implementing the co-benefits of nature-based solutions in urban areas. Environ Sci Policy 77:15–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2017.07.008 Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (2019) Voluntary guidelines for the design and effective implementation of ecosystem-based approaches to climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction and supplementary information. Technical Series No. 93, Montreal, Canada, 96 pages Somarakis G, Stagakis S, Chrysoulakis N (2019) ThinkNature nature-based solutions handbook. ThinkNature project funded by the EU horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement van de Ven FH, Snep RP, Koole S, Brolsma R, Van Der Brugge R, Spijker J et al (2016) Adaptation planning support toolbox: measurable performance information based tools for co-creation of resilient, ecosystem-based urban plans with urban designers, decision-makers and stakeholders. Environ Sci Policy 66:427–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2016.06.010 Vorstius AC, Spray CJ (2015) A comparison of ecosystem services mapping tools for their potential to support planning and decision-making on a local scale. Ecosyst Serv. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2015.07.007 Zölch T, Wamsler C, Pauleit S (2018) Integrating the ecosystem-based approach into municipal climate adaptation strategies: the case of Germany. J Clean Prod 170:966–977. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.09.146

Nature-Based Solutions for Healthy Cities: Cross Scale Interaction Roberto De Lotto, Caterina Pietra, and Elisabetta M. Venco

Abstract Starting from the consideration of planning as a complex activity and on the assumption of the city as an open ecological system, the key point is understanding, describing and interpreting the whole set of useful information and related connections deriving from the following aspects: urban studies, ecology, weather and climate, health. Nowadays, it is worldwide accepted that the quality of urban life depends on some basic elements such as Nature-based Solutions (NBS), ecosystem services, quality of environment, social equality, appropriate and well-dimensioned transportation systems. The interrelation among very different fields of knowledge and science, together with the growing awareness about the networking among all the elements composing the complex urban system, require defining common syntactical rules and laws. Therefore, it is clear how much certain information that are not still defined in the classic urban modeling (such as weather and climate information and forecast) become relevant. The relations among environmental pollution, urban density, urban functions and urban green system are well known but, in example, daily quality of air depends also on weather conditions. On the other hand, weather modeling arrived at a very high specialization, and climate forecast too. Both of them can be accurately described through geographical analysis. In terms of effects of pollution on human health, these last data assume a strong importance; in this case, health information are usually geographically identified only in a very wide scale, because of privacy needs. Authors present a discussion about the different scale of the single elements modeling (spatial, weather, climate, health), propose a framework for data combination to enhance a healthier city and consider as example the city of Segrate (in Milan Metropolitan area). Keywords Nature-based solutions


Healthy city
City planning

R. De Lotto (&)
C. Pietra
E. M. Venco DICAr—Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 3, 27100 Pavia, Italy e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_4

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1 Introduction Considering the statistics on world’s population (UN 2019), pollution emissions and energy consumption (UN 2015), the speed of urban growth, the continuously changing of citizens’ needs, the priority of socioeconomic development in many countries and the modifications of external and internal conditions create heavy pressures on ecological environment, urban environment, urban structure, social system and human health. Therefore, worldwide territorial and city planning discipline considers the importance of green systems as a driving force for developing resilience and quality of urban life, and the different scale (from a regional-wide scale to a site-specific level) (Asian Development Bank 2016). In the paper, authors focus on the different scales at which green and natural solutions can be developed and refined inside planning activities. In particular, after examining the importance of “scale” notion in urban planning, authors provide a definition/interpretation of the complex territorial and urban system by including both the elements involved, and the different ways of reading it. Subsequently, starting from the assumption that urban systems are ecosystems, the core of the discussion is introduced: Nature-based Solutions, climate and weather characteristics and healthy city. Authors cite, as case study, the city of Segrate: a clear example related to the multiple scale interaction among cited issues.

2 Scale Matters Ecological, environmental, social, economic complex processes are made up of components that are multiscale in space and time. Some of them have inner components (driver and response variables) that interact across spatial and temporal scales (Cross-Scale Interactions CSIs) that cannot be adequately addressed by studying them through a single point of view. Understanding these relationships is necessary to predict likely outcomes of alternative management strategies intended to mitigate complex environmental problems at the different scale of interest (Soranno et al. 2014). To understand the importance of scale, it is necessary to underline that “some of the driving forces for global change operate at a global scale, such as the greenhouse gas composition of the atmosphere and the reach of global financial systems. But it seems just as clear that many of the individual phenomena that underlie micro environmental processes, economic activities, resource use, and population dynamics arise at a local scale. […] The scale of agency—of direct human action— is often intrinsically localized while the scale of structure is almost always more encompassing” (Wilbanks and Wates 1999). From researchers’ point of view, the use of a single scale for territorial and urban analysis is reductive because the main characteristics of that scale dominate the vision of each element and, especially, “because upscaling or downscaling information from other scales requires

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compromises that often lose information or introduce biases” (Wilbanks and Wates 1999). Moreover, phenomena and processes operate differently at different scales and the implications and interactions among them depend on the scale of observation: the decision-making process requires always multiple scales of examination.

3 Complex Territorial and Urban Systems Cities, in many different aspects, are the greatest exemplars of complex systems. The intrinsic city’s characteristics consist of a multitude of items related to the three-basic component of civitas (city as a society), urbs (the physical city) and polis (the city as government). In “What makes cities complex?”, Portugali (2013) defines the complexity in the urban system underlying the “simplicity” of material elements versus the intricacy of human interactions. In order to deal with complexity, the simplest way to describe cities and territories is to divide the urban system into sub-systems: environmental system, settlement system and infrastructural system. They allow to describe, study, analyze and evaluate all the physical and relational elements that are distinguished by macro areas, with relative spatial and temporal reference scales. Moreover, it is also possible to divide a territorial or urban system in functional system and physical system considering, for the first one, activities that have evident effects on the territorial system and its organization and, for the latter, spaces adapted to the specific activity (built space). In addition, in this case the systems, with its intrinsic characteristics, can be referred to different and appropriate temporal and spatial scales. Regardless of the selected division into systems, the basic involved elements are summarized in the following macro families: Geography; Natural environment; Built environment; Society and demography; Economy; Temporal uses; Urban and Territorial specific functions.

3.1

Nature-Based Solutions

Urban ecosystems, like all ecosystems, are composed of biological components (plants, animals and human populations with their demographic, social, institutional and economic characteristics) and physical components (soil, water, air, climate, topography, energy use, buildings, transportation networks, modified surfaces deriving from urban planning decisions) (S.T.A. Pickett 2015). In this context, from 2009, the term Nature-based Solutions (NBS) became more widely used in literature related to methods for increasing resilience against the impacts of human actions on urban ecosystem. The European Union defines NBS as “solutions that are inspired and supported by nature, which are cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and help build

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resilience. Such solutions bring more, and more diverse, nature and natural features and processes into cities, landscapes and seascapes, through locally adapted, resource-efficient and systemic interventions” (EU 2015). The need to plan with natural systems, as nature-based solutions, is the key for building and enhancing sustainability and resilience in urban areas. In particular, from regional scales (regional parks) and whole cities (urban parks) to neighborhoods (neighborhoods/ pocket parks) and specific buildings (green roof/wall and other green solutions in urban texture or buildings’ shape), it is possible to increase ecological value through green widespread interventions (Venco 2017; Yangang et al. 2017). Among NBS principles defined by Cohen-Sancham et al. (2016), some are related to temporal and spatial scale issues: • Context interesting: site-specific determination in strictly relation to natural and cultural contexts (spatial scale); • Living ecosystem: maintenance of biological and cultural diversity and the ability of ecosystems to evolve over time (spatial and temporal scale); • Landscape scale application (spatial scale); • Policies’ process: fully integration in the overall design of policies, measures or actions, to address a specific challenge (spatial and temporal scale). As practical example, the city of Segrate (close to Milan at east, part of Milan metropolitan area) and its city plan are cited (Segrate city plan 2017). In Italy, the administrative hierarchy is organized as follow: Nation, Region, Province— Metropolitan Area, Municipality. Planning constitutes a shared activity between Nation and each Region. Each Administrative level (except the national one) provides a specific kind of land plan. Segrate is part of bigger ecological systems, such as the Lombardy Region one, and the former Milan Province one. Moreover, a local ecological network has been defined according to the legislative requirements (Lombardy law n. 12/2005). Hence the ecological area and the connections among different scale area represent an inter-scalar issue that each administrative bureau has to consider linked to its plan. The ecological network’s main elements (mainly core areas and corridors with different hierarchy) have different levels of geographical definition, while the actions are usually carried out at each administrative level. From the public point of view, in Segrate some specific ecological measures came from Regional scale: i.e. the “Re-Lambro SE project”, that forecasted the naturalization of 300.000 sqm of agriculture land in south east of Segrate, was financed by Cariplo Foundation with the participation of ERSAF Lombardia (regional bureau for agriculture and forests); but most of the NBS actions are defined inside the 2017 Segrate city plan (thus at the local scale). In fact, to improve the quantity and quality of natural systems, the small scale and the involvement of the private sector are fundamental. Apart from the necessity to provide the highest quantity of green area inside the private properties (with specific zoning and with standardization of urbanization), it is interesting the introduction of ecological targets defined by the Biotope Area Factor (BAF) that is aimed to introduce a certain ecological connotation into private intervention starting from the

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extra-ordinary maintenance. In order to make this measure effective, an incentivization method was introduced for interventions that overtake the defined target.

3.2

Climate Versus Weather

Climate is the description of the long-term pattern of weather in a particular area, weather consists of the short-term (minutes to months) changes in the atmosphere. Some researchers define climate as the average weather for a particular region and time (usually over 30-years). Talking about climate, means talking about averages of precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind speed, phenomena such as fog, frost, and hail storms, and other measures of the weather that occur over a long period in a particular place. Weather is basically the way the atmosphere is behaving, mainly with respect to its effects upon life and human activities due to temperature, humidity, precipitation, cloudiness, brightness, visibility, wind, and atmospheric pressure. An analysis of climate change in terms of significance of climate in relation to people and places and, of course, of the relationship between people and places during time, is fundamental to advancing appropriate adaptation efforts and planning decisions (Lyth et al. 2015). The interaction between urban areas and the atmospheric boundary layer is dual and affects i.e. hydrological cycle, excess water runoff, emission of pollutants and so on (Best 2005). There is a huge amount of spatial and temporal scales for climate interactions with ecosystems, territories, cities and societies. Climatically, they include such diverse phenomena as the virtually instantaneous local impacts of tornadoes and century-long and regional-width trends in globally averaged temperature (Clark 1985). Segrate is 17 sq km wide, and it is a completely flat land: usually weather conditions significatively change with a mesh not smaller than 1 sq km considering a day, not smaller than 100 sq km considering a week. Climate conditions, with small altitude modification change with inter-regional scale. Therefore, in Segrate, from the weather and climate point of view the local planning scale cannot be effective.

3.3

Healthy City

According to what is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO 1998), a healthy city is “one that is continually developing those public policies and creating those physical and social environments which enable its people to mutually support each other in carrying out all functions of life and achieving their full potential”. It constitutes a process and not a condition: potentially any city or community can be considered healthy, regardless of its current state of health (WHO 2020). Literature shows that the main themes discussed in relation to healthy city issue are air quality, lifestyle and urban green, which can be considered as macro topics

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(Giles-Corti et al. 2016). Regarding air quality, a healthy city promotes the use of active and urban transportation. Then at the urban level, it means taking into account three further aspects: walkability, public transport vs private vehicles, public and green spaces. In addition, recent data highlight that several non-communicable diseases, including cardio-respiratory ones and psychological stress, depend on factors such as overcrowding, the local heat island effect, and air pollution coming from traffic and domestic heating systems (Pengjun and Peilin 2017). Urban green becomes important in urban planning since it plays a significant role in improving the environmental quality and climate conditions of the city (Sustainable Development Commission 2008). In fact, green spaces are able to mitigate the effect of urban heat islands, and to collaborate for CO2 sequestration (Calfapietra et al. 2009) by integrating the use of different trees and plants; other benefits concern the social sphere and mental health, with particular reference to stress and physical activity levels. Besides this, many issues regarding the existing health impacts still need to be investigated and addressed (Salmond et al. 2016). In Segrate city planning, healthy city is a goal that derives from different policies regarding land use, traffic management, big scale interventions (new high speed train station, new metro line, new road system) coming from an inter-scalar territorial planning.

4 Hypothesis About a General Working Framework Spatial and temporal cross-scale interaction (CSI) can be easily resumed taking as reference Fig. 1. Underling that territorial and urban systems are complex systems, it is clear how strong and widespread the physical and intangible links (both spatial and temporal) among all the variables in the different macro systems are. The interactions take place within each macro system and macro variable, among their elements and among the different systems and variables in each different considered scalar levels—in the presented case they are global, regional and local (dotted lines in Fig. 1). Furthermore, there are relationships among the single elements, the variables and the macro systems interacting with each different scalar levels (black arrows in Fig. 1). The relationships are direct/indirect, single/multiple, temporal, spatial, one way/ round trip, iterative, feedback, cause-effect and so on. Moving from global to local scale (which defines a direct and subordinate link between the levels—yellow arrows in Fig. 1), the punctual interactions, among elements of each macro variable and system, are increasingly evident. With particular attention to healthy city, the scale of NBS can be developed with different details and involved subjects depending characteristics of the site. Moreover, it is interesting to analyze the relation between the weather conditions that interfere with pollution concentration that is tackled by NBS concentration and influence the healthy state of urban contexts: for this end, a widespread measurement system and a long-term monitoring is needed (the time of sensible urban

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Fig. 1 CSI among variables and macro systems (Color figure online)

transformations can be estimated with the scale of decades from planning activity to practical actions). Consequently, in Segrate, the results of 2017 city plan will be noticeable around 2030.

5 Discussion and Conclusions The study of complex territories and urban systems for the analysis of current situations and the development of urban plans needs to identify simpler elements, variables and sub-systems, in order to connect them and to see them from different spatial and temporal points of view which embrace highly different scales of interest. Thus, authors consider “scale of phenomena” starting from urban sub-systems and specific elements, NBS, climate and weather issues and Healthy City ideas. All these aspects are linked to the classic urban and regional planning and to specific thematic multiscale plans, such as: hydrologic basins plans, multi-risk plans, transportation plans, logistics and products distribution plans, Ecological Networks restrictions and so on. Each of them is considered in City, Metropolitan and Regional plans but the scope of territorial planning has a very clear hierarchical structure while many phenomena do not have. The city plan of Segrate has been used as an example of the influence of local decision in a big scale framework.

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Moreover, in participatory planning situations (and in tactical urbanism processes) decisions are taken alongside the citizens. Some interesting temporal and spatial scale issues introduced here (very small and local interventions, temporary spaces, short term uses) have already been integrated into traditional planning through the simplification of processes and the introduction of greater flexibility into existing plans. As Fig. 1 shows, in a multilayer complex vision, the interrelation among different scales emerges as the most interesting issue for planners in the very next future. This kind of visualization is fundamental to highlight the existing logic and methodological connections between the different spatial and temporal scales.

References Asian Development Bank (2016) Nature-based solutions for building resilience in towns and cities: Case studies from the Greater Mekong Subregion. Asian Development Bank, Mandaluyong City, Philippines. ISBN 978-92-9257-657-8 Best MJ (2005) Representing urban areas within operational numerical weather prediction models. Bound-Layer Meteorol 114:91–109 Calfapietra C, Fares S, Loreto F (2009) Volatile organic compounds from Italian vegetation and their interaction with ozone. Environ Pollut 157:1478–1486 Clark WC (1985) Scales of climate impacts. Clim Change 7:5–27 Cohen-Shacham E, Walters G, Janzen C, Maginnis S (eds) (2016) Nature-based solutions to address global societal challenges, p 97. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland European Union (2015) Nature-based solutions & re-naturing cities, towards an EU research and innovation policy agenda for final report of the Horizon 2020. ISBN 978-92-79-46051-7 Giles-Corti B, Vernez-Moudon A, Reis R, Turrell G, Dannenberg AL, Badland H, Foster S, Lowe M, Sallis JF, Stevenson M, Owen N (2016) City planning and population health: a global challenge. Lancet 388(10062):2912–2924 Lyth A, Harwood A, Hobday AJ, McDonald J (2015) Place influences in framing and understanding climate change adaptation challenges. Local Environ: Int J Justice Sustain. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2015.1015974 Pengjun Z, Peilin L (2017) Rethinking the relationship between urban development, local health global sustainability. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 25:14–19 Portugali J (2013) What makes cities complex? Retrieved on July 2020 from http://www. spatialcomplexity.info Salmond JA, Tadaki M, Vardoulakis S, Arbuthnott K, Coutts A, Demuzere M, Dirks KN, Heaviside C, Lim S, Macintyre H et al (2016) Health and climate related ecosystem services provided by street trees in the urban environment. Environ Health 15:36 Segrate city plan (2017) Retrieved on July 2020 from: https://www.comune.segrate.mi.it/servizi/ catasto-e-urbanistica/piano-di-governo-del-territorio/#documenti Soranno PA et al (2014) Cross-scale interactions: quantifying multiscaled cause–effect relationships in macrosystems. Front Ecol Environ 12(1):65–73. https://doi.org/10.1890/120366 Sustainable Development Commission (2020) Health, place and nature. How outdoor environments influence health and well-being: a knowledge base (2008). Retrieved on July 2020 from https://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/handle/10023/2180 S.T.A. Pickett. Urban ecosystems (2015) Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved on November 2020 from https://www.britannica.com/science/urban-ecosystem United Nations (2015) Sustainable development goals. Retrieved on July 2020 from http://www. un.org/sustainabledevelopment

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United Nations (2019) Department of economic and social affairs, population division: world population prospects 2019: highlights (ST/ESA/SER.A/423) Venco EM (2017) Nature-based solution to improve urban flexibility and resilience. Urbanistica Informazione. (272):826–830 Wilbanks TJ, Wates RW (1999) Global change in local places: how scale matters. Climate Change 43(3):601–628 World Health Organization (1998) Health promotion glossary. Retrieved on July 2020 from https://www.who.int/healthpromotion/about/HPG/en/ World Health Organization. Retrieved on November 2020 from https://www.euro.who.int/en/ health-topics/environment-and-health/urban-health/who-european-healthy-cities-network/ what-is-a-healthy-city Yangang X, Phil J, Iain D (2017) Characterisation of nature-based solutions for the built environment. Sustainability 9:149. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9010149

Planning Accessible Urban Green Infrastructure for Healthy and Fair Historical Towns: The Study Case of Viterbo, Central Italy Raffaele Pelorosso, Daniele La Rosa, Stefano Floris, and Nicola Cerino Abstract Urban Green Space (GS) provide fundamental functions for socioecological urban systems. GS help to maintain the physical and mental health of citizens, facilitating communication, sport and physical activities and the contact with Nature. Moreover, they are primary reserve for biodiversity in cities and support several regulating (e.g. water cycle, climate mitigation) and cultural ecosystem services. Recently, COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the beneficial role of GS for citizens. A key aspect for GS effectiveness is its accessibility for city residents. Full accessible GS are public spaces available for all to use free of charge and without time restrictions. Anyway, the accessibility varies for different GS (e.g. private or public) and for different people movement capabilities (e.g. elderly or young). Thus, planning the spatial distribution of different GS is more and more fundamental for the definition of sustainable, resilient, safe and fair urban systems. In this work, a GIS-based accessibility assessment of GS is presented for the city of Viterbo, central Italy. A score of accessibility by different users of GS (total residents, children, elderly people) is calculated on the road network and some planning considerations are presented. The study case is exemplificative for historical town having limited open spaces within the ancient city wall and relevant pressure factors acting on it. Keywords Accessibility


Green spaces
Urban planning
Green infrastructure

R. Pelorosso (&) Department of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Tuscia University, Viterbo, Italy e-mail: [email protected] D. La Rosa Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Catania, Catania, Italy S. Floris STEGA Studio, Viterbo, Italy N. Cerino Cerino Studio, Rome, Italy © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_5

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1 Introduction Green spaces and open areas provide fundamental functions for socio-ecological urban systems (Pelorosso et al. 2017b; Chen et al. 2020). Urban green spaces (GS) support the physical and mental health of citizens, facilitating communication, sport and physical activities and the contact with Nature. Moreover, they are primary reserve for biodiversity in cities and support several regulating (e.g. water and climate mitigation) and cultural ecosystem services. A key aspect to increase or manage urban GS is to ensure their accessibility from city residents. By 2030, the New Urban Agenda and the Agenda for Sustainable Development calls for providing universal access to well-connected and well-distributed networks of open, safe, inclusive and accessible, green and public spaces, in particular for women and children, older persons and persons with disabilities (United Nations 2015, 2017). Accessibility to GS by the highest number or people is crucial to support health and health equity (UN-HABITAT and World Health Organization 2020). Recently, COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the beneficial role of accessible and close green spaces for citizens above all in compact cities (Megahed and Ghoneim 2020). Fully accessible GS are public spaces available for all without restrictions. Anyway, a different level of accessibility may exist for different GS (e.g. private or public) and for people with different movement capabilities (e.g. elderly or young) (La Rosa et al. 2018). Public transport systems (Chen and Chang 2015) and connectivity among the green spaces and isolated districts (Dong et al. 2020) affect accessibility. Thus, planning the spatial distribution of different GS is a fundamental step to support the overall sustainability and resilience of urban systems and increase the well-being of their residents. In this work, a first accessibility assessment of different typologies of GS is presented for the city of Viterbo, central Italy, by taking into account the number of residents, children and elderly people. A score of accessibility by different users of GS (total residents, children, elderly people) is calculated with a twofold objective: to identifies the unmanaged or private open spaces that can be primarily planned as new urban parks thanks their high level of accessibility; to understand how the existing public GS can be re-arranged to ensure a better accessibility from different users.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1

Study Area

The city of Viterbo, central Italy, (around 67.000 inhabitants) is characterized by a medieval quarter unusual in cities as large, and the historical town center (enclosed by well-preserved medieval defensive walls) presents a significant proportion of buildings erected between 1500 and 1900 (Price 1964). Nowadays, while the

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historical center is suffering abandonment and social degradation, the periphery has been developing with-out a comprehensive planning strategy leading to reduced public services, degraded productive areas and excessive traffic due to private transportation. The last adopted urban plan is from seventy (1974) and the huge urbanization after the second World War has been regulated by planning instruments with a partial view of the relations among different urban districts and overestimating the urban development. The consequent fragmentation and isolation among commercial, industrial and residential districts produced intense traffic load and limited accessibility to city center and green areas with public and soft mobility. Being a medieval and historic city, Viterbo represents and interesting case for accessibility modeling, since the number and location of GS have been affected by the urban morphological constraints and unregulated and/or improper urban development of large part of the periphery. Moreover, Viterbo can be considered an exemplificative case study for historical towns having limited open and green spaces within the city center and relevant pressure factors acting on it.

2.2

Materials

GS are here defined as permeable or semi-permeable open spaces covered by natural or designed vegetation and soil. They have been identified by manual digitalization of google images and ancillary data derived by technical maps, Google street view and onsite visits. GS have been classified in 11 categories and 2 ownership classes (private/public), as mapped in Fig. 1. The street network of the city was retrieved by Open Street Maps and checked and updated for links not included in the last available database. Finally, we used the data from 2011 national census, available as vector data, to locate the number of residents in the city.

2.3

Accessibility Modelling

Accessibility modelling is based on the calculation of the Gravity Potential expression (La Rosa 2014; Talen and Anselin 1998), that accounts for the number of residents who can have access to each GS and weights this number with the inverse of the squared distance between each census tract and GS. The expression used is: GPi ¼

n X Popj j¼1

dist2ji

ð1Þ

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Fig. 1 Study area. Green spaces and road network in Viterbo

where GPi is the Gravity Potential score of the GSi within the study area; POPj is the population of the census tract j; distji is the network distance between the centroids of the census tract j and the GSi. The distance is here intended as road network distance and calculated through GIS based Network Analysis. In this work, network distance is chosen over euclidean distance as it models more accurately the patterns of movements of users from their houses to the GS (La Rosa 2014). Centroids of census tracts and GS are considered as points of destination and origin respectively. For some instances, centroids have been adjusted manually in order to be always included within GS and census tracts. The gravity potential is calculated for 3 categories of users of GS: all residents, children and elderly people. This allow to evaluate different scenarios of accessibility, according to the different possible users.

3 Results The spatial distribution of residents in the study area by three age classes (all residents, children, elderly) is displayed in Fig. 2. Figure 4 reports the map of the Gravity Potential by these age classes. Generally, GS with highest scores of

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Fig. 2 Census tracts and number of residents: all, children (64 y)

proximity indicators are the ones located in/beside city center, as the benefit from their centrality. High values of accessibility are present for larger and more peripheral GS. Overall, the distribution of scores of Gravity Potential shows similar patterns when considering the 3 types of users (all residents, children, elderly). Among the 73 GS included in the first quintile of GP scores (the most accessible GS, reported in red in Fig. 2), the same 65 GS are always included in the ranks of the 3 types of users. Furthermore, when ranking the 10 highest scores of Gravity Potential for the three type of users, 8 GS are in common in 2 or 3 ranks (Table 1), with the exception of 2 GS only (Id 57, 185) (Table 1). This result means that the potential accessibility to the GS with highest GP scores is consistent with the different type of users and does not change too much when considering all residents, children or elderly people. Figure 3 shows the distribution of GS by ownership classes (private and public). Private GS within the sport and green areas categories have the highest mean GP scores. Private green areas mainly refer to gardens and courtyards in the city center that, consequently, cover a potentially important role in the green infrastructure of Viterbo even they do not provide full accessibility to all the residents.

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Table 1 Ranks of the 10 highest scores of gravity potential with relative GS. Colors indicate the same GS. Almost all of the GS are in common in 2 or 3 ranks OS Id

GP—All residents

OS Id

GP—Children

OS Id

GP—Elderly

229 157 221 177 23 252 194 328 220 143

1,077,771,621 86,148,720 23,243,796 20,305,279 20,123,106 19,032,216 14,651,041 14,221,441 13,077,946 6,226,119

157 220 221 229 328 252 177 194 57 164

7,490,739 3,260,631 3,159,237 2,035,679 1,822,758 1,562,640 1,449,404 1,393,725 612,728 454,689

229 23 252 194 221 220 177 143 185 164

28,466,451 10,042,527 5,233,207 4,877,417 4,229,610 3,268,632 2,425,380 1,481,524 1,293,441 1,186,960

Fig. 3 Class ownership and mean accessibility (all residents) for green spaces

4 Discussion and Conclusions The results highlight the high accessibility of GS located in the city center and in the most populated districts (Figs. 2 and 4). They also show how private GS benefit from high accessibility (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 4 Maps of gravity potential scores for all GS

GS with high level of accessibility by different social groups offer planning alternatives which depend mainly on their type of users and ownership status of the GS itself. When the objective is to create new GS from a currently unmanaged private open spaces (including building courtyards or church setbacks), the accessibility assessment allows to identify prior GS that take advantage of the highest accessibility. More particularly, for GS with high accessibility from particular users it could be possible to customize specific facilities or features, in order to meet the preferences of these users. Example include shaded paths for elderly people or highly accessible playgrounds for family with children (La Rosa et al.

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2018; Arnerber et al. 2017). However, further analyses are required to investigate the spatial variation of the accessibility among users with different incomes or within city districts, as well as. Interestingly, the larger parks in the city center (named “Prato Giardino” and “Valle Faul”) does not show high scores of GP, and this might depend on the limited number of accesses and their location, making their accessibility more difficult. Such instances call for urban regeneration projects aimed at increasing accessibility and connectivity of these GS by the design of sustainable forms of mobility and public transportation. Such project would require a more comprehensive planning and design of other parts of the urban fabric, directly and indirectly connected to the GS. Definitely, the accessibility modelling can be an effective tool for innovative performance-based urban planning aimed to identify the best land use arrangement that maximizes functional interactions with multiple urban sub-systems (Pelorosso 2020). For instance, the accessibility assessment, evaluating each open area within the green infrastructure (Pelorosso et al. 2017), provides a strategic indicator of landscape connectivity for people by walking or biking, that can be employed in sustainable mobility plans. Accessible green spaces represent also crucial areas to be identified in emergency plans as safe places where population can refuge and wait for help in the case of earthquakes or other disasters (Francini et al. 2020). Information of the potential accessibility of each open space can support sustainable urbanization of residual urban voids, enhancing the global functionality of the city and mitigating soil sealing, as required by the national and regional planning normative. The accessibility modeling of the GS can thus support more sustainable urban projects and the definition of innovative regeneration plans aimed at enhancing the supply of functional and connected GS, a more and more priority considering the current COVID pandemic and the limited room for maneuver in compact and historical cities.

References Arnberger A, Allex B, Eder R, Ebenberger M, Wanka A, Kolland F, Hutter H (2017) Elderly resident’s uses of and preferences for ur-ban green spaces during heat periods. Urban Forestry Urban Greening 21:102–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2016.11.012 Chen J, Chang Z (2015) Rethinking urban green space accessibility: evaluating and optimizing public transportation system through social network analysis in megacities. Landscape Urban Plann 143:150–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LANDURBPLAN.2015.07.007 Chen Y, Yue W, La Rosa D (2020) Which communities have better accessibility to green space? An investigation into environmental inequality using big data. Landscape Urban Plann 204 (August):103919. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2020.103919 Dong Y, Liu H, Zheng T (2020) Does the connectivity of urban public green space promote its use? An empirical study of Wuhan. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17(1):19–21. https://doi. org/10.3390/ijerph17010297

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Francini M, Gaudio S, Palermo A, Viapiana MF (2020) A performance-based approach for innovative emergency planning. Sustain Cities Soc 53:101906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs. 2019.101906 La Rosa D (2014) Accessibility to greenspaces: GIS based indicators for sustainable planning in a dense urban context. Ecol Ind. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2013.11.011 La Rosa D, Takatori C, Shimizu H, Privitera R (2018) A planning framework to evaluate demands and preferences by different social groups for accessibility to urban greenspaces. Sustain Cities Soci 36:346–362 Megahed NA, Ghoneim EM (2020) Antivirus-built environment: lessons learned from covid-19 pandemic. Sustain Cities Society, p 102350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102350 Nations U (2015) Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. https:// doi.org/10.1891/9780826190123.ap02 Pelorosso R (2020) Modeling and urban planning: a systematic review of performance-based approaches. Sustain Cities Soc (52):101867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2019.101867 Pelorosso R, Gobattoni F, Geri F, Leone A (2017a) PANDORA 3.0 plugin: a new biodiversity ecosystem service assessment tool for urban green infrastructure connectivity planning. Ecosyst Serv 26:476–482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2017.05.016 Pelorosso R, Gobattoni F, Leone A (2017b) Low-entropy city: a thermodynamic approach to reconnect urban systems with nature. Landscape Urban Plann 168:22–30. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.landurbplan.2017.10.002 Price ET (1964) Viterbo: landscape of an Italian City. Ann Assoc Am Geogr 54(2):242–275 Talen E, Anselin L (1998) Assessing spatial equity: an evaluation of measures of accessibility to public playgrounds. Environ Plann A 30(4):595–613. Retrieved from www.scopus.com UN-HABITAT and World Health Organization (2020) Integrating health in urban and territorial planning: a sourcebook. Geneva United Nations (2017) New urban agenda

From Preferences of Social Groups to Planning and Management Solutions of Green Spaces in Bucharest Mariacristina Sipala and Daniele La Rosa

Abstract The critical role of green in cities is widely considered to have positive implications for health and for providing a complete set of ecosystem services in cities. Highly linked to the concept of ecosystem services is the role of accessibility to those ecosystems and places providing the services. However, a gap often exists between the presence of existing greenspaces and the demands and preferences for accessibility of different social groups (e.g., children and elderly people). This work evaluates the preferences of social groups regarding green spaces in the light of the important role that green and blue spaces play in Bucharest. The users’ preferences have been assessed through the administration of a questionnaire survey to evaluate the level of park accessibility and to investigate the factors that influence the preferences of the social groups visiting the green spaces. The results obtained from an analysis of the responses provided are then interpreted to define planning scenarios aimed at increasing existing features of the green and blue spaces, or including additional features, according to the requests/preferences/issues raised by the users. Keywords Green spaces


Urban planning
Accessibility
Ecosystem services

1 The Importance of Green Spaces in Contemporary Urban Contexts There is a growing evidence that the green spaces (GS) in urban context have an important role for the well-being of the population and the environment and that they produce ecosystem services. Various studies have shown how the conservation and restoration of ecosystem services in urban areas can reduce the ecological

M. Sipala
D. La Rosa (&) Department Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Catania, Catania, Italy e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_6

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footprints and ecological debts of cities, while improving the resilience, health and quality of life of their inhabitants (Gómez-Baggethun and Barton 2013), they can enhance the water balance regime, reduce soil erosion, providing stormwater runoff cleansing to raise water quality, guaranteeing seasonal water storage and recharging the urban groundwater aquifer (Perini and Sabbion 2017). Among the most important and multiple benefits of GS are: the microclimate regulation, the water regulation, the pollution reduction and health effects. Other benefits are the cultural services provided by urban ecosystem and the benefits that high diversity of plant and animal species provide (Elmqvist et al. 2015). One of the key element in the concept of ecosystem services is the accessibility to the ecosystems and places which provide the services, specifically for the arrangement of cultural ecosystem services. In sustainable planning the reduction of the uneven distribution of green spaces in cities and the variations in the access to greenspaces must be central topics. To this end urban planning needs to establish the presence of local green areas placed within walking distance to residents, basically green urban planning should maximize their social benefits to satisfy human interests. Accessibility is thus a significant pre-requisite for any assessment which aims at supporting planning choices on greenspaces. It can include an integrated system of facilities and users from the user viewpoint (La Rosa 2014). There is no doubt that assuring a good access to GS achieve remarkable benefits for specific social groups as children or people with mental illness. Certainly accessibility can be perceived in different ways by different people and values attributed by people to GS change based on the different environmental characteristics. Schipperijn et al.’s (2010) analyzed the different characteristics of GS and how they can influence the behavior of their user, showing that a plurality of values in the interactions with GS for different purposes exist. Several studies have shown that also urban waters provide added value for the provision of ecosystem services when connected to GS, because they can support quality of life by water purification, mitigating urban run-off waters and provide psychological and social services and they can increase the regulatory capacity of an urban basin (Vierikko and Niemelä 2016). The aim of this work is to evaluate the preference of social groups about green spaces with the purpose of planning and managing solutions which can meet each group demands, minimize unequal access to green spaces and increase accessibility to the existing ones. To this end, a questionnaire is designed and the gathered preferences from users of the parks are analyzed for a set of four parks in Bucharest, Romania, an exemplar urban context where GS have been significantly reduced and transformed since the fall of the communist regime (Badiu et al. 2019).

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2 Materials and Methods 2.1

Green and Blue Spaces in Bucharest

In Romania, green spaces in cities are regulated by different national laws that define the types of green areas and address the management and administration of green spaces in the urban context, in order to ensure the quality of environmental factors and the health of the population. The following types of green spaces are defined: public green spaces with unlimited access containing parks, gardens and squares; public green spaces for specialized use with botanical and zoological gardens, open-air museums, exhibition parks and parks for sport; green spaces for leisure; green spaces for the protection of lakes and water courses; recreational forests; nurseries and greenhouses. Blue spaces are regulated by a different law which consider water as a natural heritage. In Bucharest, urban waters are represented mostly by lakes, Văcărești and Lacul Morii which are located on the Dâmboviţa river, other lakes are in the north along the Colentina river. Figure 1 maps the different types of green and blue spaces in Bucharest and the location of the parks which will be under investigation in this paper, namely

Fig. 1 Distribution of green and blue spaces in bucharest and location of the four parks

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Grădina Icoanei, Grădinile Cișmigiu, Parcul Carol I, Parcul Herăstrău. In Bucharest, five main categories of urban parks have been identified (Ioja et al. 2010): parks of metropolitan importance, parks of municipal importance, quarter parks with medium attractiveness, quarter parks with reduced attractiveness and transit parks. These areas have been chosen to have a differentiated sample of parks, considering size, period of establishment and location within the city. The parks that have been chosen in this work are categorized in metropolitan park, municipal park and quarter park and, according to the national Romanian law (2007).

2.2

Analyzing the Preferences of Users of Urban Parks

The questionnaire (Fig. 2) is designed to evaluate the accessibility and preferences relating to urban GS and to reach all types of users of the parks, i.e. as many social groups is possible. The following social groups are identified.

Fig. 2 Excerpt of the questionnaire distributed in four parks

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• Students: people who answered to the question “Occupation” that they are student. • Workers: people who answered to the question “Occupation” ticking the box ‘Worker’. Within this category, even if the interviewee has reported to have children, the reason why he/she goes to the park is different from ‘for children’. • Parents with small children: people who have children and answered in the purpose that they go to the park ‘for children’. • Mature generation: workers of an age between 56 and 62 years old. • Elderly people: people who answered to the question “Occupation” that they are retired and their age is above 62 years. The questionnaire is structured as follows. The first part includes questions on the personal data of park users, such as their age, gender, marital status, occupation, whether they have children and if so, how many children, where they live and for how long. Questions about the frequency of visit follow. The second part is about the means of transport used to go to the park, the distance from the interviewees’ place/location to each park as well as the home address of the interviewees. The questions regarding the means of transport and the distance from the park are utilized to assess accessibility. The third part seeks to understand preferences and potential issues of the parks. The options provided in the “preferences” and “problems” categories of the questionnaire are similar and it is possible for respondents to respond by selecting more than one option. The “vegetated” and “facilities” categories provide the respondents with the possibility of selecting more than one feature. The features reported in the vegetation macro category are: tree cover, shaded areas, flowers, lawn, water surfaces (as ponds and rivers), diversity of land covers and hard pavement. The subcategories of the facilities are: paths/bike paths, seats, toilets, lights, soft sport facilities, playground, play equipment for children, play equipment for health, museum and café/restaurant. In both categories it is asked if these features of the park are in good or bad maintenance condition. This part of the questionnaire aims to retrieve useful information from the users to propose interventions to increase and improve the park’s features and meet the demands and preferences of social groups. The final part of the questionnaire includes five open questions, whose objective is to elicit additional information concerning preferences and problems of the parks, that may not have been highlighted by the previous questions. Examples of these questions include “resources of parks which are underutilized”; “How the parks will be better?”; “how do more users or people that usually do not go to the park come to the park?”; “what kind of facilities are needed?”; “what kind of events or special activities do you want to be held?”. The results obtained by the analysis of responses are then interpreted to define planning and management indications aimed at increasing existing features of the green spaces or including additional features, according to the requests/preferences/issues raised by parks users.

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3 Results and Discussion Between 3th and 13th February 2020, 121 people at the four parks object of this work answered to the questions indicated in the questionnaires. The questionnaires were administered in two days for each park, one day midweek and one day weekend. More specifically, 32 users were interviewed in Grădina Icoanei, 32 users in Grădinile Cișmigiu, 22 users in Parcul Carol I and 35 users in Parcul Herăstrău. Figure 3 reports the distribution of the social groups responding the questionnaire. The most frequent social is represented by Company Employee with 54 interviews (45% of the total), followed by Students, with 48 answers (40%), Parents with small children with 10 interviews (8%), Elderly people 5 interviews (4%) and finally Mature Generation with 4 interviews (3%). The red rectangles in the Fig. 3 highlight the highest of a category in each park. As shown in Fig. 4 the most frequent purpose to visit the park is to “take a walk” (75%), followed in order by “rest” (36%), “take photo” (35%), “nature observation” (35%), “think” (33%), “conversation” (33%), “watch” (31%), “read a book” (19%), “eat and drink” (17%), “take a dog for walk” (17%), “exercise” (10%), “exhibition” (9%), “for children” (8%), “play game or sports” (7%) and “events” (7%). Figure 5 summarizes the means of transport used by respondents. The majority of the people interviewed goes to the park by walk (52%), using is used by 26%, car by 22%, train/metro by 19%. Only 3% and 2% of respondents respectively used bike or running. This is because Bucharest is not a bike-friendly city: there are a few cycle lines and they are not connected. Traffic congestion and driver’s indiscipline are also deterrents for bikers in Bucharest. The analysis of the preferences of features in the park shows that tree cover is highlighted by the 67% of respondents and is reported as a problem only by 9%. The same happens for shaded areas (31% preference/5% problem), flowers (47%

Fig. 3 Distribution of social groups in the targeted parks

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Fig. 4 Purposes to visit the parks for the different social groups

Fig. 5 Means of transport utilized to reach parks for the different social groups

preference/17% problem), lawn (43% preference/13% problem), water surfaces (51% preference/18% problem), diversity of land cover (15% preference/10% problem). Instead, in contrast to this tendency, hard pavement is indicated as a preferred feature by only 4% of respondent but, at the same time, is indicated as a problem by the 34%. 40% of interviewed reports a bad maintenance conditions with a 28% of good maintenance conditions. Concerning the facilities category, the gap between preferences and problem is not so accentuated, with the exception of the category toilets, reported as a preference by 15% and as a problem by the 46%. Seats have higher percentage of preferences than problem (31% preference/7% problem) and the same goes for lights (37% preference/12% problem), soft sport facilities (17% preference/15% problem), playground (17% preference/6% problem), play equipment for children (12% preference/7% problem), museum

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(7% preference/6% problem) and café/restaurant (30% preference/8% problem). On the other side, paths/bike paths are indicated as a problem more than a preference (7% preference/16% problem), similarly to play equipment for health (8% preference/11% problem) and the maintenance condition (21% good condition/28% bad condition). These results show that the parks are generally appreciated by their users. However, this does not necessary means that people think parks are in good condition, but rather it highlights the awareness of users in making concrete evaluations on the current state of the parks, as they use to visit park often. In fact, a good number of users go visit parks all year around and more than 50% of them visit them at least once a week. Users tend to decrease the visit to the parks less with cold temperatures and cloudy weather and in winter. In fact, rainfall protection is reported as a facility highly needed in a park. Users mainly go to the park to take a walk, but this doesn’t necessary mean that they go by walk. The means of transport used vary depending on both the park and the social group. Indeed, the parks located in the city centre have reported a higher number of users who go by walk whilst the bigger parks are reached by bus or car. However, two important considerations can be done. The first is that very few people go to the park by bicycle or running and this is related to the current mobility system which is not safe for cyclists and the bad conditions of sidewalks along the roads. The second point— related to the first—is that the using cars to reach the parks require an additional number of parking lots nearby the parks. In fact, parking is requested by the users as well as public transportation able to reach the park (mainly in the case of the bigger park). The results also showed that a low number of people travelled a maximum distance of 10.50 km. This point is open to two different interpretations: on an one hand it can mean that there are sufficient green areas reachable from people who live in these distances. On the other hand, parks which offer a high number of facilities and equipment should attract people from larger areas of the city, as for the case of Parcul Herăstrău (La Rosa et al. 2018). There are also features in common to all parks that have been reported as preferences by the majority of social groups: tree cover, shaded areas, flowers, lawn, water surfaces, lights and cafés/restaurants. Some users also underline the need of regular maintenance of these features. When looking at single social group, the preferences are different and depend on the park analyzed. For example, hard pavement, paths/bike paths and Museum are not much reported as preference in the parks where they are not present or where they are in bad maintenance, but they are seen as issues to be solved. Hard pavement is present in three of four parks, and it is reported as problem in all but mainly in the park where it is not present. Bike paths are present only in the bigger park but are reported as problem by very few interviewed, and this could be due to general lack of cyclists in the smaller parks. Some features area appreciated by users but at the same time indicated as needed to be improved. This applies for vegetation, highly appreciated but also reported as underutilized, because of the absence of facilities under the threes or the

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impossibility of lying on the lawn due to its bad condition. The same applies for Playground and sport facilities, reported as underutilized but at the same time acknowledged as important and needed features in the park.

4 Conclusions Summarizing the responses to the questionnaire by the different social groups, some planning solutions and management recommendation can be identified. These solutions involve the physical transformation of current land-use/land cover assets, while management recommendations include indications—derived by answers to questionnaire—on how to improve functions/activities already present in all the parks. They include: • Maintain (or improve) vegetation and water surfaces: this is a feature reported as preferences by the majority of the social groups. • Improve bike paths: very few interviewees go to the park by bicycle or running and parks are not accessible to cyclists. • Improve or add seats/table and toilets. • Maintain (or improve) the diversity of land cover: this is an important characteristic of parks highlighted by several social groups. • Improve lightening system to ensure parks accessibility at night and winter. • Maintain cafes/restaurant/museum to increase attractiveness of parks and number of visitors. • Planning a regular maintenance, especially for key features like playgrounds. • Improve hard pavement as this is reported mainly as a problem due the bad condition or the absence of this. • Add rain protection to permit use the park also when it is raining. • Organize events and activities to involve more people to go to the park. • Improve public transportation to increase general accessibility of parks a minimize unequal access to the bigger green spaces. It must be noted that surveys have been administered in a limited number of days, so they cannot be sufficient to derive a perfect vision of the preferences or problems of social groups. However, they represent a crucial relevant source of information to understand the diversity of users in these parks and their preferences/ problems and to identify practical and useful planning and management indications to improve the overall conditions of green spaces and increase the provision of urban ecosystem services. Therefore, increasing the number of the questionnaires administrated would help to define in a more accurate way the preferences in of each social group and to define viable solutions to address the wide spectrum of users’ needs.

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References Badiu DL, Onose DA, Niță MR, Lafortezza R (2019) From “red” to green? A look into the evolution of green spaces in a post-socialist city. Landscape Urban Plann 187:156–164 Elmqvist T, Setälä H, Handel S, van der Ploeg S, Aronson J, Blignaut J, Gómez-Baggethun E, Nowak DJ, Kronenberg J, de Groot R (2015) Benefits of restoring ecosystem services in urban areas. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 14:101–108 Gómez-Baggethun E, Barton DN (2013) Classifying and valuing ecosystem services for urban planning. Ecol Econ 86:235–245 Ioja C, Patroescu M, Nita M, Rozylowicz L, Vanau G, Ioja A, Onose D (2010) Categories of residential spaces by their accessibility to urban parks—indicator of sustainability in human settlements. Case study: bucharest. WSEAS transactions on environment and development 6. WSEAS transactions on environment and development 5, pp 307–314 La Rosa D (2014) Accessibility to greenspaces: GIS based indicators for sustainable planning in a dense urban context. Ecol Ind 42:122–134 La Rosa D, Takatori C, Shimizu H, Privitera R (2018) A planning framework to evaluate demands and preferences by different social groups for accessibility to urban greenspaces. Sustain Cities Soc 36:346–362 Perini K, Sabbion P (2017) Urban sustainability and river: green and blue infrastructure. Jonh Wiley and Sons Ltd Schipperijn J, Ekholm O, Stigsdotter UK, Toftager M, Bentsen P, Kamper-Jørgensen F, Randrup TB (2010) Factors influencing the use of green space: results from a Danish national representative survey. Landscape Urban Plann 95:130–137 Vierikko K, Niemelä J (2016) Bottom-up thinking—identifying socio-cultural values of ecosystem services in local blue—green infrastructure planning in Helsinkim, Finland. Land Use Policy 50:537–547

A Methodology to Investigate the Human Health and Environmental Benefits by the Improvement of Urban Mobility and Ecosystem Services: A Case Study in Pisa Greta Frosini, Luisa Santini, and Fabrizio Cinelli Abstract Cycle lanes and green infrastructures may be expensive at first, but they involve long-term profits enhancing the quality of human life. This paper focuses on an easily replicable methodology for a cost-benefit analysis to estimate the economic value of benefits provided by cycling mobility and urban forestation in the city of Pisa. Open-source tools easily adaptable to local contexts and supported by a lot of experimentations and user guides were selected: HEAT (Health Economic Assessment Tool), a web tool designed by World Health Organization to quantify the monetary value of reduced mortality due to regular cycling, and i-Tree Eco, a software developed by the USDA Forest Service to assess the economic benefits provided by ES (Ecosystem Services) of urban trees. These tools provide an economic appraisal to verify and validate the suitability of political and economic choices and/or estimate the number of resources required in the long term.







Keywords Decision-making Bike lane HEAT for cycling i-Tree eco Health economic assessment





Urban greenery


1 Introduction In order to meet the challenges posed by climate change and urbanization, soft mobility and urban vegetation undoubtedly play a strategic role in improving the quality of human life. There is no doubt that the use of bicycles as a mode of urban G. Frosini (&)
L. Santini
F. Cinelli Department of Energy, Systems, Territory and Constructions Engineering (DESTeC), University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy e-mail: [email protected] L. Santini e-mail: [email protected] F. Cinelli e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_7

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transportation has positive effects on users and community (ECF 2017). In addition to being a rather economic way of transportation, it also has a positive effect on air quality being a zero-emissions mode of travel (Roias-Ruead et al. 2011; Götschi et al. 2016). Despite the greater exposure, to pollution, noise, and road accidents than other ways of travel, negative effects are negligible compared to positive ones (Tainio et al. 2016). The presence of trees in urban areas provide valuable ES to urban populations: urban trees mitigate urban heat island; reduce energy consumption through shading and evapotranspiration (Norton et al. 2015); improve air quality (Escobedo et al. 2011; Nowak et al. 2013); provide habitat for wildlife; attenuate vehicle noise and protect pedestrians from motorists when planted along roads (Mullaney et al. 2015); impact the hydrology of the urban landscape (Xiao and McPherson 2016; Scharenbroch et al. 2016). Cycle lanes have a political, economic, environmental and social impact on urban welfare, but it could be difficult to assess the economic value of these benefits. For this reason, local government often do not consider them in a benefit/cost ratio analysis. The World Health Organization, WHO, developed HEAT (Health Economic Assessment Tool for walking and cycling), an online tool developed since 2008 for making the health contribution and benefits of soft mobility policies estimable. The Italian Law 10/2013, “Rules for the development of urban green spaces”, finally recognizes the fundamental role of greenery in city life. ES can be used as a conceptual framework and methodological tool to provide decision-makers with a useful tool to support the sustainable management of urban greenery (Chiesura 2010). Thus, we have to be able to quantify the savings for citizens and administrations that can be made from the development of urban green spaces. In this research we adopted two dedicated tools that all local government could use for an economic assessment of benefits provided by cycling mobility and urban forestation. To develop an assessment approach that can be replicated by local authorities, we need open-source tools easily adaptable to local contexts and supported by a lot of experimentations and user guides. For this purpose, we selected i-Tree and HEAT (Health Economic Assessment Tool). The first one is an open source software suite developed by the USDA1Forest Service in partnership with various entities2 and launched in 2006. Among the various Italian experiences, we can mention the testing of the i-Tree Eco software on the urban parks of Milan (Siena and Buffoni 2007), Florence (Paoletti et al. 2011) and Forlì (Buffoni et al. 2007). The second one is a web tool designed by World Health Organization to quantify the monetary value of reduced mortality

1

United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Davey Tree Expert Company, National Arbor Day Foundation, Society of Municipal Arborists, International Society of Arboriculture, Casey Trees e SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry.

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due to regular cycling. The tool was applied to the city of Modena (WHO Europe 2013), Palermo (Cavill et al. 2017) and Milan (Guariso and Malvesiti 2017). The two tools were applied to the city of Pisa, which offers many opportunities for the development of cycling mobility and strategic planning of urban green infrastructures, being a small-size university city, with flat morphology and mild climate. We used HEAT to assess the economic savings generated by citizens who, every day, choose to move by bicycle instead of motorized vehicles. For the study of the urban greenery of Pisa we adopted i-Tree Eco tool to perform a qualitative and quantitative evaluation of plant populations and some of the ES that derive from them.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1

Tools

HEAT for cycling assesses the economic savings due to health benefits of using the bicycle based on the VSL (value of statistical life). It only estimates the economic repercussions that the mortality associated with inactivity triggers, while the effects of morbidity are not contemplated as they are still too uncertain (Kahlmeier et al. 2017). Furthermore, the accuracy of HEAT calculations should be understood as an estimate of the magnitude order, the higher the degree of approximation of the input data. The tool application was limited to a sample of population, aged 20–64, who use bicycle moderately as way of travel. Subpopulation with a very high average, exceeding the threshold of 1.5 h of cycling per day, was excluded. Furthermore, the estimated benefits are not valid in areas with very high levels of pollution, i.e. in environments that expose cyclists to fine dust concentrations (PM10-like) considerably higher than 50 lg/m3. For this assessment, we adopted the “single-case assessment”, where benefits are undertaken as the difference between the calculation in the reference case and a case of “no cycling”. In this scenario “a steady-state situation is assumed” (Kahlmeier et al. 2017) and the build-up period of health benefits is not considered. The data for carrying out the estimate through this application are divided into essential (the size of study population and the average distance cycling per day) and additional information (VSL, uptake period, mortality rate, air pollution concentration). HEAT provides default values, when additional data are not suitable. For the study of the urban greenery of Pisa we have adopted i-Tree Eco for a qualitative and quantitative evaluation of arboreal population and some of its ES. This tool is derived from the Urban FORest Effects (UFORE) model (Novak and Crane 2000), a mathematical model validated by numerous experiments and publications, and it allowed us to determine the structure of urban greenery and evaluate its interactions with the surrounding environment based on direct surveys on plants, rainfall and air pollution hourly time.

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To determine the monetary value of the benefits produced, the following values were taken from the scientific literature: • VSL equal to €2,768,073.16 (OECD 2012); • the value associated with the average global social cost of carbon (SCC) for 2019 (Ricke et al. 2018), equal to €452.15 per tonne of CO2; • the software default value of 1.902 €/m3 of runoff avoided, based on the US average costs for stormwater management (Gregory et al. 2007); • the health damage cost due to the exposure to pollutants calculated on the VSL (Holland et al. 2014) in Italy by the EEA, equal to €23,029 per tonne of NO2, to €46,150 per tonne of SO2, to €154,289 per tonne of PM2.5; • ground level ozone externalities by the Natural Capital Committee (Natural Capital Committee 2017) for Italian cities equal to €4,419 per tonne; • for energy effects, the US average cost of electricity, equal to $0.23 kWh, and of fuels, which are estimated to be $2.24 therm, referring to 2017 (Nowak and Crane 2000).

2.2

Data Collection

Based on the ISTAT data (ISTAT 2019) on the population composition of the municipality of Pisa by age and the Report on cycle mobility carried out by the Tuscany Region (Tuscany Region 2018), we estimated that the population of urban “systematic cyclists”, aged 20–64, amount to 3,334 people (3.8% of the entire population). The statistical studies on cycling mobility, both national (ISFORT 2019) and regional (Tuscany Region 2018), do not provide information about the distances covered daily by this people. Pisa has an efficient bike sharing service named CicloPI. The database of the CicloPI management application, made available by the bikesharing service Bicincittà, provides valuable information about the operation and behaviour of its users. In our case, it was useful to estimate the average distances that a systematic cyclist travels daily in a year (Fig. 1). Analysing the dataset through Microsoft Access software and the open source ORS Tool in QGIS environment, we estimated that a systematic cyclist, aged 20–64, with an annual subscription, cycles 1.92 km per day on average. The study of urban greenery was carried out based on the geographical dataset, obtained from census activities conducted from 2015 to 2019, provided by the Municipality of Pisa. The data were collected to facilitate the maintenance of the green and not to assess the ES provided: it was necessary to check the information completeness and integrate them where possible. To evaluate the energy effects on the residential buildings, it was also necessary to obtain data on distance and direction from plants to buildings: indirect spatial analyses were carried out through QGIS software.

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Fig. 1 Bikesharing usage flow map; white dots for bike station. On corner: Municipality of Pisa, city area highlighted

In total, 17.323 were analysed and 144 tree species were recorded in the i-Tree Eco survey (Fig. 2). The Municipality of Pisa has an area of 18.500 ha, while urban canopy cover is 73.53 ha, and the total leaf area is 385.5 ha. The urban greenery analysed in this study is mainly composed of trees located along the roads, and to a lesser extent, by school gardens and recently established green areas. In areas outside the USA, Mexico, the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia, the historical series of meteorological data and those relating to the hourly concentrations of pollutants must be entered using the online tool i-Tree Database. Since new data must be processed and validated by the USDA and about six months are required, we choose to use the most recent data available in the software. The most recent year with both meteorological and air quality information available is 2015; data were detected by the meteorological station Pisa San Giusto (Italian Air Force) and by ARPAT (Tuscany environmental protection agency) air quality monitoring stations.

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Fig. 2 The urban arboreal heritage of the Municipality of Pisa. On corner: Municipality of Pisa, city area highlighted

3 Results Based on the HEAT for cycling scenario data, the model estimates that in 10 years there would be a reduction of CO2 emissions into the atmosphere of 1,020 tons and the prevention of 4 premature death would be obtained. Net of possible negative effects from exposure to ambient air pollution or road crashes, it also estimates that savings in the next ten years would amount to €12,800,000. The forecasts for HEAT show that, thanks to the reduction in public expenditure incurred by the National Health Service, structural investment in cycling will be compensated in few years. The application of the i-Tree Eco estimated that the urban arboreal heritage of the Municipality of Pisa allows: • to remove about 6.00 tons of pollutants per year for a monetary value that amounts to €88,585 per year; • to remove from the atmosphere about 837.25 t of CO2 per year for an economic value of €321,990 per year (1.8% of the CO2 produced by cars from external municipalities (Comune di Pisa 2012); • to produce 608.90 t of O2 in one year (the oxygen generates provide for almost 1,986 people, 2.2% of the population of urban center). Since there isn’t a market price associated with oxygen, it’s not possible to give a monetary value;

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• to save €12,400, by reducing the hydrological outflow of approximately 6,520 m33; • to save about €18,600 per year, by improving buildings energy efficiency4; • to emit 3.41 t of VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds which can catalyse photochemical reactions forming tropospheric ozone that worsens air pollution), causing economic damage for €30,581 per year; • to store in their woody tissues the equivalent of 27,534 t of CO2, corresponding to a value of €10,589,026. This is an indication of the amount of carbon that could be released back into the atmosphere if all the trees died and decompose (Nowak et al. 2002). In synthesis, the 17,323 units of the urban trees produce a profit of 410,988 € in one year.

4 Discussion and Conclusion Traditionally, the urban development models have been heavily influenced by the automobile (Sheller and Urry 2000) and because of that investments were mainly allocated in grey infrastructures. In this context, soft mobility and urban greenery played a secondary role in terms of investment priority (MaGICLandcapes 2019), although all international organizations highlight the need to get out of cardominated transport models. An economic evaluation of ecosystems and soft mobility effects allows their inclusion in cost-benefit analyses. This would ensure visibility of human well-being primary sources within decision-making processes and solve the systematic underestimation of the role played by these elements in public and private decisions (Natural Capital Committee 2017). Road infrastructures and greenery are usually considered as antithetic and concurrent elements: this led to the ecological function degradation over time (Aleksandrova e al. 2019). Some studies assert that green and grey infrastructure projects can be carried out to support each other by improving stormwater management, increasing ecosystem benefits, minimizing spatial conflicts, enhancing the quality of human life and generating remarkable economic savings (Tjallingii 2003; Depietri and McPhearson 2017; Lusk et al. 2018; Tsegaye et al. 2019; Xu et al. 2019). The peculiarity of this study is that we applied both HEAT for cycling and i-Tree Eco for improving city planning analysis. These tools allowed to quantify economic benefits generated in Pisa by cycle mobility and urban greenery that all citizens

3

This result is not accurate because the calculations underlying the estimate of the avoided runoff are the result of approximations. 4 This outcome is not accurate, and it has to be considered only as a general indication because the “Building energy effect” module is designed for an American context too distant to the Italian one.

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gain: approximately one and a half million euros per year. These values could improve by increasing the limited cycle network and the very small tree population of Pisa. Further studies would be needed to increase the spectrum of benefits quantified by the i-Tree Eco software, and to develop a methodology for of monitoring cycle flows to that could reduce the approximation in these input data. Nevertheless, thanks to a careful selection of the input data, the assessment tools adopted have proven to be valid, reliable, and easily applicable after careful selection of the input data. The simultaneous study of the tree structure and of the mobility of an urban area, allows laying the foundations for integrated planning and the development of grey-green infrastructures. The results obtained highlight the need to deeply rethink the design and intervention methods of cycle connections and urban green areas, urban elements of strategic importance for the future that we can no longer afford to deal with lightness and irresponsibility. Acknowledgements This research has been financially supported by University of Pisa, PRA_2018_35 (Ateneo Research Project) titled ‘Eco-sustainable approaches to water systems and the redevelopment of the territory in urban environment’.

References Aleksandrova KI, McWilliam WJ, Wesener A (2019) Status and future directions for residential street infrastructure retrofit research. Urban Sci 3(2):49 Buffoni A, Toccafondi P, Pinzauti S (2007) Progetto di fattibilità di un sistema del verde di mi-tigazione da inquinamento. Comune di Forlì. http://ambiente.comune.forli.fc.it/public/cms_ page_media/48/Sintesi%20Relazione%20Verde%20Urbano%20Forl%C3%AC_784_6788.pdf . Accessed on 28 May 2020 Cavill N, Kahlmeier S, Crone D, Goudas M (eds) (2017) Measuring the value of an urban active environment (UActivE) including case study examples from the EU SPACE Chiesura A (2010) Verso una gestione ecosistemica delle aree verdi urbane e peri-urbane, ISPRA, Rapporti 118/2010, Roma Comune di Pisa (2012) Studio di mobilità Urbana. Area Pisana. Risultati preliminari. https://www. comune.pisa.it/urbanistica/pdf/piano-strutturale/documento-preliminare/studio-mobilitaurbana-risultati-preliminari.pdf. Accessed on 30 May 2020 Depietri Y, McPhearson T (2017). Integrating the grey, green, and blue in cities: nature-based solutions for climate change adaptation and risk reduction. In: Nature-based solutions to climate change adaptation in urban areas, pp 91–109. Springer, Cham ECF (2017) EU cycling strategy. recommendations for delivering green growth and effective mobility system in 2030. https://ecf.com/sites/ecf.com/files/EUCS_full_doc_small_file.pdf. Accessed on 24 Apr 2020 Escobedo FJ, Kroeger T, Wagner JE (2011) Urban forests and pollution mitigation: analyzing ecosystem services and disservices. Environ Pollut 159:2078–2087 Götschi T, Garrard J, Giles-Corti B (2016) Cycling as a part of daily life: a review of health perspectives. Transport Rev 36(1):45–71

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Designing a New Vision of an “Ordered” Nature with an Ecosystemic Approach for a Healthy City Concetta Fallanca

and Antonio Taccone

Abstract The paper proposes a reflection on the role of urban and environmental designing for promoting actions that improve the health and well-being of inhabitants for a sustainable, safe, healthy and socially inclusive city. The methodological reflection will be based on the principles and methods of the urban master plan that orientate models towards being more health conscious and experiments for specific measures, urban projects, operational and programmatic tools as well as evaluating the effectiveness of the achieved performance. The thesis of this paper is substantiated by the conviction of how an effective and ever-improving ecological urban network, that is intelligently connected to the ecological network of territory, can support an “ordering” role through connectivity. The foundations for the functioning system cannot be postponed for the urban organism’s eco-sustainable behaviour. The urban ecological network materialises as the forms and functions of an ecosystemic approach.




Keywords Ecological network Urban regeneration Environmental quality Healthy-city





Public health


1 Introduction The paper proposes a reflection on the role of urban and environmental designing for promoting actions that improve the health and well-being of inhabitants for a sustainable, safe, healthy and socially inclusive city. The methodological reflection will be based on the principles and methods of the urban master plan that orientate models towards being more health conscious and experiments for specific mea-

C. Fallanca (&)
A. Taccone PAU Department, Mediterranean University of Reggio Calabria, Reggio Calabria, Italy e-mail: [email protected] A. Taccone e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_8

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sures, urban projects, operational and programmatic tools and on the evaluation of the achieved performance effectiveness. Thanks to experiences acquired during the course of research as well as those of the European “Healthy Cities” movement by both large and small cities, which are characterised by urban quality, resilience, eco-sustainability and active policies that promote public health, it is possible to understand the most appropriate methods for local communities to become fully and consciously involved in the contributions that are linked to the continual improvement process towards a city of well-being. Sustainable mobility, the connectivity of urban ecological networks, the climatic well-being of the urban organism, and the conformation of common spaces are regarded as suitable for a high quality of urban and relational architecture. These themes are indicative of the search for a continual improvement of life in resilient and safe cities that present interesting and engaging places in contrast to urban “disturbances” which transpire in poor physical, relational and socio-cultural isolation. The reflection scale covers the connections within the territory, capturing the different scenarios and planning that are possible potentials between the central, consolidated and “completed” areas of the cities and their peripheral areas, which usually lack common spaces, services and connections.

2 Public Health and City Policies For over a decade, a particular focus has been placed by our country on the influence of health in urban planning. Such a focal point surpasses the theory that designing a city exclusively utilises a spatial approach and instead considers it useful to include human activities in the initial plan. Therefore it is intended to not only be a vision of the future but a process of change within the city which could be valid for an indefinite period. Health and space policies have also been taken on by the European Union and play an important role on the agenda. For years many countries and cities, such as London, Copenhagen, Paris, Barcelona, Oslo, Stockholm and Vancouver, have been experimenting and attempting to stop policies which reveal environmental hazards that have direct effects on health conditions (Naylor and Buck 2018). In fact, cities are the place where everyday life is provided with a continuous synthesis of space and functions that are a symptom of those who live there. Attention has been drawn to the problems and interests of different citizens such as young people, the elderly, commuters and general “city users”, who live in the city and use the urban services, and it has been suggested to the public administrations, orientating generally regionally, that not only is it important to integrate planning tools that are guided towards more “user friendly” policies but it is also necessary to be equipped with specific tools to prevent risks to health (D’Onofrio and Trusiani 2017). Systematically introducing the concept of health into urban practice can ultimately be useful to maintain the equilibrium that governs the city and its functions.

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Firstly, the definition of the 2030 agenda with the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (Rosa 2017) which identified the urban dimension as the one suitable for solving many issues concerning sustainability and health. It has come to be known that it is not enough to just deal with sectoral health services but also necessary to consider all the environmental, socio-economic and cultural factors of the city that influence the well-being of citizens. In fact, there is a strong link between the Sustainable Development Goal 3 (SDG 3—Good health for all) and the Sustainable Development Goal 11 (SDG 11—Making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable). In addition, WHO’s goals for healthy cities is to encourage procedural advancements that raise the quality of life and create improvements in physical and social environments for communities. The agenda for sustainable urban development (Asvis, Urban@it 2020) in Italy identified which international objectives are necessary for a healthy city; such as the creation of urban logistical systems, zero carbon emissions by 2030, resuming the supply of public transport infrastructures, the promotion of intelligent mobility, the development of ecological networks and taking smart city factors into account for digital growth. Health develops locally, in cities, neighbourhoods and communities where everyday people live, work, move and have fun. The goal of the healthy city, which is one of the most effective indicators of sustainable development, cannot be achieved without this synergy and without the contribution of local communities. Cities are the places where communities are more involved with the planning and decision-making processes. The theme is quite vast and concerns urban planning as a whole, including the designing of ecological networks, to include public spaces such as parks and gardens, sites for sports and leisure, infrastructures for mobility and urban design experiences for the planning of equipment and furnishings. Urban health is understood as the state of physical, mental and social well-being of the individual, therefore it must be part of an integrated programming system that has the well-being of the public as its sole purpose. The hypothesis is today universally recognised and shared that urban planning has acquired a decisive role in promoting healthy lifestyles. The involvement of non-health sectors in the processes of health promotion and prevention represent a strategic factor to intensify the impact of health policies by strengthening the dialogue between the health system and the urban planning know-how for regeneration of the town, socially as well as with transportation. More and more cities have encouraged the use of sustainable public mobility, expanded the range of public health services and favoured the use of collective public spaces and places (such as school buildings). Making areas available to the community in order to experiment with other functions at hours outside of their natural use (Taccone 2019). Urban health policies that pursue such plans can therefore be understood as having more general policies for the construction of ecosystem services through a more functional organisation of the urban organism.

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3 The Urban Form for Ecosystem Functionality European experience teaches that nations who are more attentive to issues concerning urban quality and who are at the forefront of urban policies—such as England—associate some texts with regulations that are aimed in particular at “Spatial Planning for Health”. They are intended as an integrative tool, not directly binding but one which acts as an abacus in the form of guides and manuals that accompany the planning processes. An indication of the principles and examples are to be applied locally starting with a careful analysis of the context, both on a national scale and that of individual municipalities, as well as neighbourhoods which concern the city or their areas. The English concept has in its background a more than 25 year reflection on urban health issues which have been obtained through structural and strategic spatial planning tools and does not intend on renouncing attention to morphological, aesthetic and functional quality, rather it reiterates the need to act on several levels: the planning of actions and formulating the design requirements. “Spatial Planning for Health”, intended to play an integral role on all levels and aspects of urban planning and architecture, becomes the key character of modern practice because it does not only deal with the infrastructure project and public spaces but it also integrates the interest of health with the urban form. From those that relate to the fight against diseases to those that promote physical activity to the aesthetic ones, there is a strong sensitivity to the broader themes of ecology. Downstream of the reflections on urban health, the English planning system has introduced more flexible and accessible planning and direction tools by inserting, at all levels of the process, manual and “best practice” guides. This made it possible to develop a non-binding but proactive attitude towards WHO’s objectives which, even if it presents the risks of exasperating a model-list approach, are still derived from a consolidated and centenary tradition of reflection and debate on the issues of urban design. In particular, the strategy identifies five aspects for built-up and natural environments that can be designed and modelled by planners in order to promote certain health outcomes: neighbourhood planning; housing; healthier food; natural and sustainable environment; transport systems. One tool that can be said to be attentive to new trends is without a doubt the Nottinghamshire Spatial Planning and Health Framework 2019–2022 (Nottinghamshire County Council 2020). This report combines the city planning tools in a single guidance document in order to fully integrate the planning process with the aspects of health and well-being. This document is not a mandatory regulation but provides, in the form of a guide, indications and good practices to guarantee compliance with the health requirements in one’s own territory. The Greater London Authority with the Ministry of Transport have started an experiment, which is perhaps the most advanced in Europe, of redevelopment projects that focus on the spatial strategy of the population’s psychological and physical well-being by acting on the reorganisation of the London transport system.

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This is the “Healthy Street” approach, a framework developed by Lucy Saunders, which puts people and their health at the centre of the decision-making process, along with projects to realise pedestrian and bicycle networks in a scheme to disintegrate dependence on cars (Healthy street website 2019). This approach is creating good practices that can be replicated and shared with other cities in the world. The objectives of the framework tend to encourage pedestrian or bicycle travel and the use of public transport, both by improving transport networks and by creating attractive neighbourhoods and urban places. The approach is based on ten indicators, two specifically focussed on including and strengthening foot and bike traffic to promote physical activity, and eight points linking to various areas of sustainability: pollution, safety, urban furniture, aesthetics and health. With specific regard to ecological connectivity (Fallanca et al. 2019) (Fig. 1), it is important to note that already in the 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment,

Fig. 1 Brussels and its parks is structured in an urban ecosystem network connected to the broad ecological network (Fallanca 2019)

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entitled “Ecosystems and Human Well-being”, it was underlined that the strong relationship that links health, well-being and human development to vital and resilient natural systems makes the term “ecosystem services” official. 15 years later in the IPBES report they have been considered “contributions of nature to people”. This report (IPBES 2019) constitutes the most up-to-date documentation on the state of services that ecosystems offer mankind daily, and free of charge. In Italy, to propose a national plan that establishes criteria and guidelines for the construction of green areas in cities, the creation of gardens and vegetable gardens and the improvement of spaces the responsibility lies with the Development Committee. del Verde (Law 13/2013). The objectives set out in the “National Urban Green Strategy” (2018) which are aimed at biodiversity and ecosystem services are to guarantee a fully functioning green ecosystem and infrastructure in a resilient city; to increase the surface area so as to avoid the islands of heat, improve the ecosystem functionality (WWF 2019) of infrastructures and improve the health and well-being of citizens with the removal of pollutants. To achieve these objectives, the strategic actions are directed towards safety and environmental education, to the planning and designing of green areas in the city and to monitor actions.

4 Final Considerations An effective and always upgradeable urban ecological network, intelligently connected with the territorial ecological network, can support, through ecological connectivity, a “governing” role as a mainstay for the system of functions. The urban organism’s eco-sustainable behaviour cannot be postponed. Each city interprets its micro-climatic conditions and adapts its construction and organisational systems to combat peculiar phenomena. Cities are confronted today with the problem of heat islands; it is difficult to offer climatic well-being conditions due to an excess of “anthropization”. Urban planning must make a serious contribution to the chain of problems that make life in the city “tiring”. There are paradoxes that should be overcome because it cannot make sense to lead an absolutely sedentary lifestyle and then have to compensate with the “forced” and “artificial” exercise which is often carried out indoors. Each city must find its own way to renew the act of friendship with its inhabitants, even if using a completely original path (Fallanca 2019). There are urban anomalies that have become extraordinary features. Toronto survives extremely cold winters with its “underground city” which allows it to be reborn as warmer weather arrives. Antwerp, the city without bridges, uses the tunnel of Sant’Anna to connect with the other side of The Scheldt that is exclusively for pedestrians and cyclists and offers a “shelter” for the entire route. Furthermore San Francisco, with its outdoor gyms, having transformed public areas into real fitness courts, has allied to the well-being of its citizens and these initiatives have made it a manifesto of progress. The initiative

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urban planning in cities should aim to create the effects of “a real revelation: that of the past and present interest, of the inexhaustible possibilities inherent in the scenes of social life that are offered every day to its eyes, and also of their real or latent beauty” (Geddes 1970). At the base of all choices is the natural system of elements that forms the environmental connective of the city. This is a social and ecological issue; it is well known that urban and territorial planning must contribute in order to progressively improve urban-resilience enabling the search for a pro-well-being climate set-up. There are more and more “cities that are introducing the issue of climate change into their urban policies: New York, Chicago, Toronto, Stuttgart, Vienna, London, Padua, Bologna, drawing up voluntary planning tools (climate plans, adaptation plans, plans for sustainable energy)” (Musco and Fregolent 2014). It is therefore necessary to re-think existing cities by trying to transform the drifts into new, more coherent structures, thus remedying the “over-investment” that occurred in “congress centres, stadiums, amusement parks and shopping centres” which led “to the devaluation of values contained in the urban space” (Harvey 1998). Cederna has already proposed what modern urban planning can do for public health by citing the “wood” of Amsterdam, the “large public park created from nothing since the 1930s, the most beautiful nature possible, free and equipped” (Cederna 1977). Today we need to work on the existing city, recreate meeting places and naturalness, make everyday life interesting, find the squares, avenues, parks, keep the essential and useful aspects of private mobility, investing intelligently towards integrated public mobility, restoring centrality to the citizen who moves, body and soul, in urban spaces. It is a matter of seeking a higher tone register for the design, remembering that Aristotle defined a city as the place where men live a common life for a noble end. Urban planning has a great responsibility towards the city and the communities, which impose an interpretation of the ecosystem issues that are key for an innovative approach that leads to the conceiving of the environmental naturalistic system as an authentic “breath”; an idea that is indispensable for the life of the urban organism.

References Asvis, Urban@it. L’Agenda urbana per lo sviluppo sostenibile. Obiettivi e proposte. https://asvis. it/public/asvis/files/AgendaUrbana.pdf. Last Accessed on 01 July 2020 Cederna A (1977) La diserzione della letteratura, in Com’è bella la città. Edizioni Stampatori, Torino, p 148 D’Onofrio R, Trusiani E (2017) Città, Salute e Benessere: Nuovi Percorsi per l’urbanistica. Urbanistica 201. FrancoAngeli, Milano, Italy Fallanca C (2019) Le anime urbane dell’area metropolitana dello Stretto. Il punto di vista continentale. ARCHIVIO DI STUDI URBANI E REGIONALI, pp 5–25. https://doi.org/10. 3280/asur2019-124001

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Fallanca C, Taccone A, Corazziere C (2019) From degradation to the regeneration of territorial heritage. An eco-systemic vision for the promotion of the natural, urban and landscape capital of the metropolitan city of Reggio Calabria. Sustainability 11:6768. https://doi.org/10.3390/ su11236768 Geddes P (1970) Città in evoluzione, p 356. Il Saggiatore Harvey D (1998) L’esperienza urbana. Il saggiatore, Metropoli e trasformazioni sociali, Milano Healthy street website. https://healthystreets.com/home/lucysaunders/about-lucy-saunders/. Last Accessed on 18 Dec 2019 IPBES (2019) Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services, IPBES, l’organismo delle Nazioni Unite che svolge per la biodiversità, il ruolo svolto dall’IPCC per il clima. www.ipbes.net Musco F, Fregolent L (2014) Pianificazione urbanistica e clima urbano. Manuale per la riduzione dei fenomeni di isola di calore urbano, Il Poligrafico, Padova Naylor C, Buck D (2018) The role of cities in improving population health: international insights, king’s fund Nottinghamshire County Council. Nottinghamshire spatial planning and health framework 2019– 2022, https://www.nottinghamshire.gov.uk/media/2321754/notts-spatial-planning-healthframework.pdf. Last Accessed on 12 May 2020 Rosa W (ed) (2017) Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. In: A new era in global health. Springer Publishing Company, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10. 1891/9780826190123.ap02 Taccone A (2019) Urban spaces and a culture of safety. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-921020_61 WWF (2019) Report urban nature. Biodiversità urbana: percorsi e proposte in campo, wwf.it/ urbannature

The Challenges of Valuing Urban Nature: Accounting for Urban Ecosystem Services Within the Framework of a Cost-Benefit Analysis of Nature-Based Investments Jing Ma, John Henneberry, and Riccardo Privitera

Abstract Urban nature delivers proven positive effects to people living in cities from a social, environmental and financial perspective. The role of urban nature in contributing to new sustainable urban policies has been recognised as crucial in the planning agenda of most cities across the world. With effective nature-based investments, the benefits of urban nature are highlighted and enhanced. If decision makers’ and stakeholders’ understanding of the importance of the connections between urban nature and human health and wellbeing is to be improved, it is necessary to provide a more correct, explicit, and appropriate framework for valuing natural and non-market goods and services. This study argues for an approach aimed at integrating Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) with Urban Ecosystem Services (UES) to deliver a more effective economic valuation of the net benefits of nature-based investment. We do this by exploring different features of CBA and UES to identify and highlight different money-based valuation methods for putting a price on urban nature. Keywords Urban nature Cost-benefit analysis


Urban ecosystem services
Nature-based investment


J. Ma (&) University of Auckland, 26 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand e-mail: [email protected] J. Henneberry University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK R. Privitera University of Catania, Via S. Sofia 64, 95123 Catania, Italy © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_9

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1 Introduction Urban nature promotes both biodiversity conservation (Lepczyk et al. 2017) and the enhancement of the quality of urban life (Voigt and Wurster 2015) by offering opportunities for diverse nature experiences, including leisure pursuits, and for close engagement with nature (Kaplan 1983). Urban ecosystems play an increasingly important role in supporting the well-being of the inhabitants of cities, particularly in highly modified landscapes (Gómez-Baggethun and Barton 2013). Indeed, urban nature provides various urban ecosystem services (UES) that benefit the people who receive them (MA 2005; TEEB 2010). Various components of nature are directly enjoyed, consumed, or used to yield human well-being (Boyd and Banzhaf 2007). Their benefits are linked to many of the most pressing challenges for cities, from climate change adaptation and mitigation (Demuzere et al. 2014), to citizens’ health (Tzoulas et al. 2007). The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA 2005) and analysis by entities such as the World Health Organisation, have defined health not only as the lack of illness, but also as a condition that may include a feeling of strength, being well-nourished and having access to adequate air and water (WHO, CBD Secretariat 2015). This increasing recognition of the importance of UES to the improvement of human health and well-being requires planners and policy-makers to have a better understanding of the benefits provided by UES. It makes necessary a thorough understanding of methods for measuring how much a change in ecological conditions may affect people, producing social benefits of value to society (Olander et al. 2018). This involves the adoption of appropriate approaches to the economic evaluation of urban nature. This study identifies the critical points of a traditional CBA approach and proposes some potential adjustments for adapting a CBA to the monetary valuation of nature-based investments and to shedding light on otherwise hidden benefits provided by urban nature. In the application of economic evaluation to urban nature, CBA has increasingly been used to assess projects and ecosystem services policies (Wegner and Pascual 2011). However, less research has applied CBA to demonstrate whether the value of the benefits produced by nature-based investments for managing and improving public health and wellbeing exceed their costs. The context for CBA can be both ex ante—‘determining whether something that has not yet been done should be done’ and ex post—‘finding out whether something that has been done should have been done’ (Atkinson and Mourato 2006, p 52). CBA is considered to be an effective tool for helping decision-makers to maximise the net benefits delivered by the flow of different ecosystem services that urban nature brings to the society (Daily et al. 2009). The aim of this paper is to evaluate the ways that UES may be incorporated into a continuous and coherent CBA of nature-based investments in urban areas. An investigation identifying ways of measuring and valuing UES in the context of CBA has been undertaken. It looked at different money-based valuation methods and addressed the implications and the challenges of using them.

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2 Urban Ecosystem Services in the Framework of Cost-Benefit Analysis CBA is widely used to contribute to the economic evaluation of projects, policies and investments in monetary terms. For most economists, economic evaluation and CBA are one and the same (Hansjürgens 2004). When CBA is applied to nature-based investments, the fact that many functions and wider services performed and supplied by nature are not traded and, therefore, are not priced by the market needs to be taken into account. CBA is associated with individual preferences and the value of benefits is related to the impact that they have on the individual utility of society’s members (Wegner and Pascual 2011). However, according to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA 2005), when evaluating UES the application of a comprehensive assessment of their implications for human wellbeing is required to provide a rigorous and reliable scientific analysis. To produce such a feasible nature-based economic assessment, it is necessary to achieve a consensus on the applicability of UES to cost-benefit analysis. Traditionally, the costs of nature-based interventions include land acquisition, design, construction, operation and maintenance; employment payroll; and landscaping (Maland 2012; Ma et al. 2020). Obviously, all these costs vary depending on the specific features of the investment in urban nature; for example, its location and size, the facilities it provides, and the surrounding environment (Tempesta 2010; Panduro and Veie 2013). Depending on the purposes of the investment, the maintenance costs, the density of the planting of trees and shrubs or the presence of flower beds may differ greatly, with a consequent impact on the related costs (Roy et al. 2012). While there are many different categories of expenditure, empirical experience indicates that 75–95% of the total costs of a nature-based investment are attributable to maintenance costs (Tempesta 2015). These costs can be calculated via analysis of the market prices of the materials and labour resources that are involved. Studies of UES seek to catalogue the benefits that ecosystems provide to humans for the sake of the former’s conservation and sustainable use (Evers et al. 2018). These assessments categorise UES into provisioning, regulating and cultural services, paying varying degrees of attention to the overlaps of and interdependencies between these categories (Bouwma et al. 2018). Provisioning services include food, water, raw materials and energy; regulating services comprise air quality, climate and stormwater regulation, carbon storage and sequestration, moderation of extreme temperatures and urban heat islands, water purification, and noise reduction; cultural services involve aesthetic values, therapeutic and iconic landscapes, recreation, spiritual and religious values, educational opportunities, sense of place, and effects on social interactions (MA 2005; TEEB 2010). Assessments of UES require both biophysical measures related to ecosystems and social or economic measures of preference or value. The former reflects underlying changes in biophysical structure and function driven by alternative management decisions or environmental change, while the latter reflects the impact of ecosystem services on human welfare. The link between the biophysical measure

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and a measure of what that biophysical entity means to (or how it affects) people is often controversial. This is particularly important when valuation in monetary or non-monetary terms is not feasible or acceptable, but when some measure of what is valued by people is still needed for decision making (Olander et al. 2018). As a result, UESs are often not considered on an equal footing with other costs and benefits when decisions are made (Olander et al. 2018). To quantify benefits deriving from UES, appropriate metrics and indicators have to be selected for measuring the functions of ecosystems. Indicators, intended as variables which provide aggregated information on certain phenomena, are selected on the basis of specific management purposes, with a value showing the difference between existing states and aspired target scenarios (Müller and Burkhard 2012). Indicators refer to bio-physical/ecological properties that characterise urban ecosystems and are strictly dependent on the availability of field data. These, in turn, are significantly affected by the geographical distribution of the natural entity concerned, and the spatial scale of the analysis. A rigorous and robust assessment of the state of the environment requires, in most cases, not just a single indicator but a set of indicators that has to be wisely selected (Niemeijer and de Groot 2008). The selection must be carefully adjusted to the purpose and aim of the corresponding ecosystem service valuation.

3 Money-Based Valuation Methods for Urban Ecosystem Services More than 80% of the values of UES are not yet captured in markets (Costanza et al. 1997; de Groot et al. 2002). Comprehensive approaches are needed, and are being developed, to understand UES through biophysical and social indicators that may be translated into monetary terms. The economic valuation of UES can be based on different forms of utility related, for example, to the use/non-use values and direct/indirect values that are derived from their use and enjoyment by humans. Use values include direct consumption values (such as the resources that ecosystems provide) and direct non-consumption values (such as those related to recreation and aesthetics). Indirect use values relate to the services provided by nature such as air and water purification. Non-use value arises from the importance attributed to an aspect of the environment in addition to or irrespective of its use values (de Groot et al. 2010). Indeed, different money-based valuation methods can be used to assess both marketable (provisioning) and non-marketable (regulating and cultural) UES (Nikodinoska et al. 2018). UES generated by urban green spaces (UGS) should be firstly assessed in biophysical terms and then valued in monetary units (Nikodinoska et al. 2018). The analysis of the biophysical aspects should include identification of (i) ecosystem functions, (ii) indicators for a better understanding of the delivered benefits and (iii) units of measurement for quantifying the resulting

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Table 1 Ecosystem functions, indicators and units of measurement for each urban ecosystem services category Categories

Ecosystem services

Ecosystem functions

Indicators

Units of measurements

Provisioning

Food and fibres

Food, water, raw materials, compost biomass, energy

Crops and horticultural products, amount of organic compost, wood biomass for energy

kg material/ha tree-shrub canopy/yr

Regulating

Climate effects stabilisation

Carbon storage, carbon sequestration

Amount of CO2 stored and sequestered by greenery biomass

ton CO2/ha of tree-shrub-lawn-permeable soil cover/yr

Stormwater runoff

Soil permeability

Amount of water absorbed by permeable soil or held in the tree canopy and re-evaporated

m3 water/ha of tree-shrub-lawn-permeable soil cover/yr

Air purification

Air pollutants removal

Amount of pollutants removed

ton pollutants/ha tree-shrub-lawn canopy/yr

Micro-climate regulation

Cooling effect (carbon emission avoided)

Amount of CO2 emission avoided

ton CO2

Noise reduction

Noise absorption

Amount of sound energy reflected or absorbed

dB(A)/ha tree canopy

Aesthetic values

Iconic landscapes, sense of place, spiritual and religious values

People’s willingness to pay to live near urban green space

House price uplift

Recreation and eco-tourism

Outdoor sports, physical activities, therapeutic and educational opportunities, social interaction

People’s willingness to travel to enjoy urban green space

Number of park’s visitors

Cultural

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benefits. Table 1 provides an overview of these functions, indicators and units of measurement that can be attached to the most common UES provided by UGS. The replacement cost method (or avoided costs method) is usually used to assign an economic value to UES based on the costs of replacing such nature-provided service with a suitable technology (Sundberg 2004). This method can be applied to the valuation of regulating UES whether (i) the technology is capable of providing the same services generated by natural ecosystems, (ii) the chosen technology is the least costly available alternative for the investigated ES, and (iii) there is a public demand for the chosen technology when the nature-provided service is scarce or available no longer. The main shortcoming of the replacement cost method is that often the technological alternative to the nature-service/s provides only one or a limited set of UES compared to the multi-functionality of ecosystems that allows the co-production of multiple UES. Many impacts of nature-based investments are not traded in actual markets. Revealed preference methods, that include hedonic pricing and travel cost, are used for the valuation of non-market impacts, such as cultural UES, by observing purchases made in actual markets (Boyle 2003; Pearce et al. 2006). The hedonic price method is used to analyse the values attributed to various aspects of a compound good such as a house. One influence on house price is the quality of the local environment. People are willing to pay more to live in aesthetically and environmentally attractive places. Thus houses near urban green spaces command a price premium over similar houses that do not have this locational benefit. The hedonic method uses data from comparable studies of house sales and provides actual figures on how much people will pay to secure each part of a ‘bundle’ of facilities and services—including non-market goods—that constitute (in this case) a house. This approach is, in principle, more reliable than only considering people’s preferences (de Groot et al. 2010). Similarly, the use of the travel cost method is grounded on people’s willingness to travel to enjoy UGS for recreation and eco-tourism. The value that they attribute to such cultural ES is equated to the cost of travelling to the UGS in terms of time and/or transport costs arising from the use of private cars or public transport for the trip. Stated preference methods are based on surveys, with contingent valuation being the most frequently used approach. A random sample of people is asked directly, through a questionnaire, to express their maximum willingness to pay for (or willingness to accept) a hypothetical change in the provision or the improvement of a certain public facility or service (Atkinson and Mourato 2006, p 106). Contingent valuation can be used to value benefits that arise when a new environmental policy is implemented to enhance both cultural and regulating UES (Atkinson and Mourato 2006, p 254). Figure 1 summarises the money-based valuation methods that may be applied to each UES category.

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Fig. 1 Money-based valuation methods for each urban ecosystem services (UES) category

4 Discussion and Conclusion Valuation of nature-based investments is complex and subjective. The TEEB distinguishes ecological, social and economic benefits and values, highlighting that valuing UES and associated benefits is not straightforward: some people could value their income higher than their cultural identity, and may be willing to give up this identity for wealth, while different values could be attached to a particular benefit (TEEB 2010). With no obvious markets and unclear application of economic valuation methods, the environmental impacts of a nature-based investments are often not covered by CBA. In a CBA framework once the relevant costs and benefits of an investment have been defined and monetised the net present value (NPV) of the resulting cash flows must be estimated. The NPV will depend upon the time horizon (discount period) that is used and the discount rate/s that is/are applied. The former is normally equated to the economic life of the investment and the latter reflects the risk and uncertainty of the cash flows. Both aspects of discounting are problematic when related to many types of nature-based investments. Conventional ‘hard’

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infrastructure projects such as transport and waste management facilities often have 25–30 year lives (Sartori et al. 2014). In contrast, environmental interventions that mitigate the impact of climate change need to be evaluated over much longer periods. This is the case, for instance, with investments in urban green space that, inter alia, reduce the urban heat island effect and the risk of flooding. This raises two interrelated issues of discounting. The first is that, by definition, the value of future cash flows is discounted. In addition, because of compounding, the further in the future a cash flow will occur the (increasingly) less will be its contribution to the estimated present value of the investment. Secondly, this effect is reinforced by the selection of a discount rate appropriate to the character and context of the investment. Longer discount periods expose the investment to greater risk and uncertainty. In compensation, a higher discount rate should be applied, further reducing the present value of future cash flows. The mechanics of discounting therefore articulate a form of short-termism that conflicts with—indeed discriminates against—many long term, nature-based investments. This is particularly the case where such natural interventions appreciate through growth over the discount period either directly or via synergies with other elements of the affected ecosystem (such as may be prompted by the planting and subsequent growth of forest trees, for example). Some argue for these issues to be addressed through some combination of (i) an allowance for an increase in the value of the UES over time and (ii) the adoption of lower discount rates for the latter parts of longer discount periods (ONS 2017). However, consensus has not yet been reached about the most appropriate discounting practices to use when evaluating nature-based investments with consequences that reach far into the future. Following the estimation of the selected list of costs and benefits of UES, the basic decision-making rule applied to CBA is that if the net present value (NPV) of the income stream relating to the investment is positive then the investment should be made. The NPV is determined by the costs and benefits included in the CBA, the methods used for their estimation, the time horizon (discount period) over which the performance of the investment is considered and the discount rate/s applied. All these aspects could be affected by the scale and size of the nature-based intervention and the peculiarities of the urban context (in terms of political, cultural and socio-economic frameworks) where the investment is undertaken. However, this standard approach does not take into account the distribution of the costs and benefits (Van der Pol et al. 2017). The distribution may affect the investment decision in two main ways. The first relates to accounting/budgetary rules. If the costs are borne by the investor and the benefits are enjoyed by others, then the private/project NPV will be negative, even where an NPV covering the wider/social benefits of the investment is positive. The second relates to the distribution of the net benefits. CBA does not value one distribution differently from another. But for public investments made to achieve social policy objectives, of two investments producing the same NPV, that providing more net benefits to the group that is the target of the policy will be favoured. This may be made explicit in the evaluation process by applying distributional weights within the CBA.

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The route for an effective and reliable valuation of urban nature in monetary terms clearly poses several challenges. Even if UES can be described and quantified according to their biophysical features and then valued through specific money-based methods, their actual benefits could remain hidden when carrying out a CBA of related nature-based investments in UGS. These UES hidden benefits represent the main reason why most of UGS and urban parks are usually viewed as loss makers when investing public money for their management and improvement. In this light, this study identifies the critical points of a traditional CBA approach and argues for some potential adjustments the better to adapt a CBA to the monetary valuation of nature-based investments and to shed light on the otherwise hidden benefits provided by urban nature. Acknowledgements This paper is based on research undertaken as part of the IWUN project funded by the Natural Environment Research Council, ESRC, BBSRC, AHRC & Defra [NERC grant reference number NE/N013565/1]. The authors are grateful for NERC’s support.

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Lepczyk CA, Aronson MF, Evans KL, Goddard MA, Lerman SB, MacIvor JS (2017) Biodiversity in the city: fundamental questions for understanding the ecology of urban green spaces for biodiversity conservation. Bioscience 67(9):799–807 Ma J, Henneberry J, Privitera R (2020) Cost benefit analysis of proposed green interventions to promote mental health and wellbeing (research report). Retrieved from improving wellbeing through urban nature website: http://iwun.uk/findings/ Maland MM (2012) The return on investment of parks and open space. Doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia (USA) Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) (2005) Ecosystems and human wellbeing: a framework for assessment. Island Press, Washington DC Müller F, Burkhard B (2012) The indicator side of ecosystem services. Ecosyst Serv 1(1):26–30 Niemeijer D, de Groot RS (2008) Framing environmental indicators: moving from causal chains to causal networks. Environ Dev Sustain 10(1):89–106 Nikodinoska N, Paletto A, Pastorella F, Granvik M, Franzese PP (2018) Assessing, valuing and mapping ecosystem services at city level: the case of uppsala (Sweden). Ecol Model 368:411– 424 Olander LP, Johnston RJ, Tallis H, Kagan J, Maguire LA, Polasky S, … Palmer M (2018) Benefit relevant indicators: ecosystem services measures that link ecological and social outcomes. Ecol Indic 85:1262–1272 ONS (Office for National Statistics) (2017) Principles of natural capital accounting. Retrieved on 16 April 2019 from https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/environmentalaccounts/methodologies/ principlesofnaturalcapitalaccounting Panduro TE, Veie KL (2013) Classification and valuation of urban green spaces—a hedonic house price valuation. Landscape Urban Plann 120:119–128 Pearce DW, Atkinson G, Mourato S (2006) Cost-benefit analysis and the environment: recent developments. OECD, Paris Roy S, Byrne J, Pickering C (2012) A systematic quantitative review of urban tree benefits, costs, and assessment methods across cities in different climatic zones. Urban For Urban Greening 11 (4):351–363 Sartori D, Catalano G, Genco M, Pancotti C, Sirtori E, Vignetti S, Bo C (2014) Guide to cost-benefit analysis of investment projects. Economic appraisal tool for cohesion policy 2014– 2020 Sundberg S (2004) Replacement costs as economic values of environmental change: a review and an application to swedish sea trout habitats. Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics TEEB (2010) The economics of ecosystems and biodiversity ecological and economic foundations. In: Kumar P (ed) Earthscan, London and Washington Tempesta T (2010) The recreational value of urban parks in the Veneto region (Italy). Recreation, tourism and nature in a changing world, p 236 Tempesta T (2015) Benefits and costs of urban parks: a review. Aestimum 67:127 Tzoulas K, Korpela K, Venn S, Yli-Pelkonen V, Kaźmierczak A, Niemela J, James P (2007) Promoting ecosystem and human health in urban areas using green infrastructure: a literature review. Landscape Urban Planni 81(3):167–178 Van der Pol T, Bos F, Romijn G (2017) Distributionally weighted cost-benefit analysis: from theory to practice. CPB Discussion Paper 364. CPB Netherlands Bureau for Economic Policy Analysis, The Hague, The Netherlands Voigt A, Wurster D (2015) Does diversity matter? The experience of urban nature’s diversity: case study and cultural concept. Ecosyst Serv 12:200–208 Wegner G, Pascual U (2011) Cost-benefit analysis in the context of ecosystem services for human well-being: a multidisciplinary critique. Glob Environ Change 21(2):492–504 WHO, CBD Secretariat (2015) Connecting global priorities: biodiversity and human health: a state of knowledge review. World Health Organization

Bicycle Accessibility to Cultural Ecosystem Services in a Cross-Boundary Landscape Marcin Spyra

and Adam Hamerla

Abstract In our research we focus on the bicycle accessibility to cultural ecosystem services areas (CES), located in the cross-boundary landscape. As a case study we selected the part of the cross-boundary landscape of Upper Silesia located between Poland and the Czech Republic, Europe. We designed a spatially explicit methodology, which allows us to analyze the accessibility between CES benefitting areas (urban fabric) and CES providing areas (Natura 2000 areas). The results show unequal distribution of CES providing areas in the analyzed landscape. We classified CES benefitting areas according to their accessibility to CES providing areas. We delimitated CES providing areas, which have a potential for better accessibility to CES benefitting areas. To delimitate the missing cross-boundary links between CES providing and benefitting areas, particular attention was given to the aspect of the national boundary. Our findings can inform planning and governance in the analyzed cross-boundary landscape. These findings support delimitation of the missing links between CES providing and benefitting areas. By analyzing the amount of such links, this study can support sustainability of different kinds of landscapes and inhabitants’ well-being.




Keywords Cultural ecosystem services Ecosystem services benefitting areas Ecosystem services providing areas Accessibility Cross-boundary Landscapes Bicycles
















M. Spyra (&) Martin Luther University Halle—Wittenberg, Von-Seckendorff-Platz 4, 06120 Halle, Germany e-mail: [email protected] M. Spyra Opole University of Technology, Prószkowska 76 Street, 45-758 Opole, Poland A. Hamerla Central Mining Institute, Plac Gwarkow 1, 40-166, Katowice, Poland © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_10

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1 Introduction Cultural Ecosystem Services (CES) are easy recognizable and directly appreciated by people. Among other classes of CES, entertainment CES (according to CICES V4.3 classification) plays an important role as a constituent of inhabitant well-being. Similarly, regarding the definition of ecosystem services (ES) providing and benefiting areas, the CES providing area (SPA) is the spatial unit that is able to provide various types of CES. On the other hand, the CES benefiting area (SBA) is the spatial unit that in general serves as an absorber of CES, meaning that it is benefitting from CES produced in another location (Syrbe and Walz 2012). The delimitation of SBA and SPA and the spatial linkage between these areas is the basis for discussing the flow between them (Palomo et al. 2012) and the accessibility aspects between such areas. Accessibility is a basic indicator that shows the distance between two points located in space. It is widely implemented in planning and governance practices and can be calculated with different methods (Koenig 1980). Good accessibility to SPA is a driver that promotes people’s visits into different parts of landscapes and could increase the quality of life of landscape inhabitants. In our study we explicitly focus on the bicycle accessibility. The average cyclist speed depends on several variables such as type of bicycle (e.g. standard bike or e-bike), age of the cyclist and quality and steepness of the cyclist road (Schleinitz et al. 2017). Acceptable cycling time depends on its purpose: whether it is recreation cycling, or transport cycling. For example in urban neighborhoods, 20 min of cycle accessibility is discussed as the desired level (McNeil 2011). Slow cycling accessibility is estimated to be in the range of 15–90 min (Karpova et al. 2008). Recreational time of cycling depends on several aspects such as physiological determinants (Støren et al. 2013). Heesch et al. (2012) assessed the time spent in recreational biking per week for men at the level of 279 min and women 240 min (Heesch et al. 2012). Currently, not much is being written in the scientific literature about accessibility to CES in the cross-boundary landscapes (CBL). From the ecological point of view, a CBL is a cohesive spatial unit. Nevertheless, from the perspective of planning and governance it is not, as it is divided into smaller spatial units by the administrative boundary (Spyra et al. 2018). This aspect makes the accessibility analyses between SPA and SBA interesting from the planning and governance point of view, and the spatially explicit methods of accessibility calculations in such a context could inform both governance and planning practices in cross-boundary contexts. Our research is willing to close this gap by fulfilling the specific research aims: (1) to delimitate SBAs and SCAs located in the CBL and (2) to analyze accessibility to SPAs from SBA in the selected example of CBL.

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Fig. 1 Preliminary map showing the case study area

2 Method As a case study area, we selected a part of CBL located between Poland and the Czech Republic (Fig. 1). To grasp the specificity of CBL, our study area is limited to a 10 km buffer from the boundary line between Poland and the Czech Republic. For the needs of this study, we assumed that on the regional scale the urban fabric patches (urban areas) indicate the entertainment SBA and the NATURA 2000 areas indicate entertainment SPA. In our study we analyze bicycle accessibility between SPA and SBA. Based on the study from Schleinitz et al. (2017) we estimate two types of mean speed per trip on bicycle infrastructure: (1) for a standard bicycle at the level of 16.7 km/h; (2) for an s-pedelec (e-bike with pedaling supported up to 45 km/h) at the level of 23.6 km/h. Based on the acceptable time of cycling, described in the introduction, we estimated as the acceptable one-way cycling distance: (1) for a standard bicycle at the level of 5.6 km; (2) for an s-pedelec at the level of 7.9 km. This is in line with the findings of the survey by Sahlqvist and Heesch (2012) conducted among 1,813 cyclists, which describes the distance of more than 5 km as acceptable by the largest number of survey respondents (Sahlqvist and Heesch 2012).

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Data SBA in our study are equivalent with two classes 1.1.1. Continuous Urban Fabric and 1.1.2. Discontinuous Urban Fabric, as described in CORINE Land Cover (CLC) data set from the year 2018. SPAs in our study are equivalent with Natura 2000 areas, which were delimitated using data provided by the European Environmental Agency. As data showing road networks, we used local data from Poland and the Czech Republic, prepared according to INSPIRE regulations, together with Open Street Data (OSM). From the analyzed road network, we excluded roads that are not accessible for bikes, meaning motorways, express-roads as well as hiking trails. All calculations and spatial analyses were done in the QGIS application. Step 1 We calculated the accessibility over the road network from the (1) intersection point of a road line with a boundary line of a polygon, which determines SBA to the (2) intersection point of a road line with a boundary line of a polygon (access point), which determines SPA. Step 2 We selected 2 types of SBAs which have accessibility to SPAs higher than: (a) 5.6 km for standard bike and (b) 7.9 km for s-pedelec. Step 3 For each polygon, which delimitates SBA patches selected in step 2a, we designated polygon centroid and a buffer from this centroid with a radius of 5.6 km. The same procedure was implemented for patches from step 2b, but with a radius of 7.9 km. Step 4 We selected SBA buffers that overlap with SPAs. These urban fabric patches have the potential for better accessibility over the road network to SPAs. Particularly interesting in the cross-boundary context are those buffers and assigned SBAs that overlap only with SPAs, located on the other side of the national boundary (meaning in the other country).

3 Results In the analyzed research area there are 365 SBAs with a total area of 408.88 km2 and 37 SPAs with a total area of 408.7 km2.

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Fig. 2 Accessibility in the buffers delimitated from the centroids of the SBA

Fig. 3 Accessibility over the road network

Accessibility from the perspective of service benefitting areas (SBA) The general accessibility calculated within a buffer is displayed in Fig. 2. The analysis shows that 81% of SBAs are located within a radius of 7.9 km from SPA and 67% within a radius of 5.6 km from SPA. 7% of SBAs are not conveniently connected to SPAs within a 5.6 km radius (cyclists using traditional bicycles), while 13% of SBAs are not conveniently connected to SPAs within a 7.9 km radius. 19% of SBAs are not conveniently connected to SPAs either within 5.6 or 7.9 km radius. We delimitated 8% of SBAs, which have a potential for good accessibility to SPAs located on the other side of the national boundary (Fig. 2). With this we delimitated the possible location of new cross-boundary links (bicycle routes) between SPAs and SBAs.

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Fig. 4 Accessibility from the perspective of SPA

The accessibility over the road network is presented in Fig. 3. 11% of SBAs without access to SPAs are located on the Polish side of the boundary north from the city of Opava, including the city of Kietrz. This is an area where only two small SPAs are located and where the road network around them is poorly developed. The situation is different between the towns of Racławice Śląskie, Głubczyce, Miesto Albrechtice and Krnov. The network of roads and paths is better developed and there are many SPAs, especially on the Polish side of the boundary. The best accessibility to SPA was indicated in the mountain areas (Beskidy, Zlate Hory), which are connected with developed systems of routes, bicycle paths and facilities for tourists. Moreover, in those areas Natura 2000 sites cover a large percentage of the total area. Few SBAs, even if they are in a straight-line distance of about 2 km, do not have an access less than 5.6 km via existing road network to SPAs. This involves SBAs located very close to the Polish—Czech boundary. There are several reasons for this. The road network is based on the former boundary crossings, which results in a concentration of roads along the boundary line insufficient cross-boundary linkages. Moreover, we observed a concentration of roads and paths towards larger towns located very close to the boundary line (e.g. Krnov). Natural landscape barriers such as rivers or hills do not seem to be, in our case at least, a big obstacle in achieving better road accessibility. Accessibility from the perspective of service providing areas (SPA) We calculated a quantity of SBAs that (according to our criteria) have good road accessibility to SPA (Nature 2000 areas). We also indicated those SPAs that have a potential for good accessibility to SBAs, meaning which overlap with 5.6 km or 7.9 km buffers (Fig. 4). Currently, this potential is not being implemented due to the lack of road linkages joining SBAs and SPAs (Fig. 4). Most of those SPAs are

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located in the central part of our case study area. In this case, there are some similarities to SBAs with poor accessibility to SPAs (compare the results presented above).

4 Discussion Implementation for cross-border planning and governance Accessibility of SPA is an important factor that determines the quality of life of inhabitants. Our methodology can be useful to detect existing entertainment CES connecting areas (SCA) and potential new SCA. It helps to analyze the accessibility of SPAs, taking into account the presence of the national boundary, which could be an important accessibility obstacle in CBR (Spyra et al. 2018). More equal distribution of SPAs in CBL could increase the quality of life of cross-border inhabitants by improving the accessibility to CES. Implementation of our methodology could support governance and planning in various cross-border contexts. For example, it could foster coordination of ecosystems governance (Gass et al. 2009) facilitate social exchange among governance actors (Fischer et al. 2019) or support interagency coordination related to CBL governance (Cyphers and Schultz 2019). On the other hand, if some of the SPAs are being used by too many people, it creates the risk of landscape degradation. Implementation of our method helps to better govern and to plan more equal accessibility to SPAs, which are distributed in a portion of CBL. In this way it could support the governance and planning of CBL. The method could be expanded to indicate those SPAs which are at risk of being over-used by tourists and other people who are looking for recreation and are inhabitants of nearby SBA. To do this, usage factor of SPAs (U) with the following equation could be calculated for each considered SPA: U¼

An NSBA I

An—SPA area; NSBA—amount of linkages to different SBA; I—number of inhabitants in connected SBA Currently, the literature does not describe many spatially explicit, quantitative methods that grasp the presence of administrative boundary lines in the landscape. The method helps to have wider perspective on planning and governance of different types of CBL, thus helping to avoid, or at least better manage, the not-in-my-backyard issue, which is typical for CBL (Spyra 2014). Our study analyzes national boundary, but it could be implemented as well for other types of administrative boundaries. In this way our method could be extended to analyze accessibility between SBAs and SPAs and to grasp the specificity of an administrative boundary in other types of landscapes, like peri-urban landscapes (Spyra et al. 2020), that can be related to functional urban areas or metropolitan areas.

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Limitations of the research method Limitations of our research method are primarily concerned with the type of implemented data. CORINE data are quite general (resolution of 25 ha), are good for spatial analyses in the regional scale, but do not offer the opportunity to assess CES in a more detailed scale (e.g. urban scale). However, similar to those calculations presented in this study, calculations could be implemented with the use of more detailed data (e.g. Urban Atlas data for functional urban areas) that would allow implementation of similar aims, but in the more detailed scale (urban scale). We implemented our method of bicycle accessibility only, but similar calculations could be also made for other types of accessibility (walking, car accessibility). Another limitation is related to our assumptions of average bicycle speeds and acceptable riding times. We are aware that our results are vulnerable to these variables, but in order to reduce the uncertainties, we carried out detailed literature research concerning bicycle accessibility. In our research we decided to use Nature 2000 areas as SPAs. We are aware that there are other green areas which could serve as SPAs, but Nature 2000 areas are attractive from the recreational point of view, can be visited by tourists and do not have strict guidelines regarding, for example, their use as designated areas. A considerable advantage of our method relates to the relatively easy and quick implementation of it. Thus, it can provide information relatively quickly from the point of view of cross-boundary planning and governance results. Due to the usage of the CORINE data base, our method provides results which are comparable across many European countries.

5 Conclusions Our research showed that SPAs are not equally distributed along the CBL. Some of the SBAs are favored by a good bicycle accessibility, other SPAs have the potential to be better accessible by bicycles, while selected SPAs could be at risk of being over-used by urban citizens. These facts influence the quality of life of the CBL inhabitants as well as the sustainability of this landscape. Also, the national boundary line is larger than the natural-barrier obstacles, hindering accessibility between SBAs and SPAs. Nevertheless, our study shows that these obstacles could be overcome with the assistance of effective planning and governance tools, that are implemented in various cross-boundary context (e.g. peri-urban landscapes).

References Cyphers LA, Schultz CA (2019) Policy design to support cross-boundary land management: the example of the joint chiefs landscape restoration partnership. Land Use Policy 80:362–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.09.021

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Fischer AP, Klooster A, Cirhigiri L (2019) Cross-boundary cooperation for landscape management: collective action and social exchange among individual private forest landowners. Landscape Urban Plann 188(September 2017):151–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. landurbplan.2018.02.004 Gass RJ, Rickenbach M, Schulte LA, Zeuli K (2009) Cross-boundary coordination on forested landscapes: Investigating alternatives for implementation. Environ Manage 43(1):107–117. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-008-9195-2 Heesch KC, Sahlqvist S, Garrard J (2012) Gender differences in recreational and transport cycling: a cross-sectional mixed-methods comparison of cycling patterns, motivators, and constraints. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-106 Karpova TS, Kim MJ, Spriet C, Nalley K, Stasevich TJ, Kherrouche Z, … McNally JG (2008) Concurrent fast and slow cycling of a transcriptional activator at an endogenous promoter. Science 319(5862):466–469. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1150559 Koenig JG (1980) Indicators of urban accessibility: theory and application. Transportation 9 (2):145–172. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00167128 McNeil N (2011) Bikeability and the 20-min neighborhood. Transp Res Rec J Transp Res Board 2247(1):53–63. https://doi.org/10.3141/2247-07 Palomo I, Martín-López B, Potschin M, Haines-Young R, Montes C (2012) National parks, buffer zones and surrounding lands: mapping ecosystem service flows. Ecosyst Serv 4(2005):104– 116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2012.09.001 Sahlqvist SL, Heesch KC (2012) Characteristics of utility cyclists in Queensland, Australia: an examination of the associations between individual, social, and environmental factors and utility cycling. J Phys Act Health 9(6):818–828. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.9.6.818 Schleinitz K, Petzoldt T, Franke-Bartholdt L, Krems J, Gehlert T (2017) The German naturalistic cycling study—comparing cycling speed of riders of different e-bikes and conventional bicycles. Saf Sci 92:290–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2015.07.027 Spyra M, Inostroza L, Hamerla A, Bondaruk J (2018) Ecosystem services deficits in cross-boundary landscapes: spatial mismatches between green and grey systems. Urban Ecosyst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-018-0740-3 Spyra M (2014) The feasibility of implementing cross-border land-use management strategies: a report from three Upper Silesian Euroregions. IForest 7(6):396–402. https://doi.org/10.3832/ ifor1248-007 Spyra M, La Rosa D, Zasada I, Sylla M, Shkaruba A (2020) Governance of ecosystem services trade-offs in peri-urban landscapes. Land Use Policy 95:104617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. landusepol.2020.104617 Støren Ø, Ulevåg K, Larsen MH, Støa EM, Helgerud J (2013) Physiological determinants of the cycling time trial. J Strength Conditioning Res 27(9):2366–2373. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC. 0b013e31827f5427 Syrbe R-U, Walz U (2012) Spatial indicators for the assessment of ecosystem services: providing, benefiting and connecting areas and landscape metrics. Ecol Ind 21:80–88. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.ecolind.2012.02.013

Policies to Decrease Land Surface Temperature Based on Land Cover Change: An Assessment Related to Sardinia, Italy Sabrina Lai, Federica Leone, and Corrado Zoppi

Abstract This study aims at analyzing analogies and differences between the spatial relations regarding Land Surface Temperature (LST) and land covers with reference to spring and summer 2019 by coupling GIS spatial analysis and regression analysis. Moreover, building on the outcomes of the model which relates LST to land cover types, the impact of future afforestation in rural areas is detected through a “what if” assessment. The island of Sardinia is taken as a case study because of its climate homogeneity and self-containment. The correlation between the spatial distribution of LST and land cover reveals that urbanization and the spatial dynamics of heating phenomena are closely connected. The methodology of this study can be easily implemented in other regional contexts, and comparison of analogies and differences are quite effective and useful in identifying stylized facts and policy implications. Sabrina Lai (S.L.), Federica Leone (F.L.) and Corrado Zoppi (C.Z.) collaboratively designed this study. Individual contributions are as follows: F.L. wrote the “Introduction” and “Discussion” Sections; S.L. wrote the “Materials and methods” Section; S.L. and C.Z. cooperatively wrote the “Findings” Section; C.Z. wrote the “Conclusion” Section. The study was implemented within the Research Program “Paesaggi rurali della Sardegna: pianificazione di infrastrutture verdi e blu e di reti territoriali complesse” [Rural landscapes of Sardinia: Planning policies for green and blue infrastructure and spatial complex networks], funded by the Region of Sardinia for the period 2019–2021, under the provisions of the call for the presentation of “Projects related to fundamental or basic research” of the year 2017, implemented at the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Architecture (DICAAR) of the University of Cagliari, Italy. This article is extracted from: Lai S, Leone F, Zoppi C (2020) Land surface temperature and land cover dynamics. A study related to Sardinia, Italy. TeMA—Journal of Land Use, Mobility and Environment 13(3):329–351. https://doi.org/ 10.6092/1970-9870/7143 S. Lai
F. Leone (&)
C. Zoppi Dipartimento di Ingegneria Civile, Ambientale e Architettura, Università degli Studi di Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy e-mail: [email protected] S. Lai e-mail: [email protected] C. Zoppi e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_11

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Keywords Land surface temperature services

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Land cover
Regulating ecosystem

1 Introduction In the last decades, land cover transformations and transitions have been characterized by significant changes related to fast urbanization and progressive anthropization. Land-taking processes are significant because they bring about landscape fragmentation, urban heat island (UHT) and loss of ecosystem services. Land Surface Temperature LST has been defined as a measure of “the emission of thermal radiance from the land surface where the incoming solar energy interacts with and heats the ground, or the surface of the canopy in vegetated areas” (Hulley et al. 2019). Land cover changes influence LST due to the different heat capacity of soils associated to a given amount of solar radiation; therefore, LST represents a key variable to analyze the effects of land cover changes on climate change. Various authors have analyzed land cover changes and their influence on LST by looking at cities throughout the world (for instance, (Akinyemi et al. 2019)). Some studies concerning urban areas have been carried out on Italian cases as well (for instance, (Guha et al. 2018)). From the literature, two outstanding aspects deserve to be further analyzed: the regional dimension, which is usually neglected in the studies, and how to translate the analyses into policies aimed at mitigating current increases in LST. Hence, in this study a methodological approach is proposed with the aim to investigate the impacts of land cover changes on LST by combining GIS-based analysis with regression analysis, and to suggest spatial policies in order to decrease LST. The methodology takes the regional context of Sardinia, Italy, as a case study, and uses data related to the spring and summer periods. The study is structured into five sections as follows. The second section illustrates the study area, the data used and the methodological approach. The third section presents the results, while the fourth section discusses the implications of the outcomes and the fifth discusses the implications of the study in terms of strategies and policies to decrease LST and directions for future research.

2 Materials and Methods Sardinia was chosen as case study for this research because of its being an island, which makes it easier to explore environmental issues at the regional scale. The island, located in the western Mediterranean area, has a size of around 24,000 km2 and a population of approximately 1.6 million inhabitants. Moreover, it has to be highlighted that, at present, Sardinia is the only Italian regional administration which approved, in 2019, the Regional Strategy for the adaptation to climate changes.

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Fig. 1 Spatial layout of the landsat 8 OLI-TIRS images selected for this study

As for input data, Landsat 8 images used in this study were retrieved from the USGS’s website by performing two searches: one for the mid-summer season, in which temperature peaks in Sardinia, and one for the mid-spring season, in which vegetation growth is at its highest. For each time period, five images were retrieved, two belonging to scene 192 and three to scene 193 (Fig. 1). Data concerning land covers were obtained from European Union’s Copernicus website, while a detailed digital terrain model (DTM) was downloaded from the regional geoportal. As regards the methodology, summarized in Fig. 2, in the first step the LST was retrieved starting from the Landsat images, by following the procedure described in a recent study (Ndossi and Avdan 2016); this led to producing one LST raster map for each Landsat image; the five spring and the five summer LST raster files were then merged so as to obtain a regional LST spring map and a summer one. Next, the 2018 CORINE Land Cover vector dataset retrieved from the Copernicus program was reclassified: land covers were grouped on the basis of the Land and Ecosystem Accounting (LEAC) taxonomy (EEA 2006), as shown in Table 1, while the DTM retrieved from the regional geoportal was resampled. In this way, all the input data for the second step were obtained as raster datasets having 300 m spatial resolution and sharing the same squared grid.

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Landsat 8 Band 10

Radiance

Brightness temperature Land surface temperature

Landsat 8 Band 4

(30 m)

NDVI

5 LST rasters merged and clipped (30 m)

LST resampled (300 m)

Land surface emissivity

Vector layer

Landsat 8 Band 5

LEGEND

(polygons: 300-m grid)

DATA TYPES

Inputs

Raster

Intermediate steps

Vector

Final output

non-spatial

CLC

CLC reclassified (LEAC groups)

Vector attribute table

LEAC groups rasterized

(LST, latitude, altitude, LC group)

(300 m)

DTM

DTM resampled

(10 m)

(300 m)

Regression coefficients

Fig. 2 Overview of the methodology

Table 1 CORINE land cover classes and LEAC groups Land and ecosystem accounting (LEAC)

CORINE land cover classes

ART INTAG EXTAG FWS SHNG

1.* 2.1.* 2.3.* 3.1.* 3.2.1

OPEN WATER

Artificial surfaces Intensive agriculture (permanent crops and arable land Extensive agriculture (pastures and mosaic farmland) Forests, woodlands, and shrubs Sclerophyllous vegetation, heathland, and natural grasslands Open spaces with little or no vegetation Water bodies and wetlands

2.2.* 2.4.2 3.2.4 3.2.2

2.4.1 2.4.3 3.2.3

3.3.* 4.*

5.* (except 523-sea) The asterisk marks any sub-classes of a given class, or any sub-sub-classes of a given sub-class

In the second step, the raster datasets were vectorized and a spatial intersection was performed to retrieve an attribute table that brings together, for each season and each polygon in the map, the LST value, the prevailing land cover group, and the altitude. Two further attributes were added: the latitude of the polygon’s centroid, and a field taking the value 1 or 0 depending on whether the polygon is contained in scene 193. In the third step, the spring and the summer attribute tables were used as input data: polygons in the vector dataset were identified as the spatial units to estimate a multiple linear regression taking the following form: LST ¼a0 þ a1 ART þ a2 INTAG þ a3 EXTAG þ a4 FWS þ a5 SHNG þ a6 OPEN þ a7 HEIGH þ a8 LATIT þ a9 WEST ð1Þ

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where: • variables from ART through OPEN are the LEAC groups; these are Boolean, as each of them takes either value 1 or value 0, depending on the prevailing size of the area of a LEAC group in a cell; each estimated coefficient of Eq. 1, ai, i = 1, …, 6, shows the LST variation of a cell, whose largest area corresponds to the covariate identified by ai compared to the reference condition, where the largest area of the cell is that of the WATER covariate; • HEIGH is the average elevation within the polygon, in meters; • LATIT is the latitude of the centroid of the polygon, in meters; • WEST is a Boolean covariate, which equals 1 if the polygon is included in scene 193, else it equals 0. The regression was performed on both the summer and the spring datasets. HEIGH, LATIT, and WEST were used as control variables, since higher elevation and greater latitude are expected to be related to lower LST, ceteris paribus, and a systematic difference is expected to be revealed by WEST accounting for the different dates in which images within scenes 192 and 193 were produced.

3 Findings The regression results concerning the summer dataset are provided in Table 2. The estimated coefficients of latitude, altitude, and WEST show the expected signs and significant p-values. An increase of 100 m in altitude entails a decrease of 0.0117 K in LST, a 10 km increase in LATIT implies a 0.0006 K decrease in LST, and, as for WEST, a cell included in scene 193 shows an LST 5 K higher than a cell in scene 192, ceteris paribus. Furthermore, the differences between the summer and spring regression models are negligible (Table 3), so the results are consistent with expectations, statistically significant, and robust across 2019. The estimates of the coefficients of the six covariates are significant and imply the following outcomes. First, intensive and extensive agriculture show the highest impacts on LST: INTAG and EXTAG cells show a temperature higher by: 11.6 or 10.5 K than WATER cells; 3.2 or 2.1 K than ART cells; 4.2 or 3.1 K higher than SHNG and OPEN cells; 7.0 or 5.9 K higher than FWS cells. Second, impacts on LST from both intensive and extensive agriculture are much higher in summer than in spring (Table 3). Third, OPEN and SHNG cells have lower effects on LST. Finally, FWS shows the most relevant impact on temperature mitigation, consistent across seasons. In addition, the outcomes of the regression model make it possible to develop “what if” scenarios that can be spatially represented. If afforestation measures were implemented in rural areas hosting extensive farming, then in each EXTAG cell the LST would decrease in summer by 5.904 K, which equals the difference between the corresponding coefficients in Table 3, and in spring by 2.627 K (Lai et al. 2020). Some visual examples of how this change in the LEAC types would affect the spatial distribution of the LST in summer at the local level are shown in Fig. 3.

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Table 2 Regression results for the summer dataset (August 11 and 20, 2019) Independent variable

Coefficient

Standard deviation

ART 8.297 INTAG 11.576 EXTAG 10.491 FWS 4.584 SHNG 7.365 OPEN 7.312 HEIGH −0.000117 LATIT −0.000000643 WEST 5.004 Dependent variable: LST: 313.751

Table 3 Differences in the estimated coefficients between summer and spring days (K)

t-statistic

p-value

Mean of the independent variable

0.0685 121.039 0.000 0.0295 0.0595 194.578 0.000 0.247 0.0601 174.673 0.000 0.218 0.0611 74.955 0.000 0.175 0.0598 123.113 0.000 0.302 0.0756 96.792 0.000 0.0178 0.0000260 −4.481 0.000 339.347 0.0000000991 −6.484 0.000 4437093.555 0.0249 201.055 0.000 0.926 K; Standard deviation: 4.453; Adjusted R-squared: 0.476

Independent variable

Difference

ART INTAG EXTAG FWS SHNG OPEN HEIGH LATIT WEST

−0.62 3.06 3.08 −0.20 1.09 −0.04 0.0063 0.000015 0.69

4 Discussion The findings from the regression model are largely consistent with the literature. In the summer model, areas with both intensive and extensive farming show the most relevant impacts on LST; however, in spring artificial areas exert the most important impact, while intensive farming comes a close second (Lai et al. 2020). In spring, the higher values associated with artificial areas are due to sealed soils, which prevent or reduce air circulation, and to the heat discharge generated by human activities. Therefore, heat-island phenomena in urban areas could be mitigated by increasing vegetated areas through green roofs, rooftop gardens, and urban forestry. As for intensively farmed areas, they are quite similar to artificial areas in terms of downwind cooling, air circulation, thermal comfort, and evapotranspiration because they are host dense low-growing vegetation with little or no trees.

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Fig. 3 “What if” assessment performed on the summer LST dataset, assuming that all the rural EXTAG cells were afforested. Top panels (A1, B1, C1) show local details of the LST map retrieved from the Landsat images; bottom panels (A2, B2, C2) show how the LST would vary, in the same areas as the corresponding top ones, as a result of afforestation activities

Higher LST values in rural areas are reported in other studies as well (Munafò 2020). Thermal variation has been shown in the literature to be affected by soil features: naked and dry soils show low albedo, thus thermal inertia in agricultural land can be lower than in green urban areas; consequently, LST can be higher in rural areas than in urban areas. In addition, LST in both intensively and extensively farmed areas changes during the year, depending on the stage of the vegetative year (Walawender et al. 2014), which explains the differences between spring and summer as regards the impact of INTAG and EXTAG on LST. Heathland, natural grasslands and sclerophyllous vegetation and open spaces show lower values of LST than the other land covers except for forests, shrubs and woodlands, during both summer and spring. This is because vegetation delivers evapotranspiration that reduces the heat stored in soils, and its shade generates air movement and heat exchange, by preventing or decreasing the absorbed solar radiation (Geneletti et al. 2019). Finally, forests, shrubs and woodlands positively contribute to LST mitigation due to evapotranspiration, which peaks during the vegetative period (Walawender et al. 2014).

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5 Conclusions The findings of this study entail several policy implications. In urban settlements, micro-scale measures such as setting up new green areas or enlarging existing ones can be very effective, as well as implementing green roofs and facades, blue and green grids. A relevant example of these measures is the London Green Grid, whose blue and green infrastructure shapes an urban landscape that integrates the built environment with the Green Belt surrounding London (Pötz et al. 2016). A relevant issue related to the implementation of such policies concerns the strict connection between urban land prices and the permitted development volume limits. As a consequence, newly planted vegetated areas or enlargements of existing green areas should imply integrated planning policies accounting for landowners’ interests and for urban sustainability-oriented goals. Sound building regulations should enforce an adequate endowment of green areas, which might also take the form of green facades and green roofs, and incentive schemes (e.g., based on impact fee decrease) should be implemented to appeal to investors (Webster 2005). Forests, woodlands and shrubs are the most effective in reducing LST. Therefore, afforestation is the most relevant planning policy to decrease LST in rural zones, which can however be hindered because of perceived non-market benefits from agricultural activities (Howley et al. 2015), more relevant in intensive agriculture than in extensive agriculture because of their different profitability. Planning policies aimed at decreasing LST should target both INTAG and EXTAG, and afforestation incentive schemes should be promoted to address low-earning farmers, who could become forest farmers; however, such incentives are unlikely to appeal to high-earning farmers, such as those who make a living from intensive farming. Hence, the degree to which afforestation measures should be implemented needs to be carefully designed by the public administrations that grant the incentives, whose credibility could be raised by showing sound commitment to LST decrease, for instance by means of public purchasing measures of low-profit agricultural land. This study proposes and develops a methodology to estimate the effects of planning measures aimed at decreasing LST effects in Sardinian rural areas, through quantitative assessment and mapping of the impacts of afforestation policies. The methodological approach is replicable in other contexts, since similar input data are freely available worldwide. Limitations of this study concern the validation of the LST retrieval, which should be pursued through direct observations, and the political commitment to implementing the above-recommended policies. Further research should address the establishment of networks of data points to detect LST on-site to validate the spatial distribution of LST, and its local observations before and after the implementation of afforestation policies, so as to assess their effectiveness. Moreover, action-research experiments could be carried out to investigate the social and economic impacts of the mitigation measures.

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References Akinyemi FO, Ikanyeng M, Muro J (2019) Land cover change effects on land surface temperature trends in an African urbanizing dryland region. City Environ Interact 4:100029. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.cacint.2020.100029 EEA (2006) Land accounts for Europe 1990–2000: towards integrated land and ecosystem accounting; European Environment Agency Report no. 11. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg Geneletti D, Cortinovis C, Zardo L, Blam Adel E (2019) Planning for ecosystem services in cities. Springer, Dordrecht Guha S, Govil H, Dey A, Gill N (2018) Analytical study of land surface temperature with NDVI and NDBI using Landsat 8 OLI and TIRS data in Florence and Naples city, Italy. European J Remote Sens 51:667–678. https://doi.org/10.1080/22797254.2018.1474494 Howley P, Buckley C, O’Donoghue C, Ryan M (2015) Explaining the economic “irrationality” of farmers’ land use behaviour: the role of productivist attitudes and non-pecuniary benefits. Ecol Econ 109:186–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2014.11.015 Hulley GC, Ghent D, Göttsche FM, Guillevic PC, Mildrexler DJ, Coll C (2019) Land surface temperature. In: Hulley GC, Ghent D (eds) Taking the temperature of the earth: steps towards integrated understanding of variability and change. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 57–127 Lai S, Leone F, Zoppi C (2020) Spatial distribution of surface temperature and land cover: a study concerning Sardinia, Italy. Sustainability 12:3186. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12083186 Munafò M (ed) (2020) Consumo di suolo, dinamiche territoriali e servizi ecosistemici. Edizione 2020. Report SNPA 15/20. Rome: ISPRA Ndossi MI, Avdan U (2016) Application of open source coding technologies in the production of land surface temperature (LST) maps from Landsat: a PyQGIS Plugin. Remote Sens 8:413. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8050413 Pötz H, Sjauw En Wa-Windhorst A, van Someren H (2016) Urban green-blue grids manual for resilient cities. Atelier Groenblauw, Delft Walawender JP, Szymanowski M, Hajto MJ, Bokwa A (2014) Land surface temperature patterns in the urban agglomeration of Krakow (Poland) derived from Landsat-7/ETM + Data. Pure appl Geophys 171:913–940. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-013-0685-7 Webster C (2005) The new institutional economics and the evolution of modern urban planning: insights, issues and lessons. Town Plann Rev 76:455–502. https://doi.org/10.3828/tpr.76.4.5

Planning of Protected Areas as a Mean of Addressing Concepts of Resilience and Sustainability Federica Isola and Federica Leone

Abstract Nowadays, protected areas aim at protecting biodiversity, at mitigating the effects of climate change and at providing ecosystem services. Within the Italian normative context, protected areas are ruled by the Law no. 394/1991 “Framework law on protected areas”. Moreover, in compliance with the Law enacted by Decree no. 112/1998 regional and local administrations have administrative functions in terms of regional protected areas. From this theoretical and normative framework, protected areas should be managed and planned in relation to the coevolution between natural and socioeconomic systems in which they are included. On the other hand, the gap between theoretical definition and implementation of policies and strategies defined at national and regional level, has entailed some problems in terms of planning and development of these areas. The study aims at defining a methodological approach to manage protected areas at regional level, by defining a system of conceptual relations between sustainable–oriented objectives and objectives oriented towards regional development in relation to two case studies concerning Sardinia and Liguria. Keywords Protected areas


Spatial planning
Resilience

1 Planning of Protected Areas The concept of protected area has ancient origins and was often associated with areas that have particular importance for religious and spiritual reasons (EEA 2012). Since 1900, protected areas, such as national parks and nature reserves, were established in order to protect the beauty of nature. The idea of protected areas as F. Isola
F. Leone (&) Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, and Architecture (DICAAR), University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy e-mail: [email protected] F. Isola e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_12

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national park was developed in North America, where large non–artificial areas were protected to preserve them from human–induced activities (Foresta 2011). After the II World War, protected areas acquired increasingly importance in terms of biological uniqueness and in 1969, during the General Assembly hold in New Delhi, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) coined the term “national park”, defined as quite large area where one or more ecosystems were not modified by human–induced activities. The management of these areas was based on principles that concerned only the protection of biological diversity because protected areas were conceived as independent spatial entity without no relations with adjacent areas (Dudley and Stolton 2008). Since 1970, the conception of protected areas as “crown jewels” has become to change by understanding the social character that protected areas had and, thus, the necessity to involve local communities in their management and planning (EEA 2012). In fact, nowadays, not only do protected areas protect biodiversity, but they also aim at mitigating climate change and at providing ecosystem services, which are goods and services provided by ecosystems to human beings. In the document “Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories”, the IUCN define protected areas as “A clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long– term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values”. From this perspective, protected areas should be included within an ecological network (Dudley 2008). In Italy, protected areas are ruled by the Law no. 394/1991 “Framework Law on protected areas”, which classifies natural protected areas (Article 2), defines establishment and management modalities in relation to national protected areas (Articles nos. 8–21) and defines principles and prescriptions on regional protected areas (Articles nos. 22–28). Moreover, the Law enacted by the Decree no. 112/1998 establishes that national government is responsible for the conservation and valorization of international and national protected areas and biodiversity protection (Article no. 69), whereas regional and local administrations are responsible for regional protected areas (Article no. 78). As a consequence, protected areas should be managed and planned in relation to the coevolution between natural and socio–economic systems in which they are included. As a result, planning protected areas has a direct relation with concepts, such as sustainability and resilience. In particular, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO 2016) defines sustainability as the “state of the global system, including environmental, social and economic aspects, in which the needs of the present are met without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (p. 1), and resilience as “the capability of a system to maintain its functions and structure in the face of internal and external change and to degrade gracefully when this is necessary” (p. 2). Some authors (Tobin 1999) analyze sustainability and resilience as similar concepts, meanwhile other authors (Zhang and Li 2018), study them as different concepts. According to Rogov and Rozenblat (2018), sustainability focuses on results while resilience focuses on process. Planning of protected areas should involve both these concepts.

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On the other hand, the gap between theoretical definition and implementation of policies and strategies defined at national and regional level, has entailed some problems in terms of planning and development of protected areas. The study aims at defining a methodological approach to manage protected areas at regional level, by defining a system of conceptual relations between sustainable–oriented objectives and objectives oriented towards regional development in relation to two case studies concerning two Italian regions, Sardinia and Liguria.

2 Methodological Approach and Case Studies Sardinia and Liguria are the two Italian regions analyzed as case studies. In relation to Sardinia, establishment and management of regional protected areas is ruled by the Regional Law no. 31/1989. In relation to Liguria, the reference law is the Regional Law no. 12/1995. Moreover, the Deliberation of the Ligurian regional government no. 626/2013 approved the guidelines on the ten–years revision of regional parks plans. In relation to the methodological approach, based on the analysis of national normative on protected areas and international literature review on planning protected areas, the key aspects that planning of protected areas should guarantee are: 1. Ecosystems conservation; 2. local communities’ well–being; 3. governance system to optimize the management of these areas. In relation to the above–mentioned aspects and to objectives defined by the IUCN (Dudley 2008), the study defines a conceptual framework that summarizes functions and activities that regional parks should promote. In particular, the main categories of this conceptual frameworks are: 1. Conservation of biological resources and ecosystem protection. The principal aim of parks and protected areas concerns conservation, protection and development of biological resources as well as landscape through direct interventions and normative prescriptions. 2. Education, training and dissemination of the culture of environmental sustainability; 3. Eco–tourism, recreational activities, events as a response to the demand for environmental quality and recreation services; 4. Production sustainability in relation to activities and services within the parks’ boundaries and in their surrounding areas; 5. Conservation and development of historical identity, culture and well–being of local communities. The study aims at analyzing the Sardinian and Ligurian normative frameworks concerning protected areas through a content analysis. Content analysis studies texts

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within a document in relation to the meaning that a group or the culture in general assign to a specific issue (Krippendorff 2013). Materials that are analyzed are: • Regional Law no. 31/1989 for the Sardinian case study; • Regional Law no. 12/1995 and Deliberation of the Ligurian regional government no. 626/2013 for the Ligurian case study.

3 Results Table 1 reports the results of the content analysis in relation to the two case studies. In relation to Sardinia, the first aspect “conservation of biological resources and ecosystem protection” has a fundamental role within the Regional Law no. 31/89 in terms of establishment and management of protected areas (parks, reserve, areas characterized by particular biological, environmental and naturalistic value). Although the Law defines the term conservation with particular attention to protection of environment and threatened species (Articles nos. 1–3), due to the complexity of ecological dynamics the concept concerns also other issues, such as management of the territory, habitat recovery and restoration, and all the aspects connected with the maintenance of ecological equilibrium (Articles nos. 7, 11, 14 and 21). Despite the key role assumed by the term conservation, the Law analyzes other factors, such as social, cultural and economic issues in order to promote a sustainable development of the regional park. The third aspect (eco–tourism, recreational activities, events as a response to the demand for environmental quality and recreation services) is addressed within Article no. 7 concerning environmental valorization, and organization and management of cultural events. In relation to the fourth aspect (production sustainability in relation to activities and services within the parks’ boundaries and in their surrounding areas), the Regional Law no. 31/89 promotes the presence of economic activities within the regional park in order to improve the relationships between human beings and environment (Article no. 11). Moreover, the park regulation (Article no. 14) and the management program (Article no. 15) regulate all the activities that can be carried out within the regional park, such as commercial, agricultural, forestry and livestock activities, scientific and research activities, recreational and educational activities. In particular, the system of regional protected areas (Article no. 5) represents an essential reference for research programs, universities/research institutes in relation to experimentation and dissemination of information and knowledge about environmental protection (Article no. 11). Environmental valorization and cultural programming (Article no. 7) are implemented through the use of financial instruments (Article no. 6) that promote the development of the area. In relation to Liguria, the first aspect is analyzed both by the Regional Law no. 12/1995 and the Deliberation of the Ligurian regional government no. 626/2013. In particular, Article no. 1 of the Regional Law no. 12/1995 establishes and regulates protected areas in order to promote conservation and valorization of natural,

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Table 1 Results of the content analysis in relation to Sardinian and Ligurian normative framework on protected areas Aspects

Case study

Sardinia 1, 2, 3 Art. 1 Aims 1, 2, 3, 4 Art. 2 Natural parks 1 Art. 3 Natural reserves 1 Art. 4 Natural monuments and other protected areas 2 Art. 5 Regional system of protected areas 3, 4, 5 Art. 6 Economic and financial instruments 1, 5 Art. 7 Environmental valorization and cultural programming 3 Art. 10 Establishment of natural parks 2, 3, 4, 5 Art. 11 Aims of regional parks 1, 3, 4 Art. 14 Park regulation 5 Art. 15 Management program of natural parks 1 Art. 21 Prohibitions 1 Art. 26 Safeguard rules Liguria Regional Law no. 12/1995 1 Art. 1 Aims 1, 3, 5 Art. 3 Classification of Regional protected areas 2, 3 Art. 4 Provincial and local protected areas 1 Art. 5 Establishment and management of protected areas 1 Art. 6 Natural monuments 1, 2, 3 Art. 7 Functions of management authority 5 Art. 10 Council 1, 2, 3 Art. 17 Park plan 1 Art. 18 Approval procedures 3 Art. 19 Implementation tools 1, 4, 5 Art. 20 Protection areas 1 Art. 24 Replacement interventions 1, 3 Art. 25 Protected areas regulations 1, 2, 3 Art. 26 Incentive measures 4 Art. 27 Productive and services activities 2, 3 Art. 28 Tourism promotion 1 Art. 32 Surveillance 1 Art. 33 Sanctions 1 Art. 39 Advisory functions 1 Art. 42 Safeguard rules 1 Art. 43 Actions concerning fauna 1 Art. 47 Transitory rules (continued)

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Table 1 (continued) Aspects

Case study

Deliberation of the Ligurian regional government no. 626/2013 1 2.1 Aims 1 3.1 Management plans of sites of community importance and special protection areas 4 3.4 Criteria for the installation of production plants of renewable energy 3 4.1 Regional park “Ligurian Alpes” 3 4.6 Regional park “Adelasia”

environmental and landscape heritage. Article no. 3 classifies protected areas according three typologies, each of them has to guarantee conservation of specific values. Moreover, the regional park must be organized and managed in terms of specific protection areas (Article no. 20). The Regional Law no. 12/1995 identifies the “protected landscape”, where direct conservation actions and the development of recreational and tourism activities are integrated (Article no. 3). The Regional Law no. 28/2009 establishes that the management plan of Natura 2000 sites may be either elaborated as a single plan or integrated with other plans. Moreover, the same Law defines the management authority of all regional Natura 2000 sites, and some of them coincide with the management authority of natural parks. As a result, the Deliberation of the Ligurian regional government no. 626/2013 establishes that in ten–years revision phase, all revised plans must include the issue of biodiversity protection. Therefore, the park plan represents the management tools of all Natura 2000 sites managed by the management authority of the regional park. In relation to the second aspect, Article no. 7 of the Regional Law no. 12/1995 establishes that dissemination of knowledge and the promotion and management of environmental resources for educational and scientific purposes are responsibilities of the management authority of the regional park. According to Article no. 4, provincial and local protected areas are established in order to disseminate principles and actions concerning environmental protection. As regards the third aspect, the Regional Law no. 12/1995 promotes the valorization of environmental resources for recreational and tourism purposes (Article no. 7) and defines uses and actions concerning the management of the parks in terms of educational, scientific, cultural, recreational, tourism and economic development purposes (Article no. 17). Article no. 25 defines the possibility of elaborating specific regulations concerning potential uses and activities. The Deliberation of the Ligurian regional government no. 626/2013 establishes that the revised version of the plans of the regional parks “Ligurian Alps” and “Adelasia” have to analyze issues concerning potential uses and activities. In relation to the fourth aspect, Article no. 27 of the Regional Law no. 12/1995 establishes that production and service activities may obtain financial support providing that they have a certificate that guarantee the coherence between their activities and the objectives of the park. The Deliberation of the Ligurian regional

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government no. 626/2013 establishes that the revised version of the park plan should include issues concerning the use of renewable energy and the use of the best technology to achieve energy saving objectives, according to criteria for safeguarding landscape values. As regards the fifth aspect, the Regional Law no. 12/1995 defines regional parks as areas aims at protecting landscapes characterized by a system of naturalistic, environmental and historical–cultural values of local communities (Article no. 3). Moreover, Article no. 20 establishes the definition of development areas that represent those areas within the regional parks characterized by anthropization processes.

4 Discussion and Conclusions The results of the content analysis highlight the importance of the issue of conservation within the planning of protected areas according to the sustainability paradigm. The two normative frameworks show some differences due to their different approval years. In fact, the approval year of the Sardinian Regional Law no. 31/89 is quite dated (1989) and it is antecedent to the national framework law on protected area (Law no. 394/1991). This timing mismatch has entailed significant repercussions for protected areas planning in Sardinia. In fact, none of regional park has an approved park plan that represents the necessary management tool according to Law no. 394/1991. The Ligurian normative framework has implemented prescription of the national law and has taken a step forward with the Deliberation of the Ligurian regional government no. 626/2013, that explicitly asserts that the park plan is the management tool of all Natura 2000 sites managed by the authority responsible for the park. This study identifies two critical aspects. A first critical point concerns the update of the Italian normative framework in compliance with European strategies and policies on biodiversity protection, climate change mitigation and achievement of the development goals of the 2030 Agenda. The second problems concerns integration concerning planning and management of areas characterized by the coexistence of different nature protection regimes, such as national and regional parks and Natura 2000 sites. In relation to integration issue, for example, the project GIREPAM aims at defining a shared cross–border strategy to manage coastal and marine ecological network in an integrated way. One of the main goals concerns the definition of a planning and management tool for protected areas through the use of integrated planning models. These models were implemented in relation to two case studies located in Sardinia, Italy, the marine protected area “Tavolara–Punta Coda Cavallo” and the marine protected area “Isola dell’Asinara” (Floris et al. 2020). A further discussion element concerns the inclusion of specific issues, such as ecosystem services and in general services provides by regional parks, within the Italian normative framework. A reference document is the Final Report on services

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provided by Lombard regional parks elaborated in 2018 by the regional administration of Lombardy (Polis Lombardia 2018). In conclusion, park plan represents a key tool to manage and planning protected areas in order to guarantee a sustainable development and the maintenance of functions and structure despite changes that may characterized these zones and their surrounding areas. Therefore, this study, going beyond the current literature on the concepts of sustainability and resilience, analyzes how planning of protected areas represents a means of addressing these two concepts. In conclusion, a future development of the research may concern the implementation of the proposed methodological approach in relation to case studies concerning two regional protected areas located in Sardinia and in Liguria. The two case studies may be compared in relation to their capacity of providing services connected with key objectives defined by the IUCN. Acknowledgements Federica Isola and Federica Leone have made substantial contributions to the study’s conception, background and design remarks of Sect. 1, and to discussion and concluding remarks of Sect. 4. The methodological discussion proposed in Sect. 2 is by Federica Isola. The results presented in Sect. 3 is by Federica Leone. The study was implemented within the Agreement between public administrations in compliance with Article no. 15 of the Law no. 241/1990 between the Management Authority of the Regional Park of Tepilora and the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Architecture (DICAAR) of the University of Cagliari, Italy, in relation to the scientific coordination for the elaboration of the park plan.

References Dudley N (ed) (2008) Guidelines for applying protected area management categories. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. ISBN 978-2-8317-1636-7 Dudley N, Stolton S (eds) (2008) Defining protected areas: an international conference in Almeria, Spain. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. ISBN 978-2-8317-1132-4 EEA (2012) Protected areas in Europe—an overview. EEA Report 5, Office for official publications of the European communities, Luxembourg. https://doi.org/10.2800/55955 Floris M, Gazale V, Isola F et al (2020) The contribution of ecosystem services in developing effective and sustainable management practices in marine protected areas. The case study of “Isola dell’Asinara”. Sustainability 12(3). https://doi.org/10.3390/su12031108 Foresta RA (2011) America’s national parks and their keepers. In: RFF press resources for the future, New York, London. doi: 10.4324/9781315064208 ISO (2016). BS ISO 37100—Sustainable cities and communities—vocabulary. https://www.iso. org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:37100:ed-1:v1:en. Accessed 14 Nov 2020 Krippendorff K (2013) Content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks. ISBN: 9781506395661 Polis Lombardia (2018) I servizi erogati dai parchi regionali lombardi. Missione valutativa. Rapporto finale. https://www.polis.lombardia.it/wps/wcm/connect/aa96d34b-4500-415c-a8cca51ee6a45daa/TER17009+MV+PARCHI_+Rapporto+Finale_luglio+2018_finale.pdf?MOD= AJPERES&CACHEID=ROOTWORKSPACE-aa96d34b-4500-415c-a8cc-a51ee6a45daamm0BguC. Accessed 22 July 2020

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Rogov M, Rozenblat C (2018) Urban resilience discourse analysis: towards a multi-level approach to cities. Sustainability 10(12). https://doi.org/10.3390/su10124431 Tobin GA (1999) Sustainability and community resilience: the holy grail of hazards planning? Environ Hazards 1(1):13–25. https://doi.org/10.3763/ehaz.1999.0103 Zhang X, Li H (2018) Urban resilience and urban sustainability: what we know and what do not know? Cities 72:141–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2017.08.009

Investigating the (Un)Integration Between Sectoral Policies with the Habitat Degradation Model Francesco Scorza, Angela Pilogallo, Lucia Saganeiti, and Beniamino Murgante

Abstract Even if the Natura 2000 Network was established in order to preserve the biological diversity among the European States, a relevant percentage of Natura 2000 sites are expected to be lost by the end of this century and an issue linked to the effectiveness of conservation policies emerges. This paper deals with the (un) integration between sectoral policies and different competences that leads to a lacking monitoring system of territorial management performances in terms of achieving the conservation objectives of the Natura 2000 site and the management of the remediation of a polluted area. The case study includes indeed a Site of National Interest (SNI), for which several reclamation projects are still in the submission/approval phase, and a partially overlapping Natura 2000 Network Site. The tool used as a proxy for monitoring the biodiversity spatial distribution over the study area is the degradation map computed by the ‘Habitat quality and degradation’ InVEST tool. After defining a baseline representative of the current conditions, two medium and long-term scenarios respectively were compared in order to assess the effects procedure of partial and total remediation of the SNI on the habitat quality and degradation. This methodology is aimed to offer a valuable support to the decision-makers and the competent authorities in biodiversity conservation policy design by allowing to overcome the limits related to the actual normative framework concerning the land management system. Keywords Habitat degradation Site of national interest (SNI)


Ecosystem services
N2K network


F. Scorza
A. Pilogallo (&)
L. Saganeiti
B. Murgante Laboratory of Urban and Regional Systems Engineering (LISUT), University of Basilicata, Potenzo, Italy e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_13

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1 Introduction Over the last twenty years, considerable progress has been made in understanding of how impoverishment of biodiversity affects ecosystem services (ES) and their relevant performance (European Commission 2015), and consequently the quality (Cardinale et al. 2012) of human life. Despite this, the composition of species communities is rapidly decreasing with potentially significant consequences for ecosystem resilience (Oliver et al. 2015). Nowadays, about 25% of animal and plant species are threatened and about 1 million species are expected to become extinct within a few decades (IPBES 2019). If the current challenges included in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) point towards balancing the often conflicting objectives of human development and biodiversity conservation (see SDGs 1, 2 and 8) (Waldron et al. 2017), the aims of biological diversity preservation and protection of vulnerable habitats and species have already been addressed by the European Union (EU) through the Birds and Habitats Directives and the subsequent establishment of the Natura 2000 (N2K) Network. Although the N2K Network’s potential for the achievement of the conservation objectives is widely recognized (Donald et al. 2007), the results to date are not considered to be fully satisfactory (European Environment Agency 2010) and a number of studies have been carried out in order to identify the main weaknesses (Pellegrino et al. 2017). As far as territorial governance is concerned, the effectiveness of site designation and management depends on the decision-making and policy-design process (Beunen and de Vries 2011), the support of local stakeholders in the approval and participation processes being relevant (Achim Steiner 2009). Another point considered very critical is the overlapping of policies and responsibilities at different government levels, which is often reflected in political contradictions on several scales, conflicts related to other sectoral policies and a top-down governance gap. The European Commission (EC) (Simeonova et al. 2017), in declaring the gap between spatial planning and its instruments for the implementation of the N2K network as one of the most significant causes for the lack of conservation objectives, points to territorial planning as the most appropriate framework for the creation of an improved synergy between different sectoral and environmental policies and ensuring that developments comply with the EU sectoral and environmental legislation. The aim of this work is to describe and explain the conflict between a Site of Community Interest (SCI)/Special Protection Area (SPA) and a Site of National Interest (SNI) in the case study of the Basilicata region. By assessing Habitat Quality as a proxy for the biodiversity of the area, an estimation of positive effects that remediation produce on environmental components in medium and long-term scenarios will be produced. In this work, we refer to Habitat Quality and Degradation as a measure (or even as a proxy) for biodiversity in general. The closest reference to the meaning by which we have dealt with habitat quality is the class “Maintaining nursery

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populations and habitats (Including gene pool protection)” (code 2.2.2.3—CICES v.5 (Haines-Young and Potschin 2018)) representing the provision of suitable habitats for wild plants and animals and the maintenance of appropriate ecological conditions necessary for sustaining these populations. The results obtained in the study area highlight the potential of the proposed methodology to support the decision-making process, orienting reclamation procedures and improving management actions for both SCI/SPA and SNI sites within an integrated approach.

2 Study Area The study area, located in the Basilicata region (Southern Italy) extends for about 742.5 Km2 and is located along the middle valley of the Basento river. The interest in this study area is based on the simultaneous presence of a large industrial area, a SNI and areas of acknowledged naturalistic-environmental value SCI/SPA. This area is part of the Val Basento industrial agglomeration, founded between the 50s and 60s subsequent to the discovery of a large methane deposit. After the starting phase of the construction works of the gas pipeline in 1961, many other industrial activities were established, such as a petrochemical plant. The international crisis started in 1973 led to the shutdown of several establishments. A Program Agreement signed in 1987 gave the National Hydrocarbons Agency (Eni) full powers to relaunch the Val Basento industrial area, and the Matera Industrial Consortium was given the task of creating a Technology Park. In 1990 the so-called Tecnoparco Valbasento Spa was founded, which currently hosts production activities and companies involved in the environmental and energy sectors, providing services and infrastructures such as: analysis laboratories; production and distribution of electricity, nitrogen and demineralized water production plants; collection, treatment and disposal of liquid waste. Public driven industrial policies stopped during the 80s and the area underwent a period of abandonment and decline with consequent environmental issues deriving from extensive pollution in abandoned industrial parcels. At the end of the 90s a part of the area was proposed as a SCI/SPA site thanks to the variety of species and biodiversity richness present there. The procedure for the recognition of sites as nodes of the N2K of the Basilicata Region was completed in 2003, but it was only in 2017, following the drafting and approval of their Management Plans, that sites were designated as Special Areas of Conservation (SACs). At the same time, due to the high levels of pollution and related effects on health, environment and the local economy, Law 179/2002 established the “Val Basento” as a SNI and assigned its remediation responsibility to the Ministry of the Environment, Land and Sea (MATTM).

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The fragmentation of competences in territorial governance led to a lack of integration between those acts promoted by the different responsible authorities (Basilicata Region for N2K sites and MATTM for SNI) who operated without any coordination.

3 Methodology The analytical tool used is InVEST Habitat Quality and Degradation, that proved to be effective for the assessment of how different change scenarios in land cover or, as in our case study, habitat threats might affect habitat quality, and consequently biodiversity (Arcidiacono et al. 2015). This model draws up two maps: habitat quality (Qxj) and degradation (Dxj). Habitat degradation was used to model the cumulative impact of the threats affecting the study area. Dxj is the function of the sensitivity of each LULC class to each threat (Sjr), of the relative weight of each threat (wr), and of the impact irxy of the threat r in cell x originating in y and distant dxy: Dxj ¼

X X  wr  P ry irxy bx Sjr r wr r y

where bx represents the level of accessibility in grid cell x. The highest sensitivity values were assigned to woodlands, freshwaters, agricultural lands and grasslands falling within the SCI/SPA area because they were considered to be of higher value and more vulnerable to the threats taken into consideration. In line with habitat suitability, zero sensitivity values have been assigned to land use classes with a strong anthropogenic component. For each threat, users have to assign the maximum influence distance ðdrmax Þ and the distance-decay function (linear or exponential). Since this work aims at comparing the positive effects of remediation actions, three scenarios were formulated, based on the current trend, medium and long-term reclamation programs. According to MATTM, the polygons bounded and classified as sources of pollution included by the SNI perimeter, and corresponding to abandoned or still active industrial and production sites, are divided on the basis of the environmental remediation program progress. For some sites (polygons) the reclamation plan has already been approved, while for others it is still not approved, so it is fair to assume that the reclamation times will be longer. For this reason, the mid-term scenario represents the approved remediation plans while the long-term scenario analyses the effects of the completely reclaimed site. The weights range between 0 (less important) and 1 (very important). The highest value was attributed to the industrial areas included within the perimeter of the SNI considering the hypothesis that the remediation process cannot recover a full degree of naturalness but has to render the environmental conditions of the sites comparable with other

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industrial ones. The values assigned to sensitivity variables, threats and decay distances are the result of an evaluation by a team of experts involved in previous work. All detailed values used for threat definitions and sensitivity table are summarized in Scorza et al. (2020). In the context of this work it was considered useful to modify the values of the parameter “habitat suitability” by including among the criteria for the assignment of the value, also the belonging to the SCI/SPA site. For the same class of land use, therefore, the areas within the N2K site were privileged because they were considered more sensitive than the presence of the industrial site.

4 Results and Discussions The first result is the degradation map referred to the actual situation (Fig. 1). The most degraded areas are located near larger industrial areas, close to the N2K site and in the most southern part of SNI area. Out of a total of 21 polygons (i.e. industrial areas) recognized as a source of impact according to the MATTM, the medium-term scenario shows the remediation effects of only one of these industrial areas accounting for 3.71 ha. The degradation decrease is therefore rather localized and is not extended to the entire study area. In order to assess the variations following the implementation of a remediation program, the percentage changes were calculated using map algebra operations. The maximum reduction in the degradation level (therefore corresponding to the long-term scenario) within the study area is 6%, whereas in the medium term, a decrease of less than 1% can be expected. Within the SCI/SPA site, the partial reclamation (mid-term scenario) has no effect on changes in habitat degradation or quality. Differently, in the southern part of the area, the degradation reduction reaches 3% as its maximum value (Fig. 2). The effects of a complete remediation, which involves a total of three industrial areas, are more significant. One area is located in the northern part of the SNI, two

Fig. 1 Degradation map of current trend

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Fig. 2 Percentage reduction in habitat degradation in medium and long-term scenarios

are in the immediate downstream area with respect to the SCI/SPA perimeter. The surface area involved in this case is 30.06 ha, equal to 0.04% of the entire study area. An interpretation of the results must take into account that the model neglects the morphology of the territory, and therefore the privileged directions of pollutant diffusion. The results are linked to land use class in terms of habitat suitability and vulnerability to different threats. Since it is, in actual fact, a valley river bed with two converging sides, the expected spatial distribution of reclamation effects—all other variables being equal—is not isotropic as, however, appears from the image. In the western part of the study area there is a sector along the slope where a relevant degradation reduction is recorded, especially with respect to meadows, grazing grounds and agricultural crops. Moreover, no improvement in the wooded areas has been achieved, especially where they are surrounded by cultivated areas. This happens because agriculture is itself a source of threat and the relevant reclamation effects are clearly marginal.

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The results show that habitat degradation in the study area is certainly due to the cumulative impact of multiple threats arising partially from the industrial area located along one of the main regional road infrastructures, and partially from the road and rail network that from the river valley branches off along the slopes, also bordering or crossing areas of high naturalness.

5 Conclusions This work analyses a case study where a strong contradiction in the management of the territory emerges. On the one hand, the presence of industrial areas with high pollution potential has led to the identification of a SNI whose remediation procedure is direct responsibility of MATTM. On the other hand, the recognition of the naturalistic and biodiversity conservation values has led to the identification of a N2K site whose management plan, approved in 2015, completely neglects the presence of SNI. The aim of this work is to provide and test a methodology able to measure the effects of two overlapping and conflicting policy frameworks: the first is oriented towards naturalness preservation (N2K) and the second aims at solving environmental contamination issues (SNI). Both policies substantially ignore each other and demonstrate a fragmentation in the territorial governance system where different authorities are responsible of specific fields of intervention. The developed application concerns the overlapping of sectoral policies, one for the management of the N2K site and the other for the reclamation of the industrial area included in the Val Basento Site of National Interest. The novelty of the proposed work lies in suggesting a methodology that declines the concept of performance in terms of complementarity between the two management plans thus offering support to the decision-making process in terms of prioritization of interventions and monitoring of expected effects. As already pointed out by the authors in previous works (Scorza et al. 2019; Mazzariello et al. 2018; Pilogallo et al. 2018, 2019; Scorza 2013), the ES framework allows to integrate and simultaneously consider multiple scales, multiple habitats and multi-level environmental policies, thus offering the advantage of a more holistic environmental management (Maltby et al. 2018). Therefore, use of the InVEST Habitat Quality model allowed us to contribute to the general process for the provision of an effective territorial monitoring system, suitable to assess the effects of ongoing threats and environmental management actions on habitat quality. Although the model simplifies the complex reality linked to the phenomenon of pollutant diffusion, temporal and spatial variability, boundary conditions and more generally the complex dynamics with which threats act to the detriment of habitat quality (Tallis et al. 2012), it is useful to perform a scenario analysis in order to identify threats and habitats with respect to land use especially in those area in which information on species abundance and composition, endemism and functional significance are poor (Terrado et al. 2016).

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References Achim Steiner JM (2009) The world’s protected areas: status, values and prospects in the 21st century. Choice Rev Online 46:46–3865. https://doi.org/10.5860/choice.46-3865 Arcidiacono A, Ronchi S, Salata S (2015) Ecosystem services assessment using InVEST as a tool to support decision making process: critical issues and opportunities. In: Lecture notes comput science (including subseries lecture notes in artificial intelligence (LNAI) and lecture notes in bioinformatics), vol 9158, pp 35–49. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-21410-8_3 Beunen R, de Vries JR (2011) The governance of Natura 2000 sites: the importance of initial choices in the organisation of planning processes. J Environ Plan Manag 54:1041–1059. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2010.549034 Cardinale BJ, Duffy JE, Gonzalez A, Hooper DU, Perrings C, Venail P, Narwani A, Mace GM, Tilman D, Wardle DA, Kinzig AP, Daily GC, Loreau M, Grace JB, Larigauderie A, Srivastava DS, Naeem S (2012) Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity. Nature 486:59– 67. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11148 Donald PF, Sanderson FJ, Burfield IJ, Bierman SM, Gregory RD, Waliczky Z (2007) International conservation policy delivers benefits for birds in Europe. Science 317(80):810–813. https://doi. org/10.1126/science.1146002 European Commission (2015) Our life insurance, our natural capital: an EU biodiversity strategy to 2020. Landsc Ecol Manag 20:37–40. https://doi.org/10.5738/jale.20.37 European Environment Agency (2010) EU 2010 biodiversity baseline. In: Post-2010 EU biodiversity policy. Luxembourg Haines-Young R, Potschin M (2018) Common international classification of ecosystem services (CICES) V5.1. Guidance on the application of the revised structure IPBES (2019) Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the intergovernmental science-policy platform on biodiversity and ecosystem services Maltby L, van den Brink PJ, Faber JH, Marshall S (2018) Advantages and challenges associated with implementing an ecosystem services approach to ecological risk assessment for chemicals. Sci Total Environ 621:1342–1351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.094 Mazzariello A, Pilogallo A, Scorza F, Murgante B, Las Casas G (2018) Carbon stock as an indicator for the estimation of anthropic pressure on territorial components. In: Lecture notes in computer science (including subseries lecture notes in artificial intelligence and lecture notes in bioinformatics), pp 697–711 Oliver TH, Isaac NJB, August TA, Woodcock BA, Roy DB, Bullock JM (2015) Declining resilience of ecosystem functions under biodiversity loss. Nat Commun 6:10122. https://doi. org/10.1038/ncomms10122 Pellegrino D, Schirpke U, Marino D (2017) How to support the effective management of Natura 2000 sites? J Environ Plan Manag 60:383–398. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2016. 1159183 Pilogallo A, Saganeiti L, Scorza F, Las Casas G (2018) Tourism attractiveness: main components for a spacial appraisal of major destinations according with ecosystem services approach. Springer, Cham, pp 712–724 Pilogallo A, Saganeiti L, Scorza F, Murgante B (2019) Ecosystem services approach to evaluate renewable energy plants effects. Springer, Cham, pp 281–290 Scorza F (2013) Improving EU cohesion policy: the spatial distribution analysis of regional development investments funded by EU Structural Funds 2007/2013 in Italy. In: Lecture notes in computer science (including subseries lecture notes in artificial intelligence and lecture notes in bioinformatics), pp 582–593 Scorza F, Murgante B, Las Casas G, Fortino Y, Pilogallo A (2019) Investigating territorial specialization in tourism sector by ecosystem services approach. Springer, Cham, pp 161–179

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Scorza F, Pilogallo A, Saganeiti L, Murgante B (2020) Natura 2000 areas and sites of national interest (SNI): measuring (un)integration between naturalness preservation and environmental remediation policies. Sustainability 12:2928. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12072928 Simeonova V, Bouwma I, Van Der Grift E, Sunyer C, Manteiga L, Külvik M, Suškevičs M (2017) Natura 2000 and spatial planning. Luxembourg Tallis H, Mooney H, Andelman S, Balvanera P, Cramer W, Karp D, Polasky S, Reyers B, Ricketts T, Running S, Thonicke K, Tietjen B, Walz A (2012) A global system for monitoring ecosystem service change. Bioscience 62:977–986. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2012.62.11.7 Terrado M, Sabater S, Chaplin-Kramer B, Mandle L, Ziv G, Acuña V (2016) Model development for the assessment of terrestrial and aquatic habitat quality in conservation planning. Sci Total Environ 540:63–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.03.064 Waldron A, Miller DC, Redding D, Mooers A, Kuhn TS, Nibbelink N, Roberts JT, Tobias JA, Gittleman JL (2017) Reductions in global biodiversity loss predicted from conservation spending. Nature 551:364–367. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature24295

Slow Mobility Networks as Tools to Take Care About Cultural Landscape and to Resew Relationships Between Humans and the Ecosystem Giovanni Bruschi and Luisa Santini

Abstract Among all ecosystem services, the cultural ones are those which more dependent on interaction with people. Only people who experiment the ecosystem can get benefits from cultural services, which otherwise remain inactive spreading across the landscape. On strategy to encourage this interaction is to provide a particular area with a slow mobility network, which allows to enjoy the landscape reducing natural impact of personal movements and to perceive all naturalistic and historical peculiarities. This kind of “infrastructure” (suitable for pedestrians, bikes, horses, canoes, etc.) would facilitate the preservation of landscape, historical heritage and local folklore, in addition to attract different kinds of tourism producing new job opportunities. The research regarded Migliarino, San Rossore, Massaciuccoli Natural Park, in Tuscany, where the human activities have been shaping the landscape since the Middle Age and which is not considered by people an asset to care about. The context where it is located ensures that it is more common, and safe, to move through the park by car than by foot or by bike, and this is completely unusual for a natural area as it does not allow to benefit from its presence.




Keywords Cultural ecosystem services Slow mobility Migliarino, San Rossore, Massaciuccoli Natural Park


Landscape experience


1 Cultural Ecosystem Services and Slow Mobility One of the latest complete classification of culture ecosystem services is inside the work of the CICES (Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services) (Haines-Young and Potschin 2018). In this classification, cultural services cover all G. Bruschi (&)
L. Santini Department of Energy Systems Territory and Construction Engineering, University of Pisa, Largo Lucio Lazzarino 2, 56122 Pisa, Italy e-mail: [email protected] L. Santini e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_14

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the ways that living systems enable cultural benefits to be realised. Cultural services are among the most important values that people associate with nature (FAO 2018) and are not direct product of the ecosystem but are the outcome of complex relationships between the landscape and humans (Fagerholm et al. 2012). Indeed, we can recognize in cultural services aesthetic inspiration, cultural identity, sense of belonging, and spiritual experience related to the natural environment, opportunities for tourism and for recreation, that are all non-material benefits that people receive from ecosystems. Although the cultural services are often characterized as being “intangible” and “subjective” (Tengberg et al. 2012), they represent the intimate linkage between landscape and cultural heritage and help to maintain the meaning and sense of collective identity. The researchers considered important to distinguish between what people do or feel from the ecosystems that enable, facilitate or support those activities or feelings. An example is the recreational activity of walking: it is not regarded as an ecosystem service, but rather a benefit or cultural value. The service provided by the ecosystem is the opportunity of the environmental setting or location that enables walking and determines its quality for people (Haines-Young and Potschin 2018). Unlike other ecosystem services, the cultural ones produce benefits only for people who decide to join them, but they must be reachable so producing also benefits on the community. A recreational benefit occurs only if a beautiful natural asset, for example a lake, is combined with human and social capital (people able to appreciate it and institutions that make the lake accessible and safe), and infrastructures to access it (a road, trail, etc.) (De Groot et al. 2005). Accessibility must be a main component of the management, programming, and planning policies because it gets opportunity to move from the areas where beneficiaries live to that in which cultural services are located. But not only: if the cultural services relate each other, the possibility of recreation, the diversifying of the offer and the satisfaction of many different kind of users will increase, and the economic opportunities for local investors and businesses will improve. Such type of relation can be guaranteed by a soft mobility network (pedestrian, cycle and other not motorized transportation). This need is even more evident if we refer to the paths inside natural parks or to make cultural and historical resources usable. In these contexts, it is necessary to implement policies that encourage soft mobility and that can integrate different transport systems, limiting as much as possible private cars and road transport. Above implies that an inclusive approach in the management of natural resources, landscapes, architectural and cultural heritage is crucial. In most of the natural areas, that occupy a very large territory often interesting more than one municipality, is very difficult to guarantee this approach. The study area addressed by this research is characterized by a high level of complexity of activities that often conflict with cultural and natural resources. There are a lot of elements of environmental, cultural, and architectonic value that sometime are not accessible and underestimated also from the inhabitants themselves. While only that few resources inserted into the traditional touristic routes organized by the park manager authority are accessible.

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The research analyses the Natural Park of Migliarino, San Rossore, Massaciuccoli in Tuscany, and highlights the role that such network could have getting usable the cultural ecosystem services. In so doing it is also possible to add significance to the way the landscape is experienced.

2 Case Study and Application 2.1

Migliarino, San Rossore, Massaciuccoli Natural Park

The Park has been instituted in 1979 by Tuscany Region. It occupies the northern regional coastline, spreading from the dock of Viareggio to Livorno one (north– south) and from the sea to the city centre of Pisa (west–east). 23,115 ha preserve wetlands, dunes, hundred-year-old trees and many animal and plant species, but they also include military bases, shipyards, and very close to park boundaries there are harbours, an airport, well-developed touristic activities and plenty of people living and daily passing through the park. The anthropic pressure on this area has been shaping the landscape since the Middle Age, many reclamations of swamps were made. Since then, many different cultivations have been introduced, like rice or pines for pine nuts, and many other human activities had taken advantage of natural resources (Cervellati and Cardellini 1988; Cavalli and Lambertini 1990; Alpi et al. 2003). Nowadays cultivations and farms affect the 38% of the park area and the 12% is artificialized; the remaining is occupied by woods and natural lands and by wetlands and water (respectively 40% and 10%).1 Only 5000 ha are usable from people that can visit them according to a time schedule or accompanied by a naturalist guide managed by park authority. Most of the areas are not completely usable, but some roads can be daily covered by population for going to work/school or to reach the seaside. So natural environment is not perceived as something to take care and it is more usual to come through it by car using the motorway than by bike on a forest trail. All the areas outside the usable one are considered as “common city”, and unfortunately it is not rare to bump into little dumps along the paths. The limitations imposed by the Park Authority had also some positive implications. They were able to protect many kilometres of seaside and its dunes from the pressure of mass tourism. Moreover, the Authority organize cultural activities to let people get in touch with nature and to let they understand the importance of natural preservation. Park heritage does not include only naturalistic peculiarities, but there are also many historic buildings. We can cite only a few of them: Villa Medici and Villa Borbone, proof of the huge properties in the past owned by those famous families, and Villa Salviati, still owned by this family. There is also the first Guglielmo

1

Regione Toscana, Use and land cover—years 2007–2016. http://www502.regione.toscana.it/ geoscopio/usocoperturasuolo.html.

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Marconi’s radio station and on the shores of Massaciuccoli lake the Giacomo Puccini’s home is located. Other buildings show the richness of the ancient human activities, like La Brilla, where rice from paddies were refined and now seat of some park services. Others building, like many dewatering pumps, still in function give evidence of the extensive rice growing activities here carried out (Cervellati and Cardellini 1988; Cavalli and Lambertini 1990; Alpi et al. 2003). Although the Park provides many ecosystem services, many cultural services are underestimated. Historical buildings, great landscape views, precious natural areas most of the times do not produce any effects on population, because they are not reachable (Paracchini et al. 2014). So they are in fact only potential cultural services. With the exception of the restricted areas, there is not a well-developed and integrated mobility network which connects all the resources and allows people to move inside the park using not polluting means of transport. This paper aims to identify a slow mobility network in an area where it is necessary to connect and get usable the cultural services. We believe that the introduction of mobility strategies and policies in the planning agenda of the Authority is strictly necessary. It could produce large benefits for the economy and for the protection and revitalization of abandoned heritage. Moreover, it could contribute to develop the feeling for a conscious recreative use of natural resources and of the protection of health. To develop a slow mobility network it is necessary to link the natural and cultural services with the system of paths and roads, improve roads safety, increment bike lane length and introduce a large number of equipped intermodal points in the network (car parks, train stations, docks, bike parks, tools to transport bikes on buses and boats, etc.).

2.2

Methodology and Results

At the basis of this research there was a deep knowledge of the whole park area, which has been investigated under many different fields and using different tools. The first phase is the analysis of the landscape and the recognition of its changing in the latest centuries. This conducted us to identify the oldest buildings and pointing out ancient landscape views which today we can no longer see but we can imagine. For example, arriving in La Brilla, on the edge of the Massaciuccoli lake, we can imagine wathing an expanse of rice plantings and mills. This is a “historic landscape” that should be narrated to people who will visit the area. The second step regarded the collection of different kind of data about the current aspect of the landscape. We used data from geographic information systems shared online by local administrations, from hiking maps and open source databases. These data were verified firstly through the comparison with recent orthophotos,2 and then by means of many surveys carried out by bike. This mode of

2

Data provided by Regione Toscana. https://www.regione.toscana.it/-/geoscopio.

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transportation, in addition to permit fast movements, allowed us to empathize with future users, to experiment their future emotions and to understand what their problems and needs will be (Busi and Pezzagno 2006). We elaborated several thematic maps to analyse accessibility by identifying cycleway, canals, paths, roads, motorways, train stations, railways, ports, docks, etc.), the heritage components (WWF oasis, secular trees, nature reserves, historic buildings, landscape views, wet lands) and the areas in which are localized services connected to tourism activities (hostel, campsites, museums, restaurants, bathing areas, etc.). The analysis outlined the presence of many paths along canals, that are utilized for farming activities or created for fire safety. Here the presence of motorized vehicles is rare or null, so they are usable for hiking and biking. Overlapping the maps allowed us to select only the roads that connect intermodal mobility poles with naturalistic and historical ones and that can be dedicated to slow mobility users. Paths were selected also by their landscape values, preferring those passing through woods or along canals, close to panoramic views and far away from noisy places. So, to link cultural services we used these existing paths, avoiding the realization of new ones which would had signified an increase of human pressure on the ecosystem. To adequately integrate user activities, connections to areas equipped with services (hotels, bars, bike assistance, train stations, etc.) were also identified. The link with intermodal mobility nodes allows tourists, coming also from faraway or that cannot afford to arrive directly by bike, to arrive and to choose another type of transport system (for example using bike sharing services) to enjoy the Park (Busi and Pezzagno 2006). Finally, historical buildings which today have no functions and are in a bad state of conservation have been inserted in the net. They are part of the historical heritage and they could host cultural services if restoring. The analysis outputs reported in Fig. 1 map a shows a high density of roads which often do not connect any attractive poles, are not safe enough for everyday users, or are interrupted by other infrastructures. In this map it is also evident the presence of many high-speed infrastructures that cross or surround the park and represent an obstacle for hiker and cyclist movements. On the other hand, these high-speed infrastructures represent the long-distance connections that make the Migliarino San Rossore Massaciuccoli Parck quickly accessible from all over Italy. Map b in Fig. 1 shows the green infrastructure net, the attractive poles connected and the critical intersections or segments where specific interventions are needed (mitigation of traffic where roads have to be shared with motorized vehicles, realisation of bridges or underpasses, etc.). The transport net is composed by three principal axes, the main is vertical and the others two horizontal, which connect the park area with outside and ensure a fast way to move across the landscapes. To complete the system and guarantee a deep connection between all ecosystem and cultural services we identified circular itineraries linked with the principal axes.

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Fig. 1 a results of investigations: the Park area (darker background), the motorway (continuous thick line), the railways (dot-dash line), asphalted roads (continuous thin line), secondary roads (dotted line), train stations (filled circle), docks (empty circle), motorway exits (empty square), cities/density of services (star), heritage (triangle), Park exclusive area (1), Park Controlled access area (2), military areas (3), airport (4). b Project of the green infrastructure: vertical axe (continuous thick line), horizontal axes (continuous thin line), circular paths (dot line), spot interventions (hexagon) (Color figure online)

3 Discussion and Conclusions The presence of many, but non exploited, suitable roads for slow users and, at the same time, the low fruition of the park are meaningful of the disequilibrium between human activities and cultural ecosystem services benefits. If the artificialization of landscape in the last centuries has led to a dense net of paths, on the other hand it has got natural aspect of the Park less perceptible. This fact has

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alienated the population from the desire to enjoy the Park and caused a great loss in terms of benefits for the collectivity. Despite that, the park proximity to urban areas and its well spread paths net diversify this natural Park from the others and represent today a precious opportunity to promote its attractiveness. Developing a slow mobility network (Fig. 2) can be a valid planning strategy capable to trigger a virtuous process that might attract public and private capitals interesting to restore existing buildings for hosting new activities.

Fig. 2 Scheme of the organization of the network: naturalistic and architectural heritage, intermodal poles and cities are all linked shaping the new way to experiment Park area

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Cultural ecosystem services are spreading in the landscape or are intrinsic to it, but they are often “inactive”, they are waiting for people who can benefit from them. The implementation of slow mobility policies in the planning of Natural Park should be priority aim for public authorities and other stakeholders who are interested to manage natural and economic resources and improve the benefits coming from landscape. Indeed, especially in natural and protected areas slow mobility networks are a precious opportunity to bring people inside the landscape allowing them to experiment it like a recreation place in the respect of the ecosystem. Equipping the landscape with slow mobility networks allows also to attract tourism in marginal areas, contributing to a fairer distribution of wealth and to the survival of small villages and local folklore. The implementation of a slow mobility network often does not require massive intervations and a huge amount of budget, making it a suitable tool in many contexts. In most of the cases it can be reliable using existing paths, just improving their safety and the equipment and integrating them in the more extensive transport network.

References Alpi A et al (2003) Natura, storia e immagini del parco di Migliarino, San Rossore, Massaciuccoli. Edizioni Plus Università di Pisa, Pisa Busi R, Pezzagno M (eds) (2006) Mobilità dolce e turismo sostenibile. Un approccio interdisciplinare. Gangemi Editore, Rome Cavalli S, Lambertini M (1990) Il parco Naturale Migliarino-San Rossore-Massaciuccoli. Pacini editore, Pisa Cervellati PL, Cardellini GM (1988) Il parco di Migliarino, San Rossore, Massaciuccoli: la storia e il progetto. Marsilio Editore, Venice De Groot RS et al (2005) Cultural and amenity services. Millennium ecosystem assessment (2005) ecosystems and human well-being: current state and trends. Island Press, Washington DC, pp 457–576 Fagerholm N et al (2012) Community stakeholders’ knowledge in landscape assessments – Mapping indicators for landscape services. Idol Ind 18:421–433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ecolind.2011.12.004 FAO (2018) Sustainable agriculture for biodiversity—biodiversity for sustainable agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organisation Haines-Young R, Potschin M (2018) CICES V5. 1. Guidance on the application of the revised structure. Fabis Consulting, January, 53 Paracchini ML et al (2014) Mapping cultural ecosystem services: a framework to assess the potential for outdoor recreation across the EU. Ecol Ind 45:371–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. ecolind.2014.04.018 Tengberg A et al (2012) Cultural ecosystem services provided by landscapes: assessment of heritage values and identity. Ecosyst Serv 2:14–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2012.07. 006

Research on the Global Green Market Based on Big Data Gaochuan Zhang and Bao-Jie He

Abstract Cities are currently under various challenges such as the urbanization, environmental deterioration, climate change and human welling. To address such challenges, there is a strong need and awareness of implementing green products, projects and practices in cities. However, there is a gap between people’s perception, awareness and acceptable and decisions on green promotion. To achieve performance-based planning, therefore, this study used big data to analyze the global green market for appropriate decision on green promotion and implementation. In particular, using the big data provided by the Google Trends, this paper analyzed the temporal and spatial trends of green concepts in terms of green roof, green wall, energy saving and green city. The results indicate that green city was the most popular green concept in green market. Whilst national interest could provide stakeholders with the overall information about the green markets, stakeholders should also consider the city-level interest according to the local characteristics. Overall, this study provides a reference of using big data to generate data-driven decisions for performance-based planning. Keywords Green concept


PBA
Big data
Potential market

1 Introduction Green market is shaped by multiple green concepts, forms and products, among which green city and green roof are two important nature-based approaches to achieving urban land conservation, urban green space expansion, urban ecosystem G. Zhang School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou 310023, China B.-J. He (&) School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400045, China e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_15

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improvement, urban heat island (UHI) mitigation (Zhang et al. 2019; He et al. 2019). Whilst there have been various governmental top-down plans and projects aiming at promoting green implementation, without stakeholders’ support or participation, it is difficult to realize the transition from the niche to regime, namely the wide implementation, in the near future (Brudermann and Sangkakool 2017). Therefore, there is a big gap between how to feasibly promote and accelerate green product implementation and people’s perception, acceptance and participation. Compared with traditional planning approach that uses a community-based approach for regional analysis, performance-based planning that is a system-level, data-driven process to identify strategies and investments has been increasingly upscaled. In particular, the performance-based approach provides landowners with a high degree of flexibility in planning activities (Yang et al. 2019). The performance-based planning is also achievable under the explosive condition of global data, where the Internet offers the opportunity to integrate and screen the useful information to form a bottom-up statistical result and derive a convenient and fast plan (Chen et al. 2014; Mehmood et al. 2019). A large amount of historical data from the cloud server and real-time monitoring data on green concepts provides people with infinite possibilities to effectively grasp and comprehend green market. Base on big data, accordingly, decisions on sustainable urban planning and design can be made in promoting green concept or product implementation (Manju Kumar et al. 2019). The analysis of the green markets based on big data can further help government decision makers and planners to understand the past and present about land use situation and better allocate social resources (Manju Kumar et al. 2019). For instance, the information (e.g. frequency, keywords) of word indexed are helpful to reveal potential green market (e.g. awareness, perception, awareness, acceptance, participation) and thereby inform top-down policies and regulations (Yuyun et al. 2017; Wang 2020). In addition, the big data analysis for green markets do not only guide the green market and mine insufficient area but also an exploration of technological innovation for performance-based planning approaches rather than traditional models so that this study may provide references for the inclusion of performance-based planning approach in broader urban environmental assessment and management (Yang et al. 2019; Wang 2020; Assuncao et al. 2013). Based on the big-data analysis of the indexing frequency of words relevant to green concepts, this study aims to understand green market around the globe. It is an innovative way to approach to performance-based planning with the improvement of probability of green products implementation by bottom-up data support. The specific objectives of this paper are (1) to understand previous and current situation of typical green products at different spatial scales based on big data; (2) to explore the accessible green concept and feasible area in practice through analyzing the heat rank and proportion; (3) to predict potential business opportunities for green market through heat map of related-words index.

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2 Methodology The source of big data is derived from the Internet tracks that record users’ demands, accessible time and frequency in order to enhance the interaction and communication with users for effective feedback (Xue and Liu 2019). The interaction between users and search engine can provide users with useful information and valuable index via cloud server (Li et al. 2019). Google Trends (https://trends. google.com/trends/?geo=US), a popular source for big data research and applications first introduced by the Google company on January 1, 2004, can help analyze the data based netizens’ behaviors, needs, wants, demands and interests among massive index records. Google Trends collects many accessible information of users who get access to the Google server, such as registration data, survey information, clicks of digital resources and outcomes of scientific researchers. Google Trends can further dig these large amounts of resources via machines and tools, limiting and prioritizing them into top five words. Furthermore, the Google Trends can utilize data-mining technology and a series of network tools to calculate index information (e.g. frequency, time, duration). Therefore, it is helpful to explore and promote the explicit and implicit market demand including the green market analysis based on big data. Google Trends has three typical functions including interest, relative topics and related queries which could explore the quantity of market requirement, share and potential market respectively. In this study, we utilized these functions to understand green market, with the input of four keywords relevant to green concept, such as green roof, green wall, green city and energy savings. In particular, the index frequency and spatial and temporal distribution of these four keywords were analyzed, as shown in Fig. 1. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the analysis may not include the results from several countries. For instance, Google services are not accessible as the Google company withdrew from the Chinese market in 2008.

Fig. 1 A schematic analysis of the green market by the Google Trends

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3 Green Concepts in Different Countries and Cities 3.1

Global Trend of Green Concepts

Figure 2 exhibits the temporal trend of green city, green wall, green roof and energy savings from 2004 to 2020. Green city ranked the first, followed by green wall, and energy saving ranked the last. The average values of these four keywords were 66%, 16%, 11% and 10%, respectively. Even though, it is observed that the value of green city interest peaked between 2016 and 2017, with the value of 100%. The interest of green roof, green wall and energy saving was below 25% throughout the study period with slight fluctuations. In comparison, the search volume of green roof and energy savings got to the peak, then declined continuously. The decreasing trend of energy saving was more rapid, compared with the one of green roof. Nevertheless, the interest of green wall increased gradually, exceeding 25% by the year of 2020, indicating that green wall is getting increasingly popular in green market year by year. Green city received the highest attention throughout the study period, with its value mostly ranged between 50 and 75%. Such information indicates the possibility of global green markets of green city, green wall, green roof and energy saving, where the green city should be prioritized in terms of investment and management. In comparison, the global markets of green roof and energy saving declined rapidly, while the one of green wall kept increasing gradually. Nevertheless, it should be noted the green city, green wall, green roof and energy saving are closely related to the national and regional policy, economic, social and environmental features. A further analysis of the regional, national and city-level interest is also required to support the decisions on green investment and management.

Fig. 2 The interest of green concepts from 2004 to 2020 in the Google Trends

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3.2 3.2.1

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National Trend of Green Concepts Green Concepts at National Level

Figure 3 present the popularity of four kinds of green concepts at the national level, where the darker shade indicates the countries/regions that have a higher frequency of word research. Through big-data mining, the top five highest index of green roof from 2004 to 2020 occurred in the United Kingdom, Canada, Hong Kong, Singapore, Australia, while the highest index of green wall was in Singapore, the United States, Australia, Philippines and Lebanon. Regarding the green city, the United Arab Emirates, Kenya, Philippines, Ireland and Nepal were the top five. In addition, Canada, UK, United States, Australia and Ireland have the most interest in energy savings. It could be discovered that green concepts are most popular in developed countries that have higher environmental protection awareness and high fundamental economic support (Labuschagne and Zulch 2016; Liu et al. 2020). Based on the index frequency, it can be observed that several countries or regions ranked the highest with more than one green concept. For instance, UK and Australia ranked the highest in terms of green roof, green wall and energy saving. Canada ranked the highest in terms of green roof and energy saving. Singapore ranked the highest in terms of green roof and green wall. Such information can indicate these countries or regions may promote the green products jointly if possible.

3.2.2

Relative Topics of Green Concept at National Level

The relative topics in this section defines the ratio of the index frequency of a specific green concept to the total frequency of the four. Figure 4 presents relative topics among the top five countries or regions. The results indicate that the highest

Fig. 3 The index frequency of green concepts in top five countries or regions

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Fig. 4 The index ratio of relative attention of green concepts in top five countries

ratio of green roof occurred in China (Hong Kong), Iran, Saint Helena, Thailand and Denmark. In comparison, top five countries for green wall were Trinidad and Tobago, Ecuador, Chile, Lebanon and Peru. The highest ratio of energy saving was in Canada, Saint Helena, UK, Belgium and USA. The highest ratio of green city occurred in Republic of Lithuania, Panama, Venezuela, Dominican and Morocco. Such results may be helpful for these countries or regions to formulate corresponding green policies and measures to jointly address their own environment problems. Among several green concepts, the corresponding countries or regions can prioritize some strategies for better implementation, such as improvement of green roof in Hong Kong, Iran, Saint Helena, etc. On the other hand, there might be some intention to improve the weak green concept, such as energy saving in Trinidad and Tobago, Ecuador, Chile, etc. Nevertheless, only one type of green concept among the four occurred in some countries or regions. For instance, the top five countries with the individual green city concept were Republic of Lithuania, Panama, Venezuela, Dominican Republic and Morocco. Such results indicate that these countries or regions implemented a single green policy owned the 100% market share of green city. Some countries have popularized the four green concepts and relatively equivalent in proportion, but the ratio of green concept is low, such as the item of energy savings and green roof. This result informs the improvement of the proportion of these low-proportion items for comprehensive and integrative green concepts in the future.

3.3 3.3.1

Urban Trend of Green Concepts Green Concepts at Urban Level

The demand degree of the locals, especially at the city scale, from the green index, is more direct to inform high-efficient promotion and to achieve popularization among various stakeholders. Therefore, the green concepts were further analyzed at the urban scale. Through big data mining at the urban level as shown in Fig. 5, the most frequent index of green roof was in the cities of Newcastle, Sheffield, Toronto, Portland and Vancouver. The green wall was most prevalent in Sydney, Singapore, Brisbane, London and Melbourne. The highest index of green city was in Green

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Fig. 5 The index frequency of green concepts in top five cities

Bay, Bowling Green, Washington, Tangerang and Kansas City. In addition, the highest index of energy savings was from Ottawa, Washington, Portland, Calgary and Toronto. Compared with the index frequency at the national and city scale, it is found that city-level green concepts could be different from the country-level green concepts. A good example is Singapore, a city-level country that had the highest popularity in terms of green wall at the country level as shown in Fig. 3, while it just ranked at the second at the city level. Whilst the green roof index from Singapore ranked the fourth at the national level, it was out of the top five at the city scale. This phenomenon also indicates the significance of considering the city-level green concepts.

3.3.2

Relative Topics of Green Concepts at Urban Level

A further analysis of the relative topics of green concepts at the urban level was conducted, as shown in Fig. 6. Cities that have the highest ratio of green roof were Newcastle, Sheffield, Toronto, Vancouver and Philadelphia. Green wall accounted for the highest ratio in Teheran, Liverpool, Cardiff, Montreal and Portland. Green city had the highest ratio in Nashville, Istanbul, Mississauga, Edmonton and Winnipeg, while energy saving had the highest ratio in Calgary, Ottawa, Toronto, Washington and Miami. Such information discloses the national status of green market at the urban level, providing the simple and fast information feedback mechanism to urban planner and policy maker for understanding strategies for advancing greener cities. It is also beneficial to the formulation of green policies and measures to address green weakness (Selavo et al. 2007).

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Fig. 6 The index ratio of green concepts in top five cities

Fig. 7 The index frequency of related word of green roof

3.4

Potential Demands of Green Concepts

Related queries are also important to understand the interest towards green concepts. For instance, people may search for ‘what is a green roof’, ‘solar energy savings’ when they are wanting to get the information about green roof and energy saving. Therefore, this section is designated to uncover the potential question and words that may assist people to get a holistic understanding of the green concepts, based on the related queries, as given in Fig. 7. It is helpful to reverse dig potential demand for green concept and to participate in green market to avoid common mistakes and make full preparations in advance. The results indicate that green roof is related to several alternative words of ‘what is a green roof’, ‘green roof system’, ‘sedum plant’, ‘living roof’ and ‘green roof park’. Among these, the ‘sedum plant’ received the highest frequency of index, implying the potential market demand for green roof. Meanwhile, ‘solar’, the word received the highest interest among the energy saving category, indicating the highest demand in energy saving achievement.

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4 Conclusions This paper collects the information of green roof, green wall, energy saving and green city to understand the green market potential around the world, so as to support the performance-based planning. Through this study, it is found that green city was the most popular green concept among the four, while the popularity of green wall was increasing continuously. The interest in green concepts varied spatially at the national and city levels. Whilst the national interest could provide stakeholders with the overall information about the green markets, the stakeholders should also consider the city-level interest according to the local characteristics. Such information can inform the high-efficient promotion strategies and to achieve popularization. The analysis of the related topics indicates that people in a same country, region or city may be highly interested in more than one green concepts, which provide the decision makers with the opportunity to promote these green concepts simultaneously. Overall, the analysis of the green markets provides a reference of using big data to generate data-driven decisions in many other fields for performance-based planning.

References Assuncao MD, Calheiros RN, Bianchi S, Netto MAS, Buyya R (2013) Big data computing and clouds: trends and future directions. J Paralle Distrib Comput 79–80:3–15 Brudermann T, Sangkakool T (2017) Green roofs in temperate climate cities in Europe–An analysis of key decision factors. Urban For Urban Greening 21:224–234 Chen M, Mao S, Liu Y (2014) Big data: a survey. Mob Netw Appl 19:171–209 He BJ, Zhao ZQ, Shen LD, Wang HB, Li LG (2019) An approach to examining performances of cool/hot sources in mitigating/enhancing land surface temperature under different temperature backgrounds based on landsat 8 image. Sustain Cities Soc 44:416–427 Labuschagne P, Zulch B (2016) Green rooftop systems: a South African perspective. Energy Procedia 96:710–716 Li K, Liu M, Feng Y, Ning C, Ou W, Sun J, Wei W, Liang H, Shao Y (2019) Using Baidu search engine to monitor AIDS epidemics inform for targeted intervention of HIV/AIDS in China. Sci Rep 9 Liu H, Huang B, Yang C (2020) Assessing the coordination between economic growth and urban climate change in China from 2000 to 2015. Sci Total Environ 139283 Manju Kumar P, Soraganvi VS, Lingadevaru DC (2019) Use of RS and GIS for land use/land cover of historical badami town, Bagalkot district, India. Int J Inno Technol Exploring Eng 8:2936–2938 Mehmood MU, Chun D, Zeeshan, Han H, Jeon G, Chen K (2019) A review of the applications of artificial intelligence and big data to buildings for energy-efficiency and a comfortable indoor living environment. Energy Build 202 Selavo L, Wood AD, Cao Q, Sookoor TI, Porter J (2007) LUSTER: wireless sensor network for environmental research. In: Proceedings of the 5th international conference on embedded networked sensor systems, SenSys 2007, 6–9 Nov, Sydney, NSW, Australia Wang W (2020) The research on street landscape design in smart city based on big data. Adv Intell Syst Comput 928:1327–1331 Xue T, Liu H (2019) The prediction of petition based on big data. Inf Discov Delivery 47:135–142

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Yang J, Jin S, Xiao X, Jin C, Xia J, Li X, Wang S (2019) Local climate zone ventilation and urban land surface temperatures: Towards a performance-based and wind-sensitive planning proposal in megacities. Sustain Cities Soc 47:101487 Yuyun, Akhmad Nuzir F, Julien Dewancker B (2017) Dynamic land-use map based on twitter data. Sustainability 9 Zhang GC, He BJ, Zhu ZZ, Dewancker BJ (2019) Impact of morphological characteristics of green roofs on pedestrian cooling in subtropical climates. Int J Env Res Pub He 16

A Strategic Performance-Based Planning Methodology to Promote the Regeneration of Fragile Territories Marialuce Stanganelli, Francesca Torrieri, Carlo Gerundo, and Marco Rossitti

Abstract The paper seeks to investigate if an integrated strategic and performancebased methodological approach can contribute to tackle uncertainty and to overcome the rigid and long-lasting regulation belonging to the prescriptive planning. This approach is based on the multi-scalar dimensions of different decision-making levels; action programs; governance and social involvement. The methodological framework proposed is based on different methodological evaluation tools in order to support an adaptive and inclusive decisional process. The aim of this study is dual. On the one hand, we want to prove how an integrated approach, involving both strategic and performance-based planning methodologies, can incorporate the strengths of both approaches, while complementing their separate weaknesses, toward enhancing the decision-making processes for the sustainable regeneration of territories. On the other hand, we highlight how a flexible, dynamic, adaptive, context-aware, and site-specific decision support system can contribute to the definition of alternative scenarios and lead public authorities to opt for the most performing one in terms of environmental, social, and economic sustainability. The tool implemented was tested for the case study of the regeneration of a naturalist site in Pantelleria, a little island in the south of Italy belonging to a group of fragile territories that were cut off by the main development dynamics and have gradually become marginalized due to depletion of the local economy and demographic decline. Keywords Performative planning


Strategic planning
Fragile territories

M. Stanganelli Department of Architecture, University Federico II of Naples, Naples, Italy F. Torrieri Department of Industrial Engineering, University Federico II of Naples, Naples, Italy C. Gerundo (&) Department of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University Federico II of Naples, Naples, Italy e-mail: [email protected] M. Rossitti Department of Architecture and Urban Studies, Polytechnic University of Milan, Milan, Italy © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_16

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1 Introduction Uncertainty is a crucial issue in contemporary urban planning (Christensen 1985). Urban planners have always been aware of the existence of uncertainty within the whole planning process. However, this issue has gained a growing relevance over time, moving from being a marginal aspect of the debate to a permanently focal one (Stanganelli and Bruni 2017). Until the end of the twentieth century, scholars mostly conceived uncertainty as a condition of “poor-determination”, mathematical probability, or preferability (Shannon 2006; Smets 2002; Waldheim 2006). In this light, urban planning has mainly played defence by identifying the suitable corrective measures to be adopted to bring analysis and projections back to an environment of certainty (Kato and Ahern 2008): probability intervals, evaluation methods, multicriteria analysis techniques and scenarios analysis have allowed, for a long time, to consider uncertainty still partially identifiable and governable. In the last decades, with regards to land use plans, the scientific debate has gained a strong awareness about the possibility of tackling uncertainty only through the identification of suitable and flexible forms of regulation and the strategic design of processes (Mandelbaum et al. 1996; Mazza 2015). As a consequence of this awareness, the issue of land use plans form and flexibility has been tackled in different ways, starting from the 1980s. In the United States, Great Britain, New Zealand and Australia, planners carried out various attempts to overcome the prescriptive approach by implementing performancebased planning (PBP) or performative zoning. The performance-based regulation approach lies in assuming that land use impacts depend on site characteristics and intensity of uses, rather than on allowable urban functions (Baker et al. 2006; Hodge 1986; Leung 2003). It may also be defined as a land use regulation system that allows or prohibits land uses based on their performance on pre-set criteria (Porter et al. 1988) or performance standards (Porter et al. 1988; Stockham 1974a, b). Scholars agree that although the PBP approach proved to gain good results in terms of site-specific project, it failed «as a means to articulate community or comprehensive plan», as well as in making the process less time-consuming and costly than the prescriptive planning (Baker et al. 2006). Moreover, performance standards are difficult to formulate and implement. This reason, together with the inability to satisfy the need for certainty of landowner’s rights, was identified as a determinant in coming back to prescriptive planning methods (Porter 1998). Despite its limitations, when used to replace traditional zoning, the performance-based planning ideology could be successfully applied to implement decisional processes on some relevant urban problems (Aigwi et al. 2019). In light of the renovation attempts mentioned above, this paper proposes a different planning approach. The paper seeks to investigate if an integrated strategic and performance-based methodological approach can improve the rigid urban planning regulative system and pursue environmental, social, and economic sustainable development in a fragile area. This kind of approach, involving both

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strategic and performance-based planning methodologies, would benefit from both approaches’ strengths and would allow overcoming their weaknesses by matching the strategic vision openness with the implementation of flexible, or rather, performative land use transformation directions. The starting point of the methodology proposed lies in the identification of different alternative development scenarios, built through a community participation process. The scenarios are then selected and evaluated according to multiple shared targets by integrating social analysis and multicriteria evaluation methods. Once sustainable performances requested are fixed, the full process undergoes two performance checks, which help to define possible scenarios and, thus, opt for the more sustainable one. This approach is tested to define and assess a regeneration strategy in a fragile area: the Island of Pantelleria, in southern Italy. Indeed, this case study is emblematic of the condition of many Italian fragile territories, which nowadays represent a matter of great concern. This island has been cut off by the main development dynamics, and it has become marginalized due to the depletion of the local economy and demographic decline (Calvaresi 2015; Carrosio 2019; Governa and Pasqui 2007), while it is endowed with an extraordinary natural and cultural capital. Thus, a strategic and ‘tailored’ regeneration process, leveraging on this fragile area’s resources, is needed for this area to rescue it from what is known as ‘abandon spiral’ (Yakubu et al. 2017). Against this background, the paper is organized in the following way: in Sect. 2, the methodological framework is introduced, and the case study is briefly described; the methodology implementation is presented in Sect. 3; finally, Sect. 4 provides conclusions concerning PBP framework improvement.

2 Methodological Framework The methodological framework proposed and illustrated in Fig. 1 combines the strategic approach and performative one within the traditional phases of a decision-making process (Simon 1972), introducing two performative check levels. The integration mentioned above makes the methodology place-based, communityshared and open to different development scenarios to define a shared interpretation of places and identify their possible new meanings and developments. The first step—i.e., the scenario context definition—involves a wide range of stakeholders and is carried out through different analyses coherent with the Systems Thinking Approach (Bánáthy 2000; Checkland and Poulter 2006; Checkland 1981), combining Hard System Analysis, Institutional Analysis, and Soft System Analysis. The results obtained help to define the place-based reference elements: the “drivers” of the project, the “criteria”, and the “performances” required to guarantee the sustainability of the planning project. The “drivers” are useful for the definition of a shared vision and a set of development “goals” or shared meta-preferences, which lead to the identification of a suitable set of actions (Fig. 1). In the second step of

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Fig. 1 Methodological approach: principles (inner circle) and phases (outer circle) (Authors’ elaboration)

the methodology, three different scenarios for Pantelleria have been implemented, starting from a combination of a SWOT analysis and a performance analysis (first level of performance check). Scenarios were built combining actions related to different goals, aiming to create several elements that could play as catalysts of various trends, thus attempting to face the uncertainty related to future developments. This condition defines the content of the first performance check of the process: only scenarios that combine many different goals and strategic actions are selected and assessed. In the third and last step, the performances of defined scenarios (second level of performance check) were tested according to thresholds identified for the study area and then evaluated using a multicriteria approach (Roy 1996; Hinloopen and Nijkamp 1990). A first rank order of the alternative was obtained thanks to the ELECTRE method’s application; then, the favourable solution’s robustness was checked through a sensitivity analysis. This methodology has been applied to a case study in Pantelleria island in Sicily, which represents a fragile territory characterized by marginality, abandonment, the decay of areas and activities, poor accessibility and economic disadvantages. In particular, the effectiveness of the planning methodology, inspired by sustainability principles and defined through an integrated strategic-performative approach, has been tested on two different areas in the south-west of the island: the former, located in the area called Khamma, whose development strategy can rely on the proximity to an urban area and the sea; the latter, located in the area called Ghirlanda, which is characterized by extraordinary rural and landscape-related values.

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3 Methodology Implementation This section presents the description of each phase of the planning methodology defined.

3.1

Decision Context Definition

The definition of decision context was carried out, combining three different analyses: Hard System Analysis, Institutional Analysis, and Soft System Analysis. The objective and countable information achieved performing the Hard System Analysis were integrated with the ones obtained from the Soft System Analysis; in this light, the definition of a stakeholder map through the Institutional Analysis technique (Etzioni 1998; De Marchi et al. 2000) was necessary for collecting “soft data”. Then, the Soft System Analysis was performed as an effective approach for analyzing complex situations, characterized by the interaction of many elements and the existence of different points of view related to a specific issue (Cerreta and Sandulli 2013). Each stakeholder group’s point of view, defined by the institutional analysis, was examined through two different tools: an online questionnaire and interviews with preferential actors based on a CATWOE1 Approach (Mulder 2017; Rosenhead and Mingers 2001).

3.2

Scenario Identification—First Level of Performance Check

The integration between the results of Hard and Soft System Analysis allowed deducing the drivers for a sustainable project. According to the principles of strategic planning, the whole information was systematized in a SWOT matrix. This matrix was used as a basis for a vision for Pantelleria, in which cultural and natural heritage are the starting point for sustainable development. With regard to this vision, a drop-down process led to the definition of 5 strategic targets (enhancement of traditional agriculture, promotion of natural resources, development of art and culture with their hybridization characters, revitalization of the architectural heritage “dammusi”, deseasonalisation and strengthening of touristic and service offer), 13 specific goals and 16 actions. A performative approach was used to create scenarios. In detail, the three alternative scenarios were identified through the definition of eligibility criteria: a scenario was eligible if it allowed to carry out at least ten strategic actions belonging

1

Acronym for Customer-Actors-Transformation-World view-Owner-Environmental constraints.

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to different goals. Next to the three alternative scenarios, a fourth one, defined ‘likely scenario’, was defined by forecasting Pantelleria’s future based on the current development trends with no prevision of a new strategy. In particular, in the first scenario, “Culture First”, the two intervention areas were interested in a culture-led integrated project. The second scenario, “Wine First”, was based on viticulture, one of the island’s main strengths. The third one, “Culture and Wine”, was defined by combining the two above-described scenarios. In the fourth scenario, “Trend Based”, the project areas’ future image was built up, moving from the actual trends.

3.3

Scenario Assessment—Second Level of Performance Check

To develop a coherent, sustainable, and inclusive project solution, the favorable alternative scenario was selected through a multicriteria analysis, oriented by a set of performative standards thresholds. As a starting point for the analysis, a set of criteria was defined with regards to the strategic goals of the project after the addition of a sixth strategic goal—i.e., the maximization of the promoter’s individual profit (Fig. 2). A performance threshold was associated with each one of the nine criteria. The respect of at least the majority of the performance thresholds was assumed as a minimum requirement. The three previously selected scenarios proved to overcome the performance check, while the trend-based scenario was not able to satisfy any threshold, resulting in a not sustainable option. Indicators were evaluated through spatial analysis tools in a GIS environment. Then, a score was assigned to each scenario concerning the whole criteria. These scores were systematized and standardized in an impact matrix, representing the multicriteria analysis’ real core. To evaluate the importance of criteria in the favorable alternative scenario choice, a system of weight was defined through a pairwise comparison. Based on these sets of scores and weights, a preferability order of alternatives was identified, applying the Electre method. Following this process, the scenario “Culture and Wine” was identified as the most favorable one. However, the need to consider uncertainty in the planning process led to conduct several sensitivity analyses to understand if the obtained result was robust enough or if a little change in the input value could be responsible for a change in the preferability order of alternative. In detail, the sensitivity of the ranking was assessed using a Monte Carlo approach and the robustness of the favourable scenario “Culture and Wine” was verified.

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Fig. 2 Definition of criteria, indicators, scale, unit of measurement and performance thresholds

4 Conclusions The paper presented a hybrid strategic and performative planning process. The methodology proposed proved to offer multiple and different benefits, compared with the traditional urban planning approach. It is strongly place-based and stakeholders-shared (as strategic planning) and keeps to sustainability rules from a performative perspective (as PBP). Indeed, the paper aimed to investigate if performance-based planning, wisely integrated within a strategic planning process, could ensure to overcome the high level of uncertainty affecting territorial planning issues. Moreover, this research attempted to analyze if a performative approach may be an effective method for fragile territorial contexts. The proposed planning methodology, based on the integration between the strategic and performative approach, was framed through the definition of two performance checks: in particular, the first performance check ensured that the selected scenarios were able to avoid mono-sectorial solutions and provide multi-functional spaces, thus boosting multiple development trends; the second performance check allowed to verify the respect of a minimum standard, assumed as a guarantee of the safeguard and enhancement of natural and cultural heritage resources of the site.

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Moreover, the experimentation carried out has shown how, through the combination with a strategic approach, it is possible to overcome the acknowledged PBP limits. In this light, PBP becomes a placed-based and community-shared learning process not linked to pre-set predictions and not based on definite configurations. The openness, reversibility, and flexibility of the methodology structure, which are the planning process’s main features, make it applicable to other fragile territorial contexts thanks to the decision context definition phase. Indeed, this phase identifies place-specific development drivers in compliance with the context features and is consistent with local stakeholders’ expectations. On the contrary, it appears to be barely applicable on a larger scale—i.e., densely populated cities or metropolitan areas—where more criteria and a higher number of indicators must be calculated, thus risking to run into the traditional barriers related to performance-based planning.

References Aigwi IE, Egbelakin T, Ingham J, Phipps R, Rotimi J, Filippova O (2019) A performance-based framework to prioritise under utilised historical buildings for adaptive reuse intervention in New Zealand. Sustain Cities Soc 48:101547 Baker DC, Sipe NG, Gleeson BJ (2006) Performance-based planning: perspectives from the United States, Australia, and New Zealand. J Plann Edu Res 25(4):396–409. https://doi.org/10. 1177/0739456X05283450/ Bánáthy BH (2000) Guided evolution of society: a systems view (contemporary systems thinking). Springer, Berlin Calvaresi C (2015) Una strategia nazionale per le aree interne: diritti di cittadinanza e sviluppo locale. Territorio 74:78–79 Carrosio G (2019) I margini al centro. L’Italia delle aree interne tra fragilità e innovazione. Donzelli, Rome Cerreta M, Sandulli G (2013) Un quartiere tutto per sé: valutazioni adattive per microazioni integrate. In: Crescita economica e reti regionali, XXXIV regional sciences conference proceedings, pp 1–14 Checkland PB (1981) System thinking, system practice. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester Checkland PB, Poulter J (2006) Learning for action. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester Christensen KS (1985) Coping with uncertainty in planning. J Am Plann Assoc 51(1):63–73 De Marchi B, Funtowicz SO, Lo Cascio S, Munda G (2000) Combining participative and institutional approaches with multi-criteria evaluation: an empirical study for water issue in Troina, Sicily. Ecol Econ 34(2):267–282 Etzioni A (1998) A communitarian note on stakeholder theory. Bus Ethics Q 8(4):679–691 Governa F, Pasqui G (2007) Lo sviluppo locale in territori fragili. Urbanistica 133 Hinloopen E, Nijkamp P (1990) Qualitative multiple-criteria choice analysis, the dominant regime method. Qual Quant 24:37–56 Hodge G (1986) Planning Canadian communities: an introduction to the principles, practice, and participants. Methuen, Toronto Kato S, Ahern J (2008) Learning by doing: adaptive planning as a strategy to address uncertainty in planning. J Environ Plann Manage 51(4):543–559. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640560802117028/ Leung HL (2003) Land use planning made plain. University of Toronto Press, Toronto Mandelbaum SJ, Mazza L, Burchell RW (eds) (1996) Explorations in planning theory. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ

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Mazza L (2015) Spazio e cittadinanza. Politica e governo del territorio. Donzelli, Rome Mulder P (2017) CATWOE analysis. Retrieved from ToolsHero Porter DR (1998) Flexible zoning: A status report on performance standards. 1–4 Zoning News January Porter DR, Phillips PL, Lassar TJ (1988) Flexible zoning: how it works. Urban Land Institute, Washington, D.C Rosenhead J, Mingers J (2001) Rational analysis for a problematic world revisited: problem structuring methods for complexity, uncertainty and conflict. John Wiley and sons, Chichester Roy B (1996) Multicriteria methodology for decision aiding. Dordrecht: Kluwer academic english translation of the French version: Méthodologie Multicritère d’aide à la Décision (1985). Economica, Paris Shannon K (2006) From theory to resistance: landscape urbanism in Europe. In: Waldheim C (ed) The landscape urbanism reader. Princeton Architectural Press, New York Simon H (1972) In: McGuire CB, Radner R (eds) Theories of bounded rationality. Decision and Organization, Amsterdam North-Holland Smets M (2002) Grid, Casco, clearing and montage. In: Shafer R, Moll C (eds) About landscape: essays on design, style, time, and space. Callwey Birkhauser, Münich Stanganelli M, Bruni F (2017) Il progetto dell’incertezza. CRIOS Critica degli Ordinamenti Spaziali 14:29–43 Stockham JR (1974a) Performance zoning as an alternative to euclidean zoning (Unpublished master thesis). Oregon State University Stockham JR (1974b) Performance standards: a technique for controlling land use. Corvallis Waldheim C (ed) (2006) The landscape urbanism reader. Princeton Architectural Press, New York Yakubu IE, Egbelakin T, Dizhur D, Ingham J, Sungho Park K, Phipps R (2017) Why are older inner-city buildings vacant? Implications for town centre regeneration. J Urban Regeneration and Renewal 11(1):44–59

Models and Technologies for Spatial Planning

Envisaging Urban Changes for the Smart City: The Live City Information Modeling (LCIM) Romano Fistola and Andrea Rastelli

Abstract The smartness of a city has to be related to the possibility of the citizens to take part in the process of managing the urban system. New technologies today offer enormous potential in order to manage and drive the sustainable evolution of cities. In other words, the new potential of digital innovation must be incorporated into new processes for managing urban transformations. Through the clever adoption of new technologies, it is possible to “see” and verify the transformation of the city in advance and take socially shared decisions. By putting in place new procedures, urban change can be envisaged ex-ante and a perceptual foreshadowing can be provided to citizens. Through this procedure, summarized in the abbreviation: Live City Information Modeling (LCIM), the inhabitants of the city, seeing where the transformation will be, play an active role in urban decisions, overcoming the need to get technical knowledge, and being able to evaluate, thanks to augmented reality, the opportunity, the effectiveness and sustainability of the city transformation. In this paper, we try to focus attention on these new ways to envisage the urban evolution by describing all the steps of the LCIM. Keywords Smart city


Augmented reality
Participatory urban planning

1 Introduction The new order of the world, that seems on its way to being redefined, requires a decisive shift towards innovative procedures in all fields of human activity. The current global crisis has highlighted the numerous weaknesses of the economic and social systems, as well as the models currently adopted to manage the growth processes of human settlements. As it is clear, by considering recent months, technological innovation can play a vital role in terms of support for urban survival R. Fistola (&)
A. Rastelli DING—Department of Engineering, University of Sannio, AURUS Research Group, Benevento, Italy e-mail: rfi[email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_17

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by ensuring the maintenance of the relational structure of the city. The study proposes a reflection on some main topics like: • A new idea of city smartness summarized by a “conceptual” equation of new urban planning in which ICT has to be adopted instead of simply being used for city management. • An innovative method to interpret and to be able to mitigate the urban entropy particularly dangerous for the sustainable evolution of the urban system. • A new way of understanding the participatory planning by using the fundamental power of innovation technology. • An innovative procedure, developed by using augmented reality, to envisage the city changes in a more convenient and natural way for citizens with no expertise in the field of town planning. • A specific application, downloadable on a smartphone, to “see” the transformation of a specific urban context only in the site where it is planned. The final aim, in addition to the description of the augmented reality system developed, is to open new horizons of debate in the field of urban planning and design that can no longer just be referred to as methods and procedures that have always had to chase the change of the city instead of governing it.

2 A Smartness for the City: An Equation of the New Urban Planning In order to give a synthetic expression of the relationship between new technologies and urbanism, it’s possible to formulate a descriptive equation of the new urban planning, structured through the mindful adoption of technological innovation. UT þ f½Adðsa þ ictÞ=arg ¼ NUP where: Urban Transformation + Adoption of (systemic approach + innovation technology)/available resources = New Urban Planning UT = Urban Transformation (evolution of the urban system) Ad = Adoption of … sa = systemic approach, ict = innovation communication technology ar = available resources (sa + ict) = new urban modelling [Ad(sa + ict)]/ar = entropy reduction = urban smartness increasing Systemic approach adoption = city as a system, complexity, urban modelling, AI algorithms ICT adoption = GIS, BIM, AR, MR, 3D City Modeling, drones for aerial photogrammetry, etc.

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This equation presents a central component (in brackets), which can be interpreted as an expression of urban smartness, in which some significant elements are related to each other. In particular, the need to adopt a systemic approach (Von Bertalanffy 1968) is highlighted to understand and model the rapid changes of the urban system together with new technologies and the need to verify the sustainability of urban transformation (by placing a representative measure of available resources in the denominator). The numerator probably represents the heart of the equation in which the members related to the systemic approach and new technologies are not merely considered in an “additive” way, but are placed in a relationship of “adoption”, that underlines how the systemic approach should be considered through awareness of the enormous potential of ICT (Fistola 2009).

3 Adopting ICT for a New Participatory Planning Process Cities entrust their survival on the ability to produce, process and exchange information. Today, human settlements can be imagined as enormous hubs of data traversed instantly by terabytes of data from which, they manage to extract content useful for the daily management and governance of the transformations of the city system. New technologies make it possible to verify the efficiency of many urban processes. These concepts are at the basis of the theory of “digital twin” already introduced in 2002 by Grieves and Vickers (2016) according to which it is possible, in many fields of human activity, to “copy” processes, systems and activities by “twinning” them digitally and analyzing their behavior in real time, in the digital arena. This allows for possible corrections and modifications with a consequent saving of resources. Citizens are ultra-connected individuals, terminals, or emitters of data flows, that determine their behavior within the urban contexts, the system of actions and interactions in the city. According to The Ericsson Mobility Report 2020 (Ericsson 2020), the sim cards in circulation in the world exceed the world population with a penetration rate of 103% (however, in the general statistical evaluation, inactive sim cards or holders of more than one card should be considered). In many cases commercial purposes prevail over the service potential of this hyper-connected organization, but it is the commitment of researchers to indicate possible ways of adopting new technologies, as in the case of digital twin, which may allow a better use of the now scarce resources available. The city and the territory must be interpreted as being a complex, dynamic system (Bertuglia et al. 1987) whose development (and not growth) must be governed continuously and the relative evolution kept within a range of compatibility and sustainability of the available resources (Fistola 2012). In Italian urban planning research, there have been many contributions to the development of a series of studies that could be included in a field of research on urban phenomena that can be defined as “comprehensive urban modeling”. The meaning of this term is in contrast to the previous willingness of many scholars to characterize the rigid application of statistical models and methods for the study of the territory, but instead it uses in an integrated

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way processing procedures and theories mediated by the field of neuroscience and artificial intelligence. Among the first it seems useful to recall the studies by Rabino, Cecchini, Maciocco, Borri, Occelli, Secondini and many others, who were the first in our country to understand the enormous potential of adopting technological innovation at the internal governance processes of territorial transformations. New technologies, opportunely adopted in the managing process, can contribute to carrying out this activity in an optimal way, reducing the system’s range of possible variation, mitigating its general vulnerability (Fistola and La Rocca 2017) and consequently allowing a better development (Fig. 1). The involvement of the urban community in the definition of the actions of managing the territory, represents a fundamental moment for the construction of the city planning scenarios. As De Carlo says in 1965, during the job for a new urban plan in Rimini: “The role of the urban planner is to drive the process of popular participation through which it is the citizens themselves who assume an authentic and decisive role in deciding the use and configuration of the territory. His role is to relate to the administrators, politicians and other technicians to present himself to the community in order to make them decide the lines of future development” (Tomasetti 2012). The collection of consensus on urban transformations is currently being put into practice through the well-known techniques of collective involvement developed in the U. S. since the 1960s and among which can be mentioned: Planning for Real, Open Space Technology (OST), Action Planning, etc. In general, all the participatory urban planning projects foresee a direct involvement of the population (through public forums) to which a facilitator-conductor describes the proposals of intervention by showing the drafts of the urban plan or by

Fig. 1 The urban system within the range of expected trajectories that, thanks to the action of new technologies (ICT), is narrowed, allowing a more effective and sustainable managing of the system’s performance (scheme by R. Fistola)

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administering specific questionnaires. Furthermore, some scholars (maybe in a controversial way), have pointed out that deliberative planning techniques can also facilitate participation and decision-making processes (Forester 1999). Many of the actions of participation, collective socialization and meeting have been currently put in crisis by the pandemic emergency that pushes us to totally rethink the urban system (Fistola and Borri 2020). Also, in this case, technology has intervened to support the impossibility of proximity by allowing meetings and gatherings via the web. However, it should be noted that carrying out a participatory urban planning activity without direct participation, becomes objectively difficult. In addition, the possibility to overcome the lack of technical preparation of the community, thanks to the interaction with a facilitator able to explain the content of the works, loses its effectiveness. The perceptual pre-configuration, proposed here through the LCIM, is placed within the context synthetically outlined with the aim of indicating a new way for urban participation.

4 The Live City Information Modeling: Steps of a New Procedure Thanks to the possibility of having a digital twin of our cities, made possible by CIM technologies (City Information Modeling), it makes even more sense to imagine a further digital dimension, the dimension of the “live” visualization; that is the dimension related to the vision of the model and information content as real-time and live perceptual foreshadowing of urban transformations. The dimension of live and on demand configuration applied to the CIM model led to the definition of the Live City Information Modeling (LCIM). The LCIM model is a CIM model that can be viewed and interacted with live and in context, and is therefore, a new tool for augmented reality with a high information content. Among the most effective and increasingly used technologies in all fields of human activity, augmented and mixed reality (AR and MR) define probably the most interesting area of development (Fistola and Rastelli 2018). As pointed out elsewhere (Fistola and La Rocca 2018) the future smart city will have an “augmented dimension” underlining the enormous potential of this technology. The LCIM is fundamentally based on the ability to use augmented reality to preconfigure future city structures and to show the citizens, through the use of a simple smartphone, the new expected structures. By structuring an LCIM model, it is possible to develop what we call: Perceptual Sharing of Knowledge (PSK) which describes the capability of citizens to visualize an urban transformation (by using a common smartphone) thanks to the augmented reality. In the realization of an LCIM application prototype, a synthesis of techniques capable of providing a first representative model was tested: • GIS and proximity cartography. • City Information Modeling. • Retopology modeling process.

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• Real-time graphics applications. • 3D printing. Through this selection of digital processes, the first 3D model of an urban section was developed (the university campus in via dei Mulini in Benevento). The starting data, obtained from 3D GIS models and from the BIM models of the relevant buildings, has been reworked and simplified (retopology process) to allow a macroscopic view in real time, also usable on low-profile hardware (personal computers and smartphones). This digital model of the city represents an object that describes urban elements in three dimensions at a simplified level of detail, whose parts are organized according to the hierarchical scheme typical of the theory of urban subsystems. Starting from these illustrative elements, a level of information extraction is developed through the following functions: • The primary function is to visualize in 3D a section of the urban environment relevant to the transformation intervention. • Through a series of filters, it is possible to isolate portions of the model and receive dynamic information about them. • A limited selection of urban levels has been incorporated, including the equipped green area and a series of BIM parameters consisting of the structural state and the section of the floors of the single building. • The application maintaining the same functions mentioned above can be remodeled with respect to different outputs, guaranteeing maximum diffusion; it can in fact be used on a web page or installed on one’s smartphone where, in compliance with the hardware characteristics, it can also provide an augmented reality display mode in the real context. The outcome of this first application prototype was undoubtedly positive with regards to the accessibility and degree of stability of augmented reality, of which the prototype can provide different modes of interaction: • “Classic Raycast AR”: positioning of the 3D model starting from the detection of a flat horizontal surface. • CM “Context Marker”: using a reference marker in the urban context, the application prototype derives the position to align the virtual scene. In the application prototype, this operation must be manually initiated by the user through an alignment mask, after which the virtual scene is anchored to the environmental detection system and it will no longer be necessary for the marker to be present within the frame to ensure stable alignment simulation. The user can recalibrate the simulation at any time by performing the initial alignment operation. Starting from these results, the future objectives of the research were set: • Formalize a first archiving format of the LCIM model. • Define a user experience based on the expected functions.

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Fig. 2 Images of the prototyping of the application performed on a scale model made in 3D printing: the pictures show the following functions: 1. Building visualization of the LCIM app: “hooked” to the 3D printed model. 2. Levels display of the LCIM app “hooked” to the 3D printed model. 3. Structure view of the LCIM app “hooked” to the 3D printed model. 4. Cutter display of the LCIM app “hooked” to the 3D printed model (Image source: AURUS Research Group)

• The CIM provides a virtual model of the city, consequently hypothesizing an AI with machine learning functions that can interface with the model provided and initially process “live” information with respect to objective data from real-time surveys and the inputs shared by the citizen through the LCIM application. A first test on an urban context through the LCIM smartphone app of the architectural project for the new building of the University of Sannio at via dei Mulini in Benevento (Fig. 2).

5 A First Test on the Urban Context Perceptual foreshadowing through the LCIM smartphone app of the architectural project of the new building of the University of Sannio at Via dei Mulini in Benevento (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3 The pictures show how the application will envisage, thanks to the augmented reality, the transformation of the urban context (Image source: AURUS Research Group)

6 Conclusions The cities represent the places where the future of the human species will be decided and the sites where people continue to be concentrated. The rapid global changes (and the recent pandemic crisis), that the planet seems to be failing to stop, are radically transforming the way people act and interact in cities. In the near future we will see substantial transformations of the human space and urban context as well. More effective procedures will be needed to preconfigure these changes so that everyone can perceive them and decide in real time on their implementation. New technologies, if properly adopted in the processes of urban transformation management, can play a crucial role in this sense, and allow the saving of resources. The PSK is a possible new procedure for innovative participatory planning through the adoption of augmented reality as a tool for a new visualization of the future city.

References Bertuglia CS, Leonardi G, Occelli S, Rabino GA, Tadei R, Wilson AG (eds) (1987) Urban systems: contemporary approach to modelling. Croom Helm, London Ericsson Mobility Report June 2020. https://www.ericsson.com/en/mobility-report/reports/june2020 Fistola R (2009) Innovazione tecnologica e governo delle trasformazioni territoriali. In: Papa R (eds) Il governo delle trasformazioni urbane e territoriali. Metodi, tecniche e strumenti. F. Angeli, Milano, ch 22, pp 511–522

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Fistola R (2012) Urban entropy versus sustainability: a new town planning perspective. In: Pacetti M, Passerini G, Brebbia CA, Latini G (eds) The sustainable city VII, vol 155. WIT press, Southampton, pp 195–204 Fistola R, Borri D (2020) Virucity. Rethinking the urban system. TeMA. Special issue, Covid-19 versus City-20. J Land Use, Mob Environ 179–187. https://doi.org/10.6092/1970-9870/6971 Fistola R, La Rocca RA (2017) Territorio e vulnerabilità La localizzazione di attività ad elevato impatto territoriale. Aracne Editrice, Rome Fistola R, La Rocca RA (2018) Augmenting the smart city. A “new view” for the urban planning. In: Leone A, Gargiulo C (eds) Environmental and territorial modelling for planning and design. FedOA Press, Naples, pp 52–55. https://doi.org/10.6093/978-88-6887-048-5 Fistola R, Rastelli A (2018) Nuove tecnologie e futuro della città: il governo “aumentato” delle trasformazioni urbane. In: Moccia FD, Sepe M (eds) Interruzioni, intersezioni, condivisioni, sovrapposizioni. Nuove prospettive per il territorio. Urbanistica Informazioni, no. 263, s.i., XI INU study day. INU Edizioni Srl, Rome Forester JF (1999) The deliberative practitioner: encouraging participatory planning processes. MIT Press, Cambridge Grieves M, Vickers J (2016) Digital twin: mitigating unpredictable, undesirable emergent behavior in complex systems (excerpt). https://doi.org/10.13140/rg.2.2.26367.61609 Tomasetti F (2012) Cambiare Rimini. De Carlo e il piano del nuovo centro (1965–1975). Maggioli Editore, Santarcangelo di Romagna Von Bertalanffy L (1968) General system theory: foundations, development, applications. Penguin Books, London

New Tools to Analyse the Wastescapes of the Cities: The Case Study of the Metropolitan City of Naples Maria Somma

Abstract In recent years, urban planning has increasingly taken into account the study of urban phenomena through spatial analysis using cutting-edge digital technologies. Often the need has been felt to understand the urban event by studying and understanding the shape of cities and their components, which constitute their complex, continually evolving structure. In this perspective, there is a need for decision support tools able to manage a large amount of data and to elaborate a series of useful information for territorial planning processes, analysing each layer of the territory, neglected or not, to determine the qualitative and quantitative development especially of those places—wastescapes—that today are rejected by society and by any planning strategy. The objective is to analyse the morphology of the territory and evaluate the attractiveness of waste landscapes that are located either close to infrastructures or in the immediate vicinity, using the UNA analysis tool in the ArcGIS environment, analysing and questioning the weight that the infrastructural network has on the territory and using the centrality, attractiveness and density as a parameter for assessing morphological change and a possible change in the choice of urban regeneration strategies, identifying those places that can be more attractive and central than others and that too often coincide with abandoned areas and that, if regenerated, can become the new porosity of cities. Keywords Wastescapes


Urban network analysis
Evaluation map

1 Introduction Urban phenomena affecting cities in terms of growth have increasingly brought the attention of many authors to the understanding of the urban form and its components (Longley and Batty 1994; Batty 2005, 2011; Batty and Marshall 2009; M. Somma (&) Department of Architecture, University of Naples Federico II, Via Toledo 402, 80134 Naples, Italy e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_18

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Mehaffy et al. 2010; Almusaed and Almssad 2019). Cities—along with their complex set of functions—has been continued to undergo modifications in a non-linear and programmed way usually. Nevertheless, the revolutionary novelty of our times has not been the change, but the speed with which it has occurred; In this sense, Jacques Attali has defined “the city as the only living organism that can rejuvenate and real heritage of innovative experimentation” (Giannasso and Petrucci 2012), which goes beyond the sum of its citizens. For these reasons, it has been becoming increasingly important and necessary using spatial decision support systems (S-DSS) (Sugumaran and DeGroote 2010; Keenan and Jankowski 2019; Armstrong 1994), which help to: – manage and organise data produced from time to time by large agencies; – process a series of useful information for the spatial planning analysing each layer of the territory, – determine a development aimed at sustainability, not just as the mere sealing of soil that generates new functionality, which over time is set aside. S-DSS, indeed, have allowed planners to manage a massive amount of data, processing a series of information that can be defined as useful for spatial planning processes, acting as decision support (Kechagioglou et al. 2016). Correctly, these tools can return a set of indicators that determine the attractiveness of territories, degrees of accessibility or proximity to other places (Mele and Poli 2015; Mele and Poli 2017). By reading the city through its shape at various scales and spatial properties that exist between buildings, streets, and land use, it has been possible to understand the processes of transformation and replacement that have followed one another throughout history (Batty 2008). As an example, the street plot can reflect the growth and the gradual stratification of different neighbourhoods which—along with its buildings—are the pivot of human movements and activity. In this study, the possibility of making a different morphological reading of the Metropolitan City of Naples using GIS technology has been explored. Urban structure, organisation, and attribute that characterise it have been analysed. The proposed cognitive framework, which is developed starting from economic-functional factors, has tried to establish a new model of the territory representation focusing more on urban planning features of wastescapes (Amenta and Attademo 2016; Geldermans et al. 2017; Russo et al. 2017). Geographic Information Systems (GIS) tools have been used to relate the spatial properties of the city with an open-access data set. The contribution was aimed to give importance to the urban form by analysing it, starting from the system of roads and renewing the repertoire of materials that describe them by defining new taxonomies related to the original scale. An interpretation of the urban phenomenon using the roads infrastructure as an integral key to the settlement process has been proposed. By breaking down the intricate territorial plot, specific indicators have been highlighted as points of attraction that are decisive for future planning and more specifically for the regeneration of wastescapes.

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2 Research Purpose and Methodological Approach The proposed research methodology had provided for the identification of technological tools able to analyse the complexity of the urban form. Subsequently, spatial indicators were selected to perform the analysis of the urban way, to produce input data, and to show some results (Fig. 1). The research had identified the Metropolitan Municipality of Naples as a case study. Subsequently, it had examined the municipalities of Afragola, Cardito, Casalnuovo di Napoli and Casoria (in the east of Naples) because the presence of large road infrastructures had defined a taxonomy of the territories such as to generate wastescapes (Amenta and Attademo 2016; Geldermans et al. 2017; Russo et al. 2017) (Fig. 2), had defined and had identified for the first time in the Horizon 2020 REPAiR project (http://h2020repair.eu/).

3 Network Analysis and Evaluation Index to Analyse the Urban Morphology and Wastescapes A Network Analysis toolbox referred to as Urban Network Analysis (UNA) (Sevtsuk and Mekonnen 2012) was used to analyse the urban morphology. This tool represents excellent support for territorial analysis related to the knowledge of systems’ complexity and urban phenomena as a sign of dynamics of anthropisation

Fig. 1 The framework methodology. Source author’s elaboration

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Fig. 2 Spatial boundaries of the case study area defining urbanised areas and wastescapes. Source author’s elaboration

on and in the city (Longley and Batty 1994; Jacobs 1961; Bertuglia and Vaio 2009). Moreover, it represents an implementation of the previous methods and tools used to understand and describe the state of urban systems through the analysis of networks starting from Space Syntax (Hillier and Hanson 1989) implemented in the Multiple Centrality Assessment (Porta and Latora 2007). Urban Network Analysis (Sevtsuk 2010; Sevtsuk and Mekonnen 2012) works with both geometric and topological information, analyses and describes complex spatial models of the city by combining urban network analysis with mathematical network analysis models. The tool has two metrics, referred to as centrality (Sevtsuk and Mekonnen 2012; Sevtsuk 2018) and redundancy (Sevtsuk 2018). For the study, reference is made to the centrality tool based on mathematical methods that provide each node of the network with an assessment scale that defines the degree of importance. Moreover, this tool makes it possible to identify five different indicators, named: Reach (Bhat et al. 2000; Peponis et al. 2008; Sevtsuk and Mekonnen 2012), Gravity (Hansen 1959), Betweenness (Freeman 1977), Closeness (Sabidussi 1966), Straightness (Vragović et al. 2005). Different centralities that return describe the proximity and the adjacency between people and places. The gravity index is used for the research because it is based on the intuition that the more crowded a centre, the most central it is, referring to the degree of attractiveness.

4 Achievements The research analyses the morphological and settlement structure of the focus area through the elaboration of a dataset network on which indicators of attractiveness and accessibility has been calculated, using the index of population density and the degree of abandonment of a place. The last one index has been related to three types of abandoned areas in terms of weights about infrastructures:

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1. buffer strips of the infrastructures in a state of neglect; 2. abandoned fields and agricultural plots; 3. public or disused public or public use equipment. Latter types describe a particular kind of wastescapes (Amenta and Attademo 2016; Geldermans et al. 2017)—also known as drosscapes (Berger 2007), which are an essential part of the urban landscape. By identifying the real nodes resulting from the road junctions, it is possible to understand on which street or building it is suitable to locate a new activity or where the pedestrian traffic can be expected to be more developed, and why the values of city lands vary from one place to another (Sevtsuk and Mekonnen 2012) through a structure that allows describing the relationship between movement, places, and institutions. Moreover, the centrality metrics focus mainly on the centrality of each graphic element respect to surrounding elements. These metrics are similar to spatial accessibility measures, but they have been applied on the net rather than on the Euclidean space (Bhat et al. 2000). In the next paragraph, the results obtained by the gravity index has been shown.

4.1

Gravity Index and Its Application for the Wastescapes Land

The gravity index measures the degree of attractiveness and the centrality of a place using population density and the degree of wastescapes as weights of analysis. Considering the gravity as directly proportional to mass and inversely proportional to the distance, it can be noticed that the accessibility is proportional to the attractiveness and inversely proportional to the distance to surrounding destinations. The reference equation is represented below (Sevtsuk and Mekonnen 2012): Gravityr ½i ¼

X

W ½J  eb
d ½i;j R j Gfig;d fi;jg  r

where b is the exponent that controls the effect of distance decay on each shorter route between i and j, while W(j) is the weight of a destination that can be reached from within the radius threshold. The specificity of b depends both on the travel mode assumed in the analysis and on distance units (Sevtsuk and Mekonnen 2012). The thickness of the infrastructural fabric defines the most attractive and central places in urban centres. It determines the accessibility index of urban centres defined concerning the type of infrastructure and speed of travel. More specifically, the territories of Afragola, Cardito, Casalnuovo di Napoli and Casoria are quite attractive urban centres also for population density (Fig. 3). This attractiveness has made it possible to structure further spatial impedance factors that define the attractiveness of the waste landscapes, which to date are marginal places and excluded from planning and above all regeneration actions.

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Fig. 3 Gravity index of population density and table of gravity gradient specifications for STS. Source author’s elaboration

Each abandoned place using constant speed driving as a mode of travel according to the type of road you are travelling. Since the index is calculated with respect also to the presence or absence of primary roads and the distance of travel, two different readings of waste landscapes are determined. In the municipality of Casoria and the southern part of Afragola wastescapes are less attractive and challenging to reach. In the remaining municipalities, on the other hand, where there is also a greater presence of wastescapes, the presence of large infrastructures if on the one hand generates negativity and therefore land consumption, on the other hand, allows easy access to these areas and consequently makes them much more attractive as travel costs are reduced by the shorter distance and their proximity (Fig. 4). Concerning this index, a criterion of effectiveness of urban regeneration interventions can be defined for the attractiveness of abandonment logos. The map, therefore, evaluates the attraction to places that today are marginal and serves as a support for future urban regeneration processes.

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Fig. 4 Centrality of gravity. Measured according to the weight of population density and employment within a search radius of 500 m. Source author’s elaboration

5 Discuss and Conclusion The application of the UNA toolbox in territorial contexts allows outlining a series of evaluation maps that allow reading not only the morphology of the territory but also to understand its limitations and advantages. The process of evaluation of waste landscapes through indexes is a field of research not yet investigated. The tool has made it possible to outline a first evaluation analysis of these places that for different reasons are rejected by the urban system. Evaluating these places to the weight that the road network has on the territory, gives general information on the level of accessibility of a place in the neighbourhood where it falls. The gravity index is one of the most famous measures of spatial accessibility (Hansen 1959; Sevtsuk and Mekonnen 2012) because it captures a weight factor, and takes into account the spatial impedance of the trip needed to reach the selected destinations

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(Sevtsuk and Mekonnen 2012). It then measures the attractiveness of travelling to a destination, considering both the attractiveness of the destination and the difficulty of reaching it. The greater the distance from an origin to a destination, the greater the “friction”, which reduces the attractiveness of walking to the destination (Alawadi et al. 2020). It then measures the attractiveness of travelling to a destination, considering both the attractiveness of the destination and the difficulty of reaching it. The greater the distance from an origin to a destination, the greater the “friction”, which reduces the attractiveness of walking to that destination The tool represents an advantage to be included in many decision making processes as it contains within different metrics that allow to analyse and evaluate the complexity of the territories. If we wanted to think in terms of sustainability, we could use this tool by integrating it with other types of spatial evaluation analysis and it could be used to answer some questions that arise during planning processes. The different analyses can also serve as a decision support system for regeneration processes. The first step has made it possible to evaluate the attractiveness of places that are currently without functionality. The next step is to analyse the places of abandonment also through the other metrics, together with indicators and environmental evaluation indexes in order to structure a qualitative and quantitative analysis that also connects to the type of abandoned land and its natural characteristics.

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Freeman LC (1977) A set of measures of centrality based on betweenness, vol 40 Geldermans RJ, Bellstedt CH, Formato E, Varju V, Grünhut Z, Cerreta M, Amenta L, Inglese P, Van der Leer JG, Wandl A (2017) D3.1 Introduction to methodology for integrated spatial, material flow and social analyses Giannasso P, Petrucci F (2012) Global city report 2012 Hansen WG (1959) How accessibility shapes land use. J Am Plan Assoc 25:73–76. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/01944365908978307 Hillier B, Hanson J (1989) The social logic of space. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. ISBN 9780521233651 Jacobs J (1961) Great and life of great American cities (Vintage, 1961). ISBN 9780525432852 Kechagioglou X, Di Cesare EA, Massa P, Campagna M (2016) Metaplanning, Geodesign e Sistemi di Supporto alla Pianificazione di seconda generazione. In: ASITA 2016 Proceeding, pp 819–826 Keenan PB, Jankowski P (2019) Spatial decision support systems: three decades on. Decis Support Syst 116:64–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2018.10.010 Longley P, Batty M (1994) Fractal cities. Academic Press, London Mehaffy M, Porta S, Rofè Y, Salingaros N (2010) Urban nuclei and the geometry of streets: the “emergent neighbourhoods” model. Urban Des Int 15:22–46. https://doi.org/10.1057/udi.2009. 26 Mele R, Poli G (2015) The evaluation of landscape services: a new paradigm for sustainable development and city planning. In: Gervasi O et al. (eds) Computational Science and Its Applications – ICCSA 2015. ICCSA 2015. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 9158. Springer, Cham Mele R, Poli G (2017) The effectiveness of geographical data in multi-criteria evaluation of landscape services †. Data 2:9. https://doi.org/10.3390/data2010009 Peponis J, Bafna S, Zhang Z (2008) The connectivity of streets: reach and directional distance. Environ Plan B Plan Des 35:881–901. https://doi.org/10.1068/b33088 Porta S, Latora V (2007) Multiple centrality assessment. Centralità e ordine complesso nell’analisi spaziale e nel progetto urbano. Territorio 2007:1–14 Russo M, Amenta L, Attademo A, Cerreta M, Formato E, Remøy H, Van der Leer JG, Varjú V (2017) REPAiR: REsource Management in Peri-urban AReas: going beyond urban metabolism: D 5.1: PULLs handbook Sabidussi G (1966) The centrality index of a graph. Psychometrika 31:581–603. https://doi.org/10. 1007/BF02289527 Sevtsuk A (2010) Path and place: a study of urban geometry and retail activity in Cambridge and Somerville, MA. MIT, Cambridge Sevtsuk A (2018) Analysis and planning of urban networks. In: Encyclopedia of social network analysis and mining. Springer, New York, pp 46–58 Sevtsuk A, Mekonnen M (2012) Urban network analysis. A new toolbox for ArcGIS. Rev Int géomatique 2012, 22:287–305. https://doi.org/10.3166/rig.22.287-305 Sugumaran R, DeGroote J (2010) Spatial decision support systems: Principles and practices. CRC Press. ISBN 9781420062120 Vragović I, Louis E, Díaz-Guilera A (2005) Efficiency of informational transfer in regular and complex networks. Phys Rev. https://doi.org/10.1103/physreve.71.036122

An Approach for Tackling the Risk of the Residential Building Stocks at the Urban Scale Exploiting Spatial and Typological Archive Data G. Uva, V. Leggieri, and G. Mastrodonato

Abstract Today, the concept of risk is increasingly entering the broad scope of environmental and spatial planning, including the exposure of the existing building stocks to seismic risk. In a structural vulnerability assessment at the urban or regional scale, the first step is the identification of recurring structural typologies and their characteristic features. We propose a novel procedure for gathering and classifying typological, constructive and structural data which are relevant in terms of building performance (seismic and structural vulnerability, energy performance, serviceability) from different sources. The data have been gathered at different levels of detail, both for structural and typological components, using the CARTIS scheme developed as part of the ReLUIS 2018–2021 project. The procedure has been tested in the town of Bisceglie, in Italy. This approach aims to offer a new interpretative model of urban settlements allowing a definition of classes of different typology useful for investigating building performance. The method provided the implementation of a rapid analysis procedure useful for defining the characteristics of the existing building stocks with regard to different performance requirements. In this sense, the model is suitable for integrating planning approaches for energy and environmental risk at the urban scale.







Keywords Seismic and structural vulnerability Building performance Energy performance Existing building stocks Planning and prevention Seismic risk assessment method Emergency management













1 Introduction Recently the analysis of structural typological characterization with reference to the seismic vulnerability and energy performance of the existing building stocks has become of great relevance (Belleri and Marini 2016). On the Italian national G. Uva
V. Leggieri (&)
G. Mastrodonato DICATECh Department, Polytechnic of Bari, Via E. Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_19

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territory, the construction techniques are different due to different building traditions, cultures and local conditions. Thus, the construction typology is qualitatively not homogeneous in terms of both seismic response and energy performance. In this context, the recognition of prevailing construction types provides a greater awareness of the risk and it represents the first step in the process of assessing the seismic/energy vulnerability of the existing buildings (Manfredi and Masi 2018). The identification of the local construction features will make it possible to regionalize the vulnerability functions currently used indifferently in the various contexts both nationally and internationally to adopt the specific preventive measures required. Taking preventive measures involves their design in order to reduce vulnerability and risk exposure. Defense measures must be undertaken both in structural and non-structural terms, which means in terms of spatial planning and emergency planning. The huge stocks of existing buildings often does not comply with the current seismic and energy standards, the available documentation is still poor and difficult to find, requiring long times and additional costs of the assessment procedure (Cajot et al. 2017; Uva et al. 2016). Although a large body of literature is dedicated to methodologies for seismic vulnerability assessment (Uva et al 2016, 2019a, b), and to the definition of energy performance (Uva et al. 2017; Dall’o’ et al. 2012; Zuccaro et al. 2016) on a large scale, the greatest difficulty is represented by scarcity of data whose reliability must be ascertained to allow the definition of recurrent building typologies with similar characteristics. In fact, modeling the existing building stocks implies the precise definition of the typological, geometrical, technological and structural characteristics of the buildings in order to implement the evaluation (Zuccaro et al. 2016). The present work focuses on the identification of these characteristics on urban scale. This allows a classification into typological classes to implement seismic vulnerability methods and to expeditiously evaluate energy performance.

2 Planning and Prevention In recent years, spatial and urban planning has had to deal with environmental risk issues, both in knowledge and operational terms to improve their mitigation. There is also a growing awareness of the need to identify effective risk prevention methods. At present, there are only limited experiences in urban planning on seismic risk assessment methods (Fabietti 1999). Further experimentations are necessary to strengthen relations with reliable methods at other scales and with other disciplines, especially with structural engineering. These interactions are fundamental in order to set up detailed investigations/assessments in specific contexts, to evaluate the compatibility of the urban plans with the territorial context to reduce seismic risk, to perform scenario of risk assessments on urban scale and define seismic prevention urban actions, etc. These assessments should be part of the basic cognitive survey on the characteristics of the territory, on the existing building stocks, as an essential

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part of the planning process. The results of the vulnerability studies must be applied on the whole territory in relation to the different settlement’s systems. In fact, a correct assessment of the seismic risk presumes the knowledge of the settlement. This integrated approach, aimed at mitigating seismic risk especially on the existing buildings, requires contextualizing the strategic characteristics in the urban system. Understanding the functioning of the urban system is of great importance in the emergency management phase. The procedures presented in this paper contribute to the knowledge of the typological characteristics of the existing building stocks, characterizing different urban sectors based on their vulnerability features. In this way, it is possible to plan structural/consolidation interventions on each building and to suggest decisions on the area planning. The procedure is also applicable to the energy performance evaluation of the existing buildings in order to contain consumption and mitigate the effects on the environment. Studies conducted in the field show that the residential/tertiary sector is the most energy-intensive one.

3 Methodology Studying on an urban scale often involves analyzing a very large number of buildings. It implies to process a considerable amount of data with limited resources in terms of time and costs. Under these conditions, the correct identification of the characteristics to investigate becomes fundamental. The procedure applied to the urban area follows four phases according to a top-down approach (Uva et al. 2019c, d, e): 1. Collection of documents and data from different data sources with different levels of detail (municipal cartography, cadastral maps); 2. Definition of homogeneous urban sectors in the urban context—typologically similar buildings or same age of construction—based on aggregate statistical data and on the knowledge of local expert technicians (availability of urban plans); 3. Identification of the recurring typological, geometrical, structural and technological characteristics of the residential building stocks that influence seismic/ energy behavior for a group of similar buildings, definition of different classes of typology (availability of technical documentation); 4. Validation of each typological building class through a comparison with the characteristics of the sample of each actual building for which detailed information is available (inspections). The data collected have different level of detail. The choice of the type of data set must be strictly connected to the different scale of analysis.

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Often the availability and quality of information are linked to the context of the analysis (Cajot et al. 2017). It is possible to enrich the input database by using additional georeferenced geographical maps such as Technical regional cartography (CTR), Cadastral building maps, Digital Terrain and Surface model available on the web or provided by the municipality’s technical office, statistical aggregated data available in different formats on the ISTAT web portal, historical and cartographic documentation, ReLUIS Cartis dataset (Zuccaro et al. 2016), database in csv format containing ‘Census variables’ and relative shapefile, detailed technical project documentations. Preliminarily, for the compartmentalization of the urban territory it may be appropriate to carry out historical, bibliographic/documentary investigations allowing the recreation of the chronological evolution of the urban development. Frequently, contemporary buildings are characterized by the same structural characteristics and prevalent typologies (Zuccaro et al. 2016). This defines a homogeneous building fabric that can identify a specific urban sector. Subsequently, the procedure involves the introduction and analysis of the characteristics related to the age of construction, the number of floors, the structural type and the state of maintenance. This type of analysis is possible thanks to the use of a set of aggregated statistical data (ISTAT 2011). Finally, the comparison and overlapping of the data emerging from previous surveys allow the delimitation of urban sectors with sufficient reliability. To deepen the level of detail it is necessary to define the buildings’ typology classes. This study referred to the procedure developed within the ReLUIS Italian Civil Protection project, aimed at the structural and typological characterization of homogeneous urban sector and the related classes of existing residential buildings based on recurring elements through a collection of data in CARTIS forms carried out with the support of local expert technicians (Zuccaro et al. 2016). The information provided by local experts in the CARTIS forms is constantly verified by cross-referencing the data or by a rapid visual survey on the web for more reliable information. For each building, the related CARTIS form is filled using more detailed technical documentation and surveys. This allows the effective comparison between the information related to the corresponding typological buildings class and the single building. This ensures the reliability of the information at the building class level and, if necessary, in this way, it is possible to correct the classification. This work has expanded the aforementioned procedure to introduce the typological and technical characteristics of the building envelope and plants to allow the survey on the energy performance of existing buildings (Uva et al. 2019c, e).

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4 Application to the Case Study The proposed procedure has been implemented in Bisceglie, a town located in North area of Puglia with population of about 60,000 inhabitants. The town expands on a surface of about 70 km2. The existing building stocks occupy the 10% of the entire Bisceglie territory and consist of about 5000 residential buildings of which about the 30% with masonry structure and 60% with reinforced concrete structure. They have been built up in different period from the beginning of 1000s to today (ISTAT 2011). The available datasets have been extrapolated by different typology of sources and information described before. The extremely detailed reconstruction was possible through the cartography and the available data and thanks to the information provided by local technical experts thus allowing the compilation of CARTIS forms. The procedure has been scrupulously followed allowing the identification of 8 different homogeneous urban sectors (Fig. 1) and the definition of the typological classes for each urban sector (Table 1). The CARTIS forms were filled for each single existing building when detailed information was available (geometrical, structural, technological characteristics, possible damages, the state of deterioration for each class of building). This allowed verification of the accuracy and reliability of the characteristics of some building classes.

Fig. 1 Classification of existing building stocks a by age of construction; b by structural typology; c by number of floors; d by state of conservation; e urban sectors delimitation on the bases of ISTAT data; f urban section of Bisceglie

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Table 1 Urban sector (C01–C08) and relative typological building classes (M1–M8 defines 4 different types of masonry, RC1–RC4 defines 4 different types of reinforced concrete) Urban sector

1° age of construction

Area (km2)

Typological class (%) M1 M2 M3 M4 RC1

RC2

RC3

RC4

C01. historic centre C02. 1° expansion C03. 2° expansion C04. 3° expansion east C05. 4° expansion east C06. 3° expansion west C07. 4° expansion south C08. touristic expansion

1000

0.12

10

90

–

–

–

–

–

–

1900

0.64

30

10

–

–

34

20

6

–

1920

0.58

30

30

–

–

20

20

–

–

1950

0.31

30

–

–

–

40

30

–

–

1980

0.28

–

–

–

–

35

65

–

–

1900

0.95

35

30

–

–

15

20

–

–

1975

1.58

10

–

–

30

30

30

–

1950

2.14

15

–

–

60

25

–

–

4.1

–

Results

The sample consists of 33 buildings chosen in 3 different census sections, in order to have the largest possible number of buildings belonging to the same building classes. In particular, 21 buildings are included in the census section 130 (urban sector C02), 5 buildings included in the census section 93 (urban sector C02), 3 buildings part of the census section 93 (urban sector C06) and 4 in the census section 405 (urban sector C02). The data collected for each existing building were compared with the information of the corresponding building class. The classification of the building in a specific building class was carried out by comparing the features described above. The results of the comparison between the data relating to the actual characteristics of the building and the information collected for the corresponding class show that only 37% of the real buildings in the sample have the same characteristics as a specific building class, 63% cannot be classified. At level of single census section there are different results connecting to the number of actual buildings analyses. The census section 130, where it was possible to investigate a large number of buildings, shows that only 43% of them can be classified, the census section 93 has a percentage of buildings classifiable equal to 28% of the sample and in section 405, where only 4 buildings have been analyzed, any building cannot be classified. At the urban section level in C02, only 37% of the sample consisting of 30 existing buildings can be classified (Fig. 2), in the urban sector C06 any of 3 buildings can’t be classified.

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Fig. 2 Building classification for urban sector C02

The results show that by increasing the number of buildings analyzed, it can be possible found a matching with typological building class but, more probably, the building classes should be redefined using the data obtained at single building level.

5 Conclusion The aim of this work was the definition of a rapid procedure to characterize a large number of existing buildings in terms of seismic vulnerability and energy performance. It provides a rapid method for the seismic characterization of the territory even when only poor data are available. Its strong point is the possibility of regionalizing the procedures and, as a consequence, it can be extended to the entire national territory and to international contexts. The survey refers to the urban scale; based on the results, more detailed analyzes can be planned. The results might have a bias because of the uncertainty of information and the difficulty in finding them. This entails the need to verify and correct the information collected but often the process can be very expensive. A possible future development to improve the reliability of the results could be the creation of an automated procedure capable of checking and correcting the data by comparing information on different scales. The study demonstrated the possibilities of adopting procedures and methodologies in the urban planning to protect the existing building stocks, to reduce their vulnerability and make it more efficient and performing from an energy point of view.

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References Belleri A, Marini A (2016) Does seismic risk affect the environmental impact of existing buildings. Energy Build 110:149–158 Cajot S, Peter M, Bahu JM, Guignet F, Koch A, Marécal F (2017) Obstacles in energy planning at the urban scale. Sustain Cities Soc 30:223–236 Dall’o’ G, Galante A, Torri M (2012) A methodology for the energy performance classification of residential building stocks on an urban scale. Energy Build 48:211–219 Fabietti V (1999) Vulnerabilità urbanistica e trasformazione dello spazio urbano. Alinea, Firenze Italian National Institute for Statistics (2011) 15° Censimento Generale Della Popolazione e delle Abitazioni. https://www.istat.it/it/censimenti-permanenti/popolazione-e-abitazioni Manfredi V, Masi A (2018) Seismic strengthening and energy efficiency: towards an integrated approach for the rehabilitation of existing RC buildings. Buildings 8(3):36 Uva G, Sanjust C, Casolo S, Mezzina M (2016) ANTAEUS project for the regional vulnerability assessment of the current building stocks in historical centers. Int J Archit Herit 10:20–43 Uva G, Dassisti M, Iannone F, Florio G, Maddalena F, Ruta M, Grieco A, Giannoccaro I, Albino V, Lezoche M, Aubry A, Giovannini A, Buscicchio A, Eslami Y, Leggieri V (2017) Modelling framework for sustainable co-management of multi-purpose exhibition systems: the ‘Fiera del Levante’ case. Procedia Eng 180 Uva G, Ciampoli PL, Leggieri V, Nettis A, Ruggieri S (2019a) A mechanical approach for estimating regional fragility curves of existing RC buildings stocks in Puglia. In: COMPDYN 2019 7th ECCOMAS thematic conference on computational methods in structural dynamics and earthquake engineering Uva G, Fatiguso F, Adam JM, Iacobellis G, Sangiorgio V (2019b) User-reporting based decision support system for reinforced concrete building monitoring. In: Proceedings of 2018 IEEE international conference systems, man, and cybernetics SMC 2018, pp 2620–2625 Uva G, Leggieri V, Mastrodonato G (2019c) Proposal of a procedure for gathering data for the structural and energy classification of residential building stock: a case study in Puglia. In: 3rd International conference on recent advances in nonlinear design, resilience and rehabilitation of structures, CoRASS 2019 Uva G, Leggieri V, Morrone M (2019d) Use of data derived by different sources for the seismic vulnerability assessment of current building stock in GIS environment: an application to the municipality of Bisceglie, Italy. In: 3rd International conference on international conference on recent advances in nonlinear design, resilience and rehabilitation of structures, CoRASS 2019 Uva G, Leggieri V, Iannone F, Casolo S (2019e) Simplified integrated assessment of the structural and energy performance of existing buildings at the urban scale: a case study in Puglia, Italy. In: 3rd International conference on recent advances in nonlinear design, resilience and rehabilitation of structures, CoRASS 2019 Zuccaro G, Dolce M, De Gregorio D, Speranza E, Moroni C (2016) La scheda Cartis per la caratterizzazione tipologico-strutturale dei comparti urbani costituiti da edifici ordinari. Valutazione dell’esposizione in analisi di rischio sismico. Gngts 2015:281–287

From BIM to CIM: A New Instrument for Urban Planners and a New Bottom-Up Planning Process Ida Zingariello

Abstract City Information Modeling or CIM is a smart modeling of the city useful to clearly show information about our city and share design choices with all players of the urban process. As BIM works on the building or infrastructure scale, CIM works on the city scale simulating a lot of urban data sets. Digitizing the whole city, we can have a digital twin or rather an advanced 3D model containing the most varied information about our cities useful for their management. How can the adoption of CIM help urban planning and urban design? Thanks to the digital twin of the city, administrations can have an innovative tool for territorial governance. Local planners can simulate new urban visions, prefigure, verify, and control physical transformation of our city or evaluate city resilience to natural phenomena, thus making more informed design decisions. In the same time, we can think the CIM as a new tool for procedure of social participation and a new bottom-up planning process. A city digital twin can be a tool to inform citizens about urban strategies prefigured by local planners, so the administrations can test out urban design solutions, record citizens’ opinions and make decisions able to respect their point of view. Thanks to a CIM model, each citizen can view a 3D model and access information about its city at any time and place, so everyone can modify and add new data creating an adaptive city model that learns from its inhabitants. Keywords City digital twin Participation


Information management
Urban practices


I. Zingariello (&) DING—Department of Engineering, University of Sannio, AURUS Research Group, Benevento, Italy e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_20

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1 Introduction In the last decades, BIM technologies have introduced the concept of the information model into the world of construction. The information model is not a simple three-dimensional model that only shows geometric information, but it is a model enriched with an informative content that can be interrogated, updated, and shared. The purpose of information modeling is to provide a 3D model integrated and coordinated between the various disciplines (Alashi and Koramaz 2019) during the entire building life cycle. The output of this process is a building digital twin in which data and attributes of every 3D object can be used for time and cost estimation, quantity take-off activities, clash detection analysis, facility management or energy assessments. On an urban scale, City Information Modeling or CIM is the analogue of BIM (Auci et al. 2019). However, in urban planning, where Geographic Information Systems (GIS) dominate, information modeling is still rather unused or is limited to the geometric restitution of parts of cities and not to a real information model useful for simulating and prefiguring urban transformations (Stojanovski 2018). Still, the CIM can represent a new tool useful both to planners to manage urban interventions, and to citizens to understand, evaluate and express an opinion on such interventions.

2 About CIM CIM is the opportunity for more efficient urban planning capable of managing city information through an organized, coordinated, and integrated workflow. The innovation introduced by CIM tools and technologies is in the possibility of associating a set of innumerable information to the 3D city model and in particular in the opportunity to share this information between all the players of the urban process including citizens. Thanks to the CIM processes, it is possible to obtain a digital twin of our cities, or a city 3D model whose geometric and morphological information is associated with a database containing advanced information content. In order to rationalize the information content, we can think of the city as an information system consisting of information sub-systems in relation to each other: the buildings sub-system, the public space sub-system, the public buildings sub-system, the infrastructure sub-system and the streets sub-system. Each sub-system corresponds to an information model containing a set of information not only physical and geometric but also functional, economic, historical or related to standards. All information models, associated at a sub-system, each with its own set of data and parameters, once federated together allow to obtaining the city information model, whose information content will be an advanced database of urban variables manageable by an integrated workflow.

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3 CIM: A New Instrument for Urban Planners CIM technologies are a new chance to introduce a tool for digital governance of city transformations into the world of urban planning. Having a city digital model allows planners and policy makers to simulate and prefigure urban transformations and to test them in terms of economic, environmental and social feasibility, starting from the first design steps, or evaluate the disaster resilience performance of cities. A rich semantic digital model of our cities allows planners to access, in the preliminary planning phase, data and information that in a traditional planning workflow are only available in later phases when rethinking some design choices is inefficient and uneconomical. The output of this process is a new urban design determined by a strategic vision capable of directing planners towards more conscious design solutions because they are constantly tested and verified. In addition to being a tool for a more conscious planning, the CIM represents a tool for shared, integrated and coordinated planning among the various professionals. Having a central model made up of the various sub-models relating to the various urban sub-systems connected to each other, allows each designer to operate on the model according to their skills and responsibilities, sharing the changes made to the project with other professionals in real time. Failure to share project information and the changes made is one of the main causes of inefficiency in the planning process. Greater coordination between designers, made possible by the sharing of design actions, results in greater design coherence and integration between disciplines. In addition, the automatic process of data extraction and the accessibility to information, enable planners to reduce design errors with the consequent reduction of work times and an evident economic saving. It is therefore evident that a CIM oriented planning represents an innovative tool for an efficient planning within the reach of all players of the urban process who understand its potential.

4 CIM: A New Instrument for a Participatory Planning CIM, in addition to being a tool in the hands of designers and policy makers, can be a new tool for participatory urban planning and a new bottom-up planning process becoming a link between planners and citizens. The city information model, or city digital twin, allows citizens, not only to view the solutions prefigured by planners, but mostly, to access the model information content, through common devices such as smartphones or tablets. Viewing and interrogating the city digital model enables citizens to access all the project information often accessible only to technicians and allows them to transfer their opinion to planners, becoming players in the decision-making process. The accessibility to information represents the true innovation of CIM as it introduces the perspective of an augmented reality or virtual reality rich semantically (Xu et al. 2014), or rather enriched by a database of information to query and possibly to integrate, at any time and any place. The live

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and on demand prefiguration applied to the CIM model also produced the definition of the LCIM (Live City Information Modeling), an upgrade of the CIM model that allows citizens to view the design hypothesis in real time and in context (Fistola and Rastelli 2018). The possibility of accessing information, made possible by CIM technologies, makes responsible citizens more than any other tool, enabling them to reach and express an extremely conscious opinion on the urban strategies and solutions proposed. At the same time, planners are also more responsible because they have to share transparently project information difficult to manipulate because it is the result of automated processes.

5 Conclusions Based on the above, making systematic use of CIM technologies allows the players of the urban process to have access not to a simple 3D model, but to a city information model that contains a datasets that in current practice exist separately, in different formats, deposited in different databases and are not available to all stakeholders. Analysis and simulations made on the cities using the CIM database allow to virtually reproduce in real time urban phenomena such as traffic flows, but also to monitor the city behavior following exceptional events such as major events or natural disasters (Shaheen 2019). If all planners and policy makers understood the obvious advantage of managing a city digital twin, urban planning would become really strategic and efficient planning. In Italy, for example, unlike BIM, which is a well-established design and management tool, the possibility of digitizing entire cities using CIM technology is not yet understood. Yet CIM platform can also represent a useful support tool for the management of natural emergencies that Italy often faces. Simulating city behavior following an earthquake would allow evaluating various post-disaster scenarios and establishing intervention strategies to share with rescuers and citizens. The systematic adoption of the CIM represents the concrete opportunity to introduce, in the context of urban planning, an advanced tool for the digital governance of urban transformations and phenomena at the service of planners and citizens, a tool capable of bringing together governance policies and bottom-up urbanism as never before through the classical planning tools.

References Alashi ATY, Koramaz TK (2019) Towards city information modeling: a multidisciplinary platform for urban planners. In: Abusaada H, Vellguth C, Elshater A (eds) Handbook of research on digital research methods and architectural tools in urban planning and design. IGI Global, Hershey

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Auci S, Mundula L, Quaquero E (2019) Bright cities and city information modeling. In: Schrenk M, Popovich VV, Zeile P, Elisei P, Beyer C, Ryser J (eds) Is this the real world? Perfect smart cities versus real emotional cities. In: 24th International conference on urban planning and regional development in the information society geo multimedia 2019, Karlsruhe, Germany, 2–4 April 2019, pp 143–152 Fistola R, Rastelli A (2018) Nuove tecnologie e futuro della città: il governo “aumentato” delle trasformazioni urbane. In: Moccia FD, Sepe M (eds) Urbanistica Informazioni. XI Giornata Studio INU interruzioni, intersezioni, condivisioni, sovrapposizioni. Nuove prospettive per il territorio. INU Edizioni, Roma Shaheen M (2019) The interoperability between BIM and CIM for urban design process and energy simulation. http://hdl.handle.net/10589/145452 Stojanovski T (2018) City information modelling (CIM) and urban design: morphological structure, design elements and programming classes in CIM. In: Computing for a better tomorrow. Proceedings of the 36th eCAADe conference, Lodz University of Technology, Lodz, Poland, 19–21 Sept 2018 Xu X, Ding L, Luo H, Ma L (2014) From building information modeling to city information modeling. Special issue BIM cloud-based technology in the AEC sector: present status and future trends, ITcon vol 19, pp 292–307. https://www.itcon.org/2014/17

A Hybrid Approach for the Acquisition and Analysis of Distributed Knowledge on Spatial Planning: The Case Study of the Master Plan for Brindisi (Italy) Stefania Santoro, Dario Esposito, Domenico Camarda, and Dino Borri Abstract In the field of spatial planning, the role of knowledge resulting from a cognitive bottom-up approach is increasing. In a “cognitive planning” approach the environment represents a biological and cultural expression of the relationship between population, activities and places. Yet defining an appropriate model to represent the different cognitive frames and interests arising from this complex relationship is difficult. In this context, investigating on knowledge representation is of great importance, today augmented using intelligent cognitive tools and models. This work shows a case-based approach based combining traditional participatory techniques with knowledge elicitation and exchange support for bottom-up spatial planning. Specifically, a scenario-building approach has been implemented in an ICT-based environment that has allowed a widespread data collection on an extended sample of citizens. Visions and strategic actions proposed by the citizens involved have been formalized through formal data analyses, so becoming useful material to test the effectiveness of strategies proposed in a decision-support system architecture. The methodology was applied on an experimental basis during the knowledge-building phase of public participation for the new Master plan of the city of Brindisi (Italy). Keywords Knowledge modelling


Bottom-up process
Hybrid approach

Authors’ attribution: The paper has been carried out by authors as a common research work. Nonetheless, the introduction was written by D. Borri; Sect. 2 was written by D. Camarda; Sects. 3 and 6 were written by S. Santoro; Sect. 4 has written by S. Santoro and D. Esposito; Sect. 5 was written by D. Esposito. S. Santoro (&)
D. Esposito
D. Camarda
D. Borri Polytechnic University of Bari, Bari, Italy e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_21

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1 Introduction Spatial planning is increasingly based on knowledge coming from social participation more than from domain experts, from place-based, local more than general knowledge and reasoning systems (Healey 1997; Forester 1999). Yet plans are still conceptualized according to the rational mode of behaving by an individual agent assumed as a fundamental architecture of the human behaviour since the origins of planning in systems theory and cybernetics (e.g., Simon 1947). The transition, particularly in community spatial plans, from single to multi-agent knowledge-based systems has created relevant problems of knowledge understanding and management. This paved the way to new spatial planning methods, in general more integrated than in the past between soft and hard computation and assisted by specific tools for fighting against the ‘Babel Effect’ of massive linguistic and semantic varieties (Camarda 2010; Concilio and De Liddo 2017). A new season of quantitative geography (Batty 2013; Rabino and Caglioni 2009) and a fundamental contribution to formal computation of words from fuzzy logic (e.g., Zadeh 2012) have also brought new ideas and methods to the domain. In this vein, doubts increasingly arise about the efficiency and effectiveness of participatory planning toward the problem-solving complexity of urban and regional systems and of spatial plans with their typical socio-environmental dynamics and turbulences. When a participatory plan implies big amounts of data coming from the discourse arenas the planning situation to be faced is particularly challenging. What is more, participatory planning is fundamentally mediation-oriented when dealing with the natural environment, so being completely outpaced by the new environmental protection-oriented policy and planning consciousness (Lichfield et al. 1998). Yet for urban plans based on mandatory systems of land use or structures and infrastructures design, participation, as a think tank of informal, local, non-expert, common sense knowledge, usefully integrates the expert designing of spatial plans. The case study presented in this paper, dealing with the preparation of the initial document of the new urban master plan of the city of Brindisi (Italy), has boosted further reflections on the cognitive dilemmas of participated planning. The activity presented here involved a hybrid multiple choice experiment based on a digital questionnaire distributed to and compiled by persons from the local community invited by the municipality to voluntary participation in a dozen of thematic meetings (these had a total of some hundreds of participants). The data outcome from the choice experiment has been analysed with special attention to latent and boundary values and variables, using frequency analysis of words, statistical correlation of statements, and other tools for discourse analysis and representation. The paper is structured in four parts. After this introduction, a second sections looks at research purposes with the new multi-agent cognitive approaches. The third section describes the methodological approach and the analytical framework carried out in the case study, while the fourth through discusses the main results emerged. Final remarks draw out overall conclusions, in the light of the strategy for the master plan of Brindisi.

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2 Research Purpose This research aims to study the structuring of informal, unconventional or hybrid (formal and informal together) knowledge forms in a spatial planning and organization process. This objective is pursued by using methodologies that allow exchange and elicitation in a multi-agent arena, thus guaranteeing a possibly complexity-aware rather than complexity-averse and reductionist process. In particular, the methodological framework is part of the studies on the collaborative construction of strategic scenarios, using the future–workshop technique hybridized by an IT-based operational support (Jungk and Mullert 1996). The approach was already tested in the past and allowed a useful real-time management of the process, guaranteeing direct data storage and thus building rapidly manageable results (Khakee et al. 2002). The methodological approach used can be defined as hybrid. In fact, it is geared to safeguarding ‘rich’ knowledge based on even informal and qualitative elements and data, while guaranteeing degrees of formalization for at least qualitative-quantitative management of results in a decision-making perspective. In this context, a further specific and operational research objective is therefore the construction of a system architecture to support knowledge building. This objective, linked to the case study that ensured the research feasibility, follows a typical knowledge-in-action approach often used in planning (Friedmann 1987). It should also be said that the generation of multiagent knowledge includes some nested problems connected with the ways in which this knowledge evolves, since the context in which the process develops is notoriously important (Camarda 2018). Hence, the process is structured to transit iteratively from a contribution of the individual agent to a multi-agent interaction. This can allow both an individual creativity not influenced (or repressed) by relationships with other agents, and a subsequent comparison with other agents, creatively stimulating towards further cognitive contributions. Of course, in these dynamics the aspects and types of relationships that are established between agents are critical for cognitive generation. Hence, these links also pose a formalization problem in the construction of a knowledge management model—often they are tacit or even unconscious links (Bloodgood and Chilton 2012). Furthermore, relationship problems between the various steps of the process are also present. In fact, due to the large numbers of data generated, operational summaries are often necessary to maintain consequentiality between the various steps, in the definition and evolutionary understanding of the strategic process in the interaction arena. Ultimately, the model presented here is therefore the result of a process that aims to reflect as far as possible the rich complexity of cognitive contributions, however drawing degrees of operational complexity. This research places its methodological interest on these aspects, as expressed in the following chapters.

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3 Methodology 3.1

Case Study

During the participation process to draft the new Master Plan of Brindisi, nine thematic citizens’ workshops took place. The workshops were organized by the Department of Urban Planning and Territorial Planning of the Municipality of Brindisi and were held starting from November 2018 until February 2019. The results of the participatory process will feed into the new Master Plan of Brindisi.

3.2

Workshop Design

The methodology used to develop a workshop is based on two phases: (i) preparation, and (ii) fantasy (Fig. 1). Each phase was driven by an analyst. (i) During the preparation phase, the topic of the workshop was presented through the storytelling of an expert. Moments of discussion and dialogical exchange between the expert and the citizens have characterized the first phase of workshop.

Fig. 1 Methodology (Based on Khakee et al. 2002)

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(ii) The fantasy phase was articulated in two steps. Step 1 related to the development of visions, dreams and future desires for the city of Brindisi, according to the topic of workshop. The second step oriented to the definition of the actions to realize visions. Specifically, each participant was asked to develop a vision in relation to the proposed theme. For each vision it was asked to associate min. one action to max. three actions. Each participant expressed their vision and corresponding actions through an online digital platform created ad hoc as a tool to support the participatory process.

3.3

Post Workshop Activities

Following the workshop, a third phase of methodology concerning data processing and analysis took place (Fig. 1). In the knowledge elicitation phase, visions and actions are subdivided into categories. The categories represent the emerged topics according to citizens’ opinion and were defined through a data mining analysis of the most recurrent words, carried out with an automatic tool. Common actions to multiple visions lead to design the overlapping spaces between different visions, called boundary space. Boundary actions are included within a boundary space. A boundary action helps in a decision-making process to build a shared understanding about a concept that can take different meanings (Fox 2011). Star and Griesemer (1989) define boundary objects as spaces for mediation and negotiation around a common intent. Evidence demonstrated the widespread practice of the management of boundary actions in different field of research. For example, in the development of common information spaces (Schmidt and Bannon 1992), and organisational memory (Ackerman and Halverson 1998). In spatial planning boundary objects are used as a strategy to support citizens’ interaction in order to understand different forms of actions, interests and values toward common aims. In order to structure the information emerged from the different phases (Fig. 1), the analysis was carried out with the support of data mining tools. A graphical representation of the results is visible through the Sunkey diagram. Specifically, data mining allows to structure apparently “cryptic” or poorly structured information, disseminated without apparent order in a database. This allows to demonstrate a knowledge that can be exploited for various purposes (Soman et al. 2006). In fact, in our case it was possible to identify a boundary space. Sankeys are best used to show a multiple mapping between two domains or multiple paths through a series of phases (Riehmann et al. 2005). In fact, in our case it was possible to show the percentage weight of the single thematic areas of vision and clusters of actions.

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4 Results For sake of simplicity, this paper will present the analysis of one of the nine thematic workshop about the relationship between city, sea and port. The workshop has involved 32 citizens of Brindisi. A 32 visions and 89 actions were collected. The 32 visions were grouped into 4 categories: (i) port and connected city; (ii) refurbished seafront; (iii) enhanced interior port; (iv) enhanced port functions; the 89 visions were grouped into 20 categories of actions. Figure 2 shows the relationship between the categories of visions and corresponding categories of actions. The thickness of the bands connecting visions to actions varies according to the number of citizens who expressed the relationship. 44% of the actions expressed by the citizens involved belongs to Vision 1: Port and connected cities. As show in Fig. 2, many actions are common to different visions. Figure 3 represents boundary space, by overlapping the four visions sharing common actions. The presence of the same action in different space prove the coexistence of different visions. Each vision is represented by coloured area. The colours used for the sets are consistent with what is represented in Fig. 2 (blue: port and connected cities; green: waterfront upgraded; orange: inner port enhanced; red: port functions enhanced). Each set of visions contains the corresponding actions, to which a letter of the alphabet has been associated consistently with what represented in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Connection between visions and corresponding actions

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Fig. 3 Boundary space

5 Discussion Knowledge management is a key element to support decision processes and strategies for urban development. By applying the proposed approach to an illustrative case study, we try to clarify problems of its usability and efficiency. Indeed, initial findings are aimed both at analysing the effectiveness of the methodology to elicit knowledge about the agents’ conceptualisation of problems and at giving target-oriented solutions about how to implement the methodology. Indeed, thanks to the ICT digital tools support to the traditional participatory process some clear potentials are evident such as: • the easy and widespread remote collection of vision-action data from an extensive sample group of citizens; • the possibility of pre-structuring, without ambiguity, the form where agents’ contributions are inserted, avoiding the typical misunderstanding on ends, actions and means. This may minimize the disadvantage of analysts’ interpretation of the dataset; • the ease of data processing and synthesis minimizing analysts’ interference in particularly when analysing real-time scenarios to support ongoing public discussion. However, criticalities have emerged about its suitability on two distinct levels. First, it is difficult to assess the reasons for the relational vision-actions connection. A potential solution could be a further step encouraging participants to argument on the relational criteria used. This implies both analysing the meanings of relationships between concepts and trying to quantify strengths by statistical correlation coefficients.

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Additionally, it is necessary to validate the approach suitability for successful impact decisions. The question is to ensure that the obtained results and proposed solutions are consistently applied at the decision-making level and transposed into a planning document and to understand the impact this knowledge could generate in the planning arena. A criticality often lies in the fact that a linear formalization of cognitive problems into fixed frames, e.g. through a traditional cognitive maps approach, can induce problems of decision support (Pluchinotta et al. 2019). Since the significance of concepts comes from the weight of the relationships, a cognitive map can result too static. If, on the other hand, it is segmented there is the probability that partial regions are more easily argued by agents, because of a targeted focus. To enhance this outcome, rather than aiming at clean-cut results it could be useful to use flexible and fuzzy interpretation approaches. In this sense, a focus on maps’ peripheral regions and boundaries could emphasize transient concepts that allow greater possibilities of cognitive transactions and useful results. The analytical modelling presented moves in this direction. It is aimed at reaching the efficient granularity so as not to lose information and offer several reliable alternatives that can be handled in the decision-making arena. Thanks to the process of dataset automatic analysis through clustering with data mining and visualization of the results with Sunkey diagram, the degree of dispersion of conceptual variables has been reduced (to 1/8 for the sub areas of visions and 1/5 for actions) without losing information quality and so identifies alternative and complementary thematic areas. In fact, the percentage weight of the single thematic areas of vision and clusters of actions is clearly recognizable. Their linkage and correspondence are weighted according to the frequency of recurrence and the impacts of the actions on the clusters of each thematic areas of vision. Moreover, it is possible to easily identify the transition actions, named boundary actions, arising from the intersection of different cognitive spaces/visions. They cross several visions and define an overlapping space, named boundary space, that brings out similarities and differences between them. They provide a space for optimizing choices, as they potentially gather the greatest consensus among agents and are also valuable for optimizing the resources available from the local administration. Finally, the visualization of these is an explanatory opportunity to further elaborate on the idea of cognitive sharing spaces, where knowledge exchanges between agents can take place and that can be helpful starting points to validate the outputs of the process with decision makers.

6 Conclusion In the field of spatial planning, the representation of the agents’ knowledge is the biological and cultural expression of the relationship between population, activities and places. The main difficulty to design this relationship lies in defining the appropriate model to represent the different cognitive frames and interests of agents involved without losing the nuances related to the complexity of the relationships.

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In order to address this purpose, the methodology proposed and experimentally applied to the case of Brindisi, as part of the participatory process to Master Plan drafting, represented a good opportunity. In fact. It could allow further reflection on the cognitive dilemmas of the agents’ cognitive frames taking in actions oriented to the planning of the city. This paper started with the statement that a hybrid approach to the acquisition of citizens knowledge can be a good way to manage the outcomes of participation process. The combination of the future workshop technique hybridized by an IT-based operational support has certainly made the analyst’s work easy and immediate on the one hand (information gathering and management) and more effective participation on the other (involving participants beyond those physically attending the workshop). The results obtained by shaping a boundary space define shared citizens’ actions that allow the decision-maker to reflect on future actions within the Master Plan. However, analysis shows that results cannot be considered totally explanatory of the cognitive problem frames of the agents involved. In fact, this methodology only limitedly helps to understand the reason of citizens’ choices, the cause-effect relationships between vision and actions, the positioning of the boundary objects in the boundary space and the role of the agents’ interaction aimed at achieving a shared action. Moreover, the range of possible boundary objects is limited to abstractions or representations of a non-homogeneous audience in terms of age, roles, behaviors, etc. Actually, attempts aimed at exploring such issues are still preliminary and thematically narrowed (see, e.g., fuzzy-logic applications: Pluchinotta et al. 2019). In fact, it would be interesting to be able to reconstruct the cognitive frames of each agent in order to understand the motivations behind the construction of visions and actions and to try to understand the type of relationship between the boundary objects (see, e.g., Santoro et al. 2019). The implementation of future workshops with think tanks and ex-post sharing moments could lead actors to build, defend or even extend the boundary spaces. Information that could be useful to a decision-maker in order to orient Master Plan choices. The future of the present study is just oriented to such perspectives, which represent the natural scientific follow-up of the whole research.

References Ackerman MS, Halverson CA (1998) Considering an organization’s memory. In: Proceedings of CSCW, pp 39–48 Batty M (2013) Big data, smart cities, and city planning. Dialogues Hum Geogr 3(3):274–279 Bloodgood JM, Chilton MA (2012) Performance implications of matching adaption and innovation cognitive style with explicit and tacit knowledge resources. Knowl Manag Res Prac 10(2):106–117

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Camarda D (2010) Beyond citizen participation in planning: multi-agent systems for complex decision making. In Nunes Silva C (ed) Handbook of research on e-planning: ICTs for urban development and monitoring. IGI Global, Hershey PA, pp 195–217 Camarda D (2018) Building sustainable futures for post-industrial regeneration: the case of Taranto, Italy. Urban Res Prac 11(3):275–283 Concilio G, De Liddo A (2017) Making decision in open communities: collective actions in the public realm. Group Decis Negot 26(5):847–856 Forester J (1999) The deliberative practitioner. The MIT Press, Cambridge MA Fox NJ (2011) Boundary objects, social meanings and the success of new technologies. Sociology 45(1):70–85 Friedmann J (1987) Planning in the public domain. Princeton University Press, Princeton Healey P (1997) Collaborative planning: shaping places in fragmented societies. McMillan, London Jungk R, Mullert N (1996) Future workshop: how to create desirable futures. Institute for Social Inventions, London Khakee A, Barbanente A, Camarda D, Puglisi M (2002) With or without? Comparative study of preparing participatory scenarios using computer-aided and traditional brainstorming. J Future Res 6:45–64 Lichfield N, Barbanente A, Borri D, Khakee A, Prat A (eds) (1998) Evaluation in Spatial Planning: facing the challenge of complexity. Kluwer, Dordrecht Pluchinotta I, Esposito D, Camarda D (2019) Fuzzy cognitive mapping to support multi-agent decisions in development of urban policymaking. Sustain Cities Soc 46 Rabino G, Caglioni M (eds) (2009) Planning, complexity, and new ICT. Firenze, Alinea Riehmann P, Hanfler M, Froehlich B (2005) Interactive sankey diagrams. In: Proceedings—IEEE symposium on information visualization, Info Vis, pp 233–240. https://doi.org/10.1109/infvis. 2005.1532152 Santoro S, Pluchinotta I, Pagano A, Pengal P, Cokan B, Giordano R (2019) Assessing stakeholders’ risk perception to promote nature based solutions as flood protection strategies: the case of the Glinščica river (Slovenia). Sci Tot Environ 655:188–201. ISSN 0048-9697 Schmidt K, Bannon L (1992) Taking CSCW seriously: supporting articulation work. CSCW 1 (1):4–40 Simon H (1947) The administrative behavior. McMillan, New York Soman KP, Diwakar S, Ajay V (2006) Insight into data mining: theory and practice. Prentice-Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi Star SL, Griesemer JR (1989) Institutional ecology, ‘translations’ and boundary objects: amateurs and professionals in Berkeley’s museum of vertebrate zoology, 1907-39. Soc Stud Sci 19 (3):387–420 Zadeh L (2012) Computing with words: principal concepts and ideas. Springer, Berlin

Reflections About Non-knowledge in Planning Processes Maria Rosaria Stufano Melone and Domenico Camarda

Abstract During a planning process for strategic anthropic decisions that will invest a territory, or an environmental system, or a city organization, we deal with many data, many results of very different analyses. In an abstract way we could represent this huge amount of results and data as the set of what we know, but beside this set at least an equivalent set exists about what we don’t know. What we don’t know exists in the precise time we are deciding. It is something that could be extremely useful to catch instead, so to avoid wrong decisions when designing a hypothetical plan or strategic document. Therefore, we deal with what we know, with our knowledge: yet, invisibly, we also deal with our non-knowledge. Here we intend non-knowledge as a further step beyond uncertainty, as already studied in literature. In fact such non-knowledge set is not something ambiguous occurring when coping with in ill structured hypotheses to include what is uncertain. Indeed, it is something surely we do not know, as occurring e.g. when dealing with something we do not imagine that our decisions may trigger. How to define the set of what is not known? This is a position paper, and the objective of this reflection is to envision possible modeling perspectives able to simulate the activation of invisible relations that exist among the two sets. They are things we don’t know but that are unpredictably linked to things we know. A very first draft of a neural-ontological approach is proposed as possible method to cope this issue. Keywords Non-knowledge


Uncertainty
Planning
Future
Ontology

The paper is the outcome of a common research activity carried out by both authors, coordinated by D. Camarda and entirely written by M. R. Stufano Melone. M. R. Stufano Melone (&)
D. Camarda Politecnico Di Bari, Bari, Italy e-mail: [email protected] D. Camarda e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_22

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1 Introduction Our lives are a succession of plans, for today or for tomorrow. Plans can be individual but often are collective. The mechanism is more or less the same: we try to imagine for our intimate tomorrow and our steps according to what we desire and what we learn from our large present (Gumbrecht 2014) or experiences. Humans imagine perspectives and scenarios even in the absence of any present indicators of potential futures (Suddendorf and Redshaw 2017). Consciously or not, as humans and as planners, we deal with big uncertainties, ambiguities, ignorance, unexpected events: eventually we deal with non-knowledge. Scientific research in various disciplines attempts to support policymakers in making their decisions in an uncertain context (Rumsfeld 2002; Walker et al. 2003, 2010; Refsgaard et al. 2012; Buurman and Babovic 2016; Schubert 2019; Marchau et al. 2019). Planners and policymakers face the complexity of decisions for the territory and the environment. In these last decades dealing with highly uncertainty and rapid environmental changes has required policy-making and planning approaches apt to develop effective, robust and resilient or antifragile choices that overall have a final, far-sighted gaze at the environment (Buurman and Babovic 2016; Taleb 2012). Planning activities for the city (or the territory, or the environment) remain a controversial matter because they are made of normative elements and seek to control a spatial development that have even social implications. As an example cities are an organized complexity (Schubert 2019) and they change shape staying in a precise geographical space moving across time. Humans routinely anticipate future events and organize current actions accordingly. This capacity has been termed “episodic foresight” (Suddendorf and Moore 2011). But our times are growingly complex and complicated. The too rapid developing of technologies and globalization and the generalized diffusion of technological tools and devices added new layers of reality that we have to take into account during a planning process, new layers of reality we have to deal with. Among all these new layers, we can consider the non-knowledge ones. This position paper is about the non-knowledge and about how we could manage it when we are coping with urban/territorial/environmental planning actions. The decision under uncertainty is a classic problem in literature, but we would like to offer a look that hopefully can open another different glimpse in the identification of the problem, in its epistemological positioning and consequently in the possible theoretical response and possibly in action that may derive from it. In the following Sect. 2, we will explore relevant literature, then in Sect. 3 we will have an attempt of definition for non-knowledge. Section 4 outlines a proposal to deal with non-knowledge: we outline the imagination/innovation side to approach the problem, as well as a possible use of an artificial neural network (ANN) approach developed using the applied ontological analyses. Section 5 shows our conclusions and follow-up.

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2 Retrieving Literature: The Effort to Cope with Non-knowledge The largest label used in our planning disciplines about non-knowledge is uncertainty. Thanks to the incorporation of this concept, particularly in geographical disciplines, but in economics too, a huge production of literature has been developed to refine, apply, manage this uncertainty concept in the theory and the action of planning by structuring definitions, methods, devices. In last years, the Decision Making Under Deep Uncertainty (DMDU) Society was established, to collect and organize all scientific efforts related to decision-making under deep uncertainty. In Marchau et al. (2019) authors explicit the multi-attribute character of wicked problems and uncertainty. DMDU analyses are inherently iterative. They are applied as a recursive process. This has the potential for enfranchising categories of knowledge that might not otherwise be codified easily within more traditional analytical modes. Not all uncertainties can be eliminated but ignoring uncertainty could mean that we limit the ability to take corrective action in the future and end up in situations that could have been avoided: ignoring uncertainty can result in missed chances and opportunities. The essential idea is that decision-makers facing deep uncertainty can create a shared strategic vision of future ambitions, can explore possible adaptive strategies, and can commit to short-term actions, while keeping long-term options open, and prepare a framework that guides future actions. The main objective of DMDU approaches is to facilitate the development of policies that are robust and/or adaptive, meaning that they perform satisfactorily under a wide variety of futures and can be adapted over time to (unforeseen) future conditions. It is surprising retrieving in literature how it is possible to define something that is recognized as unknown. About uncertainty, definitions have been developed, and cognition levels elicited to structure the ‘abstract shape’ that envelops the substance of what is unknown without calling it ‘by name’ or giving definitions in this regard. Some methodologies developed in the field of DMDU are (i) Adaptation pathways, (ii) Adaptive policy making and (iii) Real options analysis. By combining the three approaches a rigorous framework can be obtained for guidance in developing flexible policies and justifying required investments (Buurman and Babovic 2016). Also, Marchau et al. (2019) add other methodologies to the previous ones, reported in Table 1. A different approach to deal with uncertainty/unknown/ignorance is the Discipline of Anticipation (DoA), as part of the wider field of futures studies and disciplines. All efforts to “know the future” in the sense of thinking about and using the future are defined forms of Anticipation (Miller et al. 2013). Particularly, planning faces something that still is not, it aims to shape decisions about what there is for what there will be. This makes planners to face a frame of decisions made for the future. According to Miller et al. (2013) explicit anticipation

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Table 1 Methodologies developed in the field of DMDU (Marchau et al. 2019) Decision Scaling (DS) Originated in response to questions regarding the best approaches to process and use climate change projections for adaptation planning Exploratory Modeling (EM) In the case of complex systems, it involves the use of computational scenario approaches Robust Decision Making (RDM) A set of concepts, processes, and enabling tools that use computation, not to make better predictions, but to yield better decisions under conditions of deep uncertainty Dynamic Adaptive Planning An approach for designing a plan that explicitly includes provisions for adaptation as conditions change and knowledge is gained. Adaptive planning means that plans are designed from the outset to be adapted over time in response to how the future may actually unfold Dynamic Adaptive Policy Pathways (DAPP) An approach that explicitly includes decision making over time. The essence is proactive and dynamic planning, it explores alternative sequences of decisions (adaptation pathways) for multiple futures and illuminates the path dependency of alternative strategies Info-Gap (IG) Decision Theory It is a method for prioritizing alternatives and making choices and decisions under deep uncertainty, it defines the disparity between what is known and what needs to be known for a responsible decision and offers two decision concepts: robustness and opportuneness Engineering Options Analysis (EOA) It is an approach to quantitative analysis for planning, design, and management of engineering systems over time, in the context of uncertainty. It deals with deeper uncertainties than ROA. It handles multiple options simultaneously, and allows for all sorts of measures of benefits and values

Table 2 Methods and consequent uses of DoA (elicited from Miller et al. 2013)

Optimization Optimization futures can be used to “colonize” the future on the basis of closed anticipatory assumptions that inform extrapolation novelty Contingency Contingent futures can be used to prepare for anticipated surprises, but as preparation cannot, by definition, take into account unknowable novelty Novelty Novel futures can be used to make sense of differences that are not just unpredictable or random but fundamentally unknowable in advance

(individual and collective) can be considered as a key element or contribution to the human activity of decision-making. As every other discipline, DoA exploits a remarkable variety of methods and consequent uses (Table 2).

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3 Defining Non-knowledge, an Attempt No action exists without a goal in the future (Gumbrecht 2014). If we are not able to know our present properly, how could we plan for our city (or territory or environment) for a next future? We have to act in the consciousness of this deep lack. We need to be prepared to conceive plans developed according to different modalities and different processes, with different outputs, with a different duration, and a new different flexibility. Using more powerful devices could be not enough. We should be aware that plans have to be conceived according to evolving objectives, with a new perspective about managing and maintaining what is there and at the same time we should be aware that is necessary to settle down resources to cope with the unknown, and with the unexpected. Additionally, we have to consider that time is different for each person, with different perceptions of living present and future spaces. All those differences should be taken into account during a planning process. All the uncertainties are unknowable at the same moment. As put down by Marchau et al. (2019), uncertainty permeates some or all aspects of the problem: the external developments, the appropriate (future) system model, the model outcomes, and the valuation of the outcomes by (future) stakeholders. As put down by Bernard, “the meaning of the expression non-knowledge stands in for something that is not, not yet, or not supposed to be known, or yet that is not at all accessible, that is a result of ignoring facts or that is concomitant with gaining knowledge” (Bernard et al. 2018, p. 14). Also, “uncertainty refers to the gap between available knowledge and the knowledge that decision makers would need to make the best policy choice” (Marchau et al. 2019, p. 2). Beck suggests the distinction between different typologies of uncertainty, he differentiates between temporary uncertainty, unaware uncertainty, intended uncertainty and inadvertent uncertainty (Beck 1994 in Schubert 2019). Beck distinguishes between not being able to have knowledge and not wanting knowledge too. The label (or concept) ‘non-knowledge’ serves to direct attention to “the ‘natural’ reverse side of knowledge” and therefore to their reciprocal relation (Gross 2016, p. 313 in Bernard et al. 2018). Non-knowledge can be regarded as a factual absence of knowledge, as a conscious or non-conscious state of not knowing something (Bernard et al. 2018). Paradoxically non-knowledge could be regarded like something more specific than a simple uncertainty, in some sense more opaque, more ‘dense’ although less definable, and with less defined boundaries. As there are different nuances of uncertainty there are different nuances (or levels) about the scale from the known to the unknown. “There are known knowns—these are things we know we know. We also know there are known unknowns—that is to say, we know there are some things we do not know, but there are also unknown unknowns—the ones we don’t know we don’t know ….” (Rumsfeld 2002). Certainly, the latter is the most challenging one. In addition to these specifications, different dimensions and types of uncertainty can be distinguished, different classifications and different fields use different terminology, many of them retrieved in literature (Smith and Stern 2011; Walker et al. 2003; Buurman and Babovic 2016).

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Uncertainty can be classified along the dimensions “level”, “nature” and “location” too (Walker et al. 2003). The level of uncertainty delineates sections of the continuum from determinism to total ignorance (Refsgaard et al. 2012; Walker et al. 2010; Buurman and Babovic 2016). An important distinction is between imprecision or statistical uncertainty on one side and deep uncertainty on the other side. Imprecision can be modeled and probabilities can be assigned to events and outcomes. In cases of deep uncertainty this is not possible; it is not possible to place a probability on an outcome, or at most it is known that the probability is imprecise. An example is the uncertainty about mechanisms and functional relationships. Deep uncertainty also covers “unknown unknowns” and “black swan” events (Taleb 2007), i.e. events we currently cannot foresee or that are completely unexpected. It is not always possible to make a clear distinction between the different types of uncertainty: its space is a continuum. Decisions in real life contain elements that are quite clear and can be modeled, as well as elements that are unknown (Buurman and Babovic 2016).

4 A Draft for a Methodology Planning deals constantly with a matter of anticipation: not only about designing a program or a future layout by shaping spaces and choices, but even about dealing with the present non-knowledge and the future non-knowledge. Humans often deliberately manage and weigh their options by assessing the desirability and likelihoods of multiple possibilities. There are usually more than two options and more uncertain contingences—both known and unknown—affecting a future outcome as it is examined in inter-temporal choice paradigms (Fawcett and Desanto-Madeya 2012; Suddendorf and Redshaw 2017). A first line of action could be to challenge the non-knowledge with the imagination. A huge literature is about creativity and innovation in designing strategies, plans, decisions as described in Hatchuel et al. (2018), Stufano Melone and Rabino (2014) to indicate just a few examples. Imagination appears as the abstract side of creativity. This would concern two different acting lines. One is about a ‘pure’ imagination that explores memory and non-memory, what happened and what (imaged) never happened or intended as something that can never happen. This formulations by imagination shouldn’t be put aside, because something never happened or never been may still happen or enter in being. So working in a kind of ‘reductio ad absurdum’, as for mathematical proofs, could help and we can explore their relapses. The other acting line aims to integrate and go beyond methods and tools already developed by the DMDU field research (as listed in the tables above). We have to cope with the non-knowledge and the unexpected. In the first line of acting, we proposed imagination (creativity implementation methods and theories), to combine with the ‘acting’ directly on knowledge. DMDU society implements methods that in different ways process and integrate data, information, knowledge. We propose a

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neural building scenario, i.e., an artificial neural network (ANN) tool, starting from a knowledge built on ontological analysis, using the foundational ontology DOLCE (Gangemi et al. 2002). The idea is that organizing knowledge (based on an applied ontological analysis) according to a neuronal organization we could have a new knowledge arising with new insights, deductions, inductions, links. This in some sense brings out in a new substance of knowledge. Of course, this does not reduce the set of the non-knowledge but changes the relations between the two sets (knowledge and non-knowledge) and the position (and shape) of their boundaries (or limits). This could help to give life to a different knowledge. This neuronal building scenario aims to put together what is already known, the known unknown and to be a support to generate possible unknown-unknown and similar effects.

5 Conclusions In conclusion we tried to stress two concepts. As said we cannot reduce to zero the risk of the unexpected (from whatever cause generated): we can enhance the system’s resilience and antifagility (Taleb 2012) and we can reduce the system’s vulnerability. Hence, a question that could be not original: how to reach this empowered resilience and reduced vulnerability? Firstly we should be able to reduce the surprise effect when something unexpected occurs. On one hand, the unexpected could be positive too. On the other hand, the pure unexpected black swan could never arrive—nevertheless, we need to interrogate ourselves with a general ‘what if?’ (Schon 1983). Events in these last decades and even months taught us something. So we always have to ask what if something unexpected would happen? Could my actions activate a chain of happenings that leads to undesired consequences? May I be ready to handle changes that brought out because of something I didn’t know? Another line to consider is to decide to act and transform as little as possible. We had an example during the COVID-19 lockdown months in 2020 all over the world, it was maybe predictable, but still it was, in some sense, unexpected. The air pollution has dropped dramatically and natural contexts restarted to enlarge in space, literally enhancing breathing. Earth has a great resilience (without us), maybe we didn’t know. This work represents be a position paper. Here we intend to focus the attention on a more theoretical aspect of the non-knowledge and hypothesize a methodological approach to handle it during a design process. As follow up, this research is going to analyze the unexpected events and consequences we had to cope with in the last decades and to apply and test the approach proposed here in a future perspective.

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References Beck U (1994) Reflexive Modernisierung. In: Noller P, Prigge W, Ronneberger K (eds) Stadt-Welt: Über Modernisierung städtischer Milieus. Campus, Frankfurt/Main, pp 24–321 Bernard A, Koch M, Leeker M (2018) Non-knowledge and digital cultures. Meson Press, p 160 Buurman J, Babovic V (2016) Adaptation pathways and real options analysis: an approach to deep uncertainty in climate change adaptation policies. Policy Soc 35(2):137–150 Fawcett J, Desanto-Madeya S (2012) Contemporary nursing knowledge: analysis and evaluation of nursing models and theories. FA Davis Gangemi A, Guarino N, Masolo C, Oltramari A, Schneider L (2002, Oct) Sweetening ontologies with DOLCE. In: International conference on knowledge engineering and knowledge management. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 166–181 Gross Matthias (2016) Risk and ignorance. In: Burgess Adam, Alemanno Alberto, Zinn Jens O (eds) Routledge handbook of risk studies. Routledge, Abingdon, pp 310–317 Gumbrecht HU (2014) Our broad present: time and contemporary culture. Columbia University Press Hatchuel A, Le Masson P, Reich Y, Subrahmanian E (2018) Design theory: a foundation of a new paradigm for design science and engineering. Res Eng Design 29(1):5–21 Marchau VA, Walker WE, Bloemen PJ, Popper SW (2019) Decision making under deep uncertainty: from theory to practice. Springer Nature, p 405 Miller R, Poli R, Rossel P (2013) The discipline of anticipation: exploring key issues. fumee.org, IN Refsgaard JC, Christensen S, Sonnenborg TO, Seifert D, Højberg AL, Troldborg L (2012) Review of strategies for handling geological uncertainty in groundwater flow and transport modeling. Adv Water Resour 36:36–50 Rumsfeld D (2002) Department of defense news briefing, 12 Feb 2002 Schon DA (1983) Reflective practitioner. Basic books, New York Schubert D (2019) Cities and plans—the past defines the future. Plan Perspect 34(1):3–23. https:// doi.org/10.1080/02665433.2018.1541758 Smith LA, Stern N (2011) Uncertainty in science and its role in climate policy. Phil Trans R Soc A: Math Phys Eng Sci 369(1956):4818–4841 Stufano Melone MR, Rabino G (2014) The creative side of the reflective planner: updating the Schön’s findings. TeMA-J Land Use, Mob Environ Suddendorf T, Moore C (2011) Introduction to the special issue: the development of episodic foresight. Cogn Dev 26(4):295–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogdev.2011.09.001 Suddendorf T, Redshaw J (2017) Anticipation of future events. Encycl Anim Cogn Behav 1–9 Taleb NN (2007) The black swan: the impact of the highly improbable, vol 2. Random house Taleb NN (2012) Antifragile: how to live in a world we don’t understand, vol 3. Allen Lane, London Walker WE, Harremoës P, Rotmans J, Van Der Sluijs JP, Van Asselt MB, Janssen P, Krayer von Krauss MP (2003) Defining uncertainty: a conceptual basis for uncertainty management in model-based decision support. Integr Assess 4(1):5–17 Walker WE, Marchau VA, Swanson D (2010) Addressing deep uncertainty using adaptive policies: introduction to section 2. Technol Forecast Soc Chang 77(6):917–923

Use of Remotely Piloted Aircraft to Update Spatial Data in Areas of Social Fragility Danilo Marques de Magalhães and Ana Clara Mourão Moura

Abstract A considerable amount of the Brazilian population lives in informal settlements, where there is a massive dynamic of territorial transformation. In this sense, the use of Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) has shown an excellent cost-benefit relation for expeditiously collecting spatial data aiming at the identification of territorial objects, which can be an essential resource to assist planning and public management. This study presents a methodology for updating the spatial database collected by airborne LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) using an RPA and high precision GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) receivers. The study was carried out in an area of social fragility located in Belo Horizonte, Brazil, which presents geomorphological complexity, high density of territorial occupation, unplanned infrastructure, and complex urban morphology. Such associated characteristics are understood as social risk factors, creating difficulties for technical managers and locals. In that municipality, data are collected with airborne LiDAR every seven years for urban management purposes. However, the dynamics of territorial transformation in these places is very intense, generating demand for updating the database. For this purpose, the Digital Surface Model (DSM) generated by RPA was associated with the DSM generated by LiDAR through raster algebra. The results show the buildings’ pavement increases and new buildings’ construction, indicating to public managers the territorial changes in the analyzed period. Keywords Remotely piloted aircraft Map algebra


Urban management
Illegal settlements


D. M. de Magalhães (&) Instituto de Geociências, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] A. C. M. Moura Escola de Arquitetura, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Rua Paraíba 697, Belo Horizonte, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_23

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1 Introduction The monitoring of territorial transformations in Brazil is undoubtedly a significant challenge for urban management, mainly due to many existing irregular settlements. Data from the last demographic census show that 6% of the Brazilian population resides in subnormal agglomerations, identified from the precarious condition of infrastructure in existing households. Most of these households (49.8%) are in the Southeast metropolitan regions and frequently in unsuitable areas for urbanization, such as steep slopes, caves, and banks of watercourses (IBGE 2020). In the municipality of Belo Horizonte, there are 209 illegal settlements and slums, totaling 714 thousand people living in inadequate conditions of urban and sanitary infrastructure (PBH 2020). In this municipality, the management of territorial transformations is carried out with the support of data captured by LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) airborne and aerial photographs taken, performed approximately every seven years. However, territorial change dynamics are quite intense, especially in the peripheral regions, where significant increases in buildings can be seen in less than a month. This situation reinforces the demand for updating the cartographic base in a shorter period, which provides resources for monitoring transformations, dialogue with the local population, the management of necessary infrastructure, and the assessment of regulatory possibilities. In this sense, Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) has been tested as a resource for collecting data on the neighborhood scale to update the municipality’s official database. Therefore, this work presents the tests carried out to integrate the database collected with a low-cost RPA with the database generated from LiDAR, aiming to demonstrate the places where there were more significant territorial transformations, as well as presenting challenges and limits of the proposed method. Studies show that RPA, when combined with high precision GNSS receivers, can generate MDS with accuracy and morphology similar to models generated by laser profiling performed by LiDAR (Marotta et al. 2015; Oliveira et al. 2017).

2 Study Area The study area is the Conjunto Paulo VI neighborhood, located in the Northeast portion of Belo Horizonte, Brazil (Fig. 1). It is located on the municipality’s borders, and it is considered an illegal settlement, as the inhabitants do not have ownership of the land and organized themselves to occupy the area, which included invasions under a power transmission line from the state’s distribution company (CEMIG). Thus, the infrastructural deficiencies are evident, such as sanitary sewage, transportation system, paving, water, and installed energy network, among other situations. The area presents geomorphological complexities, including steep slopes and unstable soils where landslides involving victims have occurred. Some studies show that it is also an area of high vulnerability because of the climate

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Fig. 1 Location map of study area. Source the authors

changes expected for the municipality over a 30-year horizon, and the verticalization in the place may compromise the circulation of winds close to the surface, generating a series of subsequent problems (Way Carbon 2016).

3 Materials and Methods The study assesses airborne LiDAR data with data generated by RPA to verify the possibility of integrating them and monitoring territorial transformations. The LiDAR data used were generated by the Airborne Laser Scanning system in 2015. They were acquired at a flight height of 2388.1 m, with a field of view of 20° and lateral overlap between the scanning ranges of 36.4%, which resulted in an average density of 6.06 points per square meter. The comparison and integration of data took place using Digital Surface Models (DSM) in raster format. This data was generated through the point cloud interpolation in 20 cm spatial resolution using the Topo to Raster tool in ArcGIS software. The RPA used was the multi-engine DJI Phantom 4 Pro. The flight was performed with the Terrain Aware function available in the Map Pilot application. It provides the recognition of the terrain based on an SRTM image, making the RPA remain at a uniform height from the ground. It guarantees the collection of all images with the same GSD (Ground Sample Distance), thus reducing the

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interference of the terrain variation in the quality of the products generated (Magalhães and Moura 2018; Magalhães and Moura, in press). The flight was carried out at the height of 150 m, in April 2019, at 11:40 a.m., when there is less formation of shadows projected by vegetation and buildings to generate better modeling of the surface (Aber et al. 2010). It took approximately 16 min of flight to cover a total area of 65.36 ha, with a total of 261 images at 4.1 cm of GSD each. In order to ensure the planimetric and altimetric accuracy of the RPA’s products, 9 GCPs (Ground Control Points) were collected in a dispersed way in (Santos et al. 2016; Zanetti et al. 2017). The GCPs were collected with the Topcon dual-frequency receiver model Hiper SR, using the static method (Monico 2000). The base receiver performed the observations for 4 h 30 min and the other points, collected by the rover, for 20 min each. The data generated were also corrected based on the Brazilian Network for Continuous Monitoring (RBMC) using the Topcon Tools software. For generating the DSM from the photographs collected by the UAV, the Agisoft PhotoScan software was used, which allows the 3D reconstruction of objects through an algorithm that operates on multiple images with different perspectives. Medium accuracy and an aggressive filter were adopted as parameters for the point cloud construction, and the DSM was generated in this same software with spatial resolution, also, of 20 cm. Both surface models were cut in the study area that consists of the Conjunto Paulo VI neighborhood boundary plus a 50 m buffer to avoid edge effects in the data processing. Simple map algebra was employed to verify the temporal transformations by subtracting DSM RPA (2019) by DSM LiDAR (2015). The results had some noises due to the greater density of the RPA point cloud than LiDAR and, consequently, the product quality difference. In order to reduce this noise and facilitate data analysis, a 5  5 smoothing filter was applied. This entire procedure was performed using ArcGIS software. From these data, profile graphics were made to compare the occurred transformations and to interpret the results generated, which are presented below.

4 Results and Discussions Based on the profile graphs generated on the DSM, values groupings were made to understand the changes and separate the existing data noise. The first group, with values from −30.1 to −1.5 m, shows the places where the vegetation cover was removed and other objects extinct over the analyzed period. Several irrelevant changes related to the study proposes were observed, such as variation of parked vehicles and a significant volume of noise arising from the difference between the analyzed product’s quality. Such factors excluded this class from the analysis.

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The values identified between −1.4 and 1 m represented those places that remained unchanged in the analyzed period, basically corresponding to the model’s road axes and the buildings without noticeable modifications. It was noticed significant noises in results up to 1 m when located at the building’s edges due to the difference in data quality. Therefore, these values were not considered as real changes. The values from 1 to 3 m represented building changes of up to 1 floor, which could be a new building where there were none or the increase of a new floor in an existing one (Fig. 2). The figure shows that it is impossible to perceive the building’s increased volume only using aerial photos. Besides, the steep relief, the densification of buildings in narrow alleys, and the vegetation make the analysis process hard. However, the profile graph shows that both data’s terrain is quite similar, which generates reliability in the analysis. The results with values between 3 and 6 m represent the buildings with an increase of up to two new floors. As these are more significant changes concerning the neighbors, these places had a low amount of noise and, therefore, a robust identification. The values that show changes from 6 to 9 m represent those buildings with an increase of up to three floors. In general, the results were quite similar to those of the previous class: a higher altimetric increase leading to a smaller amount of noise in the data due to a more evident change and less interference from the surrounding objects. In the study area, few changes were identified at this level; for instance, the construction of a public hospital with three floors stands out (Fig. 3). In some places, it was also possible to see the vegetation increases. However, this data is not reliable since LiDAR technology can capture information also under the canopy of trees, and the differences between these data make the analysis unfeasible. Alterations were also identified in two buildings in the neighborhood that resulted in values between 9 and 12 m, representing an increase of up to four floors. As in the previous two classes, no significant noises were observed in this class due to the significant variation between the dates analyzed. With values greater than 12 m, the last class consists of noise from the data and changes observed in the vegetation that is not reliable—as already mentioned—and neither object of this analysis. No significant increments of more than four floors were observed in the neighborhood buildings within the analyzed period. It is essential to highlight that this analysis required a strong human-machine interaction, which means that it takes a significant time to be done, and it is not friendly to the automation process. Other related methodologies and other spatial analysis filters can be tested to make it feasible. On the other hand, the results are reliable since both MDS have similar accuracy. And the presented analysis can be done quickly and by simple map algebra, which can help public managers understand the main territorial changes and then guide the field works. In this sense, the altimetric data observed on both analyzed DSM were consistent since the GNSS receivers were used to improve the drone’s data. It can be understood as a reference to the accuracy of the results.

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Fig. 2 Changes up to 3 m—Construction of a new floor. a DSM LiDAR (2015); b Orthomosaic PBH (2015); c DSM RPA (2019); d Orthomosaic RPA (2019); e Profile graph; f Result of map algebra (DSM RPA—DSM LiDAR). Source the authors

The biggest challenge in this analysis was to filter the noise to understand the information generated. It is caused by the different density of the point clouds used to create the surface models, and the analyst will need to deal with it. In the study presented, it became viable from studying the shapes of the features observed on the orthomosaics and its comparison with the forms observed in the DSMs. Another challenge to face when working with RPA images is the shadows cast by the trees, the buildings, and other objects, making it impossible to generate a precise surface model in these areas. It is a well-known problem concerning drone images, and it is necessary to be aware of the limits of this technology’s use.

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Fig. 3 Changes up to 9 m—Public health center. a DSM LiDAR (2015); b Orthomosaic PBH (2015); c DSM RPA (2019); d Orthomosaic RPA (2019); e Profile graph; f Result of map algebra (DSM RPA—DSM LiDAR). Source the authors

5 Conclusions This work allowed us to conclude that the RPA can be an important instrument to monitor territorial transformations in the presented context, as it is considered feasible to associate the data collected with the LiDAR database. The study reinforces that using GCP to improve the RPA products is possible to achieve an accuracy similar to the LiDAR data. In this sense, there are gains in cost reduction and agility in collecting and updating data, enabling neighborhood scale and on-demand works.

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Significant noises were observed among the data that must be treated carefully, avoiding erroneous analyzes. It is essential to emphasize that this work does not eliminate the necessity for on-site visits to validate the transformations for cadaster purposes. However, it can guide managers to plan these actions in a more agile and assertive way. Acknowledgements The authors thank CNPq support through the project Process 401066/ 2016-9, FAPEMIG PPM-00368-18, FAPESC/PRO2019071000025, and CAPES 88887.474274/ 2020-00 for the support for taking part in the conference.

References Aber JS, Marzolf I, Ries JB (2010) Small-Format aerial photography: principles, techniques and geoscience applications. Elsevier, Amsterdam Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE) Homepage, https://agenciadenoticias.ibge. gov.br/agencia-sala-de-imprensa/2013-agencia-de-noticias/releases/14157-asi-censo-2010114-milhoes-de-brasileiros-60-vivem-em-aglomerados-subnormais. Last accessed 2020/03/05 Magalhães DM, Moura ACM (2018) Avaliação da acurácia do modelo tridimensional de uma edificação gerado por um micro VANT. Geografia y Sistemas de Información Geográfica (GEOSIG) 10(1):62–86 Magalhães DM, Moura ACM (in press). Análise da morfologia de Modelos Digitais de Superfície gerados por VANT. Revista Brasileira de Cartografia Marotta GS, Cicerelli AMR, Roig HL, Abreu MA (2015) Avaliação posicional de um modelo digital de superfície derivado de câmera de pequeno formato. Revista Brasileira de Cartografia 67(7):467–1477 Monico JFG (2000) Posicionamento pelo NAVSTAR-GPS: Descrição, Fundamentos e Aplicações. Unesp, São Paulo Oliveira DR, Cicerelli RE, Almeida T, Marotta GS (2017) Geração de modelo digital de terreno a partir de imagens obtidas por Veículo Aéreo Não Tripulado. Revista Brasileira de Cartografia 69(6):1143–1151 Prefeitura Municipal de Belo Horizonte (PBH) Homepage, https://prefeitura.pbh.gov.br/urbel/pgeplanejamento. Last accessed 2020/03/05 Santos AP, Rodrigues DD, Santos NT, Gripp Junior J (2016) Avaliação da acurácia posicional em dados espaciais utilizando estatística espacial: proposta de método e exemplo utilizando a norma brasileira. Boletim Ciências Geodésicas 22(4):630–650 Way Carbon (2016) Análise de vulnerabilidade às mudanças climáticas no município de Belo Horizonte. Prefeitura Municipal de Belo Horizonte, Belo Horizonte Zanetti J, Gripp Junior J, Santos AP (2017) Influência do número de pontos de controle em ortofotos geradas a partir de um levantamento por VANT. Revista Brasileira de Cartografia 69(2):263–277

Space of Flows and Space of Places: Manuel Castells and the Information Age Alessandro Alfieri

Abstract According to the theory of the Spanish sociologist Manuel Castells, with the transition to the new millennium, we have attend the advent of new information technologies that have conditioned society so much that they have led to the transition from industrial capitalism to informational capitalism. Informational capitalism has defined a new social form, the Network Society, and has determined the subordination of the Space of Places under the pressure of the Space of Flows, the space within which information moves. How to give a new meaning to physical places immersed in the Space of Flows? How to contrast the global logic of the Information Age and recover the local character of communities? Urban planning can give answers to these questions by triggering bottom-up processes capable of giving voice to the socio-historical identities of individual communities. Keywords Informational capitalism Bottom-up planning process


Interconnected nodes


Urban planning




1 Introduction: The Information Age Manuel Castells analyzed the transformations that have occurred with the transition to the new millennium in all cultural and social dimensions (Castells 1997). The advent of the new millennium was marked, according to Castells’ theory, by the appearance of new information technologies and therefore by the increase in human capacity to process information (Castells 1998). The central role of information marked the beginning of a new stage of capitalism, informational capitalism, in which the new capital is information and information networks represent the new means of production. The Information Age, marked by social trends linked to globalization, has determined the advent of the Informational City (Castells 1991). This new city model does not have a shape but is a process that connects, through A. Alfieri (&) Academy of Fine Arts of Rome, AURUS Research Group, Rome, Italy e-mail: alessandro.alfi[email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_24

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communication networks and related financial flows, all mega cities, generating a single and indefinite global city.

2 About the Network Society and the Space of Flows To fully understand Castells’ thinking and investigate new developments in terms of urban sociology, we cannot ignore the concepts of Network Society and Space of Flows. Information, the new capital of the Information Age theorized by Castells, travels through networks, new structures of communication and power (Stalder 1998). The network is a set of interconnected nodes (Castells 1996); the financial centers, the information centers, the places of power are the nodes of this network that physically materialize in contemporary mega cities. The networks have no fixed boundaries, they are open and polygonal, expansive and contracting, and they have determined a new social structure, the Network Society (Thompson 2003). This new form of social organization is a highly dynamic, flexible and adaptable, innovative and global system that moves no longer through places but through networks within a Space of Flows: the flows of information, images, capital and technologies. The social system determined by the Network Society is a highly elitist system in which whoever is able to activate a network holds power and control over the flows that travel along that network; social groups excluded from networks become marginal. If we shift our attention to issues more pertaining to the field of urban sociology, the advent of the Network Society that communicates and moves within the Space of Flows, requires numerous reflections relating to an urban planning discipline which is required to confront with the new global and informational cities (Sassen 2001). The most immanent question is: how has the Space of Flows redefined the form, function, processes and values of cities?

3 Beyond the Space of Flows: A New Opportunity for the Space of Places The Space of Flows, without form or center, has determined the subordination of the Space of Places; yet the city, historically ingrained in the Space of Places, has not ceased to exist despite the Space of Flows and the Network Society deprived it of its functional necessity and its defined boundaries (Gillespie, Richardson 2000). The Space of Flows has reconfigured the city, generating the Informational City, the result of an a-historical and a-cultural planning process determined by a global logic. However, globalism has not canceled the relationship of dependence between space and society; space is an expression of society, it is not a reflection of society but it is society itself (Castells 1996), and the local character resists in society. Hence, the conflict between the Space of Flows and Space of Places, between

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globalism and localism, which today’s metropolises are required to resolve. How to find a dialogue and a compromise between these two trends? And how to return form and meaning to the Space of Places? As Castells already asserts, one possibility is to recover the symbolic meaning of architecture, capable of make a new sense to physical places immersed in the Space of Flows. However, in order that architecture and the urban planning processes that generate it, to be able to produce places that are not generic, it is necessary to trigger a renewed dialogue with society. Participatory planning, through a bottom-up planning process, can play a fundamental role in overcoming the global logic of the Space of Flows. Involving citizens in the decision-making process and undertaking shared actions with them represents a real opportunity to give voice to the socio-historical identities of individual communities and break the elitist logic of the Network Society. In a top-down process, such as the one that dominates the Network Society, access to information is a privilege reserved only for policy makers who for this reason are the only ones who hold the power and control over planning. Participatory planning reverses this approach: the audience that has access to information expands and the power to decide is reserved for all those social groups that are subordinate in the Network Society. In an attempt to give a new identity to the Space of Places, the participatory approach becomes the tool for socio-spatial care, the opportunity to contrast the Space of Flows with a new space for sharing where to connect experiences and rediscover identity.

4 Conclusions The Space of Places, classified as a by-product of what it was before the Information Age, is delegated only the activities excluded from the networks. The rediscovery of the Space of Places, after its progressive dissolution under the double pressure of the Space of Flows and of the Network Society, is possible only if urban planning is able to put itself at the service of the community by asserting its autonomy from the policy makers. Participatory urban planning can represent the instrument for contrasting the global and elitist logic of the Network Society; an opportunity to ensure the survival of the Space of Places and of the city.

References Castells M (1991) The informational city: information technology, economic restructuring, and the urban-regional process. Blackwell, Oxford-Cambridge Castells M (1996) The rise of the network society. In: The information age: economy, society and culture, vol I. Blackwell, Oxford-Cambridge Castells M (1997) The power of identity. In: The information age: economy, society and culture, vol II. Blackwell, Oxford-Cambridge

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Castells M (1998) End of millennium. In: The information age: economy, society and culture, vol III. Blackwell, Oxford-Cambridge Gillespie A, Richardson R (2000) Teleworking and the city: myths of workplace transcendence and travel reduction. In: Wheeler James O, Aoyama Yuko, Warf Barney (eds) Cities in the telecommunications age. Routledge, New York, pp 228–248 Sassen S (2001) Global cities and global city-regions: a comparison. In: Allen Scott J (ed) Global city-regions: trends, theory, policy. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 78–95 Stalder F (1998) The network paradigm: social formations in the age of information. Inf Soc 14 (4):301–308 Thompson GF (2003) Between hierarchies and markets: the logic of network forms of organization. Oxford University Press, Oxford

BIS—Management of Energy Consumption Data for Companies and Public Administration Franco Guzzetti, Karen L. N. Anyabolu, Francesca Biolo, and Lara D’Ambrosio

Abstract Nowadays it is known that among all the issues, pollution and climate change are the most critical; in particular, urban areas show the worst standards about the quality of air and energy consumption. The study of various data and sources (Pasquinelli 2017) (Pasquinelli et al, ISPRS Int J Geoinf 8:27, 2019) has permitted the creation of a Building Information System (BIS) that relates an existing building with several data, for the selected municipality. It is the basis to start an accurate information management about real energy consumption. The analysis of the data in the following paper, demonstrates that is possible to intervene as public administration in order to manage and define a concrete future energy reduction program and retrofit energy-saving project. Collecting consumption data of several years are extremely useful in order to generate a profile that corresponds to reality, then the link with Topographic DB (Regione Lombardia 2010) is essential to represent the spatial distribution of this data. The information of DBT and cadastral data allows defining appurtenances (Pasquinelli and Ronconi 2011) to which are linked one or more consumptions. In the paper, the data analysis and comparisons are described.







Keywords Built environment GIS BIS renewal Energy-saving Smart-city








Energy consumption
Urban

F. Guzzetti
K. L. N. Anyabolu (&)
F. Biolo
L. D’Ambrosio Department of Architecture, Built Environment and Construction Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Via Ponzio 31, 20133 Milan, Italy e-mail: [email protected] F. Guzzetti e-mail: [email protected] F. Biolo e-mail: [email protected] L. D’Ambrosio e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_25

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1 Digital Information and Georeference as a Tool to Develop Analysis BIS is a process that allows digitizing different information about buildings (Pasquinelli and Guzzetti 2016), in the perspective of developing a high-level smart-city data model (Pasquinelli et al. 2016). BIS is a model in which buildings as a geometric shapes are linked to several data at a territorial scale: it exploits the GIS logic and flow (Guzzetti et al. 2020); in this case, it is not important the precision of representation, but the amount of data collected and placed in the global reference system (WGS 84 UTM 32). Overlays with other existing open data (risk map, pollutants variation map, heat map, COVID-19 pandemic map, etc.) is interesting to combine information that permit correct and forward-looking intervention by public administration. Surely, numerous databases already exist, but usually are separated and it is difficult to join them together due to different working department, software or management systems. A BIS try to connect information, to localize and to visualize them on a map to have an immediate feedback of data (Guzzetti et al. 2012). In the case studio, on this research, user consumption data, in the municipality of Melzo under a research deal with Cogeser (a local energy provider company) are investigated. Companies working in this field, can extract information to manage energy and re-defining energy contracts. On the other hand, public administration is able to think strategies for energy and costs saving in the municipality.

2 Digitization Process and Geolocalization of Urban Consumption The study area is a city situated 20 km east of Milan and its population is about 18,000 inhabitants; the small old town is surrounded by buildings from the postwar period (1950–1960) and more recent single-family residential areas; in the southwest area are concentrated industrial constructions. The digitization and geolocalization of the city consumption started from the development of the appurtenances. Appurtenances (or pertinences) are portions of territory consist of one or more cadastral parcels linked to a single propriety. Data linked with GIS tools to each pertinence are listed here: the demographics municipality database, the topographic database, the house’s numbers and the cadastral data (D’Alesio et al. 2011). The consumption data derives from SIATEL database; it is available in every municipality disposal and contains consumption of both electricity (kWh) and gas (m3) for every year. Every utility has a counter that is associated to a unique code (POD or PDR) and it is related to an address serving the building (Pasquinelli et al. 2019).

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POD code refers to electricity while PDR code is linked to gas consumption. The pertinence ID code is being used as key field to associate every pertinence to the correct POD/PDR (one or more, starting from the addresses). The amount of all PDR/POD collected into one pertinence, generates the total consumption of the buildings within the appurtenance area. This process has been made yearly from 2012 to 2018; the possibility to use data from 7 years is a fundamental difference with previous studies (Pasquinelli et al. 2019) because analyses have been more precise and detailed. In the electricity consumption’s map (Fig. 1) it is possible to see a point for each pertinence: colour and dimension describe the quantity of kWh/year are consumed, where the red ones correspond to energy-intensive buildings (year 2014). Every year is displayed in the same way: it is observed that every year in the city the average value is between 71.3 and 87.5 GWh/year. The number of all providers has increased while the average value referred to the number of POD is steady. 48.1%±6% of the users (arranged in increasing order) are using just 5% of the total city consumption, instead the other 50% are consuming the 95% of the whole city consumption. The analyses also highlight that the major electric consumption data (kWh/year) derive from non-domestic user (Fig. 1). Georeferencing this kind of data helps to individuated where is the higher electricity demand. In this case, it is possible to plan future renovation projects in an energy-saving system environment; for instance, creating, in a chosen place, a co-generative system solution in order to define a sustainable and convenient approach. Furthermore, from BIS it is possible

Fig. 1 Distribution of total electricity consumption (kWh/year) in the city of Melzo (data of 2014)

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Fig. 2 Distribution of total gas consumption (m3/year) in the city of Melzo (data of 2014)

to extract data in an immediate way, year by year to study various statistics. Similar analyses and representation have been defined for the gas consumption expressed in m3/year (Fig. 2). In addiction, it is also possible to visualize gas consumption related to the building volume. Combining data and changing representation through BIS is useful both in the project and study phase of strategic urban planning and in the analysis of the consumption itself. In the case study, it is more interesting to investigate the consumption of building blocks from the 60/70s instead of singlefamily houses from the 90s. The evaluation of building’s consumption for every year (from 2012 to 2018) allowed to individuate and estimated several issues: the stability of consumption, the aberration in every year, and, above all, the effect on future studies regarding reduction of CO2 emission (directly from gas or remotely from electricity). This kind of evaluation comprehend also the user’s behaviour, therefore these results do not correspond to the buildings energetic characteristics only.

3 Urban Heat and BIS In the BIS environment, consumption data are classified in domestic and nondomestic users, based on the SIATEL database. In this stage of the research, it has been considered just the domestic part associated to single users and the apartment

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blocks consumptions, in order to obtain gas and electricity consumptions for the residential part of the city (Fig. 3). From gas consumptions, it has been deducted a percentage of gas using for domestic hot water (DHW) and cooking (Pasquinelli et al. 2019): in the database is it possible to acquire the number of residents for each pertinence, therefore, it is possible to evaluate this sort of data. Clearing consumption data allowed to manage the portion of gas used for heating only. Furthermore, it is interesting to analyze the relation between degree-days and heating consumptions. Degree-days derive from an extraction of data by the “Fondazione Osservatorio Meteorologico Milano Duomo”: if the value is higher, it means that winter had been more cold (Table 1). A linear statistical model, representing this dataset, allowed estimating the gas consumption necessary to provide heating for the whole city for each degree-days. Every new project is aimed to enhance building efficiency in the city, considering

Fig. 3 Gas consumption (m3/year) in the Municipality over the years

Table 1 Gas Consumption used for heating displayed for every year in the city

Year

Heat consumption (m3)

Degree days

m3/ degree

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Average St. dev.

8,290,315 8,960,137 7,665,514 7,493,666 7,730,409 7,903,103 8,140,362

2330 2371 1989 2032 2079 2140 2246

3558 3778 3855 3688 3718 3694 3624 3702 97

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the same user behaviour, it permits to obtain a decrease of gas heating consumptions for degree-days as well as for CO2 emissions. It is highlighted that the domestic use of gas it is about half the total city consumption. Considering this data it is important to remember that reduce consumptions permit to decrease sensibly the total consumption and the local emissions of CO2 which are linked directly to the environmental problem. The same analysis with a linear statistical model has been developed for the summer period. The demand of electric domestic consumption is 1/5 of the total city consumption; the major demand derives from the industrial compartment. The results of buildings requalification (for summer period) do not entail visible changes for the climate of the city because energy is produced in other places. The only tangible change is the lowering of heat islands due to reduction of use of cooling systems. BIS allows to determine the effect of important renewal project and could identify the effect produced by important mitigation measures to reduce heat islands (i.e. creation of urban forest, green roofs, flooring materials and colours…)

4 The Use of BIS as a Tool to Project Urban Renewal With the use of BIS, it has been collected different series of insights, that are extremely interesting for the pre-evaluation of possible renewal energy saving projects on building blocks, calculating the energy performance index (Eph) (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 Estimated Eph (kWh/m2 year) for some apartment blocks: the worst value is highlighted in red

Residents

65 147 139 69 77

N_pert

1848 1851 1852 1853 1854

11,549 19,592 17,369 11,205 14,329

Building volume (mc)

511 867 912 538 871

Area (m2) 20,021 41,387 39,975 20,364 31,515

Average consumption 6 6 5 5 4

Floors 2300 3902 3420 2018 2613

SLP estimated (mq)

Table 2 Different data associated with each pertinence that contains different building blocks

162,021 324,823 316,133 162,489 275,292

Net consumption (kWh)

70 83 92 81 105

Eph (kWh/ mq2 a)

47,046 129,748 145,133 61,614 144,642

Saving money value (kWh)

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Using DBT data (volume and square meter on the ground), after different tests (Pasquinelli et al. 2019) in BIS, it is obtained the estimation of electricity consumption for each square meter of slp (internal surface of the building) (kWh/m2 year). Different parts of the city were chosen to be analysed. In accordance with the legislation (UNI/TS 11300-1 2014), for each building block it has been estimated the annual consumption in kWh; supposing that it has been made a retrofit energy-project allowing to obtain a consumption value around 50 kWh/m2 year (parameter of energy B class buildings). From the amount of gas consumption energy-saving, it has been obtain the income annual money saving. Using a parametric evaluation it is possible to define the amount for each m2 for necessary renewal interventions to obtain the defined energetic parameter (Tagliabue et al. 2017). It is possible to evaluate how many years are necessary to cover the initial investment using the economic savings for the renewal project. In this model, one fundamental aspect is that the data is not only predictable, but also correct, thanks to the study of consumptions and users behaviour. BIS allows to estimate the cost saving for each energetic renewal project very quickly; it is useful in order to individuate different city areas where is more suitable to intervene (Table 2). Then it is interesting developing and providing insights, like BIM of building blocks in order to obtain an accurate, economical case scenario (Di Giuda et al. 2016), considering also: the depreciation charges on capital investment, the relative financial cost and the possibility to cover them using energy saving systems.

5 Conclusions All things considered, nowadays, it is actually a significant step forward in the management and advancement of using BIS. Responsible agencies and the public administration can manage a plan of intervention; for instance, choose a district for requalification (using BIM as a control tool), decide to develop co-generative solution, improve alternatives to reduce energy consumption and cost. BIS allowed to rethink strategies within public administrations and private users, developing a zero cost solution (just continue paying the normal energy cost through the years) and living in more suitable efficient buildings (retrained energy from the company who does intervene) that guarantee a better living experience. The result is an immediate decrease of CO2 emission and other pollutants. Especially for the public administrations and energy companies, this process is helpful because there is the possibility to have data and statistics for an extended territory; in this way, it is possible to create a pluri-annual work schedule to improve the global efficiency in the city.

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References D’Alesio F, Di Maria F, Guzzetti F, Viskanic P (2011) Strumenti per l’integrazione fra database topografico e informazioni catastali. In: Paper presented at the 15th national conference ASITA, Parma, 15–18 Nov 2011 Di Giuda GM, Valentina V, De Angelis E, Piantanida P, Tagliabue LC, Ciribini ALC (2016) Progressive energy retrofit for educational building stock in a Smart City. In: IEEE Second International Smart City Conference (ISC2 2016), Improving the citizens quality of life, Trento, Italy, 12–15 Sep 2016 Ente Nazionale Italiano di Unificazione UNI/TS 11300-1:2014: Energy performance of buildings —Part 1: evaluation of energy need for space heating and cooling Guzzetti F, Marchetti M, Pasquinelli A (2012) Development rights management through GIS technology: the case study of Melzo (Milan) Guzzetti F, Facchinetti S, Marchetti Guerrini G (2020) Il Building Information System del Comune di Melzo, p 77, di Servizi a rete n.1—Gennaio-Febbraio 2020 Pasquinelli A (2017) The creation of a citywide building information system: criticalities and potentialites of public information on building. PhD Thesis, Politecnico di Milano, Milan Pasquinelli A, Guzzetti F (2016) Knowledge for intelligence: discussing the state and the role of building data in Italy. ISPRS Ann Photogramm Remote Sens Spat Inf Sci:11–18 Pasquinelli A, Ronconi M (2011) L’integrazione del database topografico di regione Lombardia con i dati provenienti dagli archivi catastali: la determinazione delle aree di pertinenza, thesis, unpublished Pasquinelli A, Pasini D, Tagliabue L, De Angelis E, Guzzetti F, Ciribini A (2016). Energy management of the smart city through information systems and models Pasquinelli A, Agugiaro G, Tagliabue L, Scaioni M, Guzzetti F (2019) Exploiting the potential of integrated public building data: energy performance assessment of the building stock in a case study in northern Italy. ISPRS Int J Geo-Inf 8:27. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi8010027 Regione Lombardia (2010) Quadro di riferimento per l’aggiornamento del Database Topografico e l’interscambio con le banche dati catastali Tagliabue L, Pasquinelli A, De Angelis E, Ciribini A, Guzzetti F (2017). GIS based approach for district energy retrofit optioneering, pp 129–136. https://doi.org/10.24928/jc3-2017/0269

Understanding the Importance of Risk Perception in Coastal Socio-Ecological Systems Management: A Case Study in Southern Italy Giulia Motta Zanin , Maria Francesca Bruno , and Alessandra Saponieri Abstract Coastal systems are dealing with huge challenges, mainly arising from flooding, erosion and the growing urbanization. Such areas are highly exposed to different risk drivers, which are leading to a gradual depletion of their environmental quality and long-term sustainability. Consequently, direct and indirect negative effects on both economic development and behavior are being experienced by coastal communities. The over-exploitation and the increasing urbanization of coastal areas are reducing their resilience against the negative impacts due to meteorological extreme events, worsened by climate change. Moreover, coasts are increasingly facing critical situations due to incorrect coastal protection management strategies. The comprehension of coastal risks is typically based on a deep understanding of the main physical phenomena to be addressed. However, to be effective, management activities need to actively involve people and communities at risk, to increase public awareness and preparedness and effectively reduce both exposure and vulnerability. Accordingly, stakeholders’ and local communities’ risk perception plays a key role. In the present paper, both physical and perceived risk are evaluated and compared. The pilot site is located in Southern Italy (Puglia region), where the physical risk has been evaluated by following a DPSIR approach. The level of coastal risk perception by local stakeholders’ and decision makers has been determined from the analysis of Fuzzy Cognitive Maps (FCMs), grasped through scenario workshops developed in the study area. Keywords Coastal risk perception Coastal flooding Erosion





DPSIR model
Fuzzy cognitive maps


G. Motta Zanin
M. F. Bruno Polytechnic University of Bari, Via Edoardo Orabona, 4, 70126 Bari, Italy A. Saponieri (&) University of Salento, Ecotekne, 73047 Lecce, Italy e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_26

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1 Introduction Nowadays, coastal systems are strongly exposed to flooding and erosion hazards, exacerbated by climate changes, that are threatening their environmental quality and sustainability. The growing urbanization and the overexploitation of resources, due to the massive concentration of human population, are producing negative impacts and alteration of the coastal ecosystems (Adger et al. 2005; Pellicani et al. 2020). Accordingly, such a condition has negative effects on resilience, since it reduces the ability of coastal socio-ecological systems exposed to hazards, to resist, absorb and recover in a timely and efficient manner (Folke et al. 2005; Holling 1973). In addition, coastal systems constantly face mismanagement and conflicts between different actors with competitive interests (Mosley 2014; Barragán and de Andrés 2015). Over the last decades, the task of coastal management has become more complex. A more interdisciplinary and integrated management process is required, by including regulatory, technical, economic, cultural and social aspects (Motta Zanin 2020; Turner and Salomons 1999). Therefore, the debate is being held on the design of a new approach known as Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). Moreover, to reduce coastal vulnerability and enhance resilience, a deep knowledge of the characteristics of ecosystems, human society and their mutual interaction is needed (Adger et al. 2005; Bruno et al. 2020). Actually, the evaluation of the main physical phenomena driving erosion and flooding has to be combined with the recognition of stakeholders’ and local communities’ perception, knowledge and interactions (Motta Zanin 2020). Hence, public risk perception plays a key role in the adoption of measures and their acceptance, since a community more informed and prepared quickly rebounds from short-term weather and climate-related events (Slovic 1987). Consequently, the increase of resilience can reduce negative long-term impacts on human health, environmental and economic impacts. The present paper reports a preliminary comparison between physical and perceived coastal risk in Southern Italy (Puglia region). The former is calculated following a DIPSIR approach and mapped with the Modified Eurosion Model (Mod.E.M.) proposed by Bruno et al. 2020. The latter is firstly evaluated by means of a Scenario workshop and then structured through the construction of cognitive maps (Motta Zanin 2020; Santoro and Motta Zanin, in press).

2 The Case Study of Margherita di Savoia (Puglia Region, Italy) Puglia region is located in the extreme south-eastern tip of Italy. It has the longest coastline in the whole country, of about 975 km, characterized by different topographic, geological and morphological features (Bruno et al. 2020). The regional

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coastline is heavily affected by coastal erosion and flooding with huge related economic impacts on traditional maritime activities as well as other sectors, namely tourism and agriculture. Margherita di Savoia is a small town of almost 18,000 inhabitants, overlooking the Gulf of Manfredonia, in the Adriatic Sea. It is characterized by a particular urban conformation: it is a narrow strip of land 18 km long, enclosed between the sea and the saltworks (Motta Zanin 2020). The history of this town is closely linked to the saltworks and their use. Even today the relationship between the inhabitants and the economic activities linked to the sea (e.g., port activities, saltworks, seaside tourism) is still strong (Santoro and Motta Zanin, in press). Moreover, it is recognized as one of the coastal hot-spots for coastal erosion and flooding, mainly due to the coastal type, long sandy coastlines and low inland heights (Bruno et al. 2020). Indeed, such phenomena enhance the related risks and damages which are impacting the economic activities and the use of the coastal area, in particular beach tourism and agriculture (Archetti et al. 2019). To counteract and mitigate the severe erosion processes started after the harbour construction, several coastal protection structures have been built, shifting the erosive process to the west without any significant benefits (Motta Zanin 2020; Bruno et al. 2020). Thus, it is of extreme importance to deeply understand the cause/effects relationships driving coastal risk in this area, considering both the physical and the perceived coastal risk, to support decision makers in managing more effectively.

2.1

The Modified Eurosion Model

One of the most widely used risk assessment approaches is based on the DPSIR (Drivers-Pressures-State-Impact-Response) conceptual framework. Through a multi-variate analysis, it allows to comprehend and explain real or expected problems and their potential evolution at different scales. In this case, the DPSIR method is used to understand and describe the processes and the cause/effect relationships between Drivers and Pressures that lead to an alteration of the current State and therefore Impacts on the environment, economy and society (Fig. 1). The Risk Index is here estimated as a product of the Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI) and the Coastal Exposure Index (CEI) which allow to quantify the coast predisposition to erosion and/or flooding and the exposure of the surrounding environment, respectively. Starting from the EUrosion approach (2004) a new modified model (Modified EUrosion Model—Mod.E.M.) has been developed in Bruno et al. (2020) and here used to map coastal risk in the coastal areas of Margherita di Savoia.

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Fig. 1 Risk profile—DPSIR path of effects (PoE) (adapted from Bruno et al. 2020)

2.2

The Scenario Workshop to Elicit Coastal Risk Perception

To understand the risk perception of local policy makers and stakeholders and their opinions on the potential solutions within future scenarios by 2040, a Scenario Workshop was designed and organized. As described by Motta Zanin (2020) the Workshop was structured following the Future Workshop approach (Jungk and Müllert 1987), aimed at changing or transforming the actual situation of the system through three main phases: (i) critical phase, (ii) fantasy phase and (iii) implementation phase. The method is focused on stimulating the intuition of individuals, the synergy effects in groups and the critical potential that may contribute to the creation of possible alternatives. Thus, from a critical comprehension of the real problems and through different phases of individual reflection and group interaction, participants outline shared and desirable future visions and possible ways to turn from the real situation to the preferable one (Barbanente and Khakee 2003). In this case, representatives of local policy makers, technicians and stakeholders (e.g., economic fabric and local environmental associations) were selected to consider the broadest representation of the interests involved. The Scenario Workshop was designed and organized in three phases: (i) identification of problems and resources; (ii) vision and (iii) scenario building and implementation (Motta Zanin 2020).

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Finally, a Collective-Fuzzy Cognitive Map (Papageorgiou and Kontogianni 2012) was built to show the conceptual models of stakeholders, allowing to better investigate how participants perceive the risks related to the coastal area of Margherita di Savoia (Santoro and Motta Zanin, in press).

3 Comparison Between “Physical” and “Perceived” Coastal Risk The physical coastal risk is here calculated using the Mod.E.M. method (Bruno et al. 2020). Table 1 reports the 10 indicators used to evaluate CVI and CEI together with the relative scores in the range 0 (lowest)—2 (highest). For a detailed description of all indicators, readers can refer to (Bruno et al. 2020). Results show that the study area is characterized by a high value of CVI. Despite pressure factors associated with Sea Level Rise (SLR) and storm surge combined with wave setup during particularly severe marine weather events (HWL) assume medium scores, coastal zones are particularly exposed to flooding. The effects of both wave storms and meteorological events are indeed further excited by the presence of low-lying inland zones which are prone to flood even during ordinary wave storms. The area is also mainly constituted by sandy foreshore, subject to evident erosion process induced by both natural and anthropogenic causes. The exposure of the area, evaluated through the CEI index, is mainly related to the presence of high ecological areas. Accordingly, the Risk Index, normalized at the regional scale, is classified as high. Land cover, shoreline erosion and river flooding areas for Margherita di Savoia are shown in Fig. 2, to better highlight the coastal risk of such area. Several important aspects emerge from the risk map: (i) it has been heavily affected by erosion since the second half of the 20th century and the shoreline retreat is currently ongoing, (ii) a large part of that area is covered by the largest saltworks in Table 1 “Physical” coastal risk index for Margherita di Savoia Indicator Population in RICEa (residents and seasonal population) Increase in urban area in a 10 km wide coastal area Urban and/or industrial area in RICEa High ecological value areas in RICEa CVI Percentage of municipal areas in RICEa Sea level rise Highest water level Eroded shoreline Percentage of flood-prone areas within the RICEa Coastal geology a Radium of Influence of Coastal Erosion CEI

Abbr.

Score

PRICE U10km URICE ERICE ARICE SLR HWL ESRL HHRICE GEC

1 0 0 2 2 2 1 1 2 2

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Europe and it is classified as a protected natural area and (iii) wide flood-prone areas have been identified by the Hydrogeological Setting Plan (PAI 2005). In Fig. 3 the Collective-Fuzzy Cognitive Map (CFCM) built to represent the perceived risk is reported. The connections between the involved variables (red and green arrows in Fig. 3) allow to identify the perceived relative cause/effect relationships. A Fuzzy Cognitive Map is a feedback-oriented graph, consisting of nodes representing variables (Ci) and weighted arcs (Wi) with assigned weights in the range [−1,1] (Papageorgiou and Kontogianni 2012). From the analysis of the CFCM it is possible to identify direct and indirect causes and effects as perceived by stakeholders and policy makers. The qualitative comparison between physical and perceived risk is reported in Table 2. Some common elements can be identified. Preliminarily, it can be observed that the risk of coastal erosion appears to be well perceived. Besides the excessive coastalisation and anthropogenic pressures which are recognized among the main causes of erosion processes, the effectiveness of coastal protection structures is highly perceived. It is quite evident that people involved in the Workshop well know the historical background of the area under study. Indeed, more than a hundred of groynes were realized to mitigate the erosive trend that has affected the coastline in the last decades, but they did not have any positive effects. The analysis of the FCM clearly shows such an issue, since the ineffectiveness of coastal erosion protection works is strongly perceived as an element which has worsened the problem. The cognitive map highlights also the main issue related to

Fig. 2 Land cover, shoreline erosion and river flooding areas for Margherita di Savoia (adapted from Bruno et al. 2020)

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Fig. 3 Collective-Fuzzy Cognitive Map representing the perception of coastal risks in the coastal area of Margherita di Savoia (adapted from Santoro and Motta Zanin, in press)

management activities: the lack of cooperation among institutional actors and integrated management plans emerge as one of the major causes responsible for the loss of sediments and, hence, the reduction of the beaches width. Despite, as already highlighted, it is visible that both policy makers and stakeholders are aware of the existing coastal erosion affecting Margherita di Savoia, some key elements in the “physical” risk do not emerge in the perceived risk map. Mainly, policy makers and stakeholders seem to be not aware of the flooding issue and the climate change impacts at all, nevertheless the inland territories often suffer inundations driven by sea storms and heavy rainfall (Apollonio et al. 2020). Table 2 Comparison between the “real” perceived coastal risk in Margherita di Savoia Physical risk

Perceived risk

Eroded shoreline Flooding Climate change Municipal areas in RICE Population in RICE High ecological value areas in RICE

Coastal erosion Not perceived Not perceived Coastalisation and anthropic pressure on the littoral Coastalisation/business interruption/economic losses Not perceived

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4 Conclusions The present paper reports a preliminary comparison between coastal risk evaluated following a DPSIR framework and the risk level perceived by policy makers and stakeholders. The perception of cause/effects relationship of the involved phenomena is collected through the use of the Scenario Workshop and structured through the use of Fuzzy-Cognitive Maps. The pilot site is located in Puglia region (Southern Italy), where both flooding and erosion processes are heavily threatening the environmental quality and sustainability of coastal areas. The comparison between the two approaches, highlights that coastal erosion represents a huge problem which is well perceived by local stakeholders and policy makers. On the contrary, some elements revealed from the “physical” risk did not emerge during the Workshop. For example, the Fuzzy Cognitive map does not reveal the negative effects experienced due to flooding, nevertheless, the inland territories often suffer the flooding effects induced by wave storms and meteorological events, exacerbated by the climate change. Such a mismatch underlines the importance of integrating physical risk with public perception to make management activities more effective and following the basic principles of the Integrated Coastal Zone Management. Accordingly, stakeholders’ and local communities’ risk perception plays a key role. The involvement of people and communities at risk, surely increase public awareness and preparedness and effectively reduce both exposure and vulnerability. Acknowledgements The present study is part of the STIMARE project, funded by the Italian Ministry for the Environment and Protection of the Territory and the Sea—C.U. P. J56C18001240001.

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Bruno MF, Saponieri A, Molfetta MG, Damiani L (2020) The DPSIR approach for coastal risk assessment under climate change at regional scale : the case of Apulian Coast (Italy): 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse8070531 Folke C, Hahn T, Olsson P, Norberg J (2005) Adaptive governance of social-ecological systems. Annu Rev Environ Resour 30:441–473 Holling CS (1973) Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 4(1):1–23 Jungk R, Müllert N (1987) Future workshop: how to create a desirable futures. Institute for Social Inventions, London Mosley S (2014) Coastal cities and environmental change. Environ Hist Camb. 20:517–533. https://doi.org/10.3197/096734014X14091313617280 Motta Zanin G (2020) The role of experiential knowledge in risk management of coastal landscapes: a case study in the Mediterranean Basin. In: Gerundo C, Stanganelli M (eds) Landscape at risk. Luciano Editore, Napoli Papageorgiou E, Kontogianni A (2012) Using fuzzy cognitive mapping in environmental decision making and management: a methodological primer and an application. Int Perspect Glob Environ Chang. https://doi.org/10.5772/29375 Pellicani R, Argentiero I, Fidelibus MD, Zanin GM, Parisi A, Spilotro G (2020) Dynamics of the Basilicata Ionian coast: human and natural drivers. Rend Lincei 31:353–364. https://doi.org/10. 1007/s12210-020-00910-0 Santoro S, Motta Zanin G (2021) The role of stakeholders’ risk perception in water management policies: a case study comparison in Southern Italy. In: Bisello A, Vettorato D, Haarstad H, Borsboom-van Beurden J (eds) Smart and sustainable planning for cities and regions, Results of SSPCR 2019. Green Energy and Technology. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03057332-4 Slovic P (1987) The perception of risk. Science:280–285. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3563507 Turner RK, Salomons W (1999) Introduction and overview. In: Salomons W, Turner RK, Lacerda LD, Ramachandran S (eds) Perspectives on integrated coastal zone management. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-60103-3

Urban Occupation Potential by UAV Data: Vale do Sereno—Nova Lima/MG Pedro Benedito Casagrande , Maria Giovana Parisi , Ana Clara Mourão Moura , Lourdes Manresa Camargos , and Danilo Marques de Magalhães

Abstract Currently new technologies and tools have been used to improve the spatial planning and knowledge of the territory. Thus, from UAV data it is possible to perform the spatial analysis of the study area and to know/understand the potential use for urban occupation. The UAV flyover allows to generate a mosaic of orthophoto which is the basis for generating the analyzes related to the physical environment, and with the use of other geotechnologies it is possible to elaborate indices for urban occupation in the study site. In this case study the chosen area was the Vale do Sereno region, part of the municipality of Nova Lima/MG, which has urban expansion in areas with physical characteristics not suitable for occupation, in general. Thus, the use of geotechnologies as a subsidy for territorial planning and planning is increasingly accessible and indispensable for public management. Keywords Territorial planning


Geotechnologies
Territorial management

P. B. Casagrande (&) Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Escola de Engenharia, Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] M. G. Parisi
L. M. Camargos
D. M. de Magalhães Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Instituto de Geociências, Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] L. M. Camargos e-mail: [email protected] D. M. de Magalhães e-mail: [email protected] A. C. M. Moura Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Escola de Arquitetura, Rua Paraíba 697, Belo Horizonte, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_27

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1 Introduction The process of accelerated growth of cities, together with the absence of basic infrastructure, lead to the misuse of the physical environment, whose consequences are the impacts on the quality and safety of the population and urban equipment. According to Bathrellos (2007) more than 70% of the world’s population lives in urban areas. The urban settlements have a close relationship due to the impacts generated both positive and negative. Changes in production patterns and population dynamics change the nature of these impacts and, consequently, the socio-environmental conditions of urban agglomerates (Silva and Travassos 2008). Land occupation in areas potentially at risk to mass movements and accelerated erosion present in considerable portions of urban areas of the underdeveloped and developing world is an indication that the environmental issue does not receive due attention in the various types of territorial planning. In this sense, landslides are frequent in urban areas, even in areas considered stable, aggravated due to intense urbanization and the construction of housing over slopes, causing serious consequences. Mitigating these impacts is fundamental for the efficiency of space and land use, as well as for economic development (Bathrellos 2007). In this sense, there are several ways to measure and improve the ability to understand the territory and it has been proven that with the aid of thematic maps it is possible to direct local planning so that there is no occupation in these places (Casagrande et al. 2017). However, the pressure exerted by real estate speculation induces occupation in areas inadequate from the environmental point of view, leading to the formation of risk areas. The municipality of Nova Lima, located in the Metropolitan Region of Belo Horizonte, Brazil, has its history related to the development of mining activity in the state of Minas Gerais. Situated in one of the main axes of metropolitan expansion—the southern axis, marked by a concentrated land structure owned by mining companies. However, urban occupation occurred along with the limitations of the physical environment, a process that was aggravated by real estate speculation in areas with high slopes and geomorphological, in addition to the presence of an important area of vegetation cover. These events after the initial period of mining in the municipality, led to urbanization characterized by a differentiated growth (Tonucci Filho 2012), with the vast majority of new projects belonging to the high-luxury real estate market and located in areas of high slope or at the bottom of the valley of sub-basins. This work aims to analyze the urbanization process that occurs in areas of high slope in the municipality of Nova Lima (Fig. 1), through the analysis of the risks present in the area through visualization with drone modeling, thematic cartography and geomorphology (Magalhães and Moura 2018). Spatial analyses carried out in a Geographic Information System (GIS) environment make it possible to measure the size of recent urbanization, besides indicating growth vectors in order to identify areas that may present high danger and possible geomorphological risks (Santos 2017).

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Fig. 1 Image of the study area—by UAV data. Source The authors

2 Contextualization of the Study Area The study area, known as Vale do Sereno, is located in the southern part of the municipality of Nova Lima, whose density of urbanization largely coincides with the area comprised by the vertex formed by mg-030 (Highway) and the municipal boundary with Belo Horizonte. According to Casagrande (2019) because it is a region with large mineral reserves such as gold and iron, the formation of the municipality of Nova Lima is intrinsically related to mineral extraction activity. According to the authors, this activity caused the economic rapprochement between Belo Horizonte and Nova Lima to be linked to mining and the export sector. It is worth noting that at the beginning of the 20th century, urban and economic occupation in the form of condominiums and allotments had not yet begun, with mining as the main activity in the region (Casagrande 2019). According to Peixoto (2006) the process of occupation of the region began in the 1950s, characterized by a differentiated pattern of occupation directed to the population layers of middle and high income in the form of condominiums. Thus, it is a municipality with a high Human Development Index (HDI) obtained by positive financial return due to mining activities. Its altimetric composition is characterized by significant topographic variation, resulting from almost 280 m of amplitude, between the lowest point and the highest point of the region. Much of the study area is not yet occupied and corresponds to

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the valley funds and their slopes. The most densely occupied portion is close to the highest dimensions of the study area. The slope constitutes an expressive impediment and hindering the occupation of this area, since the sum of the ranges of 30– 47% (which by legislation require geotechnical reports for occupation because they are already considered risky), and the ranges above 47%, by local law (Brasil 1979), which are considered non-buildable, occur in much of the region, including in areas already occupied. It is observed that in the Vale do Sereno, an area belonging to the municipality of Nova Lima, there are watercourses, from drainage channels and intermittent streams to perennial watercourses. The presence of vegetation is comprehensive, where expressive vegetation, which can be considered for future evaluation of ecological corridors and which are elements exhaustively cited as landscape components, is very present in the area, mainly at the bottom of the valley and near the main drainage. It is observed that the Vale do Sereno has several areas of environmental interest, mainly due to the presence of expressive vegetation cover and water streams. The patches of vegetation are mainly located in the center. It should be noted that where these stains are concentrated there are already streets executed. It should be noted that where the perennial watercourse is located, it consists of the place of greatest environmental interest, whose conflict occurs precisely in the bedside areas. It is observed that most of the already occupied portion of the Vale do Sereno is in a hilltop area. Another problem identified is the occupation process in the areas of slope and hill tops, whose indication is the preservation of vegetation cover, as they are non-uplifting areas according to the legislation. It is also important to point out that the Vale do Sereno is the target of the high-luxury real estate market, which has as its decoy, the propaganda of a harmonious coexistence between housing and environmental preservation, this situation is in a urban expiation and by now it is in just a part of the area in study. However, according to the legislation and the Master Plan, it consists of an area inadequate for occupation, whose consequence of this process is the compromise of the natural landscape of the area (Moura 2013).

3 Methodology The obtained database was performed by drone flyover, generating high resolution orthophotos (Magalhães and Moura 2018) by the use of a photogrammetric software (Pix4D). The spatial and spectral resolution of the area is of high quality (Eisenbeiss 2008), which enables the analyses, in a supervised manner. Through the generated images and supervised classification of them, it was possible to extract the data that allowed the elaboration of the maps of Slope, Drainage (Hack Index) and Vegetation Density (NRVI). The Occupation Potential (OP) was calculated by combining the variables analyzed in a GIS environment, which allowed its integration with other variables

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related to the territorial and environmental planning strategies of the study area (Moura 2005). Initially, the variables that served as input in the model that composes the Potential to Occupation were elaborated. The slope (Fig. 2) of the relief, in turn, aims to evidence the relief breaks, which was obtained from the processing of images of digital elevation model from the drone data of the study area. The slope data were generated in percentage, being classified into 4 classes, in which they represent from 0 to 5% considered flat and floodable; from 5 to 30% as low slope; from 30 to 47% as high slope and above 47% as inappropriate for urban use and anthropic actions. The Stream Length-gradient index (Fig. 2) was initially elaborated by Hack (1973), and was applied to the hierarchical hydrographic network according to Strahler’s method (1957) for the analysis and spatialization of the action of the fluvial drainage incision in the relief, process that can be triggered by tectonic and structural (endogenous) factors, recurrent in the study area and classified into three classes, which high is where there is greater drainage energy, medium is where the energy of the drainage behaves with less power and low is where this energy is lower. Since the analysis of drainage features is the proposal of this morphometric component. The Normalized Remaining Vegetation Index—NRVI (Fig. 2) is based on the spectral signature of vegetation behavior, which presents specific responses related to photosynthesis, the process of which absorbs solar radiation in the red band of the spectrum. The index is directly proportional to the amount of vegetation cover of a given spatial unit of analysis (Bonet et al. 2006). The result of calculating this index for the study area generated a range of three classes defined as: high vegetation density, low vegetation density and anthropized areas. The NRVI can also be associated with other standardized indices to make correlations and verify the environment of the studied site, as well as improve its management (Bonet et al. 2006). In order to adapt the variables to integrate the analysis of multicriteria by combination, following the methodology of Rocha et al. (2018), each of the variables was noted a numerical value so that when juxtaposed to the variables, the user can judge its meaning in the partial and final results of the process to the point of obtaining the final qualitative judgment for the synthesis of the place of study. Figure 3 shows the process that occurs through stages of peer-to-peer analysis until the result. The objective is to generate a classification index with the territorial coincidences of the variables in analyses, always following the objective of the researchers, providing information without hierarchy, but rather selective and qualitative (Rocha et al. 2018). According to Groenwald et al. (2009), “Combinatorial Analysis is the part of Mathematics that studies and develops methods to solve problems involving counting or existence, in general, it can be said that it is the part of Mathematics that analyzes structures and discrete relationships”. Thus, this method works as a support for the decision to work in an area of study (Rocha et al. 2016).

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Fig. 2 Slope, hack index and NRVI of the area. Source The authors

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Fig. 3 Logic of the combinatorial analysis. Source The authors

Fig. 4 Potential for occupation. Source The authors

With this, the Occupation Potential (OP) obtained is represented by Fig. 4, ranging from low occupancy potential (high risk), low occupancy potential (low risk) and existing occupation:

4 Results The results obtained by the analysis it was possible to identify two large compartments with considerable potential for occupation. The first located in the southwest territory portion, where there is lower slope of the land, lower density of

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vegetation and medium Hack Index, and the second compartment is located in the northern portion, near areas where there is already occurrence of occupations. Although areas more prone to occupation have been identified, the region has relevant ecological importance, with the presence of water network and high-density vegetation. In this sense, in the areas identified as low potential for occupation, it is suggested the preservation of vegetation and the implementation of measures more restrictive to occupation.

5 Conclusion The production of spatialized information regarding the potential for occupation is necessary regarding the planning of future occupations, as well as in the management of natural areas. The OP proved to be an important product for the process of elaboration of the Land Use and Occupation Plan of the Region, composing the systems that represent the environmental characteristics of the region. The OP favored a spatialized understanding of the susceptibility of the inherent local physical environment of the physical and environmental singularities of the area, evidencing the places with the greatest potential for occupation. Although urban occupation in the region is rarefied and with high demographic density, there are risks related to the physical environment, which justifies the production of the cartographic material presented. From this point it may be prohibited of land occupation in areas at risk by the city administration. In addition to the concern with the future of the occupation of the area, the potential for occupation can help in decision-making regarding the intervention in the landscape by man, indicating areas with more favorable for occupation.

References Bathrellos GDI (2007) An overview in urban geology and urban geomorphology. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Greece, 2007. In: Proceedings of the 11th International Congress, Athens, May, 2007 Bonet BRP et al (2006) Extra-property legal reserve in the Cerrado Biome: a preliminary analysis within the watershed context. Revista Brasileira de Cartografia, Nº 58/02 Brasil (1979) Lei Federal nº 6.766. 17 dez. Dispõe sobre o Parcelamento do Solo Urbano e dá outras Providências. Brasília Casagrande PB (2019) Geologia e geoprocessamento aplicados ao ordenamento territorial. 86 f. Tese (Doutorado)—Curso de Geologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, 2019 Casagrande PB, Fonzino F, Lanfranchi E, Fonseca BM, Sena IS (2017) Proposta de índice de risco geológico: estudo de caso para o município de Norcia, Itália. XXVII Congresso Brasileiro de Cartografia, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil

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Eisenbeiss H (2008) The autonomous mini helicopter: a powerful plataform for mobile mapping. Int Arch Photogramm Remote Sens Spatial Inf Sci 37:977–984 Groenwald CL, Oliveira NZ, Homa L, Ryokiti AI (2009) Didactic sequence with combinatory analysis according to the SCORM standard. Bolema 22(34):27–56 Hack JT (1973) Stream-profile analysis and stream-gradient index. J Res United States Geol Surv 1(4):421–429 Magalhães MM, Moura ACM (2018) Avaliação da acurácia do modelo tridimensional de uma edificação gerado por um micro vant. Revista Geografía y Sistemas de Información Geográfica. Volume Especial, Ano 10:75–100, Argentina Moura ACM (2005) Geoprocessamento na gestão e planejamento urbano. ACMM, Belo Horizonte, 294pp Moura ACM et al (2013) Geoprocessamento como ferramenta de planejamento egestão no Vale do Sereno em Nova Lima, Minas Gerais. Anais XVISimpósio Brasileiro de Sensoriamento Remoto – SBSR. Foz do Iguaçu, PR,Brasil, 2013 Peixoto MCD (2006) A Expansão Urbana da Região Metropolitana de Belo Horizonte e suas implicações para a redistribuição espacial da população: a migração dos ricos. Trabalho apresentado no XV Encontro de Estudos Populacionais, ABEP, realizado em Caxambu-MG-Brasil, de 18 a 22 de setembro de 2006 Rocha NA, Sena IS, Fonseca BM, Moura ACM (2016) Association between a spectral index and a landscape index for mapping and analysis of urban vegetation. In: 9th International Conference on Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Torino Rocha AR, Casagrande BP, Moura ACM (2018) Análise Combinatória e Pesos de Evidência na Produção de Análise de Multicritérios em Modelos de Avaliação. Revista Geografía y Sistemas de Información Geográfica. Volume Especial, Ano 10:37–61, Argentina Santos AR (2017) Cidades & Geologia: discução técnica e proposição de projetos de lei de grande interesse para as populações urbanas. Editora Rudder, São Paulo Silva LS, Travassos L (2008) Problemas ambientais urbanos: desafios para a elaboração de políticas públicas integradas. Cadernos Metrópole, São Paulo, n. 19, pp 27–47, 10 sem Strahler AN (1957) Quantitative analysis of watershed geomorphology. Trans Am Geophys Union 8(6):913–920 Tonucci Filho JBM (2012) Dois momentos do planejamento metropolitano em Belo Horizonte: um estudo das experiências do PAMBEL e do PDDI-RMBH. 236 f. Dissertação (Mestrado). Programa de Pós-graduação em Arquitetura e Urbanismo, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo

Co-creation of Ideas in Geodesign Process to Support Opinion and Decision Making: Case Study of a Slum in Minas Gerais, Brazil Ana Clara Mourão Moura

and Christian Rezende Freitas

Abstract Geodesign is a method that deals with the potential of geoinformation technologies on shared platforms to create collective agreements, by processes of co-creating ideas for the territory. The case study demonstrates the potential of a web-based platform developed by the authors for Geodesign processes, adapted to the local culture, with exploration of data consumption resources and adoption of mechanisms for collective creation of ideas and of voting based on the Delphi method. The case study reports a work developed in a slum called Confisco, located in the cities of Belo Horizonte and Contagem, Minas Gerais, Brazil, where people live under pressure of social and environmental risks. The platform developed was initially tested with a group of academics from the university, with the goal to defining adjustments on geovisualization of information, but the main application was with people of the place. We emphasize that the platform favors the understanding of the citizen’s reading ability about their reality, reducing external interference in the process. As a result, we observed the importance of the mediators of the technical staff, who act as a support for understanding the dynamics of the process, but respecting citizens’ participation. Keywords Spatial inequalities


Framework
Participatory planning

1 Introduction Geoinformation technologies are undergoing a significant change in paradigm related to the use and production of georeferenced data and information, as it is intended for adaptation to the end user. In this sense, it is largely based on A. C. M. Moura (&)
C. R. Freitas Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Escola de Arquitetura, Laboratório de Geoprocessamento, Rua Paraíba 697, Belo Horizonte, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] C. R. Freitas e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_28

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geovisualization and accessed by the world wide web, as its main purpose is to support the construction of opinions and decision making. The user of geoprocessing has increasingly migrated to web-based platforms, supported by institutional incentive (through the role of SDIs), by the increased interest of stakeholders in consumption information, and also by the technicians’ understanding of their role as decoders of collective will in territorial planning actions. According to UN-Habitat studies, in 2005 the population living in towns and slums in Brazil corresponded to 25% of the inhabitants of urban areas, what means that from about 160 million inhabitants in urban areas, 40 million people live in areas of social fragility (Farias et al. 2017). In 2010 IBGE presented the numbers for the main cities in Brazil, comprising 6329 “subnormal units” where around 11 million people live. Slums or subnormal units are areas of social fragility, but in addition to them there are also irregular settlements characterized by lack of infrastructure and non-ownership of land, a group that is also numerous, estimated by IBGE in 6 million people. Urban regulations guarantee the right to housing and local plans need to create mechanisms to collectively discuss the futures for these areas in inclusive planning (Fernandes 2002). The principle of planning with different actors in society, when based on geoinformation technologies, has already been characterized as Critical GIS (Elwood 2006). It was also defined as “Participatory GIS”, “Collaborative GIS”, “Community Integrated GIS” whose objective was to promote public participation in territorial policies using platforms containing geographic information, and some of them to collect and make available information created collaboratively by citizens (Sieber 2006; Balram and Dragicevic 2006; Elmes et al. 2004). Participatory Planning has also been proposed through Geodesign, which means to design “with” and “for” the geography, including different actors to discuss alternative futures (Dangermond 2009; Ervin 2011; Flaxman 2010; Steinitz 2012; Miller 2012). The Geodesign process, therefore, when incorporated with the fundamentals of SDI (Spatial Data Infrastructure) and Web-GIS can be a robust support structure for the creation of opinions and decision-making through participatory planning and making full use of the resources of geoinformation technology. It is from this principle that this paper presents Brazilian Geodesign platform—supported by SDI and Web-GIS—as a methodological process and technological support for the co-creation of ideas and citizen participation, through the case study of an area of social fragility in Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil. The city of Belo Horizonte has 2.5 million inhabitants, 13% of whom live in 286 slums or 29 irregular settlements (Monteiro et al. 2018). The case study is in the Confisco irregular settlement, which started in 1988; today there are about 4500 people living in an area of 36 ha (Fig. 1). The area has some infrastructure, but to plan their future it is important to discuss about potentials for densification and uses, basic services, leisure, environment and quality of life, protection of risk areas and legal restrictions on occupation, accessibility, transport, among others. It has as a great challenge the need for land tenure regularization of part of the lots, and the fact that it is between two municipalities: Belo Horizonte and Contagem. The

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Fig. 1 Confisco in 1988 and in 2019. Source Photography 1988—from Facebook of local community, and 3D representation from drone capture, Geoprocessing Laboratory, EA-UFMG

community is organized and has an association that fights for their rights, which makes them able to take part in a participatory planning meeting. In 2019 the Geoprocessing Laboratory of the EA-UFMG was invited to collaborate on Geoprocessing and Geodesign in the Confisco case study, a project that was under development by the group of Interact-Bio project, a partnership between UFMG, Belo Horizonte City Hall and Contagem City Hall. In the first year we used the Geodesignhub platform (Geodesignhub 2020; Ballal 2015) but from the analysis of the results, in 2020 we decided to test the Brazilian Platform, which presents a methodological workflow and a set of its own facilities, resulting from the evaluations of many workshops developed by Geoprocessing Laboratory. It was the product of the PhD thesis by Freitas (2020).

2 The Brazilian Geodesign Platform, Based on SDI and Web-GIS Resources The Brazilian Geodesign platform explores the principles of PSS (Planning Support System), as it works by defining actors, tasks, products to be achieved. It integrates the facilities of SDI and Web-GIS, allowing that participants to receive the information prepared for the workshop, but it can add new layers through connection with other platforms (via Web Map Service, WMS) or by consulting the metadata catalog. The framework is not rigid and can be adapted to the specific needs of each case study. It is a web-based platform that relies on geovisualization, with the intention that the user makes intuitive use of information and participates in the collective construction of proposals. To structure a Geodesign workshop, it is necessary to identify the main characteristics of the area, according to vulnerabilities and potentialities. The organizer should prepare a robust collection of data about the area and present it with good geovisualization treatment. In addition to data layers and their organizations in the contexts, a drone capture was carried out, to develop a product in 4 dimensions (for virtual navigation) to make easier for the participants to understand the area.

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Data were organized according to contexts defined by the organizer. A context should be understood as fundamental issues or values that are intended to be discussed in the workshop, whereas layers are the main component variables that help to understand these contexts. In the case study the contexts were environment, housing, and daily life. In “Environment” context the goal was to propose areas to protect and to improve local thermal comfort in densified ones, to plan requalification of the landscape and to propose interventions in risk areas. In the context “Housing” the goal was to plan new areas for this use and possibilities of densifying in existing ones, as well as where it would eventually be indicated to remove existing buildings due to some risks. In the context “Daily life” the goal was to discuss the basic needs related to public services, infrastructure, facilities, commerce, and activities of interest in the area. The organizing group must define the composition of the actors who will participate, that must be representative of society’s groups or society’s thoughts. In Confisco case study participants were composed of people of the place (1/3 of the participants), public administration from Belo Horizonte and Contagem (1/3 of the participants) and academics (1/3 participants). The workshop took place during the period of social isolation due to the pandemic of Covid-19, and because of that it was 100% remotely and by videoconference, what made the inclusion of people of the place even more challenging. To make possible for the people of the place to participate, there was a support of a facilitator who worked with them using WhatsApp to exchange information, collect opinions and share the computer screen, since they didn’t have computers and had limited access to internet.

3 The Framework and Steps in the Confiscation Workshop The platform can be used according to different frameworks, as optimal paths defining actors, activities, moments of integration, partial stages, and final stages. For the studies developed so far, we followed a framework based on 4 steps, namely: enriching the reading experience, proposition of ideas through dialogues, debate on ideas also through dialogues, voting and vote statistics to reach the final decision (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 The framework applied. Source The authors

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Step 1: Enriching the Reading Experience

Step 1 has the goal to provide a robust collection of data, organized according to contexts of interest. Instead of working with segmented variables, data is organized as collections of variables that together characterize a context, an axis of discussion. To inform themselves about the characteristics of the case study, participants work per context, analyzing the layers of variables, applying transparencies, changing the overlapping positions. Participants can add data from other sources using the metadata catalog or connecting to other platforms by WMS. In addition to being informed by existing data, participants must act actively inserting annotation points complementing data. The annotations result in Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) composed by georeferenced points, symbolized according to an agreed legend per themes. In the notes, the participant inserts suggestions, doubts, or additional information that she or he deems important for others to know (Fig. 3). The step is called enriching the reading experience, since the user consumes and provides information, expanding the understanding of the case study. It is a way to minimize possible failures or absence of data, an issue that is often a reason for complaints from participants.

3.2

Step 2: Dialogues—Generating Ideas

From reading the entire collection of data (those provided and those added by the participants) the participant draws polygons representing ideas by context. They are oriented to give detailed information about the proposal, including a quality description of it. Polygons are associated with the names of their authors, as a metadata table is produced, but the coordinator can decide for the use of a generic name, or a general name per group of participants. The intention to register authorship of the proposals is justified for the case the platform is used in institutional public processes in which the steps must be informed in a protocol, registering responsibilities and representativeness.

Fig. 3 Standardization of annotations captions and examples of different themes

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Step 3: Dialogues—Discussing Ideas

Once the polygons of ideas have been designed, participants are invited to analyze all the proposals and make comments they deem necessary. It is not mandatory for them to comment on all ideas, but we observed that most participants decided to comment on all proposals. These comments may include justified disapproval, technical questioning, information complementation, questions to be answered by the proposer of the idea, suggestions for adjustments, encouraging the adoption of the idea, among others: a debate among the participants (Fig. 4). The order in which the participants contact the ideas takes place in the form of a cycle. Participants are classified according to groups of interest, so that the group of participants that register first their opinions in a context are those who understand the most about the subject. Those that come in sequence can read what the experts have already said, what influences their thoughts, what follows the logic of Delphi method. The cycle was organized so that the Academic group was the first to discuss the “Environment” context, after that they discussed “Daily Life” context and finally the “Housing” context. The Public Administration group was the first to discuss the “Housing” context, then discussed “Environment” context and finally the “Daily Life” one. Local people first discussed the “Daily Life” context, then discussed “Housing” and finally “Environment” (Fig. 5).

3.4

Step 4: Voting and Statistics to Decision Making

After all comments and discussions have been registered, each participant is individually invited to vote on each proposal. For this, they read all the comments and decides on the vote. A participant who was already sure about his position of

Fig. 4 Comments and brainstorming in the form of dialogues

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Fig. 5 Working on cycle. Source The authors

approving or not an idea would not change his opinion, but the one who had any doubts, when reading all the comments, tends to follow the majority. This form of voting also follows the Delphi principle, to favors consensus maximization and to avoid outliers. It is noteworthy that the vote is individual. Participants can work in groups, listening to different thoughts, but it is essential that they position themselves individually, avoiding the “herd effect”. They vote individually freely, as the vote is not identified. Once the first round of votes is carried out, an algorithm developed by Extract, Transform and Load (ETL) functionalities is applied, which is a script that computes the votes and separates the polygons from ideas according to the percentages of cut ranges defined by the coordinator, that in the case study were from 0 to 30% for disapproved ideas, above 70% for approved ideas, and from 30 to 70% the ideas that should be reviewed. Depending on the decision of the coordinator, the ideas that remain “in between” approved and not approved can be put up for discussion and vote again, as the participants can defend adjustments to make their proposals successful. There are different ways of conducting a vote at this stage, that can, for example, the inclusion of new comments and new voting section to the ideas under analysis (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6 Ideas approved, to be discussed, not approved

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4 Results and Discussions The Brazilian Geodesign platform was designed based on the many experiences carried out on other international platforms or applications (Geodesighub, ArcGis, Community Viz, City Engine, analog processes) and aimed to act on some weaknesses in the processes that always appeared as problems in the previous workshops: • Instead of presenting a reductionist synthesis of a single map that already indicates where the participants should draw their proposals, being based on SDI, favors that each participant visually builds his synthesis and opinion, from the free use of robust data collection; • The topics for discussion are not worked in the form of systems, but of contexts. Contexts are values or sets of issues that need to be discussed in a case study. That is, instead of thinking about needs and potentialities in a segmented way, one thinks of contexts or values to be achieved, and in these contexts, there are different variables or systems to be considered. To work like this, the coordinator sets up the contexts and decides which variables will be present as information, and the same variable or system may happen to be in more than one context. • Discussions can be collective, in groups, but the votes are individual, giving the right to speak to each one and avoiding the processes of conducting opinions. Individual votes, in turn, are much better supported by a collection of comments, allowing the participant to decide not only on the location and name of the idea, but on a set of additional information shared and built collectively. The factor of working in the form of cycle favors that the most specialists register their comments first, helping to understand the problem. Regarding the outcome of the workshop itself, as well as the great challenge of carrying it out entirely by videoconference and having socially vulnerable people as participants, some reflections are appropriate. The big challenge was the participation of people from the call, as it was difficult to identify people who were volunteers, who knew the area well and who had internet and computer at home. If the COVID-19 pandemic had not prevented the face-to-face meetings, it would have been easier to take some notebooks to Confisco area and conduct the meeting using these devices. What we observed was that most people in socially fragile areas have cell phones with access to an internet package, and this is the main digital instrument they have, but the vast majority do not have a computer and have no internet provider at home. The organizing group had to mediate the participation of these people through the equipment they had: the cell phone and WhatsApp. Then a mediator was responsible for making a call together with them and sharing the image of the computer screen, explaining the maps, and asking questions about where to draw proposals and about their opinions on each idea. The mediator took

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notes, drew the ideas, and wrote the comments on the ideas based on their requests, and similarly captured and recorded the individual votes of the participants. It was the way they found themselves to make the debate through the only equipment they had in the period of social distancing. At the end, a questionnaire was applied to the participants so that they scored the difficulties encountered, and we recognize that many of them were from people of the place, and could have been easily circumvented if the workshop had not been 100% at a distance. On the other hand, it was a different and challenging experience that faced the new requirements of new life in cities during and after Covid-19 pandemic, proving that, although more difficult, it is possible to do a 100% online workshop. The great majority of the participants registered that the experience was generally positive, and that the platform can be more widely used in participatory planning processes, through co-creation and geo-collaboration. Acknowledgements Contribution to CNPq project 401066/2016-9, FAPEMIG PPM-00368-18. We thank NPGAU-UFMG support of taking part in the conference. Collaboration with Interact-Bio (Partnership among the UFMG, the municipalities and the community to “Educational Partnership for Innovation in Communities” network, aiming to act in areas of climatic vulnerability). We thank Vanessa Tenuta, Camila Fernandes, and Tiago Mello for their support during the workshop.

References Ballal H (2015) Collaborative planning with digital design synthesis. Doctoral Dissertation. University College London Balram S, Dragicevic S (2006) Collaborative geographic information systems: origins, boundaries, and structure. Idea Group Publishing Dangermond J (2009) GIS: designing our future. ArcNews, summer 2009 Elmes G, Dougherty M, Challig H, Karigomba W, Mccusker B, Weiner D, Fisher P (2004) Local knowledge doesn’t grow on trees. In: Fisher PF (ed) Advances in spatial data handling. Springer, Berlin, pp 29–40 Elwood SA (2006) Beyond cooptation or resistance: urban spatial politics, community organizations, and GIS-based spatial narratives. Ann Assoc Am Geogr 96(2):323–341 Ervin S (2011) A system for Geodesign. DLA Keynote. Abstract, pp 158–167 Farias AR, Mingoti R, Valle LB, Spadotto CA, Lovisi Filho E (2017) Identificação, mapeamento e quantificação das áreas urbanas do Brasil. Embrapa Fernandes E (2002) Do código civil ao estatuto da cidade: algumas notas sobre a trajetória do direito urbanístico no Brasil. Urbana 7(30):43–59 Flaxman M (2010) Fundamentals of Geodesign. In: Buhmann E, Pietsch M, Kretzler E (eds) Proceedings of digital landscape architecture, Berlin/Offenbach, pp 28–41 Freitas C (2020) Tecnologias de Geoinformação no planejamento territorial: novasformas de produção, compartilhamento e uso de dados espaciais. Doctoral Dissertation, UFMG Geodesignhub. Available: https://www.geodesignhub.com.Accessed on 10 Mar 2020 Miller W (2012) Introducing Geodesign: the concept director of Geodesign services. Esri Press, Redlands

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Monteiro L, Moura ACM, Zyngier C, Sena I, Paula P (2018) Geodesign facing the urgency of reducing poverty: the Cases of Belo Horizonte. Disegnarecon 20(11):1–25 Sieber R (2006) Public participation geographic information systems: a literature review and framework. Ann Assoc Am Geogr 96(3):491–507 Steinitz C (2012) A framework for Geodesign: changing geography by design. ESRI Press, Redlands

Applying Geodesign in the City of Bologna (Italy): The Case Study of the Navile Region Alfio Conti, Ana Clara Mourão Moura, Gustavo Adolfo Tinoco Martinez, Simona Tondelli, and Susanna Patata Abstract The present paper deals with the participatory planning experience of Geodesign workshop of the Navile area in the city of Bologna, Italy, held at the end of May 2019. The work describes the steps to develop the workshop, in accordance with the Geodesign framework, the results obtained and those aspects to take into consideration to improve the application of the Geodesign methodology. Keywords Geodesign


Participatory planning
Urban planning

1 The Geodesign Methodology in Bologna The workshop of Navile area, held at the end of May 2019, came from the idea to test the Geodesign framework for participatory planning in the city of Bologna, Italy, for the first time. The Geodesign methodology was chosen due to its collaborative approach that allows including all aspects of participation by combining the traditional form, also used by other methodologies, with the use of modern collaborative digital platforms. This method allows not only to manage conflicts and disagreement, arising from the fragmentation of the decision-making power, but also above all to re-establish the participative relationship among stakeholders A. Conti (&)
A. C. M. Moura
G. A. T. Martinez Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil e-mail: contialfi[email protected] A. C. M. Moura e-mail: [email protected] G. A. T. Martinez e-mail: [email protected] S. Tondelli
S. Patata University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy e-mail: [email protected] S. Patata e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_29

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with strong social mark, to better express demands and concrete solutions. The quality of life in cities and urban settlement can thus be improved, planning the urban space in a democratic and collaborative way. The Geodesign makes it possible thanks to the composition of a multidisciplinary group involving all the stakeholders. Through the set of techniques, steps and models, which composed the methodology (Fig. 1), the Geodesign allows to face the high level of complexity present in the urban and regional systems, and to achieve coherent solutions that can be integrated into public policies. The framework, developed by Steinitz (2012), is based on six models (representation, process, evaluation, change, impact and decision) that answer six questions (how should the study areas be described? How does the study area operate? Is the current study area working well? How might the study area be altered? What differences might the changes cause? How should the study area be changed?). It is not a rigid and linear framework, since it allows different paths with turns and restarts, because the models and the relative questions are checkpoints, which it is necessary to pass. By applying each model and answering each question, it will be possible to achieve a final result as a final outcome of the interaction and decisions consensually made, about a specific context, by all the participants engaged (Moura and Campagna 2018). This is an agile and efficient process, conducted with small groups of people with different interests, whose disagreements are solved through negotiation rounds that facilitate dialogue and consensus-based solutions.

Fig. 1 Carl Steinitz’s Geodesign framework

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2 The Future of Navile District The Navile area is located in the northern part of Bologna between the historical center and the first suburb of the city. Significant infrastructure nodes (Bologna ring road, railroad track) which connect the North with the Centre-South of Italy physically cross the area. The name ‘Navile’ comes from the river that flows south northerly through this area, which was the mark throughout the 19th century of the proto-industrial system and roads connections with the eastern Padana plain and especially with the Po de Primaro River. The Navile area included the neighborhoods of Bolognina, Lame and Corticella. Bolognina is the oldest district, born at the end of the 19th century, beyond the railway line and the central train station, as a working class neighborhood with a high concentration of factories and low-income housing. Today, although keeping the original trait with the still strong presence of the workers’ community, the number of foreigners and youngers is growing and the area is at the center of important transformations, which the public power is carrying out. The Lame district is bordered to the northwest by the Reno River and is crossed by the Navile River. It is not a well-integrated area with the rest of the city and it has little population although it is the location of some interesting projects such as a new university campus of the University of Bologna. The Corticella district is the gateway to Bologna from northern Italy. The name comes from the time when this area was predominantly rural. Only in the 1990s, it became an import industrial center, connected to the national road network. Today it is a mostly residential neighborhood, between the Navile rural area to the west and the highway to the east, interested by a verticalization process in its central area. The choice of the Navile area is due to the fact that it is the part of Bologna where the greatest transformations are currently taking place, both from a social and urban point, and also because it is a relevant area for public policies. In fact, there are many urban requalification projects in progress: both little and large urban requalification interventions, some of which are still under construction. The first participatory planning applications were held for this region in the early 2000s, such as the Laboratorio Mercato, which introduced innovations in the collaborative process but was unable to solve some important issues. The laboratory’s activities favored the most influential individuals, weakening the collective subjects, losing the initial boost and alternating interest and distrust phases. Furthermore, it used obsolete communication and collaborative tools.

3 The Geodesign Workshop: Rethinking the Navile Area The current nature of the Navile area and the ongoing dynamics lead us to think of a future characterized by a young population composition and a dynamic urban life thanks to the implementation of those important transformations that aim to link the historical city with the modern one. The Geodesign workshop comes from these

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challenges and the double interactions between the historical and the modern and the social transformations with its rejuvenations. The workshop tries to propose a scenario that can direct choices to balance these evolutions, attending the demand of the stakeholders and actors involved in this reality.

4 The Workshop Preparatory Process The preparation of the workshop occurred in different stages. In the first stage, the teams were created and the systems were defined in order to properly describe the area: historical and cultural heritage (PSC); green infrastructure (INV); blue infrastructure (INB); housing (ALL); transport and mobility (TRM); economic and productive activities (AEP); tourism (TUR); public and institutional services (SPI) and large planned projects (ALT). An evaluation map was drawn up for each system, constituting the reference for the proposals (projects and policies) throughout the workshop. A web-gis (Moura et al. 2018) of the Navile area was prepared before the beginning of the workshop to ensure maximum transparency and to enable participants to better know the area. This contains the set of thematic maps used to create the evaluation maps that could be consulted by the participants. At the same time, the dates of the workshop were set and registrations were opened. After all, a total of just over 20 people registered from all over Italy, including students and professionals in the fields of architecture, urban planning and civil engineering.

5 The Realisation of the Workshop On the first day of the workshop, the facilitators presented the daily schedule, explained the methodology and the Geodesignhub platform (Ballal 2015), made available by the creators. Thanks to this platform, it is possible to accelerate the decision-making process promoting collaboration between different groups. The user-friendly interface allows to quickly creating conceptual projects, which are evaluated in real time by everyone to solve complex Geodesign problems. The participants elaborated, from the evaluation maps, a set of proposals for each one of the presented systems, creating a collection of design ideas ready to be used for the next planned stages of the workshop. In addition, the participants collaborated to create the impacts matrix and then it was imported into the platform. In order to begin the group activities, the participants were divided into four groups, each representing a stakeholder group: administrators, environmentalists, entrepreneurs and locals. The programme provided four iteration, the first two with homogeneous groups, the third and fourth with mixed ones. The sociogram, drawn up with each groups, allows to combine the group of administrators with the environmentalists and the entrepreneurs with the locals, according to their affinities. The join

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operation makes the third iteration possible, which revealed the differences between the two proposals that were negotiated in the fourth and last stage. The outcome of this fourth iteration, conducted with all participants together, achieved the expected objectives to develop a balanced future scenario for the Navile area, but it was not able to overcome the negative impact on housing and transport and mobility systems. This result, however, should not be considered as a process failure since in the last negotiation phase all the participants agreed that the large and medium projects planned by the public administration, shown in the large planned projects system (ALT), responded to the current and the future demand for the housing (ALL) and transport and mobility (TRM) systems.

6 Final Considerations The workshop experience, as an academic activity, can be considered positive overall. However, some aspects have drawn the attention and should be highlighted. The final results revealed similar proposals, because of the homogeneous background of the participants, the majority from the fields of architecture, civil engineering and urban planning. Some sectors have been taken less into account, as in the economic and productive activities system (AEP) with the lowest number of project and policy proposals. The first division of the participants into homogeneous groups was not significantly helpful to diversify the proposals. Moreover, the web-gis tool was not really effective to develop the participants’ independent overview of the area. The participants themselves pointed out, in the final evaluation, the need to inspect the study area as another activity planned for the workshop. Another interesting aspect, also related to the one above, was the unconditional acceptance of the evaluation maps, unlike what usually happens. Maybe this is the result of the participants’ background and the lack of the fieldwork. Probably, if this activity had taken place, the evaluation maps would have been discussed. It also emerged that the limited duration of the workshop, which took less than two days, was a complicating factor, especially for the fast pace of the negotiation stage. Several participants mentioned the need to dedicate more time to the negotiation phase because it qualifies and enriches the proposals by giving meaning to important strategic choices, although it is not usually included in urban planning activities, especially in Italy. All these considerations help to demonstrate how the Geodesign methodology proposed by Steinitz is a powerful tool to drive participatory process and to obtain shared solutions quickly. At the same time, it is important to underline that these processes must be adapted to the participants, according to their background, and to the kind of the workshop offered. This implies that in an academic workshop, whose purpose is to divulge the methodology, as in this case, it is essential to provide a solid pre-workshop “in loco” activity to increase the knowledge of the study area and, at the same time, to program more time for negotiation activities.

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References Ballal H (2015) Collaborative planning with digital design synthesis. Doctoral Dissertation. University College London Moura ACM, Campagna M (2018) Co-design: digital tools for knowledge-building and decision-making in planning and design. Disegnarecon 11(20):ED1–ED3 Moura ACM, Tondelli S, Muzzarelli A (2018) Complementary web-based geoinformation technology to Geodesign practices: strategic decision-making stages of co-creation in territorial planning. TEMA—J Land Use Mob Environ Special Issue INPUT 2018 Steinitz C (2012) A framework for Geodesign—changing geography by design. Esri Press, Redlands

Workshop of Geodesign: Geology as the Basis for Planning Alternatives Futures for the Quadrilátero Ferrífero Pedro Benedito Casagrande

and Ana Clara Mourão Moura

Abstract Geology has always been present in the process of transformation of the anthropic landscape. However, the role of Geology in landscape planning is still incipient and has not been the subject of an integrated policy. Linked to this and to the need of professionals related to Geology and Mining to participate actively in planning, the Geodesign technique was chosen to elaborate an alternative future plan for the Iron Quadrangle region, in Minas Gerais, Brazil, using Geology as base. In this way, a Geodesign Workshop was held with several professionals related to Mining and obtained a territorial plan for the region. This result generated the Decision Model, which is consistent with the study area and showed that the method used is assertive for landscape and territory planning Keywords Territorial planning


Geodesign
Landscape planning

1 Introduction The present work approaches a field of research that is shortly explored by geology: the studies of transformation of the mined landscape, the co-creation of alternatives of future for a landscape of mining interest, and the collective project that considers different aspects that are part of the variables of consideration of the approach from the point of view of the geologists. Mining industries develop proposals for the use and transformation of the territory, aiming at the best locational choice for development, maintenance and protection actions. However, the use of Geodesign logic and methodology is still an innovation for this sector, especially for the propositional stage of the landscape and future uses. P. B. Casagrande (&)
A. C. M. Moura Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Escola de Engenharia, Av. Antônio Carlos 6627, Belo Horizonte, Brazil e-mail: [email protected] A. C. M. Moura e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_30

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The Geodesign methodology contributes to the co-creation of ideas, in which different perspectives and values are placed on the same table of proposals, sharing opinions. There is the possibility of collective construction of projects with groups and different participants of society, in a process in which different opinions are compared and a conclusion or consensus is reached. The Quadrilátero Ferrífero area, in Minas Gerais, Brazil, was chosen as the study area, mainly because of its symbolic and representative role for the geological sector. The study aims to investigate the potential of Geodesign for the management of the area with geological interest—whether they are production, landscape or environmental protection. The Quadrilátero Ferrífero is the heart of mineral exploration and production in Minas Gerais, in which significant conflicts of interest arise, as it is an area of important natural and environmental resources, landscape values and a great economic value related to mining and significant urban expansion. From this perspective, the case study, for its complexity, provides a broad discussion about the potential of Geodesign for the mining landscape, aiming at shared decisions on where to promote the expansion of the economy, where to preserve, where to recover, where to promote maintenance. The geological processes are related with great importance among the mapped systems, as they explain the forms of occupation of the territory since its inception, influencing its evolution and the processes of landscape transformation. The region became a mining province due to the exuberant amount of mineral commodities present in the area and thus the occupation of a network of cities began. The beginning of the urbanization of Brazil was conducted and influenced by geological formations and their geomorphological consequences, for economic reasons and strategic position in the landscape. Thus, the beginning of the history of interiorization of Brazil has embryonic links to Geology and Geomorphology. This relationship can be observed in the reflection of Paraizo (2004, p. 12), “a knowledge about the formation processes of our planet and its evolution in time”, which has served as a guide for man since the beginning of its history. The most diverse conflicts of interest, by the juxtaposition of economic and environmental values, are generated by the changes made by man in the territory. Thus, it is worth testing the Geodesign procedure to create possibilities for alternative futures in relation to the area of study Understanding the values of the Quadrilátero Ferrífero is not an easy task, given the presence of occupation and urban expansion conflicting with the conservation of the landscape, and the actions of mining companies. In parallel to the economic interest, there is also environmental interest and interest in urban sprawl, as it corresponds to the southern vector of the Metropolitan Region of Belo Horizonte (RMBH) (Tonucci Filho 2012). Environmental and territorial events in the area, related to the different interests of the use of the territory and its evolution, linked to hegemonic agents, characterize the dynamics of the place (Silva 2007; Souza 2007).

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2 Area of Study The Quadrilátero Ferrífero (Fig. 1) is in the South-Central state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, covering an area of approximately 7,000 km2, which occupies a region surrounded by mountains arranged almost orthogonally, hence the name “quadrangle”. The mountain elevations are around 1,000 m and there are points with a elevation of more than 2,000 m above sea level. The municipalities of Itabira, Mariana, Congonhas and Itaúna delimit the extremes of the area, which are geographically arranged in a quadrangular way in the territory (Ruchkys 2007). It is bounded by the mountains from west to east and from north to south: Serra Azul, Rola Moça, Curral and Piedade (northflank, west-east bound); Caraça and Gandarela (east-south, flank), Ouro Branco and Outro Preto (south flank, east-west) and Moeda (westflank, south-north bound); (Dorr 1969). The taxonomic origin of the region was named by Gonzaga de Campos due to the iron ore deposits found there (Ruchkys 2007; Scliar 1992). As a workshop of thematic interest, the mining system was dismembered to contemplate the most diverse approaches from the geographical point of view. The themes of economic, tourist, urban, cavity, groundwater and environmental areas were taken into account. Workshop with Geological Base for Planning became possible because of the plurality of the axes that Geology has, which requires deepening in different issues and verifying where there are conflicts with environmental and urbanization issues.

Fig. 1 Location of the study area. Source EA-UFMG Geoprocessing Laboratory

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3 Methodology The methodology is based on the definition of specific variables for the approach of geological interest, both for the definition of economic interests, as well as of acting in preservation, maintenance, and recovery of transformed areas. It also presents how to analyse the variables so that they represents the territorial reality, and how to make judgments to identify potentialities, restrictions, specific needs (Fig. 2). The investigation began with the questioning of how geology could influence urban planning and, from this point, the stage of assembling information for the case study was structured. This initial investigation was based on geological issues related to the management of the territory For the creation of new information, it is important that the Multicriteria Analysis procedure is widely used. In the case of the option for the integration of variables by Weights of Evidence and the analysis is made by attribution of weights and notes, indicated by a specialist in the phenomenon under study or in the variable in question (Malczewski 1999; Malczewski 2006). The Multicriteria Analysis allows the crossing of variables in spatial analyses, according to a Decision Tree, from which the weighted average can be applied to integrate the variables, or simply as a process of combinatory analysis (Moura 2014). The decision by this Decision Tree requires understanding on how variables relate.

4 Case Study By analyzing the main characteristics that represent the Quadrilátero Ferrífero in its geological context, it is possible to understand the choice of the systems that served as a reference in the workshop process. All these characteristics should contribute to obtaining information about potentialities and limitations, dynamics, demands and conflicts, and all this should be expressed in cartographic models. According to Moura (2014), the use of geographic information system is directly related to the generation of a heuristic space, since there is the possibility of selective extraction of variables. In the methodology of Geodesign the systems include the set of themes selected and evaluated within a given context of research or spatial clipping of study. The systems defined were:

Fig. 2 Methodological flowchart. Source The authors

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• • • • • •

Tourist attractiveness due to geology. Mineral attractiveness. Vulnerability of Vegetation Cover and Conservation Unit. Speleological Vulnerability. Hydrogeological Vulnerability Associated with Porosity. Vulnerability by Urban Anthropization in a Geological and Geomorphological Bias. • Other ideas (open system to receive ideas that were eventually not contemplated in the chosen systems.)

4.1

Representation, Process and Evaluation Models

After the study on the area were defined the main characteristics that could represent the issues that relate to the context of the landscape of the Quadrilátero Ferrífero. They are presented here in their representation process and evaluation models. The set of evaluation models presents results that indicate the conditions of suitability to project and policy proposals, by classes (feasible, suitable, capable, not appropriate and existing, according to the legend proposed by Steinitz 2012) (Fig. 3).

5 The Geodesign Workshop The moment of presentation of the design (composed of the sum of policy projects for all systems) had debates with great value, especially since each group represented an interest in a sector of society (social, environmental and economic).

Fig. 3 Evaluation models used in the workshop. Source The authors

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After the presentations and compared the ideas, the workshop conductor realized that it was already possible to notice expressive similarity between the proposals of the groups, as shown in Fig. 4. The Final Proposal (final design) is the stage of Decision Model, when by approximations and consensus, by negotiation processes and evaluation of assertiveness levels, a collective decision is reached. The final negotiation began to be composed of diagrams already chosen three groups, considered consensus. Some

Fig. 4 First project of each of the groups and impact analysis of each system. Source Casagrande (2018), from the workshop, view of the GeodesignHub platform (2017)

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Fig. 5 Decision Model of the Workshop. Source Casagrande (2018), from the workshop, view of the GeodesignHub (2017)

diagrams were changed from frequency two to three, and others were discarded, from the negotiation between the participants. It would also be possible to negotiate small adjustments so that the diagram was accepted by all, which means placement, discussion, and possible acceptance of constraints. Then, the same process was performed for the diagrams with frequency equal to one, a process in which the only candidate needed to defend his idea and convince the two other groups that they had not indicated the diagram. As a result, the final product was obtained for the workshop, as shown in Fig. 5.

6 Conclusion It was possible to verify the benefits generated by the Geodesign method approach to territorial planning through the final results of workshop, with emphasis on the clear understanding obtained by all about the importance of geological bias in the study of territorial planning. From the first project carried out by each of the three groups (environmental, social, and economic), it was already possible to verify the similarity between the ideas. And more than that, the workshop’s final proposal (Decision Model) was remarkably similar to the initial ideas, only refined to avoid possible impacts or conflicts. As the negotiation progressed, or where there was some conflicting overlap the diagrams were redesigned so that there was no conflict of interest. The process was greatly optimized due to the competencies of the participants, because they were specialists in topics related to earth sciences and interesse in Geology, and who knew very well the territory under study, the Quadrilátero Ferrífero. As a result, there was quality in the co-creation of proposals, which were in themselves harmonized and conscious from the beginning.

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The Final Decision Model achieved coherence with the reality of the Quadrilátero Ferrífero, besides being easily used by the Government as guideline for mining and urban planning of the region. This makes us believe that traditional Brazilian approaches to territorial planning can be reviewed and altered in order to fill existing gaps. Territorial management can very well be guided by this method, thus facilitating the resolution of various conflicts. Geology is the basis of society, since practically everything that is built by man is allocated on the continents and these are supported by the rocks, being this science the pillar for the support of anthropic activities. Practically all aspects of the studied territory have strong links with geological issues, conforming the essence of what is understood as the Quadrilátero Ferrífero. Geology strongly conditions the landscape and its values to be preserved, environmental and economic riches, anthropization expansions by mineral explorations and expressive urban growth and the essence of the place’s genius loci, which is the mining landscape.

References Casagrande PB (2018) O Framework Geodesign aplicado ao Quadrilátero Ferrífero (Minas Gerais/ Brasil). 127f. Dissertação (Mestrado). Programa de Pós-graduação em Geografia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais Dorr JVN (1969) Physiographic, stratigraphic and structural development of Quadrilátero Ferrífero, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Geological Survey Professional Paper 641-A, 2nd ed, USGS/ DNPM GeodesingHub—www.geodesignhub.com Malczewski J (1999) GIS and multicriteria decision analysis. Wiley, New York Malczewski J (2006) GIS-based multicriteria decision analysis: a survey of the literature. Int J Geogr Inf Sci 20(7):703–726 Moura ACM (2014) Geoprocessamento na Gestão e Planejamento Urbano, 3rd edn. Interciência, Rio de Janeiro Paraizo PLB (2004) A construção do conhecimento nas ciências geológicas: contribuições do pensamento de Gaston Bachelard. 120 f. Dissertação (Mestrado). Programa de Pós-graduação em Filosofia, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro Ruchkys ÚA (2007) A. Patrimônio Geológico e Geoconservação no Quadrilátero Ferrífero, Minas Gerais: Potencial para a Criação de um Geoparque da UNESCO. 233 f. Tese (Doutorado). Programa de Pós-graduação em Geologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte Scliar C (1992) Geologia da Serra da Piedade. In: Horta RD (Org) Serra da Piedade. CEMIG, Belo Horizonte Silva FR (2007) A Paisagem do Quadrilátero Ferrífero, MG: Potencial Para o Uso Turístico da sua Geologia e Geomorfologia. 144 f. Dissertação (Mestrado). Programa de Pós-graduação em Geografia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte Souza MRG (2007) Da paciência à resistência: conflitos entre atores sociais, espaço urbano e espaço de mineração. Aderaldo & Rothschild, São Paulo

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Steinitz C (2012) A framework for Geodesign: changing geography by design. ESRI Press, Redlands Tonucci Filho JBM (2012) Dois momentos do planejamento metropolitano em Belo Horizonte: um estudo das experiências do PAMBEL e do PDDI-RMBH. 236 f. Dissertação (Mestrado). Programa de Pós-graduação em Arquitetura e Urbanismo, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo

Participation, Information, Action: A Collaborative Map to Evaluate Mobility Spots Nadia Giuffrida, Simone Grasso, Enrico Muschella, Delia Valastro, Giuseppe Inturri, Riccardo Dell’Osso, Sebastiano D’Urso, and Matteo Ignaccolo Abstract Public participation is a fundamental step of decision-making processes to achieve a good social sharing and robustness of the decision itself. In transport decisions spatial criteria assume a key role, since their assessment, and therefore their classification, is also dependent on the spatial distribution of people affected by a project. In this view, collaborative mapping can be considered a tool able to engage communities and individuals in spatial decision-making in the context of transport planning and, more in general, in designing their own environment. This study presents a first test of a collaborative mapping process, conducted within a design workshop aimed at finding solutions to secure an unsafe crossing to access a university campus; the collected information were discussed directly with the public, in a venue with designers, citizens and decision-makers. Starting from advantages and disadvantages of this experience, the authors developed the framework for a spatial collaborative tool aimed at evaluating the safety and pleasantness of urban spaces and mobility spots able to permit a wider participation. The tool is conceived as bidirectional: on the one hand, users enter information on their mobility habits and provide the location and assessment of points considered dangerous during their trips; on the other, the map itself is attractive since it includes the information provided by the other users. Results coming from the participation can be useful for decision-makers to evaluate priority in the design of new interventions in the study area. Keywords Public participation


Non-motorized users
Active mobility

N. Giuffrida (&)
R. Dell’Osso
S. D’Urso
M. Ignaccolo Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy e-mail: [email protected] S. Grasso
E. Muschella
D. Valastro Whole—Urban Regeneration, Catania, Italy G. Inturri Department of Electric, Electronic and Computer Engineering, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_31

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1 Background The concept of sustainability seeks an equilibrium for better management of our planet’s resources, involving the institutional, cultural, social, environmental, economic, and technological dimensions (D’Urso 2020). Sustainable mobility should focus on the shift from car-oriented urban mobility to active mobility policies: Walking in cities should be encouraged for both systematic and recreational trips, via adequate planning and management of seamless pedestrian networks. Of course, accessibility measures are a valuable support for designing walkable environments (Giuffrida et al. 2017), in particular if they focus on non-motorized travels (Arranz-López et al. 2018; Iacono et al. 2010). But to become an attractive, efficient, and safe mode of transport, in particular for weaker users, walking should be provided with public spaces designed in order to accommodate pedestrian needs and preferences (Pulvirenti et al. 2020). In this respect public participation, and collaborative mapping, can help focusing on areas considered critical by citizens and identify the policies relevant to a particular location. Such type of maps, called Participatory GIS, can enable a bottom-up approach from grassroots community giving the decision-maker an overview of issues and proposals reported by different users, which describe their spatial perception of public places (Giuffrida et al. 2019). In this paper the results of a participatory event involving the university community of the city of Catania (Italy) is presented. A collaborative mapping experience has been tested to evaluate its effectiveness for the location of mobility spots considered to be unsafe for non-motorized users. SWOT (Strength, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) analysis has been conducted to analyze pros and cons of the experience to frame a new architecture for a future wider consultation. This can be considered as the first step of a wider participatory decision-making process developed through a geodesign approach. The final aim is to provide with a participatory solution that creates a synergy between stakeholders and citizens, so that everyone is protagonist in the construction of the city, from conception and co-design to effective and widespread communication of the chosen urban strategy.

2 Methodology and Application 2.1

Territorial Framework

Catania is a medium-sized city of about 300,000 inhabitants, located in the south of Italy. The territorial imbalance between residences concentrated in the outskirts and activities in the center of Catania and the poor public transport supply, determine a flow of private vehicles that every day generates social, environmental and economic externalities on the city. Data on the modal share of the city in 2016 (CNR-IIA 2019) indicate 18% of travel on foot, 2% by bicycle, 4% by motorbike,

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68% by car and 8% by public transport. The low level of pedestrian mobility compared to the national average is determined by a series of barriers: volumes of car traffic, infrastructure issues, poor maintenance, poor pedestrian permeability of some important attractors (e.g. education and healthcare centers), high levels of air and noise pollution which make the walking experience unattractive (GonzalezUrango et al. 2020). The design experience presented in this study tried to respond primarily to a tragic event which highlighted an already present social need: in 2017 a young student of the University of Catania, Danilo Di Majo, lost his life due to a road accident in the simple act of crossing a street (called Viale Andrea Doria) to enter the University Campus (see Fig. 1). Viale Andrea Doria is part of an arterial road which in the past served as a ring road to encourage the outflow of private vehicles into and out of the city. After the massive population of the town located to the north of Catania, Viale Andrea Doria increasingly assumed the characteristics of an urban road, with the presence of several driveways and private entrances; in the city’s General Urban Traffic Plan (2013) the administration classified it as a urban road, but often the vehicles continue to travel at high speeds due to the width of the roadway and the absence of traffic calming devices. The accident, which occurred at a pedestrian crossing, equipped with pedestrian traffic light, was caused by the high speed with which the vehicle involved proceeded, and the driver, who fled following the accident, was never identified. The path from home to education facilities is one of the most important to secure in urban areas since it is travelled daily by its users (Distefano et al. 2019). Despite the tragic accident, after two years few steps have been taken to secure the pedestrian crossing. In this context, the Whole-Urban Regeneration association,

Fig. 1 Location of the crossing at Viale Andrea Doria where the accident took place

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formed in part by university students attending the campus, the students committe ``Forza Danilo'' (born after the accident to request an intervention of the city administration), together with the University of Catania and other entities, decided to implement two participatory initiatives to plan possible intervention solutions. In this study a participatory experiment conducted during one of the two public events that led to the creation of a collaborative map will be presented. Using a participatory approach, the search for solutions was entrusted to the young students attending the same campus as Danilo, activating a social architecture dimension through the involvement of all community members in the design process.

2.2

The Participatory Events: Sovrappasso d’uomo and AZIONI

Sovrappasso d’uomo was the first of the two public experiences organized to promote new project designs to improve the safety of the pedestrian crossing. The aim of the workshop was to experiment a design approach consisting of a participation and training of the stakeholders present in the area: the involved community, made up of designers, university students and professors and the students committe members, took part to educational activities on the topic, to ensure that the participants were aware and conscious of the possible solutions to be undertaken. The main outcome of the workshop were seven design ideas to improve the safety of the crossing. While the name of the workshop recalls the possibility of creating a pedestrian overpass (in Italian Sovrappasso) to secure the crossing (due to the inital request of the students committe), the final design ideas include not only the creation of overpasses and underpasses but also the expansion of the spaces dedicated to pedestrians on the roadway, traffic calming interventions and the pedestrianization of some areas close to the accident. The second public experience, the initiative called AZIONI had the purpose to share the outcomes of the workshop to the whole city, ask the administration a tangible commitment and create the opportunity to build a network of social, economic and professional relationships, capable of transforming the ideas into a concrete project. AZIONI was organized in the form of a conference, with about a hundred participants, taking place in one of the main buildings of the city administration, with the participation of the workshop participants, administration representatives, sponsoring bodies, associations and companies active in the city. During the event, the causes and background of the initiative were illustrated to the public and the projects resulting from the workshop were presented. Furthermore, a collaborative mapping experiment was conducted, which is the subject of this study. The purpose of the participatory mapping experiment was to expand the area of interest for the analysis of the safety of pedestrian crossings according to the reports provided by the main users of the routes: the citizens. The experiment was

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conducted through Google MyMaps platform. MyMaps allows to create online maps and adding data to the map in four main ways: (i) adding a placemark (point) by hand, or draw a line or polygon, using the add marker tool; (ii) do a Google search for a location and then add it to the map; (iii) add points using a .csv (comma-delimited text) file, .xlsx (Excel 2007+) file, or Google Drive spreadsheet; (iv) importing a .kml (Keyhole Markup Language) file. During the workshop, the public was trained in general on collaborative mapping procedures and in particular in the use of Google MyMaps. Participants were taught to add placemarks on the map in order to identify unsafe pedestrian crossings; participants were asked to focus more on access to university sites (and in particular to the campus), but they were free to indicate any location on the map in the urban area of Catania. Participants were also trained on assigning labels with names to place markers and adding comments in order to better specify the reasons why they felt that place unsafe. The map has been made public and the link to access it shared through a QR-code available to the participants, so as to allow it to be filled in via each own smartphone. Participants were given a time interval of about 30 min to add their reports on the map during which there was a trainer available to assist with any problems encountered in compiling the map.

3 Results 3.1

Identification of Mobility Spots and Debate

A total of 37 markers and 1 path were added by the public, as shown in the mapping result reported in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 A screenshot of MyMaps collaborative mapping experience realized during the conference AZIONI

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Fig. 3 Heatmap of points resulting from collaborative mapping

Most of the markers were located close to the entrance of the University campus, reporting the same crossing object of the workshop, but also further points considered unsafe for pedestrians (Fig. 3). Another area that is particularly dangerous from the mapping is the one of Piazza Europa (square), located at the east of the city near the waterfront. After compiling the map, the results were shown to the public and the debate proceeded. The public agreed on all the spots, identifying them as dangerous and providing more information than those acquired during the collaborative mapping process. In this phase, the interaction between the participants and their support in the decision-making process was ensured to validate the results. The public also expressed opinion on the difficulties encountered during the experiment. The main problems were the following: (i) inability to access the map without a Google account; (ii) troubles in accessing the map due to the smartphone’s operating system (users with Android system performed the access in an easier way then iOS); (iii) difficulty moving on the map due to screen size; (iv) difficulty in adding name and comment labels after insertion of the marker. A total of 14 over 37 markers included a label with the name: the assigned name was the name of the street/area in 5 cases and an unsafety label in the others. 18 markers were assigned with detailed comments on the reason of unsafety. Examples of markers comment labels are reported in Fig. 4.

3.2

SWOT Analysis of the Mapping Experience: Pros and Cons

SWOT analysis is a strategic planning technique used to analyze strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats related to project planning. In this paper the

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Fig. 4 Examples of place markers comment labels

Fig. 5 SWOT analysis of the mapping experience

authors applied the concept of SWOT matrix to the analysis of the collaborative experience conducted during AZIONI, in order to identify pros and cons and proceed with the definition of an improvement framework for a future wider participatory experience (Fig. 5).

3.3

Proposal of Improved Collaborative Mapping

From the results presented in the SWOT analysis the following recommendations are drawn for the implementation of a system that allows a wider consultation: (a) it

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Fig. 6 Architecture of the PPGIS

must allow the participation of as many users as possible; this means that it must be public; (b) mapping visualization should be updated in real-time, so an online platform is the recommended; (c) it must be accessible with different operating systems and different devices (e.g. desktop, notebook, smartphone, tablet); (d) it must include a user registration to allow its profiling and avoid an unproper use of the platform; (e) Open Source maps (e.g. OpenStreetMap) should be preferred to proprietary systems; (f) a tutorial must be provided to new users; help must be available throughout the mapping process Based on these considerations, the architecture of the system is a Public Participatory GIS, as shown in Fig. 6.

4 Conclusions The use of collaborative mapping can democratize transport design activities, including also teaching and training and making the whole decision-making process accessible and comprehensible by a wider range of communities and social groups. Citizens participate in space planning and decision-making and public values are included in the decision support systems (Giuffrida et al. 2019). In this study the authors analyzed the pros and cons of a first collaborative mapping experience which took place during a participatory event and designed the framework for a wider future consultation aimed at involving citizens. The activities carried out during the participatory event aimed at spreading the concept of a city that is developed in full consideration of all the actors involved, with an active listening to the need of those who actually live the places. This collaborative mapping experience can be considered as a first step of a wider participation

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decision-making process. Future public experiences could include the discussion of design alternatives with the public, showing the representation of the projects and the simulation of their respective impacts on the map, framing the whole decision within a geodesign collaborative approach. Moreover, this type of approach allows not to confine participation to the single event, but to extend it over a longer period of time, thanks to collaboration via the web. Participation, information, and listening are the fundamental keys to promote actions aimed at achieving the concept of inclusive mobility. Citizens, professionals can take part in its design and collection of ideas: designers continuously receive feedback and the projects are enriched with meaning and usefulness, while citizens can learn about the benefits of a project from a technical point of view, which often remains cryptic to them. Thanks to this method a simple infrastructure project can turn into something bigger: a process for urban development.

References Arranz-López A, Soria-Lara JA, Witlox F, Páez A (2018) Measuring relative non-motorized accessibility to retail activities. Int J Sustain Transp:1–13 CNR-IIA (2019) Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto sull’Inquinamento Atmosferico, 2019. MobilitAria. https://www.kyotoclub.org/medialibrary/report_mobilitaria_english.pdf Distefano N, Leonardi S, Pulvirenti G (2019) Home-school travel: analysis of factors affecting Italian parents’ mode choice. Civil Eng Archit 7(3):75–87 D’Urso S (2020) Memory as material of the project of sustainability. Sustainability 12(10):4126 General Urban Traffic Plan of Catania (2013). https://www.comune.catania.it/data/utu/dl_522_ gm_20121107/01_RELAZIONE_GENERALE.pdf Giuffrida N, Inturri G, Caprì S, Spica S, Ignaccolo M (2017) The impact of a bus rapid transit line on spatial accessibility and transport equity: the case of Catania. Transport Infrastructure and Systems. In: Proceedings of the AIIT International Congress on Transport Infrastructure and Systems, TIS, pp 753–758 Giuffrida N, Le Pira M, Inturri G, Ignaccolo M (2019) Mapping with stakeholders: an overview of public participatory GIS and VGI in transport decision-making. ISPRS Int J Geo-Inf 8(4):198 Gonzalez-Urango H, Le Pira M, Inturri G, Ignaccolo M, García-Melón M (2020) Designing walkable streets in congested touristic cities: the case of Cartagena de Indias, Colombia. Transp Res Proc 45:309–316 Iacono M, Krizek KJ, El-Geneidy A (2010) Measuring non-motorized accessibility: issues, alternatives, and execution. J Transp Geogr 18(1):133–140 Pulvirenti G, Distefano N, Leonardi S (2020) Elderly perception of critical issues of pedestrian paths. Civil Eng Archit 8(1)

Computational Planning Support Systems for Regional Analysis: Real-Estate Values Dynamics and Road-Networks Configuration Diego Altafini, Elisabetta Pozzobon, Simone Rusci, and Valerio Cutini

Abstract Computational Planning Support Systems (CPSS), associated with GIS-based instruments diffusion during the late 2000s, have allowed policymakers to better deal with urban areas’ rapid transformations. Still, CPSS often remains oriented to evaluate territories’ physical changes, focusing on socio-environmental perspectives of sustainable development, while considering the economic aspects of this issue as independent and abstract variables. In this regard, economic sustainability is often treated as more dependent on social relations than territorial characteristics, even if spatial analyses have potential to unveil attributes related to urban areas’ overall resilience. Real-estate values are one of such economic variables. Considered as derived from market relations, property values are also influenced by territorial constraints: nearness to central places and roadinfrastructure. Such aspects, however, become less evident when regional areas considered. Exploring urban-regional dynamics in a GIS-based environment, this paper assesses productive areas’ real-estate values patterns throughout Tuscany, comparing them with the distribution of centralities hierarchies of the road-circulation network. It is observed that there are regional differences in the road-circulation network centralities distribution that lead to territorial disparities within the region, where preferential routes do not reach certain productive areas in the hinterland, resulting in sparse productive areas with low property values. In this sense, differences in placement and real-estate values may indicate areas that are territorially more exposed due to unfavorable road-network configuration, and those that tend to be more resilient, important prospects to consider in CPSS with respect to long-term economic sustainability.




Keywords Computational planning support system Real-estate values Road-infrastructure configuration Regional analysis







D. Altafini (&)
E. Pozzobon
S. Rusci
V. Cutini Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell’Energia, dei Sistemi, del Territorio e delle Costruzioni, Università di Pisa, Largo Lucio Lazzarino 1, 56122 Pisa (PI), Italy e-mail: diego.altafi[email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_32

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1 Introduction Urban settlements have production areas as one of their cornerstones. These spaces, that convene manufacture, retail and services, materialize the value creation processes that sustain local economies, being drivers of urban development (Harvey 2001). Therefore, it is not unusual that these areas’ growth or decay can have repercussions in the real-estate markets, even in those not directly associated with production, such as residential. From this perspective, the placement of production areas plays a significant role in urban organization, being capable of influencing future policies and improvements. The interdependence logic amid location and production, while explored on locational economics classics (Richardson 1970) has, in mainstream economics, given place to macro-territorial analyses of location, which abstract both territorial and spatial configuration and focus on how firms’ micro-economic relations can affect the spatial structure (Fujita et al. 1999). This abstraction, however, may also become a hindrance for planning purposes, conducting to unidimensional and misleading conclusions about the potentialities—or the issues—of a place, hence, resulting in inefficient policies and frail economic sustainability. In this context, Computational Planning Support Systems (CPSS), even though often oriented to assess socio-environmental aspects of sustainability, when associated with Geographic Information Systems (GIS), can be suitably crafted to combine economic variables with territorial properties and configurations (Britton and Batty 1993). Within this framework, it is then possible to highlight patterns and spatial relations that, in general, would remain otherwise unseen when considering individual single-parameter assessments. Given the demands and potentials of a multivariable territorial planning, this paper sets the basis for a CPSS oriented to economic-territorial assessments, considering Tuscany as a case-study region. Through the analysis of productive areas placement, their real-estate market values—a parameter that can indicate local urban economies performance—and their nearness to the road-circulation infrastructure configuration, two different spatial relations may be verified: a spatialconfigurational correlation, which assesses spatial ties between productive areas and the most travelled road axes; and an economic-configurational analysis, that assess the real-estate values spatial distribution based in the spatial-configurational correlation, which allows to observe patterns within the territories’ value dynamics, given their proximity to preferential routes

2 A CPSS Methodology to Inquire Economic-Territorial Relations Original datasets and instruments which were used within this work are described in Sect. 2.1. In order to be suitable for spatial correlations, datasets are organized into a GIS-based (https://www.qgis.org/en/site/forusers/download.html) suite. Several

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geoprocessing tools are employed for their treatment, which are described, together with the methodology, in Sect. 2.2.

2.1

Datasets and Instrumentation

The productive areas spatial dataset is obtained from the Tuscan Region Land-Use and Cover 2007–2016 (Uso e copertura del suolo-UCS-07-16) (Regione Toscana 2007), a shapefile based on the Corine Land Cover project codification rules, that depicts the distribution of land-uses typologies throughout the region. OMI (Osservatorio Mercato Immobiliare) datasets (Agenzia delle Entrate 2020) provide information about real-estate average prices (in Euro) per square meters related to both homogeneous areas—referred as OMI areas—and urban functions. Data encompass a period between the first semester of 2016 (2016/1) and the second semester of 2019 (2019/2), and is organized in two datasets: one spatial, a group of .kml GIS files with locational codes that identify OMI zones within the municipality; and one numerical, consisting in a spreadsheet with the recorded real-estate values and their respective locational codes. The road-infrastructure dataset used for the configurational analysis derives from the Tuscan Region Road Graph (Grafo Viario della Toscana) (Regione Toscana 2020); a Road-Centre Line (RCL) map representing the whole regional road-circulation network. This map was further generalized using QGIS integrated Douglas-Peucker algorithm (https://www.qgis.org/en/site/forusers/download.html), to reduce time-lapses in modelling Betweennes Centralities (Choice) through Space’ Syntax Angular Analysis (Wineman and Bafna 2001), a method that assess the road-infrastructure configurational properties, in order to estimate movement (through-movement). Angular Choice corresponds to mathematical betweenness, as for all origin-destination pairs within the network, it counts the number of times each road-element is traversed when travelling through the overall shortest path towards all other potential destination road-elements. In this sense, this measure represents the road-elements probability of use as a system-wide transport route, hence a preferential route. Normalization into NACH (Normalized Angular Choice) (Hillier and Yang 2012) is enacted to bring betweenness absolute values to comparable ranges (0–1.5), which allows to highlight the regional preferential routes hierarchies.

2.2

CPSS Methodology

Being arranged in separate datasets, OMI values required a spatial join to link the spreadsheet real-estate values data to their correspondent location in.kml files. This join was made through the creation of a unique field that contained locational codes from both datasets, regarding municipalities and census zones. Since OMI values

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data for 2019/2 has a limited territorial cover, other semesters (starting on 2016/1) were further added to improve dataset completeness. Multiple occurrences throughout any of the 8 semesters of OMI values in the same OMI area are averaged to obtain a unique value. To establish correlations among OMI real-estate values and road-infrastructure, the configurational analysis for betweenness centralities is restricted to highlight the highest-valued NACH segments. These centrality cores correspond to 10 and 20% of the road-elements total number within the system. The 20% (8°–10° decile) basis refers to the Paretian correlations, while 10% (9°–10° decile) is a further reduction to assess stricter correlation dynamics. These sections correspond to NACH values ranging between 1.00 to 1.50 (for 20%) and 1.07 to 1.50 (for 10%), which are tailored to provide better data visualization of the regional road-circulation network’s most important preferential routes. As those routes structure the through-movement hierarchies within the region, their patterns establish the main transport relations amid productive territories throughout Tuscany. OMI values, being depicted through large census zones, do not present sufficient spatial detail to be directly correlated with the configurational analysis road-elements. In order to precisely define where productive areas are embedded in the territory, the Tuscan Region Land-Use and Cover dataset is processed. Since provided land-use data spans from 2007 to 2016, individual area polygons are dissolved according to their contiguities to recreate the spatial unity found in 2016. This also results in a reduction of polygons’ overall numbers, from which five area ranges were created. For each productive dissolved polygon, a specific buffer area was then added, whose radius is determined according to the previously defined area range (Table 1). Differentiations in buffers reflect general needs of a particular productive area regarding internal and external displacement to access the preferential routes: smaller areas require a greater external displacement (higher buffer values), while larger areas require a greater internal displacement (lesser buffer values) (Fig. 1).z

Table 1 Tuscany productive areas dimension classification regarding count, original surface, relative buffer distance and surface after buffer Classification

Count

Original surface (km2)

Buffer radius (m)

Buffered surface (km2)

Maximal (5% = 0

17.5 m = 0

0.10, it is necessary to review the judgments in the pairwise comparison matrix to identify the reason of the inconsistency and correct it. The weights were defined both for each category and overall and in phase four they were associated to the pedestrian network in the GIS environment, then classified by using the natural break method to identify the portions where intervening primarily, due to the Fuzzy AHP weights, to improve both the single characteristics considered and the overall usability and attractiveness.

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Table 2 Values of RI in the Fuzzy AHP Method RI

0

0

0.58

0.9

1.12

1.24

1.32

1.41

1.45

1.49

n

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

3 Results and Conclusions With the goal of applying the proposed methodology, two portions of the 5th Municipality of Vomero and Arenella in the city of Naples were selected. The choice of these study areas was due to two main elements: the number of over 75 that is on average higher than the other parts of the 5th Municipality (and the relevant supply of urban services of interest for the elderly (e.g. grocery stores, pharmacies) that require an appropriate pedestrian network to facilitate the “greys” in reaching them, due also to the hilly orographic conformation of this area. The methodology concerned the definition of a quantitative weight for each of the eight variables related to the perceived security and the urban context, with the aim of defining the pedestrian paths suitable for the elderly for the achievement of urban services. These weights were defined by using the computer software (SuperDecision 3.2) to execute the Fuzzy AHP. The global and local weights firstly highlight the importance of characteristics related to the sense of safety and protection of the elderly during the walking experience. In particular, the higher weights characterize the variables connected to the conflicts between pedestrian-vehicles, such as traffic lights and pedestrian crossings, the presence of street lighting that influence the pedestrians’ overnight security perception of the urban environment and, finally, the presence of escalators and elevators which reduces the insecurity of an elderly person in walking a high slope path (Table 3). Moving to the urban context features related to the pleasantness and the degree of comfort of a pedestrian path, the non-main roads, where the levels of air and noise pollution and vehicle speeds are lower, result to be a key facilitator in the choice of a path, compared to street furniture accessories such as benches and the presence of panoramic points that improve the attractiveness of the urban built environment. The association of the global weights with the pedestrian network in the GIS environment allows to classify it according to its friendliness for elderly, by focusing the attention mainly on: (i) The parts of the pedestrian network in which to intervene—interventions can be recommended on the basis of the weights defined by the Fuzzy AHP to improve both the individual characteristics and overall (Fig. 1). Some paths next to the areas of Piazza Vanvitelli and Piazza Medaglie d’Oro (that can be identified as the “central areas” of Vomero and Arenella neighborhoods, respectively) result to be suitable for elderly, even though most of the footpaths require an improvement of the features mainly related to the sense of security. Globally, the pedestrian network of this first study area seems to be more “elderly-friendly” compared to the other one. In fact, both in the area of

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Table 3 Fuzzy AHP global and local weights 1 4 2 3 8 5 6 7

Variables

Global weights (%)

Local weights (%)

Traffic lights Presence of escalators and elevators Pedestrian crossings Lighting density Non-main roads Park Bench Presence of green areas Presence of panoramic points

24 23 15 12 11 7 4 4

30 32 18 20 66 21 8 5

Rione Alto and in the one adjacent to the hospital, the pedestrian paths should be equipped to be used by the elderly. In this part of Arenella the only arches suitable for the elderly are Via Domenico Fontana and San Giacomo of Capri, both in terms of security and urban context. (ii) The paths that have a pedestrian destination—these paths characterize Vomero neighborhood and are totally absent in Rione Alto area. The pedestrian areas near to Piazza Vanvitelli, such as Via Scarlatti, have safety and urban context characteristics that make them pleasant to be walked by elderly (along it there are pedestrian crossings, public lights, benches), while for pedestrian paths such as Via Enrico Alvino, Piazzetta Arenella and Via Niccolò Piccinini they do not present attractive and safety features to be used, even though they are closed to the traffic. Summarising, the study area located between Arenella and Vomero neighborhoods is characterized by a better pedestrian accessibility compared to the other test area where the pedestrian network does not result to be suitable for the elderly. This difference can be in part connected to the unlike urban fabric present in the two study areas: unitary and planned in the first case and unplanned in the second one, where, in other words, poor attention was dedicated to the linear elements (the streets) of the built environment and to their setup both in terms of security and comfort for the pedestrian users. The classification of the pedestrian network according to the Fuzzy AHP global weights allows to identify the most critical paths in terms of walkability where intervening priority and contextually on different security and urban context characteristics (by referring to the local weights too) to improve their attractiveness, usability and the quality of urban built environment too. Furthermore, the proposed methodology aims to be a decision support tool for public administrations, which can promote efficient interventions and actions to encourage walking for all the weak users (e.g. children or disabled people) of the pedestrian network. In the next steps of MIBILAGE project, the global weights associated to the arches of the pedestrian network, the localization and distribution of the urban services of interest for elderly and the preferences and abilities of this segment of population will be useful to define the levels of pedestrian accessibility to classify the different portions of urban areas.

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Fig. 1 Classification of Vomero-Arenella pedestrian paths according to Fuzzy-AHP weights

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References Alidoust S, Bosman C, Holden G (2018) Talking while walking: An investigation of perceived neighbourhood walkability and its implications for the social life of older people. J Housing Built Environ 33(1):133–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10901-017-9558-1 Calinao B, Rusin M, Cifuentes J (2017) A comparative analysis of neighborhood walkability surrounding three senior housing facilities in Manhattan, New York: a microscale study (poster). J Transp Health 7:S7–S8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jth.2017.11.013 Cottrill C, Gargiulo C, Gaglione F, Zucaro F (2020) Defining the characteristics of walking paths to promote an active ageing. In: Pedestrians, urban spaces and health: Proceedings of the XXIV international conference on living and walking in cities (LWC 2019), September 12–13, 2019, Brescia, Italy. CRC Press. (In press) Gaglione F, Gargiulo C, Zucaro F (2019) Elders’ quality of life. A method to optimize pedestrian accessibility to urban services. TeMA, J Land Use Mobil Environ 12(3):295–312. https://doi. org/10.6092/1970-9870/6272 Gargiulo C, Zucaro F, Gaglione F (2018) A set of variables for the elderly accessibility in urban areas. TeMA, J Land Use Mobil Environ, 53–66. https://doi.org/10.6092/1970-9870/5738 Lee AH (2009) A fuzzy supplier selection model with the consideration of benefits, opportunities, costs and risks. Expert Syst Appl 36(2):2879–2893. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2008.01.045 Marquet O, Floyd MF, James P, Glanz K, Jennings V, Jankowska MM, … Hipp JA (2020) Associations between worksite walkability, greenness, and physical activity around work. Environ Behav 52(2):139–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916518797165 Mayaud JR, Tran M, Pereira RH, Nuttall R (2019) Future access to essential services in a growing smart city: the case of Surrey, British Columbia. Comput Environ Urban Syst 73:1–15. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2018.07.005 Ozbil A, Gurleyen T, Yesiltepe D, Zunbuloglu E (2019) Comparative associations of street network design, streetscape attributes and land-use characteristics on pedestrian flows in peripheral neighbourhoods. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16(10):1846. https://doi.org/10. 3390/ijerph16101846 Riggs W, Sethi SA (2020) Multimodal travel behaviour, walkability indices, and social mobility: how neighbourhood walkability, income and household characteristics guide walking, biking & transit decisions. Local Environ 25(1):57–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2019. 1698529 Saaty TL (1987) Highlights and critical points in the theory and application of analytic hierarchy process. Eur J Oper Res 74:426–447 Tsiompras AB, Photis YN (2017) What matters when it comes to “walk and the city”? Defining a weighted GIS-based walkability index. Transp Res Procedia 24:523–530. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.trpro.2017.06.001 WHO—World Health Organization (2015) World report of ageing and health. Retrieved from http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/186463/1/9789240694811_eng.pdf. Accessed 18 June 2020 Zhu X, Yu CY, Lee C, Lu Z (2020) From walkable communities to active lifestyles: exploring causal pathways through a case study in Austin, Texas. J Plan Educ Res, 0739456X19900528. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X19900528

Crossing Conditions and Kerb Delay Assessment for Better Safety and Accessibility of Road Pedestrian Crossings at Urban Intersections S. Leonardi, Giovanni Tesoriere, N. Distefano, G. Pulvirenti, A. Canale, and Tiziana Campisi Abstract The accessibility of urban contexts is closely connected to analysis of geometric and functional details that can influence the actions of road vulnerable users. The correct design of the spaces and their accessibility must consider all age groups and problems related not only to safety but also to perception and comfortable movement. This research investigated the behavior of 3887 pedestrians (both elderly and non-elderly people) in two pedestrian crossings located in an urban intersection of Catania. Two video cameras were used to record oncoming vehicles and pedestrians at the intersection. An initial analysis of the number of legal/illegal crossings was developed in order to understand if different crosswalk setback distances lead pedestrians to illegal crossings. The results show that pedestrians prefer to cross choosing the shortest way, even if this leads to illegal crossing. Then, the kerb delay was calculated, i.e. the time interval between the moment in which the rear part of the last vehicle in the queue exceeds the pedestrian waiting for crossing and the moment when the pedestrian takes the first step to cross. The hypothesis that older pedestrians have longer kerb delay because of declines in their physical, sensory, perceptual or cognitive abilities was tested. Keywords Road safety


Pedestrians
Urban intersections
Sustainable mobility

1 Introduction Pedestrians are the most vulnerable road users’ category in traffic accidents, especially in urban areas. Despite public, political and scientific efforts to reduce the amount of pedestrian accidents in traffic all over the world, there are still a conS. Leonardi
N. Distefano
G. Pulvirenti Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Catania, Via Santa Sofia 64, Catania 95125, Italy G. Tesoriere
A. Canale
T. Campisi (&) Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, University of Enna Kore, Cittadella Universitaria, Enna 94100, Italy e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_66

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siderable number of severely hurt or even killed pedestrians every year. The World Health Organization (2018) reported that more than 1.2 million people die every year in traffic accidents worldwide, and that 22% of these casualties are pedestrians. Learning about pedestrians’ crossing decisions and movement prior to and while crossing the road may portray pedestrians’ intentions and behaviours. The reality of an aging population, particularly in “economically developed” countries, has made the everyday mobility of seniors an issue of growing interest. According to the United Nations’ World Population Ageing report (2017), nearly every country is experiencing growth in the elderly population that will create challenges and transformations in various socioeconomic domains. In transportation, the ageing population poses mobility-related challenges in ensuring sufficient access to facilities and services for the elderly. In order for walking to become an attractive, efficient, and safe mode of transportation for the elderly, the way public spaces are designed must be rethought/reconsidered in order to accommodate to their needs and preferences. Urban structure plays a key role in providing available paths (Voulgaris et al. 2015) for pedestrian flows through urban areas. Improvement of accessibility between transit nodes and destination need to take into consideration urban facility designs. The correct design of the spaces and their accessibility must consider all age groups and problems related not only to safety but also to perception and comfortable movement. The body of literature dealing with accessibility of urban areas for vulnerable road users is extensive (Campisi et al. 2018; Canale et al. 2015; Distefano et al. 2019; Leonardi et al. 2020; Mrak et al. 2019). The mobility of older people in particular has been intensely investigated (Van Hoven and Meijering 2019; Jittrapirom et al. 2019; Pulvirenti et al. 2020). Various authors have emphasized that to facilitate mobilities in later life, it is important that accessible, clearly structured and predictable urban environments are provided (Van Hoven and Meijering 2019; Risser et al. 2010). Crash statistics show that older people make up an extremely vulnerable road-user group. There are several reasons for the higher proportion of fatality among older pedestrians. Existing literature suggests that cognitive deficits (Oxley et al. 2001), diminished capabilities of human sensors (Oxley et al. 2001; Lobjois and Cavallo 2009) or changes in the crossing behaviours (Lobjois and Cavallo 2009; Oxley et al. 1997) could contribute to the increased crash rate for older pedestrians. Crossing the street can be regarded as a challenging and demanding task because it requires several processes, decisions, and actions to be performed quickly, sometimes in parallel. The act of crossing the street requires pedestrians to weigh up the time saving against the probability of a collision. Older people are often thought to precipitate their own accidents because of the way they cross the road. Their reduced physical capabilities result in less mobility and a reduced ability to move out of the way of approaching cars. Furthermore, their traffic judgements may also be quite different to those of younger people because of perceptual, sensory and cognitive deficits. A number of human factors studies suggest that such factors contribute to increased road behaviour risks (Stelmach and Nahom 1992; Campisi et al. 2018). Previous research has shown that aging pedestrians have difficulty selecting safe gaps to cross the street (Lobjois and Cavallo 2009; Oxley et al. 1997). Older people have also been shown to have difficulty handling

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challenging traffic situations such as two-way streets. Whereas their street-crossing safety is significantly greater on one-way streets, older pedestrians are more likely to get hit by a car during the second half of the crossing, i.e., on the far side of the street (Oxley et al. 1997). This study set out to investigate the behaviour of both older and younger adult pedestrians to establish whether the older group experience particular problems when crossing the road. In particular, it aimed to highlight behavioural differences between younger and older pedestrians, and to suggest countermeasures to reduce the frequency and severity of older pedestrian crashes. Road crossing behaviour was analysed from unobtrusive video recordings of road crossings for a sample of younger and older pedestrians at one four-leg urban intersection. The study focuses on two crosswalks of the selected intersection, located respectively on a one-way divided road and on a two-way divided road. An initial analysis of the number of legal/illegal crossings was developed in order to understand if different crosswalk setback distances lead pedestrians to illegal crossings. Then, for the legal crossings, the video footage was processed in order to calculate a parameter named kerb delay, i.e. the time interval between the moment in which the rear part of the last vehicle in the queue exceeds the pedestrian waiting for crossing and the moment when the pedestrian takes the first step to cross. The hypothesis that older pedestrians have longer kerb delay because of declines in their physical, sensory, perceptual or cognitive abilities was tested.

2 Methodology 2.1

Study Locations

Observations were made in an urban four-leg at grade intersection (Fig. 1) located in Sant’Agata Li Battiati, a small town in the Metropolitan Area of Catania. Fig. 1 Plan view layout of study locations and observational filming

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The site was selected after screening of local streets via field observations. The main street (Via Vincenzo Bellini) is a two-way undivided road with one lane on each side. Each lane is 6 m wide. The sidewalk on the main street is 3 m wide. There are two crosswalks on the main street. The secondary street (Via dello Stadio) is a one-way undivided road with one lane (7.8 m wide). The sidewalk on the secondary street is 1.3 m wide. There is only one crosswalk on the secondary street. This study focuses on a crosswalk located on the main street and a crosswalk located on the secondary one. The crosswalks analysed have the following features (Fig. 1): (A) Crosswalk 1 is located on the secondary street, i.e. one-way undivided road with one lane. It is 7.8 m long and 4 m wide. The crosswalk setback distance is 6.50 m. There are no bollards or other disposals to avoid illegal crossings; (B) Crosswalk 2 is located on the main street, i.e. a two-way undivided road with one lane on each side. It is 12 m long and 4.5 m wide. The crosswalk setback distance is 3.50 m. There are no bollards or other disposals to avoid illegal crossings.

2.2

Video Data Collection and Analysis

Two synchronized cameras were used to record the natural scene at the sites. A car parked in front of Via dello Stadio on the side of the road was set up with two video cameras positioned to provide images of both oncoming traffic and crossing pedestrians. The cameras were hidden into the car so that pedestrians could not see them. Filming occurred without pedestrian’s knowledge to overcome possible changes in behaviour. Figure 1 shows a plan-view layout of observational filming. Camera 1 was used to record pedestrians on crosswalk 1, while camera 2 was used to record pedestrians on crosswalk 2. Video recordings of 1578 elderly pedestrians (estimated to be  65 years) and 2309 non-elderly pedestrians (estimated to be 0.05) and thus it can be concluded that the relation between the independent variables and the dependent variable thresholds is the same for all thresholds. As a result, the key assumption of the ordinal regression model has been met once again.

4.2

PMV Use for Commuting and Educational Purposes Models’ Interpretation

The calculation of the odds ratios is the prerequisite step for the interpretation of an ordinal regression model. The odds ratios are computed among the statistically significant intervals (statistical significance 95%) of the response variables and their reference categories, as well as for those intervals which slightly overcome the research’ confidence level. As far as respondents’ perception regarding PMVs fashionable use, those who stated that they totally agree with the statement are found to be 7, 6.2 and 6 times more likely to use PMV for commuting purposes compared to the respondents who stated that they disagree, they are neutral and they agree with the abovementioned statement apiece. Furthermore, respondents who stated that they agree with PMVs’ contribution in the reduction of traffic are found to be 6 times less likely to use PMVs for commuting compared to those who totally agree. Concerning respondents’ perception for PMVs’ recreational aspect, those who stated that they agree with the statement are found to be approximately 2 times more likely to use PMV for commuting purposes compared to respondents who totally agree. Regarding the interpretation of the model of PMV use for educational purposes it could be stated respondents who stated that they disagree with the propensity of renting or sharing a PMV are found to be 4 times less likely to use PMVs for educational purposes compared to the respondents who totally agree. Furthermore, respondents who stated that they are neutral or they agree with the fact that PMV use requires experience are found to be 3.8 and 2.3 times more likely to use PMVs for educational purposes compared to the respondents who claimed that they totally agree. Additionally, respondents who stated that they disagree with PMVs’

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recreational aspect during their use are found to be 2.7 times less likely to use PMVs for commuting to/from education. As far as respondents’ perception concerning PMVs’ use is possible for all age and gender groups, respondents who do not totally agree are more likely to use PMVs in a lesser extent for educational purposes. Specifically, respondents who totally agree with the statement are found to be 5.6, 2.9, 2.6 and 2.5 times more likely to use PMVs for educational purposes compared to respondents who stated that they completely disagree, they disagree, they are neutral and they agree respectively. It should be also highlighted that respondents who are students are 3.3 times less likely to specific use for educational purposes compared to respondents who are workers. Last, the two (2) model formulations are presented for a better understanding of the results: lnðPMV to workÞ ¼ 1:933  escooter fashionable disagree  1:831  escooter fashionable neutral  1:799  escooter fashionable agree  0:704  escooter reduced traffic agree

ð3Þ

þ 0:596  escooter recreation means agree lnðPMV to educationÞ ¼ 1:356  pmv propensity disagree þ 1:343  escooter req experience neutral þ 0:855  escooter req experience agree  0:978  escooter recreation means disagree  1:718  escooter use completely disagree  1:050  escooter use disagree  0:969  escooter use neutral  0:938  escooter use agree 1:124  occupation other  1:210  occupation student ð4Þ

5 Conclusions The results of the present research have actually met the objectives which are the identification of the attributes that have a significant effect on the use of PMVs for commuting as well as educational purposes. Several factors influence the use of micromobility they are not only related to socio-demographic components (Campisi et al. 2020c) but also to the purpose of the displacement. The analytical approach used assists in the quantification of these attributes and thus enlightening results have emerged. The use of ordinal regression models is crucial concerning the ordinal nature of the models’ dependent variables.

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The lack of policy for PMVs’ use can raise significant road safety issues (Campisi et al. 2020b; http://www.muoversincitta.it/green-mobility-legambientelorien-consulting-avanza-piccoli-passi-la-mobilita-elettrica-condivisa/). Their increased popularity in global scale establishes concerns regarding their use, their potential benefits as well as their externalities. Last, further research should be conducted towards the identification of even more explanatory factors which affect users’ perceptions regarding PMV use for different trip purposes. Therefore, research can pave the way towards the development of successful PMV schemes which they will meet users’ desires and needs.

Appendix

Survey Section 1 socio-demographic variables

1.1 Gender 1.2 Age

1.3 Job

Section 2 PMV ownership, rent and share

Section 3 e-scooters ratings

2.1 PMV ownership 2.2 Are you available to rent a PMV? 2.3 Are you willing to use a PMV sharing service? 2.1 How much do you agree that the e-scooter is a fashionable mode of transport? 2.2 How much do you agree that the previous experience of use is necessary? 2.3 How much do you agree that the e-scooter it is feasible to use together with other modes of transport (bus or train)? 2.4 How much do you agree that the e-scooter creates low environmental impact?

Male Female 65 Worker Student Retired Other Yes No Yes No Yes No Likert scale from 1 completely disagree to 5 completely agree

(continued)

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(continued) 2.5 How much do you agree that the e-scooter is to use? 2.6 How much you agree that the e-scooter is useful to go to work? 2.7 How much you agree that the e-scooter is useful to go to education?

References Badeau A, Carman C, Newman M, Steenblik J, Carlson M, Madsen T (2019) Emergency department visits for electric scooter-related injuries after introduction of an urban rental program. Am J Emerg Med 37(8):1531–1533. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2019.05.003 Campisi T, Basbas S, Skoufas A, Akgun N, Ticali D, Tesoriere G (2020a) The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on the resilience of sustainable mobility in Sicily. Sustainability 12 (21):8829. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12218829 Campisi T, Nahiduzzaman KM, Ticali D, Tesoriere G (2020b) Bivariate analysis of the influencing factors of the upcoming personal mobility vehicles (PMVs) in Palermo. In: Gervasi O et al (eds) Computational science and its applications—ICCSA 2020. ICCSA 2020. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 12250. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-58802-1_ 62 Campisi T, Akgün N, Ticali D, Tesoriere G (2020c) Exploring public opinion on personal mobility vehicle use: a case study in Palermo, Italy. Sustainability 12(13):5460. https://doi.org/10.3390/ su12135460 Campisi T, Acampa G, Marino G, Tesoriere G (2020d) Cycling master plans in Italy: the I-BIM feasibility tool for cost and safety assessments. Sustainability 12(11):4723. https://doi.org/10. 3390/su12114723 Gutiérrez PA, Pérez-Ortiz M, Sánchez-Monedero J, Fernández-Navarro F, Hervás-Martínez C (2016) Ordinal regression methods: survey and experimental study. IEEE Trans Knowl Data Eng 28:127–146. https://doi.org/10.1109/TKDE.2015.2457911 http://www.muoversincitta.it/green-mobility-legambiente-lorien-consulting-avanza-piccoli-passila-mobilita-elettrica-condivisa/ Kostareli A, Basbas S, Stamatiadis N, Nikiforiadis A (2021) Attitudes of e-scooter non-users towards users. In: Nathanail EG, Adamos G, Karakikes I (eds) Advances in mobility as a service systems—proceedings of 5th conference on sustainable urban mobility, Virtual CSUM2020, June 17–19, 2020, Greece (1st ed). Springer, Berlin, pp 1–10 Likert R (1932) A technique for the measurement of attitudes. Archives of Psychology Norušis MJ (2012) IBM SPSS statistics 19 statistical procedures companion, vol 496. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA Raptopoulou A, Basbas S, Stamatiadis N, Nikiforiadis A (2021) A first look at e-scooter users. In: Nathanail EG, Adamos G, Karakikes I (eds) Advances in mobility as a service systems proceedings of 5th conference on sustainable urban mobility, Virtual CSUM2020, June 17–19, 2020, Greece (1st ed). Springer, Berlin, pp 1–10 Torrisi V, Ignaccolo M, Inturri G (2018 May) Innovative transport systems to promote sustainable mobility: developing the model architecture of a traffic control and supervisor system. In: International conference on computational science and its applications, pp 622–638. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95168-3_42

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Tuncer S, Brown B (2020 April) E-scooters on the ground: lessons for redesigning urban micro-mobility. In: Proceedings of the 2020 CHI conference on human factors in computing systems, pp 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1145/3313831.3376499 Yang H, Ma Q, Wang Z, Cai Q, Xie K, Yang D (2020) Safety of micro-mobility: analysis of e-scooter crashes by mining news reports. Accid Anal Prev 143:105608. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.aap.2020.105608

Urban and Territorial Accessibility. A New Role for the Marinas Luigi Mundula, Mara Ladu, Ginevra Balletto, and Alessandra Milesi

Abstract Accessibility is considered a driving factor of territorial development, as well as a key performance indicator of cohesion policies. The accessibility indicators, in particular, describe how well the transport systems connect the different part of territory and provide interaction opportunities. The currently available indicators range from location accessibility to network efficiency, potential accessibility and daily accessibility. However, in this framework a player is not yet considered: the marinas. Until now the marinas are considered just as part of the infrastructure necessary to nautical tourism development and from this viewpoint their role is to provide safe points to access to the water and electricity and providing secure locations to store boats. Nevertheless, the sector of marinas is very dynamic. It contributes decisively to the development of local economies in particular of Mediterranean countries and Northern Europe cities. Many marinas provide additional nautical and ancillary leisure activities and can be visitor attractions in their own right. They also create demand for boating and other tourism products and services and facilitate linkages between nautical and coastal tourism. They have the potential to act as economic hubs for regional development and can catalyze the development of coastal tourism in specific locations. In this perspective, the role of marinas could be reconsidered, transforming them in

This paper is the result of the joint work of the authors. For Italian evaluation purposes Luigi Mundula takes responsibility for sections 1 and 3, Ginevra Balletto and Alessandra Milesi for section 2, Luigi Mundula and Mara Ladu for section 4. L. Mundula (&)
M. Ladu
G. Balletto
A. Milesi DICAAR—Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Architecture, University of Cagliari, Via Marengo 2, Cagliari, Italy e-mail: [email protected] M. Ladu e-mail: [email protected] G. Balletto e-mail: [email protected] A. Milesi e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 D. La Rosa and R. Privitera (eds.), Innovation in Urban and Regional Planning, Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering 146, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68824-0_69

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gateway able to push in sustainable way urban and regional economy moving the touristic flows from the coastal to the internal areas. Keywords Accessibility


Marinas
Nautical tourism

1 Introduction Accessibility is considered a driving factor of territorial development (Faber 2014; Donaldson and Hornbeck 2016; Baum-Snow et al. 2017; Rokicki and Stępniak 2018), as well as a key performance indicator of cohesion policies. A number of different measures of accessibility, defined as the potential to reach spatially dispersed opportunities, have been proposed in the literature, and used to address various substantive planning and policy questions. The accessibility indicators, in particular, describe how well the transport systems connect the different part of territory and provide interaction opportunities. The currently available indicators range from location accessibility to network efficiency, potential accessibility and daily accessibility. From the viewpoint of measurement methods (Paez et al. 2012), accessibility measures are typically comprised of two basic components, the cost of travel and the quality/quantity of opportunities. These two components can be managed in different ways to produce accessibility indicators. These last could be location- or person-based, distinction that depends on the degree of detail available regarding the situation of the network, modes of transportation, and differences in the individuals’ mobility. Moreover, accessibility can be measured from the point of view of the origin of potential trips or of the destination or target of these trips (Islam et al. 2008). However, while the basic notion of accessibility, or perhaps more accurately, the use of the term, has long been a staple of discourses in planning, only recently the ability of accessibility to establish a connection between transportation and land use, has gained ground on institutions that can most effectively wield it as a planning tool (Anderson et al. 2013). “The incorporation of accessibility metrics as performance measures for systemwide regional development scenarios and for accessibility-based planning is a step forward for accessibility-based planning, yet the impact of this approach is limited” (Levine et al. 2017, p 107). Moreover, accessibility can be thought of as the capacity of a location to provide access to other locations, so highlighting a (positive) impact on attractiveness of a place (Hansen 1959; Reynolds-Feighan and McLay 2006; Miller 2018). In this framework the main transport modes take in account are highway, rail (Chen et al. 2020) and flight and, consequently in terms of punctual infrastructures to assessing the accessibility of a territory, airports and railway stations. Rarely ports (Ignaccolo et al. 2020), yet not marinas. Until now, the marinas are considered as a primary facility to perform nautical tourism activities (Russo and Rindone

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2019) but from this viewpoint their role is yet interpreted to provide safe points to access to the water and electricity and providing secure locations to store boats. Nevertheless, marinas are the undisputed protagonists of a process of development and evolution which is leading them from simple port to multifunctional centres. Marinas are in fact the most complex and highest quality types of port for nautical tourism. They facilitate many nautical tourism activities and also provide additional nautical and ancillary leisure activities and can be visitor attractions in their own right. They also create demand for boating and other tourism products and services and facilitate linkages between nautical and coastal tourism, that in the last years are very dynamic in particular for the European economy. Europe boasts close to 70,000 km coastline and 27,000 km of navigable inland waterways. It is a leading destination for boating and water sports enthusiasts from across the world. There are over 4500 marinas in Europe, which offer 1.75 million berths for a total boat park of 6.3 million vessels. Today, 70% of boat charter takes place in Europe, with a significant part being held in the Mediterranean Sea. These activities represent an important income for coastal and insular economies with boating, water sports and marinas accounting for 180,000 jobs and generating approximately 17 billion euros in revenue per year across Europe. In its 2012 Communication on Blue Growth the European Commission (European Commission 2012) identified coastal and maritime tourism as one of the five sources of new jobs and growth in the Blue Economy.1 The 2014 Commission Communication “A European strategy for more Growth and jobs in Coastal and Maritime Tourism” (the CMT strategy)2 proposed actions to be undertaken at European level, in cooperation with national, regional and local stakeholders, to tackle the needs and challenges of the sector (European Commission 2014).

2 Nautical Tourism As highlight by Favro et al. (2008), “nautical tourism is a subsystem in the economic branch of the maritime economy and tourism within overall national economy, with all the characteristics of system and its partial components which are defined as entities, facilities and elements of nautical tourism”, generating annual revenues of between €20 and €28 billion per year and employing between 200,000 and 234,000 people.3 1

Comprising the economic activity of the marine and maritime sectors. It’s to note that coastal and maritime tourism is a significant sub-sector of both the wider tourism sector and the Blue Economy. It is estimated to employ approximately 3.2 m people and generate €183 bn of gross value added (GVA) (Ecorys 2013). 2 Specifically, related to CMT Strategy actions 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13. 3 There is no comprehensive dataset for nautical tourism activity. The estimated range is from ICF calculations using ICOMIA 2014 data; and Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament calculations using 2011 ICOMIA data (published in COM (2014) 254 final/2 of 13.5.2014)).

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The services sector, which includes equipment repair, boat charter, marinas and other services, accounts for around half of this value.4 Nautical tourism is a phenomenon that in the last three decades has recorded one of the highest development rates known in the European economies. Economic forecasters for tourism development agree that nautical tourism is in its early stages of development and that increasing results are to be expected. From a scientific perspective, nautical tourism development is still not sufficiently represented even if it contributes to the general development of the economy of any country or any area by fostering growth and development through its regular activities, as well as through horizontally and vertically related activities, such as excursion tourism, diving, photo safaris, servicing, handicrafts and shipbuilding. All these activities contribute to the creation of jobs for residents, in particular, where insular economies are concerned (Jugovic et al. 2011). As far as social aspect of nautical tourism is concerned, its contribution is seen in the transfer of information, knowledge, culture and lifestyle. In this way, nautical tourism has a significant contribution as its foreign boats and yachts and their equipment attract local population, thus promoting the development of ideas, creativity and free thinking. From the viewpoint of the receptive country, nautical tourism represents an important source of foreign exchange yield which is considered a specific form of export (the so-called invisible export). All expenditures of foreign tourism in any country represent a contribution to the balance of payment of the host country. In this framework, nautical tourism should be considered as a complex system and examined in accordance with the logic of general systems theory (Kovačić 2004) and the principles for the management of integrated complex systems (Favro et al. 2008). To achieve efficient and maximum results must be guaranteed: manageability of the system; interaction between all the components within the system and between the system and the external components (Favro 2002)—as local services, climate conditions, etc.-; and their joint orientation towards common values and goals. The above presented characteristics of the system of nautical tourism suggest that nautical tourism is connected with regional economy taking an important place and role.

3 The Role of the Marinas As highlighted in the previous paragraph, nautical tourism offers enormous development opportunities. In particular, the recreational boating segment is continuously growing. For example, looking at the number of megayachts (over 30 m in length) in navigation, the analysis of the data for the last ten years highlights the

4

ICF estimate based on ICOMIA data for 2014.

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exponential increase in the world fleet. From 3906 boats in 2009 it increased to 5646 in 2019 and the forecast is 5789 yachts sailing in 2022. Recreational boating is also a sector that has a strong impact on the economy of the area as well as on employment: the multipliers of production and employment are particularly significant and the absolute highest among those of the various sectors of maritime activity. The Mediterranean is an area extremely affected by recreational boating: in the winter the basin hosts 56% of the yachts, while during the summer the share rises to 70%. Analyzing the function of the marinas in a wider way, it is necessary to consider the peculiar geo-morphological character of the coasts as a border element and natural passage area—that is, enter or exit—between the marine and terrestrial ecosystem. From the point of view of socio-economic development, the coasts have been anthropized through the port infrastructures that embody the role of transit places and continuous exchanges of populations, people and different know-how, triggering processes of continuous transformation of natural elements and of the built environment but above all of local and supra-local development. The success of seaside towns, which have been able to build empires with the strength of their military and commercial fleets, is the strongest proof of this. The strong identity of these places of contact between the urban fabric and the water body derives, on the one hand, from the modification of the reference ecosystem, one enters an ecosystem and exits the other, and on the other from being intermodal hub, it passes from the boat (of whatever type it is) to other forms of mobility. As when a traveler arrives in a city he does not know, he needs to find all the information that can allow him to move easily within it, enjoy its beauty and fuel its economy; so those who arrive in a port should be able to find not only a safe mooring but also all the information, infrastructures and services to visit the territory connected to it. This function of ports, in particular tourist ones, is not yet fully understood today, in particular regarding their impact in the urban system (Lugo et al. 2020), with the consequence that these often remain relegated to their role as “shelter places” and “service stations” of boats rather than access doors (gateway) to the territory. The major problem is the poor communication between the local context (city, village or what else) and the marina. The two entities have to coexist in a restricted area and, from the outset, would appear to have opposing interest and objectives: the marina as a business is focused on the economy, productivity, competitiveness, as well as on the market and on business development; the city/town/Municipality, together with residents, is more focused on what impact the marina will have on the quality of life, as well as on visual and ecological concerns. This divergence contributes to a vision of conflict over the physical and functional compatibility of the two opposing sides. Marinas and cities often have conflicting strategies about getting control over the area. The marina industry, looking to build new premises for their activities, can often be to the detriment of

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the city or local waters. Urban areas generally oppose this expansion due to environmental reasons and insist on the rational use of existing capacity (Robinson 2009). Urban areas are interested in regaining access to the coast by taking abandoned or underutilized areas which can be used for building houses, cultural activities, recreation, swimming and more. To overcome difficulties arising from the lack of space or from a desire to use space in a different way, it is therefore necessary to implement a concept that will incorporate the marina into the city, making it an integral part of the city and part of a system that works in synergy. City harbors always contribute to the development of a city and of a territory. This development is in accordance with the pathway determined by the local and broader community. A particular case is that of communal ports because the commercial character of the boatbuilding increasingly being replaced by tourism. Coastal cities are developing new activities to attract more trade and visitors. These new developments often replace old established businesses, such as boatbuilding and commercial wharfs, that are relocated to a less attractive area. These changes directly give rise to new questions, such as the value of the coastal zone (Bizzarri and La Foresta 2011). This means that the old city ports, harbors and marinas need to find a balance with the expansive demands of nautical tourism that is looking for integrated offer systems. In this view, the established forms of planning should be replaced by a way of thinking which should ensure interaction with all the components of the territorial system. Aiming to ensure sustainable development and achieve optimal regional socio-economic development, the today’s view of marinas needs to be adapted, creating a categorization according to their capacity to be a accessibility node able to enhance the attractiveness of a territory. Marina should become a meeting point for exchange of experiences, communication with other guests, but also with employees (currently not optimal). Education, i.e. workshops and seminars should provide training of personnel. Nautical tourism should organized into a community. The interest group of people providing professional services in marinas still cannot meet all the needs of leisure mariners. An example of what needs to be provided for leisure mariners is an efficient and prompt mail delivery, because marina is just their temporary address. Marina should have a social and service orientation, not only serve as a physical storage place for vessels. From this perspective, it’s worth to note nautical tourism experienced significant qualitative changes over the years due to the changes in the preferences of yachtsmen, who are more and more interested in experiencing attractions of the destination they arrive in and in spending active holidays. Moreover, they are even oriented towards maximum quality and are willing to pay for it. In order to be able to satisfy their growing needs, it is necessary to introduce additional improvements of the current offer, as well as new elements (Alkier 2019).

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4 Marinas as Territorial Gateway As highlighted in the previous paragraph, nowadays, marinas have taken on a different role than in the past, they are no longer, in fact, simple areas where property and equipment related to industrial processing was concentrated but they are a complex “gateway” of territorial systems able to promote competitiveness and cooperation. The aim of this perspective is to form the basis for planning future development policies for smart and sustainable marines, based on innovation and investment in marina infrastructure and boating products, but also on the integration of marinas into regional development planning. It means encourage planning, innovation and investment that supports the sector adjust to, and exploit, changes in consumer demand and broader its role as a hub and catalyst for economic activity. This is expected to benefit the competitiveness and the performance of coastal regions more broadly. The output, in terms of policy, generated by the results produced, should not necessarily lead to programming a set of measures aimed at transforming each port into a gateway but, instead, it could be useful to plan the system of tourist ports by thinking in terms of clusters and networks. Establish a virtual platform for combined coastal and nautical tourism products to support networking, engagement and information exchange (Heilig et al. 2017), as well as the provision of a micro-funding facility for SMEs developing combined products can be considered future goals. The virtual platform will help to address problems created by the fragmented nature of the sector, providing a forum for information sharing, collaboration and partnering. At the same time, support the diversification of tourism products allow to meet a growing area of consumer demand, improving the competitive position of the sector. Within a network (no longer a node) approach, groups of ports similar in location/context and function, could constitute a single system based on integrated programming and management, also with reference to the offer of internal and external services. As regards the importance of strengthening the link between the tourist ports and the urban and territorial context of reference, one of the main challenges concerns the development of connection and logistics hubs and the promotion of a series of measures to strengthen the public transport service and alternative and sustainable mobility. In this sense, a virtuous example is provided by the marinas of Villasimius and Teulada which since summer 2019 offer some smart services for those arriving by boat. The keywords are three: welcome, technology/innovation and environment/green. The novelties include a smartphone to allow tourists to move more easily and a greater offer of electric vehicles on the quay to improve connections with the coast and the town. The possibility of using rent electric vehicles allows to think about a welcome that goes beyond the summer. Helping the tourist to get to the heart of the area is a benefit for everyone. The assets to focus on are environmental sustainability and

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knowledge of the territory, which need an operational tool such as the mobile phone, already equipped with all the information to facilitate the approach with the territory: historical places, places to visit, food and wine excellences, etc. In this context, the need to establish an association between the managers of the tourist port facilities, which has taken on the consortium form and the name of Sardinia Ports Network, has matured. Established in 2001, among four public entities, today the Sardinia ports network consortium, associates 19 of the main port facilities along the coast of Sardinia and pursues the objective of associating all the tourist ports by raising the standard of services, limiting internal competition, establishing common management platforms and trying to conquer new slices of the yachting market. In addition, the community project “Odyssea” was presented, which aims to transform marinas from simple parking lots of boats to places of access to the territory. Those who arrive on the island, for example, can immediately immerse themselves in the local culture by tasting the Gallurese soup or the Campidanese malloreddus and discovering the true, sometimes hidden, specificities of the place. The transformation of the marina into a territorial gateway is a cultural leap as well as a technical and technological one. The increase in the number of charters, the presence of foreign boats and crews, the demand for new services as well as climate change are new realities that need to be promptly answered. An opportunity to be taken in this direction is the definition of a new taxonomy for the marinas through the creation of a composite indicator able to catch the new role of marinas intended as gateway to the metropolitan and inland territory, in order to give a new impulse to the territorial development—even in complex contexts (Balletto et al. 2020).

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