Inclusion in Southern African Education: Understanding, Challenges and Enablement (Sustainable Development Goals Series) 3031437519, 9783031437519

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SDG: 4 Quality Education

Dipane Hlalele Tsediso Michael Makoelle   Editors

Inclusion in Southern African Education

Understanding, Challenges and Enablement

Sustainable Development Goals Series

The Sustainable Development Goals Series is Springer Nature’s inaugural cross-imprint book series that addresses and supports the United Nations’ seventeen Sustainable Development Goals. The series fosters comprehensive research focused on these global targets and endeavours to address some of society’s greatest grand challenges. The SDGs are inherently multidisciplinary, and they bring people working across different fields together and working towards a common goal. In this spirit, the Sustainable Development Goals series is the first at Springer Nature to publish books under both the Springer and Palgrave Macmillan imprints, bringing the strengths of our imprints together. The Sustainable Development Goals Series is organized into eighteen subseries: one subseries based around each of the seventeen respective Sustainable Development Goals, and an eighteenth subseries, “Connecting the Goals,” which serves as a home for volumes addressing multiple goals or studying the SDGs as a whole. Each subseries is guided by an expert Subseries Advisor with years or decades of experience studying and addressing core components of their respective Goal. The SDG Series has a remit as broad as the SDGs themselves, and contributions are welcome from scientists, academics, policymakers, and researchers working in fields related to any of the seventeen goals. If you are interested in contributing a monograph or curated volume to the series, please contact the Publishers: Zachary Romano [Springer; zachary.romano@ springer.com] and Rachael Ballard [Palgrave Macmillan; rachael.ballard@ palgrave.com].

Dipane Hlalele Tsediso Michael Makoelle Editors

Inclusion in Southern African Education Understanding, Challenges and Enablement

Editors Dipane Hlalele University of KwaZulu-Natal Durban, South Africa

Tsediso Michael Makoelle Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education Nazarbayev University Astana, Kazakhstan

ISSN 2523-3084     ISSN 2523-3092 (electronic) Sustainable Development Goals Series ISBN 978-3-031-43751-9    ISBN 978-3-031-43752-6 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43752-6 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Paper in this product is recyclable.

Preface

The idea to publish this book came as a result of the major observations and engagements the editors made regarding the evolution of the concept of educational inclusion from their many years of experience within the South African education system. The book reflects on the metamorphosis of the concept of inclusion since the implementation of the South African inclusive education policy framework, the White Paper 6 in 2001. It has been 20 years since the adoption of this policy direction, and it has become crucial to reflect and take stock of the successes, challenges and achievements during the journey towards making education inclusive, equitable and responding to the educational needs of learners at all levels of education regardless of their diverse needs such as disability, gender, socio-economic status, race, ethnicity and language background. In this book, reflections are made about the understanding and conceptualization of the notion of inclusion in education, the challenges experienced during operationalization and implementation of the process with a view to suggesting some strategies for enablement. The book therefore, presents a conceptual analysis of an enabling frameworks for inclusive education within the Southern African schooling context. The analysis of the South African evolution of inclusion is done in the context of the evolving concept in other countries of Southern African Development Community (SADC). Some comparative analysis is made to drawn some lesson on the development of inclusion in this region. The editors of this book bring with them a wealth of experience regarding inclusive education in the South African context. Professor Dipane Hlalele, a professor in the School of Education at the University of KwaZulu-Natal, brings with him an extensive experience in teaching inclusive education at higher education institutions. In addition to supervising postgraduate research students and postdoctoral fellows in the field of inclusive education, he also examines a number of masters and doctoral candidates from other universities. This book project draws from his current long-term project titled Understanding the exclusion/inclusion conundrum in Southern African education. He participated as a member of a national core group [fourteen members] that developed teaching standards for inclusive teaching for beginner teachers in South Africa and was recruited as an international consultant for infusion of inclusion in teacher education programmes in Mauritius, based at the Mauritius Institute of Education. His publications include university access, inclusion and social justice. A number of his students are lecturers in

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the field of inclusive education at their respective institutions as well as specialists in their own countries. As for Professor Tsediso Michael Makoelle, currently the Vice Dean for Research and Associate Professor in Inclusive Education in the Graduate School of Education at Nazarbayev University in Kazakhstan, this book is about sharing his experiences both from the South African and international contexts. Prof Makoelle has works on inclusive education in both countries of the South such as Eswatini, those in the North such as USA and UK and extensively with countries of the East including the Russian Federation. Therefore, this book brings an intersectionality between experiences of the two scholars with vast but different experiences. It presents a comprehensive conceptual framework for inclusive education in the South African context while drawing parallels from the regional and international experience. The reading of this book will therefore empower practitioners, administrators, teachers and school leaders, curriculum developers and planners as well as policy makers about both theory and practice regarding inclusive education in the South African schooling system.

Rationale This book extends debates spawned by international and national policy mandates that sought to transcend exclusionary educational practices with a view to realizing inclusive societies and, by implication, inclusive classrooms. Drawing from declaration of human rights by the United Nations over six decades ago, learning and having regard for the various international conference on inclusive education, UNSECO explains inclusive education as a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all learners through increasing participation in learning, cultures and communities, and reducing exclusion from education and from within education. There are a few observations that derive from the assertion above. Firstly, we have to recognize and appreciate the existence of exclusionary practices. Reality has it that at some point, 75 million of the world’s children were denied access to education. Some within this group are drop-outs who were either pulled out of the education systems or pushed due to various factors in the education system. These push factors include teenage pregnancies, rigid and unresponsive curricula, child labour, forced marriages and the child-headed household phenomenon. In other areas across the world, the included are/feel excluded in various ways. Notwithstanding the fact that physical access to schools is achieved, there are ways in which exclusion manifests itself within inclusive environments. Through the years, international conferences on inclusion adopted various themes aimed at harnessing resources to accomplish certain targets. Secondly, we conceptualized this book from the premise that says being aware of how we exclude, understanding the diversity, the construction of difference emboldens our resolve and reduce ways in which we exclude. Thirdly, we tease out the understanding of inclusion in education. In the recent, inclusive education was mainly understood as having to deal with learners with disabilities. There has, however, been a shift guided by the

Preface

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social model as well as social justice [amongst others] to include other forms of exclusion besides disability. This book finds expression in three aspects, that is, understanding, challenges and enablement. University of KwaZulu-Natal Durban, South Africa Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education Nazarbayev University Astana, Kazakhstan

Dipane Hlalele

Tsediso Michael Makoelle

Contents

Part I Understanding Inclusion in Education  Exclusion, Diversity and Inclusion ������������������������������������������������������    3 Theresia Joakim Kanyopa Inclusion in Early Childhood Care and Education: A Participatory Action – Learning and Action Research Perspective ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   11 Ashnie Mahadew Inclusion in Early Childhood Education: A Sense-Making Perspective ����������������������������������������������������������������   27 Awudu Salaam Mohammed Inclusion in Teaching and Learning: An Adult Education Perspective����������������������������������������������������������   41 Nthabiseng Ngwenya and Tsediso M. Makoelle  Inclusion in Mauritian Education: Initial Insights ����������������������������   57 Dipane Hlalele and Seema Goburdhun Part II Challenges of Inclusion in Education  Inclusion in Zimbabwean Rural Schools: Teachers’ Perceptions on Challenges and Mitigating Strategies ������   71 Munyaradzi Chidarikire  Full-Service Schools and Inclusion in South Africa����������������������������   85 Gladys I. Ayaya and Tsediso M. Makoelle Stress and Coping Strategies Among Zimbabwean Families of Learners with Intellectual Disabilities: Implications for Inclusion ��������������������������������������������������������������������  101 Lindiwe Magaya Cultural and Linguistic Barriers to the Inclusion of Deaf Learners: Towards Sign Bilingual Education in Zimbabwe������������������������������������������������������������������������  115 Patrick Sibanda

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Part III Enablement of Inclusion in Education Leadership for Inclusion in Schools: An Ethics of Care Perspective��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  131 Phumlani Erasmus Myende Inclusion in Education Policy as an Enabler: Lessons from South Africa��������������������������������������������������������������������  145 Lloyd Daniel N Tlale Curriculum Adaptation for Inclusion in Teaching and Learning����������������������������������������������������������������������  165 Cedric Bheki Mpungose  Youth Facilitators as Enablers of Inclusion: A School-Community Partnership Perspective����������������������������������  177 Cias Tsotetsi, Habasisa Molise, and Mahudi Mofokeng Managing an Inclusive Classroom in Eswatini: A Case Study������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  191 S’lungile Thwala Non-governmental and Community-Based Organisations as Enablers of Inclusion in Education������������������������  209 Paseka Andrew Mosia and Malephoto Niko Lephoto Infusion of Inclusion in Mauritian Initial Teacher Education Programmes����������������������������������������������������������  223 Seema Goburdhun Conclusion����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  237 Dipane Hlalele

Contents

Contributors

Gladys I. Ayaya  University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa Munyaradzi Chidarikire  University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa Seema Goburdhun  Mauritius Institute of Education, Reduit, Mauritius Dipane Hlalele  University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa Theresia  Joakim  Kanyopa  University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa Malephoto Niko Lephoto  National University of Lesotho, Roma, Lesotho Lindiwe Magaya  Georgian Court University, Lakewood, NJ, USA Ashnie Mahadew  University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa Tsediso M. Makoelle  Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nazarbayev University, Astana, Kazakhstan Mahudi Mofokeng  University of the Free State, Phuthaditjhaba, South Africa Awudu Salaam Mohammed  University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa Habasisa Molise  University of Limpopo, Polokwane, South Africa Paseka Andrew Mosia  National University of Lesotho, Roma, Lesotho Cedric  Bheki  Mpungose University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa Phumlani Erasmus Myende  University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa Nthabiseng  Ngwenya University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa Patrick Sibanda  University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa S’lungile  Thwala University of Eswatini, Kwaluseni Campus, Matsapha, Eswatini Lloyd Daniel N Tlale  University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa Cias Tsotetsi  University of the Free State, Phuthaditjhaba, South Africa xi

About the Editors

Dipane Hlalele  obtained the following qualifications: BAEd, BEd, MEd, MA, PhD.  He obtained the Centre for Science Development scholarship for his MEd studies. He was honoured in lieu of Consistent Academic Service at the UFS, Qwaqwa campus and received the Sustainable Learning Environments award for the best ever publication output in the Faculty of Education at the UFS in the 2012 academic year and received the Vice Rector’s award for Community Engaged Research in 2014 and 2016. He concluded the 2012 academic year as the 4th top researcher at the UFS in respect of publication output units and received a Staff Excellence award for the highest number of doctoral graduates in the School of Education at the University of KwaZulu-Natal in 2020. He presented over 50 papers at several national and international conferences, was visiting professor at Seton Hall University (USA) in 2011 and was guest researcher in the Rural and Agrarian research cluster at the Nordic Africa Institute, Uppsala, Sweden, in 2013. In 2019, he was recruited as a consultant through the Mauritian Government’s Recruitment of Foreign Faculty Scheme with a mandate to advice on the infusion of inclusion in teacher education programmes. Dipane Hlalele, a C2 NRF rated researcher, is a professor in the School of Education at UKZN who appears in the World Top 100 Education Scientists in South Africa, 2022 (AD Scientific Index). Prior to joining UKZN as an associate professor, he was an assistant dean and senior lecturer at the University of the Free State, a college of education lecturer and a high school deputy principal and teacher. He was a principal- and co-investigator in the Community engagement in xiii

About the Editors

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rural contexts: a relational leadership strategy (2017–2019); Sustainable urban-rural learning connections (2017–2018) National Research Foundation (NRF)-funded projects respectively. Prior to this, he was a principal investigator in Sustainable rural learning ecologies, Sustainable Futures for the People of the Afromontane and a co-investigator in the Adaptive leadership in community engagement and service learning NRF funded projects respectively. The accrued value of these projects is R2.7 million. He has supervised 33 doctoral and 25 master’s degree students to completion; hosted 5 postdoctoral research and 1 teaching fellows and published over 55 articles, peer-reviewed conference proceedings and chapters in books. He has examined over 100 theses and dissertations from 16 South African universities. His current research interest draws from positive and community psychology as well as education, and he therefore strive for and advocates helpful, hopeful and respectful research. He currently sits on the editorial boards of the Journal of Education and Journal of Educational Studies. He is currently Ethics Chair: Human and Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee at UKZN. Tsediso Michael Makoelle  is one of the recipients of the prestigious Nelson Mandela scholarship to the United Kingdom (UK). He holds the degrees of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Inclusive Education from the University of Manchester, UK, and a Doctor of Education (D Ed) in Education Management and Leadership from the University of South Africa (UNISA). Prof Makoelle’s span of teaching and research experience stretches for over 30 years with the focus being on secondary and higher education. At the beginning of his career, Prof Makoelle started his pedagogical work as a high school teacher, and then head of department, vice principal and principal in several secondary schools in the Education Department of the Republic of South Africa. He has notably worked as lecturer and senior lecturer at Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, and University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Prof Makoelle started working at Nazarbayev University nearly

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9 years ago in the capacities of associate professor, and then Director of Doctoral Studies, General Director for Research and lately Full Professor and Vice Dean for Research at the Graduate School of Education. He has written and published extensively on the topics of inclusive education and educational leadership, management, governance and administration for both national and international audience and readership. Prof Makoelle has supervised many Master and PhD students. He is a member of several international research bodies. He is a reviewer of grants and funding applications for the South African National Research Foundation (NRF), reviewed papers for several international Scopus and Web of Science journals and evaluated research theses for several universities in South Africa and abroad. He has also reviewed postgraduate courses and programmes for many universities and serves on editorial boards of several international Journals. He has collaborated with universities from USA, UK, Europe, Russia and Africa. He is passionate about inclusive education with the research interest in conceptualization and operationalization of inclusive pedagogy within disadvantaged South African classroom contexts and beyond. He has devoted his research work within the framework of Participatory Action Research, informed by notions of critical, reflective practitioner and transformative epistemologies.

Part I Understanding Inclusion in Education

Exclusion, Diversity and Inclusion Theresia Joakim Kanyopa

on the right to inclusive education, in Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities, it is widely acknowledged that education contributes to the fullest development of a human being  (United Nations. General comment no. 4 on the right to inclusive education. In: Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. United Nations, New York, 2015). The chapter further unpacked the notion of exclusion, diversity and inclusion in relation to how they shape the inclusive education discourse. Also, it highlights the notion of inclusive pedagogy in the context of a transforming classroom space which seeks to respond to the needs of all students and thus address the issue of diversity and social justice in South African education context.

Abstract

This introductory chapter provides a comprehensive review of the literature about the conceptualization of inclusive education. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights on the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1948, declared education as a basic right of all people. Article 26 of the declaration indicates that everyone has the right to education, education shall be free at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. The concept note for the 2020 global education monitoring report on inclusion  was outlined on the report of Salamanca statement that inclusion and participation are essential to human dignity and enjoyment of human rights (UNESCO. Concept note for the 2020 global education monitoring report on inclusion. UNESCO, Salamanca, 2014). Therefore, the chapter views education as the basic human right that helps human being to be free from all kinds of discrimination and domination (UNESCO. Concept note for the 2020 global edumonitoring report on inclusion. UNESCO, Salamanca, 2014), as mentioned on the Salamanca statement and framework for action on special needs education. The general comment no. 4

T. J. Kanyopa (*) University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

Keywords

Inclusion · Diversity · Inclusive education · Exclusion · Inclusive pedagogy

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Introduction

Historically, school education in South Africa used to be the privilege of a few (Walton and Rusznyak 2019) affirm that the previos education system in South Africa not only divided education into races but also on the (dis) abilities. But over the years, the strenuous efforts have resulted

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Hlalele, T. M. Makoelle (eds.), Inclusion in Southern African Education, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43752-6_1

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T. J. Kanyopa

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in manifold increase in schools, teachers and learners and have thereby increased the outreach of school education system. Research by Srivastava et  al. (2015) reveales that the post independent South African education system is characterized by the massive expansion and democratization of school education to meet the universal goals of elementary education and ­educational improvement of disadvantaged group of people around the world. The drives to offset the historical disadvantages and discriminatory education system have been noticed by the government-led efforts through a range of enabling provisions that enhance accesses to and ensure the increasingly enrolment of learners in schools (McKenzie and Dalton 2020). For instance, the chapter two of South African constitution of 1996 stipulates that everyone has the right to receive education (RSA 1996). Therefore, it is important for the department and all the stakeholders to ensure equal access to all, by taking into account the redress of previous racial discriminatory practices in schools and promote equality and fair school education system. As evidenced from the research done by Engelbrecht (2020) that inclusive education is a vehicle for achieving equality and equity in South African education system. With todays’ increasing number of learners from diverse background in the classrooms has reinforced the importance of making the South African schools more inclusive (Srivastava et al. 2015). The greater variation in the abilities, talents, culture, ethnic groups, social, political and economic background of the learners lead to the challenges on the implementation of inclusion and employ diversity constructively as to democratize the teaching and learning process and achieve the social justice for all learners at school (Gururaj et al. 2021). In this context the agenda of inclusion in South African schools has gained importance, and thus, there has been a further impetus with the enactment of Education White Paper 6 of 2001 (EWP6 hereafter) (DoE 2001). The introduction and implementation of this document is considered to bring a successful redressing of education system and making the learners of marginalized communities visible and valu-

able within the classroom (Engelbrecht 2020). According to the White Paper 6 (DoE 2001: 6–7) an inclusive education meant: • Acknowledging that all children and youth can learn and that all children and youth need support. • Enabling education structures, systems and learning methodologies to meet the needs of all learners. • Acknowledging and respecting differences in learners, whether due to age, gender, ethnicity, language, class, disability, HIV or other infectious diseases. • Broader than formal schooling and acknowledging that learning also occurs in the home and community, and within formal and informal settings and structures. • Changing attitudes, behaviour, teaching methods, curricula and environment to meet the needs of all learners. • Maximising the participation of all learners in the culture and the curriculum of educational institutions and uncovering and minimising barriers to learning. Therefore, the above seems to suggest that South african education should be about ensuring that all children receive education that responds to their needs and that the education system has to be transformed in order to widen the participation of all in education, delivered in an equitable but inclusive manner.

2 A School for all 2.1 Understanding ‘Exclusion’ and ‘Diversity’ Leads to Better ‘Inclusion’ Exclusion is a widely discussed issue in the discourse of development since 1980s. In the late 1980s, the term exclusion became popular in the western literatures to explain the consequences of the radical economic, industrial and social changes that were taking place (Musterd and Ostendorf 2013). Though exclusion and educa-

Exclusion, Diversity and Inclusion

tion has been inter-relatedly discussed since late 1980s, in the early stage, the discussion mainly focused on how people were deprived of getting education due to social exclusion. Later on, the focus changed due to the increasing on the diverse needs in education that demanded the formation of equitable rights and access to education (Chambers and Forlin 2021). Hence, in late 1980’s most of the discussions was on how to address the issue of people who were socially excluded due to deprivation of education. In early 1990’s exclusion has increasingly been discussed in the discourse of global education and has become a popular term in educational discussions due to the diversity in education, research by Moosa-Mitha (2016) affirms that diversity in education systems enhances the focus on the issues that are responsible globally and locally contradicts with people’s right to education. In essence, societies continuously experience fundamental changes as they go through transformation in political, social and economic landscape (Srivastava et al. 2015). Therefore, such changes are viwed as diversity in societies that influence changes into education system and traditional convections of schools since the classrooms rapidly became diverse in aspects of social status, historical backgrounds and ethnic groups. Chambers and Forlin (2021) states that diverse and multicultural societies impacts classrooms to consist learners from diverse ethnic linguistic, cultural and socio-­ economic backgrounds. Hence, to respond to societal transformations/changes required schools that are more founded in democratic principles for social inclusion which ensures social justice (DoE, 1996). Inclusion is the process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all learners through increasing their participation and integration in teaching and learning process (Stewart and Valian 2018). The journey for the South African schools to become an inclusive school may be long and challenging at the same time, but ultimately this journey can strengthen a school itself, stakeholders and benefit all the learners at school (Walton and Rusznyak 2019). Thus, the understanding of the notion of “inclu-

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sion” in South African context does not simply means the placement of learners with learning barriers in the mainstreams, rather, the concept incorporates with the process of changing the way the school community supports and addresses the diverse need of each learner at school (Engelbrecht 2020). As such, the issue of inclusive education in South African school does not only benefit learners with learning barriers but also, it creates learning environment in which every learner including those with no learning barriers to enjoy learning and opportunity to flourish (Engelbrecht and Muthukrishna 2019). With physical access taken care of to a greater extent, it is no longer enough to talk merely about inclusion in most of South African schools, rather, the growing importance is also on the understanding of other two concepts (exclusion and diversity) to make school environment more democratic and learners to be free from fear, anxiety and stress (Phasha et  al. 2017). With that concern, the quality of teaching and learning process has attracted the attention to all the practitioners and stakeholders in the education system and also it is now a widely recognized fact that the understanding of exclusion and diversity in education leads to the effective inclusion in South African schools (Walton and Engelbrecht 2022). Despite the efforts that have been made by the government to bring inclusion in schools, some learners at school are reported to remaining marginalized by current arrangements (Mpu and Adu 2021). This implies that, an effective inclusion remains one of the biggest challenges facing education system in South Africa. As Makoelle (2012) avers, inclusions in the South African education context still bears the hallmarks of the past discriminatory education based on segregation. Thus, this chapter draws from the premise that says understanding the ways exclusion manifests itself in education requires an understanding of diversity in all its various forms. It is at heart of the issue that has occupied recent debates and discussion about making a school for all by understanding all the ways that exclusion demonstrates itself in schools and finding better solution by promoting diversity in all of its’ forms (Slee 2018).

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Recently, various studies like that by Walton (2018); Dube (2020) and Gururaj et  al. (2021), revealed that the delivering process of the curriculum content in a mainstream classroom tend to maintain the various form of exclusion and discrimination which severely affects the confidence and self-awareness to the learners who belonging to the marginalized communities. A scholarly work by Muthukrishna and Engelbrecht (2018) outlined learners’ painful experiences in the classroom and shown their resentment to the issue of exclusion in the schools. On the same token Makoelle (2016) postulate that the assessment within curriculum is sometimes not flexible enough to respond to the needs of learners and thus act as a barrier to student’s learning. Eventually, body of literature affirms that there is a need for recognizing, fostering and developing sensitivity towards the learners’ negative experiences and their diverse needs at school to ensure diversity (Kanyopa 2019). According to Juvonen et al. (2019) diversity in education represent a broad range of ideas and initiatives to create a learning environment that are safe, inclusive and equal for all learners regardless the abilities, race or backgrounds. Amin (2019) states that diversity in education refers to the recognition of range of identity categories that exist in a group of people including class, race, gender, religion and sexual orientation. Therefore, for an effective inclusion this chapter maintains the need for the curriculum developers to provide teaching and learning contents and guidance through the integrative activities, exploration and discovery to address the pressing issue of exclusion in the classroom while emphasizing diversity in education system. Similarly, the EWP6 attempted to address the exclusion in teaching and learning process by insisting that teachers should enable learners to find their voices and nurture their curiosity to do things while sharing their diverse lived experiences from outside the school life (DoE 2001). It is affirmed that not only the experiences of learners are important in the transformation of classrooms as inclusive spaces but also teacher’s beliefs, attitudes and conceptions about the notion of inclu-

sion are at the heart of the success of inclusion (Makoelle 2012 & Kanyopa 2019). In accordance, some research maintan tha while efforts are made to prepare teachers for the world of inclusion, there are still pockets of misunderstandings, resistance and lack of policy implementation, as such the processes of transforming schools into inclusive space have not entirely paid-off (Walton 2018 & Engelbrecht 2020).

3 Changing Classrooms to Become Inclusive 3.1 Recognition of Learner Diversity Addressing and responding the diverse needs of the learners at school first needs the changing of the current situation of the classroom to enhance equal participation and engagement in teaching and learning process, while reducing exclusion in the education system (Fish Hodgson 2018; Pather 2019). This implies that the journey of inclusive learning requires the strategies from the classroom context to the curriculum developers as to deal with the challenges and arduous of this journey. Changes in South African classroom will increase the learners positive mind-set that will allow them to approach their lives with enthusiasm and curiosity (Kanyopa and Hlalele 2021). Hence, with the intention goal of inclusive education of attaining equal participation of the learners in the classroom, this will peak the diverse experiences which fosters their productivity, success and fulfilment (Francis et  al. 2019; Hymel and Katz 2019). An inclusive classroom is one of the diverse form in education system whereby everyone regardless of their differences feel and treated equal, valued, involved and supported in all aspects (Phasha et al. 2017). Research reveals that when the learners feel that their experiences, participations, ideas and contribution are not valued or taken seriously by their teachers they will eventually be depressed (Juvonen et al. 2019). Some scholarly works also

Exclusion, Diversity and Inclusion

advised that changes in classroom specifically recognisation of each learner diverse is something that is crucial and inclusionary-driven that is inseparable to the successful inclusion in education (Ewing et al. 2018; Hymel and Katz 2019). White and Rispel (2021) affirms that since the classrooms are now accessible to the diverse learners including those who were historically excluded the changing classroom has to take place by various reasons owing as to grow the consciousness to the learners and their parents. This chapter maintains that the process of recognising learners diversity in the classroom will definitely lead to the active participation of more diverse learners in the classroom. According to Andrews et al. (2021) the importance of the inclusive classroom in school impacting both life and academic success. This drive increase recognition of each learner in the classroom and play a big role on social and emotional well-being in the learning environment (Amin 2019; Francis et  al. 2019). Engelbrecht (2020) affirms that classroom rearrangement addresses difficulties nurtured by intergroup by reducing negative behaviour, altitudes and bias or discrimination. Mpu and Adu (2021) agreed by Hymel and Katz (2019) that good relationship in the classroom significantly impact the quality of life for diverse learners both socially and academically. An inclusive classroom is also influenced by the teacher professional learning in creating such classroom (Andrews et al. 2021). Just like the role of adult in a child’s life, teachers also play a major role in developing social awareness that impacts the interpersonal dynamic of the learners in the classroom. Therefore, with the promotion of changes in the classroom to promote social inclusive I look back to Gordon Allports’ (1954) hypothesis which emphasized the interpersonal relationship as a major aspect to reduce exclusion, prejudice and discrimination among the learners form diverse backgrounds. Although the benefits of inclusive classroom are many, consistent implementation of it remain subtle (Andrews et  al. 2021; Mpu and Adu 2021). This implies that teachers are

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overwhelmed with the inclusion demands and expectations which resulted to a very complex ways of operating and managing their classrooms, in which some learners revealed to be success while others to remaining failures.

4 Conclusion 4.1 A Long, Arduous and Challenging of Inclusive Education Journey The chapter maintains that to understand exclusion in the inclusive education requires first an understanding of diversity, as explained under the South African School Act (SASA) this is because diversity plays a crucial role in the education system transformation, although it often limits equal opportunity to all educational practitioners and stakeholders involved (DoE, 1996). As evidenced from Slee (2018) that diversity is a crucial component towards the inclusive education, although it tends to cause social alteration which turns learners in the direction of exclusion or the margins of the school community. Nevertheless, dealing with exclusion in South African schools as a single discourse is inappropriate, thus, to be able to deal with exclusion in South African schools needs teachers and schools’ administrators to be aware of how they implement diversity and interpersonal dynamic in the educational settings (Kern 2022). They must also comprehend how does the school programs and practices highlight the differences to the learners and deal with practices that promote divisions, exclusion and reinforces negative altitudes in school (Walton and Rusznyak 2019). With such awareness and consideration schools will be able to promote inclusion in the classroom and outside the classroom, by implementing inclusivity that fosters connection between learners’ diverse groups. Conclusively, the process of realising inclusivity in South African schools is mainly influenced by the EWP6 document which outlines the broad inclusive framework and the ways for the implementation of the policy in the educa-

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tion system (Slee 2018). The policy also resonated with great expectation of transiforming education system into more inclusive and responsive to the learners diverse. In accordance, the aim of EWP6 is to redress and restructure an inherited structures and forms of inequalities, segregatioin and discrimination from the previous education system, thus, this implies that the inclusive education in South Africa is a continuous journey which requires both social and educational responsiveness towards the realities within the schools’ contexts.

References Amin S (2019) Diversity enforces social exclusion: does exclusion never cease? J Soc Incl 10(1):9–22 Andrews D, Walton E, Osman R (2021) Constraints to the implementation of inclusive teaching: a cultural historical activity theory approach. Int J Incl Educ 25(13):1508–1523 Chambers D, Forlin C (2021) An historical review from exclusion to inclusion in Western Australia across the past five decades: what have we learnt. Educ Sci 11(3):119–134 Department of education (1996) South African school act 84 of 1996. Government Printers, Pretoria Department of education (2001) White paper 6: special needs education: building an inclusive education and training system. Government Printers, Pretoria Dube B (2020) Rural online learning in the context of COVID 19  in South Africa: evoking an inclusive education approach. REMIE: Multidiscip J Educ Res 10(2):135–157 Engelbrecht P (2020) Inclusive education: developments and challenges in South Africa. Prospects 49(3):219–232 Engelbrecht P, Muthukrishna N (2019) Inclusive education as a localised project in complex contexts: a south African case study. South Afr Rev Educ 25(1):107–124 Ewing DL, Monsen JJ, Kielblock S (2018) Teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education: a critical review of published questionnaires. Educ Psychol Pract 34(2):150–165 Fish Hodgson T (2018) The right to inclusive education in South Africa: recreating disability apartheid through failed inclusion policies. S Afr Law J 135(3):461–501 Francis DA, Brown A, McAllister J, Mosime ST, Thani GT, Reygan F, Muller M (2019) A five-country study of gender and sexuality diversity and schooling in southern Africa. Afr Educ Rev 16(1):19–39 Gururaj S, Somers P, Fry J, Watson D, Cicero F, Morosini M, Zamora J (2021) Affirmative action policy: inclusion, exclusion, and the global public good. Policy Futures Educ 19(1):63–83

T. J. Kanyopa Hymel S, Katz J (2019) Designing classrooms for diversity: fostering social inclusion. Educ Psychol 54(4):331–339 Juvonen J, Lessard LM, Rastogi R, Schacter HL, Smith DS (2019) Promoting social inclusion in educational settings: challenges and opportunities. Educ Psychol 54(4):250–270 Kanyopa TJ (2019) Learner transitioning from township to Ex-Model C schools: an invitational education perspective. (Unpublished Masters’ thesis). University of KwaZulu-Natal, Edgewood Campus; Durban Kanyopa TJ, Hlalele DJ (2021) The learning experiences of learners transitioning from rural and township schools to ex-Model C schools. Indep J Teach Learn 16(1):96–114 Kern A (2022) Using a combined bio-ecological and capability perspective to understand inclusive education in South Africa. Prospects 13(2):1–17 Makoelle TM (2012) The state of inclusive pedagogy in South Africa: a literature review. J Sociol Soc Anthropol 3(2):93–109 Makoelle TM (2016) Inclusive teaching in South Africa. Sun Media Publishers, Cape Town, p 102. https://doi. org/10.1080/09766634.2012.11885569 McKenzie JA, Dalton EM (2020) Universal design for learning in inclusive education policy in South Africa. Afr J Disabil 21(2):1–9 Moosa-Mitha M (2016) Reconfiguring citizenship: social exclusion and diversity within inclusive citizenship practices. Routledge, Chicago Mpu Y, Adu EO (2021) The challenges of inclusive education and its implementation in schools: the south African perspective. Perspect Educ 39(2):225–238 Musterd S, Ostendorf W (eds) (2013) Urban segregation and the welfare state: inequality and exclusion in western cities. Routledge, New York Muthukrishna N, Engelbrecht P (2018) Decolonising inclusive education in lower income, Southern African educational contexts. S Afr J Educ 38(4):1–11 Pather S (2019) Confronting inclusive education in Africa since Salamanca. Int J Incl Educ 23(7–8):782–795 Phasha N, Mahlo D, Dei GJS (eds) (2017) Inclusive education in African contexts: a critical reader. Springer, Pretoria Republic of South Africa (1996) Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. Government Printer, Pretoria Slee R (2018) Inclusive education isn’t dead; it just smells funny. Routledge, London Srivastava M, De Boer A, Pijl SJ (2015) Inclusive education in developing countries: a closer look at its implementation in the last 10 years. Educ Rev 67(2):179–195 Stewart AJ, Valian V (2018) An inclusive academy: achieving diversity and excellence. Mit Press, Cambridge UNESCO (2014) Concept note for the 2020 global education monitoring report on inclusion. UNESCO, Salamanca

Exclusion, Diversity and Inclusion United Nations (2015) General comment no. 4 on the right to inclusive education. In: Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. United Nations, New York Walton E (2018) Decolonising (through) inclusive education? Educ Res Soc Change 7(1):31–45 Walton E, Engelbrecht P (2022) Inclusive education in South Africa: path dependencies and emergences. Int J Incl Educ 43(1):1–19

9 Walton E, Rusznyak L (2019) Developing standards for inclusive teaching in South Africa: a dilemma analysis. South Afr Rev Educ Educ Prod 25(1):89–106 White JA, Rispel LC (2021) Policy exclusion or confusion? Perspectives on universal health coverage for migrants and refugees in South Africa. Health Policy Plan 36(8):1292–1306

Inclusion in Early Childhood Care and Education: A Participatory Action – Learning and Action Research Perspective Ashnie Mahadew

Abstract

Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) centres have increasingly become diverse and teachers require advanced skills to include children of various identities. Should teachers want to develop inclusive learning environments, then they need to respond to all children in pedagogically appropriate ways. The focus of this chapter is to explore how teachers adopt an inclusive pedagogy which encourages access, participation, achievement and respect for all children, not just those experiencing barriers to learning or those regarded as special needs. The chapter reports on an eight-month, virtual learning participatory engagement with six ECCE teachers and two teacher trainers. Using a participatory action learning and action research (PALAR) design data were gathered through a baseline questionnaire, photovoice and journals. The findings of the study indicated how the research participants transformed their pedagogical practice due to their collaborative efforts. The findings revealed that the teachers created an inclusive learning environment in ECCE by

adopting play-based, culturally responsive and participatory pedagogies. These findings make important contributions to the development of professional qualifications in ECCE, they could be pivotal in designing a module on inclusion in ECCE. Based on these findings, it was recommended that a module on inclusive pedagogy is necessary in the quest to realise inclusion in ECCE. Due to the critical nature of ECCE, creating inclusive learning environments may result in greater democracy in the learning environment and a more just society. Due to the inequality which manifests in South Africa, the use of a PALAR design offers a unique research method that voices the learnings of members of a marginalised sector in education. With scarcity of research on inclusion in the South African ECCE sector, this chapter may serve as a point of departure for further research on inclusive pedagogy in ECCE. Keywords

Early childhood care and education · Participatory action learning and action research · Inclusive pedagogy · Inclusion · Critical pedagogy

A. Mahadew (*) University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Hlalele, T. M. Makoelle (eds.), Inclusion in Southern African Education, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43752-6_2

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1 Introduction

A. Mahadew

ences” (Rudolph et  al. 2019, p.  1). In addition, the country’s National Development Plan for This chapter is situated in the ECCE (early child- 2030also identifies quality ECCE as a tool to sighood care and education) context, focusing on nificantly reduce poverty among vulnerable comchildren aged from birth to four (Ebrahim et al. munities (Republic of South Africa 2011). 2019; Harrison 2020). Movements for a quality Notwithstanding the importance of ECCE as a ECCE learning environment have gained means to correct inequality, the quality of ECCE increased momentum in the international arena. services is still of grave concern (Ebrahim et al. For instance, the seventeen Sustainable 2021). Indeed, as noted by Ebrahim et al. (2021), Development Goals are a global call for transfor- there seems to be a misalignment between govmation which aims to improve the lives of people ernment funding and the need to meet the requireand the sustainability of the planet (Mérida-­ ments of the NIECD in South Africa. Serrano et  al. 2020). Sustainable development It therefore follows that children may have goal four (SDG4) outlines the need for inclusive, access to ECCE programmes, but the quality of equitable, and quality education, with lifelong the programmes raises a lot of questions. learning opportunities for all (Elfert 2019). Goal Researchers allude that inclusion can be an indi4.2 calls for young children to access high-­quality cator of a quality ECCE programme. For examcare and education services provided by qualified ple, Aubert, Molina & Schubert (2017, p.  91) professionals. This recognises early education as highlights that “high-quality education are those, a powerful means to positively transform the which aim to achieve efficiency and equity for world. This is due to the fact that ECCE partici- all”. In a similar vein, Underwood, Valeo and pation has been correlated with positive long-­ Wood (2012, p.  294) state that, “inclusion is term outcomes for individuals from disadvantaged repeatedly described as one of the critical combackgrounds (Cascio 2015). Indeed, research ponents of quality programming for young chilreflects that early intervention leads to advan- dren.” Evidence suggests that inclusion is one tages later in life, for not just children and their important aspect of a quality ECCE programme, families, but socio-economic benefits for society as it ensures equal access, participation and (Gertler et al. 2021). Overall, this indicates that a achievement for all children. quality ECCE programme, especially in developTo create this quality inclusive learning enviing countries like South Africa, results in positive ronment, a teacher is required to have specialised outcomes for all. craft knowledge. Researchers such as Atmore In South Africa, ECCE has been prioritised as (2019), Ebrahim et al. (2018) and Harrison a means for social and economic transformation (2020), concur that the quality of early childhood (Bipath and Joubert 2016). The National services requires a professionalised and compeIntegrated Early Childhood Development tent workforce. This is problematic, as the cur(NIECD) Policy (Department of Social rent workforce comprises mainly underqualified Development [DSD] 2015, p. 1) states that “gov- teachers (Ebrahim et al. 2021). Thus, focusing on ernment is fully committed to providing the improving teacher training in the South African building blocks for access to quality early stimu- sector, the Draft Policy on Minimum Requirements lation, education and care for all children, with for Programmes Leading to Qualifications in particular focus on children in vulnerable com- Higher Education for Practitioners and munities”. The NIECD also highlights that Educators in Early Childhood Care and “investment in early childhood …….can limit Education (MRQECDE) (Department of Higher inequality at its source” (DSD 2015, p. 23). The Education and Training [DHET] 2017) was policy also aims to support the United Nations’ implemented. The document offers guidelines for SDG4, in order to address imbalances, claiming teacher training and lists the basic competencies that “inequality within and between populations for professionally qualified early childhood has its origins in poor early childhood experi- teachers. The competencies include the ability to

Inclusion in Early Childhood Care and Education: A Participatory Action – Learning and Action Research…

critically analyse the complex and differentiated nature of South African society. The policy also states that teachers need to learn to think critically and work in creative ways to facilitate the diverse challenges encountered by young children and their families. Diversity challenges include poverty, disabilities, culture, language, gender and sexuality. In this view, attention needs to be given to how teachers create inclusive learning environments. An inclusive learning environment affirms diversity as a strength and assumes that all children, irrespective of diverse identity markers, are capable of learning (DoE 2001). There are numerous ways for teachers to create an inclusive learning environment, however this chapter focuses on pedagogy or “the act of teaching and its attendant discourse” (Mažgon et  al. 2018, p.  3). A PALAR design (Luthuli 2019; Zuber-­ Skerritt 2018) offers a platform for an ECCE community to co-create knowledge for mutual learning and capacity building. This chapter, therefore, attempts to explore how teachers adopt an inclusive pedagogy in ECCE, using a participatory action learning and action research (PALAR) design. Preceding the exploration of how teachers create inclusive learning environments, it is essential to conceptualise the inclusion discourse.

2 Understanding Inclusion The understanding of inclusion is regarded as problematic and context specific by scholars. Firstly, in this chapter, a broad view of inclusion is adopted in line with several researchers (Cologon 2019; Daniels 2018; Haug 2017; Hlalele 2021; Nutbrown et al. 2013) who regard the concept as an attempt to establish human rights and social justice for all people. I adopt the definition from Dickins (2014, p.  1) who states that inclusion: is based on a defined value system that equally welcomes, celebrates and respects diversity arising from gender, race, ethnicity, language, culture, belief systems, socio-economic or family background, and level of educational disadvantage or

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disability. This is underpinned by an acceptance that inequality, racism, ableism and other forms of prejudice and discrimination are deeply embedded in today’s society.

These deeply embedded beliefs must be brought to our awareness and challenged to gain authentic inclusion for all people, including but not limited to, those with disabilities or special educational needs. Secondly, inclusion is seen as an ongoing journey to find better ways to embrace diversity (Azorín and Ainscow 2020). It is a journey that we do not actually reach (Cologon 2019) as rules and routines in ECCE are never static and change has to be implemented according to the child’s unique needs at a particular moment. In essence, the idea of inclusion as a process alludes to the dynamic and evolving nature of inclusive educational practices. Thirdly, for teachers to practice inclusion, an awareness of subtle exclusionary practices that are often confused with inclusion is required (Cologon 2022). For instance, in certain attempts to be inclusive, minority groups are celebrated at centres without actually addressing issues of discrimination or inequality. In addition, certain assimilatory practices attempt to get minority groups to fit in at the expense of a loss of personal identity. Teachers need to be aware of such covert practices that disregard an individual’s unique identity. Clearly, children gaining access to a centre does not always guarantee their participation, respect or achievement from the margins. Creating an inclusive learning environment is therefore a product of deep understanding and awareness of inclusion and exclusion. Indeed, for teachers to adopt pedagogically appropriate practices, understanding and awareness are important forerunners.

3 An Inclusive Pedagogy in ECCE As alluded to earlier, this chapter centres on “pedagogically appropriate ways” (Rusznyak and Masinire 2018, p. 53) that teachers may create an inclusive learning environment specifically in the early years. In other words, what do ­inclusive teachers do in ECCE? Since there is no

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standardised or universal understanding of inclusion, researchers concur that inclusion is openended and has varied meanings in varied contexts (Makoelle 2020). Thus, each ECCE centre would require a set of guidelines for inclusive pedagogy that would apply to their unique context. This chapter investigates how a group of ECCE teachers and teacher trainers explored an inclusive pedagogy in their unique contexts. In this section, I firstly outline an understanding of pedagogy and then analyse the implications for inclusive pedagogy specific to this study. Pedagogy refers to the art and science or even the craft of teaching (Daniela 2019). Pedagogy is regarded as an art as it has no set script or instructional guide, and a science due to empirical research in the field which enhances teaching and learning (Okeke et  al. 2016). Historically, the word pedagogy originates from the writings of Plato, where well-educated slaves who were probably captured from other regions were tasked to “lead the child” in all areas of development (Shah 2021, p. 6). Among the ancient Greeks, these pedagogues were granted a higher status than the schoolmaster or didaskalos (Shah 2021). Drawing from this ancient definition, pedagogy involves genuine care and bringing children’s learning to life in meaningful ways (Smith 2020). I, therefore, conclude that inclusive teachers should strive to become pedagogues who enhance the holistic development of children in all domains. In this chapter, how teachers implement an inclusive pedagogy centres on flexible, participatory, play-based and culturally responsive pedagogies. In the ECCE context, teachers need to centralise learning around play (De Witt 2020; Excell and Linington 2015; Istianti et  al. 2019; Moodly 2019; Pramling et al. 2019) in opposition to ‘schoolification’. ‘Schoolification’ represents discourses that focus on school readiness, rather than play-based learning (Ebrahim et  al. 2019; Ring et  al. 2020). School readiness discourses imply that ECCE has no legitimacy besides readiness for formal schooling. The policy on Minimum Requirements for Programmes leading to Qualifications in Higher Education for Early Childhood Educators (DHET 2017, p.  38) outlines ten knowledge and practice standards or

A. Mahadew

core competencies found in South African ECCE qualifications. One of the required competencies is the planning and facilitating of learning through play as a means for children to make sense of their experiences and impressions of the world (De Witt 2020). Play often exposes power relationships between children, and each child’s attitude is dependent on deeply entrenched beliefs about groups of people considered as other (Excell and Linington 2015). The authors outline that during play, imbalances in power relationships are caused by the interplay of various factors, including racism, sexism, homophobia and classism, for instance. Thus Rangel (2017) suggests that teachers should adopt a pedagogy of play for social justice and transformation. Adopting a pedagogy of play will ensure that early childhood teachers foreground diversity as something positive and valuable. Therefore this pedagogy of play would offer opportunities for teachers to create inclusive ECCE spaces. Similar to play pedagogies, participatory pedagogy (Van Krieken Robson 2019) challenges early childhood teachers to enable the child’s voice and advance the critical thinking of the child. Participation is central to inclusion as a democratic right which promotes educational change due to the full involvement of all children (Dickins 2014). The use of a participatory pedagogical approach ensures that children take ownership of their learning and demonstrate a feeling of belonging and inclusion in ECCE settings. This chapter strives to establish how ECCE teachers are able to adopt the principles of participatory pedagogy in an attempt to create inclusive learning environments. Another important consideration when adopting an inclusive pedagogy in ECCE is to promote culturally responsive teaching. This brings children’s lives into the classroom and allows connections with their lived experiences, as well as the content being taught (Ladson-Billings 2014). It is effective in validating children’s prior knowledge and makes new concepts easier to understand (Oemig and Baptiste 2018). Hence, a sense of belonging and deeper learning takes place when children make connections between the school curriculum and their lived experiences.

Inclusion in Early Childhood Care and Education: A Participatory Action – Learning and Action Research…

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The curriculum also plays a pivotal role in adopting an inclusive pedagogy. Studies highlight that in inclusive education, curriculum must be innovative, flexible and child centred (Makoelle 2012; Ojageer 2019; Phasha and Condy 2016). The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) for ECCE (DBE 2015) emphasizes the importance of equity, diversity and the indigenous African experience that the children in South Africa can identify with (DBE 2015). The NCF states emphatically that these are merely guidelines for observation and planning of the early learning programme, taking into cognisance that all children are unique in their individual learning needs. The activities are not prescriptive and offer a great deal of flexibility to ECCE teachers. Therefore, curriculum flexibility, choice and cultural responsiveness should assist teachers in adopting an inclusive pedagogy.

Freire called for teachers to develop an awareness of power dynamics and act against these (Gelot 2019). Paolo Freire (1974, p.  19) describes this awareness as conscientisation, a Brazilian idea of “learning to perceive social, political and economic contradictions, and to take action against the oppressive elements of reality. Freire’s work challenges transmissive banking methods of education where children are passive recipients of knowledge and are unable to act critically or have autonomy in their learning (Bohórquez 2020). Freire’s principles, therefore, coincide with the values and principles of inclusion, which highlight how educational systems may perpetuate social injustices concerning relegated and marginalised children arising from a diverse range of identity markers.

4 Theoretical Framework

Underpinned by the above-mentioned theoretical perspective, a participatory and emancipatory orientation shaped the choice of the research design. Due to inequality in South Africa and vast discrepancies in opportunities, research should value the lived experiences of people and enable the voice and agency of marginalised groups. The study thus adopted a qualitative approach and a participatory action learning and action research (PALAR) design, which recognised the participants as having the capability to reflect and act upon problems relevant to them. PALAR, like all other research in the action research genre, is based on cyclic inquiries comprising planning, acting, observing and reflecting on real challenges, using participants’ individual knowledge and skills to facilitate deeper learning (Morrison 2017). PALAR has a unique learning orientation that calls for the collaborative construction of knowledge that benefits the research participants and society (Schoonen et al. 2021). Purposeful sampling was employed, with participants drawn from an ECCE training centre in the Ethekweni Municipality. Purposeful sampling enables researchers to select participants who would be able to answer the research questions (Gupta et al. 2018). The participants for this

The chapter draws from critical pedagogy as a theoretical lens which recognises education as a political act that is useful to oppress or emancipate people on the margins (Knijnik 2021). Critical pedagogy adopts the philosophical assumptions of critical theory to education (Kivunja and Kuyini 2017). Therefore, to be inclusive, ECCE teachers adopt an ontology of multiple realities which are dynamic, subjective, and fluid. According to Cohen et al. (2018) these ontological assumptions initiate and underpin epistemological assumptions or ways of enquiring about knowledge. Thus, in this study, inclusive pedagogy is shaped by the belief that knowledge is valid if it is collectively constructed, transformative and beneficial to society. Drawing from these underlying philosophical assumptions, an inclusive teacher needs to enable students to build on their prior knowledge and lived experiences. There should be a democratic exchange where both teacher and learners are responsible for knowledge construction. Due to Paulo Freire’s questioning of the role of power, culture and oppression in education, his ideas have formed the backbone of critical pedagogy.

5 Methodology

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particular study were required to be experienced in working with young children who attended regular centres, they also needed to be effective communicators and available and willing to participate in the study. Since PALAR research aims to gain a deeper understanding of the research problem and foster close relationships among the participants (Wood 2020), the group consisted of eight participants  - teachers and trainers who facilitated at various centres in advantaged, as well as disadvantaged contexts in urban settlements. I referred to this diverse group as the action learning set (ALS), a core research team where the participants learn many important skills in a safe, democratic and inclusive space. PALAR involves two phases: a relationship building and a research phase (Bosman 2022). During the relationship building phase, participants presented photographs and introduced themselves. According to Setlhare-Kajee (2018), it is during this critical initial step that respect between participants is fostered and the participants ‘buy-in’ and establish commitment. Data generation then occurred over an extended period of time, while ensuring the active and continued relationship building of all participants. Online interviews could not be done, as PALAR aims to develop the agency of participants through “a collective meaning making” (Lochmiller and Lester 2015). Data were generated in two cycles which were informed by the two research questions. According to PALAR researchers for instance Setlhare-Kajee (2018), this cyclic inquiry is shaped by the participants, therefore making the outcomes difficult to predict beforehand The research questions that shaped each cycle were: (i) What is the current understanding of an inclusive pedagogy in ECCE? (ii) How is an inclusive pedagogy adopted in ECCE? To gain a comprehensive understanding of inclusion, data were generated from multiple sources, which resulted in the triangulation of data. Denzin and Lincoln (2018) state that these data sources are examined at different times, places

A. Mahadew

and by various persons, which contributes to the trustworthiness of qualitative research. Firstly, in cycle one; a baseline questionnaire was used to establish the current level of knowledge and understanding of inclusion among the ALS (Ojageer 2019). This provided insights into what needed to be addressed in the study. Secondly, participants used photovoice to capture their lived experiences of inclusive or exclusive pedagogical practices. Photovoice is a participatory visual method that allows participants to critically reflect and engage in collaborative dialogue (Liebenberg 2018). Thirdly, reflective journals were used to summarise key learnings of the cycle and to shape further cycles of learning and research (Ojageer 2019). Cycle two attempted to address the deficits or problems identified in cycle one. The participants used photovoice to represent their new insights on inclusive pedagogy. Once more journals were used to summarise and provide direction for future cycles of learning and research. This chapter reports on only two cycles of the research, but the research and learning are ongoing as part of a project to refine a handbook on inclusion in ECCE. The generated data were interpreted and analysed using Critical Thematic Analysis (Lawless and Chen 2019). Based on the principles of thematic analysis, this method identifies themes by noting incidences of recurrence, repetition and forcefulness. Once the themes were identified, they were aligned with critical issues relating to inclusion. The themes were then presented to the participants for verification at the end of each cycle. Ethical considerations govern researchers’ conduct by defining right and wrong behaviour concerning research (Kivunja and Kuyini 2017). The ethical clearance was obtained from the University of Kwazulu-NataI, with the ethical number HSSREC/00001146/2020. In keeping with participatory methods, the study respected and valued the voices of all participants to ensure epistemic justice (McAteer and Wood 2018). The participants were reminded that their participation was voluntary throughout. The study contributes to contextual understandings of inclusion that will assist in material development for ECCE teacher education.

Inclusion in Early Childhood Care and Education: A Participatory Action – Learning and Action Research…

6 Findings The findings for cycle one and two are discussed under the three themes as indicated below.

6.1 Participatory Pedagogy Challenges Traditional Rote Learning After analysing the baseline questionnaire in cycle one, it was clear that some of the participants believed that young children learn best through traditional repetition and rote learning. During the conversations, participants discussed the importance of the morning rings, where children spend time memorising the colours, days of the week, months of the year and seasons, during their learning. They also revealed the importance of these singsong activities in the development of children’s self-confidence and language proficiency. Participants also claimed that repetition developed automaticity when recalling the numbers and the alphabet, which would later play a critical role in the development of emergent literacy and numeracy. For instance, RP 5 indicated the following: How else can we make sure that children know how to count and remember their ABCs? We have to drill, drill, drill

Education should however centre on acts of cognition, rather than the mere transferals of information (Freire 2000). Rote and repetition align with traditional banking methods where teachers Fig. 1  Participatory art and craft lesson. (Source: (RP 7)) We learn through active participation in ECCE

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are seen as the possessors of knowledge, making deposits into the empty heads of children (Sathorar and Blignaut 2021). This system ignores children’s prior knowledge and life experiences and works toward suppressing creative and critical thought. Therefore, in cycle two, participants needed to consider how to balance traditional methods of teaching with the dialogical problem-posing approach suggested by critical pedagogues. In cycle two, RP 7 produced a photograph of craftwork completed by a group of children together (Fig. 1). For this craft, the children chose their favourite colour of paper and traced around their hands. They were then assisted with cutting of the shapes while they simultaneously sang rhymes about the different colours and counted the fingers on their cutout hands. While learning their colours and counting, they collaboratively decided to arrange their cutouts to produce a colourful tree. This was a joint effort by the teacher and the children, where everyone had a role to play. From RP 7’s reflections, it is evident that the children were learning actively and socially in a very meaningful way. Children were required to think, make decisions and own their learning by taking on different roles. RP 7’s caption supports the principles of participatory pedagogy, where early childhood teachers validate the child’s voice and empowers the active participation of the child (Van Krieken Robson 2019). This tree craft exemplifies active engagement as an essential component of an inclusive learning environment. The essence of participatory pedagogy is equality for all and the inclusion of

A. Mahadew

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c­hildren with diverse strengths. Aligned with inclusion, learning through active participation encourages children to exercise their autonomy with a role change from passive to active learning. In addition to a deep level of participation, classroom dialogue also opposes traditional banking methods that specify a one-way communication by the teacher to the child where the child listens and the teacher speaks. RP 3 presented photographs of a teacher questioning a child and a pair of headphones. The captions for these photographs read, it’s important to ask questions after a lesson to see how they relate to the lesson……teachers must listen to children... really listen... to what children have to say

The above statements by RP 3 support a dialogical teaching approach where the teacher asks questions and listens to the answers that the children provide. During this process of authentic listening, teachers gain an understanding of children and their prior knowledge. In fact, teachers and children both become responsible for the teaching and learning processes, resulting in a role reversal where the teacher becomes the learner and the child becomes the teacher. An inclusive teacher needs to exhibit the willingness to learn and teach. RP 4 also reflected in her journal the importance of allowing the children to give contributions and speak their minds during discussions. Active listening should always be readily given as the children will not be afraid to speak to you, nor will they feel unheard. Children often feel very excited to share feedback and this excitement should not be warded off.

The above narrative highlights the importance of enabling children’s voices. When children’s voices are heard, they take ownership of their learning. Aligned with Bohórquez (2020), this horizontal dialogue results in children also having a say in designing their learning, leading to democratic knowledge construction. Ongoing

dialogical interaction enables the co-construction of knowledge in a collaboration that results in epistemic justice (Ebrahim et al. 2019). Therefore, teachers need to find ways to maximise learner participation, collaboration and dialogue, as this contributes to an inclusive early learning environment.

6.2 Culturally Responsive Teaching Challenges a Eurocentric Learning Environment Following an in-depth analysis of the baseline questionnaires and photographs from the respective learning environments in cycle one, it was clear that the classroom resources depicted a Eurocentric Western culture. According to Ladson-Billings (2014), children from all cultural groups need to see themselves represented in the curriculum and resources of the centre. RP 1 and 3 captured photographs that represented Eurocentric story images in their learning environment, which in a sense were inadequate representations of the cultural groups at their centres. Children’s files were covered with pictures of fair-haired and lightskinned princesses or super heroes and story resources depicted yellowhaired and lightskinned puppets. The participants also pinpointed worksheets that asked for skin to be coloured peach in a class with predominantly brown-skinned children (Fig.  2). Also of significance in the book corner, were the choice of books that comprised stories with mainly European characters. A participant also identified a book with Bible stories that clearly excluded other religious groups. When such resources abound in the learning environment, then children’s diverse cultural identities are not affirmed or welcomed. Therefore, in cycle two, participants needed to consider how to create a learning environment that affirmed and welcomed children of diverse cultural groups.

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Fig. 2  An example of a Worksheet depicting Eurocentric principles (RP 3) This photo represents a worksheet found in the learning environment asking children to colour the skin peach and the hair yellow. This serves to exclude children with different complexions. All children should see themselves in the resources of the learning environment

Fig. 3  Transforming the Book Corner (RP 1) Children need to see people who look like them in the books and resources...

Cycle two began with the research participants questioning how to bring in children’s lives into the early learning environment and make connections between their lives and the content being taught. RP 8 mentioned that When we teach, we need to use examples from the child's life. We create a bridge between the child's home and school. If I teach early Maths and I need counters, I will use what they have brought from home, even shapes I will say bring me a box from home. Use items like beans and pine cones as counters.

However, being culturally responsive also means that children need to see themselves represented in books and the curriculum in the early learning environment. RP 1 gave new thought to her book corner in cycle two and provided a photograph and caption for her culturally responsive book corner (Fig. 3). RP 1’s new book corner exposed the children to books from multicultural back-

grounds, facilitating deeper insights into their own and other cultures. According to Muñiz (2018), these deeper insights strengthen relationships and bridge gaps between children from diverse cultures. Research participants also indicated the need for celebrating cultural days to assist in affirming all cultures. For example, RP 4 mentioned that I will allow my teaching to be more culturally responsive by welcoming all the different religious groups and religion in my classroom, I will celebrate and teach the children in my care about [of] the different holidays celebrated by all the different religions.

Participants also cautioned against an “ethnic additive approach” characterised by the process through which the teacher includes ethnic content without changing the structure of the curriculum (Makoelle 2018, p.  7). This could lead to diversity education being celebrated superficially

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without addressing deeper issues of power. RP 1 made the following comment in her journal, Celebrating diversity is not enough it you don’t [not] practice what you preach throughout the year. Yes, we should celebrate, however, we need to carry the celebration background and teach children about this every day.

It is important to note that the participants’ understanding of culture could be argued as something pertaining to more than race, ethnicity, language or skin colour. However, the open-ended nature of the definition of culture does not fall within the scope of this chapter. Drawing from the above narratives from the research participants, culturally responsive teaching needs to valorise the lived experiences of children by creating a more meaningful, sustainable and inclusive learning experience.

6.3 An Inclusive Play-Based Pedagogy Challenges ‘Schoolification’ Following the examination of the baseline questionnaires and photographs from the respective research participants in cycle one, it was clear that the focus was on achieving school readiness as a central activity. From the baseline questionnaires and conversations, the participants indicated that outdoor activities get in the way of real learning and raised concerns about play distracting the children. Some also mentioned that multisensory activities require greater time and effort to prepare for. Crayons, worksheets and drawing on paper were thus a preferred medium at the centres, due to convenience. Children from the four-year old group were asked to complete their table activities before going to the play areas. The participants indicated the need to direct children to the different play corners, where they were treated equally and granted the same opportunities, despite their individual interests and abilities. The owners or managers of the centres provided generic lesson plans, allowing for little flexibility in their daily schedules. For instance, RP 7 mentioned that

Because this is a private centre, the owners ask me to teach the children how to colour or count - only then can they go to play.

The participants indicated that the childrens’ parents questioned the work that was covered in centres. Parents were concerned if children were unable to trace their names or count. RP 8 claimed that one parent asked why he is paying for his child to play all day

Therefore, in cycle two, the participants needed to consider how to balance readiness with play-­ based learning. In cycle two, RP 4 demonstrated a multisensory activity, while RP 5 posted how she used multi-sensory learning to teach the letters of the alphabet (Fig. 4). Her activity is evidence of playful learning that involves all the sense organs that would appeal to children of diverse learning styles. The ALS also noted that teachers need to observe children playing and intervene whenever possible, to point out important lessons relevant to the inclusion of diversity or to challenge stereotyping. For instance, RP 8 demonstrated a pedagogy of play when she intervened to challenge gendered play in the fantasy corner. So they liked playing according to the stereotypes. The girls were playing with the dolls and dressing up. The boys had the cars. I just decided to swop them around. Girls go play with the cars. Boys go and cook. They were not happy but I called them later and said, in life boys and girls have to be able to do anything. You have to cook and clean at home, then go to work

From the example above, it is evident that the teacher becomes an active part of children’s play and learning by pointing out important lessons on gender role stereotyping. In this way, play is purposeful and balanced with learning. Many studies on play however suggest that play is intrinsic to childhood and ensures learning, even in the absence of adult intervention. Such discourses emphasise free play, where children are allowed choice and flexibility. For instance, RP 2 mentioned that

Inclusion in Early Childhood Care and Education: A Participatory Action – Learning and Action Research…

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Fig. 4  Multisensory learning in ECCE If the four-year-olds are learning about the letter h. they get to taste, smell and touch the play dough which involves their eyes, fingers, nose and tongue. They also get to roll the play dough which develops their finger muscles at the same time. This keeps them learning and developing with these kinds of activities

Children need to decide which area to play in and what toys appeal to them at a specific time.

RP 2 thus alluded to the importance of valuing individual choices during play, which challenges a one-size-fits all approach. This flexibility enabled a more child-centred approach that offered choice and enabled greater democracy and ownership of learning. To be inclusive, teachers need to aim for equity and not equality as a uniform approach goes against the principles of inclusion.

7 Discussion This chapter has explored how teachers take an active role in creating an inclusive learning environment in ECCE.  Cycle one was informed by the research question: What is the current situation regarding inclusive pedagogy in ECCE? The responses in this cycle revealed concerns regarding pedagogy that deviated from inclusive principles. This consisted of rote learning and repetition, resources that were Eurocentric in the ECCE learning environment, ‘schoolification’ concerns and rigidity in the curriculum and planning schedule. Cycle two was informed by the research question: How is an inclusive pedagogy adopted in ECCE? Firstly, participants attempted to address the concerns raised in cycle one by implementing a participatory pedagogy. To challenge rote and repetitive teaching methods, the learnings of the ALS highlighted the importance of horizontal

dialogue comprising authentic listening and speaking. This aligns with Freire (2000) who states that “knowledge emerges only through invention and re-invention, through the restless, impatient, continuing, hopeful inquiry human beings pursue in the world, with the world, and with each other” (p. 244). This ongoing dialogical interaction enables the co-construction of knowledge in a collaboration that results in epistemic justice (Ebrahim et  al. 2019). Evidently, this dialogue ensures that children’s autonomy is valued and knowledge is co-constructed in a democratic manner. Secondly, the ALS also emphasised that a culturally responsive pedagogy was pivotal in creating a sense of belonging for all children. This is coherent with Bassey (2016, p. 1) who states that. culturally responsive teachers are grounded in pedagogical practices, teaching conceptions, and social relationships that enhance social justice, because these teachers relate the curriculum to students’ backgrounds, … and recognise cultural differences as strengths on which to build programs.

Therefore, such practices ensure that children on the margins are seen and heard in the early learning environment. Thirdly, the learnings of the ALS highlighted the importance of play as a means to disrupt the status quo when teachers intervene and correct children’s tendencies to privilege or marginalise certain identities during their play. This corresponds with Excell and Linington (2015), who recommend planned and purposeful play, which is a blend of adult-directed and child-initiated activities. Here, the teacher

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becomes an active part of a playful process, instead of merely observing children’s play. Apparently, such interventions would be effective in challenging stereotypes regarding certain identities (Excell and Linington 2015). The ALS also highlighted new insights on the value of multisensory play learning, as compared to paper based tasks. This is supported by a brain development theory that multisensory learning enables more elaborate neural connections than single-­ sensory learning, where children are able to grasp concepts more comprehensively due to stimulus from more than one sensory organ (Castle and Buckler 2021). Such planned multisensory tasks also include children of diverse learning styles. For instance, children who are considered as visual, auditory or tactile learners would be disinterested during certain single sensory learning activities. The findings in this theme also emphasise the importance of children’s choice of play areas. According to Beymer and Thomson (2015), offering choice increases learner motivation by appealing to their varied needs for autonomy and competence. Essentially, a choice of activities enables children to play according to their individual strengths and interests. The ALS also highlighted the need for flexibility in the daily programme. This aligns with Theunissen (2020), who states that flexibility allows the teacher to respond to different learner abilities, requirements, and interests. Hence, the ALS emphasised that play pedagogies would contribute to the inclusion of diverse children in the early learning environment.

to improve their knowledge and skills by solving problems relevant to them. A proposed handbook on inclusion would serve as an output of their work. Ideally, such learnings will be cascaded to their communities where they would serve as action leaders. Although the pedagogical approaches presented here are by no means exhaustive, the learnings of this ALS could be useful in offering teachers some valuable indicators of an inclusive pedagogy in ECCE.  With a scarcity of research on inclusion in early childhood education, this chapter makes vital contributions to practicing teachers and curriculum developers in the field. As a programme developer for the professional qualifications in ECCE, the lessons from this study are pivotal in shaping a module on inclusion in ECCE. For future development of ECCE qualifications, it is therefore recommended that a module focuses on the act of teaching and its attendant discourse - in the quest to realise inclusion. Ultimately, this study has a social justice and human rights agenda, which is pivotal in an unequal nation like South Africa. ECCE is a critical period for all learning and the earlier interventions are made, the better for children, their families and society at large.

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Inclusion in Early Childhood Education: A Sense-Making Perspective Awudu Salaam Mohammed

approaches and attitudes to accommodate a diverse range of learners in adverse conditions.

Abstract

This chapter draws on sense-making theory to understand, interpret, and enact inclusion in early childhood education in Ghana. Through the utilisation of a systematic review methodology, secondary data was sourced for analysis. The review identified inclusion as a dynamic and transforming policy aiming to bring together children with learning barriers to have fair access to quality education under a single roof. Inclusion contains significant, evolving, and miscellaneous challenging processes which require teachers, parents, and educational authorities to collectively make sense of the policy’s potential benefit to enact it successfully. Learners with diverse requirements should be borne in mind when developing educational policies. To ensure inclusion is not rhetorically enacted, applicable systems should be put in place so that barriers including poor teacher attitude, resource constraints and non-suitable teaching pedagogies will be moderated. The chapter concludes that despite numerous policies, programmes, and pedagogies to facilitate successful IECE through sense-making perspectives strategies in ECE remain unattainable. Therefore, schools, educators, and communities can adjust their A. S. Mohammed (*) University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa

Keywords

Children with disabilities · Diversity · Inclusion · Learning needs · Sense-making

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Introduction

Over the past three decades, the focus on inclusive education has been pervasive as the school system, including early childhood education, struggles to meet the needs of Children with Disabilities (CWDs) (Adaikalasamy 2017). Current early childhood classrooms include children with diverse learning needs including cultural or linguistic diversity, religious beliefs, gender barriers, sexual orientation, age, socioeconomic status, personal circumstances, family disruption, CWDs and special needs (Hlalele 2021). There is an unavoidable demand for early childhood schools to create supportive and engaging learning communities for all children to promote inclusive education. Today, Early Childhood Education (ECE) is regarded as essential for many impoverished countries, such as Ghana, with a low level of inclusion enactment. Complemented by many challenging factors, Inclusion in Early Childhood Education (IECE)

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Hlalele, T. M. Makoelle (eds.), Inclusion in Southern African Education, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43752-6_3

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teachers have different perspectives on inclusive teaching, some of which are negative, and others positive. Practicing instructors lack the information, skills, and experience to deal with an inclusive classroom, and improved training is needed for inclusive teaching to be effective. Wrongful interpretation of the policy in addition to a negative mindset affects inclusion in education practice.

2 Sense-Making Theory Sense-making denotes how humans detect, choose out, and understand concepts in their surroundings. It frequently entails acquiring knowledge, understanding that knowledge, and then putting that knowledge to use to complete a job. In order to understand the teachers’ viewpoint on how to enact IECE, diverse material from secondary sources were reviewed (Baiasu 2022). This chapter draws from sense-making theory to discuss teachers’ sense-making of Inclusion in Early Childhood Education, the principles of inclusion for CWDs, the values of inclusion, the impediments of IECE, sense-making of pedagogical approach and teachers’ deportments towards IECE, and sense-making of substratum for CWDs. Applying sense-making theory from an educational perspective will allow an inclusive teacher to know how IECE operates. With sense-­making, the teacher will determine and understand the different types of learners in class, their learning and conceptual thinking abilities, their choice of pedagogies and skills that suit individual learners, and how they prepare and revise lesson plans. The inclusive teacher will interpret the inclusion in education policy meaningfully (Day and Novak 2022).

3 Inclusion in Education In the Ghanaian setting, inclusive education has become paramount in recent years as the nation works to ensure that all its residents have equal

A. S. Mohammed

access to educational opportunities (Braun and Naami 2021). An inclusive education system is one in which children from various backgrounds and abilities receive their education alongside one another in mainstream classrooms instead of being separated based on their differences. Accepting every child’s right to a high-quality education is one of Ghana’s main forces behind inclusive education (Abdullah et al. 2022). The government and several local and international organisations have been trying to develop an inclusive education system that meets every child’s requirement (Bunar and Juvonen 2022). Infrastructure, teacher preparation, curriculum creation, and support services have all been improved to make schools better able to serve children with a range of needs. Ghana has also advanced inclusive practices by enacting laws and regulations encouraging inclusive education. The nation’s Education Act acknowledges the right to inclusive education and lays forth principles for implementing inclusive classroom practices (Ocran 2022). To monitor the provision of resources and support services to children with disabilities, the government has formed the Special Education Division (Ackah-Jnr 2022). However, obstacles still stand in the way of Ghana’s enactment of inclusive education. Some barriers that need to be removed are scarce resources, insufficient teacher training, and social attitudes towards disabilities (Dawadi 2022). To promote inclusive practices and build an inclusive education system in Ghana, there is a need for ongoing investment in infrastructure, teacher professional development, and community awareness initiatives (Nkansah-Dwamena 2022). Overall, the Ghanaian inclusive education setting is characterised by ongoing initiatives to give all children fair access to high-quality education, irrespective of their skills or origins. It is a journey that calls for cooperation, dedication, and consistent investment to ensure no child is left behind in the quest for teaching and lifelong learning.

Inclusion in Early Childhood Education: A Sense-Making Perspective

4 Method of Review The systematic review approach was adopted for this piece as it was considered significant and suitable on the basis that there are volumes of papers written about inclusion in education. The goal of this review approach was to extract relevant published data from reliable sources; then analyse, evaluate, summarise, and present conclusive evidence. Before the search for published data, objectives were formulated that primarily dealt with the understanding of inclusion and how it impacts its enactment and its related dimensions. To collate data for the review, a systematic search of online databases from the period of 2007 to 2022 was conducted. To find data, keywords and phrases were built using the Boolean search technique. The online database sources for the secondary materials included internet search engines such as Jstor, Google Scholar, Fullpdf.com and Sage Journals. The literature search provided both qualitative and quantitative literature in the area of inclusion in ECE. The retrieved papers were filtered, and some published articles and journals related to principles of inclusion for Children with Disabilities; the value of inclusion in ECE; impediments to inclusion; pedagogical approach to inclusion; and teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion were derived. Qualitative and quantitative studies were included to ensure that the researcher appraised and included relevant papers in the interpretation. The appraisal began with reading the abstract of each study to determine if the findings and conclusion were germane to the review. Those that were not connected to its objectives were excluded (Lone and Naaz 2021). The interpretation involved a rigorous synthesis to determine the connection among the findings of the papers. Findings of shared understanding were interpreted under themes and presented in addition to contrasting findings. After the interpretation, a summary of the findings, recommendations and conclusions were presented.

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5 Teachers’ Sense-Making of Inclusion in ECE Okyere et al. (2019) emphasise the need to understand inclusion in a child’s early development since several teachers lack a favourable perception of inclusion in IECE, despite the ongoing trend. Teachers have a variety of comparative approaches to inclusive education, both negative and positive. Teachers who effectively participate in teaching within the classrooms have a more favourable attitude toward inclusion in education than their counterparts. According to Nel (2020), instructors indicated a higher emotional state of mind and awareness toward mainstreaming rather than inclusion. Inclusion is about accepting differences from a variety of backgrounds, including differing religious views, socioeconomic classes, lifestyles, and customs. Inclusive education is the process of encouraging inclusion while simultaneously minimising exclusion. In this context, education should be accessible to all children of school-­ going age, regardless of their socioeconomic statuses. Intrinsically, it relates to the quality of schooling in that the integration and acceptance of a child’s capacity are fostered. School policies and culture must change in unison with parents, teachers, the community, and the government to adjust and implement inclusion successfully (Al Shawabkeh 2022). Inclusiveness could be seen as a process of anticipating and responding to the different needs of all learners by enhancing involvement in learning, societies and group activities while simultaneously lowering rejection both inside and outside of the educational environment. Ultimately, inclusive education comprises revisions and additions to content, methodology, structure, and strategies (Giusti and Bombieri 2020). The literature also recognises the enactment of inclusion as an effective strategy for removing stigma and bridging the gap between poor learners in the delivery of education around the globe. Lending support, Lee et  al. (2020) posit that

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inclusion is founded as a fundamental human right and a basis for lifelong learning for children with various needs where all students are valued equally. Shohel et  al. (2022) explain that this means that it must consider the students’ learning styles, abilities, and backgrounds. On a larger scale, this shifts the conversation away from community structures and systems and toward transformation for everyone. To achieve transformation, inclusive education must expand opportunities for social contact in regular schooling. Another improvement is that teachers should be proactive and innovative in connecting with and learning about their students. Teachers must create a conducive learning environment for learners by employing various teaching tactics, activities, and assignments to meet the needs of students who have a variety of learning styles, abilities, backgrounds, and experiences. To construct accessible classes, teachers must follow universal design principles for learners with impairments and students with different learning styles (Boysen 2021). According to Lee et al. (2020), sense-making, when applied to teaching and learning activities, provides a way of attending to cultural inscriptions about education while acknowledging that when people show up in the classroom, they influence that cultural inscription just as much as they are affected by it. This viewpoint is essentially reflexive. Teachers are interested in how they ascribe and derive meaning about their own experiences, what assumptions and beliefs in an action organised their own experiences, and what thoughts and opinions in an effort contained their identification of ideas and understandings, as necessary. Weick (2020) explains that sense-­ making’s transience conceals its importance in determining human behaviour, whether teachers work in early childhood settings or elsewhere. Sense-making is crucial because it is the entire site where meanings materialise that inform and constrain identity and action. Inclusion is grounded on certain fundamental principles that facilitate its progress, and teachers’ sense-­making of these principles is a benchmark for effective practice. The section that follows is a discussion of such regulations.

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6 Principles of Inclusion for Children with Disabilities in ECE Many fundamental principles guide how Inclusion in Early Childhood Education operates. Every child is entitled to education; hence, all children should have equal opportunity to education, all children may learn and benefit from it, and no child should be excluded or discriminated against within education based on race, colour, sex, language, age, class, or social group, religion, political views, nationality, ethnic origin, poverty, birth, or any other factor (Hlalele 2021). Based on the belief that inclusive education increases early development centres’ abilities to teach and assist all children while also contributing to better communities, Cartagena and Pike (2022) developed the principles of inclusion. However, since inclusion is a complicated and continuous process, it will require time and dedication to build a solid knowledge of inclusion and to translate this understanding into action in the real world. Introspection, which involves questioning one’s own beliefs and actions, is essential in connecting with inclusion, and it is a significant role of every early childhood education teacher. Education stakeholders must grasp the many policies and laws that relate to their job and fulfil their legal commitments children with diverse learning needs and their families to achieve inclusion. All learners and families, including CWDs, are more likely to be welcomed and engaged in a school that incorporates the values of inclusion into its policies and procedures (Walker 2020). Teachers familiar with policy instruments and their legal obligations will be more willing and ready to support and teach diverse students. They are also more likely to contribute to creating inclusive communities because they have more confidence and capacity to implement them in their early childhood centres. In ECE, the inclusion principles encourage equity, access, opportunity, and rights for children and learners with diverse needs (Berkovich 2021). Making sense of the benefits of inclusion will mould teachers’ perspectives about why they need to teach inclu-

Inclusion in Early Childhood Education: A Sense-Making Perspective

sively. The value of inclusion will be discussed next.

7 The Value of Inclusion in Early Childhood Education Education researchers argue that as inclusion is essential and beneficial stakeholders must make sense of and retrospect the policy benefit to guarantee excellent enactment. When teachers understand that inclusion comprises children with diverse aptitudes, they will identify their problems and correct them. They will be able to find a measure to curb their issues so that they can further their education without any problems. Through IECE, children with various needs can participate in the same programmes and activities, changing their worldview (Thompson et al. 2020). Thompson et al. (2020) note that Inclusion in Early Childhood Education causes children to accept other children, which helps diverse children have a sense of self-belonging and acceptability. This is facilitated through an equal opportunity to participate in the same programmes and activities as children without special needs. It helps the learners gain academic confidence, develop an individual voice, and shape their perspective in relationships with their peers. For instance, those with disabilities build confidence when they realise that they are considered equals which enables them to create significant and lifelong friendships with others over more extended periods. Lawrence et  al. (2016) report on the positive influence of inclusion on children’s interactions with and without special needs in several aspects of child development in an exhaustive examination of the impacts of inclusion in early childhood. Comparably, the enactment of the IECE policy has created awareness and motivated parents to recognise the need to educate their children, both with and without disabilities, in the early stages. Inclusion in Early Childhood Education settings provide families with opportunities to educate and interact with one another, further increase community acceptance, and promote

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solid attitudes about CWDs. Families and parents become more supportive of each other which reduces loneliness and isolation and, as a result, promotes sentiments of self-assurance (Luo 2022). Inclusion has taught society that all children can develop their potential. Inclusion fosters social and psychological development by promoting various interrelated areas of development such as socialisation, emotional intelligence, and self-regulation (Mondi et  al. 2021). Early Childhood Education aims to foster connections amongst children in the same age group. ECE gives children a setting that stimulates contact with other children, promotes the development of solid friendships, and assists them in learning about inclusion. This allows children to overcome shyness and socialise with others, promoting social development. Teachers and caregivers build close relationships with children from the moment they are born, recognising, and appreciating their differences, and setting the foundation for good social and emotional development. This process influences children’s perceptions of their culture, their ability to communicate effectively, regulates their impulses and emotions, and consequently their ability to form positive relationships with people. Early Childhood Education provides a safe environment where children may engage with one another, form close friendships with children of comparable ages and development stages, and challenge themselves to do things they might not otherwise do. Inclusion also develops children’s enthusiasm to learn. As they acquire their first lessons via a variety of play and organised activities, they are laying the groundwork for future learning and developing their imaginative capability at the same time. At this point, the desire to learn more and not to stop until satisfactory answers have been discovered begins to take shape and manifests itself, fostering an understanding of the value of education. During this phase, children will be motivated to study if they are exposed to learning activities that are fun and intriguing and it will last for the rest of their lives (Takyi et al. 2019). Despite the benefit and national and international efforts to extend education for all regardless of diversity, the policy is marred by many

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barriers (Jonsen et  al. 2021). This will be presented in the next section.

8 Impediments (Barriers) to Inclusion in ECE In developing nations, most disabled children are not attending school, and many of those who are enrolled are not learning. Impediments to excellent early childhood education inclusion and learning for CWDs must be eradicated before Education for All can be recognised (Hunt et al. 2021). Pragmatic mechanisms must be geared toward inclusion, encouraging full involvement for all, and promoting diversity as a resource rather than a hindrance to all children having access to Inclusion in Early Childhood Education. Mechanisms are not put into practice due to various obstructions. Physical, attitude, leadership, environment, curricular (instructional training), resources, and communication hurdles are critical obstructions that impede the effective assimilation of inclusion (Mittler 2012). This section discusses the barriers to inclusion and proposed remedies.

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members of society, peers, and teachers, among others, obstruct inclusion.

8.2.1 Discrimination and Social Exclusion Non-disabled individuals in less developed nations socially exclude disabled people due to ingrained ideas that educating the disabled is fruitless. Other factors, such as poverty, gender and caste have marginalised many people, leading to isolation and hurdles to inclusion (Adaikalasamy 2017). 8.2.2 Peer Influence Hassani et al. (2022) explain that peers at school play a crucial role in the lives of Children with Disabilities because they are the closest in age. CWDs are frequently mocked and tormented by their peers who are not impaired. Bullying is a problem for people with all kinds of disabilities. As a result, a negative peer attitude is a significant barrier to full social inclusion for kids with disabilities at school.

8.2.3 Regular Teachers’ Attitudes Two general mindsets influence regular teachers’ acceptability and commitment to promoting inclusion. For starters, ordinary teachers view 8.1 Special Educational Needs resource teachers as overseeing diverse children. as Impediment in Inclusion Second, they consider disabled children a “disturbance” in the classroom, producing distracAl-Qallaf et al. (2021) believe that special educa- tions that caused course completion to be delayed. tional needs themselves impede inclusion. As a result, they choose to disregard their surIdentifying children with exceptional educational roundings and focus on their instructional plans needs necessitates labelling and special care, nei- (Subba et  al. 2019). To tackle the attitudinal ther of which contributes to the inclusive educa- obstructions, teachers must be equipped with the tion mission. Baglieri (2012) points out that necessary tools and knowledge to handle includiscrimination is incompatible with the concept sive education complexities. Training is vital to of inclusion. To overcome this, Rose and Shevlin provide would-be inclusive teachers with knowl(2021) state that the Salamanca Framework of edge, beliefs, and skills; otherwise, the goal of Action recommends replacing special educa- enacting inclusion in early childhood will be elutional needs with inclusive education. sive (Anderberg 2020). The knowledge and professional training (pre-service and in-service training) will assist them in learning about inclusion education and how to handle children with 8.2 Attitudinal Impediments different needs. Educational officers can be According to Islam (2021), negative and non-­ retrained at various offices on the impact of inclucooperative attitudes of stakeholders such as sion, in addition to pre-service teachers (Jouni

Inclusion in Early Childhood Education: A Sense-Making Perspective

2020). One of the first things we do when instructors reform their practices is to build a shared understanding of inclusion and provide services differently. This is accomplished through training and seminars held a few months before the start of the next school year for in-service teachers.

8.3 Schools as Impediments Zabeli et al. (2021) noted that CWDs in inclusive schools’ encounter challenges with acceptance, accessibility, building and infrastructure, materials and technology, and classroom size.

8.3.1 Acceptance Children with Disabilities who want to attend an inclusive school have a larger struggle in gaining admission. Most inclusive schools have been found to enrol learners with only minor disabilities. They also favour parents who are willing to take on more responsibilities for their children. Another barrier to admittance is parents’ inability to afford expensive fees, particularly in the case of private schools (Mousumi and Kusakabe 2019). 8.3.2 Accessibility Ryan (1986) believes that sometimes the availability of schools in the areas that cannot be accessed becomes a significant impediment for Children with Disabilities to get inclusive education. Learners undergo difficulty in reaching schools by themselves or with the help of their parents. The lack of proper local transport facilities adds to the problem. Before entering and enrolling in schools, children face external impediments. The nature of such restrictions could include school location, societal stigmatisation, or children’s economic circumstances. If the school building were not designed with children with impairments in mind, they would experience obstacles. Physical and perceived barriers to involvement are common for Children with Disabilities (Karr et al. 2020). Few activity venues are fully modified to allow all children with a range of disabilities to participate actively. Although many schools are beginning to make

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changes, it is a long process with varying levels of accessibility. Because many Children with Disabilities have had previous access issues, they are typically hesitant to enrol in new schools, fearing the shame and embarrassment of not participating in the activity. Other elements that affect accessibility according to Sulasmi and Akrim (2019), include environmental design, curriculum, teachers and peers, and family support. In addressing the stated challenges, inclusion must be implemented from the top-down at the school level. Policies that clearly outline inclusive education goals are an excellent place to start. Furthermore, leadership has a shared concept of inclusiveness at the school level, which is more effectively communicated via policies to all stakeholders, including headteachers and teachers. In addition to school leadership, investing in parents as inclusion sponsors are critical for communicating that inclusion is expected of neighbourhood families (Takyi et al. 2019).

8.3.3 Classroom Size High teacher-to-student ratios are another issue in inclusive schools. In a typical classroom contains fifty to sixty pupils. Teachers cannot deal with so many diverse learners. With so many students, children with special needs may feel alienated in a regular classroom. The large enrolment limits the choice of teaching pedagogy such as activity-based groups because there will not be enough space, and teachers may not be able to supervise learning activities individually. So, for the teacher to be able to instruct well, the class size must be proportional to the teacher’s ability (Köpfer 2022).

8.4 Untrained Teachers Teachers’ credentials, talents and attitudes may be significant impediments to providing an inclusive educational environment for all students (Makoelle and Burmistrova 2021). Due to a lack of appropriate expertise in meeting students’ intellectual, social, and emotional requirements in mainstream education, many instructors are

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uneasy about enacting IE (Agbenyega 2011). It is partly due to the teachers’ insufficient preparedness, leading to a lack of self-esteem. To increase teachers’ confidence and promote a more favourable attitude, there should be comprehensive teacher training in all elements of Inclusive Education. Therefore, school districts must update teachers’ abilities in inclusive classrooms before implementing inclusion and involve teachers in continuous learning. Mamah et al. (2011) urge for a frequent in-depth examination of the views and attitudes of Ghanaian instructors about Inclusive Education, arguing that perceptions and attitudes might shift over time. Thus, unless all instructors possess the essential competencies and a positive attitude toward diverse pupils, these children will not acquire quality education.

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hearing impairments, among other things. Financial help would also be needed to train and retrain teachers to teach people with disabilities in an inclusive setting. The government’s education budget will need to be boosted to achieve this. Examining how a facility might be modified to promote membership and belonging is essential for overcoming physical barriers. The next section examines teachers’ sense-making of pedagogical approaches assimilated into inclusion.

9 Sense-Making: A Pedagogical Approach to Inclusion ECE

Inclusion policies are being implemented in countries across the globe, including Ghana. This tendency motivates teachers to seek out pedago8.5 Constraints in Respect gies and tactics that will enable them to be more of Resources proficient while interacting with kids of various backgrounds (Óskarsdóttir et  al. 2019). While Karr et al. (2020) observe that the lack of physi- delivering course material, teachers may create cal facilities is one of the significant factors creat- and implement learning activities to foster coning problems in inclusion. Lack of facilities will structive thinking and sense-making processes. affect inclusion in two ways: a lack of facilities According to Mantei and Kervin (2020), shared inhibits a learner’s capacity to engage in numer- sense-making offers a practical, theoretical ous studying and extracurricular activities, and framework for understanding classroom behavinadequate facilities have a detrimental implica- iour, which is necessary for good teacher pedation on teachers’ job happiness, which deters gogical abilities to be functional. One of the them from teaching. The lack of Teaching critical issues for instructors today is the ongoing Learning Resources (TLRs) is a significant chal- search for pedagogy and approaches to addresslenge affecting pedagogical choices. Teachers ing this variability in inclusive schools. Research shows that teachers play strategic rarely employ visual assistance with hard-of-­ hearing learners or accommodate the Braille roles in enacting age and culturally appropriate needs of visually challenged students. To be con- pedagogies and practices to reduce inequities and sidered for inclusion, every school would have to inequalities in Early Childhood Education make financial provisions for physical amenities (Ackah-Jnr and Udah 2021). In an inclusive envilike elevators, moving recreation centres to com- ronment, teachers create practices to encourage munal areas, ramps from various locations, meaningful participation or interaction between barrier-­free classrooms, and restrooms. Motion all children. When instructors use effective pedasensors could be used to unlock doors, flush toi- gogical strategies such as differentiation, task lets, and activate automatic door buttons, allow- analysis and prompts to support quality IECE, ing quicker access through doorways (Neca et al. children benefit from early childhood settings. 2022). There would be a need to provide learning For inclusion to be effective, teacher practices resources that meet the needs of all people. This must correspond to the diverse needs of children could take the shape of a digital library, Braille to ensure all children have access, teachers should literature and other visual aids for students with plan, teach, and assess their lessons, and teachers

Inclusion in Early Childhood Education: A Sense-Making Perspective

must be interested in and support the participation and learning of all children. Teachers must understand and interpret teaching abilities (e.g., communication skills, problem-­ solving, and creativity) as inclusive pedagogy. All decisions are seen as being influenced not only by teachers’ knowledge, competence, and actions but also by their values and beliefs about children, the nature of teaching and learning, and social processes and influences from the perspective of teachers’ sense-making inclusive pedagogy. To prevent excluding children, inclusive pedagogy is defined as a teaching and learning style in which teachers respond to learners’ unique characteristics (Florian 2015). The realisation that every learner is individual, and that learning must be improved for all students should be the starting point for establishing inclusive pedagogy. When the conditions are right, this approach claims that everyone can learn. According to Florian (2015), to develop inclusive pedagogy from a sense-making perspective, teachers must first acquire a set of skills that will enable them to facilitate inclusion processes in their classrooms. Moriña (2020) contends that one of the most crucial impediments to expanding inclusion is that most teachers lack the knowledge, abilities, and attitudes required by their profession. This viewpoint is closely related to Shulman’s analysis from 2004, in which he argued that teacher education should include three key learning elements: the head (knowledge and theoretical foundations of the profession), the hand (skills, techniques, and practices); the heart (emotional intelligence) (ethical and moral dimensions, attitudes, and beliefs that are crucial to the profession). Moriña (2020) proposes that inclusion is dependent on what teachers ‘know’ (about theoretical, political, and legal issues), ‘do’ (going from knowledge to action), and ‘believe’ (about their capacity to teach all students). Florian (2015) explored these concepts, presenting an inclusive pedagogy paradigm that focuses on what, how, and why teachers employ inclusive pedagogy. Inclusive pedagogy is based on the concept that all students are valuable and can contribute to the teaching and learning process. Diversity is viewed as a means of improving learning pro-

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cesses (Jonsen et al. 2021). This is likely the most challenging aspect of inclusive pedagogy because Kuyini and Desai (2007) indicate that successful inclusion also hinges on establishing a positive attitude by teachers. According to their research, teachers’ opinions about their students’ reachability also have a role in preventing dropouts. Teachers must be familiar with teaching strategies, disability, and special needs, how children learn, what the child needs to know, classroom organisation, where to go for help when needed, how to identify and assess difficulties, how to evaluate and monitor children’s learning, and the legal context of education, according to (Hills and Sessoms-Penny 2021). However, it is considered insufficient to enhance practice because many instructors fail to apply what they have learned once the training course is completed. The subject of how to organise in-service training for teachers is one issue that arises out of this. Training is best offered in the workplace, in conjunction with and based on the individual requirements of the teachers themselves, according to the sense-making perspective of inclusive pedagogy (Osamwonyi 2016). The concept that all learners have something significant to contribute to the learning environment leads to educational designs that maximise these knowledge bases. From this standpoint, the Early Childhood Curriculum should be created to address the educational needs of as many learners as possible at a young age. They should also be as accessible as feasible, reducing the need for later revisions to meet the needs of individual students. Research on inclusive pedagogy recommends various approaches to achieve proactive learning, including flexible learning, learner-centred, and teachers who encourage learners to share their views, knowledge, and experiences (Moriña 2020). Wilson (2017) argues that teaching for inclusion entails creating actions based on a universal design for learning to accommodate all students. Furthermore, any curriculum that does not address diversity in its design is ‘disabling’ by definition. A variety of pedagogic tactics are suggested in this chapter that aims to engage all learners, including visual representations, cooperative learning activities, research-based

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approaches (including simulations), problem-­ based learning, work projects, and the use of new technology. In addition to methodological tactics, it also includes an emotional and affective component related to how teaching is carried out (Common et  al. 2020). From a sense-making standpoint, teachers who know their learners are better able to relate to them and devise motivational techniques. As a result, inclusive pedagogy adds a teacher-centred approach, including ­teaching acts and social actions, views, knowledge, and designs. One of the most critical elements impacting Inclusion in early childhood education practices is teachers’ deportment toward the policy. Because teachers decide what happens in the classroom and, at the same time, act as a conduit for the programme’s success, their attitudes remain relevant. Teachers’ attitudes are discussed in the next section.

10 Teachers’ Deportment Towards Inclusion in ECE For decades, one of the significant issues of controversy in education has been the inclusion of Children with Disabilities in mainstream classrooms in Early Childhood Education (Mpofu 2022). Teachers’ attitudes about the inclusion of Children with Disabilities / special educational needs (SEN) from the study centre were not studied until recently. The primary reason for this shift in study interest could be related to more contemporary educational approaches, which suggest that there is no better way to acquire significant insight into inclusive classrooms’ practice and dynamics than to examine teachers’ deportments. Research by Jury et al. (2021) confirms that teachers’ deportment significantly impacts the process and outcome of inclusion. Yu and Cho (2021) believe that teachers’ positive attitudes about the inclusion of Children with Disabilities may enhance inclusion in the Early Childhood Education environment, as positive attitudes are linked to motivation to work with and teach Children with Disabilities / Special Educational Needs. Teachers’ attitudes are critical in this scenario since inclusion necessitates

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sufficient time, organisation, and collaboration with a disabled child who is not typically eager or able to participate in classroom activities. Experience in teaching diverse children appears to be the consistent characteristic associated with teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion. Teachers who have dealt with diversities in an Early Childhood Education setting have a more positive attitude toward inclusion than those who have not. Factors influencing favourable attitudes are age and experience teaching diverse children. Older teachers with many years of experience are sometimes marked by a lack of passion, tiredness, and conservatism in their approaches to teaching (Kamenopoulou and Dukpa 2018). Teachers’ age may also influence their special training in teaching Children with Disabilities / Special Educational Needs, as special needs courses are now commonly included in senior high curricula. As a result, younger instructors with fewer years of experience in the classroom may have taken specialised courses that have influenced their attitudes about inclusion. Some researchers (e.g., Opoku et  al. 2021) found that Early Childhood Education teachers with more experience teaching children with Children with Disabilities / Special Educational Needs had more positive beliefs about inclusion than those with less relevant experience. Teacher attitudes toward inclusion have been extensively investigated in numerous countries and Ghana is no exception. Mónico et  al. (2020) discovered that Early Childhood Education teachers generally have negative attitudes toward inclusion, which could be explained by a severe economic crisis in Ghana that resulted in widespread negativity and dissatisfaction among the educational staff.

11 Sense-Making of Substratum (Support) for Children with Disabilities A. Positive Mindset Development Good behaviour is fostered and encouraged through positive attitudes. Low expectations for the achievement of children with diverse learning

Inclusion in Early Childhood Education: A Sense-Making Perspective

needs have been linked to unfavourable attitudes toward inclusion in Early Childhood Education (Manuel 2021). To carry out an inclusion in education policy, newly trained instructors must have a favourable attitude toward inclusion. Efforts should be made to depict inclusion in Early Childhood Education as practical and positive for all (Parey 2022). B. Policy and Supportive Leadership Several international agreements and statements advocate inclusion. The most noteworthy is the UNESCO Salamanca Statement in 1994 (Magnússon 2019). This widely famous remark expresses unequivocal support for inclusivity. It has been claimed that international texts like this have resulted in the most visible outcomes in the march toward inclusive schools. When enacted in Ghana in accordance with international standards, inclusion policies can be beneficial. The support of school and system leaders is also critical to achieving inclusion. At the school, shared leadership is key to ensuring that all school community members support an inclusive attitude. C. Curriculum Adaptable.

and

Pedagogy

that

is

Teachers that are attempting to promote an inclusive approach to teaching face considerable hurdles due to the school curriculum. Today’s school curriculum has a propensity to be linear, inflexible, and context-free. Gachago (2018) advocates for a revised curriculum that is flexible enough to accommodate young children with various disabilities.

12 Conclusion Inclusion in education is centred on the belief that every child can learn and thus should be granted equitable access to excellent education amid their religious, economic, sexual orientation, beliefs, colour, political views, and lifestyle disparities (Hlalele 2021; Walker 2020; Berkovich 2021). Due to the difference among learners,

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teachers as the key enactors must be cognizant of the complexities and dimension that comes with the policy. They should be proactively capable of determining children’s learning differences, while also creating a conducive environment that enables them to choose appropriate pedagogy that fulfils individual requirements. This will become a reality if they understand that inclusion is highly beneficial for all children. When teachers understand that inclusion comprises children with diverse aptitudes, they will identify their problems and correct them through appropriate sense-making and develop positive attitudes toward the process (Thompson et  al. 2020; Jury et al. 2021). Teachers’ good attitudes about the inclusion of Children with Disabilities may enhance inclusion in the ECE environment, as positive attitudes are linked to motivation to work with and teach Children with Disabilities / Special Educational Needs (Yu and Cho 2021). For teachers to develop such a view of the policy, they need periodic coaching programmes to equip them with the knowledge about their roles and the policy intricacies. Despite the benefit, inclusion according to this review is very challenging and a continuous process which demands effort from all parties including parents, schools, and the authorities. Major challenges associated with inclusion in education include acceptance, accessibility, building and infrastructure, materials and technology, and classroom size. A lack of resources and facilities inhibits a learner’s capacity to engage in numerous studying and extracurricular activities, and inadequate facilities have a detrimental implication on a teacher’s job happiness, which deters them from teaching (Karr et  al. 2020). The following recommendations are made emanating from the discussion: • The understanding of inclusion in education should shift from special education needs to children with diversity. • Inclusive teachers must undergo periodic training to stay abreast of inclusion education dynamics.

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Agbenyega JS (2011) Building new identities in teacher preparation for inclusive education in Ghana. Curr Issues Educ 14(1):1–36 Al Shawabkeh HA (2022) Trends of teachers in the basic stage towards integrating persons with disabilities into regular schools in Jordan. J Posit Sch Psychol:785–801 Al-Qallaf BJ, Alsahou HJ, Alenezi NS (2021) Barriers of the inclusion of children with special educational needs in mainstream classes from pre-service Teachers’ viewpoints. Int J Res Educ 45(3):302–341 Anderberg M (2020) In search of a social pedagogical profession in schools. Missions and roles under reconsideration. Int J Soc Pedagogy 9(1):1–19 Inclusion in education is concerned with how our Baglieri S (2012) Disability studies and the inclusive classroom: critical practices for creating least restricschools, classes, programmes, and courses are tive attitudes. Routledge constructed to ensure that all children attend and Baiasu S (2022) The challenge of self-consciousness: study equally. Inclusion entails experimenting Kant, artificial intelligence and sense-making. In: Kant and Artificial Intelligence. De Gruyter, p 105 with diverse teaching methods to ensure that all students are meaningfully engaged in their learn- Berkovich I (2021) Education policy, theories, and trends in the 21st century. In: International and Israeli pering. Inclusion also means identifying strategies spectives, vol 12. Springer Nature for fostering friendships, connections, tolerance, Boysen GA (2021) Lessons (not) learned: the troubling similarities between learning styles and universal and respect among all students and between studesign for learning. Scholarship of Teaching and dents and instructors in the classroom. However, Learning in Psychology despite numerous policies, programmes, and Braun AM, Naami A (2021) Access to higher education pedagogies to facilitate successful inclusion in Ghana: examining experiences through the lens of students with mobility disabilities. Int J Disabil Dev strategies in Early Childhood Education, it Educ 68(1):95–115 remains unattainable in most impoverished parts Bunar N, Juvonen P (2022) ‘Not (yet) ready for the mainof the world. In light of this issue, this chapter stream’ – newly arrived migrant students in a separate detailed various barriers to inclusive education educational program. J Educ Policy 37(6):986–1008 and provided recommendations on how schools, Cartagena S, Pike L (2022) Defying deficit thinking: clearing the path to inclusion for students of all abilieducators and communities can adjust their ties. In: Handbook of research on challenging deficit approaches and attitudes to accommodate a thinking for exceptional education improvement. IGI diverse range of learners in adverse conditions. Global, pp 101–126 Common EA, Lane KL, Cantwell ED, Brunsting NC, Oakes WP, Germer KA, Bross LA (2020) Teacher-­ delivered strategies to increase students’ opportuniReferences ties to respond: a systematic methodological review. Behav Disord 45(2):67–84 Abdullah A, Huynh I, Emery CR, Jordan LP (2022) Dawadi D (2022) Inclusion of children living with disSocial norms and family child labor: a systematic ability in early childhood development and education: literature review. Int J Environ Res Public Health construction of a stakeholder-informed framework. J 19(7):4082–4099 Res Spec Educ Needs 22(3):254–265 Ackah-Jnr FR (2022) Enabling inclusive education: the Day AM, Novak JM (2022) Pet owners, hurricane Harvey, leadership ecosystem in an early childhood-school-­ and sense-making: conceptualizing “crisis core identicommunity context. Int J Leadersh Educ:1–19 ties”. Atl J Commun:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/15 Ackah-Jnr FR, Udah H (2021) Implementing inclusive 456870.2022.2102634 education in early childhood settings: the interplay Florian L (2015) Inclusive pedagogy: a transformative and impact of exclusion, teacher qualities and proapproach to individual differences but can it help fessional development in Ghana. J Educ Res Pract reduce educational inequalities. Scott Educ Rev 11(1):112–125 47(1):5–14 Adaikalasamy E (2017) A study on the social exclusion Gachago VW (2018) An exploration of inclusive educaof women with disabilities in Tiruchirappalli District, tion for children with special educational needs in Tamil Nadu, India. [Doctoral Thesis, Bharathidasan Kenya twenty years after the Salamanca statement. University] Nottingham Trent University (United Kingdom)

• The school management committee should create policy statements supporting inclusiveness and identify the precise aims they are pursuing. • Parents must be educated to develop a positive view toward inclusion and children with disabilities. • Diverse pedagogical content should be included in the curriculum to meet children’s diversity.

Inclusion in Early Childhood Education: A Sense-Making Perspective Giusti T, Bombieri L (2020) Learning inclusion through makerspace: a curriculum approach in Italy to share powerful ideas in a meaningful context. The International Journal of Information and Learning Technology 37:73–86 Hassani S, Schwab S, Boda Z (2022) Primary school Students’ attitudes towards peers displaying hyperactivity: examining impacts of Homophily and inter-­ group contact on Students’ social inclusion. Soc Dev 31:765–781 Hills DC, Sessoms-Penny S (2021) Pre-service professional development for inclusion teachers. Res High Educ J 40:17 Hlalele D (2021) Crests and troughs in inclusion: narrative expressions of a black teacher in independent schools. REMIE: Multidiscipl J Educ Res 11(2):102–127 Hunt X, Saran A, White H, Kuper H (2021) Protocol: effectiveness of interventions for improving educational outcomes for people with disabilities in low-­ and middle-income countries: a systematic review. Campbell Syst Rev 17(4):E1197 Islam T (2021) Primary level English medium school Teachers’ attitude towards inclusive education in Bangladesh [Doctoral dissertation, University of Dhaka] Jonsen K, Point S, Kelan EK, Grieble A (2021) Diversity and inclusion branding: a five-country comparison of corporate websites. Int J Hum Resour Manag 32(3):616–649 Jouni NA (2020) The impact of inclusion on the performance of students with and without special educational needs [Doctoral dissertation, American University of Beirut] Jury M, Perrin AL, Desombre C, Rohmer O (2021) Teachers’ attitudes toward the inclusion of students with autism spectrum disorder: impact of students’ difficulties. Res Autism Spectr Disord 83:101746 Kamenopoulou L, Dukpa D (2018) Karma and human rights: Bhutanese Teachers’ perspectives on inclusion and disability. Int J Incl Educ 22(3):323–338 Karr V, Hayes A, Hayford S (2020) Inclusion of children with learning difficulties in literacy and numeracy in Ghana: a literature review. Int J Disabil Dev Educ:1–15 Köpfer A (2022) Reconstructing students’ appropriation of space in inclusive schools in Austria and Germany using Bourdieu’s theory of social space. Int J Incl Educ:1–17 Kuyini AB, Desai I (2007) Principals’ and teachers’ attitudes and knowledge of inclusive education as predictors of effective teaching practices in Ghana. J Res Spec Educ Needs 7(2):104–113 Lawrence, S., Smith, S., & Banerjee, R. (2016). Preschool inclusion: key findings from research and implications for policy. Child Care and Early Education Research Connections. National Center for Children in Poverty Lee CD, Pea RD, de Royston MM (eds) (2020) Handbook of the cultural foundations of learning. Routledge, London

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Lone AH, Naaz R (2021) Applicability of Blockchain smart contracts in securing internet and IoT: a systematic literature review. Comput Sci Rev 39:100360 Luo X (2022) Protecting and scaffolding: how parents facilitate Children’s activities in public space in urban China. ECNU Rev Educ 5:242–257 Magnússon G (2019) An amalgam of ideals–images of inclusion in the Salamanca statement. Int J Incl Educ 23(7–8):677–690 Makoelle TM, Burmistrova V (2021) Teacher education and inclusive education in Kazakhstan. Int J Incl Educ. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2021.1889048 Mamah V, Deku P, Darling SM, Avoke SK (2011) University Teachers’ perception of inclusion of visually impaired in Ghanaian universities. Int J Spec Educ 26(1):70–79 Mantei J, Kervin L (2020) Teacher knowledge and student learning: an examination of teacher pedagogies for the same writing topic across two consecutive grades. Aust J Lang Lit 43(3):224–234 Manuel L M (2021) A study of the relationships among implicit theories of intelligence, attitudes toward inclusion, and teacher self-efficacy beliefs for inclusive practices (Doctoral Dissertation, Southern Lousiana University) Mittler P (2012) Working towards inclusive education: social contexts. David Fulton Publishers Mondi CF, Giovanelli A, Reynolds AJ (2021) Fostering socio-emotional learning through early childhood intervention. ICEP 15:6. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s40723-­021-­00084-­8 Mónico P, Mensah AK, Grünke M, Garcia T, Fernández E, Rodríguez C (2020) Teacher knowledge and attitudes towards inclusion: a cross-cultural study in Ghana, Germany, and Spain. Int J Incl Educ 24(5):527–543 Moriña A (2020) Approaches to inclusive pedagogy: a systematic literature review. Pedagogika 140(4):134–154 Mousumi MA, Kusakabe T (2019) The dilemmas of school choice: do parents really ‘Choose’ low-fee private schools in Delhi, India? Comp: J Comp Int Educ 49(2):230–248 Mpofu J (2022) Modeling inclusive education in urban schools. In: Handbook of research on creating spaces for African epistemologies in the inclusive education discourse. IGI Global, pp 274–289 Neca P, Pinto PC, Borges ML (2022) Overcoming the under-representation of teachers with disabilities in school communities: enablers and barriers. In: Diversifying the teaching profession. Routledge, pp 86–97 Nel M (2020) Inclusive and special education in Africa. In: Oxford research encyclopaedia of education. Oxford University Press Nkansah-Dwamena E (2022) How can we create a diverse, equitable and inclusive workplace in society without the voice of disability? Lessons from Ghana. J Int Dev 34(5):1028–1047 Ocran J (2022) ‘I don’t command the equal respect as my peers’: middle-class disability, stigma and social expectation in Ghana. Ghana J D Stud 19(2):208–237

40 Okyere C, Aldersey HM, Lysaght R, Sulaiman SK (2019) Implementation of inclusion for children with intellectual and developmental disabilities in African countries: a scoping review. Disabil Rehabil 41(21):2578–2595 Opoku MP, Cuskelly M, Pedersen SJ, Rayner CS (2021) Attitudes and self-efficacy as significant predictors of intention of secondary school teachers towards the implementation of inclusive education in Ghana. Eur J Psychol Educ 36(3):673–691 Osamwonyi EF (2016) In-service education of teachers: overview, problems and the way forward. J Educ Pract 7(26):83–87 Óskarsdóttir E, Guðjónsdóttir H, Tidwell D (2019) Inclusive teacher education pedagogy. In: Kitchen J, Berry A, Guðjónsdóttir H, Bullock S, Taylor M, Crowe A (eds) 2nd international handbook of self-­ study of teaching and teacher education. Springer International Handbooks of Education. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-­981-­13-­1710-­1_20-­1 Parey B (2022) Accommodations for the inclusion of children with disabilities in regular schools in Trinidad: a mixed methods approach. Int J Incl Educ 26(6):559–575 Ryan TG (1986) Inclusive attitudes: a pre-service analysis. J Res Spe Educ Needs 9(3):180–187 Rose R, Shevlin M (2021) Establishing pathways to inclusion: investigating the experiences and outcomes for students with special educational needs. Routledge Shohel MMC, Shams S, Ashrafuzzaman M, Alam AS, Al Mamun MA, Kabir MM (2022) Emergency remote teaching and learning: digital competencies and pedagogical transformation in resource-constrained contexts. IGI Global

A. S. Mohammed Subba AB, Yangzom C, Dorji K, Choden S, Namgay U, Carrington S, Nickerson J (2019) Supporting students with disability in schools in Bhutan: perspectives from school principals. Int J Incl Educ 23(1):42–64 Sulasmi E, Akrim A (2019) Management construction of inclusion education in primary school. Kumpulan Makalah, Jurnal Dosen 1(1):1–36 Takyi SA, Amponsah O, Asibey MO, Ayambire RA (2019) An overview of Ghana’s educational system and its implication for educational equity. Int J Leadersh Educ 24:1–26 Thompson JR, Walker VL, Snodgrass MR, Nelson JA, Carpenter ME, Hagiwara M, Shogren KA (2020) Planning supports for students with intellectual disability in general education classrooms. Inc 8(1):27–42 Walker LB (2020) Inclusion in practice: an explanatory study of how patterns of classroom discourse shape processes of educational inclusion in Tanzanian secondary school classrooms (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Cambridge) Weick KE (2020) Sense-making, organizing, and surpassing: a handoff. J Manag Stud 57(7):1420–1431 Wilson JD (2017) Reimagining disability and inclusive education through universal design for learning. Disabil Stud Q 37(2). https://doi.org/10.18061/dsq. v37i2.5417 Yu S, Cho E (2021) Pre-service Teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion in early childhood classrooms: a review of the literature. Early Childhood Educ J 50:1–12 Zabeli N, Kaçaniku F, Koliqi D (2021) Towards the inclusion of students with special needs in higher education: challenges and prospects in Kosovo. Cogent Educ 8(1):1859438

Inclusion in Teaching and Learning: An Adult Education Perspective Nthabiseng Ngwenya and Tsediso M. Makoelle

such circumstances they cannot receive support and reassurance that they are safeguarded against discrimination. It is therefore recommended that the adult learning centres should establish communities of practice to brainstorm and discuss the notion of IE in their own context; these centres have to develop clear visions and missions on how the notion is understood and how they wish to realise and operationalise it in their own context.

Abstract

This study explored teaching practices that may enhance inclusive teaching and learning in public adult education and training institutions. This interpretative-qualitative study adopted participatory action research as a research design with six teachers. Data were collected using qualitative data collection methods, such as semi-structured interviews, participant observations, and documentary analysis and focus group interviews. Data were analysed through group interpretative and inductive content analysis. One of the findings of the study, based on the conceptualisation of inclusion in education, is that teachers are expected to implement IE, but they do not have any knowledge of it and most of them are not even experienced in teaching and are not qualified for the subjects they are teaching. Adult learners typically have barriers to learning and their situation is aggravated if they are taught by unqualified teachers; in

N. Ngwenya University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa T. M. Makoelle (*) Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nazarbayev University, Astana, Kazakhstan e-mail: [email protected]

Keywords

Adult education · Inclusive education · Inclusive teaching · Lifelong learning

1

Introduction

Education in South Africa entered a new era in 1994 with the advent of a truly democratic government. This brought about a new socio-political shift that emphasised important values such as equity, non-discrimination, liberty, respect, and social justice, which have provided the framework for the South African Constitution (DoE 2001; Makoelle 2016). The values embodied in the Constitution as the central, supreme law in the country were consequently reflected in all other new legislative measures, including those concerning education. It therefore followed those major developments took place in the field of education in

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Hlalele, T. M. Makoelle (eds.), Inclusion in Southern African Education, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43752-6_4

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the years after the promulgation of the Constitution at the end of 1996 (South African Constitution 1996), also in the area of inclusive education (IE). As could be expected, it was not only politico-­ legal changes that took place in education. The emphasis on IE as a new reality in South Africa also brought about major philosophical shifts in the entire education system (DoE 2005; Ayaya et  al. 2020). In July 2001, the South African Department of Education (DoE) published the Education White Paper 6, in which it was pointed out that the previous education system and curriculum under the apartheid government (prior to 1994) had generally failed to respond to the diverse needs of the learner population, especially those with learner disabilities, resulting in massive numbers of dropouts and failures (DoE 2001; Sing and Maringe 2020). In the main, the Education White Paper 6 (DoE 2001) outlined and defined an IE and training system and proposed a framework for establishing such a new system that would provide for special needs and support services. This system was to promote education for all, and to foster the development of inclusive and supporting centres of learning to enable all learners to participate actively in the education process. The chief purpose of these initiatives would be to develop and extend the potentialities of all learners so that they could participate as equal members of society (DoE 2001). The Education White Paper 6 set out to address the needs of all learners in a single, undivided education system, moving from the categorisation of learners according to disability to assessing the needs and levels of support required by individual learners, with the aim of facilitating their maximum participation in the education system (DoE 2005). This shift to IE came as a response and commitment to the central tenets of the Constitution (South African Constitution 1996) as reflected in various sections committing the state to certain principles: section 9(2) to the achievement of equality; sections 9(3), (4) and (5) to non-discrimination; and section 29(1) to upholding the fundamental right of all citizens to a basic education (DoE 2005).

N. Ngwenya and T. M. Makoelle

As a result, IE was introduced in the adult education and training (AET) institutions of South Africa with minimum training offered to teachers (DoBE 2010). The majority of AET teachers and principals are still battling to embrace this new concept of inclusion, making implementation difficult (DoBE 2010). Until recently, AET institutions have admitted adult learners who sometimes did not have opportunities to attend school. Those adult learners carry ‘adult responsibilities’ through their economic, family or community commitments. Therefore, it was important to understand, given the implementation of the IE policy, how AET institutions respond to diversity in their classrooms. This study was thus aimed at exploring teaching and learning practices that could promote inclusion of adult learners in a South African adult schooling context.

2 Problem Statement One of the biggest challenges facing South Africa is the level of education of the majority of its people. Most adults receive upper secondary education, however the rate dropped from 27% in 2008 to 18% in 2018 and the majority do not receive tertiary education (OECD 2019). The current socio-economic situation and unequal access to education by previously disadvantaged communities as a result of the apartheid system continue to contribute to a high illiteracy rate among both adults and young people, despite efforts by the current government to redress past imbalances. Too often the youth are disadvantaged because of current socio-economic conditions and therefore drop out of school or never go to begin with (Weybright et  al. 2017:1). As a result, there are attempts to encourage everyone in South Africa to complete basic primary education (Churr 2015:2). However, even persons with a Grade 12 certificate lack the literacy and numeracy skills they need to benefit from the training and development opportunities available through the National Qualifications Framework

Inclusion in Teaching and Learning: An Adult Education Perspective

and the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations. This, among other reasons, has left unemployment in South Africa at about 30%, with youth making up a significant share of the statistics. According to OECD (2019) most adults with upper secondary education mostly remail unemployed. Furthermore, those who fail to obtain an education in South Africa are disadvantaged because they lack the required basic skills to obtain employment. Unfortunately, many individuals find themselves in a position where they are unable to further their studies. This is where AET plays an integral part in South Africa’s society. AET is a South African initiative aimed at enhancing lifelong learning and improving literacy and numeracy rates among youth and adults who cannot attend regular schools. It addresses those skills that youth and adults need at a foundational level at AET levels 1 to 4 (Sun and Strobel 2013:12). According to Mukeredzi (2022) Adult Education and Training has to fulfil its mandate of contributing to economic development and transformation of broader society. Therefore, it is of paramount importance that these institutions be supported regularly, because most of their teachers are not qualified, so they need to be empowered and constant training must be done. Principals (known as centre managers) are appointed by the Gauteng DoE.  Posts are advertised for teachers to apply. The minimum qualification is Grade 12 and teachers are encouraged to improve their qualifications, which is why most of them have registered at higher education institutions. Subject education specialists from the Gauteng DoE monitor and support the AET institutions by conducting regular workshops and monthly class visits (DoE 1997). The policy on establishing an IE and training system adopts a social ecosystems perspective in that it shifts the focus away from locating problems within the learners to locating them in all systems that act as barriers to learning (DoE 2005). These include the family, the school, and aspects of community functioning. In addition, the policy suggests a shift from focusing on the category of

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disability to the level of support needed by the learners identified during assessment (DoE 2005). Be that as it may, adult learners bring complex life experiences to the learning environment and their time is often very constrained precisely because of their multiple roles and responsibilities, therefore IE will enable teachers to accommodate the challenges faced by adult learners (DoBE 2010). Moreover, the current socio-­ economic structure in society has brought about changes in the profile of learners who are attending school in AET institutions. Most learners who drop out of mainstream schools are likely to move into AET institutions (DoBE 2010). They enter these institutions with diverse educational barriers, among others poor command of the language of instruction. This often presents challenges to the AET teachers, most of whom have had little or no training in inclusive teaching in an adult educational context (DoBE 2010). Similarly, a growing number of learners who make little progress in mainstream schools have sought admission to AET institutions, presenting further challenges to AET teachers (DoBE 2010). This state of affairs has compelled teachers to adopt different approaches to teaching and learning to accommodate learners with diverse abilities and needs and to make sure that teaching and learning are equitable and inclusive. However, according to Beder and Carrea (1988:76), there is a substantial body of literature on the subject of adult teaching and learning, but very little empirical study had been done on this topic in South African adult centres. The fact that the learner population in adult centres has diversified, with learners expressing more educational needs, means that teachers and centre managers have to shift towards inclusive teaching and learning, it was important that this study explore practices that promote inclusion of diverse adult learner in AET centres. Therefore, the following overarching question was stated to guide the study: Which teaching and learning practices promote inclusion of adult learners with diverse needs in AET institutions?

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3 Literature Review

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advancements and new economic demands from the workforce. According to Preece (2011), the 3.1 Conceptualising of Inclusive Southern African Development Community Education, Lifelong Learning (SADC) Technical Committee has sought to disand Adult Education tinguish between lifelong learning and lifelong education. Preece asserts that this is important, IE is defined as the practice of including every- as it shows the relationship between learning one, irrespective of talent, disability, socio-­ and education. Therefore, it can be concluded economic background or cultural origin, in that lifelong learning is a comprehensive notion supportive mainstream schools and classrooms that encompasses all forms of continued learnwhere all student needs are met. Inclusive peda- ing and human capacity development. However, gogy is defined as the art and science of teaching according to Maruatona (2021) the SADAC all children, and inclusive andragogy as the sci- regions still lacks comprehensive policies and ence and art of helping all adults to learn. All strategies to implement and sustain life-long three these concepts are related in the sense that learning. they all use the buzz word ‘inclusion’, which On the other hand, the concept of adult educaaccommodates both adults and learners. Inclusion tion is premised on the scientific concept of asserts that there should not be any discrimina- andragogy, which according to Preece (2011:103) tion and all learners are given equal opportunities is sometimes: to learn (Visser 2002:10; Ayaya et al. 2020). For Conflated with related terms such as continuing, instance, South Africa’s Education White Paper 6 further or recurrent education. It can take different forms – for example, under the descriptors of: for(DoE 2001, pp. 6–7) on IE acknowledges that all mal, non-formal, informal, vocational, basic educhildren and youth can learn, but they need supcation. In many cases it is simply interpreted as port. IE requires that teachers change their attiliteracy education. tudes, behaviour, teaching methodologies, curricula and the environment to meet the needs Conversely, Henschke (1998:8) defines andraof all learners (Ayaya et al. 2020). According to gogy as “a scientific discipline” that studies Du Toit (2004:3), IE implies that education everything related to learning and teaching should be of value to all learners and meet their “which would bring adults to their full degree of educational needs, even if these differ from humaneness.” While adult education is a relalearner to learner. In practice IE relates to the tively new concept, some studies have been connotion that students with various degrees of needs ducted on the practices of adult education. For can be educated in regular schools along with instance, some countries, such as Nigeria, Ireland their ordinary peers (Tait and Mundia 2014; and countries in Europe and America, have Kielblock and Wood 2023). It is an approach that implemented some measures to implement inclurequires theoretical understanding of the ways in siveness in adult education. According to which children learn, and the inter-related issues Omoyeni and Ajayi (2010:9), adult education of social justice that affect children’s experi- was kick-started by the activities of Muslim misences, which in turn are enacted in the choices sionaries as early as the fourteenth century as that teachers make in their classrooms (Florian they embarked on teaching the Arabic languages and Spratt 2013). to bring the population to an understanding of The concept of lifelong learning implies vol- Islam. Following the appointment of adult educauntary continual learning in formal and non-­ tion organisers at the end of the 1970s, adult eduformal ways by youth and adults in their homes, cation slowly began to grow and develop in schools, communities or workplaces throughout Ireland. The Murphy Report (Murphy 1973:68), their lives. Lifelong learning encompasses con- the Kenny Report (Kenny 1983:24) and more tinued education aimed at improving the skills recently the Green Paper (DES 1998:37) and the of people to keep up with modern technological White Paper (DES 2000:48) all set a more

Inclusion in Teaching and Learning: An Adult Education Perspective

s­ystematic developmental path for adult education (Fleming 2004:1). A study by Dalviigkas (2010:6) asserts that adult learning encompasses an entire range of formal, non-formal and informal learning activities that are undertaken by adults after a break since leaving initial education and training, resulting in the acquisition of new knowledge and skills (Brooks and Burton 2008:15; Kapur 2018). In the United States, change in the education systems has been fostered by an intense programme of federal support (Mead and Rotherham 2008:3). Thirty states have received substantial funding to restructure educational services for students with moderate and severe disabilities (Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services 1994).

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learning is mediated by socio-cultural artefacts (Belanger 2011). On the other hand, the theory of behaviourism of Watson, Thorndike, Skinner and Pavlov assumes that learning is a product of stimulus and response, that learning has occurred when the learner exhibits a change in behaviour (Belanger 2011; Basit et  al. 2021). The role of cognition in learning, as propagated by Bruner, Gagne and Piaget, is thought to be a process through which new knowledge is processed through the brain, so issues of memory, knowledge and representation take centre stage in the cognitive process (Belanger 2011; Mukhalalati and Taylor 2019). Furthermore, Bandura has sought to extend the significance of the social environment of cognition on learners and its resultant impact on cognition. On the other hand, the humanistic approach to learning by Dewey, Kolb, and Rogers places more emphasis on the 3.2 Understanding Adult significance of experiences on learning (Belanger Teaching and Learning 2011). Mezirow (2003) supports the idea that experiences are important for learning, thus more The concept of adult teaching and learning is significance is placed on learners’ ability to crithought to require special methods, teachers and tique new knowledge and develop meanings to philosophy. According to (Knowles 1985; reflect and challenge their beliefs and presupposiKnowles et al. 2020) teaching adults differs from tions (Kara et  al. 2019). The social theories of teaching children in that adults mature; (1) their learning, i.e. communities of practice, discussed self-concept moves from dependence to self-­ by Wenger (1998) have collaboration and coopdirection, (2) their growing reservoir of experi- eration as central tenets of learning. Learning is ence begins to serve as a resource for learning, regarded as a collective endeavour (Belanger (3) their readiness to learn becomes oriented 2011). This view is also echoed by Linkous increasingly toward the developmental tasks of (2021). their social roles, and (4) they begin to want to While these theories are useful for learning, apply what they have learned right away to life’s the teacher has to be aware of how they could be real challenges. Knowles (1985); Knowles et al. used to support all adult learners, including those (2020), echoed by Merriam and Brockett (1997), with disability. According to Rodriques et  al. postulates that teachers need to create a collab- (2017), teachers in adult education contexts are orative atmosphere in the classroom, take into not usually trained on how to teach and facilitate account the needs and interests of learners, and teaching and learning inclusively. On the other ensure that sequencing and pacing of teaching hand, Tisdell (1995) asserts that creating an and learning activities match the potential of inclusive adult learning environment enhances learners and that learners’ voices are taken into adult student learning experiences (Sanger and account in the design of instruction (Ajani 2019). Gleason 2020) and requires teachers to be vigiTo facilitate adult teaching and learning, sev- lant about how knowledge could be used as a tool eral theories are applied. Constructivism, which of suppression and exclusion. Furthermore, allows adult learners to construct their own power relations are crucial in dealing with issues knowledge (Sebastián et al. 2021) has been advo- of gender and disability. The effect of power cated by authors such as Vygotsky, believing that

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r­ elations on inclusion can be negative if a balance is not maintained. Ensuring effective adult learning could be a daunting task. However, there are different ways in which adult teaching and learning could be enhanced; for instance, Kruper and Prins (2016) found that participatory learning pedagogy was crucial in enhancing adult learner participation, which is a critical aspect of effective adult education (Wood 2019). On the other hand, Garrison (2006) believes that instilling critical thinking in adult learners is a cornerstone of independent learning and thus plays an important role in adult learning. While in many cases teachers think that learning is a cognitive process, Hyland (2010) avers that adult education must embrace both the cognitive and affective aspect of learner development. Hyland postulates that adult learning must encompass “mindfulness” and a “therapeutic turn”, which presupposes balancing cognitive and affective aspects of learners’ learning, in a way putting learners’ well-being at the core of the aims of pedagogical practice.

4 Methodology 4.1 Research Approach The qualitative approach was chosen for this study because it is an effective method of investigating human experiences. It focuses on understanding the whole, which is quite consistent with the dynamic, unique and holistic nature of human beings and their actions. Denzin and Lincoln (1994: 2) point out that qualitative research is multi-method in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret phenomena in terms of the meaning people bring to them.

4.2 Research Design The study assumed a participatory action research (PAR) design. PAR is an approach to research

N. Ngwenya and T. M. Makoelle

used by a group of practitioners to probe, critique and reflect on their practice to improve it (Makoelle 2012:83). Action research was chosen as a design as the purpose was to empower both teachers to critique and research own practiced in order to improve their skills in addressing diverse learner needs. Simultaneously, also ensuring that teachers are able to address their educational needs of all learners (Makoelle 2019). In this study a research group constituted teachers teaching in an adult education centre (AEC). The action research stages proposed by Makoelle (2013:95) were followed. These are planning (during which objectives for PAR were determined), observation (current practice observed), action (new practices put into action) and reflection (reflecting on PAR processes).

4.3 Selection of Participants In this study, purposive sampling strategies (sometimes referred to as ‘purposeful sampling’) were used, which means that the researcher selects particular elements from the population that will be representative of or informative about the topic. This sampling technique was based on the researchers’ knowledge of the population and judgment was made about which cases should be selected to provide the best information to address the purpose of the research. Terre Blanche et  al. (2006:49) further define purposeful sampling as sampling that depends not only on the availability and willingness of the participants to participate, but that constitutes a method through which cases that are typical of the population are selected. This kind of sampling entails the identification and selection of individual participants or groups of people who are especially knowledgeable about or experienced in a phenomenon under study. Taking into consideration the above-­ mentioned assumptions, sampling of teachers was based on work experience in the AET institution. To be able to participate in this study, the teachers needed at least 3 years of work experience, therefore the sampled six teachers were those who had over 3  years of teaching experience.

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At the research site, six conveniently selected teachers teaching in a selected AEC formed the research group. These were full-time teachers who were willing to participate in the study. It was mentioned that only five teachers were needed for the study; however, all the teachers wanted to participate in the study. They were all studying IE, seeking to improve their qualifications. One of the teachers passed away during the process of the research, which brought the number to five, the number originally required for the study.

Step 5  – Interpretation and checking: finally interpretations were put together in form of written accounts of the phenomenon studied, using thematic categories from the analysis as subheadings.

4.4.1 Data Analysis In this study the thematic analysis process as described by Terre Blanche et  al. (2006:276) echoed by Byrne (2001) were adopted. In this process the following occurred:

The analysis of the study yielded several themes, which are discussed below:

Step 1 – Familiarisation and immersion: in order to gain preliminary understanding of the meaning of the data and the material were studied in depth – this time working with texts rather than with lived reality; Step 2  – Formulating themes: The researcher looked at the material and tried to work out what the organising principles are that ‘naturally’ underlie the material; Step 3 – Coding: The data were broken up in analytically relevant ways. This entails marking different sections of the data as being instances of, or relevant to, one or more of the themes; Step 4 – Elaboration: Embarked on elaboration in order to capture the finer nuances of meaning not captured by the original, possibly quite crude, coding system;

The analysis revealed that, in conceptualising inclusive practice in AEC, the diversity of learners was recognised in the study. Teachers created a beneficial environment for learners to participate freely, hence the diversity of learners was recognised. All learners had to be involved in learning and all had to be recognised.

5 Trustworthiness of the Study

In order to satisfy the demands of trustworthiness in this study, it was ensured that all the research tasks that were carried out were balanced and fair in handling and taking into account all the multiple ontological perspectives of the participants. 4.4 Data Collection The gathered data were also read repeatedly to ascertain whether the captured constructs, explaIn this study data were collected using semi-­ nations, categories and interpretations that were structured interviews, participant observations, generated made sense and truly reflected the documentary analysis and focus group interviews nature of the phenomenon that was being during PAR.  Reflective meetings were held to studied. discuss every PAR stage and minutes were kept. The research group also kept research diaries (journals). 6 Findings

6.1 Recognition of Diversity

We need to have the appropriate approach when we teach, and that approach is called a practice. We cannot just go to class, especially these diverse classes, without having the right beliefs, values and attitudes.

However, what was challenging was that teachers seemed not to be equipped with strategies to respond to diverse learners in their practice; the following quotation attests to this:

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48 The key challenge facing us as educators who wish to become more inclusive in our practice is how to respect as well as to respond to human differences in ways that include learners in, rather than exclude them from, what is ordinarily available in the daily life of the classroom. Therefore, practices are not teaching at all.

6.2 Totality of Beliefs, Values and Attitudes The analysis showed that the study confirmed that IE comprises a totality of beliefs, values and attitudes and these are important for inclusion in adult centres as well. Teachers in AEC must, according to the study, instil these beliefs, values and attitudes in the learners; they must therefore set a good example to the learners. For instance, during a reflective discussion teachers emphasised that not only should teachers believe in the process of inclusive teaching but leaners should also believe in themselves if inclusive teaching and learning was to work effectively.

6.3 Collaborative Culture In analysing inclusive practice, it became clear in the study that it is an evolving process in the adult education context. It starts from existing habits and gradually develops into collaborative actions that finally and eventually transform culture. Teachers must understand this process so that they can facilitate it for the learners and for resultant quality teaching and learning to take place. This extract supports this argument: Inclusive practice is an emergent process: collaboration offer an alternative to existing habits; it builds on existing best practice and develops different action that eventually transforms practice. It is vital that inclusive practice is based on collaboration and cooperation as tools for mutual support.

On the other hand, one of the teachers indicated that: “while there is a need to change practices in the classroom, changing he overall atmosphere by adopting relevant values that enable collaboration could go a long way in ensuring cultural change towards inclusion”.

6.4 Role of Learners in Teaching It seemed evident in the study that the role of learners when adults are taught is to participate freely and to respond positively to the subject matter. It is the teachers’ duty to make teaching and learning meaningful so that all learners can be motivated to participate and be actively involved in their learning. Through proper and planned teaching, learners are encouraged to contribute to their own learning. Hence one of the participants stated: We need to involve them to participate, ask questions, and let them answer, interact with them. Create a pleasant environment to learn … and we also need to thoroughly prepare our lessons so that the learners can participate in class. No lesson plan, no participation.

It was also evident that involving learners in the planning about teaching ensured trust and ensured controlled power relations. As one teacher stated “at least the involvement of learners ensures that they take the teacher into confidence. It builds trust, mutual understanding and ensures partnership between the teacher and the learners”.

6.5 Pedagogical Choices by Teachers In conceptualising inclusive teaching, the study confirmed that the teachers in AEC must consider their pedagogical choices. The analysis indicated that teaching methods and a teaching style suitable for all learners must be chosen. Teachers must accommodate all learners without any segregation and discrimination. Teachers in AEC must have the skills and knowledge to inform the decisions they make about their practices. This statement attests to this: In inclusive teaching one must accommodate all the learners in your class and when you plan your lessons you must take it into consideration even those learners who have challenges; they must be accommodated.

Teachers felt involving learners has diagnostic benefits. As one teacher postulated: “Knowing

Inclusion in Teaching and Learning: An Adult Education Perspective

what your learners think about your teaching and their learning is a mirror to know the inside of your teaching practice and assess their capabilities as well as their fears about learning”.

6.6 Non-segregating or Non-­ discriminatory Approach Based on the evidence from the analysis of the study, there should be no segregation or discrimination among learners in adult education. The analysis suggests that all learners are important and they should be treated equally. As one teacher said: “Some of my adult learners could be very sensitive based on their negative schooling experiences, as a result equitable and equal treatment give them an assurance and promises them hope for success”. Furthermore, learner must not be discriminated against or denied the opportunity to learn. They must, according to the study, be accommodated and they must all be free to participate in learning. The teachers must not show that they see any disparity among learners. This will encourage learners to respect one another and to be actively involved in their learning. As one participant put it: In inclusive teaching one must accommodate all the learners regardless of age, disability or any difference in your class and when you plan your lessons you must take it into consideration; even those learners who have challenges, they must be accommodated.

6.7 Equitable Planning for Inclusive Education Based on the discussion of the result of action research, it appeared as though inclusive teaching in AECs must be characterised by proper and equitable planning for inclusion. The identification of barriers to learning is crucial for teachers’ planning and preparedness to respond to the needs of all adult learners in the classroom. It would be beneficial to the adult learners if an individual education plan (IEP) could be pre-

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pared for each one, as it would enable teachers to respond to the learners’ individual needs. This is evident from this statement: In inclusive teaching one must through IEP accommodate all the learners in your class and when you plan your lessons you must take it into consideration that there are learners who have challenges, they must be accommodated.

It became evident that teachers thought that mobilizing appropriate resources and organising the classroom in advance were crucial for preparations for inclusive teaching: as one of the participants cited “A plan without resources and organisation cannot be helpful. One needs to think about resources to support all learners especially those at risk and organise the classroom to ensure their optimum use”.

6.8 Enhancing Learner Participation The results of action research showed that learners’ participation during adult teaching and learning must be enhanced too. It is of the utmost importance to present the learning material in a way that appeals to the adult learners’ various learning styles, since such an approach will encourage adult learners to participate and to be active in class. To encourage full participation, the lessons must be prepared in such a way that all adult learners can be accommodated and the atmosphere must be conducive to teaching and learning. One of the teachers explained: Strategies and methods that are suitable for adult learners must be used to promote participation. We must also use different styles of teaching, we must not forget that these are adults and not children. Our lessons must not be boring otherwise adult learners tend to abscond from classes.

One of the participants also thought adult learners may participate if teaching material is tailored to their experiences. For instance, one of the teachers had this to say: “I realised that adult learners enjoy talking about their past experiences, so my approach is to relate the learning content as far as possible to their rich life experiences”.

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6.9 Curriculum Delivery The data suggested that application of a variety of teaching methodologies influenced the learning of all adult learners in a positive manner, e.g. individualisation, differentiation and adaptation. Teachers noted that in order to do this, they needed to collaborate in setting a good example to the learners. Moreover, by setting a good example to them, cooperation among teachers and learners will be enhanced. As one indicated: We need to have the appropriate approach and apply different teaching methods when we teach, and that approach is called a collaborative practice. Learning diverse curriculum delivery strategies empowers us and instil[s] a sense of cooperation among adult students.

However, the study showed that not only adopting variety of teaching methods is helpful in ensuring effective learning by adult learners, also was involving them in the choice of such learning experiences. As one averred “I realised my adult learners become very active during the teaching and learning activities they suggested themselves”.

6.10 Class Interaction and Communication The results of the research action showed that for adult learners to be able to interact in the class, they need to be engaged during teaching and learning. They must be encouraged to communicate with teachers as well as among themselves. It is important for teachers in AEC to stimulate constructive discussion during teaching so that inclusive learning can be sustained and be effective. This quotation from one teacher says it all: “An active class is an indication of an inclusive classroom. All learners must be engaged; both slow and active learners, but they must do this with respect and tolerance for one another.” However, in some interaction, it was seen in this study that some adult learners especially those who have some social status in the community, could dominate the conversations in the class. One of the teachers shared how he dealt

with this: “I have developed a mechanism of rotating card. This card is circulated from one learner to another whoever is with the card has a chance to speak, in a way it controls others having more talking time than others”.

6.11 Use of Teaching Resources and Media The results of the action research suggested that it is very important for teachers in AEC to do research about how to make the environment friendly to the adult learner and which teaching media and resources to use, since inclusive teaching cannot be effective without using appropriate examples that illustrate the learning content. The purpose of utilising appropriate examples is to relate learning to the adult learners’ world of work or experience. Through such meaningful learning adult learners are motivated and might be encouraged to learn. In this regard one teacher said: These are adults and not children, for effective learning to take place we must use appropriate examples in our teaching which illustrates learning content relate[d] to their work of world … unlike children, adult learners need to be provided with adequate resources relevant to their experience to do their tasks, the problem with us is that we do not have enough resources and this hamper teaching and learning.

While the teacher may bring relevant material to aid learning, it became evident that allowing adult learners to bring relevant aiding material for the learning content was more effective. One of the teachers indicated: “adult learners enjoy looking for thing that are relevant to what they are learning themselves. They can even justify why they think those are important”.

6.12 Assessment of Adult Learners It was evident from the action research that teachers need skills to assess adult learners in order to ascertain whether the adult learners understood the content that was taught. For inclusive assess-

Inclusion in Teaching and Learning: An Adult Education Perspective

ment, teachers must use varied methods of assessment. The use of different types of assessment would enhance inclusive learning and learners’ performance. It could also enhance teachers’ skills and creativity in designing and conducting site assessment. Learner assessment should be tailored according to the needs of each learner, because such an approach stimulates learning. As one teacher stated: It is good to use different methods of assessment because skills, knowledge and values which are outside examination conditions are assessed and this takes place over a period of time and not only once a year. So, learners can demonstrate their acquired competencies in the learning areas.

However, assessment which tested more practical application of knowledge was preferred by adult learners than the theoretical part. As one of the teachers posited: “With adult learners, assessment that requires them to dip into their experiences was more successful. I always bring that element of practicality in the assessment process”.

6.13 Creating an Inclusive Culture in an Adult Centre Based on the results of the action research, an inclusive culture was important for AEC. A culture of tolerance should be instilled among adult learners. They should be encouraged to tolerate one another and to respect one another; this was especially evident in the young learners’ attitude to the older learners. Adult learners also showed signs of respect for their teachers and this seemed to have created an inclusive culture in the adult centre. Asked about the significance of inclusive culture, one of the teachers said: Inclusive culture and tolerance of the other offer an alternative to existing habits; it builds on existing best practice and develops different action that eventually transforms culture, which is how we do things.

The development of inclusive environment emerged in this study as a centre wide aspect. It became evident that what goes in the classroom is related to how the AEC is led, managed, gov-

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erned and administered. The values that the AEC has adopted are represented in the classrooms.

7 Discussion of Findings Based on the findings of the study, teachers appeared to be eager to use different types of practices in the AET institutions to promote adult inclusive teaching and respond to diverse educational needs. However, while according to Kourkoutas, Toth, and Vitalaki (2015: 6) the recognition of diversity seemed important for inclusion of adult learners in education and there is a need that teachers develop teaching pedagogies and design lessons that include all learners, it was evident in this study that not all teachers in adult education centres have the ability, skills nor the competency to do so. This study confirmed Kourkoutas et al. (2015) ‘s view that to respond to learners’ diversity, teaching methods as well as the learners’ educational needs must be taken into account, meaning that these methods must be inclusive and respond to all adult learners needs. In order for adult learners to do well, accessible curricula, which should include all learners, need to be developed (Thondhlana 2002:33). Again, it was evident in this study, as Lartec et al. (2014:12) point out that the lack of teacher training, which goes hand in hand with unpreparedness of teachers to teach, is a great obstacle. The current study confirmed that the overall planning of curriculum delivery in AEC is vital in teaching, and this planning should be based on the prior analysis of the barriers of every adult learner. While these considerations were important, it became evident that teachers in AEC have learned the significance of involving adult learners in the planning about how teaching and learning would be designed (Makoelle 2016). As Makoelle (2014:1260) postulates, inclusive pedagogy denotes the entirety of teaching methods, approaches, forms and principles that enhance learner participation. In this present study, teachers learned through action research to apply the different teaching methods that were aimed at enhancing adult learner participation

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and concentration during the delivery of the curriculum (Ayaya et  al. 2020). However, it also became evident that the adult learners’ individual strengths and weaknesses provide the teacher with the insights to plan adequately and sufficiently in order to support adult learners positively. Furthermore, Makoelle (2014:1262) states that every teacher adopts a particular teaching approach to teach specific subject material to a designated group of learners. But further points out that promoting inclusion in the classroom may require the teacher considers the voices of the learners. Meaning the interests of the adult learners must be taken into account in the plan for curriculum activities making learning and teaching more adult learner-centred. The study revealed that teachers acknowledge that the adult learners’ participation is the key to inclusion during the process of teaching and learning. Shevlin et  al. (2009:4) emphasise that the environment must be beneficial for learners to participate fully in class, and that all learners in a classroom should be given equal opportunities to enable them to learn effectively. Such an approach enhances participation in all learners. They confirm that if teachers do not plan participative lessons, they deny learners the opportunity to participate in class. While teachers in AEC did not practise collaboration earlier, during the study it became evident that collaboration by teachers plays a vital role in teaching and learning. Makoelle (2013:51) emphasises collaborative teaching as an important prerequisite for inclusion. He mentions the advantages of collaboration, namely that the expertise, knowledge, experiences and abilities of all teachers can be effectively utilised and the individual teacher’s load is lessened, since the work is shared by the team. It also has a positive effect on the self-esteem and confidence of the teacher (Somerton et al. 2020). More experienced teachers assisted their less experienced colleagues, thus improving the chances of good classroom teaching and management. Once teachers in the study collaborated, their relationship was so positive that learning was promoted

N. Ngwenya and T. M. Makoelle

and the atmosphere became conducive to teaching and learning. The Queensland VET Development Centre (2012: 5) acknowledges that inclusive learning creates equal opportunities for all learners in that they are treated fairly and justly and all receive fair and equitable access to learning opportunities in a suitable environment. The current study confirmed that for inclusive teaching to be practised, teachers must create a beneficial and positive environment for learning. Such an environment encourages and motivates adult learners to participate fully during learning. All adult learners are accommodated and this enhances participation (Clark et al. 2022). Another practice, as indicated by Brandon (2011), is constant interaction and communication. Such an interaction analysis occurs within the framework of an interactive teaching approach. For interaction to be effective in the classroom, teachers have to acknowledge questioning and elicit responses from learners (Muijs and Reynolds 2001). The study found that during teaching and learning, it is the duty of teachers to encourage learners to participate and interact with one another. Conversation for learning should be enhanced by engaging learners and encouraging them to respect one another so that they can relate to one another (Makoelle 2016). For teaching to be inclusive, learners must be allowed to communicate freely with one another and they must respect their peers as well as their teachers. They must be allowed to express themselves freely, so that constructive discussion may be stimulated. Gacheche (2010:6) emphasises this view by stating that it becomes much easier for learners to participate in classrooms where the atmosphere is conducive to learning. The study also confirmed that the culture of working together is vital, as learners learn to trust and connect with one another. The study revealed that to enhance teaching and learning, teachers must utilise resources. It was discovered that there were insufficient resources in the centre, which minimised learning and demotivated teachers in delivering the subject matter. Mbatha (2010:66–67), who

Inclusion in Teaching and Learning: An Adult Education Perspective

underlines the crucial importance of addressing the lack of resources in schools, points out that the DoE ought to provide the resources teachers require for teaching (Helmer et al. 2020). Using the few available resources, the teachers who participated in this study illustrated learning content to learners, thus enabling them to relate their learning to their world of work. Adult learners understood clearly what was being taught and they were able to participate in their learning. The utilisation of relevant resources was found to be important for all adult learners, as the study indicated, and learning was enhanced. Lartec et al. (2014) claim that lack of resources not only hinders the expected teaching and learning standard, but also creates a deleterious environment for both learners and teachers. Learners tend not to care about all the activities, and teachers, on the other hand, feel depressed when limited resources make it difficult for them to deliver the content adequately. Therefore, it is proposed that the DoE should provide teachers with sufficient resources (Dube 2020). According to Kaur (2014:16), information communications technology is a tool to be used for fact-based learning. It allows students to do much of their research using the internet and various other means, while at the same time learning very valuable research skills, which they can use later at higher levels of education, in the classroom, on the playing field, at universities and beyond. Therefore, learners must be exposed to multiple information communications technology devices such as tablets, a TV set and a DVD player (used for educational films). Makoelle and Van der Merwe (2014:521) maintain that the use of technological devices has diverse outcomes for various types of learners. Technology aids processes of learning, such as collaborative learning and collaborative problem-solving, and ensures the participation of learners in the learning process. It is therefore recommended that learners be provided with technological devices in class to enhance their learning (Sarker et  al. 2019). Hockings (2010:1) indicates that in inclusive learning and teaching in education, assessment is designed and delivered to engage students in learning that is meaningful, relevant and acces-

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sible to all. He mentions that assessment must embrace a view of each and must not disadvantage any learner. Therefore, from the study it was evident that assessment must be tailored to the needs of each adult learner for learning to be stimulated. The use of a variety of methods played a major role in the assessment of adult learners and the performance of learners was maximised. Teachers were able to be creative in designing and conducting site assessments for their learners (Ayaya et al. 2020). The research findings suggested that there must be mutual understanding among teachers of the fact that inclusive beliefs, values and attitudes must be adopted. Teachers’ beliefs are important because together with their context (Kuyini et  al. 2020), this shape how people relate to one another (Richards et al. 2001). This will motivate learners to tolerate one another and accept and embrace one another. An inclusive culture, as the study suggested, encouraged adult learners to respect their peers and also to respect their teachers. Such a culture needs to be nurtured by both learners and teachers to enhance teaching and learning. According to the White Paper 6 (DoE 2001), teachers must plan their lessons before teaching. All learners must be taken into consideration; no learner must be discriminated against, and they must all be accommodated in the planning. The planning must be based on an analysis of every learner’s barrier(s). The study further revealed that all teachers must be qualified and have knowledge of their subject, and must master it when conveying it (Makoelle and Somerton 2021). Creemers and Kyriakides (2006:358) contend that it is teachers’ duty to make sure that learners are adequately instructed by means of different methods during the presentation of lessons. The study proposes that applying individualisation, differentiation and adaptation are effective ­methods to use in curriculum delivery: teachers need to focus on the adult learners’ individual strengths when applying individualisation, and apply differentiation to focus on the strength of the group (Florian 2019). Finally, they should adapt the content of the curriculum to fit the needs of every adult learner. In most cases, lack

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of concentration and participation results from teachers’ failure to plan (Creemers and Kyriakides 2006:358). It is therefore important, as the study shows, to give all learners the opportunity to participate freely in class. The study indicates that lessons must be prepared in such a way that no learner is denied the opportunity to be active. Teachers need to present the learning materials in an acceptable manner that will promote learner participation in class. In addition, teachers must create an atmosphere that is conducive to learning and teaching so that learners may be motivated and encouraged to participate fully in their learning (Makoelle 2016).

8 Conclusion While the study makes a valuable contribution to inclusive teaching in South African AECs, it must be borne in mind that adult education in South Africa is evolving and some of the findings might not be conclusive and applicable in the long run. The study nevertheless lays a foundation for further discussion on how AECs can be made more inclusive.

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56 Muijs D, Reynolds D (2001) Effective teaching evidence and practice. Paul Chapman, London Mukeredzi TG (2022) An exploration of workplace learning of Centre managers and educators in South African adult education and training centres. J Adult Contin Educ 28(1):5–26 Mukhalalati BA, Taylor A (2019) Adult learning theories in context: a quick guide for healthcare professional educators. J Med Educ Curric Dev 6:1–10. https://doi. org/10.1177/2382120519840332 Murphy C (1973) Adult education in Ireland: a report of a committee appointed by the minister for education. Stationery Office, Dublin OECD (2019) Education at a glance database, http:// stats.oecd.org. See source section for more information and annex 3 for notes. https://doi.org/10.1787/ f8d7880d-­en Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services (1994) Funding report: division of severe handicaps. US Department of Education, Washington, DC Omoyeni JM, Ajayi A (2010) The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) support for adult literacy education in Nigeria 1946–2010: impact assessment. Eur Sci J 8:15 Preece J (2011) Research in adult education and lifelong learning in the era of CONFINTEA VI. Int J Lifelong Educ 30(1):99–117 Richards JC, Gallo PB, Renandya WA (2001) Exploring teachers’ beliefs and the processes of change. PAC J 1:43–64 Rodriques EO, Dutra A, Storto LJ (2017) School inclusion in youth and adult education. Revista Electronica de Educacao 11(1):260–276 Sanger CS, Gleason NW (2020) Diversity and inclusion in global higher education: lessons from across Asia. Springer Nature, p 304 Sarker MNI, Wu M, Cao Q, Alam GM, Li D (2019) Leveraging digital technology for better learning and education: a systematic literature review. Int J Inf Educ Technol 9(7):453–461 Sebastián C, Vergara M, Lissi MR (2021) The Vygotskian contribution to the construction of a general theory of human learning. In: Fossa P (ed) Latin American advances in subjectivity and development. Latin American Voices. Springer, Cham. https://doi. org/10.1007/978-­3-­030-­72953-­0_13 Shevlin M, Kearns H, Ranaghan M, Twomey M, Smith R, Winter E (2009) Creating inclusive learning environments in Irish schools: teacher perspectives. National Council for Special Education, Trim

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Inclusion in Mauritian Education: Initial Insights Dipane Hlalele

and Seema Goburdhun

Mauritian education system and to lay a foundation for future research. We conclude that more needs to be done to understand inclusion as an endeavour practicing exclusion within inclusive school contexts limited to physical access.

Abstract

The purpose of this reflective interpretive case study is to generate some initial insights into the understanding of inclusion in Mauritian education. Whilst the philosophy of inclusion had underpinned the provision of education internationally as early as the 1980s, recent educational reforms in Mauritius reaffirm a commitment to it. The recent educational reform, the Nine Year Continuous Basic Education (NYCBE) is intended to address the issue of inclusion through the implementation of a new curriculum policy, the Four-Year Extended Programme (FYEP). Using critical realism, we dissect initial reactions to the introduction and implementation of inclusion in Mauritius to explore its understanding. Through the use of content analysis, five themes emerged. These themes included teacher preparedness, school readiness, curriculum adaptation and differentiation, policy intention and implementation, mis/under/over communication, and dissemination of information. This baseline study is a first attempt to gain an understanding of inclusion in the D. Hlalele (*) University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] S. Goburdhun Mauritius Institute of Education, Reduit, Mauritius e-mail: [email protected]

Keywords

Content analysis · Curriculum policy · Educational reforms · Extended programme four-year · Inclusion

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Introduction

Since the adoption of the Salamanca Statement in 1994, signatory countries around the globe are required to embrace diversity in classrooms, with every child offered with equal opportunity to access equal and quality education (Mahlo 2016). Affirming the Salamanca Statement, countries in the southern African region too, for instance, South Africa, Malawi, Namibia, Zimbabwe, Eswatini, and Mauritius among others have committed to the implementation of inclusive education to transform teaching and learning in schools (Makoelle 2016; Chitiyo et al. 2019; NCF 2016). In this chapter, we discuss and present the conceptualisation and operationalisation of inclusive education in the Mauritian education system in the wake of the educational reform in 2015

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Hlalele, T. M. Makoelle (eds.), Inclusion in Southern African Education, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43752-6_5

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c­onsidering the global educational policy of Education for All (EFA) UNESCO 1990). Mauritius is a small island developing country that relies heavily on its human capital for its survival. Education is therefore amongst the top priorities for the country, as it is considered a means of bringing transformation in society. The importance attached to education in Mauritian society is also evident from the expenditure on education in the government’s budget, which averaged 3.4% of GDP during the past few years (Strategic Plan 2018/19–2020/21). Since education is fundamental to the development of human capital and inclusive growth, in the past few years, the Mauritian education system has undergone various educational reforms to be able to compete globally. In this context, the latest reform has been the Nine-year Continuous Basic Education (NYCBE) (National Curriculum Framework 2016). The main goal of this education reform, as stated by the Ministry of Education, is that no child is left behind. In this line, NYCBE strategy has incorporated a Four-Year Extended Programme (FYEP), which is a programme intended for learners who have not attained the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Level 1 at Primary School Achievement Certificate (PSAC). Through this programme, pupils join the Foundation Year where they are given the opportunities to develop proficiency in basic knowledge and acquire social and life skills. Learners in the extended programme are expected to benefit from a differentiated pedagogy, appropriate learning materials, and adapted assessment. The philosophy underpinning the FYEP, the Educational Reform in general, and the NYCBE is inclusiveness, equity, and quality in all teaching and learning processes. The Ministry of Education in Mauritius has taken the commitment for its primary curriculum to be inclusive to cater to the different levels of academic readiness and diverse abilities, needs, interests, and learning styles (NCF 2015: 45–46). In addition, one of the goals of the nine-year curriculum is to “promote an inclusive environment which enables ALL learners to experience quality education, realise their full potential and achieve excellence” (NCF 2016:16). The stated

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goals of nurturing inclusive endeavours as well as the State’s commitment to follow through with them, are consistent with the Incheon declaration’s Sustainable Development Goal 4 which seeks to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong opportunities for all (UNESCO 2015). The chapter aims at developing an understanding of inclusion in the Mauritian educational system, generating some initial insights, and laying a foundation for future research. The study was thus designed with the intent to understand the views and perceptions of educators and key stakeholders on the introduction and implementation of the issue of inclusion through the implementation of a new curriculum policy, the Four-Year Extended Programme (FYEP).

2 Understanding Inclusion in Education Inclusive Education propounds the right to education for all learners regardless of their individual characteristics or difficulties (UNESCO 2007). It reflects the core values, ethos, and culture of an education system that is committed to promoting educational opportunities for all learners while simultaneously acknowledging that barriers different groups encounter cannot be eliminated by promoting separate systems or schools but by promoting an Inclusive Education system that responds to diversity (UNESCO 2007). Felder (2018) states that even though inclusion has become one of the most prominent objectives for education, there is still a lack of consensus on the definition of the concept. Travers (2014) describes inclusion as welcoming all students, recognising their multifaceted identities, and reconfiguring an educational space that capitalises on everyone’s unique qualities, experiences, and strengths. Bui et al. (2010), as well as Alquraini and Gut (2012), reinforce the understanding of inclusion as suggested above by Travers (2014) when they state that all students, regardless of any challenges they may have, are placed in age-­ appropriate general education classes that are in

Inclusion in Mauritian Education: Initial Insights

their own neighbourhood schools to receive high-­ quality instruction, interventions, and supports that enable them to meet success in the core curriculum. For instance, in South Africa, a policy framework supports the rights of learners to inclusive education. This marks a distinct shift from the apartheid era and later the post-­apartheid period, where learners with disabilities faced social exclusion and were placed in their own racially segregated special schools; a situation which was eventually replaced by the inclusion of all diverse learners through the provision of inclusive education (Majoko and Phasha 2018). Based on the above discussion, it can be said that the fundamental principle underpinning the philosophy of an inclusive school is that all children should learn together, wherever possible, regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have. Moreover, inclusive schools must recognize and respond to the diverse needs of their students, accommodating both the styles and pace of learning and ensuring quality education to all through appropriate curricula, teaching strategies, resources used, and partnerships with their communities. (UNESCO 1994) The need for seeking clarity on inclusion is expressed by the South African Department of Basic Education (2017) below: There are inconsistencies in what is meant by ‘inclusion’ across the range of stakeholders, including teachers. As a result, conceptual clarity is necessary in order for teachers to know how to implement inclusion in classrooms and what best practices might be. For example, the distinction between inclusion and special needs education needs clarification with the understanding that inclusive education is for all differences, including language, religion, disability, and others. Also, inclusive education is not teaching as if everyone is the same, which process fails to acknowledge diversity and perpetuates exclusion by creating complicity with dominant norms (p. 33).

At least three issues can be highlighted in the excerpt above. Firstly, there is a need for further clarity around inclusion. Secondly, whilst the current understanding of inclusion suggests that it has to do with special needs education, there is an emerging shift for inclusion to account for many other forms through which we exclude in

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our mainstream classrooms and schools in order to create and enhance inclusive teaching and learning contexts. Thirdly, there is a request to desist from the notion of assuming that all learners are homogeneous. It is the notion of homogeneity that drives us to want to achieve uniformity as we utilise the ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach to our teaching and learning. Therefore, diversity/ difference needs to be recognised and celebrated. Inclusion is currently understood as the placement of learners/students with disabilities in general education classes (Maciver et  al. 2018; Magumise and Sefotho 2018; Mngo and Mngo 2018; Walton and Osman 2018; Joubert and Harrington 2020). The process of inclusion is therefore expected to incorporate fundamental change in the way a learning community supports and addresses the individual needs of each child (Hlalele 2021). As such, effective models of inclusive education not only benefit students with disabilities but also create an environment in which every student, including those who do not have disabilities, has the opportunity to flourish. In our observation teachers, school leaders, as well as teacher education institutions, are thus, called upon to focus on teacher preparedness for inclusion. In Mauritius, the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) is built around 9 years of continuous basic education across the 6 years of primary education and the first 3  years of lower secondary education. It represents the basic framework that sets out what all learners aged 5 to 15 should learn in and out of school. It attempts to bring much–needed consistency, coherence, common direction, and impetus to curriculum development in the education sector (NCF 2015, 2016). It can thus be concluded that the NCF (2016) in Mauritius based itself on the philosophy of inclusion (Titone 2005) that broadly encompasses all learners. Pandit (2017) adds that inclusion is about the intentional building of relationships where difference is welcomed and all benefit. However, the implementation of the NCF reflects a dissonance in the theory and practice of inclusiveness. While an inclusive classroom is

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expected to promote diversity, it can be noted that learners are already categorised at the end of their 6 years of schooling where they are directed into mainstream and extended programme classrooms. Although both groups of learners follow the same curriculum, the textbooks to which the extended learners are exposed are adapted to their learning needs. However, at the end of the 9  years of schooling, both extended and mainstream learners are expected to take the same examination. This raises the fundamental question of how stakeholders in the Mauritian context understand the notion of an inclusive classroom.

3 Critical Realism as a Theoretical Lens This qualitative study sought to understand “meanings that individuals and groups attach to their everyday lives, objects, and social relations so that we come to understand how they evaluate their lives through their beliefs and meanings” (Roberts 2014:1). To accomplish this, we drew on critical realism as a theoretical lens. Critical realism has profound implications for educational practices, educational policies, and research practices (Scott 2014), and is emerging as a viable philosophical paradigm for conducting social science research (Easton 2010; Wynn and Williams 2014). We, on the one hand, subscribe to the notion of constructivist epistemology, which means that our understanding of this world is inevitably constructed from our own perspectives and standpoint (Maxwell and Mittapalli 2010), and, on the other, reject the notion of positivistic ontology which holds that there is a real world that exists independently of our perceptions, theories, and constructions. In addition, we concur with critical realists’ insistence that all meaning to be made of that reality is socially constructed. Under this perspective, we accept that social constructions themselves can constitute what we know as the reality of our social worlds (Price and Martin 2018; Fletcher 2016; Oliver 2011). In this chapter, we reflect on the public reactions [constructions of their reality] to

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the recent introduction of inclusion in Mauritian education.

4 Research Design and Methodology Concurring with Heaton (2008) who stated that secondary analysis involves the re-use of pre-­ existing qualitative data derived from material such as semi-structured interviews, responses to open-ended questions in questionnaires, field notes, and research diaries, this qualitative case study used secondary data gathered through interviews and clips published in newspapers and journals as the methodology for inquiry into the issue stated earlier in the chapter. Consistent with critical realism, the baseline qualitative data (Fletcher 2016) were generated from print and electronic media between 2017 and 2019. This period coincides with the introduction of the extended programme in Mauritian secondary schools. Content analysis, which is a method of analysing written, verbal, or visual communication messages (Prasad 2008), was employed to make sense of the data. It is of particular relevance in this study as it deepens the understanding of ‘the human experience’ [in this case inclusion in Mauritian education] (Erlingsson and Brysiewicz 2017) or of the ‘human condition in different contexts and of a perceived situation’ (Bengtsson 2016). In this article, we adopt Shieh and Shannon’s (2005:1277) notion of content analysis as “subjective interpretation of the content of text data through the systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns.” Through the conventional content analysis approach, where coding categories are derived directly from the text data (Shieh and Shannon 2005), emerging themes included teacher preparedness [pre- and in-service]; school readiness; curriculum adaptation and differentiation; policy intention and implementation; and communication and dissemination. Being fully aware of the ethical issues that analysis of qualitative secondary data entails regarding confidentiality and anonymity of the participants who have expressed

Inclusion in Mauritian Education: Initial Insights

their views in newspaper articles, we concealed their identity by using encompassing terms such as ‘teachers’, ‘rectors’, and ‘pedagogues’.

5 Findings Since the implementation of the FYEP, teachers have made their voices heard in the local press. The initial insights are presented in line with the themes that emerged from the secondary data which were, namely, teacher preparedness, school readiness, curriculum adaptation and differentiation, policy intention and implementation, and dissemination/ absence of communication. In presenting, analysing, and interpreting the generated data, we take cognizance of the fact that “critical realism acknowledges the role of subjective knowledge of social actors” (Wynn and Williams 2014:787).

5.1 Theme One: Teacher Preparedness Mainstream teachers affirm that they face difficulties teaching in the FYEP because they have not received adequate training. The quotes below are from teachers in the mainstream programme, education officers’ union, and teachers from the extended programme, as well as experienced educationists in Mauritius, in accordance with the principles of heterogeneity and pluralism regarding data sources as espoused by critical realism (Nastar et al. 2018). Teacher 1: “Teachers have not had the proper training. Every pupil has his specific needs. As a teacher, it is imperative to be trained to give the best of oneself in the classroom. We regret that the training received to date has nothing to do with classroom management or the teaching of children with special needs.” The Education Officers Union (EOU) is of the same opinion: “Currently, many teachers say they have not received any training to hold these classes. At the beginning of the school year in January, their schedule made mention

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of it, and they had no say in it. Others see themselves in front of a class with mainstream students and the Extended Programme. In the first, students can read and write and in the other, the majority do not even know how to write their first name.” An experienced educationist declares that “the element that will certainly hinder the implementation of the programme is the inappropriateness in the upgrading of the teachers concerned essentially with regards to their pedagogical competence and their professional values and attitudes. Such upgrading cannot be achieved in a few weeks in large cohorts within the walls of a lecture room. It warrants long and assiduous workshop type training sessions in small groups based on hands-on classroom experience followed by regular monitoring and assessment”. He also states that one of the major problems linked with the extended classes is the lack of committed motivated and properly trained teachers. “Teachers should be specially selected and trained to improve their practical teaching competences and their human and professional values with a high dose of patriotism. The traditional training courses and the “quick fix” upgrading courses do not prepare teachers for the task at hand”. The multiple views shared by teachers and pedagogues are consistent with teacher under-­ preparedness. The data in the local press indicates that teachers are concerned about their lack of training because it hinders teaching and learning in the FYEP, and they do not feel prepared to work in the FYEP. A review of the literature indicates that the training of teachers and their preparedness to work with learners of different learning abilities is a growing international concern (Brownlee et  al. 2019). Beutel and Tangen (2018) argue that this lack of preparedness is partly attributed to insufficient training within teacher education programmes. In the same way, Carew et  al. (2019, 2020) affirm that there is little research in low and middle-income countries on how to effectively prepare teachers to work with learners with different learning abilities even general education

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teachers are currently required to work in an inclusive environment. Walsh (2018) concludes that teachers do not feel prepared to teach in an inclusive environment mainly because of a lack of training. The teachers in Walsh’s study declare that working in an inclusive environment as a trial-and-error experience yields many educational failures which impact learners’ lives. In the same way, Srivastava et  al. (2015) as well as Zwane and Malale (2018) state that teachers’ preparedness for inclusion has received little attention and that it is imperative to update and modify the teacher education curriculum and design in-service programmes to equip teachers with relevant knowledge about inclusive teaching methods. In addition, the current conception of inclusion places the teacher in the position of the agent/dispenser and learners as recipients/clients (Hlalele 2021).

5.2 Theme Two: School Readiness The second theme that emerged concerns school readiness. A rector (principal) of a secondary school, who is also an experienced educationist, mentioned that ‘‘after a year spent in the Extended Programme Foundation Year, some students still do not know how to write their name and surname, nor how to count. Thus, teachers must always come back to what they have already taught. He further states, “currently, we place 20 students with 20 different needs in one classroom. This is not normal. After 6  years in primary school, these students arrive at secondary school with different levels, but they are placed in the same classroom”. This stakeholder’s concern emanates from the fact that school readiness impacts performance and achievements in classrooms. It is also important to note that quality learning experiences are essential to reach the required level of school readiness. Green et al. (2011) posit that the quality of early years learning significantly impacts a child’s development for future learning. Thus, in

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the implementation of inclusive education, it is important that schools support learners through early intervention strategies so that they reach the required level of school readiness (Bruwer et al. 2014). However, the reality often differs from the visions and ideas which have been pointed out in the article. Although the provision of inclusive classrooms is underpinned by the philosophy of diversity  – diversity in terms of learning needs, ability, and background  – what remains unattended is the ability of the teacher to deal with such classrooms. This reinforces the issue of, not only school readiness but also teacher preparedness.

5.3 Theme Three: Curriculum Adaptation and Differentiation Teachers have voiced out against the fact that extended programme students are expected to follow the same syllabus as their mainstream counterparts. They feel that the shift to the Extended Programme from its precursor the Prevocational Stream, is just a change of name. The following comments from teachers reveal the concern over the same curriculum being followed by both groups of students. Teacher 1 raises the question, “Is the extended programme fully adapted to those pupils? Doing the same syllabus as the mainstream, even if the curriculum is differentiated, is a bit farfetched and not adapted. Everything should have been different, from the curriculum and syllabus, through evaluation and exams to books”. Teacher 2 is “of the opinion that more practical and oral sessions are needed. The students in the Extended Programme need a different curriculum. It takes another methodology and another approach with them. To know their level, the authorities must think of another type of evaluation and not one similar to that applied to the mainstream.”

Inclusion in Mauritian Education: Initial Insights

The teachers’ concerns, as expressed above, stem from the challenges they have experienced in teaching students with learning difficulties on the prevocational programme. Adewumi et al. (2017) and Makoelle (2020) claim that all education systems and education programmes must take the diversity of learners and their needs into ­consideration. Moreover, the literature on inclusion emphasises strategies that ensure individual access and participation which are obtained through accommodating and adapting to teaching, learning, and assessment (Alquraini and Gut 2012). Odom et  al. (2011) also observe that an individualised education programme is an essential component of inclusion. Thus, it can be argued that, in line with the philosophy of differentiated instruction, teachers need to change their practices from a programme-based pedagogy to a learner–based pedagogy. However, this is not often the case in practice, as can be noted from the concerns of the teachers who mention having to use the same criteria for teaching and assessing all learners in the class, despite their diverse needs, in the absence of clear policy guidelines.

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ate learning materials, and adapted assessment so as to achieve the agreed learning objectives. A facilitator will assist the students to acquire life and scholastic skills. They will also benefit from additional support programmes, namely the health and well-being screening and the afterschool programme. However, concerns have been raised over the government’s policy and the actual implementation of the programme. The view expressed by experienced teachers and educationists is that ‘‘the extended programme appears commendable on paper, but it is quite challenging in implementation. That is, given the haste with which the programme was elaborated coupled with the dearth of vision, consultation, research, and planning. The other element that will certainly hinder the implementation of the programme is the inappropriateness in the upgrading of the teachers concerned essentially with regard to their pedagogical competence and their professional values and attitudes…Unfortunately, these good intentions will hardly be translated into practice for the reasons mentioned”. Policy content is one of the critical pillars on which policy implementation is based. Although 5.4 Theme Four: Policy Intention it does not determine the exact course of impleand Implementation mentation, it is a crucial factor in establishing the parameters and directives for implementation. The main goal of education reform, as stated by Brynard and De Coning (2006) contend that the the Ministry of Education, is that no child is left success or failure of a policy depends on the supbehind. In this line, the Nine-Year Continuous port the policy generates among those who are Basic Education (NYCBE) incorporated a four-­ affected. This view is further supported by Du year Extended Programme meant for pupils who Plessis (2013) who asserts that strong support at have not obtained the required grades in Primary all levels of the department of education is one of School Achievement Certificate (PSAC) assess- the key strategies for the successful implementament. These pupils not only experience academic tion of inclusive education. However, as can be difficulties but also have to cope with social prob- noted from the views of the stakeholders above, lems, lack of motivation, and health problems, the inability to successfully involve and bring all among others. Through the Extended programme, concerned on the same platform can hinder the pupils join the Foundation Year where they are attainment of this goal. It can thus be argued that given opportunities to develop their proficiency inclusive education, with its focus on transformin basic knowledge and acquire social and life ing aspects of the education system, requires a skills. As stipulated by the Ministry of Education, systemic approach that includes communications and as outlined in the NCF (2016), the pupils will among stakeholders at the individual, school, and benefit from a differentiated pedagogy, appropri- national levels.

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5.5 Theme Five: (Mis/Under/Over) Communication and Dissemination of Information Successful policy implementation also depends on effective communication with stakeholders. However, concerns have been raised by teachers about the lack of information regarding the implementation of the extended programme. Their concerns are evident in their views, as documented below. The Education Officers Union (EOU), pointed out, “During the reform presentations, officials and the Minister of Education said that not all mainstream teachers will be required to work with the children of the extended programme. What we are seeing is that many teachers have had their schedules including these classes. Rectors and teachers are waiting for communication from the authorities. They do not know what to do with the students at the end of the year.” Teachers too have expressed their concern about the whole process: “There are many grey areas about these extended classes. What will become of us if mainstream teachers take responsibility for these extended classes? We are still in total limbo. We are asking for clarification in the coming months to be able to consider the future.”

in formal education systems, therefore, have to take place at a range of levels and need to include diverse groups of actors, depending on the messages and ideas being communicated. However, if any of the concerned actors are excluded from the communication process as it appears from the concerns of teachers quoted above, it may create apprehension amongst stakeholders, even resulting in the unsuccessful implementation of the programme. Findings from the five themes discussed above show commonalities in the challenges encountered in the implementation of inclusive education in other southern African countries. For instance, the successful adoption and implementation of an inclusive education policy in South Africa to address barriers to learning in the education system are hampered by the lack of teachers’ skills and knowledge in differentiating the curriculum to address a wide range of learning needs (Dalton et  al. 2012). Similarly, although Malawi, Namibia, and Zimbabwe are committed to special and inclusive education, they are confronted with the challenges of limited qualified personnel to support the education of children with diverse needs (Chitiyo et al. 2019).

6 Discussion

In this study, we gleaned the social constructions that the sources of data know as the reality of their social world (Oliver 2011; Karadzhov The concerns expressed by the teachers and edu- 2019). In addition, critical realism has profound cators’ union highlight the importance of effec- implications for educational practices, educative communication with stakeholders for the tional policies, and research practices (Roberts successful outcome of any policy reform. 2014; Scott 2014). When applied in a research Communication with policymakers is multi-­ process, critical realism can contribute to a deeper faceted, and multi-directional and takes place understanding (Frederiksen and Kingelum 2021) between different stakeholders at different times of phenomena (inclusion in the case of this (Cairney and Kwiatkowski 2017). Taguma and study). The excerpts from the secondary sources Barrera (2019), posit that education systems tend provide a clear and comprehensive picture of to work on three inter-connected levels (i) the teachers’ concerns and perceived barriers to the macro-level, where national policies are devel- successful implementation of a Four-year oped and negotiated; (ii) the meso level, which extended programme (FYEP). The teachers’ oversees the implementation of national policy main concerns were a lack of training to teach into practice, and (iii) the micro level, where poli- children with learning difficulties (Adewumi and cies are put into practice. Effective communications Mosito 2019), the need for a differentiated or an

Inclusion in Mauritian Education: Initial Insights

adapted curriculum for these learners (Hlalele et al. 2020), a clear inclusion policy, and effective channels for the dissemination of information to the stakeholders involved in the implementation of the extended programme (Hayes and Bulat 2017). The extracts from the press articles point to the teachers’ concerns regarding their limited preparedness to teach children with learning difficulties in their day-to-day practice. Literature focuses on the need to advance inclusive ­education for students and one way to support this effort is to ensure that teachers have expertise in, and are prepared to implement, inclusive practices (Hudson et  al. 2019). Alison et  al. (2017) stress the relationship between teacher preparedness for inclusive education and academic and professional development in the form of university courses or special training on inclusive education. It also suggests the need for institutions to provide the necessary support and training to teachers in dealing with students with learning difficulties. In an education system, the curriculum needs to be accessible and responsive to the needs of all learners (Mzizi 2014). Curriculum adaptation is one of the most important aspects in the context of any educational reform. Although, as claimed by Drake and Sherin (2006) that relationships between teachers and curricula have often been filled with significant tensions and challenges, nonetheless, we feel that exploring teachers’ patterns of adaptation when using a new curriculum can provide interesting insights into the way in which teachers incorporate reform principles into their practice. Evidence from both research and practice shows that teaching in reform-oriented ways requires teachers to adapt in the midst of instruction (Suleymanov 2015; Adewumi et  al. 2017). In other words, for curricula to be a vehicle for reform, teachers must be supported and guided in making adaptations that maintain the reform-oriented goals of the curriculum materials, while still meeting the specific needs of their students and their particular teaching contexts (Emam and Al-Mahdy 2020). Prior research suggests that adaptation is a central process in teachers’ use of curriculum materials and that no curriculum is used blindly or without adaptation

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(Mishra et  al. 2019). Different teachers access curricular materials for different reasons and in search of different kinds of information. This certainly affects the kinds of adaptations that teachers make. Furthermore, teachers adapt curricular lessons in response to a number of additional factors, including their own understanding of a lesson, the perceived abilities of their students, and constraints of time, materials, and other resources. To be clear, adaptation is certainly not a unidirectional process (Drake and Sherin 2006). Teachers not only adapt the curriculum to fit their teaching practices, but also adapt their practices to align with the curriculum. Lessons from policy implementation research show that the education system can provide good policy, education support, and resources, and build the capacity of participants to implement the policy. However, if attitudes have not changed, the implementation may fail. Attitudes and beliefs of school staff, students, and parents have an impact on the school’s effectiveness in implementing inclusive educational practices. While the attitudes of the teachers, parents, and learners are critical in most research, we argue that the attitudes and beliefs of school principals towards inclusive education is the key factor to successful implementations at the school level. We would like to point out that whilst the data generated provided insights into the phenomenon of inclusion in Mauritian education, adherence to critical realism implies that our understanding of a phenomenon can change (Haigh et al. 2019), due to the changing nature of social reality (Taylor 2018). We do use our minds to construct knowledge about phenomena and our construction of knowledge is not infallible (Haigh et  al. 2019), notwithstanding the fact that it can be obtained and interpreted in different ways (Taylor 2018).

7 Conclusion In this article, we present a refusal to bury the emic (insider) voices of stakeholders in Mauritian education regarding inclusion. Concerns raised by the different stakeholders point toward revisiting the inclusive policy as laid out in the new

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educational reform. Although we have attempted to highlight fundamental issues and challenges regarding inclusion, we nevertheless propose the need for further empirical studies to understand inclusion and its successful implementation in the Mauritian educational setup.

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67 C (eds) SAGE handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research, 2nd edn. SAGE Publications, pp 145–167. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781506335193. n6 Ministry of Education and Human Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific Research (2015) National Curriculum Framework Grades 1 to 6. Republic of Mauritius Ministry of Education and Human Resources, Tertiary Education and Scientific Research (2016) National Curriculum Framework Nine –year continuous basic education grades 7, 8 & 9. Republic of Mauritius Mishra PA, Hota S, Khamari PR (2019) Curriculum adaptation in inclusive education. Int J Appl Res 5(8):70–74 Mngo ZY, Mngo AY (2018) Teachers’ perceptions of inclusion in a pilot inclusive education program: implications for instructional leadership. Educ Res Int 2018:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/3524879 Mzizi NA (2014) Curriculum adaptations for learners with learning impairments in the foundation phase in Thabo Mofutsanyana education district, Free State province. Doctoral thesis. Central University of Technology Nastar M, Boda CS, Olsso L (2018) A critical realist inquiry in conducting interdisciplinary research: an analysis of LUCID examples. Ecol Soc 23(3):44–58. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-­10218-­230341 Odom SL, Buysse V, Soukakou E (2011) Inclusion for young children with disabilities a quarter century of research perspectives. J Early Interv 33(4):344–356. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815111430094 Oliver C (2011) Critical realist grounded theory: a new approach for social work research. Br J Soc Work 42:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcr064 Pandit F (2017) Philosophy of inclusion –problems and challenges. Int J Acad Res Dev 2(5):655–668 Prasad BD (2008) Content analysis: a method in social science research. In: Lal Das DK, Bhaskaran V (eds) Research methods for social work. New Delhi, Rawat, pp 173–193 Price L, Martin L (2018) Introduction to the special issue: applied critical realism in the social sciences. J Crit Realism 17(2):89–96 Roberts JM (2014) Critical realism, dialectics, and qualitative research methods. J Theory Soc Behav 44(1):1–23 Scott D (2014) Ontology, epistemology, strategy and method in educational research. A critical realist approach. Magis, Revista Internacional de Investigación en Educación 7(14):29–38 Shieh HF, Shannon SE (2005) Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qual Health Res 15(9):1277–1288 Srivastava M, de Boer A, Pijl SJ (2015) Inclusive education in developing countries: a closer look at its implementation in the last 10 years. Educ Rev 67(2):179–195. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2013.847061 Suleymanov F (2015) Individually adapted curriculum for inclusive education. Educ Sci J 10:80–93 Taguma M, Barrera MF (2019) OECD future of education and skills 2030: curriculum analysis. OECD

68 Taylor SP (2018) Critical realism vs social constructionism & social constructivism: application to a social housing study. Int J Sci: Basic Appl Res 31(2):216–222 Titone C (2005) The philosophy of inclusion: roadblocks and remedies for the teacher and the teacher educator. J Educ Thought 39(1):7–32 Travers J (2014) Addressing the challenges and barriers to inclusion in Irish schools. Special Education Department, St Patrick’s College, Dublin UNESCO (1990) One billion illiterates: a challenge for our time. UNESCO Courier, July UNESCO (2007) EFA global monitoring report: strong foundation. Early childhood care and education. UNESCO, Paris UNESCO (2015) The Incheon Declaration: Education 2030  – towards inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning for all, was adopted at the World Education Forum 2015, held in Incheon, Republic of Korea, from 19 to 22 May 2015. Available from http://en.unesco.org/ world-­education-­forum-­2015/incheon-­declaration

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Part II Challenges of Inclusion in Education

Inclusion in Zimbabwean Rural Schools: Teachers’ Perceptions on Challenges and Mitigating Strategies Munyaradzi Chidarikire

teacher-training (university or college) level to strategically equip teachers for inclusive educational knowledge and skills.

Abstract

Literature reveals that rural teachers’ perceptions are rarely considered in inclusion on educational discourses. The researcher submits that schools play a critical role in advancing the agenda of Inclusion in education in marginalized Zimbabwean rural secondary schools. It is against this background that this chapter unfolds through a socio-cultural theoretical lens which explores Zimbabwe rural teachers’ lived-experiences regarding the challenges including mitigating strategies towards inclusion in education in teaching and learning processes. A qualitative phenomenological design guided the data collection, presentation and analysis processes. In-depth phenomenological conversations were conducted with ten purposively selected participants from two rural secondary schools. All data was transcribed verbatim, and subsequently thematically analyzed. Participants answered two questions: What are the challenges affecting inclusion in education in rural secondary schools and how can they be mitigated? Findings revealed that some teachers have limited of the intricacies of inclusion in education. Therefore, it is recommendable to make Inclusion a compulsory module at M. Chidarikire (*) University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa

Keywords

Inclusion in education · Zimbabwe · Rural teachers · Gender · Perceptions · Learners

1

Introduction

United States Bureau (2020) defines rurality as areas that are located outside cities and towns. Therefore, in this article, rural schools are learning environments that are found in rural areas. Inclusion in education is defined by Sanabria (2022, p. 1) as “an education system that caters to the needs of all learners, regardless of ability or accommodation needs, ensuring that no student is excluded from learning”. Mapuranga et  al. (2015) add that Inclusion in education is the process of inclusion of learners with disabilities in regular schools. The above definitions of inclusion in education place emphasis on the inclusion of learners with disabilities which is commonly understood among teachers, parents, learners, and communities in Zimbabwe. The author has observed that Zimbabwe’s context of Inclusion in education excludes critical issues such as cultural and religious persuasions, gender, language, and academic performance. Hence, this chapter seeks

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Hlalele, T. M. Makoelle (eds.), Inclusion in Southern African Education, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43752-6_6

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to unpack other issues beyond disabilities that affect inclusivity. Zimbabwe’s view of focusing on disabilities as being the only need for inclusion is at variance with UNESCO’s (2021, p.  1) position which expounds that “education is a fundamental human right that underpins the Education 2030 Agenda, by which countries pledged to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education, and to promote lifelong opportunities for all, ensuring that all people irrespective of their gender, age, race, ethnicity, ability, location, or other social characteristics have equal rights to access and benefit from quality education”. Zimbabwe is still far behind in providing quality Inclusion in education to all learners, including those with disabilities (UNESCO 2021). The majority of challenges affecting inclusion in education emanates from the learning environment and communities at large that discriminate by displaying negative attitudes and other forms of discrimination (Chidarikire et al. 2021). It is against this background that this chapter interrogates Inclusion in education through the socio-cultural theoretical lens to dissect Zimbabwean rural teachers’ lived-­ experiences regarding the challenges (and possible solutions) regarding teaching and learning processes. Alarmingly, some communities promote exclusion as observed by Dube, Ncube, Mapuvire, Ndlovu, Ncube, and Mlotshwa (2021, p.i) who found that “in most communities, definitions and interpretation of disability reflected various myths, fears, suspicions and misconceptions. Consequently, negative attitudes and stereotyping towards people with disabilities hinder their access to quality education”. This study by Dube et al. (2021) revealed that the exclusion of learners is caused by society’s stigmatization towards learners with difference, hence the author’s decision to engage the principles of the socio-cultural theory to underpin the topic of inclusion in education in Zimbabwe’s rural schools. In this regard, the Social Model by Vygotsky (1978) proves that exclusion of learners based on their disability, language, and other differences is socially constructed (Mirabito et al. 2016). This social model’s theoretical framework deals with

M. Chidarikire

barriers and challenges that negatively affect learners from accessing quality education due to many social and environmental factors in schools and in the community. Zimbabwe adheres to the Sustainable Development Goals of United Nations Development Programme (UNPD 2015) through SDG Goal number 4 which espouses principles of Inclusion in education by encouraging Government and other stakeholders to provide quality and equal education to all learners regardless of their difficulties and differences. In addition, Zimbabwe’s Constitution (2013) highlights the right to quality and free primary and secondary education, as well as affordable and equal tertiary education for all citizens. To reinforce the principles of inclusion in education in schools, the Zimbabwean Government promulgated the Education Act (1987), initiated the Nziramasanga Commission (1994), and introduced the Disabled Persons Act (1992), among others. Previous studies exposed the fact that Zimbabwe lacks a specific workable inclusion in education policy, but installed the above-mentioned inclusive-related Acts (Dube et al. 2021; Mapuranga et al. 2015; UNESCO 2015, 2021)). The lack of specific inclusion in education policies in Zimbabwe has negatively affected the effective implementation of inclusion in education as it is not founded on total commitment and/or the realities of learner-­ diversities, and thus has unearthed many challenges in accessibility to educational institutions (Dube et al. 2021; Mutizwa 2021). In countries such as New Zealand, Austria, Finland and South Africa that have well developed educationally inclusive policies, inclusivity got off the ground successfully (Gitschthaler et al. 2021; New Zealand Ministry of Education and Training Act 2020; Mickney and Swartz 2016; Pretorius and Steadman 2018; Towell 2021). To enhance and accelerate the pace of Inclusion in education in South Africa, the Department of Education (DoE) implemented progressive Inclusion in education policies and regulations that promote effective inclusive learning environments (Bill of Rights, 1996; White Paper 6, 2001; South African Schools Act, 1996). In Brazil, USA and Portugal, teachers obtain

Inclusion in Zimbabwean Rural Schools: Teachers’ Perceptions on Challenges and Mitigating Strategies

Inclusion in education knowledge, skills, expertise, and practice at training-institutions  - as a result Inclusion in education is promoted (Alves et al. 2020; Escudero and Espinosa 2021; Global Campaign For Education in United States 2020). Research indicates that, if adequately trained, teachers in Inclusion in education will have the capacity and ability to positively influence ­inclusivity (Chidarikire et  al. 2021; Dube et  al. 2021; Gitschthaler et  al. 2021: Pretorius and Steadman 2018). In Zimbabwe, teacher-training institutions focus on special needs education as opposed to inclusion in education; therefore, most rural teachers lack initial and further training regarding the matter (Mapuranga et al. 2015; UNESCO 2015, 2021). To advance and enhance inclusion in education, the availability of resources such as books, reading aids, and other learning materials for diversity, are necessary (Alves et  al. 2020; Escudero and Espinosa 2021; Manrique et  al. 2018). However, the Zimbabwean education system is experiencing multifarious challenges beyond insufficient textbooks; rising costs of wheelchairs for those living with disabilities, as well as hearing and visual aids for the Deaf, among others. Inclusive education is also affected by the lack of computers, which is exacerbated by the absence of the provision for data to access online teaching (Chidarikire et al. 2021). Hence, it can be observed that there is a dire need for the provision of teaching and learning resources to promote and enhance inclusion in education in Zimbabwean rural schools. Most research studies on this matter were conducted in urban areas (Mapuranga et al. 2015; Dube et al. 2021); very few focused on learners with disabilities in rural areas (Tugi 2017; Uba and Nwoga 2016; UNESCO 2021). In addition, some scholars in Zimbabwe researched university students’ perceptions on Inclusion in education (Chireshe 2013). However, there is a dearth of literature on practising rural teachers’ perception on Inclusion in education. Hence, this chapter unravels Zimbabwean rural teachers’ lived- experiences concerning the implementation of Inclusion in education principles in teaching and learning processes.

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2 Theoretical Framework The exclusion or inclusion of learners in teaching and learning environments is a socially constructed phenomenon. Learners may be excluded from schools due to societal negative perceptions, beliefs, and expectations that classify, label and categorize them according to gender, educational abilities, sexuality, culture, poverty, and disability, among others (Manrique et al. 2018). The socio-cultural theory (Vygotsky 1978) describes inclusion/exclusion as a social process, which is determined by social interactions, language, culture, and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). This theory holds that family, teachers and other knowledgeable people profoundly influence children’s cognition, behavior, feelings and perceptions. Children with disabilities from poor backgrounds, different cultures, and other forms of difference, may feel accepted or rejected depending on the community’s perceptions and beliefs (Mapuranga et  al. 2015; Dube et al. 2021). Thus, society has a great influence in designing and implementing laws and policies that promote Inclusion in education that helps learners with differences to acquire access to equal and quality education (Kufakunesu and Dekeza 2017). Hence, the author contends that all societal stereotypical beliefs and cultural taboos that militate against Inclusion in education in rural schools should be interrogated. To this end, rural teachers who are Inclusion in education enablers should be equipped with adequate knowledge and skills to implement and promote Inclusion in education successfully. Similarly, Sahabria (2022) maintains that teachers have the power to influence society and communities not to exclude learners with differences, but to include them in teaching and learning environments, and thereby promote Inclusion in education (Towell 2021). Summarily, to enhance Inclusion in education in Zimbabwe and to foster its successful implementation, the socio-cultural model will be applied within this chapter in view of rural teachers’ views and lived-experiences.

M. Chidarikire

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3 Research Methodology 3.1 Research Design The Phenomenological research design was used to explore Zimbabwe rural teachers’ ­lived-­experiences regarding the applicability of Inclusion in education principles in teaching and learning processes. Phenomenologists focus on comprehending social phenomena based on the perceptions of participants (Kufakunesu and Dekeza 2017). In support, Creswell and Poth (2018) agree that the role of phenomenologists is to examine people’s experiences in terms of their personal and social settings.

3.2 Participants A sample of twenty participants comprising ten female and ten male rural school teachers participated in this study. The purposive sampling technique was adopted to select participants currently teaching in rural secondary schools, who were knowledgeable, and who have experiences within Inclusion in education rural spaces (Chikuvadze et al. 2020). The author as a researcher utilized open-ended questionnaires to generate data from the participants. Then the participants engaged in responsive discourse to the questions. According to Swartiz et al. (2017), the research questionnaire is a document that has structured questions designed by researchers to elicit responses from participants during the data generation phase. Data was generated through two main questions: What are the challenges affecting Inclusion in education in rural secondary schools and how can such challenges which hinder Inclusion in education in rural secondary schools be mitigated? These two questions were crafted to generate rich information concerning teachers’ perceptions concerning Inclusion in education in Zimbabwe rural schools. The use of openedended questions was based on the ability of teachers to read and write their responses in English (Mavezera and Kufakunesu 2020). In addition, the researcher engaged three Inclusion

in education experts to check the relevance and clarity of the questionnaire items prior to generating data.

3.3 Data Analysis Data which was generated qualitatively from the participants was analyzed through applying thematic analysis which is recommended by Kiger and Varpino (2020). Braun and Clarke (2017, p.  1) define thematic analysis as “a method for analyzing qualitative data that entails searching across a data set to identify, analyze and report patterns”. Thematic analysis was relevant in this study because it assisted the qualitative researcher to “understand experiences, thoughts or behaviours across a data set” (Kiger and Varpino 2020, p.  1). In this study, the aim was to understand teachers’ perceptions on problems affecting Inclusion in education in rural schools. To successfully apply thematic analysis, the researcher followed six steps as proposed by Braun and Clarke (2017): step 1 involved familiarizing oneself with the total set of data many times until one understands the data; step 2 involved generating initial codes to help the researcher to organize data into codes; step 3 required the researcher to examine the coded and collected data in order to look for broader themes; stage 4 required the researcher to review themes extracted from the data which is an analytical process where the researcher looks at the data under each theme to ensure its relevancy; stage 5 engaged the researcher in defining and naming themes, including presenting a narrative description of each theme; lastly, stage 6 dealt with producing the report which included the data analysis and findings. After generating data, the researcher then sorted the data into two themes: teachers’ perceptions on challenges affecting Inclusion in education in rural secondary schools, and teachers’ strategies towards overcoming the challenges hindering Inclusion in education in rural schools. To enhance the quality and trustworthiness of data, the researcher used member-checking as suggested by Creswell and Poth (2018). The cat-

Inclusion in Zimbabwean Rural Schools: Teachers’ Perceptions on Challenges and Mitigating Strategies

egorized data underwent vigorous “pre-analysis, exploration of materials and data treatment, involving inference and interpretation” (Manrique et al. 2018, p. 411).

4 Ethical Considerations Ethical considerations are important to protect participants from harm. In this study, teachers who participated signed informed consent forms to confirm that they voluntarily agreed to participate (Chidarikire 2017). In addition, the researcher explained to the participants that the purpose of the study was purely academic. Moreover, the confidentiality and privacy of participants were protected through the use of codes/ pseudonyms; for example, Teacher 1 (Tarisayi 2022).

5 Findings This section is divided into two sections: The first section deals with a discussion on challenges affecting inclusion in Zimbabwe; and the second section addresses the solutions to challenges that militate against Inclusion in education.

5.1 Challenges Affecting Inclusion in Education in Rural Areas From the responses about the challenges impacting Inclusion in education show that majority has negative attitudes towards Inclusion in education:

5.1.1 The Participants Noted that Most Rural Teachers Do Not Value or Have Negative Attitudes Towards Inclusion in Education Training

They saw Inclusion in education as being unimportant to their professional development during teacher-training. At college and university there are specific Inclusion in education elective modules that are taught to teacher-trainees in order for them to acquire relevant skills and knowledge that

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help the educator to implement Inclusion in education in teaching and learning environments (Sahabria 2022).

5.1.2 The Following Excerpts Exhibit the Negativity Towards Being Trained in Inclusion in Education Female Teacher 1: lt is a waste of time to put more effort in studying a course or module at teacher’s college that l will not use at work. I should put more effort on the modules l major in. The Inclusion in education module which is an elective module is a burden to us and a waste of time.

Male teacher 3: During our teacher training at university we were not attending Inclusion in education module classes. The reason is that the Inclusion in education module was not being examined, therefore there was no need to waste time in studying it.

Most teachers regarded the Inclusion in education module as not being important during initial teacher-training because it was not their main subject of specialization, in addition to it only being an elective module (Mapuranga et al. 2015; Dube et al. 2021). This negative attitude towards Inclusion in education during teacher-training, makes practising teachers not to be interested and/or motivated to study, comprehend and implement Inclusion in education at their schools (Chikuvadze 2021b). According to Mensah et al. (2016) the teachers’ negative beliefs, attitudes and values affect their commitment, and hence impinge on teaching-­learning situations. Below are responses that articulate such beliefs: Male teacher 4: My view is that Inclusion in education deals with issues to do with learners with disabilities. Females are the ones who take care of learners with disabilities and other challenges at home and school. l feel female teachers who deal with learners with disabilities should be taught Inclusion in education.

Female teacher 2: At school where l am teaching, there is no recognition of teachers with Inclusion in education by school administrators. This failure of recognition

M. Chidarikire

76 has affected many teachers as Inclusion in education is not valued and appreciated. Some teachers with other qualifications such as a degree in mathematics go for workshops, but it’s rare for Inclusion in education teachers to go to workshops.

The above responses indicate that the negative beliefs and attitudes of teachers towards Inclusion in education demotivate them from doing their best as their efforts are not valued by education authorities (Mutizwa 2021). Further, some male teachers have negative attitudes towards Inclusion in education as they regard this field as belonging to female qualified personnel (Chidarikire et al. 2021). Moreover, the participants indicated that some school administrators do not appreciate the work of qualified inclusive teachers by not sending them to workshops. This affects the morale of Inclusion in education teachers in rural schools. Chireshe (2013) also noted that the negative perceptions on Inclusion in education are detrimental and there should be ways to promote positive views on Inclusion in education among teachers. On the relevance of university courses, Chikuvadze and Jacobs (2021) assert that effective learning and teaching occurs when content being delivered for learning purposes is regarded as relevant to students’ academic and professional goals. Therefore, there is need to inform both male and female teachers about the importance of Inclusion in education in promoting their professional success and careers via diverse classroom environments. In addition, teacher-training institutions should make the Inclusion in education course / module content not to be gender biased (Mirabito et al. 2016).

5.1.3 The Other Challenge Affecting Inclusion in Education Is the Authorities’ Inability to Successfully Implement Inclusion in Education Policies in Schools It is the view of the rural teachers in this study that the school heads and education authorities do not promote and implement Inclusion in education policies as they regard mainstream classes as a priority (UNESCO 2021).

The role of educational leaders regarding Inclusion in education and its implementation is articulated below: Male Teacher 5: In rural secondary schools our school heads and educational officials from District offices do not implement Inclusion in education policies at our schools. This lack of implementation of Inclusion in education policies by responsible authorities promotes exclusion of learners with disabilities at rural schools. For every policy to be effective there should be support from the school and responsible authorities.

The participants indicated that some school administrators and ‘responsible’ Departmental authorities do not implement Inclusion in education policies; hence, Inclusion in education is not promoted. Zimbabwe has visionary Inclusion in education policies (Mapuranga et  al. 2015) but they are not effectively implemented (Dube et al. 2021). The above articulation by male teacher 5 is supported by Dakwa (2014) who states that Zimbabwe has great laws and policies that support Inclusion in education such as its Constitution (2013) and the signing of the Salamanca Declaration (1994), but policy implementation in rural teaching-learning environments, leaves much to be desired. In support, Manrique et al. (2018) emphasize that teachers of Inclusion in education in Portugal and Brazil believe that the effective implementation of Inclusion in education in rural school’s rests on following the guidelines in educational policies.

5.1.4 The Use of English Language in Teaching and Learning in Rural School Negatively Affect Inclusion in Education Participants in this study hold that schools using the English language as the medium of instruction results in the exclusion of some learners. One participant made the following commented: Female Teacher 6: My learners struggle to understand mathematical concepts because of the lack of comprehending such concepts in the English language.

Inclusion in Zimbabwean Rural Schools: Teachers’ Perceptions on Challenges and Mitigating Strategies

The use of English as the only medium of instruction in teaching and learning environments, especially in rural schools, has been noted as another challenge that adversely affects the success of Inclusion in education in Zimbabwe. According to the language policy in Zimbabwe, from Grade 4 to tertiary level, English is the mandatory language in classrooms (Chidarikre et al. 2021). In Zimbabwe, vernacular languages are taught with the assistance of the English language, but other subjects must be taught in English (Chikuvadze 2021a). Most rural learners come from families where parents and family members are uneducated, and they rarely speak English (Chinyoka and Naidu 2017). According to Vygotsky (1978) language is learnt initially from family members and society at large; however, many Zimbabwean rural communities are not fluent in the English language. The following response speaks to the language issue: Female teacher 7: There is need to empower our learners with English, both in writing and reading skills. This will enhance their English proficiency and lead to their academic success. The majority of learners are failing Geography examinations because of their lack of understanding English.

This observation by teacher 7 above is similar to my personal experiences as a teacher in a rural school as some of my learners failed their examinations because they had an English language deficit. In addition, Zimbabwe’s Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education (2021) noted that the low pass rate was caused by many factors including the lack of English language proficiency among learners. Consequently, it can be assumed that language is a tool that perpetuates the exclusion of learners in rural secondary schools (Chikuvadze 2021a).

5.1.5 Poverty Is a Driver of Inclusion in Zimbabwe Rural Schools Other participants were of the view that poverty was a significant factor that led to exclusion in Zimbabwe learning environments. The majority of Zimbabweans are experiencing poverty and

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are struggling to make ends meet (Newsday, 2022). The comments below point to poverty as a barrier that leads to exclusion: Male teacher 8: Some parents in my community fail to send their children to school because they do not have money to pay school fees. As a result, their children have been excluded from schools.

Female teacher 9: Some parents cannot afford the high cost of internet data and the cost of a smart phone that are being used for online teaching and learning due to COVID-19. As a result, some learners were excluded from learning processes during the COVID-19 pandemic.

From the above responses, it is clear that poverty plays a debilitating role in excluding learners from actively participating in teaching and learning processes. The majority of Zimbabwean primary and secondary schools charge exorbitant school fees which most cannot afford; as a result learners drop out of school (Progressive Teachers Union of Zimbabwe, 2022). Furthermore, learning materials such as internet connection, smart phones, uniforms, and textbooks are very expensive in Zimbabwe; and those learners who cannot afford them are excluded from schools (Chinyoka and Naidu 2017). Some scholars in Zimbabwe found that education is now a rare commodity among the poor, and it is only accessible to the rich (Chikuvadze and Jacobs 2021; Mutizwa 2021)).

5.1.6 Gender Exclusion Which Has Negatively Affects Inclusion in Education in Zimbabwe In some instances, female learners are excluded from enrolling for subjects such as Mathematics, Science, and Engineering. The following teachers’ responses are indicative of gender discrimination: Male teacher 10 We have a few girls who are doing Physics, Chemistry and other so called ‘male subjects’, while there are few male learners doing subjects

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78 such as Home Economics, Languages and other so-called ‘female subjects.

Female teacher 7: At our school there are no male teachers teaching Grade Zero to Grade 3. Early Childhood classes are taught by female teachers who are regarded as caring, loving and motherly. Male teachers teach higher grades such as Grade 5 to 7 because they are regarded as tough and able to discipline older learners.

The above responses by the participants show that education in Zimbabwe is still demarcated along gender lines. Dakwa (2014) noted that many female learners avoid subjects such as Mathematics because society discourages them from enrolling for these so-called “tough subjects”. In Zimbabwe, it has been noted that there are subjects that males despise, such as Home Economics (Herald 2017). It is evident that teachers who act as role-models to learners, also influence their perceptions about subject-choice. The majority of female teachers teach subjects such as Home Economics and lower grades, as compared to male teachers who teach Science and upper grades (Mickney and Swartz 2016)). Hence, gender equality is still a pipe-dream in Zimbabwe’s education system.

5.1.7 Zimbabwe Policies That Discriminate against Pregnant Learners from Attending Schools Have Contributed to the Exclusion of Female Learners in Zimbabwe According to Zimbabwe’s Ministry of Women Affairs and Gender (2021), there are 2000 learners who fell pregnant in Zimbabwean schools and were expelled from school. This further excludes female learners from school. The following excerpt articulates this form of gender exclusion: Female Teacher 9: Thirteen learners fell pregnant last year at our school, and unfortunately two learners died whilst giving birth. The other 11 learners dropped out of school. Our school policy is very clear, if a learner

becomes pregnant, we automatically expel her. We are a religious-based school.

It is evident from the participant’s perceptions that pregnancies among learners have been regarded as being ‘criminal’ such that (pregnant) female learners are prevented from achieving their academic goals. In Zimbabwe there are many female learners who have dropped out of school because of being pregnant (Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education 2021). Some schools that are owned by religious organizations have policies that are against teenage pregnancies, and any learner found to be pregnant is expelled from school (Herald 2021).

5.2 The Following Section Deals with Solutions to Mitigate Exclusion in Zimbabwe Rural Schools 5.2.1 Need to Train Teachers in Inclusion in Education There is great need to adequately educate and train teachers about the importance and relevance of Inclusion in education in Zimbabwe rural schools (Chidarikire et  al. 2021). It is advised that adequate information should be disseminated among teachers concerning the relevance and importance of Inclusion in education as this will eradicate negative attitudes and improve inclusivity (Tugi 2017). The following articulations provide evidence about the provision of information: Male teacher 8: l had a negative attitude about Inclusion in education. However, l got adequate information about Inclusion in education, and this awareness helped me to appreciate and implement Inclusion in education in my class. My understanding of Inclusion in education was enhanced after l managed to enrol for a degree in Inclusion in education with one institution outside Zimbabwe.

Female teacher 7: Learners should be taught on the importance of Inclusion in education. Learners through peer pressure may influence each other to study and learn

Inclusion in Zimbabwean Rural Schools: Teachers’ Perceptions on Challenges and Mitigating Strategies subjects that are regarded as either male or female subjects.

The above responses provide evidence that effective Inclusion in education awareness programmes foster teachers and learners’ positive attitudes and perceptions towards Inclusion in education that may lead to equal access to education (Chireshe 2013). Some scholars maintain that teachers and learners are promoters of Inclusion in education, and therefore, they advance the goals of Inclusion in education (Dakwa 2014; Dube et al. 2021). Also, Zimbabwe teacher-training institutions should have compulsory and relevant Inclusion in education programmes as currently there is only a special needs education module (Moodley 2016; UNESCO 2021).

5.2.2 The Other Solution to Combat the Exclusion of Learners in Zimbabwe Rural Schools Is the Effective Implementation of Policies that Support Inclusion in Education The following responses bear testimony to this fact: Male teacher 6: At our school there is some progress in fulfilling the agenda of Inclusion in education because we are implementing Inclusion in education policies. For example, we have a 50-50 ratio of male and female teachers teaching Sciences, Mathematics and Biology at our school.

Female teacher 5: We are enrolling equal or slightly fewer female and male learners in all subject classes. We deliberately formulated these Inclusion in education policies to give both boys and girls equal opportunities to learn.

The researcher has noted that in Zimbabwe there are policies to promote Inclusion in education but there is a lack of will concerning implementation. Most scholars in Zimbabwe who focus on Inclusion in education also found out that there is little or no enforcement of Inclusion in education policies in rural schools (Chinyoka and Naidu 2017; Mutizwa 2021). As a result, there is a

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greater need for the education authorities to urgently enforce the implementation of Inclusion in education in rural schools.

5.2.3 The Participants Noted That Language Inclusion Is another Solution to Enhance Inclusion in Education Since, teachers and learners use language to communicate, there is need to teach in a language that is understood by both parties (Chidarikire, Muza, & Beans, 2020). On language issue, the following response was pertinent: Male teacher 4: We as teachers should allow learners to use vernacular language(s) that learners understand. However, the challenge is that there is lack of textbooks and reading materials in vernacular languages.

In contrast, one female participant expressed the following view: The English language should be used in teaching and learning. The English language is the mode of communication in many countries, therefore there is a need to have extra lessons in English so as to improve learners’ English language proficiency.

The views expressed by participants above reflect that the English language currently being used in teaching and learning rural environments also contributes to academic exclusion. As a result, some participants advocate for the use of vernacular languages in teaching and learning in Zimbabwe as supported by Zimbabwe Constitution (2013). On the other hand, other participants recommend the use of English language as a medium of instruction because it is the international language of communication (Chidarikre et al. 2021).

5.2.4 Gender Inclusion Is Another Solution to Deal with the Exclusion of Female and Male Learners in Rural Schools Since the Zimbabwe Constitution (2013) give males and females equal rights to education, in rural schools there is a need to give male and

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female learners equal access to learning subjects such as Mathematics, Home Economics, and other subjects which were previously based on gender (Chikuvadze and Jacobs 2021). In this regard, the following response is noteworthy: Female teacher 3: At our school we have an equal number of learners (males and females) doing the same subject. We are promoting equality among our learners. We have a policy that promotes equality in terms of enrolment of learners at our school. To promote gender inclusion, career counseling should be offered to our learners for them to choose subjects that help them to achieve their goals.

From the above evidence on gender inclusion, it is advocated that all learners be given equal opportunity to enroll for subjects they prefer in order to realize their career goals. To enhance equality among learners, schools should exert a deliberate effort to enroll female and male learners in all subjects (Zimbabwe Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education 2021). Furthermore, teachers and school counselors should provide counseling to all learners as this helps learners to allay the fear of subjects such as Mathematics while engendering confidence in learners (Mickney and Swartz 2016).

5.2.5 On Dealing with Poverty, the Participants Argued That There Is Need to Assist Needy Learners Poverty negatively affects inclusion in Zimbabwe rural schools thus there is much need to support learners from disadvantaged and marginalized rural communities such that they gain easy access to schooling (Chinyoka and Naidu 2017; Tugi 2017). The following responses indicate the level of assisting poverty-stricken learners in rural areas: Male teacher 2: At our school we have engaged business communities, religious organizations and non-governmental organizations that are supporting our learners with school fees, uniforms and textbooks.

Female teacher 1: Our School Development Community (SDC) led by parents with learners at school have bought and installed internet equipment, provided computers, and gave data for learners and teachers to use during their studies. This has helped the poor learners.

The researcher realized that there is a need for collective engagements between business, religious bodies, and other community-based organizations to assist learners from economically disadvantaged societies (Dube et al. 2021). Also, it is necessary for the Government of Zimbabwe to increase and timeously allocate educational funds to disadvantaged rural schools to assist learners (Ministry of Social Welfare 2020). The Zimbabwe Government supports rural and urban disadvantaged learners by paying their primary and secondary school fees by applying the Basic Education Assistance Model [BEAM] (Mapuranga et al. 2015). However, most scholars found that the money from the Government was not enough for the many school expenses (Chinyoka and Naidu 2017). To assist the Government, parents through School Development Communities were encouraged to mobilize to provide resources such as school fees and educational materials to support learners who are struggling financially (Chidarikire et al. 2021; Ministry of Social Welfare 2020).

5.2.6 To Mitigate Early Pregnancies Among Rural Female Learners, Participants Advocate for Sex Education In order to deal with early pregnancies among female learners the participants recommend that sex education, provision of contraceptives and sanitary items, and abstinence from sex by school learners have been advocated as solutions to avoid early pregnancies among female learners in rural schools (UNESCO 2021). To reduce the devastating effects of early pregnancies among rural learners, the following was articulated:

Inclusion in Zimbabwean Rural Schools: Teachers’ Perceptions on Challenges and Mitigating Strategies

Male teacher 4:

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Studies provide evidence of the effectiveness of sex education in reducing early child pregnancies among primary and secondary school learners (TellZim 2021). Sex education provides learners with knowledge concerning early pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases, among others. Some participants contended that the Government, schools, non-governmental organizations, and parents should allow learners to use contraceptives such as condoms and birth-control pills, among others (Ministry of Social Welfare 2020; Mutizwa 2021)). However, there is much debate concerning the use of contraceptives by school learners among religious and political leaders, school authorities, parents, learners and community members. Some groups are for it, while others are against the use of contraceptives by school learners (Sunday Mail, 2020).

• Teachers and learners should be proficient in both English and vernacular languages as this enhances inclusiveness in rural schools. Hence, educational materials must be written in both English and in the vernacular languages. Also, additional school hours should be devoted to those who lack English proficiency. • Robust Inclusion in education awareness campaigns should be rolled-out in order to remove negative perceptions and myths that are obstructing the implementation of Inclusion in education in rural areas. • Gender inclusion in all spheres should be seriously adhered to (Zimbabwe Constitution, 2013). There should be no discrimination concerning males and females when enrolling for subjects of their choice. • Collaboration between schools and community leaders should be renewed, enhanced, and promoted in rural areas in order to access educational resources such as school fees, food, books, and uniforms. • There should be specific and effective educational policies that do not disadvantage pregnant learners who should be allowed to continue with their studies. Sign language and strategies to assist the visually impaired should be included in pre-service and/or in-­ service programmes to promote Inclusion in education in rural schools.

6 Recommendations

7 Conclusion

The following are the recommendations emanating from this study:

This chapter unpacked the perceptions of Zimbabwe rural teachers on Inclusion in education. In this qualitative study, twenty participants participated after they were purposefully selected. The socio-cultural theory was followed as a theoretical framework guided by the phenomenological methodology. It was noted that some teachers in rural areas have limited or no knowledge of Inclusion in education. However, the majority of teachers in Zimbabwean rural schools understand Inclusion in education as a vehicle to integrate learners with disabilities into mainstream classes. There is a great necessity to re-interpret the con-

There is need to effectively teach our female and male learners about sex education. Teachers and peer learners should teach learners about sex education. This helps learners to know the dangers of early sexual engagements and ways to protect oneself from early pregnancies such as using contraceptives.

Female teacher 3: Learners should be able to abstain from early sexual acts and have self-control. This protects them from early pregnancies.

• School authorities must be committed to implementing Inclusion in education policies in rural schools through legislation to ensure its success. • Since some teachers have a limited understanding of Inclusion in education, it is therefore necessary that teacher-training programmes to include Inclusion in education as a stand-alone module or course that will be compulsory at college or university levels.

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cept of Inclusion in education to include aspects such as gender equality, language proficiency, teen pregnancy, and sign language learning, among others. Therefore, it is recommended that Inclusion in education should be entrenched as a compulsory module or course at university or college level as a way to equip future teachers with relevant and adequate Inclusion in education knowledge, skills, expertise, and practice to affect Inclusion in education in disadvantaged rural schools. The author anticipates that this study will assist in prompting changes in the Zimbabwean education system, especially regarding Inclusion in education.

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M. Chidarikire Chireshe R (2013) The state of inclusion in education in Zimbabwe: bachelor of education (special needs education) students’ perceptions. J Soc Sci 34(3):223–228 Creswell JW, Poth CN (2018) Qualitative inquiry and research design choosing among five approaches, 4th edn. Sage Publication, London Dakwa EF (2014) Inclusion of children with visual impairments in regular schools. Int J Acad Res Progress Educ Dev 3(1):89–97 Dube T, Ncube SB, Mapuvire CC, Ndlovu S, Ncube C, Mlotshwa S (2021) Interviews to reduce the exclusion of children with disabilities from education: a Zimbabwean perspective from the field. Cogent Soc Sci 7(3):1–16 Escudero R, Espinosa CR (2021) Inclusion in education is at risk in Brazil. [online]. www.hrw.org. Accessed 11 July 2022 Gitschthaler M, Kast J,Corazza R, Schwat S (2021) Resources for inclusion in education in Austria: an insight into the perception of teachers. [online]. www. emerald.com. Accessed 11 July 2022 Government of New Zealand. Ministry of Education (2020) Inclusion in education. [Online]. www.education.govt.nz. Accessed 23 Aug 2022 Herald (2017) Government supports inclusive. https:// www.herald.co.zw. Accessed 7 Dec 2022 Herald (2021) Legislators call for inclusive. https://www. herald.co.zw. Accessed 7 Dec 2022 Kiger ME, Varpino L (2020) Thematic analysis of qualitative data: AMEE guide 131. Med Teach J 13(2):1–10 Kufakunesu M, Dekeza C (2017) Professional differences and ebbs in self-efficacy as lecturers undertake teaching practice supervision in Zimbabwe. Educ Res Int 6(1):50–62 Manrique A, Dirani E, Moreira GE, Arezes PM (2018) Teachers’ perceptions on inclusion in basic school. Int J Educ Manag 2(33):409–419 Mapuranga B, Dumba O, Musanza B (2015) The impact of inclusion in education and the rights of children with intellectual disabilities in Chegutu. J Educ Pract 6(30):214–223 Mavezera TF, Kufakunesu M (2020) Psychology of education as an in-service teacher-training module. Int J Res Innov Soc Sci 4(4):133–139 Mensah C, Paolo V, Greene FS (2016) Research methods anxiety, attitude, self-efficiency and academic effort. https://www.tandfonline.com. Accessed 4 Dec 2022 Mickney EL, Swartz L (2016) Life in special schools in SA: voice of the former students. Int J Disabil Dev Educ 63(3):309–321 Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education (2021) Inclusion. https://education-profiles.org. Accessed 7 Dec 2022 Ministry of Social Welfare (2020) An inside perspective on the Department of Social Welfare. https://www.scielo.org.za. Accessed 6 Dec 2022 Progressive Teachers Union of Zimbabwe (2022) Teachers not ready for work. https://allafrica.com. Accessed 7 Dec 2022

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Full-Service Schools and Inclusion in South Africa Gladys I. Ayaya and Tsediso M. Makoelle

regarding the professional development and upskilling of teachers for inclusive teaching in full-service schools. This chapter discusses the achievements and challenges faced in the implementation of inclusive education in fullservice schools. Using Action Research that required observation, interviews and focus group meetings, 12 teachers and approximately 15 learners at a full-service school in Johannesburg East District were engaged in a research project over a six-month period. Results from an inductive analysis of the qualitative data revealed that many teachers do not fully understand the meaning of inclusive teaching, hence, their teaching practices were not necessarily supportive of inclusive in education.

Abstract

Full-service schools enroll students, with and without, barriers to learning, requiring their teachers to adopt curriculum delivery strategies that respond to the needs of diverse students in the classroom. Full-service schools came into existence as part of South Africa’s journey towards Inclusive Education as a recommendation from the Education White Paper number 6 policy on Special Needs Education in 2001. The implementation of Education White Paper 6 policy through full-service schools, advocates for the rights of all children to have access to education without discrimination of their learning needs. The challenge for the government of South Africa is to ensure that full-service schools have teachers trained for inclusive teaching. However, the literature reviewed revealed that the relevant authorities have not accomplished anything significant G. I. Ayaya University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] T. M. Makoelle (*) University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa Nazarbayev University Graduate School of Education, Nazarbayev University, Astana, Kazakhstan e-mail: [email protected]

Keywords

Barriers to learning · Diverse learner needs · Full-service schools · Implementation of inclusive education · Inclusion

1

Introduction

The South African Education system has undergone much reform over the past three decades: From a separated Apartheid system (e.g., the Bantu Education system); to one that is striving for Inclusive Education for all. From 1948 to

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Hlalele, T. M. Makoelle (eds.), Inclusion in Southern African Education, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43752-6_7

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1994, South African Education was divided under the Apartheid regime where White students received a superior quality education while the Black students were restricted, disadvantaged, and exploited of any rights to a quality education. The aim was to keep the Black and Coloured populations in the lower socio-economic bracket (Storbeck and Martin 2013) by offering them a curriculum that was at the very best, aimed at vocational training. This was achieved through restricting funding for Black schools so that their class sizes remained crowded, with less qualified teachers. Only 15% of the teachers in Black schools had a teacher’s training qualification (Ocampo 2004). On the other hand, the White schools are reported to have had over 96% of their teachers qualified, and with much smaller class sizes. The Indian and Coloured communities had their percentages of qualified teacher and class sizes lying somewhere in between the Black and White proportions. It was not surprising that in 1994, when South Africa became independent, the new government prioritised addressing educational inequalities (Lemon 2005). The government allocated more funds to the education of the previously marginalised. Education currently has the most significant government budget allocation compared to other government departments. Children from economically disadvantaged areas do not pay any school fees (SA Schools Act 84, 1996; Sayed and Soudien 2005) and instead, they receive 100% funding including, uniforms and school lunches. In addition, their school buildings are built and maintained by the government, and also, the teachers’ salaries are fully funded by the government. The South African Schools Act 84 (1996) strives to ensure that no children are disadvantaged from getting quality education and this has therefore put the responsibility of apportioning school funds on the school governing bodies. White Paper no. 6 policy on special needs education (DoE 2001. P.6) describes inclusive education and training as one that “acknowledges that all children and youth can learn and need support.” This policy document addresses inclusive education as an education system that includes children with barriers to learning, neces-

G. I. Ayaya and T. M. Makoelle

sitating significant changes to teacher training, and in the way teaching and learning is to be implemented. Inclusion requires better-equipped schools and the upgrading of the existing ones to include teacher training for inclusive teaching. The implementation of this policy is what led to the emergence of this category of inclusive schools called full-service schools. The Education White Paper no. 6 stipulated that all existing schools would be divided into three categories. There would be ordinary schools that would continue functioning as they are, some of the better equipped ordinary schools would be converted into full-service schools that are inclusive and accept children, with or without, barriers to learning. A category of special schools would function as resource centres to provide services and professional resources for the full-service schools while catering for learners with severe learning difficulties. The Department of Basic Education (2010) in its guideline for full-service schools has stipulated and acknowledged the role of the teacher in implementing inclusion in the classroom. There is, however, little information that provides guidance for teachers in the South African schools on how they can go about practically implementing inclusive teaching methods in their daily teaching while supporting diverse learner needs in their classrooms, hence the need for this research. Research conducted in South Africa shows that progress towards inclusive education has been slow and the accomplishment by the South African Department of Education regarding training teachers for Inclusive Education to enable them work in the full-service schools, has not been achieved. In an investigation to establish guidelines to assist secondary school teachers with the implementation of differentiated learning, De Jager (2011) reported that 95.6% of teachers that were interviewed throughout the country, indicated that they were either never or seldom trained, on how to teach learners who experience barriers to learning. The teachers interviewed confirmed this by expressing a lack of support in this regard. The South African Department of Basic Education (DBE 2014) has established District-­

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Based Support Teams (DBST) that are to provide professional support services and draw expertise in further and higher education communities. This is because it acknowledges the role of the teacher in implementing inclusion in the classroom as key to the success of inclusion. Workshops such as the one conducted by Dalton et al. (2012) at the University of Cape town where they trained workshop attendees on how to apply “the Universal Design for Learning” (UDL) tools to support teachers and learners of inclusive classrooms, demonstrate some of the strides that have been made in training teachers for inclusion. There is, however, very little proof of follow up programmes to show how well the teachers have been able to implement those tools and strategies after the conclusion of the workshop. Therefore, this research sought to establish: • What are some of the achievements made by the introduction of full-service schools? • What are the challenges still facing the implementation of full-service schools? Stemming from the research questions, the research objectives were: • To document the achievements made by the introduction of full-service schools • To identify the challenges facing the implementation of full-service schools The next chapter outlines the research context that led to the findings in this book chapter.

2 Research Context In 2001, the Education White Paper 6 on special needs education (DoE 2001, p.16) was introduced in order to address the schooling of children with barriers to learning. The policy document defines Inclusive Education and Training as: • Acknowledging that all children and youth can learn and that all children and youth need support;

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• Enabling education structures, systems and learning methodologies to meet the needs of all learners; • Changing attitudes, behaviour, teaching methods, curricula and environments to meet the needs of all learners; • Maximising the participation of all learners in the culture and the curriculum of educational institutions and uncovering and minimising barriers to learning.” (DoE 2001, p. 6) Both the Education White Paper 6 policy (DoE 2001) and the Policy on Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (DBE 2014) advocate for significant reforms that will make education accessible; help change teacher attitudes; alter teaching methodologies; enhance curriculum delivery and the learning environment in order to meet the needs of the learners. Although the government has published the guidelines on how the process is to be conducted, the reality on the ground is that it is still a mammoth task for a teacher of an inclusive classroom to convert policy into practice. According to the SIAS policy, staff professional development and support is to be administered by established district-­ based support teams that are to draw expertise from higher education institutions and local communities by targeting special schools and designated full-service schools. The government has already taken the first steps of identifying some schools that have been converted into full-service schools. These schools are to provide education to all learners regardless of background, disability, gender, or creed. It is for this reason that this study explored the extent to which teachers at full-service schools have implemented the inclusive policies stipulated by the government in their teaching, as measures to address learner barriers to learning. The recent global developments that have seen education embrace online learning due to COVID-19 complexities have dealt another blow to inclusive education. The move to online and blended learning left students who needed support with their learning stranded as most of their teachers were still new to the use of technology hence did not know how to differentiate lessons

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in order to offer support while doing online teaching (Ayaya 2023). Although online learning offered some flexibility with regards to time management, it did not offer the guided flexibility and support for learning that some of the students required in an inclusive set up. In 2018, out of the 83 primary schools in the Johannesburg East District, only five of them had been upgraded to become full-service schools. It can, therefore, be said that inclusive schooling in South Africa is evolving at a snail’s pace in this post-Apartheid democracy. This research took place in Johannesburg East Education District, where only 6% of its ordinary schools converted to full-service schools (inclusive schools) since the 2001 White Paper 6 on special needs education was released. According to government records obtainable at the Gauteng Department of Education, it has taken over 20 years to convert five of the 83 primary schools into full-service schools. The remaining 78 schools have shown little or no signs of transforming. This is contrary to the UNESCO report (2013) which shows that more than 15% of the world population are people with disabilities, which comes to more than one billion people that have to be catered for through inclusive education. There is a need to have more schools include children with barriers to learning, where they will get access to quality education without being excluded in the system.

3 Literature Review 3.1 Definition of Full-Service Schools These are previously ordinary mainstream schools that have been improved, upgraded, equipped, and resourced to provide education to all learners regardless of their background, disability, gender or creed. The staff have also been upskilled and have access to professional support from special resourced schools and district support teams (DBE 2014). The policy on Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (SIAS) (DBE 2014)

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offers guidelines on how Inclusive Education is to be implemented. The fundamentals of it include how to match and place learners with barriers to learning to specific schools. It, therefore, categorises all schools into three groupings: • Ordinary Schools: these are ordinary schools as we know them, and they continue to run as they have been running, except that they can admit learners with low levels of support and mainstream them. • Full-Service Schools: Some of the ordinary schools are to be selected and upgraded to become well-resourced, better equipped and supported in order to provide for a broad range of learning needs as inclusive schools. The plan is to upskill the teachers with sufficient information on inclusive pedagogy, through a course in Advanced Certificate in Education (ACE) programmes in Inclusive Education. • Special Schools: For learners with severe learning needs, especially those requiring full time? care, special schools will continue to be open to supporting them. Special schools will be resourced with a multidisciplinary team of personnel to become resource centres that will provide expertise to the full-service schools. • District-Based Support Teams (DBST): These are government employees that are specialists in the area of Inclusive Education that will be based in the district and will visit Full-­ Service Schools to offer support and training on an ongoing basis and are tasked with offering a range of support services. By definition, (DBE 2010), full-service schools are: • “Full-service/inclusive schools, colleges, further and higher education institutions are first and foremost mainstream education institutions that provide quality education to all learners by supplying the full range of learning needs in an equitable manner; • They should strive to achieve access, equity, quality and social justice in education;

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• They promote a sense of belonging so that all learners, staff and families experience a sense of worth in the learning community; • They have the capacity to respond to diversity by providing appropriate education for individual needs of learners, irrespective of disability or differences in learning style or pace, or social difficulties experienced; and • They establish methods to assist curriculum and institutional transformation to ensure both an awareness of diversity, and an awareness that additional support is available to those learners and educators who need it.” The Education White Paper 6 also lists classroom educators as the primary resource for achieving the goal of Inclusive Education (DoE 2001, p18). This means that educators need to improve their skills and knowledge as well as develop new strategies in order to function well in full-service schools. Staff development in schools, and at district level, is critical for putting in place successfully integrated educational practices. Inclusive teaching and learning recognise that all students can learn. Inclusive teaching understands and responds to students’ different ways and rates of learning through creating multiple ways of presentation so that all the different barriers to learning are accommodated. The South African Education Department expects full-service schools to cater for learners with all forms of barriers to learning. Barriers to learning are classified into four broad categories (Kubayi 2010; Weeks and Erradu 2013; Wium and Louw 2015; DBE 2014) as, systemic barriers, societal Barriers, pedagogic barriers and intrinsic barriers.

3.2 The Roll-out of Full-Service Schools As already stated, the government has endorsed some policies in support of inclusion in education. Among them are guidelines to aid teachers in implementing inclusive pedagogy, of which, teachers in schools have a basic understanding of what Inclusive Education means (Engelbrecht

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et al. 2016). They view it as a fundamental human right that guarantees the acceptance of every learner into the school regardless of what their learning challenges are. It is understood more to mean “admitting” learners with barriers to learning in schools, but not necessarily including them in their teaching. A study by Engelbrecht et  al. (2016) titled “The idealism of education policies and the realities in school”, on the implementation of Inclusive Education, found that although the government has good policies in place, their implementation was not yet a reality and that teacher training was still not sufficient. Their report found that “… both mainstreaming and ELSEN classroom teachers continued to express a lack of knowledge regarding the roles and responsibilities of full-service schools…” (Engelbrecht et al. 2016: p.  528). The teachers who were interviewed reported that they had been trained to teach in ordinary schools and that they were not equipped on how to deal with learning disabilities. These teachers stated that they did not know how to deal with children with barriers to learning, hence they referred them to ELSEN classes where they were given differentiated work and taught by remedial teachers. Therefore, a positive role that the policies on Inclusive Education have played was on creating awareness and highlighting what Inclusive Education is, which was well- articulated as the inclusion of all learners in a school (as a human right). However, this merely referred to the placement of these learners in schools. Research on how to include the learners, and on models of teacher education for inclusive teaching in South Africa are not clearly defined (Walton and Lloyd 2012). Many schools have therefore misunderstood Inclusive Education to mean mainstream (Storbeck and Martin 2013), which refers to the physical placing of learners in ordinary schools without offering any form of support or adjustments to the way teaching and learning occurs. Research also found that teachers have negative attitudes towards learners with barriers to learning in diverse classrooms (Donohue and Bornman 2015; Engelbrecht et  al. 2016). Negative attitudes were found to be related to

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their lack of training on how to work with diverse learners. These negative attitudes affect teacher expectations of the performance of the learners, which meant that the teachers set low academic standards for some of the learners. In contrast, the same research found that although the negative attitudes limited the goals that the teachers set for learners with barriers to learning, they were, in agreement that these learners with barriers to learning benefitted in terms of their social development from interacting with other learners in full-service schools. Teachers were found not to have much resistance towards including learners with physical disabilities as opposed to those with learning disabilities as they felt that physical disabilities did not adversely rely on their ­pedagogical approaches. Walton (2011), in a separate research paper/project that sought to incorporate the voices of learners with barriers to learning towards seeking a solution to Inclusive Education  – recommends that interventions to issues such as social exclusion and negative attitudes can be reached if the learners’ views are expressed and used as a source of knowledge for inclusion. A recent study on the experiences of mothers with autistic children suggests that poor attitudes to students with barriers to learning could be attributed to a lack of awareness and acceptance that comes through knowledge and training (Manono and Clasquin-Johnson 2023). South African teachers continue to lament over large and overcrowded classes. A lack of sufficient resources such as adapted learning material, a lack of access to technology in the classroom, large class sizes that do not promote individual attention, a lack of time for collaborative planning, and insufficient training of teachers, are all factors that do not promote inclusive teaching and learning. Instead, they add to the problem of negative attitudes towards teaching in full-service classrooms, especially in the low-­ income areas where the problems exist on a larger scale. Unfortunately, since most middle class and the wealthy do not send their children to these low-income schools (Lemon 2005), these schools do not have loud voices to advocate for them to get a better-quality education. Many of them lack well-resourced libraries, school halls, computers

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with skilled personnel and adequate sports facilities for holistic learner development (Engelbrecht et al. 2016). It has been reported that factors that promote successful inclusive teaching in schools include, having teachers’ aids, smaller class sizes and the use of special equipment such as braille. Exam accommodations for learners with barriers to learning need to be in place, there needs to be flexible teaching schedules that allow for teachers to plan collaboratively and manage their workload (Donohue and Bornman 2015, p.44). Walton (2011) on her research from clinic to classroom, accompanied her honours students to see how they implemented their knowledge of Inclusive Education through Action Research. She agrees with the above factors by Donohue and Bornman (2015), especially the one on collaboration but cautions that some teachers were resistant to collaboration that brought about changes because they were accustomed to their old habits and feared change that threatened their expertise. Her research found that for inclusive teaching to happen well, teachers have to develop a collaborative and classroom-based knowledge of inclusive practice by implementing, reflecting on, and theorising inclusive pedagogies” that worked for them and apply them. Furthermore, South African universities have had to relook at their training in order to prepare teachers for teaching in full-service schools. However, most of this training is based on inclusive practices from countries abroad (Walton and Lloyd 2012). The University of Pretoria has done surveys to establish teacher attitudes towards inclusion (Donohue and Bornman 2015) and found that teachers expected learners with barriers to learning to benefit only socially in terms of participating in sports and non-curricular activities. Similar research on the inclusion of deaf learners (Storbeck and Martin 2013) found that teachers were setting low expectations for deaf learners. These learners did not have the opportunity to access higher goals as set in the curriculum because of the watered-down approach. Although the Department of Basic Education (2014) expects the Inclusive Education teacher to connect and engage with their learners in order to

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maximise participation, crowded classrooms with less trained teachers result in unsuccessful and negative attitudes towards learners with barriers to learning. Walton and Lloyd (2012). Hence the need for support from collaboration with a multidisciplinary team of psychologists, speech and language therapists, doctors, parents and teachers in order to fully understand and support the needs of the learner (Wium and Louw 2015). Unfortunately, schools in the rural and low-­ income urban areas do not have the much-needed multidisciplinary teams. Their teachers do not, therefore, get expert advice and insight into the learning challenges of what these learners face, except for the few government personnel with expertise from the district offices, who are ­overstretched in trying to serve all the full-­service schools in their districts. Other factors that have been found to be supportive of inclusion in full-service schools include: the collaboration of teachers who were working together in order to come up with good teaching practices (Wium and Louw 2015) and the layout of the CAPS curriculum which was designed with differentiation in mind. Hence, offering teachers alternatives to teaching diverse classes (Wium and Louw 2015), while the use of different African languages as the medium of instruction for teaching Grades 1–3 was found to segregate on who attends which school (Sayed and Soudien 2005).

3.3 Teaching Approaches in Full-­ Service Schools Different full-service schools appear to approach inclusion differently depending on the resources available. (a) Remedial support by withdrawing learners from class Before the passing of the Education White Paper 6 on Inclusive Education, children with barriers to learning were taught separately, either in special schools or in remedial classes, that formed a part of some school systems. Although this is currently viewed as the medical paradigm

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(Dreyer 2013; Engelbrecht et  al. 2016) because such an education system aimed at fixing the deficit in the child, some teachers of diverse classes grapple with the varying of their teaching to suit the diverse needs of their learners and resulted to having these learners withdrawn from the classes and taught separately by a remedial teacher. Research findings also show that special schools continue to function by segregating learners with what is deemed to be special conditions such as schools for the deaf or Downs Syndrome (Storbeck and Martin 2013), where these children do not get access to high-level thinking skills in the curriculum. This is denying equal access to education because their disability in hearing does not necessarily equate to their inability to grasp high-level cognitive knowledge and skills. Hence it creates non-equal opportunities. The government, therefore, must speed up the training of teachers in full-service schools to be able to teach all children regardless of their barriers. (b) Classroom-based support Inclusive teaching recognises that all children can learn under the right conditions (DoE 2001). The government’s intention in White Paper 6 was to move away from this medical model towards more Inclusive Education with the use of learning support in order to address the learning needs of the child in a more holistic manner. The aim, therefore, was to amend the education system in order to meet the needs of the child, as opposed to fixing the child. Learning support is, therefore, defined as any form of support, assistance and guidance given to learners who experience barriers to learning in order to help them overcome their barriers (DoE 2001, p15). Classroom-based Learning Support Educators who collaborate with regular classroom teachers have replaced remedial teachers so that the needs of the learners are met in a regular classroom environment and not in a separate classroom. Research done in Western Cape Province on the changing roles of learning support teachers confirmed just that: The role of remedial teachers is being replaced by learning support teachers. It also showed that speech and language therapists

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are moving away from helping individual children (Wium and Louw 2015; Weeks and Erradu 2013) and instead, are moving towards working as part of a collaborative team where they share skills to work with other children in similar circumstances with teachers of inclusive classes. Makoelle (2014) found that as a result of collaboration between the regular classroom teachers and the learning support educators, teachers are adapting to more inclusive pedagogical practices such as the use of cooperative learning, peer tutoring, modification of assessments tasks, as well as the use of exam accommodations. Their role is more of a solution-focused approach in looking for ways to make teaching and learning happen for the learners with barriers to learning, as opposed to a problem-focused approach of fixing the deficit in the learner (Dreyer 2013). They are viewed as agents of change in ensuring maximum participation of all learners as they have the more expert knowledge and insight into specific learner profiles. It is, however, crucial that the role of a classroom Learning Support Educator be well-outlined for there to be a smooth working and collaborative relationship that avoids conflict. The leading role of educating the learner remains in the hands of the regular teacher, while the support teacher (Wium and Louw 2015) is to support and collaborate with the classroom teacher in the following ways: • The learning support teacher compiles resource files; • Helps the teachers with programmes and differentiation; • Consults with the class teacher and parents; • Gives input at institutional level support meetings; • Is responsible for the diagnostic testing of learners’ scholastic ability and; • Manages referrals to special schools. The next chapter looks at the methodology that was applied in collecting data, analysing it and arriving at the findings.

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4 Research Methodology This was qualitative research that used an action research design through critical paradigm lenses. Critical theory was applied because inclusive education involves the rights of children who have previously been excluded from schooling.

4.1 Research Design Action Research design follows a characteristic cycle. To begin with, an exploration of the problem is conducted, followed by an intervention strategy. The intervention/action is then carried out, together with a series of observations that are conducted in various forms. The newly found interventional strategies are then implemented, and the cyclic process repeats itself. This continues until a sufficient solution to the problem is reached (Makoelle and Van der Merwe 2014). Action Research was the preferred research design, mainly because, unlike traditional research approaches that instruct teachers on what to do, AR empowers teachers to arrive at their own practical solutions that are relevant to their own contexts. There is flexibility in them having a chance to critique their teaching and formulate new strategies. Planning is the initial phase AR, and during this phase, we collected background information on the schools through interviews with the school management. This included clarification of research objectives and setting time plans. The planning phase was followed by the observation phase, which looked at the current practice, to establish which ones promoted inclusive teaching, and which ones did not. The action phase involved replacing the non-desired actions with the good practices and the newly identified solutions. The final stage was the reflection phase which reflecting on the new actions and coming up with new improvements where needed. This was to be repeated over several months until the process reached saturation.

Full-Service Schools and Inclusion in South Africa

4.2 Research Site The selected school became inclusive in 2010 and is in an impoverished neighbourhood. The research site was, therefore, north of Johannesburg in a low socio-economic neighbourhood, commonly referred to as a “township” in South African terminology. Most of the parents to these children would have received very little or no education, with no tertiary qualifications and were either unemployed or earning minimal wages as domestic workers, gardeners, casual labourers, taxi drivers or cleaners. Due to their limited literacy levels, this meant that their involvement in the education of their children would be minimal and even worse; they would not fully comprehend the educational rights of children with barriers to learning. Founded Became full-service Number of teachers including heads/deputies Total number of learners Number of learners per class

1945 2010 35 1500 55–65

4.3 Data Analysis Data analysis was done with the aim of deriving meaning out of the collected data. All the notes were scribed, with an audio tape backup, the minutes were read for verification and agreed upon by all participants. The researcher then analysed the data using preliminary data analysis methods (Braun and Clarke 2021). The notes taken were highlighted to find emerging issues and provide a critical direction for further data collection and follow up. In this case, it helped draw up or improve the next questions and cover any gaps, while keeping in mind the research questions and linking them to the rights and needs of all learners. This was therefore done with Critical Theory in mind. It was followed by coding, which involved seeking patterns of responses and looking for causal? casual pathways and connections through group interpretative analysis frameworks. The coded information was then categorised into themes. The diarised self-reflection notes were transposed into desired action words

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by asking ‘what if?’ followed by coding the responses and then content analysis. This was accomplished using multiple ways of data capture. The correlation of data from the different data capture methods supported the validity and dependability of the findings.

4.4 Trustworthiness and Ethical Considerations In line with Lincoln and Guba (1985), trustworthiness is based on the four principles: • Credibility: research procedures were transparent, and the participants were briefed appropriately and only those willing to participate attended, • Transferability: The findings were weighed against literature findings. • Dependability: Triangulation method was used whereby the researcher obtained data from observation, focus group discussion, teacher reflections and interview sessions. • Confirmability: The observations and recordings made confirm that the researcher was open-minded and objective/impartial. • Ethical considerations including confidentiality and protocol were followed (Yin 2010). Permission to conduct the research was granted by the University Ethics Clearance Committee, the appropriate government departments, (GDE and JED), and the school principal. Participation was voluntarily and consent forms were signed with participation kept anonymous. Sampling was done equitably without bias.

5 Findings The findings of the study were categorised into two major areas in accordance with the research questions: • What are some of the achievements realised by the introduction of full-service schools? • What are the challenges still facing the implementation of full-service schools?

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5.1 Achievements Made by the Introduction of Full-­ Service Schools The government, through the implementation of the Policy on Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (SIAS) document (DBE 2014) has had full-service schools reform in the way they run schools as we shall see in this section. (a) Several ordinary schools have been converted to full-service schools and are now resourced and in operation as inclusive schools. For an ordinary school to become a full-service school, there needs to be significant facility upgrades done. These include the construction of ramps around the school for wheelchair learners to access upstairs classrooms. There are also assistive technology devices including computers, talking watches and braille, that have been introduced, but, unfortunately, the schools do not have teachers trained to use braille. There is also the issue of overcrowding and a lack of facilities to meet the needs of inclusive classroom learning environments, as one teacher put it: It is difficult to rotate around the classroom checking on the learners because of overcrowding in the classroom. My class has 65 children.

Despite the achievements made in converting some of the ordinary schools into full- service schools, there continues to be a number of challenges facing these schools. (b) There is evidence of upskilling teachers in full-service schools. Regarding upskilling personnel with essential knowledge for inclusive education, teacher awareness of children with barriers to learning had increased somewhat through workshops that had been held prior to upgrading schools to became full-service. Teachers were generally open to working in an inclusive environment and they understood the socio-economic situation of most of the learners, who were from a poor background.

I feel more creative now, I am now trying new teaching strategies like differentiated teaching, and I move around the classroom identifying the ones that are struggling so that I can assist them.

It is imperative to ensure the ongoing professional development of teachers so that they sharpen their inclusive teaching practices due to the diverse needs of learners in inclusive classes. Participatory Action Research was a great example of how this can be done to equip teachers with skills to become researchers that would guarantee their continued learning. (c) Collaboration among the staff, parents and specialists is evident. Collaboration, as a resourceful human skill, should be emphasised and promoted at all levels within schools, within departments, between teachers and LSEs, teachers and parents/specialists, and learners. Collaboration proved to be a resource that can be relied upon when technology is non-existent, as it was in this context. Teachers’ ought to be encouraged to tap into each other’s strengths when teaching diverse learners. As one teacher put it: We have subject meetings for language teachers and a district coach, but it is not enough. We need more free discussions to learn from each other.

As individuals, they are limited, but as a collective, they form powerful collaborative resources that complement and equip each other. Going forward, school heads ought to enable warm working environments that promote the sharing of information and skills. (d) Full-service schools are admitting all learners irrespective of their barriers to learning. Full-service schools host vulnerable learners, some of whom had confided their HIV status and various learning disabilities to the school, yet they still felt welcome, as relayed by one of the learners: It is a school where they accept everyone. It is a school where they accept all the children no matter how good or bad you are.

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Full-service schools should therefore act as safe environments where vulnerable children feel protected enough to learn. (e) Full-service schools are creating an inclusive school culture. Although a number of teachers continue to teach in the traditional fashion of lecture method, some are starting to include inclusive practices and are making their classrooms more accommodating. This change in mindset begins with teachers having a good understanding of learner needs. That way, they can employ varied ways of presenting their lessons as well as varied ways of assessing these learners, with the belief that each child can learn. There should be an ongoing conversation on how to make assessments accessible in order to maximise learner advantage, as opposed to one way of testing. Learner profiles ought to be welldocumented so that they are supported adequately to avoid high failure and repeat rates. Teachers reported that they were changing the classroom culture from children sitting in straight rows to learners working in groups:

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resource materials of learners with barriers to learning (Dreyer 2013). If the role of the LSE is not well-defined, then the LSEs are not adequately utilised, or end up serving as remedial teachers. I learnt from my LSE the concept of overlapping. I did not know it before. If you draw 3 shapes, like say circles – you can tell which shape was drawn first. I learnt that by co-teaching and observing her in my class.

Teachers were therefore able to tap into each other’s resourcefulness.

(g) Full-service schools are redefining school policies. The study revealed that inclusion requires a change in school policy and practice, with regards to teacher training, teaching methods, assessment, admission policy and many other factors. This study showed that there were definite signs of change starting to happen, however slow. It appeared that part of the reason for the slow pace of change was due to some complacency, whereby staff thought that they were already inclusive, merely because the school had been I use group work a lot, but I have to be careful all declared to be a full-service school and were the time because the children can label some groups as the stupid ones if I group weak ones therefore not working towards change. together in order to give them a task at their level, This study, therefore, showed that there were so I try to vary the groups, I mix the leaners up exclusive practices in full-service schools as sometimes. some learners with barriers to learning were not Research findings show the need for change in fully included in the teaching. The learners school culture for Inclusion in education to be a expressed that they felt they needed extra assissuccess (Booth and Ainscow 2011; Loreman tance from the teacher, often implying that the 2010). One way of changing this culture has to do curriculum and teaching methods did not cater to with teachers shifting their mindsets in the way them and hence the need for extra help. This they go about conducting their daily activities, as made their needs appear as an extra add-on to the well as in the way they view life in general. The teachers’ expected duties, especially when learnmind shift must involve them viewing all learners ers had to go for extra one-on-one help after the as capable of learning if given the right support. teacher had completed the day’s teaching. The study, therefore, demonstrated that the under (f) Full-service schools are better resourced than standing of Inclusive Education had been narrowed down by teachers and only represented ordinary schools. Having extra staff dedicated to the inclusion of parts of the definition according to the national learners with barriers to learning, for example, policy of Education White Paper 6, hence the the role of LSE was described to be vital to need for each school to redefine their expected supporting full-service teachers at compiling school practices in the form of a personalised resource files, helping with differentiation, co-­ school policy on inclusion. teaching, and managing the diagnostic and

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(h) Full-service schools are starting to adapt inclusive pedagogical approaches. It would be expected for teachers at a full-­service school to understand what Inclusive teaching practice is, in order for them to understand how to implement it. However, this study found that teachers’ understanding of Inclusive teaching practice was neither adequate nor comprehensive enough for working in full-service schools. Their understanding only touched on fundamental aspects of what Inclusive teaching practice stands for (Lindsay 2007). This narrow perspective is an incomplete definition of Inclusive teaching that only represents partial aspects of the intended and recognisable meaning (DoE 2001, p.16). Inclusive pedagogy is defined as “a pedagogical approach that responds to learner diversity in ways that avoid the marginalisation of some learners in the community of the classroom by offering unconditional recognition and ­acceptance of all learners” (Florian and Spratt 2015), for example, one teacher mentioned how she was supporting her learners: I support the ones that struggle one-on-one. What I do is, after I am done with my teaching, I call them [those who are struggling] to the front and help them one by one while the rest of the class continues with their work.

The prevalent teaching practices in full-service schools to accommodate diverse learning needs included one-on-one support, the use of group and differentiated teaching, the use of varied teaching strategies, a change of learning environment to be flexible and to enable improved record keeping.

5.2 Challenges Facing the Roll-­ out of Full-Service Schools

In the 84 schools in the Johannesburg East District, only six of them are full-service, meaning that children have to travel far to access them. Research shows that technology can enhance learning for all learners. For instance, recorded lessons, or watching videos can be used to support the understanding of difficult concepts. However, this school had no reliable access to technology. On occasional instances, the teachers had access to the resource centre with computers, but this was highly unlikely due to crime. The media centre at the research site stood empty after a robbery of the school computers. Despite the technological advances in the world around us, the teaching in this full-service school was still information technology free, except for very few instances. Also, teachers did not have the support of a nurse or clinic at the school to assist with medical emergencies: I found out that one of my learners has epilepsy, and we have no school nurse, and no support, but I know the child is in the right school. Now I can help the child because I am better informed

They were, therefore, unaware of emerging technological approaches to deal with emergencies or inclusive teaching tools such as the Universal Design for Learning. Technology was almost non-existent and not a reliable option. This left the learners stuck in a cycle of no progression and disadvantage, in an era where so much can be made possible using technology in order to enhance their learning. As a tentative plan, some teachers had asked the learners to bring their parents’ cellular phones to school to supplement the available computers. Unfortunately, there were increased reports of theft incidences of cellular phones and the resolution taken by the school was not to involve parents’ cellular phones.

The following are some of the challenges that were found to be affecting the roll-out of full-­ (b) Not all teachers of full-service schools are service schools. using inclusive teaching methods. One definition of Inclusive teaching was given (a) Not enough full-service schools exist, and as: those that do, lack the necessary technology Inclusive teaching means assisting learners with and resources. different types of barriers to learning.

Full-Service Schools and Inclusion in South Africa

Inclusion was perceived to be a service offered to needy learners who had been admitted into a school that they did not fit in, as was described by Croft (2012). This definition of “assisting learners with different types of barriers to learning”, although unanimously agreed upon by the participants, reduces inclusion to a service offered, as opposed to seeing these learners as “a part of who we are”. It took away the fundamental right of the child to be included and accepted unconditionally as described by the Education White Paper 6. One teacher confessed:

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number 6, inclusion requires infrastructural and structural changes to the school. Changes to the infrastructure and the training of teachers to change their practice, however, requires finances, hence would depend on affordability and the economic status of the school. The participants understood well at this point that structural and infrastructure changes were fundamental to inclusive schooling.

d) Negative attitudes and beliefs towards learners with disabilities in full-service schools are still a barrier to inclusive teaching and I am supposed to show records of what I have done learning. to support the learners especially if they fail, I have to prove that I did some interventions, and this The exclusion of learners with barriers to learnhelps me keep records for proof of my ing from the primary school system over the interventions. years is a well-documented fact that is attributed Teacher training should be founded on construc- to traditional perceptions and misunderstood tivist learning philosophies that will help them views that learning disabilities are like diseases have an underlying understanding of how learn- or due to social deviance (Croft 2012). This study ing occurs. In addition, they need to have practi- confirmed that such views still exist considering cal application and follow up to see how well the some of the practices of teachers sending learners theory is applied. Principles that inform how with barriers to learning to the SBSTs instead of group work and differentiated learning happen believing that each child can learn (Rouse 2012) should be engraved in their thinking and practice while keeping all learners in one class and workto become second nature. ing collaboratively with the SBSTs. The learner The literature suggests that inclusive teaching participants also indicated that they felt that their and learning thrives when teachers are well-­ educational needs were not being adequately trained (Walton and Lloyd 2012; Loreman 2010; met. Although the conversion of a few of the Engelbrecht et  al. 2014). This study brought to ordinary schools into full-service schools that the fore that teacher participants were unclear admit all children regardless of their barriers to about how they should go about inclusive teach- learning, bear witness to the desire to change, the ing. This indicated the gaps in their training and change is indeed very slow. preparedness for inclusive classes as they stated I currently have 21 children who are repeaters. that apart from the initial training that they Some are not on IEPs, and I am only allowed by the department to fail 2 or 3. I do not get support received before their school became full-service, for my class, and as a full-service school, this there had been no follow-ups. The observations research has been an eye opening for me. done during PAR alluded to the same, proving that inclusive pedagogy had not been fully imple- In South Africa, inclusion is addressed as a mented. As a result, there was a gap between human rights issue. This was because of a rise in policy expectations and practice in full-service activism for human rights that opposed the schools (Engelbrecht et al. 2014). Apartheid regime. Inclusion should, however, be viewed as a broader phenomenon than just being (c) Inclusion requires change to infrastructure, seen from the human rights perspective because which is still lacking in full-service schools. it requires more than just converting ordinary Although the current full-service schools lack schools into full-service schools. Rather, it inclusive architecture, since they were built requires a paradigm shift in the whole school sysbefore the implementations of the White Paper tem. The admission of learners to full-service

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schools does not always equate to total acceptance and inclusion. A recent study done on the experiences of mothers’ of children diagnosed with autism suggests the need for an awareness campaign among stakeholders, including schools, so that they are aware of how to work with these children (Manono and Clasquin-Johnson 2023). (e) There is a misconception in the understanding of the meaning of inclusive education and there is a lack of professional support The study seems to confirm (from the insufficient definition of Inclusive teaching practice given by the teacher participants) that there is confusion and misunderstanding among teachers at full-service schools about what inclusion means. Some teachers misunderstood Inclusion in education to mean mainstreaming (Storbeck and Martin 2013), which refers to the physical placing of learners that can adapt in ordinary schools. Although the school under study had embraced the idea of admitting learners with barriers to learning, there was no guarantee that being at the school would ensure meaningful participation for all learners (Loreman 2010; Rouse 2012) and as expressed in the Inclusive Education index. The learners with barriers to learning expressed that they felt that their needs were not adequately met. Instead, they were punished for having barriers to learning as this teacher put it: However, there are problems when it comes to supporting the learners with barriers to learning. There is a gap, and we no longer get professional support that we used to get. We do not get support on how to identify them. We as teachers have become the teacher, support, social worker, and government support is not readily available. The teacher assistants that used to come in to help us no longer come.

Inclusion in education is therefore not a mainstreaming activity but requires careful consideration of how well it is implemented.

6 Conclusion The first section of the conclusion is a brief summary of the chapter, followed by the implications of the findings.

6.1 Summary One of the biggest challenges facing full-service schools is a lack of resources and poor infrastructure to deal with the needs of inclusive schooling. From this paper, we established that South Africa’s journey towards transforming ordinary schools into full-service schools is slow. The study found that teachers in full-service schools did not fully understand what Inclusive teaching practice meant and had instead understood it to mean the mere admission of learners with barriers to learning into their schools and classrooms without necessarily including them in the teaching and learning process. The full-service schools were therefore found not to have fully grasped what it means to include all children. Teachers at full-service schools that were interviewed were either not implementing inclusive teaching strategies or implementing inclusive teaching strategies with wrong methods. Some of the common inclusive teaching strategies that were not working had to do with the exhaustion of trying to assist learners one-on-­ one; grouping weak learners together and labeling them; or the use of lecture methods for teaching. The study found that there is a need for full-service schools to redraft policies that work for them in their contexts, and to have the ongoing training of teachers so that they can fully grasp what Inclusive Education is in order to implement it in their classrooms. Major concerns that were seen to be limiting and hindering Inclusive Education included: overcrowding, a lack of technology and wrong teaching practices. The teachers were not adequately equipped through training to teach in inclusive schools. Hence, they misunderstood their roles as Inclusive Education teachers as witnessed in their poor attitudes towards learners with barriers to learning. It was established that full-service school educators needed to collaborate with each other in order to tap into each other’s resources, which was found to be a critical factor in improving Inclusive Education as it enables teachers to work together and share their knowledge and limited resources to the benefit of all learners. Collaboration helped teachers to deal with their

Full-Service Schools and Inclusion in South Africa

immediate concerns and issues facing them by tapping into each other’s strengths and learning from each other.

6.2 Implications Although the study was done before the COVID-­19 lockdown, the findings are relevant given that the government slowed down in its operations and progress towards implementing inclusive education. It would however be reasonable to do a follow up study to establish how much the COVID-19 pandemic impacted on inclusive education in South Africa. It is also recommended that since this study was the first one to be conducted in Johannesburg East Distirict, a essential for similar research to be carried out before generalising these findings to other similar schools. This is because no two schools are precisely the same even if their contexts are related. A repeat study could, therefore, establish if other factors could have affected the data. There is a need for the government to speed up the process of converting more schools into full-­ service schools so that more children with barriers to learning have access to education. The UNESCO (2013) global report suggests that 15% of the population requires some form of inclusion, yet, the number of full-service schools we have are not even half the expected number. This should go hand in hand with staff training for inclusion and ongoing professional development for all staff so that they are all equipped with the right teaching skills for inclusion regardless of the schools where they teach.

References Ayaya GI (2023) Online support for students with diverse learning needs at an inclusive private school in South Africa. E-Learn Dig Med:204275302311561. https:// doi.org/10.1177/20427530231156179 Booth T, Ainscow M (2011) Index for inclusion: developing learning and participation in Schools. Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education, Bristol Braun V, Clarke V (2021) Thematic analysis: a practical guide. SAGE, London

99 Croft A (2012) Promoting access to education for disabled children in low-income countries: do we need to know how many disabled children there are? Int J Educ Dev 33(3):233–243 Dalton EM, McKenzie JA, Kahonde C (2012) The implementation of inclusive education in South Africa: reflections arising from a workshop for teachers and therapists to introduce universal Design for Learning. Afr J Disabil 1(1):13. https://doi.org/10.4102/ajod. v1i1.13 DBE (2010) Guidelines for full service/inclusive schools. Government Printers, Pretoria. Retrieved from www.thutong.doe.gov.za/ResourceDownload. aspx?id=39268 DBE (2014) Policy on screening, identification, assessment and support [ONLINE] Available at: http://www. education.gov.za/. Accessed 17 Oct 2014 De Jager T (2011) Guidelines to assist the implementation of differentiated learning activities in South African secondary schools. Int J Incl Educ 17(1):80–84 DoE (2001) Education white paper 6: special needs education, building an inclusive education and training system. Government Printers, Pretoria. Retrieved from www.thutong.doe.gov.za/ResourceDownload Donohue, D.K. And Bornman, J. (2015). South Africa’s teachers’ attitudes towards the inclusion of learners with different abilities in mainstream classrooms. Int J Disabil Dev Educ, 62(1), 42–59 Dreyer L (2013) Exploring the changing role of learning support teachers in the Western cape. S Afr Perspect Educ 33(2):54–64 Engelbrecht P, Nel M, Tlale D (2014) South African teachers’ views of collaboration within an inclusive education system. Int J Incl Educ 18(9):903–917. https://doi. org/10.1080/13603116.2013.858779 Engelbrecht P, Nel M, Smit S, Van Deventer M (2016) The idealism of education policies and the realities in schools: the implementation of inclusive education in South Africa. Int J Incl Educ 20(5):520–535. https:// doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2015.1095250 Florian L, Spratt J (2015) Inclusive pedagogy: from learning to action. Supporting each individual in the context of everybody. Teach Teach Educ 49:89–96 Kubayi M (2010) Inclusive education: status, accompanying challenges and strategic response: briefing by basic education department. [Parliamentary Monitoring Group]. https://pmg.org.za/committee-­ meeting/12308/. Accessed 26 July 2016 Lemon A (2005) Shifting geographies of social inclusion and exclusion: secondary education in Pietermarizburg. S Afr Afr Aff 104(414):69–96 Lincoln YS, Guba EG (1985) Naturalistic inquiry. Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA Lindsay G (2007) Educational psychology and the effectiveness of inclusive education/mainstreaming. Br J Educ Psychol 77:1–24 Loreman T (2010) Essential inclusive education-related outcomes for Alberta pre-service teachers. Alta J Educ Res 56(2):29–47

100 Makoelle TM (2014) Inclusive education: are we there? Some global challenges, contradictions and anomalies. Kamla-Raj J Soc Sci 5(3):303–309 Makoelle TM, Van der Merwe MP (2014) Educational change and inclusion: lessons from a collaborative action research. Mediterr J Soc Sci Rome 5(14):169–179 Manono MN, Clasquin-Johnson MG (2023) Yebo, it was a great relief’: how mothers experience their children’s autism diagnoses. Afr J Disabil 12:a1101. https://doi. org/10.4102/ajod.v12i0.1101 Ocampo ML (2004) A brief history of educational inequality from apartheid to the present. In: Global perspectives on human language: The South African context. Stanford Press, Stanford Rouse M (2012) Developing inclusive practice: a role for teachers and teacher education. University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen Sayed Y, Soudien C (2005) Decentralisation and the construction of inclusion education policy in South Africa. Comp J Comp Int Educ 35(2):115–125 South African Schools Act 84 (1996) Government gazette no 17579. Cape Town. Retrieved from www.gov.za/ sites/www.gov.za/files/Act84of1996.pdf

G. I. Ayaya and T. M. Makoelle Storbeck C, Martin D (2013) Inclusion and cognitive education for deaf learners: perspectives from South Africa and the USA. Transylvanian Journal of Psychology; 2013 Special Issue:67–102 UNESCO (2013) UNESCO global report: opening new avenues for empowerment: ICTs to access information and knowledge for persons with disabilities. https:// unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000219767. Accessed on 12 May 2023 Walton E (2011) They discluded me: possibilities and limitations of children’s participation in inclusion research in South Africa. Perspect Educ 29(1):44–57 Walton E, Lloyd G (2012) From clinic to classroom: a model of teacher education for inclusion. Perspect Educ 30(2):62–70 Weeks F, Erradu J (2013) The intellectually impaired foundation phase learner – how can the teacher support these learners? SA Educ J 10(1):1–9 Wium A, Louw B (2015) The South African national school curriculum: implications for collaboration between teachers and speech-language therapists working in schools. S Afr J Child Educ 5(1):01–28 Yin RK (2010) Qualitative research from start to finish. Guilford Press, New York

Stress and Coping Strategies Among Zimbabwean Families of Learners with Intellectual Disabilities: Implications for Inclusion Lindiwe Magaya

Abstract

Keywords

While the concept of inclusive education is understood in Zimbabwe, many factors have challenged its implementation. Zimbabwe has faced economic hardships for decades, which have significantly impacted the implementation of inclusive education. Parents of children with intellectual and developmental disabilities find themselves having to navigate through a system that provides little to no support for their children’s needs. Lack of support exerts stress on parents who are challenged to find ways of coping with the perceived stressors. This chapter discusses the nature of inclusive education in Zimbabwe, its impact on families of children with intellectual and developmental disabilities and coping strategies that are used to mitigate the impact of perceived stressors. A quantitative study was conducted to determine if there were significant differences in perceived stress and ways of coping used to mitigate stressors. Results show significant differences in perceived stress and coping strategies. Culturally relevant coping strategies are recommended.

Inclusion · Inclusive education · Intellectual disabilities · Zimbabwean families · Stress · Coping strategies

L. Magaya (*) Georgian Court University, Lakewood, NJ, USA e-mail: [email protected]

1

Introduction

Inclusive education has become a global trend in the provision of services for students with disabilities. However, implementation of inclusive education varies widely from region to region (Majoko 2018). With the influence of the United States of America (USA) and other Western nations, Zimbabwe has focused on improving inclusion and equity for children with special needs. However, many factors affect the inclusion of learners with special needs. Like other developing countries, Zimbabwe has continually faced challenges in terms of funding, support, and understanding of inclusive practices (Chitiyo and Muwana 2018; Majoko 2018). The intertwine between the African culture and Western influence significantly impacts the implementation of inclusive practices. Since the Zimbabwean society is deeply rooted in cultural expectations and traditional beliefs, individuals with special needs and their families may be viewed with apprehension, thereby hindering their inclusion at various levels of society, including school. The belief that disabilities result from curses or omens

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Hlalele, T. M. Makoelle (eds.), Inclusion in Southern African Education, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43752-6_8

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are still engrained in some people’s belief system in Zimbabwean today. Once causes of disabilities are attributed to ancestral anger or witchcraft, treatment of such a person would require a n’anga or an herbalist (Mpofu and Sefotho 2019). Although progress has been made to counter such beliefs through education, such beliefs impede or slow down progress in the implementation of inclusive education. As a result of these beliefs, parents feel ostracized and tend to be overprotective of their child for fear of victimization (Mpofu and Sefotho 2019). By overprotecting their child, they may exclude them from social interactions with their peers. Challenges faced by families of children with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) have been documented (Chitiyo and Chitiyo 2019; Gray 1994; Simeua and Mitra 2019). However, literature regarding stress and coping strategies of Zimbabwean parents of children with IDD, and implications for inclusive education, is lacking. It is important to understand the nature of inclusive education in Zimbabwe and how these factors impact families of children with IDD.  This chapter, therefore, examines the nature of inclusive education in Zimbabwe, stress, and coping strategies of parents of children with IDD, and recommends culturally relevant inclusive education that would promote families’ well-being.

2 Inclusion in Education As framed by the UNESCO (1994) declaration and adopted by nations globally, inclusion in education has its premise on recognizing the unique needs of all learners and their right to an appropriate education. International initiatives from UNESCO and other nongovernmental organizations have contributed to Zimbabwe’s consensus that all children have a right to a free and appropriate education and that all children with special needs should be included in all educational experiences (Majoko 2018; UNESCO 1994). Even though the ratification of these international organizations has led to adoption of policies in

Zimbabwe, and around the world, the interpretation and implementation of these policies differ. Inclusion has been defined as the act of creating environments in which any individual or group can be and feel welcomed, respected, represented, supported, and valued to fully participate and that their contributions are recognized and utilized (Hansen et al. 2021; Kayyali 2022). Inclusion promotes the treatment of all children equally, regardless of gender, age, race, sexual orientation, disability, and socioeconomic status and other characteristics. For this chapter, inclusive education is used to describe more specific inclusion of children and young people with special educational needs within the mainstream classroom. For children and youth with special needs to fully access the curriculum, policies, practices, values, and attitudes must fully support participation within the classroom, school, and community. The curriculum must be accessible to all students, representative of different perspectives, and include programs and services that support the diverse needs of all students (CEC 2022; Ewing et al. 2018; IDEA 2004).

2.1 Inclusive Education in Zimbabwe Existing research has repeatedly identified challenges and barriers and lamented the sluggish development of special education in Zimbabwe (Chitiyo et al. 2017). Despite the emphasis on the many challenges and barriers, it is important to note that Zimbabwe has also registered positive developments in special education. Unfortunately, these positive developments have been obscured by reports on underdevelopment of inclusive education. There is no doubt that Zimbabwe has made considerable advances in certain areas of special education. As far as back as the 1900s, Zimbabwe recognized the existence of learners with special needs and sought ways to include them in the education system (Peresuh and Barcham 1998; Mukuna and Maizere 2022). The approach that Zimbabwe has undertaken in the provision of special education service is one that calls for mainstreaming and integration.

Stress and Coping Strategies Among Zimbabwean Families of Learners with Intellectual Disabilities…

A fully inclusive education is applied in very ­limited cases. In most cases, learners with physical disabilities, hearing impairments, visual impairments, and specific learning disabilities, receive full inclusion. Learners with mild sensory disabilities can be in a more inclusive educational setting while receiving regular support from itinerant personnel from the school’s Psychological Services. Children with specific learning disabilities are also mainstreamed and receive remedial education and tutoring services (Chitiyo and Muwana 2018; Mukuna and Maizere 2022). In Zimbabwe, learners with intellectual disabilities are less likely to be in an inclusive classroom. According to the American Psychiatric Association (APA 2013) an intellectual disability is identified by problems in both the intellect and adaptive skills. Problem areas include language, social skills deficits, and difficulty in processing information. Learners would likely exhibit challenging behaviors that would lead to social exclusion for some families. Families may find themselves unable to attend social gatherings, eat out at a restaurant or even use public transportation (Luckasson et al. 2017). Developmental disabilities, on the other hand, include intellectual and/or physical challenges. Intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDDs), therefore, are a broader definition of disorders that are usually present at birth. These disorders may present lifelong challenges that can negatively affect individuals’ physical, intellectual, and/or emotional development (APA 2013; NICHCY 2021). Some of the areas that can be affected are the nervous system, sensory system, and metabolism. Co-occurring conditions associated with the disability include behavior disorders, autism spectrum disorders (ASD), fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), cerebral palsy, epilepsy, Down syndrome, and Fragile X syndrome. Children with IDD may present various challenges such as language, social skills, and daily living skills deficits (Ford 2017; Schalock et al. 2021; Schepper et al. 2021). It is important to understand the impact of having a child with intellectual and developmental disabilities and the level of stress it may exert on families. Learners with IDD are less likely to

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be integrated into the general education classes. If for some reason, they are in the public schools, they may not receive services that are appropriate for them. Individualized education programs are not available as they are not mandatory like in developed countries (Majoko 2017). Notably, positive developments have been made in teacher preparation programs. As one of the first African nations to jump on to the band wagon, Zimbabwe can take pride in offering undergraduate and graduate degrees in special needs education from the University of Zimbabwe and the Great Zimbabwe University. Currently, these universities offer training in all disabilities and gifted and talented programs (Chitiyo and Muwana 2018).  The first special education teacher training program was established at the United College of Education in Bulawayo, in 1983. This program has overseen the certification of special needs teachers in hearing impairment, visual impairment, learning disabilities and intellectual disabilities (Chitiyo and Muwana 2018; Peresuh and Barcham 1998). Several factors appear to compromise the implementation of inclusive education in Zimbabwe. Lack of a special education law that ties funding to each child, parental advocacy, support systems, economic hardships, teacher preparation programs, and cultural beliefs, have been considered as challenges to inclusive education in Zimbabwe (Chitiyo and Muwana 2018; Majoko 2018). Individualized education programs (IEPs) are not available in government-­ funded schools, to promote inclusive education. Privately funded programs from non-profit organizations  are still the most available placement options for most learners with IDD (Chitiyo and Chitiyo 2019; Mapuranga et  al. 2015). While these privately funded programs are more likely to provide some services than government funded programs, the cost of these programs is exorbitant and pose financial constraints to most families. These factors exert stress on families as they must fend for their children’s welfare. It is from this perspective that stress and coping ways of parents of learners with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) is examined in relation to inclusive education.

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2.2 Perceived Stress and Stressors The effects of stressors have been studied and shown to have a negative effect on cognitive capacities and psychological well-being of individuals (Adasi et  al. 2020; Gustems-Carnicer et al. 2019; Magaya et al. 2005). For a situation to be considered stressful, an individual must perceive it as overly challenging, harmful, or threatening. The threat of perceived stressors may trigger the fight, flight, or freeze response (Greenberg 2021). As inclusive education becomes a global phenomenal, cultural values, expectations, and lack of resources are factors that may hinder effective inclusion of children with disabilities in Zimbabwe. It is important to understand the impact of stressors on the physical and psychological well-being of families of children with IDD.  Having a child with IDD can increase the likelihood of ostracism in a culture that does not fully embrace differences but rather reacts in a discriminatory and stereotypic way (Bramston and Mioche 2001; Chitiyo and Chitiyo 2019). The stigma associated with having a child with special needs has been documented (Mpofu and Sefotho 2019; Holland et  al. 2018). Parents and families of children with special needs face major challenges in their lives. Besides the parent-­child relationship stressors, major stressors could also include spousal relationships  and  family, which may impact their quality of life. Parents of children with special needs may face many difficult issues and may frequently experience trauma, grief, and stress. Stress can be both psychological, physical, and financial. Having a child with intellectual disabilities may exert both physical and psychological stress. Challenges that a parent experiences as a caregiver of a child with special needs is highlighted in this chapter. This does not negate, however, the positive and memorable moments of having a child with special needs. The daily demands of having a child with IDD can exert stress on caregivers and their families (Mkabile and Swartz 2022; Thwala et al. 2015). For these families stress and social exclusion can worsen both mental and physical health and functioning

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(Han et  al. 2018). In a longitudinal study conducted by Baxter et al. (2000) parents of children with IDD reported experiencing double the stress attributed from having a child with intellectual and developmental  disabilities than was attributed to a child without disabilities. The study showed the amount of stress exerted to caregivers by a child with exceptional needs. Since stress cannot be eliminated from an individual’s life, it is essential for one to acquire a repertoire of coping mechanisms to negate the stressors. Studies suggest that as parents get involved with the education, rearing, and caregiving of the child, these efforts often lead to increased stress. These efforts also negatively affect relationships with other family members, marital relationships, health, and interpersonal and social relationships (Arakkathara and Bance 2019; Shafaq and Khanam 2016). The link between poverty and disability has been studied (Banks et al. 2017; Murray 2018). Children with disabilities are more likely to live in poverty than children without disabilities. In developed countries disability-related benefits have helped negate the effects of poverty, to a certain degree (Murray 2018). However, in developing countries like Zimbabwe, such allowances are non-­ existent and families of children with disabilities are often left to fend for education, health care costs, and other expenses. This creates enormous stress on the families as they must find ways of supporting their children. These hardships have affected the provision of services for children with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Lack of educational funding, high cost of healthcare, and sometimes unavailable health care leads to desperation for families of children with IDD (Chitiyo and Muwana 2018). These conditions exert constant stress that require a repertoire of coping strategies. Without proper education and health care, these children may lack the necessary skills to adapt and function fully in their society. Thus, it is important for families of children with IDD to adopt positive coping strategies to mitigate the effects of having a child with intellectual disabilities, economic hardships, lack of social support, and lack of access to available resources. Use of effective coping strategies and

Stress and Coping Strategies Among Zimbabwean Families of Learners with Intellectual Disabilities…

perceived social support may relieve some of the effects of stressors.

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blame as a strategy by accepting responsibility. In this situation, they may criticize or lecture themselves, blame themselves for having brought the problem to themselves or make promises that 2.3 Coping Strategies things will be different next time. Some people cope with stressful events by self-control. This No area of study has been extensively studied strategy allows them to avoid social situations like the coping strategies (Adasi et al. 2020). The and keep others from knowing how bad the situaearlier work done by Lazarus and Folkman tion is. (1984) has become a springboard for most stress Studies have examined coping ways used by and coping ways studies. Several models of cop- families of children with IDD. Based on the maging exist. Individuals’ response to the perceived nitude of the perceived stressor and the availabilthreat depends on availability of social support, ity of coping resources, families of children with individual’s capacity to respond, and cultural val- IDD have been shown to use available coping ues (Adasi et  al. 2020; Bramston and Mioche mechanisms at their disposal. The most common 2001; Magaya et al. 2005). To cope with the per- strategies used by families include utilization of ceived threat, an individual must appeal to previ- service agencies, family support, social withous experiences, environmental factors, and drawal, religion, and activism (Adasi et al. 2020; personal beliefs (Bramston and Mioche 2001). Gray 1994; Lee 2009; Pisula and Banasiak 2020). Folkman and Lazarus (1988a) identified eight Empowered families have been shown to cope by coping processes that may be used by individuals using problem solving strategies, while those in stressful situations. Planful problem-­solving who perceive themselves as lacking social supincludes analyzing the problem, coming up with port, were likely to use emotion-focused coping different solutions and trying not to act too hast- (Pisula and Banasiak 2020). ily. Seeking social support includes talking to While studies have been conducted on coping someone who could do something about the situ- strategies of parents of learners with IDD, so far, ation or getting professional help (Adasi et  al. there are no known studies that have focused on 2020). Confrontative coping allows one to the impact of inclusion on parents’ stress and express anger and let feelings out. Positive reap- coping strategies. This chapter outlines coping praisal is a strategy whereby one finds new faith strategies of parents as caregivers of learners with or is inspired to do something creative. Tension IDD.  Folkman and Moskowitz (2004) define reduction allows one to get away from the prob- parental coping resources as comprising a comlem for a while. Trying to rest, taking a vacation, plex set of mechanisms that parents adapt to allejogging, or exercising would be ways of reducing viate stress. This transactional model of stress tension. Making one feel better by eating, drink- and coping (Folkman and Moskowitz 2004), ing, smoking, using drugs or medication, is refers to coping as the process of managing exteranother way of reducing tension, although it may nal and/or internal demands that may exceed the be detrimental to one’s health (Pisula and person’s resources. Thus, coping is a behavioural Banasiak 2020). or cognitive effort that can be utilized to manage Some people cope with stressful events specific internal or external threats to an individthrough daydreaming and wishing that the situa- ual’s resources. tion would magically disappear. This coping Coping strategies provide a buffer in moderatstrategy is the escape-avoidance strategy. Other ing caregiving stress among parents of children people use detachment or distancing as a coping with IDD.  For instance, a study by Wang et  al. strategy. By distancing, they try to forget that the (2011), showed mothers of children with intelsituation ever happened, and/or go on as if noth- lectual disabilities who reported high levels of ing ever happened (Fernandez 1986). To deal problem-focused coping and low levels of with a stressful event, some people use self-­ emotion-­focused coping, buffered the impact of

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high stress levels on maternal well-being. Similarly, Al-Yagon and Margalit (2009) reported that mothers of children with developmental disabilities who frequently used avoidant coping strategies manifested high levels of negative affect. In contrast, mothers who frequently used active coping strategies reported high positive affect. While studies have been conducted on coping strategies of parents of learners with IDD, so far, there are no known studies that have focused on the impact of inclusion on parents’ stress and coping strategies.

4.1 Sample

A purposive sample of 106 participants was used. The sample ranged in age from 21 years to above 50  years of age. To be able to examine stress and coping strategies among families of children with IDD, it was important for this sample to include parents of children with and without IDD.  The purpose of this sampling was to determine if having a child with IDD would exert more stress compared with not having a child with IDD.  Since the sample served to determine differences in perceived stress and coping strategies among participants, partici3 Purpose of Study pants were drawn from privately funded and public institutions. Parents were surveyed at It is important to understand the challenges faced their institutions during their break period. by families of children with intellectual and Participation in their child’s education, made it developmental disabilities in Zimbabwe, deter- possible to survey them at their private organizamine their stress levels, and understand and iden- tion resource center during their weekly or tify ways of coping to mitigate the effects of monthly meeting, in the City of Bulawayo, in stressors. The purpose of this chapter is three-­ Zimbabwe. Only parents of children with IDD fold: 1. to discuss the nature of inclusive educa- participated. tion in Zimbabwe and its impact on families of children with intellectual and developmental disabilities, 2. identify ways coping with stressors 4.2 Permission used by families to mitigate the impact of perceived stressors, and 3. recommend possible cul- Permission to conduct the study was sought turally relevant coping strategies. The following through administrators for each school and/or research questions were examined using a quan- organization. Administrators reserved the right titative method. to deny or approve permission to conduct the study. An informed consent letter was provided 1. Are there any significant differences among to each participant. The letter described the voluntary and anonymous nature of the study, parparticipants in their perceived stress? 2. What are the coping ways for families of chil- ticipants’ rights as human subjects, to quit the dren with intellectual and developmental dis- study any time without penalty, or skip questions that may make them uncomfortable, use abilities in Zimbabwe? 3. Are there any significant differences among of data solely for research purposes. By comparticipants in their repertoire of coping pleting and submitting the questionnaire, participants indicated their consent to participate. strategies? Paper and pencil copies were distributed to each institution and participants were requested to complete and return the questionnaires to a 4 Methodology designated box/container or envelope before This quantitative study sought to determine per- the end of the day. Questionnaires were not ceived stress and the coping strategies used by allowed to leave the premises or be returned the parents of children with IDD.  The sample and following day. The survey was taken in one methods for data collection and analysis are dis- sitting. cussed below.

Stress and Coping Strategies Among Zimbabwean Families of Learners with Intellectual Disabilities…

5 Instruments 5.1 Demographic Instrument A demographic instrument was developed to gather information regarding participants. Specific demographics assessed were age, gender, certification, marital status, and education level. Participants also indicated whether they had a child who had been identified as having intellectual and developmental disabilities. To ensure that parents for children with IDD participated, a blurb describing IDD co-occurring conditions, was included.

5.2 The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) (Cohen et al. 1983) This classic tool measures the impact of situations on individuals’ feelings and perceived stress. Participants indicate on a scale of 0 = never to 4 = very often, how they felt or thought a certain way. After reversing negatively worded scores, scores for each item were added up to get a total. Total scores range from low stress (0–13), moderate stress (14–26), and high stress (27–40) (Cohen et al. 1983).

5.3 The Ways of Coping (Revised) Folkman and Lazarus, 1988b This revised 66-item scale is used to assess coping processes in an identified stressful encounter. It assesses the extent to which individuals cope with each situation. A Likert-type scale ranging from 0- not used, to 3- used a great deal was used to determine the coping processes of the participants. This scale has eight empirically constructed scales which include planful problem-focused process (alpha  =  .68), escape-­ avoidance (alpha = .72), distancing (alpha = .61), seeking social support (alpha  =  .76), accepting responsibility (alpha = .66), confrontative coping (alpha = .70), self-control (alpha = .70) and positive reappraisal (alpha  =  .79). Responses are

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totaled under each scale to provide a total way of coping. The higher mean indicates the most frequently used coping process.

5.4 Data Analysis Data was analyzed using the Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive statistics were computed to determine frequencies, means, and standard deviations. An Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was computed to determine significant differences among participants in their perception of stress and coping strategies. Since there were more than two levels of stress (independent variable), an ANOVA was used to compare the coping strategies (dependent variable) of parents based on their stress levels. A t-test could be used for the categorical variables that have two levels.

6 Findings Frequencies, means and standard deviations, cross tabulations, and an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) were calculated and are presented below.

6.1 Frequencies A frequency distribution was computed to determine the number of participants in each category. Participants reported their ages from 25  years (N = 11; 10%) to above 50 years (N = 27, 25%). The sample comprised of more females (N = 78, 73.6%) than males (N = 28, 26.4%). Participants’ marital status was reported and was evenly distributed with 50% of participants reporting being married and the other half not being married. Unmarried included single, divorced, and/or widowed. Participants reported on their level of education and sixty-two (58%) reported having Ordinary Level certificates while forty-four participants (41.5%) reported having attained an Advanced level. To ascertain the level of educa-

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tion, participants reported their certification. Only nine (85%) did not hold any certificates, 34% held teaching diplomas, 43.4% were degreed, 15% held other certifications. To be able to compare stress among parents of children with IDD, it was important for participants to specifically report if they had a child with IDD. Thirty-­ two participants (30.2%) reported having a child with IDD while 69.8% reported not having a child with IDD.

6.2 Stress Levels of Participants According to the PSS (Cohen et al. 1983) stress is categorized into three levels: low, moderate, and high stress. Data for this study showed that 62.2% of the participants reported experiencing moderate stress, while about 21.7% reported high stress. Only 16% of participants reported low stress. See Table 1 for the demographic and crosstabulations for stress levels. An Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was calculated to determine if there were any significant differences among participants in their perception of stress. Although some participants reported higher means than others, ANOVA results showed no significant differences among participants in their perception of stress.

6.3 Coping Ways Used Coping strategies were assessed using the revised Ways of Coping (Folkman and Lazarus 1988b). This scale assesses participants’ coping strategies such as planned problem-focused, escape-­ avoidance, distancing, seeking social support, accepting responsibility, confrontative coping, self-controlling, and positive reappraisal. An ANOVA was calculated to determine if there were any significant differences among participants in their perceived ways of coping based on their levels of stress. Significant differences were found among participants in some ways of coping with perceived stress. Significant differences among participants in their use of planned problem-solving coping strategies were found. Participants with low stress levels used significantly more planned problem-solving strategies compared with those with high stress levels F (21,84)  =  1.558, p = .041. Seeking social support was assessed and found significant. Participants with moderate stress levels were more likely to seek social ­support than participants with high or low stress levels F (16,89), = 1.553, p = .05. Confrontative coping strategies seemed to be significantly employed by participants F(8,97), =

Table 1  Cross tabulations for stress levels Stress level Stress Gender Male Female Status Married Not Married Child w Dis Yes No School Type IDD Org Private Public

Low stress N 17

% 16

Moderate stress N 66

% 62.2

High stress N 23

% 21.7

6 11

5.7 10.4

15 51

14.2 48.6

7 16

6.6 15.1

9 8

8.5 7.5

34 32

33.0 30.2

10 13

9.4 12.3

4 13

3.8 12.3

19 47

17.9 44.3

9 14

8.5 13.2

4 8 5

23.5 47.1 29.4

22 15 29

33.3 22.7 43.9

7 6 10

30.4 26.1 43.5

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Table 2  Means and standard deviations for coping strategies Coping strategy Problem-Solving Social upport Confrontative

Low stress M 25.88a 14.94 2.88

SD 4.328 3.473 1.867

Moderate stress M 23.09 15.12a 4.39a

SD 4.617 3.881 2.089

High stress M 20.96 12.83 3.61

SD 5.904 5.524 2.190

Means are significant at ≤ .05

a

1.849, p = .03. Participants with moderate stress levels reported a significantly higher mean in using confrontative coping strategies than those with high or low stress levels. ANOVA results also showed that a significant difference existed among participants in their use of accepting responsibility as a coping strategy F(9,96), = 2.810, p = 006. Participants of children with IDD reported a significantly higher mean in accepting responsibility as a coping strategy (M  =  6.50, SD  =  1.901) than their counterparts (M  =  4.97, SD = 2.054) (Table 2).

7 Discussion The current study presented interesting findings regarding stress and coping strategies of families of individuals with and without intellectual and developmental disabilities in Zimbabwe. The results are discussed below.

7.1 Stress Results The ANOVA results showed no significant differences among participants in their perception of stress. This result, however, shows that participants generally viewed themselves as having moderate to high stress. Cross tabulations revealed more participants in the moderate range of stress, followed by those in the high range of stress. Only a few participants reported having less stress. Stress has been found to affect the physical and the mental well-being of individuals, causing severe health issues. How one copes with stress is important.

Although not significant, parents of children with intellectual and developmental disabilities reported a higher stress mean than parents of children without disabilities. This result may be indicative of the stresses of having a child with intellectual disabilities. As found by Baxter at el. (2000), families of children with intellectual disabilities reported having a child with intellectual disabilities added to their stress level. Coupled with poor economic conditions, and lack of support, this finding presents challenges for Zimbabwean families with children with intellectual disabilities. Parents may perceive the stress of having to take care of their children with IDD as an insurmountable task, that may be difficult to handle. Participants who belonged to an IDD organization reported significantly higher stress than participants from privately funded IDD institutions and public or government schools. There are many possible reasons for this result. It is possible that these participants may be relying solely on the organization as a source of support system. It is also possible that while the organization may be providing some support, it might not necessarily be meeting all or most of their needs.

7.2 Ways of Coping Results Ways of coping varied. The WCC identifies eight empirically derived coping processes. Results showed significant differences among participants on four of the eight coping strategies assessed by the instrument. Significant differences among participants were identified in their use of planned problem-solving, seeking support, confrontative coping, and accepting responsibility.

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(a) Planned problem solving Planned problem solving strategies involve deliberately planning steps to solve the problem. It involves analyzing the situation, acting on a situation, and finding solutions. This strategy requires one not to act hastily but to plan. Results of this study found that participants with low stress levels used significantly more planned problem-­ solving strategies than participants with high stress levels. From this result, it appears that not acting impulsively or hastily gives one an opportunity to plan and exhaust all available avenues for solving the problem. (b) Seeking social support Seeking social support appears to be a buffer from stress, as one can talk to someone about one’s feelings, accept sympathy and understanding, attend church and pray. Included as part of this strategy is talking to someone who could do something concrete about the problem. Getting professional help is part of this strategy. Even though the problem may not necessarily be solved at that time, or ever, letting feelings out to someone who can lend an ear, appears to reduce stress. Results from this current study showed that participants who sought social support were likely to reduce their stress to a moderate level. As determined by this study, participants with low stress levels were more likely to seek social support than participants with high stress levels. Bramston and Mioche (2001), indicate that families of children with intellectual disabilities face daily challenges of marginalization, especially in societies where disabilities are shrouded with stereotypes. Based on this study, it was found that some Zimbabwean families in this study would not seek social support. It is possible that the constant marginalization would lead to such coping strategies and hopelessness would take control. It is also possible that these families may be facing lack of support from their own family members, leading to hopelessness. Constant rejection from supposedly trusted sources may lead one to give up. Given that government funded programs are non-existent to support children with IDD, and those privately funded programs are beyond reach for most parents, parents may find them-

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selves in a predicament, not knowing where to turn. (c) Confrontative coping Confrontative coping requires one to remove oneself or the stressor from the environment. Getting away from a problem, trying to rest or take a vacation, jogging or exercise would be some ways to confront the problem. This strategy also includes standing ground and fighting for what one may want and expressing anger and letting feelings out as a way to reduce tension. It is to be noted that participants in the study reported that they were able to reduce tension by using these self-regulation strategies. By employing these strategies, parents reduced their stress from high to moderate level. Tension reduction can also be a negative strategy. For instance, some individuals may make themselves feel better by engaging in behaviors that are detrimental to their bodies. Such behaviors may include using drugs or medication, smoking, or drinking. This negative coping strategy is bound to increase stress and the problem will continue to recur without being solved. (d) Accepting responsibility This study found that parents of children with intellectual and developmental disabilities were more likely to accept responsibility as a coping strategy than their counterparts. Accepting responsibility also comes with criticizing oneself or realizing that one is responsible for the problem. While taking responsibility is a virtue to be commended, it is important that one should learn and grow from the mistakes than to continue blaming oneself. This finding seems to highlight the challenges of having a child with intellectual and developmental disabilities. One may find oneself blaming oneself for having a child with special needs, and never growing and accepting the situation. For such parents, it is important to focus on the positive that the child may be bringing. As families of children with IDD continue to be marginalized by a society that places little or no value on the needs of children with e­ xceptionalities and provides little to no support, they may find themselves without the necessary tools of coping.

Stress and Coping Strategies Among Zimbabwean Families of Learners with Intellectual Disabilities…

Finding themselves having to fend for their children, the only coping strategy they may find at their disposal, is accepting responsibility and blaming themselves all the time.

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tor the student’s progress. An IEP provides accountability on the part of service providers. Goals must be achieved and a pathway to achieve those goals must be determined. The student’s progress must be monitored, and the IEP evaluated at least every year. This move has the prem8 Recommendations ise of alleviating stress on parents of children for Inclusion in Education with IDD.  The assurance of funding for their child’s education, having meaningful child-­ Inclusive education has been a global initiative centred goals, will empower parents of children for a while now. However, in developing coun- with IDD and likely alleviate stress. tries, many factors appear to impact its impleThe provision of special education funding mentation. Financial support, access to would necessitate training of practitioners to proindividualized programs, disability awareness, vide services for children with IDD in the classteacher training, special education laws, and pub- room. Studies have reported on teacher perception licly funded school programs, are some areas that on inclusive education in Zimbabwe, and most of need to be visited for inclusive education to be them have reported that teachers feel inadeimplemented. If children with special needs con- quately trained for inclusive classrooms. A study tinue to be fully educated in special schools with- on school psychologists and teachers of students out their peers, the concept of inclusion in with visual impairment yielded similar results. education will remain elusive. For inclusion to be Teacher preparation programs could provide a meaningful and beneficial for families of chil- general overview of the nature and needs of studren with IDD, the following recommendations dents with disabilities, accommodations and are proposed. adaptations, and inclusive practices such as dif (a) Funding ferentiated instruction, universal design for learnThe Zimbabwe Education Act, implemented in ing, and tiered instruction, to name a few. Such 1987 provides a right to an education to all chil- basic training would introduce teachers to the dren. However, the Act does not attach funding to needs of exceptional learners. each child with special needs (Chitiyo and Lack of teachers who are prepared to provide Muwana 2018; Majoko 2018; Peresuh and quality inclusive education becomes a limitation. Barcham 1998). Most funding is from non-­ Presently, Special Education degrees are offered governmental organizations and donor agencies. in two state universities, and teacher training colFunding is crucial in the delivery of special edu- leges offer certificates in special education. cation services, as more learners would benefit Opening this avenue to include all teacher prepathan is the case currently. Funding would ensure ration programs would be a good trend toward that special education services such as psycho- embracing inclusive education. logical, physical, speech, and language therapies, There are several benefits of training all teachaccommodations, adaptations, and transitional ers for inclusive education. Training would help services are provided to meet each child’s needs teachers feel competent and confident to provide (Christle and Yell 2010). The schools would an effective education for all children with or develop multi-disciplinary teams whose purpose without special needs. Teachers would underwould be to provide services to the student. The stand and embrace diversity and learn how to multi-disciplinary team would develop an interact with children with special needs. Basic Individualized Education Program (IEP) for the training in special education would help change child. The IEP would include meaningful child-­ teachers’ attitudes toward students with special centred annual goals, special education and needs and thus view inclusive education as a related services, transitional services, and moni- necessity rather than an imposition.

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(b) Support systems Currently, support groups exist in a limited scale in Zimbabwe, implying that families of children with disabilities are virtually on their own, relying on little or no information from educators, the government, and non-governmental organizations. Support groups would provide social and emotional support allowing parents to express their feelings, desires, and hopes for their children. Belonging to an active and supportive organization would provide positive coping skills to deal with the negative impact of having a child with a disability. The Zimbabwe Parents of Handicapped Children Association (ZPHCA) is an active parent organization in Zimbabwe that provides support to parents of children with physical disabilities. The Zimbabwe Down Syndrome Association (ZWDSA) is another active organization which provides support to its members and can be accessed at www.zwdsa.org. The ZWDSA helps parents learn self-reliant skills like making their own peanut butter for sale. Belonging to such organizations is one way to mitigate stress and adopt positive coping strategies. As families of children with special needs experience stressors, it is hoped that they could use appropriate strategies to minimize the impact of the stressors. It is important for them to learn to use effective coping strategies.

9 Limitations of This Study Although interesting findings were obtained, it is important to understand that this study was conducted in one city in Zimbabwe. Generalizability is therefore limited to families living in an urban setting. It would be valuable to conduct a broader survey to include families in rural and other urban areas as their stress levels and coping may vary. While generalizability might be limited, important information has been obtained. As is the case with most self-report studies, it is possible that families may have underreported or overreported their stress levels for various reasons. Including a larger and more diverse sample could provide different results.

10 Implications for Further Studies This chapter discussed challenges that make inclusive education difficult to implement on a full scale in Zimbabwe, stressors that families of children with IDD face, and coping strategies that are used by these families. It is important for future studies to delve deeper into understanding specific stressors and how they could be mitigated. It is also important for future studies to broaden the sample size to include participants from other parts of the country and in Southern Africa and make comparisons. Different results may be obtained. It is also important for future studies to include siblings as part of the stress and coping studies. Understanding sibling stress and coping would provide a broader idea about coping strategies of families of children with IDD. Comparisons can also be made on families of adult children with IDD and younger children with IDD.  Understanding stress and coping in this context would broaden the scope of these studies.

11 Conclusion The purpose of this chapter was to discuss the nature of inclusive education in Zimbabwe and stress and coping strategies of families of children with IDD. The lack of special education law that ties funding to an individualized education program for each child’s needs, cultural beliefs about disabilities, lack of parental advocacy, and teacher preparation programs are some of the factors that need to be addressed. By addressing these anomalies, families of children with disabilities would reap the benefits of inclusion. Given the nature of inclusive education in Zimbabwe, it was important to examine families’ perceived stress and coping strategies that are used to mitigate the perceived stressors. There were no significant differences among participants in their perceived stress. This result showed that most participants (84%) rated themselves as moderate or highly stressed. Since this sample

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was comprised of mostly participants who were employed or involved in their organization, one wonders what the results would look like if the study included families that were less educated and/or not employed. If Zimbabwean families in general are experiencing high stress, what type of buffers are available for families of children with IDD? How do they cope with stress? These are important questions addressed in this chapter. Participants in this study significantly differed in their use of problem-solving, social support, and confrontative coping strategies. Families of children with IDD reported using self-blame as a coping strategy. While each coping strategy serves a different purpose, it is important for families of children with IDD to employ strategies that would mitigate the stressor and buffer both the physical and psychological well-being. Equipping families with appropriate and culturally relevant problem-solving strategies is recommended.

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L. Magaya J Comm Appl Soc Psychol 29:273–284. https://doi. org/10.1002/casp.2399 Mukuna RK, Maizere J (2022) Exploring the experiences of d/Deaf and hard of hearing children in a mainstream school in Zimbabwe: a narrative analysis. Am Ann Deaf 166(5):601–620. https://doi.org/10.1353/ aad.2022.0000 Murray S (2018) Breaking the link between disability and child and Wha-nau poverty. Policy Q 14(4):68–77 National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY) (2021) About intellectual and developmental disabilities. https://www.nichd.nih. gov/health/topics/idds/conditioninfo Peresuh M, Barcham L (1998) Special education provision in Zimbabwe. Br J Spec Educ 25(2):75–80 Pisula E, Banasiak A (2020) Empowerment in polish fathers of children with autism and down syndrome: the role of social support and coping with stress  – a preliminary report. J Intellect Disabil Res 64(6):434– 441. https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12681 Schalock RL, Luckasson R, Tasse MJ (2021) Intellectual disability: definition, diagnosis, classification, and systems of supports, 12th edn. American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) Schepper MN, Hauser M, Kagadkar F (2021) What is intellectual disability? American Psychiatric Association. In: Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, fifth edition. APA Publishing, Arlington, VA Shafaq A, Khanam SJ (2016) Parenting stress in mothers of children with disabilities: a comparative study. Pak J Psychol 47(1):57–69 Simeua N, Mitra S (2019) Disability and household economic wellbeing: evidence from Indonesian longitudinal data. Oxf Dev Stud 47(3):275–288. https://doi.org /10.1080/13600818.2019.1575348 Thwala SK, Ntinda K, Hlanze B (2015) Lived experiences of parents of children with disabilities in Swaziland. J Educ Train Stud 3(4):206–215. https:// doi.org/10.11114/jets.v3i4.902 UNESCO (1994) The Salamanca statement and framework for action on special needs education. UNESCO, Paris Wang P, Michaels CA, Day MS (2011) Stresses and coping strategies of Chinese families with children with autism and other developmental disabilities. J Autism Deve Disord 41:783–795. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10803-­010-­1099-­3

Cultural and Linguistic Barriers to the Inclusion of Deaf Learners: Towards Sign Bilingual Education in Zimbabwe Patrick Sibanda

Abstract

Keywords

Grounded on a combination of previous research, literature review, and current findings; and framed within Vygotsky’s sociocultural model and Cummins’s Linguistic Interdependence theory, the chapter explores cultural and linguistic barriers to the inclusion of deaf learners in Zimbabwe. The findings of the current study are based on phenomenological narratives of deaf learners and their parents and of deaf adults as well as crosssectional survey data collected from specialist teachers of the deaf across the country. From the findings, the chapter concludes that the multiplicity of the cultural and linguistic barriers to the inclusion of deaf learners in Zimbabwe derive from lack of full awareness of Deaf culture, the minority status of the Deaf culture, general negative medical modeloriented attitudes towards deafness, poor Sign Language proficiency or total lack of it among stakeholders, and home-school language dilemma. In response, the chapter advocates for sign bilingualism, a philosophy that respects cultural pluralism and linguistic diversity, and celebrates deafness as a desirable difference.

Inclusion · Deaf culture · Cultural and linguistic barriers · Sign bilingual education · Deaf inclusion dilemma · Home school language dilemma

P. Sibanda (*) University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

1

Introduction

Literature is replete with discourses on how deaf children should be taught in exclusive special settings but there is no consensus on how they should be fully included in mainstream schools. While it is widely acknowledged that deaf children learn better through sign language and in environments that are rich in Deaf culture, conflicting ideas and inconsistencies about what is best for deaf learners have created what Khairuddin et al. (2018) term the ‘deaf inclusion dilemma’. Singer et al. (2020) raise concern over scant literature on this ‘hard to access topic’ on deaf inclusion. Similarly, Khairuddin et al. (2018) confirm that available literature on the experiences of deaf learners focuses on high-income countries and is often limited to making assumptions about availability of resources. Such literature is sparser in Sub-Saharan Africa. This is part of what motivated the researcher to explore this topic on cultural and linguistic barriers to inclusion of deaf learners in Zimbabwe.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Hlalele, T. M. Makoelle (eds.), Inclusion in Southern African Education, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43752-6_9

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2 Deaf Culture and Inclusion Deaf culture is the set of values and norms that are indigenous to Deaf people. The sacred use of the hand, sustained eye contact, and attachment of sign names, are part of what is termed the Deaf etiquette. The Deaf etiquette forms the basis of the norms and values of the Deaf culture. These values and norms contain a rich cultural heritage which is transmitted from generation to generation through traditional means such as folklore and story-telling in the absence of orthography. Sutton-Spence (2010) confirms that Deaf communities help transmit linguistic and cultural traditions through themes, signed story-telling, signed folklore, modelling, and identity development. Central to the Deaf culture is sign language which is a complete language with its own grammar, syntax, and lexicon. Naturally, sign language is the native language of the Deaf and therefore their first language (L1). However, sign language is not universal. For example, in America, American Sign Language (ASL) is used, in Britain, British Sign Language (BSL) is used, in South Africa, South African Sign (SASL) is used, just like in Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe Sign Language (ZSL) is used. These sign languages are not manual renditions of the dominant oral languages of those countries, but stand as independent and fully-fledged languages on their own. The Constitution of Zimbabwe (2013) designates ZSL as one of the 16 official languages of the country. Often, deaf children in Zimbabwe are born into the hearing culture and are exposed to any of the 15 oral languages. Previous research has established that, globally, 90% of deaf children are born to hearing parents (Singer et  al. 2020; Mitchell & Karchmer, 2004) posing obvious communication challenges for inclusion. Inclusion is the process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all learners through increasing participation in learning, cultures and communities, and reducing exclusion within and from education (UNESCO 1994, 2009). In education, inclusion is called inclusive education. Thus in this chapter, inclusive education entails making reasonable accommodations and respecting the culture and language of deaf

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learners in mainstream classrooms. It also entails that deaf learners attend the nearest school to their homes, which they would have attended together with their peers had they not been deaf (Brennan 2003; Parasnis 1997). Inclusive education recognises the need for celebrating cultural diversity and achieving equitable education for all learners. In this regard, World Federation of the Deaf (2011) equates inclusion of deaf learners to a means of giving them the opportunity to achieve full potential without encountering barriers. To achieve inclusion, deaf learners should be enabled to meaningfully interact with both deaf and hearing peers and with teachers. Interaction with non-sign language users is possible through the intervention of sign language interpreters. Since the number of deaf learners is often low in mainstream schools, it is important to create opportunities for younger deaf learners to mingle with the older deaf learners for them to learn the Deaf culture. Innes (1994:155) implores, ‘Exposure to other deaf individuals is a necessary element of a deaf child’s inclusive education’. Thus, deaf learners should also be enabled to reach out to good Deaf role models from the community in order to appreciate the Deaf culture from an indigenous perspective. In addition, Pedersen et  al. (2021) strongly advocate for deployment of deaf teachers in mainstream schools with deaf learners to promote awareness and transmission of the Deaf culture. However, the authors are concerned that deaf individuals face barriers even in becoming teachers owing to standardized testing biases and discrimination in post-secondary settings. Barriers such as language, culture, negative labels, lack of respect, and support, stand in the way of teachers who are deaf either doing the best job they can or becoming teachers in the first place (Boser 2014). There is, however, a school of thought that is opposed to inclusion of deaf learners in mainstream schools in favour of exclusive special schools. Some researchers strongly believe that, a mainstream placement of deaf learners may not be the most inclusive alternative. Instead they posit that such settings are restrictive, especially when deaf learners have to struggle with communication access, linguistic and cultural belongingness, academic content, instructional pacing

Cultural and Linguistic Barriers to the Inclusion of Deaf Learners: Towards Sign Bilingual Education…

and development of a Deaf identity (Singer et al. 2020; Singer & Vroman 2019). Challenging the use of ‘placement’ as a criterion for defining inclusion, Musengi (2019:97) opines that, inclusion cannot be about places where education occurs, but about reasonable accommodations for learners to equitably and successfully participate in learning. The author declares, “... being deaf is morally a cultural difference requiring separate, special school provision in order to ensure access to a critical mass of sign language users and therefore to inclusive education.” Unfortunately, the author does not explicate how inclusive education could be achieved in special schools which are traditionally known to be exclusive. Nevertheless, Brennan (2003) earlier on argued that superficial inclusive practices, such as the ‘placement’ and attendance of deaf children in mainstream schools, often simultaneously deny the linguistic and cultural diversity, and too often lead to exclusion. Consequently, a new way of recasting inclusive education of the deaf is imminent. It should go beyond mere rhetoric and casual placement and be re-framed as an educational system which enables full access to sign language and Deaf culture, active social and academic participation. Therefore, inclusive education should value individual membership of deaf learners in the mainstream school. In effect, the most inclusive settings for deaf learners are those that are most supportive, most liberating and most culturally sustaining yet most academically empowering (Musengi 2019; Singer & Vroman 2019).

3 Sign Language and Inclusion The primary function of sign language is provision of access to the sociocultural practices of the deaf. By definition, sign language is a mode of communication which uses manual and visual modalities to express and receive ideas.  It is a natural means of interpersonal communication among deaf people  as it enables acquisition of social experience and access to the objective reality of the Deaf as well as access to education (Mweri 2014). Sign language performs a similar role for the deaf as that of spoken language for the

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hearing. It facilitates communication, conveys social interactions and expresses cultural identity for the deaf children (South African National Deaf Association, 2016). Sign language also acts as a springboard for reaching out to other cultures and languages. It is the first natural language for the deaf learners hence the vehicle for meaningful communication and cultural transmission. It is used to facilitate access and participation in inclusive education settings. In addition, sign language is used as a defining attribute for the membership of a linguistic minority deeply rooted in the Deaf culture. Sign language therefore enables deaf learners to naturally adapt to the curriculum content and to interact more meaningfully with their peers and teachers (Heslinga  & Nevenglosky, 2012) in inclusive settings. For Higgins and Lieberman (2016) sign language enables deaf children to gain social and academic competence within inclusive education settings. The centrality of sign language in the lives of Deaf people and its role in cementing community membership is perhaps the key difference between Deaf and other disabled experiences and agendas (Brennan 2003). Although not all deaf people use sign language as their main communication modality, it remains the most flexible and comfortable for deaf people to meaningfully express themselves in both deaf-only and inclusive settings. The choice not to use sign language as the primary communication mode is often a function of lack of exposure to the language. It is a manifestation of the influence of the hearing culture in the absence of access to rich sign language environments. Article 24 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) (2006) provides that State Parties should facilitate the learning of sign language and promote the linguistic identity of the Deaf community. The State parties are also expected to ensure that the education of persons who are deaf is delivered in the most appropriate language environments which maximise academic and social development. Zimbabwe has recognised the legitimacy of sign language although its use as the main medium of instruction is still limited. Through the Secretary’s Circular Minute Number 3, the Government of Zimbabwe  (2002) directs

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that sign language should be taught as a subject in schools. Similarly, Chap. 1 Section 6(4) of the Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment Number 20,  the Government of Zimbabwe (2013) also  stipulates, “The State must promote and advance the use of all languages …, including sign language, and must create conditions for the development of those languages.” Consequently, the Government of Zimbabwe (2019) in the Education Amendment Act, Section 62, mandates all schools in Zimbabwe to endeavour to teach every officially recognised language (including sign language). Schools should ensure that the language of instruction shall be the language of examination and that the mother tongue is to be used as the medium of instruction at early childhood education (ECD). In addition, the Section provides for school curricula to, as far as possible, reflect the culture of the people of every language used or taught in the school. In a way, although the Government of Zimbabwe recognises the centrality of both culture and language in the inclusion of deaf learners, it has not effectively enforced the legal provisions with specific regards to sign language. It is, of cause, problematic to enforce provisions such as that the language of instruction be the language for examination as sign language has no written form. To fill this gap, the Government  of Zimbabwe (2001), has  through the Education Director’s Circular Minute Number 24, provided for sign language interpretation in public examinations. This is also not effectively enforced owing to ignorance of the policy by some administrators and shortage of qualified sign language interpreters. Encouraged by these promising policy provisions, Sibanda (2018) recommended sign bilingual education as a strategy for the inclusion of deaf learners in Zimbabwe.

4 Sign Bilingual Education as a Strategy for Inclusion Sign bilingual education can be conceived as a strategy for educating deaf children in which both the sign and oral languages are used; with sign language being the main medium of instruc-

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tion and oral language being used for reading and writing (Naussbaum et al. 2012). In Zimbabwe, it entails equitable use of ZSL and English or some indigenous oral language such as Ndebele, Shona, Kalanga, Venda or so. Sign bilingual education is believed to resonate with inclusion of deaf learners, as it creates opportunities for dual naturalistic input of language in order to trigger early bilingual acquisition of not only the students who are deaf but of hearing students and teachers as well (Tang 2016). In sign bilingual education settings, sign language also serves as a tool for communicating with peers and teachers and for accessing the oral based curriculum (Swanwick 2016), while the oral language serves as the medium for literacy development. This frames sign bilingual education as part of the process of inclusion of deaf children, since sign bilingual inclusive programmes have been found to be beneficial for both hearing and deaf children (Hsing 2015). The major impetus for the emergence of sign bilingual education is that it has shown promising results in Scandinavian countries, United States of America, United Kingdom and later in many other countries world-wide (Tang 2016; Swanwick 2016; Mitchner 2015). For these reasons, there has been an increasing number of programmes in the world which attempt to bring sign bilingual education in line with inclusive education (Centre for Sign Linguistics and Deaf Studies at the Chinese University of Hong Kong 2013). However, while sign bilingual education is one promising way forward for the inclusion of deaf learners, limited resources have scuttled the efforts of many African countries to implement it (Khairuddin et al. 2018). The  World  Federation of the  Deaf (2011) admits that sign bilingual education has potential to address barriers to inclusion of deaf learners and, therefore, endorses it as the only means by which deaf children in inclusive settings could gain equal opportunities to learning and social interaction. This is because sign bilingual education does not encourage segregation of children according to communication, linguistic and/or cultural orientation. Humphries (2013) concurs that sign bilingual education, just like inclusive educa-

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tion, requires collapsing of categorisation of learners and enlargement of the community of learners who interact with each other. It does not encourage segregation to create small groups of socially and culturally isolated deaf children. As such, in sign bilingual education, the language accessibility, cultural and identity needs of the deaf child are the main focus (Naussbaum et  al. 2012). Sign bilingual education thus aims to eradicate linguistic and cultural barriers deaf learners face in inclusive settings by mitigating drivers of exclusion.

5 Drivers of Linguistic and Cultural Barriers According to Belenyi (2014), the dominant view among many communities is still that deaf learners are less capable than their hearing peers, hence can achieve only lower levels of attainment. Such stereotypes are perpetuated by the poor academic performance of deaf learners which is often a function of a myriad of barriers which, like earlier indicated, are rooted in cultural and linguistic practices. Singer et al. (2020) see difficulty in communication and lack of opportunities to develop a Deaf identity as some of the sources of barriers to the inclusion of deaf learners in mainstream schools. Communication for deaf children is often not viewed as integral to brokering a fulfilling life as children with disabilities are looked down upon and seen as incomplete humans (Hustard and Miles 2010; Haslam 2006). In the same vein, sign language is largely not viewed as a complete language. For Brennan (2003), barriers to inclusion derive from lack of adequate linguistic access as it impinges on deaf learners’ rights to fully participate in inclusive settings. The researcher found that even in Britain, lack or complete absence of sign language and shortage of sign language interpreters were the major sources of barriers to the inclusion of deaf learners. Brennan (1999) earlier observed that, while the broader social inclusion agenda recognises linguistic and cultural diversity, educational inclusion often equates to linguistic exclusion for the deaf learners. This has led to what Khairuddin et al. (2018) term the ‘deaf

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inclusion dilemma’ which emanates from lack of consensus on what constitutes best practices for including deaf learners in mainstream schools. At times sign language is not recognised and not readily used by hearing parents, teachers, and by both hearing and deaf children (Courtin 2000) leading to under-development of sign language. It becomes problematic when deaf learners reach school age without a well-developed language of their own as hearing learners tend to make fun of them, causing a great deal of frustration and unhappiness (Ngobeni et al. 2020). Even after starting school, that gap created by not learning sign or oral language between birth and starting school does not seize to exist as it remains one major source of frustration and barrier to full inclusion (Landsberg et  al. 2005). For the deaf learners, trying to learn sign language while under tremendous pressure to cope with the oral based curriculum intensifies the barriers they face in inclusive settings (Ngobeni et al. 2020). In South Africa, Akach et al. (2009) found that the main problem was lack of sign language skills among teachers as 90% of them taught deaf children without the knowledge of SASL.  Ngobeni et al. (2020) further posit that absence of skilled sign language teachers is a major source of barrier to learning by deaf learners in inclusive settings. In the same vein, Sibanda (2015) earlier established that about 93% of teachers of the deaf in Zimbabwe lacked proficiency in ZSL as they could only afford the lowest two scores on the Modified Sign Language Interview (MSLPI) scale, that is, the Novice and the No Functional Skills levels. According to Sibanda, what teachers at times mistook for sign language was mere finger spelling and some distorted signed systems. Such conditions work against the inclusive education principles of equality of access and of participation. Lack of sign language proficiency among teachers and learners themselves is a major driver  of barriers to inclusion in education. The other source of linguistic barriers, according to Khairuddin et  al. (2018), is failure of teacher training to keep pace with sign language development and technological opportunities. Although not seminal to Deaf culture, cochlear

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implants and digital hearing aids have been used in developed countries such as the USA and UK to facilitate sign bilingual development, hence inclusion. However, these technologies are scarce, too expensive or unavailable in Africa.

6 Theoretical Framework This chapter is framed within Vygotsky’s socio-­ cultural and Cummins’ Linguistic Interdependence theories. On one hand, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory recognises the fact that deaf people comprise a Deaf community which shares a common sign language and a sociocultural perspective which is a break-away from the traditional view of hearing impairment (Mathews 2011; Chen 2014). In the context of Vygotksy’s theory, deaf people are seen, not only as individuals, but also as collectivities that need to be recognised as ‘cultural-linguistic minorities’ requiring legal protection akin to other linguistic and cultural minorities (The Michigan Disability Rights Coalition (MDRC) 2014; Kusters et  al. 2015). Swanwick (2016) believes that, a sociocultural model of deafness validates the linguistic and cultural choices of deaf people, celebrating diversity and accommodating difference leading to a barrier free inclusion in mainstream settings. Cummins’s (1981) Linguistic Interdependence Principle on the other hand posits that a Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP) across languages will allow positive transfer to occur from a first (L1) to a second (L2) language, if there is adequate exposure to the second language and motivation to learn it (Glaser and Van Pletzen 2012; Knoors & Marscharck  2012). In these regards, Cummins (1981:29) postulates, “To the extent that instruction in Lx (first language) is effective in promoting proficiency in Lx (first language), transfer of this proficiency to Ly (second language) will occur provided there is adequate exposure to Ly (second language) and adequate motivation to learn Ly (second language).” Sign bilingual education is actually posited on the premise that early exposure to an accessible language is the key to developing native like profi-

ciency in any language. Thus, a solid first language (L1) foundation is crucial for the successful acquisition of second language (L2) (Mounty et  al. 2014; Dammeyer 2014; Sibanda 2018).

7 Methods The current study was predominantly a qualitative phenomenological analysis but triangulated with quantitative data collected through a cross sectional survey of teachers as a way of reaching out to a wider sample, while at the same time getting in-depth insight of the phenomenon of cultural and linguistic barriers. Qualitative data were collected using in-depth unstructured interviews from 6 parents of deaf learners, 6 deaf learners and 6 deaf adults from 3 provinces of Zimbabwe that were accessible to the researcher using purposive sampling. The data were collected in the form of written interpretations of the signed versions of deaf adults and deaf learners and direct excerpts and recorded voice notes from the parents of deaf children. Cross-sectional survey data were collected from 180 specialist teachers of the deaf across the country out of a targeted 250 who were selected randomly via a structured questionnaire which was sent to WhatsApp groups and targeted emails to avoid travelling costs and to abide by Covid-19 protocols and restrictions. The use of WhatsApp, while controversial was convenient as it was one of the most accessible during the Covid-19 era. However, its use was restricted to original attachments of documents and voice notes and not ordinary chats. The response rate was 0.72, which was quite impressive. Many researchers believe that a response rate of 50% (0.5) or higher should be considered excellent in most circumstances (Nutty 2008; Morton et al. 2012; Creswell 2013). All the participants were chosen on the basis of their relevance to the discourses on the inclusion of deaf learners. On one hand, qualitative data were analysed using both deductive and inductive t­ hematic analyses while on the other hand cross-sectional survey data were captured in frequencies and analysed using percentages. Thus, some of the themes were conceived from the research ques-

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tions and the literature review while some emerged from the data.

8 Results and Discussion Cross-sectional survey data were captured using frequencies and analysed in percentages as the research design was meant to provide highlights of information about prevalence of outcomes from the participants (Setia 2016). Meanwhile, phenomenological results were analysed using descriptions and in-depth analysis of the direct excerpts and narratives of deaf learners and their parents and deaf adults from the community. The purpose of these phenomenological strategies was to examine lived experiences of the participants at the conscious level of understanding (Qutoshi 2018) concerning cultural and linguistic barriers to the inclusion of deaf learners in Zimbabwe.

8.1 Cultural Barriers Cross-sectional survey data indicated that 30.5% of the specialist teachers of the deaf believed that families of deaf learners were not aware of the Deaf culture which their deaf children were supposed to embrace. More so, 55.6% were not sure about this. Forty- seven point two per cent (47.2%) of the teachers said that communities from which deaf learners came were not aware of Deaf culture, yet 41.7% were not sure about the community’s awareness of the Deaf culture. In addition, 30.6% of the specialist teachers reported that other teachers in mainstream schools appreciated Deaf culture while 38.9% refuted the claim and the other 30.5% were not sure whether teachers in the mainstream schools appreciated Deaf culture or not. On one hand, there were more of the specialist teachers (33.3%) who believed that administrators appreciated Deaf culture than those who said other teachers (30.6%) did. On the other hand, 25% of the teachers insinuated that school administrators did not appreciate Deaf culture, and 41.7% were not sure.

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Parents of deaf children believed that the major cultural barrier to the inclusion of deaf learners in mainstream schools in Zimbabwe was lack of knowledge of the Deaf culture among the community, school administrators, teachers, and hearing children. One parent confirmed, “Lack of knowledge about Deaf culture has been the main cause of negativity about inclusion of deaf children. Three schools here rejected my daughter because they didn’t know how to treat her.” The only one parent who was deaf signed, “The main challenge that affects deaf learners in mainstream schools is that society, teachers and hearing children don’t know Deaf culture. Even many of the young deaf children don’t know Deaf culture too.” Besides, the majority culture is also a source of a myriad of barriers experienced in the inclusion of deaf learners. One parent commented, “Deaf children remain isolated in these schools as their hearing peers transfer cultural beliefs from their parents that deafness is contagious and is a curse. They think that deaf children come from families that practice witchcraft.” Ignorance of the Deaf culture and the resultant stereotypes led to other children, and at times teachers in Zimbabwe, treating deaf learners with stigma. It was not always that hearing children shunned or isolated deaf children because they hated them but because of the negative cultural beliefs and stereotypes about deafness that existed in communities. Deaf adults who were interviewed because of their expert knowledge of the topic, corroborated the revelations by parents. One signed, “Hearing people don’t know Deaf culture … even teachers in those schools don’t know Deaf culture. At times you find just one teacher for all the deaf learners in different classes.” The other one wrote, “In mainstream schools with deaf children, Deaf culture is often misunderstood. It is worse for primary school children because there is no one to teach them. It was better if there were Deaf teachers in the schools. Some specialist teachers do not know much Deaf culture. I have seen that Deaf young children who do better are those in mainstream schools that incorporate both primary and secondary as primary school children learn from the seniors at secondary …”

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These results provide evidence that hearing specialist teachers have limited knowledge of Deaf culture and that there are hardly any Deaf teachers in Zimbabwe. Young deaf learners lack deaf models that could help in mitigating the linguistic and cultural barriers to inclusion. In addition, another deaf adult revealed, “Parents, headmasters, teachers, even young deaf children and the community don’t know Deaf culture. Hearing parents don’t want their deaf children to learn Deaf culture…” Another one added, “Deaf children grow up in different hearing cultures making it difficult for them to mix with others…” This is an indication that many deaf children in Zimbabwe are born into hearing cultures and have limited opportunities to access and explore the Deaf culture, especially in mainstream schools. Those in special schools have a better appreciation of deaf culture. Deaf children in mainstream schools are hardly accepted because their culture is largely misunderstood. In effect, young deaf learners in mainstream schools in Zimbabwe lack a culture of their own which they can use to access other cultures around them. This confuses and forces them not accept hearing culture when they become fully aware of their own. In a way, a dual dilemma of cultural intolerance exists in Zimbabwe. This is when deaf learners fail to appreciate the hearing culture usually perpetuated by hearing people’s failure to appreciate Deaf culture. Such a vicious cycle of cultural intolerance is detrimental to inclusive education. As confirmation, another Deaf adult posited, “Deaf children want to associate with other kids from the Deaf community…. Forcing them into the hearing culture is bad…” This excerpt suggests that deaf learners are forced to accept the hearing culture instead of exposing them so that they voluntarily embrace it. When forced, they refuse to accept it. According to Innes (1994), in a truly inclusive environment, exposure to other deaf individuals provides a cultural awareness and identity that enhances development of a positive self-concept. Some learners agreed with the narratives of their parents and of the deaf adults. They revealed that at times they were harassed, bullied, or

abused on the bases of their Deaf cultural practices. One narrated, “Because hearing children don’t want to play with me, I go to look for other deaf children, so we do things for deaf.” Deaf learners further indicated that after all, finding hearing friends was difficult because they acted differently. They confided that at times they had to walk long distances to other schools or locations to look for friends who are deaf like them. All this was because deaf children considered themselves as a linguistic minority with its own culture (Khairuddin et al. 2018).

8.2 Linguistic Barriers As for sign language, 41.7% of the specialist teachers noted that families of the deaf learners were able to use sign language. The remaining 38.9% said the families were unable to use sign language and 19.4% expressed uncertainty about whether families of deaf learners were able to use sign language or not. Interestingly, the same number of specialist teachers (47.2%) indicated that other teachers and administrators in mainstream schools could not use sign language. Meanwhile, 47.2% and 50% of the specialist teachers respectively were not sure about other teachers and administrators’ ability to use sign language. A high number of the specialist teachers of the deaf (69.4%) expressed that sign language was not taught as a subject in mainstream schools with deaf children, while 25% were not sure about this practice. The same number of specialist teachers who indicated that sign language was not taught as a subject (69.4%) also reflected that there were no sign language interpreters in mainstream schools with deaf children. The remainder (30.6%) were not sure of the existence of sign language interpreters in those schools. On whether deaf children reached school having acquired sign language, 22.2% said ‘Yes’, 52.8% said ‘No’ and 25% were not sure. These data show that families of the deaf, teachers and school administrators, hearing and even young deaf children in Zimbabwe were not fluent in sign language. The data also confirm shortage of sign language interpreters in Zimbabwe.

Cultural and Linguistic Barriers to the Inclusion of Deaf Learners: Towards Sign Bilingual Education…

Parents, deaf adults, and deaf learners’ accounts of personal experiences point to lack of sign language skills as the major linguistic barrier to the inclusion of deaf learners in Zimbabwe. They all highlighted that hearing parents, the community, teachers, and school administrators as well as hearing children and some young deaf children, were unable to use sign language. They also expressed that shortage of specialist teachers of the deaf who could use sign language added to the communication barrier. This was fuelled by the failure of schools to teach sign language. They said that they had never witnessed mainstream schools that offered sign language as a subject. Parents and deaf adults believed this was the major cause of lack of access to sign language. For Brennan (2003) lack of linguistic access is the key barrier to the inclusion of deaf learners. One parent said, “I took my child to the nearest school, but realised that the head and deputy could not communicate in sign language. Even the so called specialist teacher was not conversant with the signs used by my child and there were no sign language resources around. I later decided to move him to a special school but now I can’t cope with the expenses …” Another parent observed that, although the nearest school in which her child was enrolled had a specialist teacher, the child had difficulties communicating in sign language, let alone learn and interact with hearing peers and other teachers because they hardly understood him. “Even the teacher of the deaf at the school struggles with sign language and often misunderstands my child’s needs…” said yet another parent. This suggests that even specialist teachers of the deaf in Zimbabwe experience sign language barriers. According to Ngobeni et al. (2020), if neither the teacher nor the learner is well-versed in signing it causes a barrier. Teachers who suffer from a language barrier, which also affects the learners’ performance, cannot manage a class with deaf learners. A deaf adult indicated that many deaf children suffered a sign language barrier both in the home and at school because of poor sign language environments. He observed that deaf children with hearing parents experienced more communication

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barriers as the parents could not use correct sign language but gestures that were at times not sign language and were confusing to the child. The same was expressed of many of the teachers. At times signs used at school were different from those used in the home. Even the oral language used by the teacher was different from the one used in the home. This caused a home-school language dilemma considering that Zimbabwe has 15 official oral languages in addition to ZSL as the other official language. Because of these inconsistencies, some deaf learners reach school without a language at all. Another deaf adult confirmed from personal experience that, being born of hearing parents can cause one to reach school without a language. He said that he spent most of the time trying to learn sign language rather than schooling but at least he was at a special school where he eventually coped. These findings add to the growing body of knowledge which suggests that deaf children who enter school with little or no language spend time catching up rather than having equal access to the curriculum (Khairuddin et al. 2018). A deaf learner confirmed the foregoing experiences, “It is very difficult to learn in the big (mainstream) class because the teacher does not use sign language and she talks too fast while looking away. It’s better in the resource room although we learn very little there as we are all in different grades. I am the only one in grade seven.” This excerpt suggests that some mainstream teachers in Zimbabwe are not sensitive to the communication needs of deaf learners. Meanwhile, the small number of deaf children in mainstream schools limits social interaction which is necessary for language acquisition and development. Some deaf learners at one secondary school bemoaned lack of proper sign language interpretation services in various subject areas. They said that the only one teacher of the deaf provided interpretation services in all the subjects. They said that, however, pacing of lessons was too fast often leaving them confused. In subject areas such as mathematics, geography and science, the teacher failed to explain many of the concepts due to lack of knowledge of content and signs of more complex concepts. These results corroborate Khairuddin et  al.’s (2018)

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other finding that deaf children have difficulties following fast-paced examination-oriented lessons in mainstream settings. Even in Britain, Brennan (2003) found lack or complete absence of sign language and shortage of sign language interpreters to be the major sources of barriers to the inclusion of deaf learners.

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parents of the hearing learners had negative attitudes towards the inclusion of deaf learners. Thirty-point six percent (30.6%) and 27.8% respectively were not sure about the attitudes of hearing children and their parents. Finally, 52.8% of the specialist teachers believed that deaf children and their parents had positive attitudes and 27.8% that they had negative attitudes toward inclusion in mainstream schools. Nineteen point 8.3 Sources of Cultural four percent (19.4%) were not sure of the attiand Linguistic Barriers tudes of deaf learners and their parents towards inclusion of deaf learners. The cultural and linguistic barriers to inclusion of Although specialist teachers painted a better deaf children in Zimbabwe were found to be per- picture, parents of the deaf, deaf adults and deaf petuated by various circumstances emanating children believed that there were negative attifrom the home or school. For instance, 63.8% of tudes that militated against inclusion of the deaf the specialist teachers indicated that mainstream learners in Zimbabwe. Parents of deaf children schools nearest to the deaf children’s homes did narrated that their children were discriminated not accept them and 52.7% said that the nearest against and that there was widespread stigma schools had no specialist teachers of the deaf. An attached to deafness such as that deaf children equal number of the specialist teachers (33.3%) were a result of witchcraft or promiscuity. Some noted that parents of hearing children were not said this was evidenced through lack of interest happy about their children learning with deaf among many schools to accept deaf learners and children. to teach sign language and Deaf culture. Deaf When asked to rate whether the community adults complained that lack of sign language had a positive or negative attitude toward the interpreters and of trained deaf teachers were the inclusion of deaf learners in mainstream schools, main drivers of the multiplicity of cultural and 38.9% of the teachers said that the community linguistic barriers to the inclusion of deaf learnhad a positive attitude, while 44.4% said it had a ers. They also divulged that they had personally negative attitude. The other 16.7% was not sure witnessed a number of deaf children who were about the attitude of the community towards isolated and hidden away at homes because parinclusion of deaf learners. Nearly the same num- ents feared stigmatization. Such negative stereober (30.6% and 33.3%) of the specialist teachers types and stigmatization point to the medical said that teachers and administrators had a posi- model in which deaf people were viewed as tive attitude towards the inclusion of deaf learn- abnormal and, therefore, systematically excluded ers respectively and the same number (41.7%) from and within education in Zimbabwe. were not sure about the attitudes of both teachers Deaf children said that mainstream teachers and administrators. However, 27.8% and 25% of accepted them into class but did not give them the the specialist teachers expressed that other teach- same attention and attitude as their peers, “Every ers’ and administrators’ attitudes were negative day, the resource room teacher takes me to the towards the inclusion of deaf learners in main- big (mainstream) class, but the teacher there stream schools. does not care to help me…” This was expressed For the hearing children and their parents, by a grade 7 deaf learner. Whether this was a mat30.6% and 50% respectively of the specialist ter of negative attitude or lack of knowledge and teachers pointed out they had positive attitudes skills for teaching deaf learners, such behaviours towards the inclusion of deaf learners. Thirty-­ stall inclusion of deaf learners and need further eight point nine percent (38.9%) of the teachers investigation. It is apparent from the data that observed that hearing learners and 30.6% that while parents wished for the inclusion of their

Cultural and Linguistic Barriers to the Inclusion of Deaf Learners: Towards Sign Bilingual Education…

deaf children, negative attitudes of the community and the school still existed. These results, however, differ from findings of similar studies in the USA where positive attitudes towards the inclusion of deaf learners have resulted in many schools using ‘some form of sign language’ and some establishing bilingual-bi cultural programmes (Parasnis 1997). This could be due to either lack of resources or political will in Zimbabwe.

9 Conclusions and Recommendations From the findings, the chapter concludes that cultural and linguistic barriers to the inclusion of deaf learners in Zimbabwe derive from lack of awareness and exposure to Deaf culture and the minority status of the Deaf culture amid the multiplicity of oral languages and cultures  in the school system. The general negative medical model oriented attitudes towards deafness, poor sign language proficiency or total lack of it among stakeholders and the home-school language dilemma add to the list of linguistic and cultural barriers in the inclusion of deaf learners in Zimbabwe. These barriers also include cultural stereotypes and intolerances as well as communication difficulties which are mainly caused by shortage of both trained specialist teachers of the deaf and sign language interpreters. All these barriers are often expressed through communication obstacles which are mirrored through isolation, discrimination, and poor academic performance of deaf learners in mainstream schools of Zimbabwe. Cultural and linguistic barriers are the dominant negativities that militate against inclusion of deaf learners in the country. In other words, deaf learners in Zimbabwe lack effective learning mainly due to cultural and linguistic barriers. The way forward is embracing sign bilingual education which demands equal recognition of Deaf and hearing cultures, equitable use of both sign and oral languages, and the deliberate teaching of sign language as a subject in schools. There is also need for Deaf culture awareness

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among communities and capacitation of all mainstream teachers in Zimbabwe with at least basic sign language skills. In addition, there should be affirmative action to support training of deaf teachers while intensifying deployment of specialist teachers and sign language interpreters in mainstream schools with deaf children. Trained specialist teachers of the deaf should also be supported towards advancing their sign language skills. Ultimately, further exploration of strategies for effective implementation of sign bilingual education as a strategy for inclusion of deaf learners should be considered a niche for future research. The study implies a transformation of how Deaf culture, sign language and deaf children are viewed and of the framework of deaf education in Zimbabwe in favour of a sign bilingual education framework.

Appendices  ppendix I: Questionnaire A on Cultural and Linguistic Barriers to the Inclusion of Deaf Learners in Zimbabwe NB: This information will not be shared with anyone but will only be used for research purposes. All the information will be kept strictly confidential. Please do not write your name anywhere on this questionnaire!

 ection A: Knowledge of Deaf Culture S and Sign Language Yes

No

Not sure

1. Do families of deaf children in your school know about Deaf culture? 2. Are the communities nearest to your school aware of Deaf culture? 3. Do other teachers in your school know about Deaf culture? 4. Do the administrators of your school know about Deaf culture? 5. Are you aware of Deaf culture yourself? (continued)

P. Sibanda

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Section C: Comments (If You Have Any)

6. Does your school admit deaf learners from the communities nearest to the school? 7. Can families of deaf learners in the nearest communities use Sign Language? 8. Can teachers in your school use Sign Language? 9. Can administrators of your school use Sign Language? 10. Is Sign Language taught as a subject in the school? 11. Do hearing children in your school know Sign Language? 12. Do the deaf children in your school know Sign Language? 13. Are parents happy to have their hearing children learn with deaf children? 14. Does your school have a specialist teacher of the deaf?

1. Use any language to expand on some of the responses you gave in the table. ………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… …………………………………………………

 ppendix II: Interview Guide A For Parents Of Deaf Learners

Section B: Attitudes Positive 1. How are the attitudes of the community toward inclusion of deaf learners? 2. How are the attitudes of the other teachers in the school toward inclusion of deaf learners? 3. How are the attitudes of the administrators of the school toward inclusion of deaf learners? 4. How are the attitudes of hearing children in the school toward inclusion of deaf learners? 5. How are the attitudes of parents of hearing children toward inclusion of deaf learners in the school? 6. How are the attitudes of parents of deaf children toward inclusion of deaf learners in the school?

Negative

Not Sure

1. Does your deaf child go to a mainstream school? • Is the school nearest to the home and is it convenient? 2. How is the child accepted in the school? 3. To what extent is the Deaf culture known? • In the home • In the school • In the community 4. Let us talk about beliefs around deafness. 5. To what extent do the following know sign language: • Your deaf child • Yourself • Other members of the family • Teachers • Administrators • The local community 6. How is sign language viewed among these? 7. How are the attitudes of the following toward the inclusion of deaf learners in mainstream schools? • School administrators • Teachers • Parents of hearing children • Hearing children 8. Can you share any other problems experienced in the inclusion of deaf children in mainstream schools.

Cultural and Linguistic Barriers to the Inclusion of Deaf Learners: Towards Sign Bilingual Education…

 ppendix III: Interview Guide A for Deaf Learners 1. Are you able to use sign language? 2. Where did you learn sign language? 3. Do family members understand sign language? 4. Are teachers able to use sign language? What about the Head of the school, the Deputy, TIC and Senior Teacher? 5. Do you have hearing friends? 6. Do the teachers like you? Why? 7. Do you like learning and playing with hearing friends? Why? 8. What problems do you have at the school? 9. Tell me about any problems you face in learning and playing with hearing peers.

 ppendix IV: Interview Guide A for Deaf Adults 1. Is the community aware of Deaf Culture? What about the school administrators and teachers? 2. How do these view Deaf culture? 3. What could be the causes of these views? 4. To what extent do the following know sign language: • Deaf children • Hearing children • Families • Teachers • School administrators • Community 5. What problems are posed by this for the inclusion of Deaf children? 6. How are the attitudes towards inclusion of deaf learners? 7. Let us talk about any other barriers experienced in the inclusion of deaf learners.

References Akach P, Demey E, Matabane E, Van Herreweghe M, Vermeerbergen M (2009) What is South African sign language? What is south African deaf community? In: Brock-Utne B, Skattum I (eds) Languages and education in Africa: a comparative and trans-disciplinary analysis. Symposium Books, Oxford

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Belenyi E (2014) Deaf identity and social inclusion: a case study in Western Romania. Euro-reg J Socioecon Anal 2:52–67 Boser U (2014) Teacher diversity revisited: a new state-­ by-­ state analysis. Center for American Progress, Washington DC Brennan M (1999) Linguistic exclusion in deaf dducation. Deaf Worlds 15:2–10 Brennan M (2003) Deafness, disability and inclusion: the gap between rhetoric and practice. Policy Futures Educ 1(4):668–685 Centre for Sign Linguistics and Deaf Studies at the Chinese University of Hong Kong (2013) Sign bilingualism and deaf education, subcommittee on integrated education, Hong Kong SAR government. Available on: http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/lin/. Accessed 27 Mar 2022 Chen G (2014) Influential factors of deaf identity development. Electron J Incl Educ 3(2):1–12 Courtin C (2000) The impact of sign language on the cognitive development of deaf children; the case of theories of mind. J Deaf Stud Deaf Educ 5(3):266–276 Creswell JW (2013) Research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches. Sage, Thousand Oaks Cummins J (1981) The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. In: California State Department of Education (ed) Schooling and minority students: a theoretical framework. Los Angeles, National Dissemination and Assessment Centre, pp 3–49 Dammeyer J (2014) Literacy skills among deaf and hard of hearing students and students with cochlear implants in bilingual/bi-cultural education. Deaf Educ Int 16(2):108–119 Glaser M, Van Pletzen E (2012) Inclusive education for deaf students: literacy practices and south African sign language. Sout Afr Linguist Appl Lang Stud 30(1):25–37 Government of Zimbabwe (2001) Education director circular minute no 24: examination for candidates with visual impairment and hearing impairment; braille transcription and sign language interpretation. Ministry of Education and Culture, Harare Government of Zimbabwe (2002) Secretary’s minute number 3. Government of Zimbabwe, Harare Government of Zimbabwe (2013) Constitution amendment no 20. Government Printers, Harare Government of Zimbabwe (2019) Education act amendment no 15. Government Printers, Harare Haslam N (2006) Dehumanisation: an integrative review. Personal Soc Psychol Rev 10(3):252–264 Heslinga V & Nevenglosky E (2012) Inclusion, signing, socialisation and language skills. J Elect for Inclusive Educ 196(1):9–18 Higgins M, Lieberman AM (2016) Deaf students as a linguistic and cultural minority: shifting perspectives and implications for teaching and learning. J Educ 196(1):9–18

128 Hsing M (2015) The impact of sign bilingual inclusive program on deaf and hearing young children in Taiwan. National University of Tainan, Tainan Humphries T (2013) Schooling in American sign language: a paradigm shift from a deficit model to a bilingual model in deaf education. Berkeley Rev Educ 4(1):7–33 Hustard KC, Miles LK (2010) Alignment between augmentative and alternative communication needs and school-based speech-language services provided to young children with cerebral palsy. Early Child Serv (San Diego) 4(3):129–140 Innes JJ (1994) Full inclusion and the Deaf student: A Deaf consumer’s Review of the issue. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.2012.0119 Khairuddin KF, Miles S, McCracken W (2018) Deaf learners’ experiences in Malaysian schools: access. Equal Commun Soc Incl 6(2):46–55 Knoors H, Marshark M (2012) Language planning for the 21st century: revisiting bilingual language policy for deaf children. J Deaf Stud Deaf Educ 17(3):291–305 Kusters A, De Meulder M, Friedner M, Emery S (2015) On diversity and inclusion: exploring paradigms for achieving sign language peoples’ rights. MMG Working Papers 15(02):1–29 Landsberg E, Kruger D, Nel N (2005) Addressing barriers to learning: a south African perspective. Van Schaik, Pretoria Mathews ES (2011) No sign language if you want to get him talking: power, transgression/resistance and discourses of d/deafness in the Republic of Ireland. Popul Space Place 17:361–376 Michigan Disability Rights Coalition (2014) Models of disability. MDRC, Michigan Mitchell RE, Karchmer MA (2004) Chasing the mythical ten percent: parental hearing status of deaf and hard of hearing students in the United States. Sign Language Studies 4:138–168 Mitchner JC (2015) Deaf parents of Cochlear-implanted children: beliefs on bimodal-bilingualism. Deaf Stud Deaf Educ 20(1):51–66 Morton SMB, Bandara DK, Robinson EM, Carr PEA (2012) In the 21st Century, what is an acceptable response rate? Aust N Z J Public Health 36(2):106–108 Mounty JL, Pucci CT, Harmon KC (2014) How deaf American sign language/English bilingual children become proficient readers: an emic perspective. J Deaf Stud Deaf Educ 19(3):333–346 Musengi M (2019) The place of sign language in the inclusive education of deaf learners in Zimbabwe amid CRPD (Mis) interpretation. Afr Disabil Rights Yearb 7:96–111 Mweri JG (2014) Diversity in education: Kenyan sign language of instruction in schools for the deaf in Kenya. Multiling Educ 4(14):1–14 Naussbaum DB, Scott S, Simms LE (2012) The “why” and “how” of an ASL/English Bimodal Bilingual Program. New Dir Deaf Educ 13:14–19 Ngobeni WP, Maimane JR, Rankhumisa MP (2020) The effect of limited sign language as barrier to teaching

P. Sibanda and learning among deaf learners in South Africa. S Afr J Educ 40(2):1–7 Nutty DD (2008) The adequacy of response rates to online paper surveys: what can be done? Assess Eval High Educ 33(3):301–314 Parasnis I (1997) Cultural identity and diversity in deaf education. Am Ann Deaf 142(2):72–79 Pedersen H, Gard D, Soukup M, Huston M (2021) The role of teachers who are deaf/hard of hearing in the field of deaf/hard of hearing education. Rev Disabil: Int J 17(3):1–31 Qutoshi SB (2018) Phenomenology: a philosophy and method of inquiry. J Educ Educ Dev 5(1):216–231 Repbublic of Zimbabwe (2013) Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No. 20) Act, 2013 (Act No. 1 of 2013). www.veritaszim.net Setia MS (2016) Methodology series module 3: Crosse sectional studies. Indian J Dermatol. https://doi. org/10.4103/0019-­5154.182410 Sibanda P (2015) Analysis of sign language proficiency among teachers of the deaf in primary schools in Bulawayo (Zimbabwe). Sci J Pure Appl Sci 4(9):157–165 Sibanda P (2018) Sign bilingual education as a strategy for inclusion of deaf children in Zimbabwe. PhD Thesis, Pretoria: University of South Africa Singer S, Vroman K (2019) A new model of educating deaf students. In: Ford D (ed) Key words in radical education. Koninklijke Brill Publishers, Amsterdam Singer SJ, Cacciato K, Kamenakis J, Shapiro A (2020) Determining language and inclusion for deaf-plus children. Int Electron J Elem Educ 13(1):1–19 South African National Deaf Association (2016) Submission to the constitutional review committee in terms of section 45(1) (c) of the constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Act 108, 1996)Recommended review of section (1). Cape Town, SANDA Sutton-Sprence R (2010) The role of sign language narratives in developing identity for deaf children. J Folk Res 47(3):265–277 Swanwick R (2016) Deaf children’s bimodal bilingualism and education. Lang Teach 49:1–34 Tang G (2016) Sign bilingualism in deaf education. In: O.  Garcia et  al. (eds) Bilingual and multilingual education. Encyclopedia of language and education. Available on https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­3-­319-­ 02324-­3_35-­2. Accessed 11 Mar 2022 UNESCO (1994) The Salamanca statement and framework for action on special needs education. UNESCO, Paris UNESCO (2009) Policy guidelines on inclusion in education. UNESCO, Paris United Nations (2006) Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities. UN, Geneva World Federation of the Deaf (WFD) (2011) Bilingualism as a basic human right for deaf children in education. WFD, Rome

Part III Enablement of Inclusion in Education

Leadership for Inclusion in Schools: An Ethics of Care Perspective Phumlani Erasmus Myende

policies the heart of all actions geared toward achieving inclusion. Linked to policy is the aspect of culture. It is argued that action for inclusion cannot succeed within a culture that promotes exclusion. Hence, re-culturing schools is proposed as another aspect of promoting inclusion. Combined with all the above aspects, leadership must be aligned with the changes required. Under this argument, shifting from conformist leadership approaches is suggested as another aspect of achieving inclusion in schools.

Abstract

While inclusion in education has become a global policy, children, teachers, and parents continue to experience exclusion differently. Many countries are continuously involved in addressing this plight of exclusion in different spheres of society, including in educational institutions. I argue in this chapter that school leadership remains the ‘sine qua non’ for achieving inclusion in educational institutions. Drawing from the ethics of care theory, this chapter proposes leadership for achieving inclusion in schools. The chapter suggests four main leadership focuses for inclusion. First, it is argued that one cause for exclusion to continue is that inclusion measures have continued to use deficit models in the attempts to promote inclusion. Instead, it is argued that, while those to be included may have needs, they also have assets. Leadership for inclusion should begin from the premise that inclusion measures should first identify the assets and then establish how such assets can be deployed to address the  needs of those who should be included. Secondly, policies for inclusion need to be context-driven; therefore, leadership for inclusion makes context-responsive

P. E. Myende (*) University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

Keywords

Assets · Ethics of care · Leadership · Inclusion · Inclusive schools · School culture

1

Introduction

Like all other school initiatives, creating an inclusive school initiative depends on school leaders. School leaders are expected to understand the meaning of inclusion in schools and the leadership required thereafter (DeMatthews et al. 2020; Billingsley et al. 2018; Timothy and Agbenyega 2018; Dematthews 2015). Within this argument, this chapter responds to the question, “What constitutes leadership for an inclusive school?” This chapter uses Tronto’s (1993) ethics of care theory to explore leadership for inclusive schools. The

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Hlalele, T. M. Makoelle (eds.), Inclusion in Southern African Education, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43752-6_10

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chapter is theoretical and uses literature and the author’s experience to advance arguments on what leadership for inclusivity should be. It draws mostly from South African examples and what is known about inclusivity within the South African context. The chapter advances four main arguments about leadership for inclusive schools. First, it draws from the work of Lewis (2016), who connects inclusive leadership with social justice and argues that social justice leadership acknowledges and builds from the marginalised groups’ agency. Drawing from this argument, I argue that despite the pervasive negativities in society’s perceptions of marginalised people in schools, they have assets that every leader should build from in addressing their needs. Secondly, I draw from Tronto’s (1995) view that care should be central to organizational goals to argue that the organisational commitment towards inclusion cannot be a matter of leaders’ mere lip service but must translate into specific actions. The inclusion agenda should be intentional, and there must be policy be a policy agenda. Thirdly, the nature of leadership is crucial in advancing inclusion (Randel et  al. 2018); conformist leadership practices may hinder achieving inclusion in schools (Miron-­ Spektor et al. 2011). Fourth, unchanging culture may not help us achieve inclusion, and it is argued that schools need to reimagine the school cultures to build inclusive schools (McMaster 2015). This theoretical/position chapter is divided into five sections. I first present the nature of exclusion in South African schools to create space for the meaning of inclusive schools advocated in this chapter. Therefore, the section on the nature of exclusion is followed by what inclusivity and inclusive schools mean. I do not present a lengthy section on the meaning of inclusivity and inclusive schools, as this is addressed comprehensively elsewhere in this work. Here I only focus on the meaning relevant to the focus of this chapter. From this meaning, I share briefly what is meant by leadership. In doing this, I am aware that the concept has been exhaustively theorised, but I intend to share how this widely defined concept is operationalised in this chapter. I then dis-

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cuss the ethics of care theory as a theoretical framework that, I suggest, can guide our thinking about what leadership for inclusive schools should entail. Using this as the lens, I then discuss what leadership for inclusive schools entails. I do not intend to provide an exhaustive account of what leadership for inclusiveness entails. Still, through the aspects shared, the chapter expands knowledge on leadership for inclusiveness, drawing from the ethics of care theory. This chapter’s main contribution is expanding knowledge on the theoretical lenses that can be used to understand leadership for inclusive schools. Research has focused on leadership for inclusive schools, but this research has seldom analysed school leadership from the ethics of care perspective.

2 The Nature of Exclusion in South African Schools As I indicate in the chapter’s introduction, I plan to portray the nature of exclusion in South African schools in this section. I do this by exploring literature and drawing from my experience as a teacher and a researcher with 15 years of experience. South Africa has introduced progressive policies to address exclusion generally and exclusion in education in particular. These policies include the South African Constitution, which made education a fundamental human right (Republic of South Africa [RSA] 1996a), and the South African Schools Act no. 84 of 1996, declaring education compulsory for children from the age of seven till the time the learner reaches the age of 15 or the ninth grade (RSA 1996b; Fleisch et al. 2012). Subsequently, pro-poor policies have been introduced to address social and economic-­ related exclusions. For example, the introduction of the National Norms and Standards for School Funding (NNSSF) meant that those who do not afford school fees have an opportunity to attend no-fee schools or can apply for a fee-exemption in fee-paying schools. Further from the NNSSF, the introduction of the White Paper Six on inclusive education in 2001 (Department of Education 2001) and the introduction of the National Schools Nutrition Programme (NSNP) which

Leadership for Inclusion in Schools: An Ethics of Care Perspective

was aimed, among other things, at ensuring that learner dropout as a result of malnutrition is reduced, have contributed in making sure that the number of children who attend school increase. Indeed, the positive outcomes of the above policies did not take long to be seen. For example, by 2006, South Africa recorded a gross enrolment ratio of 98%:102% in primary grades and 91% in secondary grades (Fleisch et  al. 2012). The evidence presented above suggests that the policies introduced addressed the issue of inclusion in schools to some extent. However, mere physical presence in the school may not entirely constitute inclusion. The reality as portrayed by Sayed and Motala (2012), is that despite South Africa being a signatory to the world’s declarations on quality education for all and her constitutional declaration of basic education being a fundamental human right (RSA 1996b), many citizens at the school-going age find themselves excluded from the school system. As demonstrated in the subsequent paragraphs, exclusion in education takes multiple forms and is experienced differently by learners, teachers, parents, and other community members. To give credence to the argument that exclusion continues to be a serious issue in our schools, Msibi (2012) informs us that learners in KwaZulu-Natal schools, years after the inclusion policies were introduced, continued to experience exclusion on the basis of their sexual orientation. In the study, the author (Ibid) found that queer youth learners experienced negative treatment in schools, and at times, even teachers were perpetrators of such treatment. Along the same lines of sexual orientation, the study by Mashishi and Makoelle (2014) also informs us that, despite the right of pregnant learners to education being protected, in some schools, School Governing Bodies (SGBs) applied discriminatory policies that forced pregnant girls out of school. The nature of gendered exclusion also includes cases where independent private schools founded on religious principles continue to exclude learners, especially girls. I taught in a school where pregnant learners are not accommodated at all. Once it is known that the child is pregnant, parents are informed, and if this happens towards the end of

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the year, the child is only allowed to come and write exams and has no space at the school in the following year. The phenomenon of girls’ exclusion is not a South African concern; Hallman and Roca (2007) contend that, across the globe, girls have been the victims of social exclusion, including in education, for reasons that include early pregnancy. There is ample evidence in recent media reports that supports the contention that increased enrollment is insufficient in ending the scourge of exclusion in South African schools. Such gendered exclusion is intense within rural schools. In my doctoral study (Myende 2014), I visited a rural school where women teachers requested me to offer a motivational talk to the grade 12 learners. They did this without consulting the male teachers. The request caused conflict in the school. Male teachers complained about not being consulted and uttered, “Ngeke sizwe ngabafazi thina” (we will not be told by women what should be done). This is a form of exclusion prevalent in rural areas whereby female teachers and learners are subject to the patriarchal nature of rural schools. In these examples, the exclusion is gendered. In addition to gendered exclusions, Mathebula (2019) introduces us to epistemic injustice as one of the forms of exclusion. While his work focuses on a university student, he draws our attention to how these students’ experiences are linked to the past rural education experience. Epistemic injustice is less explored at the level of primary and secondary education. Still, upon a critical analysis of what happens in many schools in the rural context, one realises that learners in these contexts are subjected to epistemic exclusion. The bigger question is, how does this epistemic exclusion happen? A description of realities in most rural schools given by Du Plessis and Mestry (2019) helps us understand this better. They argue, and from my research experience, I agree with them, that: Rural schools face severe challenges that are unique to their environment. A lack of parental interest in children’s education, insufficient funding from the state, a lack of resources, ­underqualified teachers, and multi-grade teaching are barriers to effective education (Ibid., p. 1).

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Because of these realities, children from rural contexts continue to receive education of sub-­ standard quality compared to their urban counterparts (Hlalele 2012). I link this with epistemic injustice. The lack of various resources leads to hermeneutical marginalisation, which is characterised by excluding those who are socially disadvantaged from access to knowledge or communication knowledge (McKinnon 2016). Learners and teachers from rural contexts are not only marginalised when they are in their locale. This marginalisation persists for those who have migrated to urban areas, after realising the injustices engulfing the rural context. Makoelle (2014) states that teachers and learners who engage in rural-urban migration face challenges in adapting to the new context. While the teachers and learners may enjoy being in a better-resourced context, being regarded as farm teachers and learners was considered an exclusion. The exclusion of rural teachers and learners does not happen only when these teachers and learners migrate to urban areas. At times there is horizontal exclusion whereby teachers teaching in the same context of rurality exclude learners, and parents or teachers themselves are excluded by others for different reasons. In my PhD study, I recall that the school principal asked what made me think the parents I wanted to include in my study would be relevant, given their lack of knowledge. The principal further indicated that the learners I included in the study could not share what could be done to improve academic performance (Myende 2014).  This is an indication that there are superiority and inferiority complexities in schools, particularly in the context of rurality, and these may lead to the exclusion of some stakeholders.   In another case, I acted as guardian to a learner who attended the school in one of the townships in Durban. In one instance, the learner was frustrated because she was told she needed to pay the school fees. There was a time when the learner even wanted to drop out of school because she had been told that she could not come if she had not paid. If I did not know the policies and challenged the school, the learner would have been excluded. I have also experienced cases where

learners with disabilities do not attend school because local schools do not have resources and parents cannot transport the learner to special schools in the cities. This last observation is in line with the argument that poverty continues to cause exclusion (Dieltiens and Meny-Gibert 2012). Finally, given that ‘inclusion’ was first developed around the principle of including learners with special needs, it is notable that exclusion persists in this area. For example, Donohue and Bornman (2014) inform us that many learners with disabilities are still out of school. Several reasons are cited for this, including cultural barriers. This again shows there is still a space for exploring what inclusiveness entails and the space for school leadership in an inclusive school.

3 Meaning of Inclusion and Inclusive Schools In the preceding paragraphs, I have demonstrated how there are different forms of exclusion, leading to the conclusion that inclusive schools are not just about ensuring attendance by learners and teachers. Furthermore, being inclusive or exclusive extends beyond blocking or accepting learners with special learning needs (LSEN) in the school. The section has shown that inclusivity goes hand in hand with understanding diversity and goes beyond the focus on learners only, which has been the dominant pattern in the scholarship on inclusivity. The above observations guide the definition of inclusive schools that I adopt. As observed in the earlier discussion, the exclusion is typically gendered; it is also linked to socioeconomic status, geographic location, education level, culture, religion, disability or ability. It affects all stakeholders, such as teachers, learners, and parents in different ways. Given my observations above, I agree with Dudouet and Lundström’s (2016) concept of inclusivity or inclusiveness. These authors regard inclusivity as the “degree of access to various areas of political settlements for all actors of society beyond the most powerful elites, either by participating directly or indirectly in decision

Leadership for Inclusion in Schools: An Ethics of Care Perspective

making or by having concerns addressed by the state” (p. 8). In the context of the above definition, inclusivity in education will be defined as a process whereby teachers, learners, and parents are equally and fully involved in the decision-­ making processes in a school. The definition above highlights the needs of those outside the powerful elite. Drawing from the definition as provided by Dudouet and Lundström (2016), inclusion in education will move beyond the provision of education to learners to ensure that educational provision disregards differences between teachers in positional and managerial positions and those who are post-level ones. Furthermore, from the above definition, inclusivity means ensuring learners’ full participation regardless of race, language, gender, culture, and socio-­ economic background. The adoption of the above definition emanates from the observation made by Muthukrishna (2008) that debates on inclusivity post-1994 restricted addressing the educational needs of learners to only LSEN, neglecting to represent a diversity of learning abilities and challenges. In considering the policies presented in the second section of this chapter (the Constitution, the Schools Act, Education Whitepaper 6, NNSSF, NNSP), it is clear that inclusion has been conceptualised with only learners in mind. Even though learners were at the center of the policies, the policies do not consider what happens when learners are at school. In other words, inclusivity has only been limited to increasing numbers and physical access for LSEN with less focus on whether the whole learning context is inclusive enough (Motala 2011). As I claimed earlier, the incidents of injustice in schools covered in the media suggest that even with these learners, it is only about getting them to be on the school premises and neglecting them when they are there. Therefore, this chapter is premised in that inclusion is about ensuring that schools are accessible to diverse learners, teachers, and parents in terms of physical accessibility, decision-­making, and access to equal educational opportunities, regardless of their social or economic individual differences. I now move on to the theory that forms the framework of this chapter.

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4 Ethics of Care: A Theoretical Framework This chapter uses Tronto (1993)‘s ethics of care theory to propose what leadership for inclusive schools should entail. I adopted Tronto’s work, understanding that scholarship on ethics of care received its popularity from Galligan (1982)’s work. Zinhumwe (2022) provides a good critical analysis of Galligan and argues that Galligan’s ethics of care theory does not allow for the full application to the public sphere and to both men and women. For this reason, I have adopted Tronto’s (1993) ethics of care. In line with the advocacy for broader inclusion, Tronto advanced the theory to make it applicable to the public domain and considered the character of caring as something that both men and women can possess (Zinhumwe, 2022). Tronto (1998) gives a brief but concise definition of care. The author argues that care “refers to our mental disposition of concern to actual practices that we engage in due to our concerns” (p.  16). A broader definition of care is provided by Fisher and Tronto (1990, p. 40). They clarify that: Care is a species activity that includes everything that we do to maintain, continue, and repair our world so that we can live in it as well as possible. That world includes our bodies, ourselves, and our environment, all of which we seek to interweave in a complex, life-sustaining web.

In dissecting the meaning they (Fisher and Tronto 1990) provide above, Tronto (1998) argue that species of activity refers to the fact that the way people care for one another is what makes them human. Furthermore, drawn from both the short and broader definition is the reality that care is not only about being concerned for something or someone, but it includes what is done to show our concern for others as humans. Connecting this theory well with the aim of this chapter, Tronto (1998) contends that identifying the need for care does not mean care will happen. Still, the availability of someone to take responsibility to ensure care happens by organising and marshaling resources is a critical component of care. Consequently, this chapter aims to engage critically with what it means to lead such that you

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care for all those who need to be included in the school context. Describing the central task of caring, Tronto (1998, p. 16) argues that “one of the central tasks for people interested in care is to change the overall public value associated with care.” In the context of this chapter, there is a need to question what it means to care for those schools claim to be caring for by ensuring their inclusion; the is a need to think about what meanings and value these people attach to caring and consider the responses of those cared for after receiving care. The caregivers can observe whether caring produces the intended outcomes for the caregiver and care receiver. Tronto (1995) also argues for the need to understand that people are entangled in care relationships rather than seeing them as individuals pursuing their interests and goals. She further argues that “Individuals act politically, then, based on their self-interests and as a result of the particular constellation of caring relationships and institutions within which they find themselves” (p. 142). Similarly, the marginalised teachers, learners, parents and any other stakeholders may act in ways that show resistance. This should not be seen as a demonstration of self-interest but rather a reflection of how schools as institutions have treated these individuals. If the lived lives of the marginalised are such that they have a positive collection of caring relationships, there is the likelihood that these marginalized groups will change their behaviour. For example, despite all that DBE provides, learner dropout continues (Sing and Maringe 2020). Instead of looking at the learners who are dropping out and asking what could be wrong with them, those who lead schools, guided by the ethics of care, should ask questions about how schools might have been perpetrators of exclusion and what can be done to address the challenge. Tronto (1998) provides a set of questions that she describes as questions that can guide caring judgments. While these questions are all important, I focus on the first questions for this chapter as I believe they provide a clear frame of how to think about care and leadership in the context of inclusiveness. The questions I focus on are those

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that Tronto (1995, 1998) regards as ones that arise from the elements of care: attentiveness, responsibility, competence, and responsiveness. Guided by what this chapter intends, under attentiveness, there exists a need first to ask what care is necessary for those seeking inclusion, to ask what are their human needs about, the nature of the reasons that might cause their exclusion, what types of care already exist, how adequate it is to ensure exclusion does not occur and, finally, who has a voice in the identification of the need and which needs are to be prioritized. Under responsibility, a need to consider who should be responsible for meeting the needs for care for those to be included and how their responsibility can and should be fixed exists. Under competence, those who push for inclusion should consider who the caregivers are, how well they do or can do their work, what conflicts exist between them and care receivers, what resources caregivers need to care for competently, and who pays attention to changes in care receivers’ needs. Under responsiveness, there exists a need to consider how care receivers respond to the care that they are given, how well their care process, as it exists, meets their needs, and if their needs conflict with one another, who resolve these conflicts.

5 Leadership for Inclusion Leadership is a critical aspect in driving school initiatives (Leithwood et al., 2020) and creating inclusive schools (Angelides 2012; Billingsley et  al. 2018; Wanjiru, 2020). I have indicated in the introduction that I do not intend to dwell on this concept. Even though the meanings of leadership are as many as scholars writing about it, and I cannot exhaust that, here I do not want to engage in an eternal debate about what leadership is and what it is not. However, within the confines provided by the aim of this chapter, I define leadership as a process of influence whereby individuals convince each other that their ideas are worth pursuing. With this definition, I agree with Grant et  al. (2018)‘s argument that leadership is fluid and is a shared activity. For this reason, I define leadership within the language of inclusivity.

Leadership for Inclusion in Schools: An Ethics of Care Perspective

Leadership for inclusivity is seen here as that leadership located at all levels of the school, and no one has a monopoly over it (Myende 2014). Guided by the ethics of care framework, creating an inclusive school as a signal of caring includes identifying assets and analysing needs, putting caring at the center of home-grown policies, dismantling conformist leadership practices, and re-­ culturing the school contexts These four aspects are drawn from the ethics of care theory and are discussed in the next sections.

5.1 Assets and Needs Analysis Tronto (1998) sets out the questions that must be asked to provide care. Within the suggested questions, I argue that there is a danger in beginning from what is not there. While Tronto (1998) suggests that the need first to ask what care is necessary and what the human needs are, I believe that school leaders first need to begin with what care is already there that the marginalised themselves have sought and that has been provided. Furthermore, the process of caring seems to have always assumed that individuals want to be cared for, and they cannot first provide care for themselves. I believe this is one of the reasons there are cases of learners and teachers feeling socially and educationally excluded in our education spaces despite all the attempts made to be inclusive. Starting from what care is needed and what are the human needs may place inclusion initiatives in danger of adopting a deficit model (Witte and Sheridan 2011; Hlalele 2012; Green and Haines 2012). This approach assumes the marginalized groups have nothing or no solutions to address their plights, and even if they can, the approach leaves them forever dependent, expecting solutions to come from those who are assumed to have the power to change their negative experiences (Venter 2010; Loots et al. 2012). I propose to expand the notion of care that Tronto (1998) advances by arguing that, as part of caring, leaders need to begin by identifying the assets found within the individuals and groups that they want to care for. From the assets, they then need to explore how these assets serve as

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capital that these individuals can use to provide individual care before institutional-driven care can be provided. The advancement of this argument emanates from the fact that scholarship already proves that, despite their challenges, marginalised groups and individuals have at their disposal inherent capacities, skills, and social resources to attend to their life challenges (Venter 2010; Ferreira and Ebersöhn 2011). Through these assets, marginalised groups or individuals can restore their physical well-being and happiness to rebuild the social and political structures through empowerment. This does not mean the needs and how these needs can be addressed as a care process should be neglected, but in the leader’s attempt to care, needs identification should be constituted by an inclusive process. I define this process here as a collective approach to needs identification that creates space for those needing care to set the agenda (Myende 2014) and determine what care is required. Within this frame of thinking, I still align this aspect of leadership with the questions that Tronto recommends. Still, I argue that these questions need to be assessed and ordered so that vulnerability is not perpetuated. Those seeking to be included should not be given a picture that inclusion actions are driven by the intentions of leaders to attain self-interests and goals (Tronto 1995). This kind of approach to leadership for inclusiveness requires dialogue, consultation, openness, and subverting power, especially by those who are seen to possess the power to care. The foregoing recommendation does not discard the reality that the caregiver, in many contexts, may have power in terms of knowing what care is required and where to obtain resources for caring (Tronto 1998); however, it is argued here that this power should not be used to block out those needing care from deliberations about inclusion. For example, I have pointed out how learners, teachers, and parents be excluded. Bringing these stakeholders to dialogue with those who lead schools does not relegate responsibility, to ensure that care takes place, to no one at all. In the end, accountability in schools remains largely with those who are placed into positions of power, principals, and SGBs

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(Myende et  al. 2018). For this reason, they are still to be responsible while also understanding that the caring needs to be guided by the views of those cared for; hence the aspect of responsiveness calls for exploring how the care receivers experience caring. This entire care process is complex, and therefore, it cannot happen unless it is planned. One way of doing this is regulating it through responsive context policies.

5.2 Putting Caring at the Center of Home-Grown Policies Evidence has been provided in the early sections of this chapter that suggests that issues of exclusion and inclusion are not neglected, and a list of inclusion-driven policies has been provided. The introduction of multiple policies as a response to exclusion in education is not a surprise. Howell and Lazarus (2008) contend that policies can facilitate the changes needed for building inclusive schools. A similar opinion is held by Schuelka (2018), who argues that implementing inclusive education requires enabling policies. Bhengu (2012) and Satimburwa (2015) teach us that policies may not be responsive to the contextual factors that each policy must address. Hence, there is a need to construct policies relevant to the inclusion of each school that are drawn from the broader policies of inclusion. I have demonstrated earlier that one of Tronto’s (1998) emphases is that there should be a responsibility to ensure that care happens by organising and marshalling resources. I view this aspect of care as something that cannot happen unless context-­responsive policies are designed to detail the responsibility to ensure there is caring for the marginalised. The policy will not only help provide the parameters of acting for inclusion or against exclusion, but it will also provide a guide on identifying and mobilizing resources for caring. I see leaders’ commitment to policy formulation, which Tronto (1995) regards as the central care task as one of the ways schools as organisations can use to demonstrate the value they attach to caring.

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One of the limitations that were noted about the general inclusion policies from the Department of Education was that they were left to scrutiny and personal interpretation by local actors at the school level, and the limited resources for policy implementation sometimes were impediments (Engelbrecht et al. 2016), to the achievement of policy goals. For this reason, I call for putting care as the central part of the home-grown policies; as implied earlier, I mean policies developed within the schools. My advocacy for these inclusion policies is that they will not generalise about the nature of inclusion in a school. The policies will be drawn from a dialogue intended to unmask all forms of exclusion prevalent in each school. There is evidence that schools borrow policies from other contexts just for compliance (Satimburwa 2015). South Africa as a country consists of multiple diverse schools (Chikoko et al. 2015), and policies taken from one South African context may not be suitable in another, let alone policies drawn from international contexts. Hence, prevailing issues of exclusion are likely to be unnoticed, a clear action of showing organisational value for care. Collaboratively, school leaders (formal or informal) need to ensure that there are policies that are aligned with the type of care required by those who need to be included. Despite the dominant scholarship that positions principals’ leadership as central to the achievement of educational goals (Khalifa 2012; Leithwood et al., 2020), the development of policies for inclusion and the role of leadership is seen in this chapter as a collective task. This emanates from the fact that leadership in this chapter is seen as a fluid and shared activity (Grant et  al. 2018). To address the aspect of competence as one of the key aspects of care (Tronto 1998), I argue that there is a need to dismantle conformist leadership practices in schools. In the next s­ ection, I demonstrate what I mean by conformist leadership practices and what it means to dismantle them in the process of care.

Leadership for Inclusion in Schools: An Ethics of Care Perspective

5.3 Dismantling Conformist Leadership Practices

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and responsibility. The decisions around how inclusiveness should be achieved, who should be responsible, and what competencies are required The theory used in this chapter advocates for from those responsible are likely to be deterensuring that caregivers or those who promote mined from one level unless leaders understand inclusiveness need to be competent. Moreover, it that these decisions require collective goals and advocates for the need to continuously assess engagement. Therefore, the proposal is that conhow the attempts to inclusivity are appealing to formist (traditional) leadership should be disthose intended to appeal to. A few observations mantled to adopt leadership practices that can be made about leadership within responsive- acknowledge the expansiveness and fluidity of ness and competence. First, competent leadership leadership as a practice (Grant et al. 2018). is required to achieve inclusiveness. It is now In line with the argument of non-conformist known that leadership is an expansive practice; it leaders, transformational leadership is one cannot be located within one person’s territory, approach that is relevant in creating inclusive because many people (including the margin- schools (as envisaged in this chapter). This type alised) in an institution are capable of leading of leadership is relevant for its focus on relation(Grant et  al. 2018). In the attempt to look for ships, values, beliefs, and attitudes. competent people to drive caregiving as an aspect Transformational leaders manage structures, but of inclusiveness, there is a need to consider all they seek to impact the school cultures to change levels where competent leadership might be them (Angelides 2012). The focus of transformalocated. I mean levels within the school manage- tional leadership and the ethics of care is comment team members, teachers, learners, non-­ mon. Like transformational leadership, the ethics teaching staff, and community members. In my of care focuses on relationships, the values of view, this allows for inclusiveness while simulta- caregivers and those cared for, attitudes towards neously drawing from all capabilities found care, and ensuring that culture of caring is not within and beyond the school’s boundaries. merely what is preached but is reflected in leadSecondly, regarding the premise of responsive- ers’ actions, the environment they are in, in this ness, it can be argued that for leaders to know case, the school and its culture as an institution. how approaches to inclusivity appeal to those Transformational leadership culture acknowlcared for, there might be a need to ensure that the edges a need to “transform school leadership care receivers are part of leadership. practice in ways that create room for teacher creFor all the above to happen, I propose that ativity and shared responsibility toward developthere is a need to dismantle conformist leadership ing more inclusive schools” (Wanjiru, 2019, practices. Conformist leadership practices can be p. 497). I add to Wanjuru’s proposition that leaddefined as all those leadership practices guided ership should consider all the stakeholders’ creby compliance with rules, developing ideas that ativity, including learners, non-teaching staff, are likely to be accepted by the organisation, and parents, and other community members who focused on implementing already developed might be interested or affected by exclusion or ideas (Miron-Spektor et  al. 2011). Contrary to inclusion. My proposal emanates from the fact transformational leadership practices, which are that transformational leadership looks at the driven by common organisational goals school as an institution and, therefore, an institu(Abrahamsen and Aas 2016), goals within con- tion that consists of multiple stakeholders. formist leadership practices are mostly developed If all stakeholders are considered, there is a from the top. Top managers have a sense of what need to understand that leadership is available at goals and why those goals. This type of leader- different levels. Therefore, I argue that as part of ship may lead to efficiency. Still, in the context of inclusivity, leaders must embrace the understandcreating inclusive, caring schools, it is likely to ing that leadership is distributed. In their paper shun the elements of care such as responsiveness, focusing on teachers’ perceptions about distrib-

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uted leadership for inclusive education, Mullick et  al. (2013) cite Stoll (2004), who argues that “leadership cannot reside in a single role or even a small group because it needs to be, ‘spread much more widely through schools as a collective enterprise, exercised based on distributed authority and influence” (p.  152). The ethics of care emphasises ensuring that those responsible for caring should have competence. Likewise, to ensure a broader sense of inclusive schools is attained, a need to build a competent collective exists. Distributing leadership is again building on the understanding that principals and their management teams may not possess all skills. Even if they can, their focus on academic activities may limit their ability to focus on other social aspects of the school. Hence, sharing leadership beyond those with formal positions creates space for drawing from the school’s multiple wisdoms (Myende 2018) and ensuring that where positional leadership ends, leadership beyond positions begins. Supporting this call for distributed leadership, Miškolci et al. (2016), in their study conducted in Slovakia and South Wales, found that distributed leadership is the cornerstone of achieving inclusive education. Linking distributed leadership with the ethics of care, I argue that it is likely to spread and reach those cared for when leadership is distributed. They have reached the aspect of responsiveness, which is the fourth aspect of the ethics of care and one that can readily be addressed. I am convinced that when they are involved, the care receivers can immediately share their views on how our attempts to inclusive schools are relevant and responsive to their plights or not. The exercise of distributing leadership is regarded here as one approach to dismantling conformist leadership in that it puts some level of responsibility on both positional and non-positional leaders. I propose that the project of creating inclusive schools is treated with importance by creating a permanent structure that is responsible for ensuring that the nature of exclusion in a school is understood and proper activities are designed. This proposal aligns with the responsibility aspect proposed by Tronto (1998). This approach

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will ensure that activities for caring for those that need to be included are not piecemeal, but there are concentrated efforts towards inclusion. I argued earlier that positional leaders, especially in South Africa, face multiple accountabilities (Myende et  al. 2018) to improve learners’ academic achievement. In such a context, distributing leadership is inevitable because leaders in positions always focus on improving results and dealing with factors that directly affect teaching and learning. In the previous sections, assets identification and needs analysis, policy development, and dismantling of conformist leadership are discussed as aspects of leadership for inclusive schools. Tronto (1995) proposes that there should be clarity on what value an organization puts on care, which should be demonstrated through different means. Within this argument, I argue that another important aspect of leadership is ensuring that the school context is re-cultured to create space for working towards inclusivity and demonstrating how the school values inclusivity and activities geared towards achieving it. I discuss the aspect of re-culturing the school context in the forthcoming section.

5.4 Re-Culturing the School Context It is argued in this chapter that in many instances, inclusion remains a dream, and evidence of the culture of exclusion persists. For this reason, I further draw from the ethics of care to argue that realizing the full sense of inclusive schools requires leaders to re-culture our schools to make a climate conducive to inclusion a way of life. When referring to leaders, I do not shift from the definition of leadership adopted earlier. This means I regard this responsibility of leadership as a collective duty. School culture is defined here as the shared beliefs and values that closely knit the school community together (Schoen and Teddlie 2008; Read et al. 2015). The concept of school culture has been linked with that of school climate, and it is important to define this concept and present a clear meaning of what one means by re-culturing the school context. I adopt Cohen

Leadership for Inclusion in Schools: An Ethics of Care Perspective

et al.’s (2009) meaning of school climate in this chapter. They argue that: …school climate refers to the quality and character of school life. School climate is based on patterns of people’s experiences of school life and reflects norms, goals, values, interpersonal relationships, teaching and learning practices, and organizational structures (p. 182).

The connection or similarity between culture and school climate can be seen from this definition. In my view, the quality and character of school life are seen from ‘how things are done in the school’ (culture), the norms, goals, values, and organizational structures that are part of school culture, and hence, the school climate is treated as part of the elements of school culture. Thus, re-culturing school culture as proposed here encompasses ensuring that the school climate supports inclusion. I have argued here that re-culturing is needed because elements of exclusion are still persistent. Furthermore, re-culturing is supported by McMaster (2013), who argues that re-culturing has the potential of assisting schools in creating more inclusive value-oriented schools. I define re-culturing as a process of changing people’s attitudes towards inclusion. The changing attitude here includes relooking at the two concepts of exclusion and inclusion and redefining them to demonstrate that they move beyond learners and teachers with a disability to include all the multiple forms of exclusion and inclusion. There is a need to create a space where norms, values, and expectations support people feeling socially, emotionally and physically safe (Cohen et  al. 2009). The genesis for re-culturing is shaping school structures to be such that they provide and create space for shared commitments towards inclusivity (McMaster 2013). Within attentiveness as an aspect of care, setting school structures should allow for identifying the type of care needed. The structures should further provide a clear distinction of responsibility and accountability for all activities related to inclusion. I see this as one of the ways organizations can demonstrate the value they attach to inclusion as an element of care.

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As part of the ethics of care, the focus on people’s relationships in the organisation has been made. In re-culturing, there is a need to create collaborative teams consisting of teachers, learners, non-teaching staff, and outside agencies (O’Hanlon 2016). Through these teams, the school community will begin to be attentive and responsive (aspects of care) to each member’s needs (McMaster 2013), and, through this, there may be a process to find ways of responding to these needs. Collaborations may further provide space for receivers to respond to how their inclusion process is handled, which can help strengthen leadership for inclusion. One important aspect of care is competence. Along with the focus on competence and providing appropriate care, the culture of upskilling the teachers to respond to inclusion demands is relevant (DeMatthews et al. 2020). I have argued earlier that leadership must be shared with all stakeholders, especially teachers who do not hold managerial positions. While this sharing of leadership is beneficial (Grant et al. 2018), it cannot simply be shared without ensuring that teachers have capacities to take responsibility (another aspect of care). There is, therefore, a responsibility to ensure that, as part of re-culturing, capacities to implement inclusive education are built. All the above aspects of re-culturing are important for achieving inclusive schools. However, there is one important all-­encompassing aspect. This ensures that the school’s commitment to inclusion is reflected in the vision. Tronto (1998) speaks about ensuring that the organization is committed and attaches value to caring. I argue that reshaping the school vision to make inclusion one of the key goals is important for re-culturing. It has been found that school leaders’ practices toward implementing inclusive education approaches are driven more strongly by their vision than by the supporting resources available to them (Pedaste et  al. 2021). This ­suggests that, despite the lack of resources in many South African contexts, the school leaders’ commitment to the vision that covers inclusiveness can be a driver towards achieving inclusion. The work of DeMatthews et al. (2020) suggests that the process of revisioning itself must be

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inclusive, and it should include all stakeholders involved, including those cared for. The theoretical framework of this chapter covers attentiveness, responsibility, competence, and responsiveness. In closing this section, I argue that the questions that Tronto suggests are posed can all be addressed if revisioning is included as part of re-culturing. In the process of making a vision that captures goals for inclusion, a leader may need to think about the nature of care, the responsibility of care, the competencies needed by those who provide care, and how care as an aspect of inclusion is likely to be received.

6 Conclusion The intention of this chapter was to use the ethics of care theory to explore what leadership for inclusive schools entails. The chapter has been divided into five sections. In the first section, I presented the nature of exclusion and argued that, in the context of South Africa, forms of exclusion are multifaceted and go beyond disability or learners with special needs. This section revealed that exclusion in schools is experienced by teachers, learners, parents, and community members differently. From this section, the concept of inclusion was defined. It was argued that inclusion entails understanding that access extends beyond disability and physical access to ensure that everyone has an opportunity or access to education regardless of their social and economic differences. From the meaning of inclusion, the ethics of care was presented as a framework for this chapter. In a nutshell, this section revealed that inclusion as caring should be seen as an organization’s commitment and that it should be about what is done to show concern for those who need care. Drawing from the framework, the proposed aspects of leadership required to create inclusive schools were shared. These aspects include ensuring that the assets available are analyzed first before analyzing the needs. This process should include analyzing the assets of those that should receive care to avoid a deficit model to inclusion. The second aspect of leadership is aligned with making inclusion as caring central

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to policy. Here it is argued that national policies are to be used as the basis for home-made policies that will be responsive to the unique inclusion needs of each school. The third aspect of leadership is dismantling the traditional practices of leadership and adopting leading practices relevant to creating inclusive schools. I have argued that this process requires considering transformational and distributed leadership. These two are considered for their focus on relationship, values, and norms of the organisation and their focus on people, and the fact that leadership is expansive and fluid. They are further considered because they are inclusive in nature, hence their relevance to the aim of this chapter. Last but not least, leadership involves re-culturing the school context, given the consistent exclusion despite the existing national policies. As part of re-culturing, inclusive visioning has been seen as central. It has also been argued that changing norms, values, beliefs, and attitudes is required. The capacity of all leaders has been seen as critical in ensuring that the implementation of inclusivity is achieved, and this is one aspect that is important in re-culturing. From the above discussion, I did not intend to provide an exhaustive account of what leadership for inclusivity entails. However, I wanted to draw from ethics of care to demonstrate how leadership centered around attentiveness, responsibility, competence, and responsiveness is relevant to creating inclusive schools. Within these four aspects of care, the chapter exposes the questions that leaders may need to ask as they endeavor to create inclusive schools. Such questions include asking what the nature of inclusion should be, what inclusion strategies or programs are already there, and how adequate they are. Given the multiple accountabilities, there is a need further ask whose responsibility it is to ensure inclusion. Should this be located within the management, or should it be a shared responsibility? What competencies should leaders of inclusivity achieve, and how will such competencies be achieved? Lastly, there may be a need to re-assess the institution’s culture to establish how the value attached to inclusion is demonstrated in our culture.

Leadership for Inclusion in Schools: An Ethics of Care Perspective

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P. E. Myende Read K, Aldridge J, Ala’i K, Fraser B, Fozdar F (2015) Creating a climate in which students can flourish: a whole school intercultural approach. Int J Whole Sch 11(2):29–44 Republic of South Africa (1996a) South Africa constitution act no. 108 of 1996. Government Printers, Pretoria Republic of South Africa (1996b) The south African schools act no. 84 of 1996. Government Printers, Pretoria Satimburwa N (2015) “Taken off-the-peg”: an inquiry of the perspectives of school stakeholders about policy borrowing practice at the micro-level. Masters dissertation. University of KwaZulu-Natal Sayed Y, Motala S (2012) Equity and ‘no fee’ schools in South Africa: challenges and prospects. Soc Policy Adm 46(6):672–687 Schoen LT, Teddlie C (2008) A new model of school culture: a response to a call for conceptual clarity. Sch Eff Sch Improv 19(2):129–153 Schuelka MJ (2018) The cultural production of the “disabled” person: constructing student difference in Bhutanese schools. Anthropol Educ Q 49(2):183–200 Sing N, Maringe F (2020) Learner dropout in south African schools. In: Adeyemo K (ed) The education systems of Africa. Global education systems. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­3-­030-­43042-­9_22-­1 Timothy S, Agbenyega JS (2018) Inclusive school leaders’ perceptions on the implementation of individual education plans. Int J Whole Sch 14(1):1–30 Tronto J (1993) Beyond gender difference to a theory of care. In: Larrabee MJ (ed) An ethic of care: feminist and interdisciplinary perspectives. Routledge, New York, pp 240–257 Tronto JC (1995) Care as a basis for radical political judgments. Hypatia 10(2):141–149 Tronto JC (1998) An ethic of care. Gener: J Am Soc Aging 22(3):15–20 Venter C (2010) An asset-based community development initiative for HIV and AIDS survivors. Unpublished Doctoral thesis, University of Zululand, Richards Bay, South Africa Witte AL, Sheridan SM (2011) Family engagement in rural schools (R2Ed working paper no. 2011-2). Retrieved from the National Center for research on rural education website: http://r2ed.unl.edu

Inclusion in Education Policy as an Enabler: Lessons from South Africa Lloyd Daniel N Tlale

the inclusion of people with disabilities into society, is currently conceptualised as a human rights issue and enabler for access to quality education. This study, therefore, concludes and recommends that the importance of access and placement in inclusive education has received too much attention, at the expense of developing pedagogical quality. Therefore, to be able to realize inclusive education we have to further develop teachers’ competencies. This has to be done systematically and must be empirically documented. It is be crucial to reveal the challenges involved in inclusive education and to develop ways in which teachers can resolve them.

Abstract

This chapter sought to document the understanding of inclusive education policy as an enabler for access to quality education that is recognised as a fundamental human right, as essential for reducing poverty, inequality as well as achieving other development goals. The right of children to have access to inclusive education is widely supported in international human rights law, international conventions ratified by its members and the majority of human rights instruments. To understanding the significance of access to quality education for all, a search strategy for data included relevant systematic search of databases using specific keywords. The articles and other relevant material were reviewed, and thirty-two studies were identified in the review and to be included, a text had to apply one or more of the selected Inclusive Education words and phrases. The findings indicate that most children with disabilities in South Africa are still not taught in classrooms together with their typically developing peers. However, the inclusion of learners with disabilities into mainstream classrooms, and more generally, L. D. N. Tlale (*) University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

Keywords

Inclusive education · Integration · Persons with disabilities · Placement · Special needs education

1

Introduction

Children with disabilities face universal barriers that limit their participation in education. While there has been recent efforts to improve inclusion of children with disabilities, exclusion is still insistent, predominantly in low and middle income nations (UNICEF 2013). Likened to their peers without disabilities, children with

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Hlalele, T. M. Makoelle (eds.), Inclusion in Southern African Education, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43752-6_11

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disabilities are less likely to start school, have lower l­ evels of school attendance and lower transition rates to higher levels of education. World Bank (2019), avow that a variety of challenges – at the individual, family, school, community and national level  – may prevent children with disabilities from attending and progressing through school. It is important to understand how these barriers are limiting participation in order to identify ways to promote greater inclusion of children with disabilities in education (Banks and Zuurmond 2015). The overall aim of this study is to explore the understanding of Inclusive Education policy as an enabler for access to quality education that is recognised as a fundamental human right. This research study will deliberate on an understanding of Inclusive Education, incompatibility in defining Inclusive Education, understanding Inclusive Education policies, Inclusive Education in the South African context, educational policy development in South Africa, policy implementation challenges, Inclusive Education policy as an enabler, parental recognition and involvement and recommendations. The fundamental factors for the success of inclusive education depends on addressing the concerns of the direct implementers of inclusive education. Kuper, Saran and Whiteet (2018:15) argue that the solutions to improving the inclusion of children with disabilities in education should address the barriers operating at different levels, including the system, like policy and legislation, schools, for instance, better teacher training and families in providing financial support. Studies on determinants for effective inclusive education reveal important factors for its successful implementation. A study by Adeniyi et al. (2015) among 227 teachers and head teachers/principals reported that material, mind-set, manpower, experience and qualification jointly determined the success of inclusive education. It was also found that the “availability of materials was identified to possess the highest potential to success and failure of inclusive practices in Nigeria” (Adeniyi et al. 2015: 30). Another study revealed other factors like the availability of

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resources in form of instructional materials, professional and para-professional staff and funding as important for successful inclusive education (Sharma 2001). As established by the United Nations in 2015, the Sustainable Development Goal 4 aims for the provision of inclusive and equitable quality education as a way to combat discrimination in education and achieve sustainable development. An inclusive orientation in education is based “on the belief that differences in learners is an essential aspect of reality and that education is about supporting and extending this diversity through a transformation of pedagogy” (Heung and Grossman 2007:160). Inclusive education is thus, a school-wide approach to providing support and education to learners with disabilities in general education settings together with those without disabilities (Sailor 2014). Therefore, to attain inclusion, the need for a re-organisation of regular schools is crucial to accommodate and cater for the educational demands of all learners regardless of their disabilities. While traditionally, children with special education needs have been educated in segregated settings, an inclusive orientation in education is called for in the worldwide effort towards ‘education for all’, including children with special education needs. The inclusion of children with disabilities that is now a worldwide trend, has been growing in popularity during the last three decades (Sharma et  al. 2012:12). Despite the growing popularity and benefits at the international level, there still are many barriers to the implementation of Inclusive education. In this sense, answers were sought to the following research questions: • What supportive tools are currently available to ensure that inclusive education serve as an enabler in South African schools? • What are the challenges that hinder the successful implementation of inclusive education in the South African schools? • What strategies can be employed to ensure the effective realisation of inclusive education as enabler in the South African schools?

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2 Methodology

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lishers, professional societies, online repositories, universities and other web sites. Google The author designed the search strategy to iden- Scholar helps to find relevant work across the tify articles that featured Inclusive education world of scholarly research (Gusenbauer and policy combined. A filter, or series of subject-­ Haddaway 2020). related keywords (Inclusive Education Subject Article selection involved a preliminary Headings), was used to extract potentially rele- review of titles identified during the searches and vant articles from three electronic databases a review of article abstracts. To be included, an (Electronic databases: Directory of Open Access article had to apply one or more of the selected Journals (DOAJ), Education Resources Inclusive Education words and phrases. The Information Center (ERIC) and Google Scholar). author screened the title and abstract for each The filter for defining ‘Inclusive Education’ was citation and eliminated those inconsistent with comprised of the following words and phrases: the search strategy and criteria and irrelevant Inclusion, education for all, integrated education, articles were irrelevant excluded. The author then special needs education, universal education, independently reviewed the potentially approprispecial education, universal design for learning, ate articles to determine the eligibility, resolving universal design for learning, full-service school, any discrepancies before final selection was Individual Educational Plan. The selection of made. Ultimately thirty-two studies were selected articles was limited to Inclusive Education policy for review. topics. To develop a consistent review and coding Searches that involved Inclusive Education methodology, the author double-coded articles were executed using Directory of Open Access and resolved any inconsistencies. The author Journals (DOAJ); Education Resources developed a categorization system using techInformation Center (ERIC) and Google Scholar. niques similar to those used in thematic analysis The databases were selected because they repre- to reflect the most commonly observed applicasent the most commonly used education and mul- tion of inclusive education policy across all artitidisciplinary journal indexing. Directory of cles. This categorization process showed that the Open Access Journals (DOAJ) gives researchers goals and application of inclusive education polaccess to high-quality peer-reviewed journals. It icy varied greatly in the articles reviewed. The has archived more than two million articles from application of inclusive education policy included 17,193 journals, allowing you to either browse by safe space for students, deliver instruction in a subject or search by keyword (Kraus et al. 2020). various ways, education that includes everyone, Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) with non-disabled and Disabled people including allows a search by topic for material related to the those with special educational needs and/or field of education. The service primarily indexes learning together. The selection of articles was journals, gray literature such as technical reports, limited to Inclusive Education topics. The filter white papers, and government documents, as for defining Inclusive Education was comprised well as books. All sources of material on ERIC of the following words and phrases: learners with go through a formal review process prior to being disabilities, special education needs, integration, indexed. There are also tips for advanced inclusion, placement, ‘Education for All’, equal searches, as well as general guidance on the best rights, human rights. way to search the database. ERIC is an excellent There may be other ways to apply inclusive database for content specific to education (Lane education policy that were not categorized or et  al. 2022). Google Scholar provides a simple included in this review. way to broadly search for scholarly literature. In terms of the trustworthiness and credibility From one place, you can search across many dis- of the study, the author tried to reveal the effect of ciplines and sources: articles, theses, books, inclusive education as an enabler using standardabstracts and court opinions, from academic pub- ized data obtained from research studies as well

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as examining the publication bias (Andrews and Kasy 2019). Moreover, in order to provide evidence for trustworthiness and credibility, inclusive education as an enabler was explained in detail, and by conducting a thorough literature search that attempts to locate, retrieve, and include hard-to-find study results, or unpublished literature. Thorough literature search would include not only electronic bibliographic databases but also cover-to-cover searches of key journals; examination of conference proceedings and reference lists of prior reviews and articles on the primary topic; contacts with other researchers and institutions; and searches of trials registers, online library catalogues, and the Internet. All in all it can be stated that publication bias is a potential threat in all areas of research, including qualitative research, primary quantitative studies, and narrative reviews as well as in systematic reviews and meta-analyses (Owen and Li 2021).

3 An Understanding of Inclusion in Education Inclusion in education faces challenges connected to ideals and action. If we turn to different international organizations, such as UNICEF, UNESCO, the Council of Europe, the United Nations and the European Union, the definitions of inclusion have several common ideal elements (Kuper et  al. 2018). Inclusion then involves the right to education for all learners. The values associated with inclusion have links to interactionist ideology and revolve around fellowship, participation, democratization, benefit, equal access, quality, equity and justice. Inclusion involves fellowship and participation in school culture and curricula for all learners (Booth 1996). Since the Salamanca Statement in 1994, most European countries have acknowledged that inclusive education is an important premise to secure equal educational rights for all persons with varied special educational needs (Mercieca and Mercieca 2019). The real circumstances of inclusive education in many countries differs widely, between and even within schools. Allan (2008: 10) avows that

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“there appears, however, to be deep uncertainty about how to create inclusive environments within schools and about how to teach inclusively”. In all countries there seems to be a gap between formulations and realizations of inclusive education. ‘If inclusion, for all its complexity, is such an important principle, why is it not a readily identifiable, stand-alone entity in policy? And why is inclusion so often only mentioned in passing in many policies?’ (Hardy and Woodcock 2015: 117).

3.1 Contextualized Definition of Inclusion The meaning of the term ‘inclusion’ is often taken for granted and seldom defined. Empirical research on inclusive education is often normative since it is based on terms such as justice and democracy. Such terms are challenging to translate into real practice because their meanings depend on a subjective evaluation related to the time and place where inclusion is supposed to happen. Inclusion in education, therefore, is challenging to explore in research and to achieve in educational situations. The best way of understanding of inclusive education it is through the lens of social system theory developed by Niklas Luhmann (1995) as well as theory of institutionalism. With the perspectives underlying mechanisms that create inclusion and exclusion in schools are identified at different institutional levels. Furthermore, it is shown how subsystems include and exclude, that is, what criteria apply to the access and rejection of a system. In this theoretical contribution to understanding inclusive education, a link between Luhmann’s (1995) theory of inclusion and exclusion with the institutional theory of the social construction of reality is sought to discuss how policy, management, teaching, learner relationships, and everything within the context of education that involves communication can create institutionalised systems with mechanisms that form persistent exclusion for some learners. Researchers’ understandings of the key concepts and definitions that relate to inclusive

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e­ ducation differ between scholars and countries (Brusling and Pepin 2003). Different definitions and complex perspectives affect the research on the topic, as well as the possibility of achieving inclusive education in practice (Göransson and Nilholm 2014). A vast array of interests is attached to the idea of inclusive education, and definitions of the concept differ around the world. Therefore, inclusive education is subjected to multiple definitions that problematise at least cross-national research on it (Hernández-Torrano et al. 2020). However, several reviews of the field have contributed to the overview of the different approaches. The fundamental right of children with developmental disabilities to receive an education was the first issue to mobilize the community living movement in the 1950s. At the time, it was widely believed that children with developmental disabilities could not learn. The government, therefore, accepted no responsibility for their education. The general focus on school inclusion can be traced back to The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education that was crafted in 1994 (UNESCO 1994). The Salamanca document features normative principles for inclusion that recognise institutions that include every learner, highlight diversity as an asset, support learning, and respond to individual needs (UNESCO 2020). Beyond Salamanca Statement, interest in inclusive education has risen in member states and organisations that signed the statement, politics, and research and educational organisations. However, the understanding and definition of the concept and development of inclusive practices differ in and between different countries and make researching inclusive education even more essential for understanding what inclusion is and how it can be achieved (Hernández-Torrano et al. 2020). Lately, several schools have produced systematic reviews on the concept of inclusion and have noted that the definition of inclusive education differs between theoretical approaches. Some believe that the core concept of inclusion only concerns specific groups or categories of people, whereas others maintain that inclusion involves everyone (Nilholm and Göransson 2017).

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Commonly, researchers who study inclusive education refer to the Salamanca Statement to highlight the importance of social justice, democracy, and the elimination of all forms of exclusion and discrimination (Hernández-Torrano et  al. 2020). However, inclusive education as a normative, based policy is challenging to explore in research and to achieve in specific educational situations because context and individuals differ from situation to situation (Caspersen et al. 2020; Halinen and Järvinen 2008). This article aims to contribute to the theoretical understanding of inclusion to explore how inclusion and exclusion are continually ongoing processes that are constructed by communication at different levels in society. Few authors have discussed inclusion’s conceptual framework regarding schools using sociological perspectives (Felder 2018), and not many researchers have used Niklas Luhmann’s theory to discuss the theoretical aspects of the notion of inclusion in schools (Baraldi and Corsi 2017; Hilt 2017; Qvortrup and Qvortrup 2018). Because inclusive education is a complex process to study and achieve, we suggest using system theory and the concept of inclusion and exclusion to understand how learners can be included and excluded by various forms of communication during a typical school day. Moreover, we try to integrate the systemically theoretical concepts of inclusion and exclusion with the social-­ constructionist perspective that was developed by Berger and Luckmann (1966) to demonstrate how people in communication with each other socially construct everyday life and how such interactions can create systems for inclusion and exclusion.

4 Understanding Inclusion in Education Policies Research about inclusion in education is extensive and complex. Inclusive education focuses on learners with disabilities and every learner, and it also focuses on educational policies and organisations. Researchers have used different ­ theoretical approaches and methods to explore

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and act. Because of the size of the field and the complexity of the concept, the research branches out in several directions. However, articles published in the field often present the political ideas contained in the Salamanca Statement. Researching inclusive education is important since it focuses on social justice and democracy (Hernández-­Torrano et al. 2020). The Salamanca statement, which was signed by 92 member nations and 25 international organisations, places the responsibility for inclusive education onto governments and their educational organisations. The main goal of related policies is to counteract discrimination and exclusion that target diversity (Ainscow and Miles 2008; Ainscow et al. 2019). However, the idea of inclusion refers not only to diversity in the form of ability: it also refers to other differences such as gender and cultural background or the ways that schools structure and address these differences (Sturm 2019). Because the concept has political implications, theoretical frameworks that deal with understanding the concept of inclusive education often refer to UNESCO or local policies. Since the concept of inclusion is outlined according to a normative, political idea of democracy and justice, it is not surprising that the idea of inclusive education in research is hard to grasp. The concept is complex, broad, and ambiguous (Szumski et al. 2017); therefore, it is challenging to study and to construct (Ainscow and Sandill 2010; Forlin 2010). A human rights-based approach to inclusive education requires an understanding of inclusion as an approach to education for all children, based on the provisions of both the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). It represents a profound change in the way most education systems are conceived, necessitating a commitment to creating systems and schools which respond to the needs of individual children, rather than forcing children with different learning needs to comply with a rigid, pre-determined structure. In order to bring about such a change, investment is needed in a broad range of measures to remove the barriers which impede implementation of inclusive

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education and build the framework on which it can be sustained.

5 Inclusion in Education in the South African Context Since 1994, when democracy was established in South Africa, there has been a radical overhaul of government policy from an apartheid framework to providing services to all South Africans on an equitable basis. The provision of education for learners with disabilities has been part of that process and the development of an inclusive education system can be traced back to the nation’s founding document, the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act No. 108 of 1996 (Republic of South Africa 1996). In Section 29 (the Bill of Rights) it is stated that everyone has the right to ‘a basic education, including basic adult education; and to further education, which the state through reasonable measures must make progressively available and accessible’. It further states that the state may not discriminate directly or indirectly against anyone on one or more grounds, including disability. In 1997, a report by the National Commission on Special Needs in Education and Training (NCSNET) and the National Committee on Education Support Services (NCESS) (South Africa 1996) was published after an investigation into the situation of learners with ‘special needs’ and support services in South Africa. Some of their recommendations included the fostering of holistic and integrated support provision through intersectoral collaboration, as well as the development of a community-based support system which included a preventative and developmental approach to support all learners (Department of Education 2001). One of the key support structures in achieving these goals was the establishment of District-Based Support Teams (DBSTs). In 2001, White Paper 6, Special Needs Education, Building an Inclusive Education and Training System (Department of Education 2001), and in 2005 Conceptual and Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of Inclusive Education: District Based Support Teams (DBSTs)

Inclusion in Education Policy as an Enabler: Lessons from South Africa

(Department of Education, DoE 2005) provided guiding principles on how district-based support services should function within an inclusive education system. The primary function of these DBSTs (Department of Education 2001, 2005) is to deliver integrated professional support services at the district level. This includes involving expertise from local education institutions and various community resources. The framework for an inclusive education system is laid out in Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Education: Building an Inclusive Education and Training System (DoE 2001). The scope of this policy is broad as it attempts to address the diverse needs of all learners who experience barriers to learning. The policy calls for a significant conceptual shift that is based on the following premises: • all children, youth and adults have the potential to learn, given the necessary support • the system’s inability to recognise and accommodate the diverse range of learning needs results in a breakdown of learning. The policy asserts that in order to make inclusive education a reality, there needs to be a conceptual shift regarding the provision of support for learners who experience barriers to learning. The Department of Basic Education has adopted a strategy that will drive the implementation of inclusive education policy, namely, the National Strategy on Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (SIAS). The National Strategy on Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (SIAS) (Department of Education 2008) guides inclusive education policy by defining the process of identification, assessment, and enrolment of learners in special schools, and it curbs the unnecessary placement of learners in special schools. The SIAS strategy provides guidelines on early identification and support, the determination of nature and level of support required by learners, and identification of the best learning sites for support. The strategy also provides guidelines on the central role of parents and teachers in implementing the strategy. Despite the enabling policy described above, the implementation of inclusive education in South Africa is slow and only partial (Wildeman and Nomdo 2007) The reasons for this are numer-

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ous and relate to problems that affect the education system as a whole, the role of special schools, and other support structures and conditions of poverty, amongst others (Stofile and Green 2006; Engelbrecht 2006). South Africa has adopted an inclusive education policy in order to address barriers to learning in the education system. However, the implementation of this policy is hampered by the lack of teachers’ skills and knowledge in differentiating the curriculum to address a wide range of learning needs. In this paper we provided a background to inclusive education policy in South Africa and a brief exposition of an instructional design approach, Universal Design for Learning (UDL) that addresses a wide range of learning needs in a single classroom. We reported on a workshop conducted with teachers and therapists in South Africa as a first attempt to introduce UDL in this context. Knowledge of UDL was judged to be appropriate and useful by the course participants in the South African context as a strategy for curriculum differentiation in inclusive classrooms. Furthermore, knowledge of the UDL framework facilitates dialogue between teachers and therapists and provides a relatively simple and comprehensive approach for curriculum differentiation. We therefore conclude that there is potential for this approach that can be expanded through further teacher training. It is a matter of grave concern that children with disabilities on the African continent face barriers in the education system for a multitude of reasons (ACPF 2011). In the South African context this has resulted in a massive exclusion of disabled children from education (Department of Education 2001). Despite the development of an inclusive education policy to address this exclusion, one of the issues that hampers progress is the lack of teacher skills in adapting the curriculum to meet a range of learning needs (Chataika et al. 2012). This highlights the need for frameworks that empower teachers with the necessary skills to cater for learners with diverse needs. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is one such framework that conceptualises and addresses the need for a more flexible curriculum designed to address the barriers and to enable learners with

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widely varying needs to be included in the learning process (Brand et al. 2012).

6 Educational Policy Development in South Africa According to Weber (2002) policies are formulated and implemented mainly to provide some level of benefit to society, particularly to redress inequalities in the disadvantaged group to avoid further discrimination. This is applicable in policies which are formulated for fundamental human and equal rights in society. By definition, policy analysis may literally be defined as a theoretical and procedural terrain aimed to give methodological and professional support for the production of relevant information (Secchi 2016). In applied sciences or human sciences, policy analysis is used to recommend solutions to social or economic problems and is often normative or multidisciplinary in form. There is a variety of policy analysis approaches such as rationalist policy analysis and deliberative or argumentative policy analysis. The traditional practice which derives from economic principles applies tools such as cost-effective analysis and cost-benefit analysis which are rooted in the positivist approach also known as the rationalist policy analysis (Secchi 2016). Deliberative or argumentative policy analysis is a type of policy analysis approach consisting of a set of processes and techniques for recommending and endorsing a particular policy which aims to address and tackle social problems resulting from public participation and deliberations (Fischer 2007; Fischer and Gottweis 2012). Following the demise of apartheid, compulsory education was implemented for all South African children and segregated schooling practices were eliminated. One national Department of Education replaced the former 19 distinct departments with the goal of promoting educational equality (Maher 2009). The new Department of Education attempted to redress some of the educational inequities between ethnic groups by providing low-income schools with a higher proportion of government subsidy (Lam

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et al. 2008). Moreover, South Africa’s new constitution included an explicit section on the rights of people with disabilities. The subsequent Education White Paper 6 (DoE 2001:10) outlined the government’s new policies for a single, undivided education system for all learners, including those with disabilities, in the hopes that inclusive education would provide “…a cornerstone of an integrated and caring society”. This White Paper was designed to transform the South African educational system by building an integrated system for all learners (no special and ordinary schools); using a curriculum that is more flexible and suitable to the needs and abilities of learners; developing district-based support teams to provide systemic support for any and all teachers who need it; and strengthening the skills of teachers to cope with more diverse classes (Muthukrishna and Schoeman 2000). Nevertheless, over a decade after the unveiling of Education White Paper 6 (DoE 2001), most learners with disabilities who attend school are still in separate, special schools for learners with disabilities. There is no consensus about what should and should not be classified as a disability in South Africa (Heap et  al. 2009). This difference in opinion causes discrepancies in estimates of disability prevalence (Loeb and Eide 2004), despite the fact that the South African government has estimated that about 5% of the population have a disability (Statistics South Africa 2011). According to WHO (2012), disability arises from the interaction between an impairment, in a person’s body function or structure, and the society in which that person lives. Estimates suggest that in all of Africa, only 10% of children with disabilities attend school (UNESCO 2020). In South Africa, specifically, up to 70% of children of school-going age with disabilities are out of school (DoE 2001), although school attendance is compulsory for all children between seven and 15 years of age. Of those who do attend, most are still in separate, special schools for learners with disabilities. This situation still prevailed in 2020 (Azorín and Ainscow 2020), despite the push for the ­educational inclusion of learners with disabilities more than a decade ago by the South African

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policy document, Education White Paper 6 (DoE 2001). In recent years, the practice of inclusive education has been widely embraced as an ideal model for education, both in South Africa and internationally (Ainscow et  al. 2019). However, this acceptance of ideal practices does not necessarily translate into what actually occurs within the classroom. Successful inclusion depends on the attitudes and actions of school principals (Armstrong 2019) and the investment of other school personnel as they create the school culture and have the ability to challenge or support inclusion (Ainscow 2002). Research has found that although teachers often report that they agree with the idea of inclusion, they actually believe that the needs of learners with disabilities are best met in separate classrooms (Campbell et  al. 2003), particularly those learners with greater special needs and more severe disabilities (Scruggs and Mastropieri 1996). According to Bornman and Rose (2010:7), “a general lack of support and resources, as well as the prevailing negative attitudes toward disability, all contribute to the general bewilderment in South African schools towards inclusion”. Teacher education in South Africa trains teachers how to accommodate diverse learners in a single classroom (Oswald and Swart 2011). This is in line with the social model of disability that views disability centrally as a social construct created by an ability-oriented environment. Disability, in this sense, sees the problem as located not in the individual, but in a societal, economic, political (and educational) system and culture that fail to meet the needs of these individuals (McEwan and Butler 2007). The social model is rooted firmly in the human rights paradigm, arguing for inclusion and the removal of all barriers that hinder full participation of individuals with disability. Before this model of disability was widely accepted, however, teachers in South Africa were trained to teach either general education or special education, being by-products of the tenets of the medical model. These practices have, in turn, produced many teachers without the necessary skills to teach learners with disabilities. They also created attitudes regarding

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the separate education of learners with disabilities that have become strongly embedded in the South African teaching culture (Ntombela 2011). What further complicates matters is the fact that a large proportion of the South African teacher workforce is over 50  years of age (Armstrong 2019); hence, reorienting teachers to new ways of educating learners after many years in the profession remains a significant challenge to inclusive practices. Inclusive policies have demanded from teachers to challenge their existing schemas about best practices in the education of learners with disabilities, “in some cases leading to cynicism, hopelessness, and a rejection of transformation policies” (Oswald and Swart 2011:391). Thus, ensuring that teachers are not only supportive of inclusion policies but also willing to challenge outdated beliefs and practices continues to be a considerable barrier to inclusive education. Teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion might become more positive if, along with training, they were to receive the appropriate service support for their learners with disabilities. Support provisions depend on the particular learner’s impairment but may include special equipment, educational provisions and accommodations, for example, more time during test assessments; a teacher’s aide to help provide the learner with a more intensive disability; one-on-one instruction). Support is a necessary component of successful inclusive education practices as the needs of many learners with disabilities are beyond the basic services available in typical general education classes (Lomofsky and Lazarus 2001). Yet, recent research involving school principals in Gauteng, the richest and most resourced province of South Africa, revealed that most learners with disabilities received specialised support services either seldom or never (Nel et al. 2011:49). Polat (2011:57) suggests that resources and improved infrastructure are necessary but not sufficient for inclusion and that “changing attitudinal barriers among school professionals and in the wider community and is one of the essential aspects of making inclusive education happen in low-income countries”. The meaningful partici-

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pation of children and adults with disabilities in the school and the community is affected by the cultural attitudes and values of its citizens. If a community expresses disregard and prejudice towards people with disabilities, then discriminatory practices will continue to be circulated. Cultural attitudes about the importance of educating children with disabilities can affect whether or not parents decide to send them to school. Groce (2004) found that in various developing countries around the world children with disabilities often do not attend school because it is thought that they cannot learn or will be disruptive to other learners. Parents also consider the financial expenditures relating to education in South Africa. Since many schools charge tuition fees, it may not be economically feasible for parents to send their child with a disability to school, particularly if they have other developing children of school-­going age whose prospects of bringing in some sort of income are much better than those of their disabled child. Sparing the expense of school, some families also prefer to benefit from lobola, a custom practised primarily among black South Africans. In the KwaZuluNatal province of South Africa, a study of teachers, parents, children and aid workers was undertaken to determine how these various parties perceived the extent to which inclusive education was being implemented in their communities (Maher 2009). It was found that shunning of learners with disabilities was perceived as a barrier by all participant groups. Teachers blamed negative societal attitudes toward disability for the stigmatisation of learners with disabilities within ordinary schools and considered this a justification for maintaining separate schools. Parents and children in this same study stated that learners may be safer in special schools for children with disabilities due to the intolerant attitudes of other children and school staff. In another study, caregivers of children with disabilities who lived in the Western Cape province of South Africa expressed similar fears concerning the mistreatment of their children in ordinary schools (Masasa et  al. 2005), with 72% of the respondents stating that

they believed their children with disabilities were better off in special schools. Increasing attention has also been focused on the contrasting traditional and biomedical views of disability. Traditional views of disability are beliefs that have been handed down through generations, whereas the biomedical perspective refers to the scientific, evidence-based practice of modern medicine (Maloni et al. 2010). In South Africa (Hosegood et al. 2007) and neighbouring Zimbabwe (Jackson and Mupedziswa 1988), the traditional perspective attributes disability to family sin, witchcraft and angered ancestors. These perspectives sometimes lead to the mothers of children with disabilities being shunned and blamed for their child’s disability by their families and communities (DoE 1995), and to families hoping for their child with a disability to be cured (Masasa et al. 2005:43). These unique perspectives have also been found to differentially influence how caregivers approach the education, intervention and rehabilitation for their children with disabilities (Maloni et al. 2010). In fact, those who prescribe to traditional beliefs at times delay accessing modern medical interventions while they look for folk cures (Maloni et al. 2010; Masasa et al. 2005).

7 Policy Implementation Challenges Education White Paper 6 comprises of six broad key strategies for starting an inclusive education system: (1) the improvement of existing special schools and the conversion of some special schools to resource centres; (2) the mobilisation of nearly 300,000 children with disabilities who are of school-going age but not currently in school; (3) the conversion of some mainstream primary schools into full-service schools, which will be those schools that are inclusive; (4) the orientation of the staff and administration in mainstream schools to the tenets and practices of inclusive education, as well as how to make early identifications of children who may have disabilities; (5) the establishment of district-based ­support teams to help support teachers with the

Inclusion in Education Policy as an Enabler: Lessons from South Africa

process of implementing inclusive practices in their classrooms; and (6) the implementation of a national advocacy campaign to orient South Africans to the ideas of inclusive education, and the inclusion and participation of people with disabilities in society (DoE 2001:20–23). These six strategies specify the fact that Education White Paper 6 itself is lacking in specificity and detail, as it only has broad strategies, which give little guidance on how to effectively implement this policy in practice. In addition to school- and cultural-level challenges to inclusion, difficulties associated with the implementation of inclusive policy appear to stem, in part, from the ambiguities within Education White Paper 6 (DoE 2001). For example, the White Paper suggested the cost effectiveness of inclusion to be one of the benefits of inclusive policy (DoE 2001). Yet, it is difficult to envision how significant transformation to the educational system in South Africa can be made without providing provincial departments with substantial increases in their short-term subsidy to help take these necessary first steps (Stofile 2008). Jansen (2001) suggests that some South African policies are enacted for their political symbolism rather than their practicality and thus, vague policies often get passed but no one is held accountable for their implementation. In fact, a chief complaint of education officials in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa was that they got the impression that the national Department of Education was not committed to the implementation of the inclusive policy and had tried to relegate their responsibilities to others (Stofile 2008). The very same study found that school officials reported having received no support or funding from the Department of Education to help sustain any progress they had made in the implementation of some of the broad strategies mentioned in the White Paper. Without support and recognition, it is difficult for schools to make inclusion a reality. When goals are not explicitly stated, there is uncertainty and misunderstanding about the purpose of policy. In studying the content of Education White Paper 6, it is clear that the proposed implementation strategies lack specificity

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and detail, thereby increasing the policy’s ambiguity (DoE 2001). Research found that education officials in South Africa were unsure regarding the goals of inclusive education, with some officials reporting they were unclear about how ordinary and special schools would be transformed into schools more suitable for inclusive education (Stofile 2008). Other officials were confused about the parameters of barriers to learning and exactly how these barriers would be addressed within inclusive schools (Wildeman and Nomdo 2007). For example, trying to eliminate learners’ intrinsic barriers is more straightforward than trying to address some of their extrinsic barriers to learning. If the goals of inclusion include addressing extrinsic barriers to learning, then schools would need more explicit guidelines from the Department of Education to help them accomplish this rather complicated task of implementing the inclusion policy. Even more vague than goals, the means by which the policies within Education White Paper 6 (DoE 2001) will be realised, is not explicitly stated. Generally, when new policies have been implemented, sufficient funding and capacity to deliver these policies is assumed (Wildeman and Nomdo 2007). The Department of Education appears to have deficits in funding to provide to schools, while schools currently lack the capacity to accommodate diverse learners in one classroom. Initial funding will be necessary while schools locate out-of-school learners, buy devices for learners who need them, make the needed infrastructure changes to accommodate a diverse body of learners, and hire specialists who will provide specialised systemic support to teachers and schools that need assistance (Wildeman and Nomdo 2007). Added to a lack of subsidy, schools currently lack teachers who have the capacity and knowledge to instruct a diverse body of learners in a single classroom without considerably increasing their workload. Education White Paper 6 states that “new curriculum and assessment initiatives will be required to focus on the inclusion of the full range of diverse learning needs, since curricula create the most significant barrier to learning and exclusion for many learners” (Department of

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Education 2001:31–32). How teachers are expected to accomplish the task of tailoring the curriculum to suit each learner’s particular needs and pace of learning is not thoroughly detailed. The Department of Education envisaged that many teachers would be reoriented to new methods of teaching via comprehensive training programmes that they provided. Training programmes that educate teachers how to accommodate and teach learners with disabilities are generally a week or two long, but teachers report that although these brief training programmes are helpful, they are insufficient (Stofile 2008). The programmes also tend to focus on developing a couple of skills, whereas teachers often need far more comprehensive training programmes. South Africa’s inclusive education policy is therefore characterised by both high struggle and vagueness. When Education White Paper 6 was first published in 2001, South Africa appeared to be following the international trend toward inclusion, but subsequent policy implementation has made little progress over the past decade. This could in part be related to the ambiguity in both the goals of the policy and the strategic drivers required for its implementation. Sayed and Jansen (2001: p.  1) explain that while South African educational policies have been highly praised throughout the world as a result of their “dazzle”, these policies are seldom brought to practice. The education of children with disabilities should not be a racial issue or a political topic. Rather, it should be a human rights concern (Hay and Beyers 2011), a sentiment to which the South African government agreed when it became a signatory to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of a Child (Grobbelaar-Du Plessis and Grobler 2013), the United Nations Conventions on the Rights of People with Disabilities (UNESCO 2007) and the Millennium Development Goals (UNESCO 2000). The inclusive education of a diverse body of children  – including those who are diverse in terms of disability, race, gender, religion, language and socioeconomic status – allows children who are different to become acquainted with one another and helps them to discover common ground. In

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fact, one of the first and foremost locations where attitudinal shifts toward people with disabilities can occur is in schools as this is one of the primary places that early attitudes are formed. By learning these life lessons in childhood, children can develop into adults who are more accepting of a diverse society, which is important when living in a country as diverse as South Africa. Moreover, Engelbrecht (1999) suggested that inclusion is the primary step forward in obtaining a just and equal society.

8 Inclusive Education Policy as an Enabler The Department of Education needs to hold itself accountable for the implementation of a policy that it has created, especially since inclusive policies are of little meaning and use unless they are implemented and enforced. As a top-down theoretical orientation to policy implementation suggests, progress can be made with inclusive policy in South Africa if procedures are clarified, directives are given, and the appropriate authorities assume responsibility and control of its implementation. Education White Paper 6 (DoE 2001) was an enormous step forward in respect of the rights of people with disabilities in South Africa, but the policy will remain purely symbolic until real initiative and deliberate action are taken. Inclusive teaching embraces diversity in order to meet the varying learning needs and styles of learners. It encompasses a broad range of best teaching practices that, used properly, changes the perspective on teaching learners from a more reactive approach (teacher-centered) to a more proactive approach (learner-centered) (Shawer 2017). Furthermore, for learners with disabilities, inclusive education aims at minimizing the consequences of functional limitations and at removing barriers to learning. For them, inclusion is really about creating accessible learning environment by planning ahead for a variety of learning needs instead of reacting to a few expressed needs. By using inclusive education practices when updating or developing a course, teachers significantly decrease the number of accommo-

Inclusion in Education Policy as an Enabler: Lessons from South Africa

dations required, and because not all learners declare their disability, they help all learners in their class. A better designed course leads to more understanding, better performance and more satisfied learners (Ainscow et al. 2019). Learners are generally uncomfortable in revealing their disabilities or having their challenges being exposed during class. At the same time, a learner should feel welcomed to discuss his/her specific learning needs. This is only possible through a relationship of trust and a positive class climate, which the teacher is responsible for. Learners who have non-visible disabilities such as a learning disability, an attention deficit disorder, or a mental health issue can face difficulties such as handling time pressure, maintaining attention to task, interacting with others, being uncomfortable with changes, keeping energy level up, approaching authority figures, processing information, reading, coping with stress, etc. (Burner et  al. 2018). These barriers have an impact on learners trying to understand the course content, structure their learning, engage and participate in class, perform on exams or term papers, and meet the overall course requirements.

9 Parental Recognition and Involvement Gran (2017) emphasised that actively engaging all stakeholders to work together is a positive move in successful inclusive education programmes. Parents are key stakeholders and cannot be left out. DfES. (2001) acknowledged parents’ importance, and declared that “they have unique strengths, knowledge and experience to contribute to the shared view of the child’s needs” (p.17). DfES. (2001) is of the view that parents should be involved in the education of their children by working in partnership with the schools and professionals. This partnership relationship should be characterised by mutual respect and recognition where roles are clearly defined. Even DfES. (2001), emphasises partnership with parents to help achieve inclusion, the means by which this partnership can be realised is through

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working hand in hand with parents. This therefore means that partnership cannot take place without involving parents. Parental involvement is therefore the mechanism through which partnership with parents can be actualised. Parental involvement in inclusive education is therefore essential (Emmerich 2020). DfES. (2001) mentions that parents are to be assisted to “recognise and fulfil their responsibilities as parents and play an active and valued role in their children’s education” (p.16). This is an active call for parents to be involved in their children’s education. According to Emmerich (2020), parents take part in decision-making, teaching and advocating for their children. These roles do not differ significantly from the roles played by parents in general education. However, Russell (2003) mentioned that parents with children with special educational needs might have different needs and expectations. If this is so, even though the roles mentioned may be similar, there are some activities peculiar to parents of children with special educational needs. A typical example is their involvement in the development of Individualised Educational Plans (IEPs). In this study, when parents mentioned they had a child with special educational needs during the interviews, they were asked about their involvement in IEP development. Hornby (2010) using principals as their sample, found that most schools have no written policy on parental involvement. The study showed that the parents acted as resources in various capacities. They also collaborated and shared information about the children with teachers. Furthermore, the channels of communication used between them were telephone, parents coming to the schools, notes, meetings by appointment, email, newsletters and home school diaries. There was minimum use of home visits by staff. Parent education was being carried out and parents were encouraged to come to the schools through the use of various school activities and programmes like open days and nights, exhibitions, day trips, sporting activities and school camps. The literature records a number of things that can serve as inhibitors to parental involvement.

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There is a need to review what the literature says and find out from parents in Ghana what barriers they encounter in their attempt to be involved in inclusive education. It has been observed that many teachers lack the skills, knowledge, strategies and attitudes that they need to effectively interact with parents (Hornby 2010). Their deficiency has been attributed to lack of training to be able to work with parents (Hymel and Katz 2019). This inability of teachers to adequately interact with parents and offer them advice and guidance has been identified as a major barrier to parental involvement. Hornby (2010) also points out that to facilitate parental involvement the teachers must have time for parents; if they do not then it is likely that this will affect parental involvement in their children’s education. Additionally, the parents themselves may lack the necessary knowledge, attitudes and skills to work with teachers and assist their children with their academic tasks. For example, due to a language barrier, they may not be able to assist their children with their homework (Hawkins and James 2018). Also, Haug (2016) identified parental lack of knowledge as a barrier to their involvement, in that very few parents know what the school expect from them or how they should contribute towards their children’s education. Another identified barrier to parental involvement is parental employment. A study conducted by Williams et al. (2002) found that parents cited work commitment, demands of other children, child difficulties and lack of time as barriers to their involvement in their child’s education. Hornby (2010) points out that in developed countries like England and USA, where there are policies or legislative instruments on parental involvement which guide practice, it is much easier to get parents involved in their children’s education. This means that lack of policies or legislative instruments on parental involvement is likely to pose a barrier to inclusive education. Furthermore, for schools to effectively involve parents, they must have clear policies and well-­ established procedures of working with parents. Lack of such policies and procedures will inhibit

parental involvement. There is a need to find out from the schools that will be used for the study if they have such policies and procedures in place, and if they do not there is a need to find out if this has any effect on parental involvement in the country or not. Lack of effective communication has been identified as a possible barrier to parental involvement (Hornby and Blackwell 2018). There is a need to ensure that communication is effectively and efficiently carried on between the home and the school and vice versa. The school must inform parents about everything that is going on and also give the parents information about the progress, as well as the weaknesses, their children are facing. The parents, on the other hand, must feel free to contact the school at any time for information about their children or about any aspect of the school. Fan et  al. (2018) reports that parents want to know what is going on for their child in school. They prefer informal contact that is positive, regular, private, planned, non- intrusive and early enough to make a difference. This two-way information will help to improve parental involvement in education and also help to improve the relationship between the parents and the school. Hampden-­ Thompson and Galindo (2017) emphasised that communication is the basis for any strong relationship. It should not therefore be taken for granted.

10 Discussion There are many barriers to providing quality and inclusive education to learners with disabilities in South Africa (Engelbrecht 2020). The situation is far from hopeless, though. Inevitably, challenges to inclusion will thwart progress of education development in South Africa. Fortunately, these impediments are not undefeatable, and the more children with disabilities are included in education and elsewhere in their communities, the sooner they can become responsible, productive and contributing members of society, showcasing their exceptional capacities just like everyone else.

Inclusion in Education Policy as an Enabler: Lessons from South Africa

Inclusive education should concern all learners with special educational needs and not only learners with disabilities, which is the dominating perspective at present. Relating to this, one single element appears as the most frequent criterion of inclusion, that is, learner placement. The close connection between inclusive education and special education has made placement, being taught together with all other learners, an important element in inclusion, a parallel to what happened earlier in the case of integration. Placement to avoid excluding or segregating any learners from their peers seems in practice often to be the most common and single-dominant criterion of inclusion (Andrews et al. 2019). The challenge in practical inclusive education, however, is the implementation difficulties (Makoelle 2012). There are differences between countries, but none of them has actually succeeded in constructing a school system that lives up to the principles and the purpose of inclusion (Engelbrecht et  al. 2015). There are few simple answers about how to proceed towards successfully implementing inclusive education. Nations differ, challenges differ, and schools differ (Engelbrecht 2020). All institutions must introduce their own processes from where they stand. The idea that we now know what inclusion is, and that implementation now comes next, does not therefore match with the realities of the status quo. One issue seems to be of importance for all involved, autonomy of the definition and practice of inclusive education. This is the struggle to develop educational quality in classrooms so that all learners benefit from inclusive education, regardless of which definition of inclusion one supports. Teachers’ skills are pivotal for these challenges. The importance of access and placement in inclusive education has received too much attention, at the expense of developing educational quality (Makoelle 2012). Therefore, to be able to realize inclusive education we have to further develop teachers’ proficiencies in the implementation of inclusive education. This has to be done methodically and must be documented through empirical observation. It will be vital to expose the challenges involved in inclusive

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education and to develop ways in which teachers can resolve them.

11 Conclusion and Recommendations This chapter has discussed the understanding of inclusive education policy as an enabler for quality education, and the complications in developing inclusive education. It has dealt with issues of wider relevance revealed in the research literature. The content has included elements associated with definitions of inclusive education related to practices of inclusive education, the benefits of inclusive education and teacher competence for practical application of inclusion in education. There is consensus between international organizations about how to define inclusive education. Many nations support these definitions, which emphasize inclusive education as an important premise in order to secure equal scholastic rights for all learners. The basic ideas behind inclusive education relate to dominating and common democratic values and social justice. If at all possible, inclusion appears as a multi-dimensional issue, where the different elements can support or weaken each other. With the above discussion in mind, it can be recommended that awareness must be raised at the family and community level on the rights of children with disabilities to quality education so as to address many of the attitudinal barriers preventing access. Address universal barriers to receiving a quality education, such as reducing class sizes and ensuring that poverty does not prevent access to or continuation with education, particularly in transitioning to secondary school. In addition, identify and evaluate intervention strategies that can increase access to and success at school for children with disabilities, including in transitioning from primary to secondary and explore ways to increase uptake of health and rehabilitation services and decrease discrimination, abuse and violence for children with disabilities.

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Curriculum Adaptation for Inclusion in Teaching and Learning Cedric Bheki Mpungose

ness during curriculum adaptation can lead to teachers’ lack of performance and failure to maintain good result. To curb this, the study posits that an Ed-Tech enhanced model of connected curriculum adaptation is a requirement in the context of the fourth industrial revolution (4IR).

Abstract

The democratisation of the South African curriculum after 1994, from the Outcomes-Based Education (OBE) to the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) has resulted in various changes. Mainstream teachers are forced to cope with Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) developments compelling them to integrate educational technologies (Ed-Tech) into the curriculum to enhance curriculum adaptation for Learners with Special Educational Needs (LSEN). In thus enhancing the curriculum, provision of Ed-Tech resources and other alternative measures were made available to teachers. Nevertheless, teachers are still reluctant in the use of Ed-tech resources to ensure connectedness during teaching and learning in enhancing effective curriculum adaptation for LSEN.  This study therefore uses connectivism, the learning theory for the digital age, to seek a theoretical and a practical solution for teachers teaching LSEN. The theory offers a solution to enhancing the effective use of Ed-Tech for curriculum adaptation. This conceptual study argues that teaching without Ed-Tech competences to enhance connected-

C. B. Mpungose (*) University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

Keywords

Connectivism, Educational technologies · Learners · Special educational needs · Teachers

1

Introduction

Curriculum adaptation can be understood by first defining the word curriculum. The word curriculum is an etymologically conceptualised form of the Latin word ‘currere’ meaning a course to follow (Pinar’ 1975). Thus, a curriculum is perceived as a plan for/of learning (Taba 1962; van den Akker et al. 2003). The plan applies to all student learning of educational goals planned and directed by schools (Tyler 1949). A broader conceptualisation of curriculum that goes beyond defining curriculum as structured/planned programmes (intended, implemented and assessed), reveals the curriculum as the actual experiences of learners resulting from what a teacher teaches (Kelly 2009). The above definition introduces curricu-

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Hlalele, T. M. Makoelle (eds.), Inclusion in Southern African Education, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43752-6_12

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lum adaptation, which refers to improvements and amendments in what is taught, methods of teaching, and structures of education with the aim of accommodating all learners (Chataika et  al. 2012). Learners thus feel part of, included, and adapted to teaching and learning (curriculum enactment/implementation) as a result of interaction with the teacher, environment, class mates, and teaching resources, inter alia. There are various ways of adapting the curriculum for the inclusion of learners, particularly LSEN (those learners who do not seem to learn as quickly or as easily as their peers through learning difficulties or disabilities). Such ways include the use of various teaching strategies, ensuring time management, multi-grade teaching, individual activities, group activities, organising of extra classes, and coming down to learners’ level to accommodate all learners (Adewumi et al. 2017; McKenzie 2021). Furthermore, Al Zyoudi et al. (2011) share the sentiment with Adigun (2021) that, in the context of African schools, particularly South African schools, inclusive education is enhanced through available policies. Such policies come under the umbrella of the South African Schools Act (SASA) of 1996, and the White Paper Number 6 of 2001. These policies therefore encourage curriculum adaptation. Adaptation of this sort reduces barriers during teaching, ensuring that learning is flexible enough to involve the differing learning needs and styles of learners. Online inclusion (E-inclusion) provides a way of realising adaptation, which is a much more recent term often used to refer to the use/integration of Ed-Tech to overcome any disabilities, difficulties of gender, race, age, sexuality or class, thus ensuring inclusive teaching and learning. E-inclusion relates to the use of Ed-Tech by teachers to enhance curriculum adaptation in order to enable inclusive education for LSEN. As such, Ed-Tech can be hardware-based (such as laptops/computers, mobile phones, and more); or Ed-Tech may be software-based (web applications, social media sites-SMS, computer games, inter alia); or ideology-based (online pedagogies) (Khoza 2021; Mpungose 2021). In developing countries like South Africa, Brazil, China, and Russia, teachers are agents of

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change who must enact/implement any policy shaping teaching and learning (Fullan 1993; Priestley et al. 2012). Teachers thus play a significant role in ensuring curriculum adaptation for inclusive education, and the need to be knowledgeable on use of Ed-Tech to enhance inclusive education. A participatory action research study was conducted by Dube (2020) to explore e-Learning in inclusive education during the context of Covid-19 in South African schools. It was found that e-inclusion was the only resolution promulgated by the South African government to enhance curriculum adaptation during Covid-19. However, the resolution excluded many learners from rural schools because of the digital divide, coupled lack of skills by teachers (digital skills). These findings suggest that, irrespective of Ed-tech use for curriculum adaptation for LSEN, most teachers are still struggling to ensure connectedness with students/curriculum. Connectedness is imperative in order to accommodate LSEN for effective teaching and learning and to curb challenges emanating from both the digital divide and lack of skills. However, studies show that teachers from developed countries like the United States of America (USA), Australia, the United Kingdom (UK) and others are better able to integrate Ed-Tech (e-inclusion) into teaching and learning. Such ensures curriculum adaptation for LSEN because teachers are well resourced, trained, and techno savvy (Amor et  al. 2019; Gierczyk and Hornby 2021; Khandelwal et al. 2020). Teachers can therefore easily address the major aim of today’s global education system (4IR), enhancing inclusive education through the use of Ed-Tech resources (Holmqvist and Lelinge 2021). In support of this, findings from the study conducted by Schwab’ (2020) exploring inclusive and special education in Europe, outlines that teachers are widely exposed to Ed-Tech resources  and  it is therefore easy for them to ensure curriculum adaptation for LSEN. In complicating this dialogue, Lauermann and König (2016) concur with Emery and Vandenberg (2010) that, irrespective of Ed-Tech availability and other alternative measures to enhance curriculum adaptation for LSEN, teachers are still

Curriculum Adaptation for Inclusion in Teaching and Learning

experiencing burnout, low job satisfaction, low self-efficacy, and other stresses. Teachers are struggling to maintain or enhance effective connectedness when using Ed-tech for teaching and learning of LSEN. Research exploring teachers’ experiences of Ed-Tech use to enhance connectedness in curriculum adaptation in the context of inclusive education is, however, sadly lacking. This chapter therefore argues that teaching without Ed-Tech competences to enhance connectedness/e-inclusion during curriculum adaptation can lead to teachers’ lack of performance and unsatisfactory subject result. The section that follows theorises the use of Ed-Tech in a connected context for curriculum adaptation to ensure inclusive education for LSEN.

2 Theorising the Ed-Tech Use for Inclusion in Education

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informed on ideology-based Ed-tech (pedagogy/ teaching methods). That said, Siemens and Downes (2009) proposed eight (8) principles of the Connectivism Learning Theory (Table  1). Such principles guide this study in theorising the use of Ed-Tech in curriculum adaptation to ensure inclusive teaching and learning. Limitless opportunities for LSEN within a teaching environment will thus be provided. (a) Principle #1: Learning and knowledge rest in diversity of opinions Siemens and Downes (2009) believe that learning and knowledge production is witnessed when all learners are given the opportunity of raising their voices and opinions on any given topic during teaching and learning, irrespective of their diverse abilities. In support of this, Anderson (2016) shares Bell (2011)‘s sentiment that the provision of the internet (Ed-Tech) with its applications provides teachers with the opportunity of creating spaces. Learners then make use of such spaces to share their ideas/opinions, and to hold debates and have dialogues on the subject content taught, drawing from their diverse ­experiences.

This study uses George Siemens’ Connectivism Learning Theory, also known as learning theory for the digital age. The theory advances the use of Ed-Tech during teaching and learning (Siemens 2005). The theory, as reflected by the present study, provides opportunities in which teachers/ learners can use Ed-Tech to enhance curriculum adaptation for inclusive teaching and learning. Table 1  Connectivism Learning Framework (Siemens Consequently, the theory of connectivism and Downes 2009) acknowledges that learning begins with the use Connectivism principles of Ed-Tech resources. Networks/conections are 1. Learning and knowledge rest on the diversity of opinions thus formed between teachers and learners in 2. Learning is a process of connecting specialised order to ensure connectedness during the teach- nodes or information sources ing/learning process (Siemens 2008). Mpungose 3. Learning may reside in non-human appliances (2021) concurs with Siemens (2014), stating that 4. The capacity to extend knowledge is more critical the recent twenty-first century 4IR period than what is currently known demands the availability and effective use of 5. Nurturing and maintaining connections are needed Ed-Tech (hardware-based, software-based and to facilitate continual learning 6. The ability to see connections between fields, ideas, ideology-based) for proper curriculum adapta- and concepts is a core skill tion, particularly for LSEN.  In order to ensure 7. Currency (accurate, up-to-date knowledge) is the smooth curriculum adaptation for LSEN, there- intent of all connectivist learning activities fore, teachers should not only be in possession of 8. Decision-making is itself a learning process. laptops/I-pads, computers, mobile phones, Smart Choosing what to learn and the meaning of incoming information is seen through the lens of a shifting Boards and other hardware-based Ed-Tech reality. Although there is a correct answer now, such and WhatsApp, Moodle/Canvas LMS, Zoom/MS an answer may be erroneous tomorrow, because of Teams VCT, games and other software-based alterations in the information climate, affecting the Ed-Tech. However, teachers should also be well-­ decision

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Teachers should therefore use and allow learners to use any available Ed-Tech to chat, type, or send and share their ideas on a particular topic being discussed, in order to enhance curriculum adaptation for LSEN.  Hence, connectivism demands that teachers use Ed-Tech which allows learners to express their thoughts, experiences, cultures, theories, and general information to make meaning of what they are taught (content) (Bell 2011; Schmitt and Eilderts 2018). For instance, teachers may create platforms for interaction such as  discussion forums, chat rooms, WhatsApp groups and others. Learners can then share various opinions for decision-making and problem solving, in order to make sense of the teaching and learning process. (b) Principle #2: Learning is a process of connecting specialized nodes or information sources According to these studies (Schmitt and Eilderts 2018; Siemens 2014), learning occurs when teachers allow learners to feed information into learning communities/nodes. Learning communities/nodes can be individuals, groups, systems, resources, or community clusters of similar areas of interest. Interaction, sharing, dialoguing, and thinking together would be encouraged in order to form a network (Bell 2011). A network is made up of two or more learning community/nodes of diverse information (Siemens and Downes 2009). In summary, with connected learning, teachers seek to use Ed-Tech resources to embrace diversity, autonomy, openness, and connectivity. LSEN can thus become part and parcel of the teaching/ learning community (Bates 2018; Engeström 2014). After sharing of opinions (#principle 1), learning community/nodes are therefore formed. Such creates networks of information/data on a particular subject taught. Teachers must therefore ensure that learners are provided with  required  Ed-Tech resources. All available information sources must be connected to generate new meaning on the subject content. Thus, the availability of Ed-tech resources (access to internet) for all learners in class facilitates the formation of networks. The connection between

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teachers and learners can be simplified; and this can easily enhance curriculum adaptation for LSEN (Ige and Hlalele 2017; Siemens 2007). (c) Principle #3: Learning may reside in non-­ human appliances Siemens and Downes (2009) confirm that teaching and learning reside in non-human appliances. According to Khoza (2021), these appliances can be software-based, hardware-based or pedagogically based resources used to communicate teaching and learning. In support of this, the rise of machine learning or robotics, social media sites information analytics, and the use of LMS and VCT for teaching and learning can assist teachers to adapt the curriculum for LSEN.  In this way teachers can enhance inclusive education provided they are in possession of such non-­ human appliances (Mpungose and Khoza 2021; Schwab 2017). According to Schwab’ (2020), LSEN may more easily understand information emerging from network activities. For instance, the creation of a WhatsApp group in class for communication may give LSEN freedom to express themselves without feeling excluded. Thus, the use of Ed-Tech by teachers helps them to enhance learning. Lessons should make sense and be meaningful to learners, while filtering to networks of human and technological nodes in order to cope with the rapid expansion of available knowledge (Siemens 2007). (d) Principle #4: Capacity to know more is more critical than what is currently known Siemens (2005, p. 8) articulated that “Capacity to know more is more critical than what is currently known”. As such, the author was not referring to knowing more of what one already knows but rather using this vast knowledge to think critically about what they know and why they know it. The capacity is not about knowing more for the sake of knowing it. Rather, capacity should apply to knowing more for the sake of understanding and applying what is taught or learnt. In order to ensure that curriculum adaptation enhances inclusive education for LSEN, teachers

Curriculum Adaptation for Inclusion in Teaching and Learning

must teach learners how to use Ed-Tech. By such means, learners can search for information, applying it for their own benefit (Bell 2011; Lehohla and Hlalele 2012). Learners ought therefore to be taught skills of searching and using information from search engines such as Google, Google Scholar, Bing, and others, in order to make meaning of the content subject. (e) Principle #5: Nurturing and maintaining connections is needed to facilitate continual learning Connectivism demands that teachers adapt the curriculum in order to ensure inclusive education via prioritising the teaching/learning style that is no longer individualistic but collaborative and societal/communicable (Bates- 2017; Siemens 2005). The availability and the collaborative nature of Ed-Tech resources (internet and others) requires that teachers and learners nurture and maintain connections with different people around the world (Selwyn 2021; Siemens and Downes 2009). Through the use of applications such as Twitter, Flipgrid, LinkedIn, Instagram and others, teachers can make use of Ed-Tech to adapt the curriculum for LSEN.  Teachers can thus collaboratively ensure continual and updated learning. (f) Principle #6: Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill This principle, according to Siemens and Downes (2009) requires that learners use free and open information sources. Learners then grasp connections between fields, ideas and concepts which add to the creation of new knowledge during the teaching and learning process. In support of this, Schmitt and Eilderts (2018) confirm that both teachers and learners must use Ed-Tech resources  for effective teaching  and learning, and learners must become active participants during the learning and teaching process. Curriculum adaptation can thus be ensured for inclusive education. Teaching and learning in the digital age (twenty-first century) should be increasingly

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independent and autonomous, with learners encouraged to note and create connections (Engeström 2014; Ige and Hlalele 2017). For instance, teachers should allow learners to use their mobile phones and other relevant Ed-Tech resources while the teacher is teaching in a particular environment. (g) Principle #7: Currency (accurate, up-to-­ date knowledge) is the intent of all connectivist learning activities Information in the digital age changes every day, hour, minute and second (Bates 2018; Mpungose 2021). Further to this,  Schwab’ (2020) concurs with Siemens (2005) that, in order to ensure curriculum adaptation, teachers must use Ed-Tech, helping learners to find accurate and up-to-date knowledge from multiple sources. Thus, teachers should instil skills into learners on ensuring accuracy of information from diverse voices/debates. Learners should be able to make sense of the information from Google.com, comparing the received information with that found on Google Scholar. As a result, learners should be allowed to use all Ed-Tech at their disposal when searching for accurate information during their learning time (Lauermann and König 2016). (h) Principle #8: Decision-making is itself a learning process These studies (Bates- 2017; Schwab 2017) affirm that global information constantly changes with new developments in the Fourth and Fifth Industrial Revolution. It is vital to decide when, how, and why to learn a particular skill or knowledge. Teachers must deploy Ed-tech while deciding what to teach, when to teach it, how and why to teach any particular content to learners, thus enhancing curriculum adaptation for LSEN (Selwyn et  al. 2021; Siemens 2005). In other words,  teachers can  emphasise that learners be critical of information sources, evaluating the offered information before making meaning. Teachers should teach learners the skill of selecting reliable sources which are professional and address the subject need (Bell 2011; Khoza

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2021). For instance, when searching for the most apposite video on YouTube, a learner should consider particular characteristics, such as: how long is the video? How many other people have watched it? Does it have any ‘thumbs ups’? Does it match what the learner is hoping to learn?

3 Towards Connected Curriculum Adaptation for Inclusion in Education Choppin (2013) agrees with Cohen (2011) that effective curriculum adaptation requires that teachers use multiple Ed-tech resources to connect with learners during the teaching and learning process. Studies illustrate that teachers are therefore required to reflect on the teaching environment, teaching methods, resources, activities, their roles and relevant curriculum concepts. Such reflection can  ensure effective curriculum adaptation for LSEN.  Learners then learn the subject content through the connected relationship between teachers, learners, and curriculum (Fullan 1993; Kelly 2009). Teachers need to know the fundamental levels at which curriculum adaptation can be created to ensure connected teaching and learning. The recent qualitative study conducted by Gelmez-Burakgazi (2020) focused on 21 teachers teaching elementary class in the US.  The study’s main objective was to explore teachers’ prescribed instructional practices in teaching in elementary classrooms for curriculum adaptation. The findings outlined that teachers’ level of curriculum adaptation varied due to non-formal features (teaching methods/ personal needs), formal features (prescribed content/subject need), and informal features (contextual/societal need). However, teachers were hindered by factors which included lack of teaching resources, lack of time, class environment not conducive to learning, inconsistency of teaching methods (teacher-centred vs learner-centred), and disapprobation of some prescribed activities. Findings therefore suggest that, in ensuring connected curriculum adaptation, teachers are bound

to use Ed-tech for curriculum adaptation (formal, informal and non-formal).

3.1 Formal Curriculum Adaptation Formal curriculum adaptation allows teachers to draw from the discipline/subject need in order to ensure connected teaching and learning to cater for LSEN (Chataika et  al. 2012; Van den Akker et al. 2009). According to Khoza (2021), teachers draw from facts found in written documents (prescribed curriculum, articles, books and others). Strategies are then formulated to cater for LSEN in order to address the subject need. Thus for connected teaching and learning in a formal curriculum adaptation, teachers must adhere to the book/ facts on the use of Ed-Tech in their teaching practices (Mpungose and Khoza 2021; Van den Akker et  al. 2009). A qualitative case study was conducted by Khoza” (2015) on South African student teachers’ experiences of the CAPS policy documents. The study revealed that student teachers were bound to adapt the curriculum at lesson preparation (lesson plans) level, as taken from the annual teaching plan linked to the CAPS documents. Connecting teaching may therefore begin at the level of prescribed documents using Ed-tech to edit and adapt lesson plans for curriculum adaptation to the benefit of LSEN.  Similarly, Bates (2018) and Anderson (2016) outline that schools must give teachers access to hardware-­ based Ed-Tech resources (laptops, computers, mobile phones and others). Software resources formal in nature must also be supplied. Software includes LMS, LinkedIn, blogs and others, allowing effective formal curriculum adaption to take place. Teachers can thus apply Ed-tech to easily administer formal assessment activities for grading purposes. Such would include assignments, quizzes and more for all students, irrespective of their challenges/difficulties (Anderson 2016; Mpungose and Khoza 2021). Informal curriculum adaptation must also be applied to actively engage learners.

Curriculum Adaptation for Inclusion in Teaching and Learning

3.2 Informal Curriculum Adaptation

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informal curriculum adaptation (driven by student needs), without non-formal adaptation driven by teachers’ personal needs, creates a dysA qualitative study was conducted by Otukile-­ functional curriculum adaptation disconnected Mongwaketse et al. (2016) at six primary schools from LSEN (Makoelle 2020; Mpungose and in Botswana on teachers’ understanding of cur- Khoza 2021). Most teachers tend to use Ed-Tech riculum adaptations for learners who experience to adapt the curriculum, based on both subject learning difficulties. The study revealed that cur- and student need. Teachers may forget about their riculum adaptation is possible to practise if teach- personal needs which form the core of teaching. ing and learning is interactive between teachers Fatigue, stress, burnout during the teaching and and learners and other stakeholders (department learning process may result. Korthagen et  al. officials, parents, social workers, and others) (2013) argue that the adaptation of the curricuinvolved in addressing learners’ needs. A recent lum from the inner-self requires that teachers study was conducted by Willemse et al. (2022). teach from their personal drive/identity, demonThe study aimed to identify the support that strating love and passion in order to assist LSEN teachers need to assist learners experiencing dif- (non-formal curriculum adaptation). Teachers ficulties in mathematics in South African schools. can then accurately use Ed-Tech in the various It was pointed out from the findings, that teachers teaching methods (teacher- or learner-centred) need both societal support and training from depending on their needs. The literature department officials in order to be capacitated (Anderson 2016; Makoelle and Burmistrova with strategies to enhance curriculum adaptation. 2021; Rouse and Yakavets 2014) indicates that Findings from these two studies suggest that teachers tend to use Ed-Tech for curriculum informal curriculum adaptation (addressing adaptation. Teachers thus address the needs of learners’ needs) is mainly based on the ideas/ the subject, followed by student needs, at the strategies/training on ensuring curriculum adap- expense of their personal needs. Disconnection tation for the learner. Further to this, (Khoza” on any level of curriculum adaptation creates 2015) agrees with Ige and Hlalele (2017) that chaos during teaching and learning. Such results informal curriculum adaptation demands that in teachers’ lack of performance, LSEN dropout, teachers use informal Ed-Tech resources such as and an uncompleted syllabus. Few studies have SMS (WhatsApp, Facebook and others), discus- resolved these complications, particularly on the sion forums, and chat rooms in LMS to actively use of Ed-Tech to enhance curriculum adaptation engage learners during teaching and learning. for inclusive education. Teachers thus act as facilitators; teachers provide informal activities that will actively engage learners who then share their social/informal experi- 3.4 Towards Connected ences during teaching and learning. Teachers are Curriculum Adaptation required to create extra time for learners, giving them peer assessment tasks using Ed-Tech in In resolving the above complication, this chapter order to stay both engaged and connected (Bates posits the model of connected curriculum adapta2018; Reddy and le Grange 2017). tion as represented in Fig. 1 below. In support of this, Siemens and Downes (2009) concur with both Makoelle (2020) as well as  Hlalele and Mosia (2020) that effective use of Ed-Tech 3.3 Non-formal Curriculum can  yield connected curriculum adaptation. A Adaptation combination of formal, informal, and non-formal In complicating the above dialogue, formal cur- adaptation can lead to successful curriculum riculum adaptation (driven by subject needs), and implementation with a lower failure rate and bet-

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C. B. Mpungose

Fig. 1  Model of connected curriculum adaptation

ter teacher performance. Studies on teacher performance show that teachers can draw on their personal needs, while still addressing them, the needs of the subject, and the needs of students. The proviso is that teachers draw from connected curriculum adaptation. The connected curriculum adaptation advocates for the effective use of Ed-Tech by teachers, to allow LSEN to connect to the content, to them as teachers, and to connect among themselves. The above model of connected curriculum adaptation prefers the connected working ­environment. In the demonstrated environment teachers can use face-to-face means for both traditional teaching or online environment for learning on the internet, or a blended learning environment for both traditional and internet learning, depending on the needs at any given time (Bates 2018; Gierczyk and Hornby 2021). For instance, a teacher can allow a lesson to be held in class or per a Moodle LMS or in both environments (blended), depending on any pressing needs at any particular time. This learning model connected curriculum adaptation by allowing LSEN the flexibility to attend the class (face-to-face) synchronously; or asynchronously via the online-­based meeting platform such MS Teams or Zoom. (Andrade et  al. 2022; Liu and Rodriguez 2019).

Furthermore, this model requires teachers to use Ed-Tech for their assessment strategies. Such strategies include assessment of learning (formal assessment), assessment for learning (developmental assessment), and assessment as learning (informal assessment) (Anderson 2016; Black and William 2009). Thus assessment may either be on written work or on oral skills. The test may be divided into small sections, allocating extra time to those in need, and allowing the retaking of the test, and give various projects, investigations and assignments. Teaching and learning methods should be learner-centred to encourage active participation. However, teacher-centred methods should also be considered to ensure flexibility for LSEN (Fullan 1993; Hoadley and Jansen 2014). According to Hlalele and Mosia (2020), this allows for parental engagement in school activities to assist LSEN.  When learners are given homework activities, parents should also play their role in assisting their children at home. In other words, all stakeholders (learner, teacher and parents) are required to play their significant role during teaching and learning process. For instance, a learner should be active to execute any allocated task while teachers are bound to ensure mechanism of monitoring the student progress, and parents should regularly check student’ school work.

Curriculum Adaptation for Inclusion in Teaching and Learning

Paavizhi and Saravanakumar (2018) further argue that lack of clear goals (aims, objectives and outcomes) creates dilemmas in curriculum adaptation. However, Hoadley and Jansen (2014) assert that the collective need (model of connected adaptation) demands that teachers organise content vertically (driven by objectives), horizontally (driven by outcomes), and pragmatically (driven by aims). Consequently, Ed-Tech resources which are either hardware-based or software-based (or both) should be utilised for teaching and learning. Teachers can thus respond to the diverse needs of students (Amory 2014; Mpungose and Khoza 2021). A such, previsions of technological resources ranging hardware resource (desktop computers, laptop, tablets and others), social media sites (WhatsApp, Facebook, Instagram and others), video communication technology (MS teams, zoom and others), learning management system (Moodle, Canvas, and others)(Mpungose and Khoza 2022; Zenda and Dlamini 2022). According to Van den Akker et al. (2009), a teacher‘s role should be active and flexible. Teachers must be capable of switching from researcher (individualistic), to facilitator (democratic) to instructor (authoritative), thus accommodating the differing abilities of LSEN.  This then seek teachers to be flexible enough to give group work for facilitation and instructs leaners to do class activities in order to address the need of a subject. This model further alludes to teachers’ rationale for adapting the curriculum. This is witnessed in the study conducted by Adewumi and Mosito (2019). The study’s main objective was to explore teachers’ experiences in implementing the inclusion of LSEN.  The study outlined that teachers accommodate LSEN despite that teachers often do not have qualifications/ training in special education needs. Teachers may therefore be driven by their qualification rationale for subject needs, or the ideas/opinions rationale for learner needs, or the pedagogy rationale for personal needs, in order to care for LSEN. Qualified teachers can easily apply relevant teaching methods (pedagogy) while also drawing from colleagues on how to use Ed-tech to enhance the adapted curriculum for LSEN.

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4 Conclusion and Implications for Education Mpungose and Khoza (2021) concur with Bates (2018) that the ongoing and new developments in Ed-Tech have led to changes in the way teachers and learners read and write for effective teaching and learning process. Lehohla and Hlalele (2012) further argue that the use of Ed-Tech by teachers for LSEN comes with intensive limitations which require a connected curriculum adaptation. This chapter draws from the theory of connectivism also known as the learning theory for the digital age. The learning theory applied both a theoretical and a practical solution for teachers teaching LSEN to enhance effective use of Ed-Tech for curriculum adaptation (Siemens and Downes 2009). As such, in order to enhance connected curriculum adaptation teachers seek to: 1. Creates spaces for learners to raise their voices and opinions on any given topic during teaching and learning irrespective of their diverse abilities; 2. Allow learners to feed information into learning communities/nodes; 3. Use machine learning or robotics, social media sites information analytics, and the use of LMS and VCT for teaching and learning; 4. Learners be taught skills of searching and using information from search engines such as Google, Google Scholar, Bing, and others; 5 Give freedom to learners to use any available Ed-tech resources to ensure continual and updated learning. Furthermore, It is evident from this chapter that, when teachers draw from either one or two levels of curriculum adaptation rather than from all, imbalances are created during teaching and learning. This chapter singles out a practical solution including the theoretical intervention of the model of curriculum adaptation. The model advocates for a collective need resulting from student needs (informal curriculum adaptation), subject needs (formal curriculum adaptation) as well as personal needs (non-­formal curriculum adaptation). This has proven to be the best model for teachers using Ed-Tech in order to cater for LSEN.  The study further recommends that teachers be given training or qualifications on additional learning needs before teaching and

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learning commences. Teachers will thus gain knowledge, skills, and relevant values in applying Ed-Tech in order to ensure connected curriculum adaptation which caters to LSEN. Acknowledgement  The research on which this chapter is based is funded through a grant from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation (New York) (Grant Number: 1910-07226).

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Youth Facilitators as Enablers of Inclusion: A School-Community Partnership Perspective Cias Tsotetsi, Habasisa Molise, and Mahudi Mofokeng

learners, nine parents, and nine teachers. This heterogeneous action learning group of coresearchers was purposively selected to participate in the study at the school where the research was conducted. Analysing the data with thematic analysis found that, in addition to youth facilitators displaying a caring attitude towards learners, they acted as catalysts/ agents for increased collaboration through participation in activities, and the presence of the youth facilitators contributed to the personal, group and school change leading to enhanced academic performance.

Abstract

This chapter reports on the process of engaging youth facilitators in school-community partnerships through community-based education research. Save the Children South Africa (SCSA), a non-governmental organisation, initiated and supported the partnership, and operationalised it through the University of the Free State to tap into and capacitate youth for active citizenship, with the aim of stimulating teaching and learning by establishing a system for learner support. Through participatory youth research, the study involved two SCSA-trained youth facilitators at one school in the eastern Free State who supported learners throughout their learning experiences. Through action research, youth facilitators were made accessible to learners throughout the school day. We generated three data sets from the action learning group through separate reflections. In this study, the data generation process was constituted by three action learning sets comprising eight

C. Tsotetsi (*) · M. Mofokeng University of the Free State, Phuthaditjhaba, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] H. Molise University of Limpopo, Polokwane, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

Keywords

Agents · Facilitators · Participatory youth research · School-community partnerships · Teaching and learning

1

Introduction

Little is known about the contribution youth facilitators (YFs) make at schools (Bergstedt 2015; Bleach 2015; Ellerani and Gentile 2013; Igbinakhase and Naidoo 2018). In the context of this chapter, YFs are youths placed at South African schools by Save the Children South Africa (SCSA, hereafter non-governmental organisation, NGO). The youth placement was one of the NGO’s initiatives, in various countries,

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Hlalele, T. M. Makoelle (eds.), Inclusion in Southern African Education, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43752-6_13

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to assist teachers in their work. The duties of YFs include assisting schools with matters that contribute to advancing teaching and learning (Jensen et al. 2019), as well as acting as a liaison between the school and the community within which the school is based (Bergstedt 2015). This chapter, therefore, argues that using YFs contributes to creating an atmosphere for teaching and learning that is more flexible and relaxed than the traditional approach of the educator taking the lead. A school-community partnership is a contractual relationship in which the community and school form a bond to improve learners’ academic performance (Bojuwoye 2009), modify learners’ behaviour at school or home, and increase learners’ motivation (Mahlomaholo 2012). Research by Preece and Manicom (2014) shows that if communities are not engaged in school activities, schools fail to address critical issues within the community. Myende (2013) cautions that communication and establishing relationships between two separate entities, such as a school and a community, should be reachable and accessible, while each body holds its own goals and values (Myende and Chikoko 2014). We argue that involving YFs in teaching and learning helps establish cordial relationships between the school and the community since YFs are members of the community and parents can use their services to assist their children with homework and improve academic performance. Several studies (Ellerani and Gentile 2013; Fletcher 2015; Guill and Bos 2014) report that YFs acted as agents of change who made teaching aids using low-cost materials and learner-­centred as opposed to educator-centred approaches. Furthermore, NGO facilitators assisted in moderating teachers’ work (Ellerani and Gentile 2013). According to Guill and Bos (2014), schools used facilitators to assist teachers in developing pedagogical content knowledge in mathematics, physical sciences and English. De Jong et al. (2019) urged teachers to work collaboratively and assist one another to get external assistance. We contend that the presence of YFs

C. Tsotetsi et al.

as agents of change in schools is significant because they may add value by making copies, acting as stand-ins for absent teachers, accompanying sick learners to clinics and hospitals, and helping with recreational activities. Several authors (Bleach 2015; Jensen et  al. 2019; Waite 2011) investigated the role of NGOs, in general, in conducting workshops aimed at enabling schools to discipline learners without using corporal punishment. The initiatives driven by the NGOs included team-building workshops aimed at enhancing cohesion among various stakeholders at the school level (Sibiya and Mahlanze 2018). Stakeholders who attended the workshops were enthusiastic after the workshops, with positive attitude change recorded as one of the benefits of attending the workshops (Roche 2018). While the impact of the presence of NGOs, in general, has been explored, however, the contribution of YFs as agents of change has not yet been explored. In the context of this chapter, the study focused on the contribution made by YFs as agents of change in a school-­community partnership. YFs can deal with discipline issues in the school because learners are likely to consider them as they do to their older siblings, guardians or parents due to the trust entrusted to YFs by community members. This chapter explores how YFs can act as agents of change in a school-community partnership. The learning group in this study consisted of three action learning sets (Neethling 2015; Wood 2020) comprising parents, teachers and learners. The three action learning sets were from the Eastern part of the Free State Province, South Africa. However, previous studies have not tapped into the contribution of YFs to enhance learners’ educational and social experiences. Based on this gap, the chapter addresses the following research question: How does the involvement of YFs as agents of change contribute to enhancing learners’ educational and social experiences? The discussion that follows reflects on school-community partnerships and youth participatory action research. This is followed by findings from the current research and a concluding analysis.

Youth Facilitators as Enablers of Inclusion: A School-Community Partnership Perspective

2 The Impact of Youth Facilitators on Inclusion in Education

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involvement of YFs as agents of contributing to the enhancement of learners’ educational and social experiences. The second aspect is for teachers to be moved In this chapter, youth facilitators refer to young from the ivory tower; through this, they can be men and women placed at schools by the sensitised of matters that affect learning. Over NGO.  Their role is to contribute positively to and above the teaching and learning matters, teaching and learning and to empower learners social issues that impede teaching can be brought and youth to preserve and promote life in its full- to the surface. The taken-for-granted matters, ness in the classroom context (Chapin et  al. such as all learners getting breakfast in the morn2022). Previous studies showed that the presence ing, could be brought to the attention of the of YFs in institutions improves learners’ aca- school. Some learners may not have breakfast demic performance (Makhoul et al. 2011; Preece and missing such may affect their performance and Manicom 2014; Roche 2018). We argue that in the classroom. The aim is not that teachers using YFs instead of teachers means learners feel should feed learners but rather that they need to more freedom to ask questions than they would be mindful of such cases. With the involvement with educators in a formal class. The approach of YFs, a solution to the challenge becomes a finds strength, amongst others, in its learner-­ co-created one. centredness, as the age gap between the YFs and the learners usually is smaller than that between teachers and learners (Carmel and Paul 2015). A 2.2 The Enabling Nature learner-centred approach has flexible teaching of School-Community Partnerships methods “to accommodate the diverse needs of learners, their different learning styles, and the pace of learning” (Neethling 2015: 29). Therefore, School-community partnerships have been idenwe argue that the presence of YFs enables learn- tified as one of the ways schools can improve ers to set the agenda for their learning, making their performance (Myende 2013). Partnership learners the partners that draw attention to their refers to a contractual relationship between two challenges. or more people with shared goals and a willingness to take shared accountability for risks (Kearney, Wood and Zuber-Skerritt 2013). In this 2.1 Including the Excluded chapter, an educational partnership is defined as a process whereby different stakeholders share With the presence of YFs, we anticipated that it responsibilities to improve the quality of educacould create, amongst others, the two inclusive tion at their schools. The ideal connection is one aspects, namely the possibility of the YFs being in which decision-making power is distributed the bridge between learners and teachers as well evenly, so no member claims superiority over as enabling teachers to “hear” the realities on the others (Mahlomaholo 2012). Though the concept of partnership has been ground. We explore the two aspects below. Firstly, with the systems of colonial and apart- predominant in the business sector, there is growheid remnants, practices in schooling remain for- ing literature on school-community partnerships, eign to learners (Chilisa et al. 2017). Examples in and different forms of such associations have textbooks and the teaching still contain remnants been initiated, including school-community partof the previous systems. The learning process nerships (Zuckerman 2022). Using youth facilistill maintains the linear approach from a teacher tators at schools is effective for community to learners. The linear approach only gives one development. While school-community partnerreality as experienced by teachers. To mitigate ships have been established in many parts of the the traditional way, we aimed to explore the world, there is currently insufficient knowledge

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regarding the possibilities of using YFs in school-­ community partnerships (Sibiya and Mahlanze 2018). Several factors have been identified as some of the driving forces for establishing school-­ community partnerships, such as the need for additional resources, improving learner academic achievement and social development, strengthening school programmes, supporting community development, and promoting joint initiatives to deal with social ills, such as poverty, drug and alcohol abuse, violence and HIV and AIDS (Liegghio et  al. 2010; Preece and Manicom 2014). While the current study ponders the contribution of YFs (from communities) to literature, Mahlomaholo (2012; Myende (2015); Myende and Chikoko (2014); Waite (2011) support the rationale behind school-community partnerships in general. Kearney et  al. (2013) contend that school-community partnerships are the connections between schools and individuals, organisations and businesses that are forged to directly or indirectly promote the social, emotional, physical, and intellectual development of students. Myende and Chikoko (2014), in their discussion of limitations facing school-community partnerships, identify the unwillingness of parents to get involved in school activities as one of the imperfections of school-community collaboration. The authors identify barriers, of which one is parental involvement in the school-community partnership. Even though this study focuses on YFs, the community consists of the NGO, parents and YFs.

2.3 Social Realist Theory as a Theoretical Framework Human beings and the social world interact with one another, thereby changing the structural and cultural factors (Archer 2003). According to Zhu and Zhang (2022), there are three categories of emergent properties: structural emergent, cultural emergent and personal emergent. Structural emergent in the context of this chapter includes the environment wherein YFs interact with the schooling system. Cultural emergent properties

focus on the norms and regulations YFs encounter in the schooling system. Lastly, personal emergent properties include YFs personal preferences, identities, and beliefs in the schooling system.

3 Research Design and Method In this chapter, a qualitative research approach informed the research. In a qualitative approach, co-researchers are studied in their natural settings (Creswell and Creswell 2018). Broadly speaking, we tapped into action research methodology. Literature Wood and Zuber-Skerritt (2013) show that action research does benefit social change. Amongst these benefits, action research gives credence to developing powers of reflective thought, discussion, decision, and action by ordinary people participating in collective research (Adelman 1993). We used Youthled Participatory Action Research (YPAR) as the research design. YPAR is a way to promote social justice by creating conditions that foster empowerment by encouraging the participation and action of youth (Ozer et al. 2022). Simply, this research design involves a group of youth who are affected by a certain problem or issue, who decide to get together to work out how they want to tackle the problem, and then do something about it (Zuber-Skerritt 2018). According to Wood and Zuber-Skerritt (2013), YPAR emerged in the 1960s and 1970s from work done with disadvantaged communities. A fundamental premise of YPAR is that community members with specific problems can analyse their problems and participate in finding solutions. All the co-researchers negotiate to find solutions, instead of solutions being imposed by authorities or by external agents. YPAR is, thus, a collaborative, cyclical, and reflective approach that focuses on problem-­ solving, improving work practices, and understanding the effect of the research or intervention as part of the research process. It explicitly calls for making sense of the impact of change and refining actions based on this impact (Tshelane

Youth Facilitators as Enablers of Inclusion: A School-Community Partnership Perspective

2013). According to Hunter et  al. (2013), the YPAR methodology seeks to help people within a particular timeframe and location to become more familiar with and aware of the constraints that prevent them from participating fully in their communities. YPAR aims to create space for marginalised people and allows them to question their status in their education so that they can contribute to addressing the challenges prevalent at schools (Tshelane 2013). We argue that YPAR can open networks of learning in which the community collaborates with the school to solve their challenges with the view of transforming education. Therefore, during the YPAR process, knowledge is produced through partnership and participation by stakeholders who are confronted with a particular problem (Mahlomaholo 2012). Participation in this study assumed action research. Esau (2013) asserts that at the centre of a YPAR is a commitment to break away from traditional research conventions by involving the co-researchers in some or all the stages of the research process (Van Sluys 2010). This is consistent with action learning practices where co-­ researchers collaborate with others in crafting their collective social justice agenda (Wood 2020). We argue that YPAR facilitates experiences that ensure that all co-researchers benefit from learning in ways that allow them to participate fully in communities and that YPAR encourages the use of multiple languages, intelligence, technologies, and resources, which are often not part of school literacy instruction.

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ously implemented change. Youth facilitators were trained and planning was done to explain the expected rules of engagement, and co-­ researchers were involved in self-observation and reflection. Data was harvested during the reflection stage of YPAR through focus group discussions (FGDs). In this regard, this study was informed by the emancipatory and transformative paradigm of Wood (2020) since a personal change was at the centre. The action research process conforms to a participatory collective and self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own social practices (Kemmis and McTaggart 2005). As mandated by action research, the stages (planning, action, observation and reflection) Cain (2011); Khang (2017) were followed even though data were harvested at the reflection stage. Reflection is the reorganisation or reconstruction of learning experiences that may lead to a new understanding of the context of a specific practice (Grimmett and Erickson 1988). Reflective sessions were conducted at the end of an action research process. The data generation process consists of two types of reflection: ‘reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action’ (Larsen et  al. 2016). Reflection-in-action refers to reflections in which participants are aware of the process and events as they progress. Secondly, reflection-on-action occurs when participants reflect on past events (Larsen et al. 2016). In this study, co-researchers, through FGDs, were prompted to reflect on their experiences (in- and on-action) of the impact YFs made in supporting the teaching and learning process. Wood and Zuber-Skerritt (2013) show that 3.1 Data Generation Procedure action research benefits social change. Amongst This study was informed by the emancipatory these benefits, action research gives credence to and transformative paradigm of Wood (2020) the development of powers of reflective thought, since a personal change was at the centre. discussion, decision and action by ordinary peoAccording to Wood (2020), the transformative ple participating in collective research (Adelman paradigm adopts a collaborative, multiple-­ 1993). The NGO acted as a link between the perspective and participatory form of knowledge researchers and the school. The school is located, generation. We employed a quasi-experimental and the researchers live in the eastern part of the type of action research. According to Markowitz Free State province of South Africa. The NGO (2010), quasi-experimental action research is an initially created a space for monthly meetings evaluation (reflection) of the impact of a previ- where a committee of children (called Children’s

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Committee or CC) could meet to tackle c­ hallenges they encountered in education. The CC would take matters to the School-Based Support Team (SBST). The CC could also take matters to the School Management Team (SMT) and the School Governing Body (SGB). A continuous monthly problem identification, action and reflection, as noted by Wood (2020), from the CC to the SBST, took place. It became necessary for the Youth Facilitators (YFs) to be established because the SBST could not handle some of the challenges that the CC brought to the surface and the solutions could need accompanying learners to places such as Home Affairs, South African Police Services and the clinic. Owing to the shared vision and participation for improving learners’ academic performance, the collective participants constituted what is called an action learning group/core group (Wood 2020). Wood further maintains that participation in the action learning group allows members to learn from and with each other. The action learning group ultimately engaged in the learning process in monthly meetings where their reflections and problems were shared and discussed. Different members would then be assigned activities to work on. In the following month, a reflection session will be held and members will be allowed to raise other issues for the attention of group members and an action plan be designed for further action. At the end of the year, joint reflections were held and towards the end of the project, the university was invited to be with the co-researchers so they could share their experiences with four university researchers. Within the action learning group, three different learning sets were derived. These sets differed according to their primary roles/interests (Wood 2020). For the purpose of this article, teaching (teachers), learning (learners) and parenting (parents) were sourced to reflect on the inclusion of YFs in the classroom. The NGO arranged the reflection date and established an agreement with the school regarding the co-researchers in the discussion. Co-researchers in the current study were eight learners, nine teachers, and nine parents, who

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were chosen due to their active involvement in the activities with YFs. The eight learners were leaders of the Children’s Committee of the school. The nine teachers were part of the school-­ based support team and worked closely with the YFs to support learners in non-academic matters, such as discipline and health issues. Of the nine parents, one was a member of the school governing body, seven were members of the Community Workers Programme, and the other member was a caretaker at the school. The Community Workers Programme is an “innovative offering from the government to provide a job safety net for unemployed people of working age” (Republic of South Africa, n.d., Online). Thus, the researchers, as stated by Wood (2017), did not select the participants, but the community purposefully selected them since their involvement would mean they would share best practices. According to Wood (2017), the community decides who needs to participate. The NGO arranges an appointment with the school. Since several co-researchers had to buy into the project, from training to implementation and reflection, and the fact that the project evolved through a number of sessions, the ethical procedure adopted a ‘negotiated agreement’ posture (Wood 2020). As indicated in this paragraph, the approach was different from the natural sciences where (Mahlomaholo and Netshandama 2010) the researcher speaks of a sample of objects in the laboratory. Participants stood in their own rights as requested by the community.

3.2 Co-Researchers and Ethical Considerations Before we could embark on the research and participant selection, we applied for ethical clearance from the University of the Free State. Following ethical clearance approval, we headed the invite to the research site where participants were purposefully selected. In purposeful participant selection, co-researchers are chosen because of their project involvement and perceived

Youth Facilitators as Enablers of Inclusion: A School-Community Partnership Perspective

usefulness in generating relevant data (Cohen et  al. 2018; Creswell and Creswell 2018). Over and above this convention about co-researchers, the learning aspect of the process was acknowledged, and the community co-researchers were explicitly recognised as co-researchers (Wood 2020). Co-researchers were assigned codes to protect their anonymity. Action research is also a deliberate social process because it engages the action researcher in extending the action research process by involving others in collaborating in all phases of the research process (Carr and Kemmis 1986). Co-researchers received informed consent forms, which had been translated into Sesotho. It was made clear to all learners, parents, and educators that they were not being coerced into participating. They were all assured of anonymity concerning the information they supplied – learners are referred to as L1, L2, etc., community members (parent, school governing members who were parents) as P1, P2, etc., and teachers as E1, E2 etc.  – and were free to withdraw at any stage of the study without their withdrawal affecting them or their children. Since, according to the traditional way of doing research children have to be protected, it became evident that learners were so much interested in participating in such a way that they felt that taking consent forms to their parents was not necessary as they were keen to participate and share their experiences of working with the YFs.

3.3 Data Analysis We used thematic analysis to arrange the data generated through FGD during the reflection session. In thematic analysis, the generated data gets arranged as emerging themes (Caulfield 2020; Tsotetsi and Mile 2021). We followed six steps in analysing the data (Caulfield 2020). Firstly, we familiarised ourselves with the transcribed data. Secondly, we coded sentences and phrases. Thirdly and fourthly, we generated themes and reviewed them, respectively. The last two steps involved naming and writing up the themes.

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3.4 Trustworthiness We compiled the trustworthiness of the generated data by allowing the co-research to do member checking. Through member checking, co-­ researchers could confirm or refute any of the transcriptions to ensure the accuracy of the data (Birt et  al. 2016). In addition, we obtained the data from different sets, that is, learners, teachers and parents.

3.5 Ethical Considerations We wrote a letter to the Free State Department of Basic Education and the principals of the participating school to request permission to conduct the study. Once permission had been granted, we applied for ethics clearance from the Faculty of Education of the University of the Free State (No. UFS-EDU-2013-008). The study’s initial focus was on general and complementary learner support for classroom practice. It did not necessarily target vulnerable learners.

4 Findings The following themes emerged as findings from the data that was analysed: a) The YFs displayed a caring attitude, b) YFs acted as catalysts for increased interaction between various stakeholders/entities, and c) The presence of the YFs contributed to improving academic performance. (a) YFs displayed a caring attitude towards learners that resulted in learners feeling included Our findings revealed that the YFs displayed a caring attitude towards the learners. This is confirmed through utterances that focus on taking care of learners who experience hunger, assisting with health care opportunities, ensuring sameness amongst learners, food security matters, establishing healthy spaces and dealing with some special cases.

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YFs played a pivotal role by being present during educational camps held for Grade 12 learners. Parents and learners appreciated the positive role the YFs played during camps by facilitating the provision of food parcels to deal with hunger. We have camped here at school, and sometimes the department doesn’t provide enough money for learners to eat the way they should, but the YFs help us very much because when children spend nights at school, the YFs, through NGOs, help us with food (P2). They (YFs) can organise food parcels. They approached a certain supermarket. The supermarket was able to make food parcels for the poverty-stricken children (E2). The YFs also go to the kitchen to ask for food for the needy children and give them food to take home to eat at night (P5).

In addition, data confirmed that the YFs assured that the learners accessed health care in the ways indicated below: They take a child to the clinic if the child is not feeling well. If there is a need, the YFs assist in taking the children to their homes (P5). They take them to the clinics when they are sick. They also go to the children’s home to find out why children are absent (E5). The facilitators work with children. When a child is sick, they are the ones who take them to the clinics and look after us in terms of money (L1).

The data that was generated pointed out that the YFs assisted in identifying the needy and ensuring sameness amongst learners regardless of their socioeconomic status of learners. If children need uniforms, the YFs help identify needy children and guide them (E2). We are still creating a clothing bank. We give out our clothes to the school. The YFs then give clothes to learners who need or want them. If they like certain clothes, they will take them; if they don’t need them, they leave them for others who need them (L5). Some children stay with their grandparents and others with adults who are not their biological parents, and you’ll find that they are not treated well. The YFs help us with those children when their uniform is bad. They buy the uniform for them (P7). The other one is when other children come to school without uniforms, the YFs enter every class during short breaks. They take the names and sizes of the children in need so that they can buy them clothes and shoes. They don’t give them clothes publicly but privately to protect them from others during break (L7). There is a clothing bank, where people

C. Tsotetsi et al. who have used clothes or old clothes give them away, and the children’s committee gives them out to those they have identified (E2).

Presenting needy learners with clothes during break is a creative way of not disturbing classes. Caring was displayed by identifying needy learners, helping them privately and, by doing so, establishing a caring society. Clothes were bought for needy learners while another creative way of helping was establishing a clothing bank. According to one of the teachers, the YFs worked closely with the Children’s Committee to establish a clothing bank to cater for poor learners. Another aspect that showed caring on the part of the YFs was the establishment of food security. Both the educators and learners provided evidence of this below: We have a garden as some children come to school without eating. When these children go home after school, they still find that there’s no food. So the YFs usually get vegetables from the garden. Cooking is done in the kitchen. Thereafter, the children take the cooked food to their respective homes so that they will eat it at home (L4). Since the YFs have arrived, there has been a garden here. As teachers, we didn’t think of doing that or sowing seeds for children. They (YFs) came up with the idea of having a garden for children. Now children can eat vegetables (E8).

The presence of the YFs opened opportunities for healthy spaces. This is evidenced by the sentiments below. The toilets at school were not clean, but we, as the CC [Children’s Committee] formed a group that will clean the toilets every Thursday (L7). If the water is finished, we have JoJo tanks (rotationally moulded tanks) here at school. So we found out that the water in those tanks was not clean. The YFs come with clean water to fill the tanks (L6).

There were also special cases that the YFs handled. For example, special cases included an incidence in 2014 where a learner was raped, and it was the YFs who identified the victim and followed up until “with the help of the YFs the rape victims were identified,” as an educator testified (E2). The educator indicated that the YFs followed up the matter until the case was concluded. Educators reported that YFs looked after the learners’ well-being. For example, according to

Youth Facilitators as Enablers of Inclusion: A School-Community Partnership Perspective

educators, the YFs were approached by a learner whose mother misused the child support grant. During the reflection session, the educator explained the matter as follows: The mother was not staying with a child but was taking the child’s grant. The child didn’t have money to live off… so the child approached the YFs. The YFs followed it up until it reached the social workers (E2). Sometimes, they visit orphans… learners who come to school not feeling well because they are not being treated well, so the YFs visit those families to look at the child’s health status at home (P5).

(b) YFs acted as catalysts for increased inclusion through enhanced interaction between various stakeholders/entities The information that was collected signalled that enhanced interaction amongst various partners was evident because of the presence of the YFs. Teachers demonstrated that YFs could link the learners with them (the teachers), as well as with social workers and the clinics. YFs are like a link between the school and the children. Because actually, we were struggling… They make our work easy (E5). After identifying children with specific problems, they also link them with different stakeholders. In fact, for a child who needs social workers, they work together with SBST (school-based support team) as a whole (E2).

From the teachers’ perspective, as presented above, YFs made the teachers’ work easier. YFs created and had the time to link up with other partners. Teachers confirmed that learners who lacked proper identification documents and support grants benefited from the linkages created by the YFs with different stakeholders. The YFs invited the Department of Home Affairs. The Department of Home Affairs came to the school to assist learners without proper IDs (identity documents) and birth certificates. This thing about the Department of Home Affairs never happened before the YFs’ intervention (E1).

A parent indicated that even the Department of Health had visited the school the previous week because of the YFs’ initiatives.

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Even last week Wednesday, the Department of Health was here to check everything about children. They came to check the eyes, and they made the work simple, without choosing those that were rich or poor (P1).

The parent indicated that the YFs made the school’s work easier by establishing coordination between the school and stakeholders outside the school. The following comments show that other strategic partners from the community are involved to benefit from their differentiated expertise and obtain assistance to deal with challenges that confront learners and improve their academic performance. At times, you find that some children have a behavioural problem and they take them and guide them (E2). I can say they are psychologists because when other children have problems they come to the YFs or share with us CC (Children’s Committee), and we refer it to our YFs, the YFs will be left with that problem and they will fix the problem (L3).

(c) The presence of the youth facilitators contributed to inclusion that shaped improved academic performance The data illustrates that YFs worked to eliminate underperformance by learners. They identified and acted upon classes when learners misbehaved. There were two classes last year that were underperforming, Grade 10E and Grade 10C; we managed to get them to perform like other classes and at first, they were not performing. Most of the boys in those classes were unruly and the YFs helped them with accounting every Friday (L5).

The presence of the YFs enabled learners to take charge of their studies and peers. It is laudable that learners decided to use Fridays to teach one another. From the above utterances, the unruly classes performed like other classes. Another learner indicated that, through their initiative as Children’s Committee members, guided by the YFs, the duration of time spent at school was extended. The learners started by assisting one another in doing homework. The school saw that as good practice and adopted it.

186 The majority of our learners were writing homework in the morning so as the CC (Children’s Committee), we caused the studies after school to take place. We were helping each other with ­homework. Until now, our classes end at half past four because the studies are compulsory for everyone (L1).

Drawing from the above, we can conclude that the YFs’ presence contributed to changing school policy concerning chapter times. All learners were expected to remain at school until 4:30 p.m.. We saw this practice as a commendable contribution by the YFs to the school’s culture of teaching and learning. Teachers and parents spelt out that the YFs assisted during educational camps and supported learners to complement the role parents played in their children’s education. Parents, furthermore, pointed out that YFs supported the Quality Learning and Teaching Campaign (QLTC) initiative by acting as an ingredient of the initiative. When camps are organised by Save the Children, they go with them for leadership. Then another one they help them with is the homework support groups (E2). The YFs have done many things, especially encouraging children who have problems at home. They help children to study over and above some of us parents. We don’t have a clear light of how to encourage our children in their studies because it’s for their (children’s) own benefit (P2). They also participate in a structure, as my brother said, and that has combined all the stakeholders in QLTC. It has joined all the doctors – medical and traditional doctors – kings, social workers, and all people together, and they are all included in that committee of QLTC (P4).

Drawing from the three co-researchers above, we see that the YFs significantly improved the school’s educational status. Furthermore, the YFs supported the QLTC campaign, a South African initiative aimed at improving the quality of teaching and learning at schools, in which various stakeholders are involved.

5 Discussion Our findings set forth that YFs contributed to enhancing learners’ educational and social experiences. Three key aspects emerged from the

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findings. Firstly, the YFs showed a caring attitude. Amongst others, they approached supermarkets to provide food for the needy children. Those children could even take food parcels and eat them back at home. This acted as a psychosocial support to the needy. Other acts of caring included taking take of the sick children as well as looking at the health status of children. The implication is this caring attitude is that it provided a mitigating act on some factors that indirectly influence the performance of learners. Secondly, the YFs facilitated linkages between the school and other stakeholders. The YFs were able to take some matters further than merely the identification of a problem. The liaised with units such as the Home Affairs to enable learners to have the identification documents, social workers, Department of Health. By implication, the YFs facilitated some processes which teachers did not have time to do them. Thirdly, the YFs facilitated the inclusion that shaped improved academic performance. In this regard, they directly influenced the academic performance. They did this by for an example, working with underperforming classes and assisting in terms of doing homework. The three findings add to the literature review. The literature review by Ellerani and Gentile (2013); Fletcher (2015); Guill and Bos (2014) report that YFs acted as agents of change, made teaching aids using low-­ cost materials and applied learner-centred instead of educator-centred approaches. YFs also assisted in moderating teachers’ work (Ellerani and Gentile 2013). Using YFs as agents of change enabled learners to be the best because the YFs helped the learners to learn in an environment that was stress-free, challenging, but not overwhelming, and fun, but focused on what needed to be learnt. Guill and Bos (2014) report that schools use facilitators to assist teachers in developing children’s mathematics, physical sciences, and English pedagogical content knowledge. YFs promoted the learners’ interests and passions by allowing them to achieve the best they could. YFs were also sympathetic, respectful to the parents, and supportive of the teachers while remembering that the main focus was the learners, not the curriculum. The YFs acted as agents

Youth Facilitators as Enablers of Inclusion: A School-Community Partnership Perspective

of change by establishing relationships of trust with learners. The literature shows that the YFs’ duties include assisting schools in matters that contribute to advancing teaching and learning, as shown by Jensen et al. (2019), including acting as a liaison between the school and the community where the school is based (Bergstedt 2015). Therefore, in this study, YFs guided the learners on how to cope with situations that seem threatening. They taught learners skills required to manage or overcome specific social and academic challenges to reach an adequate level of functional independence. When necessary, YFs became a voice for the learners mentoring them to ensure their well-­ being during school activities. The YFs enabled learners with special needs to become independent and functional in a school environment. They created opportunities for engagement between the learners and the teachers, and with other learners in the class. They also ensured that the academic and educational needs of the children were met and helped learners to integrate and relate to their peers socially. This finding is confirmed by Kearney and Zuber-­ Skerritt (2012), who suggest that teachers could then work collaboratively, and where they encountered challenges, they could request assistance from the facilitators. They could succeed in doing this because they are passionate about helping special needs children and have endless patience and persistence (Kearney and Zuber-­ Skerritt 2012). All these benefits would not be possible without consulting and working closely with the therapists, teachers, and parents involved in children’s lives. Ultimately, the desired outcome of YFs as agents of change was that they helped develop learners who are independent and functional in their school environment and guided them into blossoming into confident and positive individuals who are ready to be inclusively involved with society. New insights in this study revolve around three issues. Firstly, the constitution of teaching and learning spaces needs to be rethought. Contrary to the longstanding notion of the classroom being an affair between the teacher, learner and content, the addition of YFs predisposes this

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notion to reconfiguration with a view to moving towards classrooms of the future. Secondly, inroads to the quest for democratisation of teaching and learning spaces are provided. The notion of having the teacher as the sole knower, support anchor and facilitator of learning in the classroom is challenged. In this study, YFs became co-­ contributors to the process of knowledge building amongst learners. Knowledge building becomes a collective endeavour. Thirdly, YFs are allowed to make sense of the learning process in a space where they have to think about those behind the desk.

6 Limitations The project took place in the North-Eastern part of the Free State province. Its findings cannot be generalised to other spaces. The study’s inability to be generalised, serves as space for other researchers to conduct similar research in different contexts. Secondly, the study was for learners in general and not necessarily targeting individual cases. Other researchers can extend this study by studying individual learners’ issues to map individualised support programmes. The project was for a limited time, and it may not be possible to determine if the improvements are sustainable. We can also not ascertain if learners will continuously need support or have acquired sufficient coping skills. Thirdly, one of the roles and responsibilities of teachers is to support learners. This study may be seen as taking away the teachers’ role and responsibility to support learners. This means some teachers may feel that their supportive role has been removed. Fourthly, there were no clear articulation roles of the YFs and teachers. The YFs roles were extended to take over some teachers’ responsibilities. The functions still needed more apparent clarification. Some issues were requested to be done by YFs, which went beyond the mandate of the YFs. Lastly, some of the skills of the YFs were questioned, like when the learners brought up emotionally distressing events showed that YFs were not trained as counsellors.

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7 Conclusion The chapter sought to investigate the use and impact of YFs in schools. Through shadowing, the YFs were expected to be available and within reach of learners for whatever the latter needed assistance. We found that the YFs displayed a caring attitude towards the learners, provided guidance, assisted by providing discipline at school, and contributed to ensuring that learners participated in sporting activities. Learners were more open to sharing their problems with YFs, and the latter served as a link between teachers and learners, and provided psychosocial support to the learners. This indicates that, despite each school’s challenges, YFs can contribute to the well-being, academic performance, and care and support of learners and the entire school. We found that YFs can act as catalysts and agents of change in school-community partnerships. Lastly, one of the least-used research methodologies  – participatory youth research  – was successfully engaged as a vehicle to frame and generate data for the chapter. Acknowledgements We would like to thank SCSA for granting funding that made it possible for us to conduct this research on the impact of youth facilitators as agents of change in school-community partnerships.

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Managing an Inclusive Classroom in Eswatini: A Case Study S’lungile Thwala

strategies are designed to support effective teaching of mixed-ability groupings in promoting inclusion and academic achievement, the aim was to draw parallels with the Eswatini context in order to draw some lessons. Furthermore, key competences needed to manage inclusive classroom are also highlighted as well as environmental issues that impact on inclusivity in the classrooms. The chapter makes helpful analysis of the role of teachers, learners and the classroom environment in the creation of classrooms as sustainable inclusive learning spaces particularly within the under-resourced inclusive classes of Eswatini.

Abstract

Classrooms ought to be places of inclusive learning for all learners regardless of their disability, yet many teachers still struggle to welcome learners with special needs into regular classrooms. This chapter addresses ways in which teachers can support the full participation of learners with special educational needs in the learning process. The chapter adopts Makoelle (Inclusive teaching in South Africa. Sun Publishers, Cape Town, 2016)’s triad dimensions of analysing teacher-learnerenvironment aspects’ contribution to inclusivity within classrooms as inclusive spaces in the Eswatini school context. The chapter provides teaching strategies that promote effective learning in an inclusive class. The chapter begins with a synthesis of conceptualisations about inclusion; where inclusive education, special education, and managing inclusive classroom needs are outlined. While the chapter provides an international literature review on teaching strategies that promote active learning, explores the five broad areas, namely; differentiation, co-teaching, cooperative learning, activity-based learning, and effective teaching and discusses how these S. Thwala (*) University of Eswatini, Kwaluseni Campus, Matsapha, Eswatini e-mail: [email protected]

Keywords

Classrooms · Inclusion · Inclusive education · Inclusive learning · Inclusive teaching

1

Introduction

The inclusion of learners with disabilities into regular schools has become one of the most significant issues facing teachers globally. To address this issue, teachers should be trained in inclusive practice in order to cope with the diverse needs of the learners (Tristani and Bassett-Gunter 2020). That is, teacher training programmes should equip teachers with a range

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Hlalele, T. M. Makoelle (eds.), Inclusion in Southern African Education, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43752-6_14

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of professional skills and techniques to function effectively in the inclusive classroom (Makoelle and Burmistrova 2021). Inclusive Education is conceptualised differently, and this impacts the management of inclusive classrooms. Therefore, it is imperative to recognise that while there is no generic formula for managing an inclusive classroom, as there are many variables involved in the operations of classrooms as spaces of inclusive teaching and learning – such as resources and the teacher’s pedagogical beliefs and practices (Mustafa et al. 2020). Therefore, this chapter focuses on how classrooms in an under-resourced classroom context of Eswatini can be managed as spaces of inclusive teaching and learning. Therefore, the discussions in this chapter are guided by the questions: • Which factors in an under-resourced classroom context such as in Eswatini enhance or promote inclusion of diverse learners in an inclusive classroom? • What role do teachers, learners and the classroom environment play in the promotion of inclusion? • What challenges (if any) do teachers and learners experience in enhancing inclusion in an inclusive classroom internationally? And what do teachers and learners do deal with them? And which of those could be applicable in Eswatini classroom context? In answering these questions, first, the chapter conceptualizes the notion of inclusion from both international and Eswatini context. Secondly, the chapter discusses how an inclusive classroom can be managed drawing from international literature while making parallels with the Eswatini context. This is done by highlighting ways in which teachers can support the full participation of learners with special needs, and suggests teaching strategies that promote active learning in the regular classroom. To that end, five teaching and learning domains are explored, namely: differentiation, co-teaching, co-operative learning, activity-based learning, and effective teaching. Thirdly, the chapter highlight some of the necessary competences that are a prerequisite for a teacher to man-

age a classroom effectively. This chapter highlights how teachers may promote active learning in large under-resourced inclusive classes, enabling all learners to participate and improve their learning. To aid understanding, it is important to define inclusion, inclusive education, special needs, managing and strategies.

2 Conceptualisations of Inclusion 2.1 International Perspective Inclusion is a dynamic approach of responding positively to pupil diversity and of seeing individual differences not as problems, but as opportunities for enriching learning (UNESCO 2003). Inclusion has its origins in the International Human Rights Movement that advocates for education for all. It is conceptualised as removing obstacles or barriers in the education process so that all learners can access education both equally and equitably as encapsulated in the Salamanca Statement of 1994 (UNESCO 1994) and the UNESCO (2000) Dakar World Declaration on Education for All. The movement is concerned with reforms that embrace and support differences, equality, and collective belonging as well as an expression of individual human rights and social justice (Landsberg et al. 2005). It is important to note that the term inclusion is interpreted differently across countries, which makes its meaning context-dependent. Although there are differences in the way the concept is defined, there is some agreement on what has been said and written about inclusion (Thwala and Makoelle 2022). The different contexts make it impossible to formulate a universal, context-free definition of inclusion. Consequently, the multiple contexts of inclusion have led to different practices of inclusion at classroom level (Thwala and Makoelle 2022). The process of inclusion is associated with the goal of governments to bring about equality in societies that are characterised by inequalities and social injustices. The implication is that all learners should be valued and accorded the right

Managing an Inclusive Classroom in Eswatini: A Case Study

to quality education. Like other countries in the Southern African Development Community (SADC), Eswatini embraces international declarations that set the basis for Education for All (EFA) and Inclusive Education. Critical national policies have been developed; all of which specify the desire to attain access to basic EFA which is based on the concept of inclusion. As espoused by Landsberg et al. (2005), inclusive education is about celebrating diversity arising from the complex interplay of gender, nationality, race, age, language, religion, socio-economic background and cultural origin, level of educational achievement, and disability or ability. Mugambi (2017), on the other hand, perceives inclusive education as a priority in combating the social ills of racism, prejudice and hegemonic thought and behaviour towards the discriminated groups, such as those with disabilities. Based on the given information, it can be synthesised that inclusive education is about increasing the presence, participation, and achievement of all learners in schools. It involves restructuring the cultures, policies, and practices in schools so that they respond to the diversity of all learners in the community. As a result, inclusive education is built on the understanding that educational exclusion is a by-­ product of fundamental problems in the education system or school. In other words, exclusion is a result of irregularities within educational policies rather than the learner’s personal characteristics or abilities. Thus, any form of educational exclusion based on personal demographics is a violation of fundamental human rights. In light of the given definition, inclusive education should be understood as a process that sets out a road map for ensuring that all Eswatini children have access to quality education.

2.2 Eswatini Perspective Eswatini, as a developing country, is keen in following international trends in order to boost human resources. In accordance with International Declarations, Eswatini has embraced the basis of Education for All (EFA) in order to meet the

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needs of marginalised social groups (Booth and Pather 2010). To that end, the Swaziland (now Eswatini) government adopted the inclusive education policy in 2008. The policy marked a point of departure from the practice of relegating learners with disabilities to special schools, to ‘inclusion’ into the mainstream. In the context of Eswatini, “disabled learners” are those with physical disabilities, mild hearing and visual impairment, intellectual disabilities, and communication and sensory impairments (Ministry of Education Policy Statement 1998). As stipulated in the Eswatini Education and Training Sector Policy (EDSEC) (2018), inclusive education is an approach to education that includes and meets the needs of all learners “whatever their gender, life circumstance, state of health, disability, stage of development, capacity to learn, level of achievement, financial or any other circumstance”. It enables schools to serve and welcome all learners. Inclusive education is rooted in the basic human right to education, and it shares some of its goals and approaches with the Education for All (EFA) movement. As a cross-cutting approach, inclusive education should inform and guide subsequent sub-sector policy goals and strategies. It should also provide a principled guiding framework for the planning and coordination of the Education and Training Sector Policy at every level. Furthermore, Eswatini also joined in the fight against discrimination of people with disabilities in line with the Constitution of the Kingdom of Swaziland (now Eswatini) (2005). Section 30 (1) of the constitution states that: “persons with disabilities have a right to respect and human dignity; the government and the society shall take appropriate measures to ensure that those persons realise their full mental and physical potential” (The Constitution of the Kingdom of Swaziland, 2005). This broad statement has been unpacked in the Swaziland National Children’s Policy (2009) as follows; “It is National policy to provide inclusive education for all children in Eswatini…”. Article 3.4 of the National Policy Statement on Education (1999) also articulates that the Ministry of Education and Training shall provide

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equal opportunities to all children “irrespective of sex, religion, geographical location, special needs, political orientation, or other factors”. The policy stipulates that educational programmes shall be designed and offered to children with special needs such as “physical disabilities, visual and auditory impairment, mental retardation, social and behavioural problems as well as gifted children”. All the aforementioned policies were developed in different forums in Eswatini, and they all respond to international conventions and declarations – including those of special educational needs (SEN). It was on this premise that the Ministry of Education and Training in Eswatini established a Special Education and Early Intervention Service Unit within the Ministry in 1999. The duties of this unit include planning and implementing inclusive education strategies. In the quest to establish Eswatini inclusive system, in 2003, eight schools were chosen to pilot the concept of Inclusive Education. The pilot schools were used to demonstrate the benefits of inclusion to other schools, education managers, head teachers, parents, and communities (EDSEC 2018). They also serve as resource base for the practical training of teachers. Once the pilot schools proven effective, the methods used are introduced on a wider scale. The eight schools were selected from each of the four regions of the country, namely; Lubombo, Manzini, Shiselweni and Hhohho. To that effect, two schools were picked to pilot inclusive education in each region. Capacity building workshops were conducted for the teachers who were placed at the pilot schools. The teachers were taught how about inclusive practice. That is, how to teach learners who have special educational needs in regular classrooms. However, parallel to the inclusive system is the inherent component of special education.

2.3 Special Education Needs In Eswatini schooling context, special educational needs denote learning difficulties or disabilities that make it harder for children to learn

than most of their peers. These difficulties or disabilities could be physical, mental or emotional barriers, their education and/or their environment, at home or in the community (Swaziland Ministry of Education 1998). This assertion concurs with the South African Gauteng Department of Education (2006) which avers that special educational needs refer to the learners with learning difficulties, visual, hearing, physical, emotional and behavioral impairments, the “gifted”, learners who are poor, learners who come from different cultural backgrounds, learners who were politically disadvantaged and learners who speak a different language to that of the specific school. It follows that learners with special educational needs do not progress accordingly “normally” in comparison to other learners of the same age in their development. Learners are classified as having special education needs when they need services that are beyond what is generally provided as standard in the education system. A broad range of learning needs exists among learners at any point in time. In this regard, different learning needs arise from many factors including physical, mental, sensory, neurological and developmental impairments, psychosocial issues, and differences in intellectual ability, life experiences or socio-economic deprivation (Education and Training Sector Policy 2018). In Southern Africa, and Eswatini in particular, there are still struggles in understanding inclusion without making reference to disability, as inclusion is defined in relation to special education needs. Therefore, based on these myriad understandings of inclusion in Eswatini and neighboring countries, it becomes crucial to understand how classroom emerge as spaces within which inclusion is operationalised, enacted and practiced.

3 Classrooms as ‘Inclusive Spaces’ In this chapter, inclusive classroom is characterized by using Makoelle (2016)’s theoretical conception which he calls “inclusive spaces”. According to Makoelle (2016) inclusive class-

Managing an Inclusive Classroom in Eswatini: A Case Study

room is a representation of three-dimensional triad constituted of teacher-dimension, ­learner-­ dimension and environment dimension. Each dimension represents particular aspects within a constructivist inclusive teaching and learning space. Figure  1 shows the relationship of the dimensions within an inclusive space: According to Makoelle (2016) the teacher-­ dimension as a constituent of an inclusive space is influenced by teacher related aspects such as teacher’s beliefs, attitudes, conceptions, experiences, skills and competencies about inclusive teaching, learning and environment. These aspects when not aligned to the ideals of inclusion may be barriers to inclusivity. Makoelle (2016) believes that these aspects may impact on the teacher’s pedagogical choices and practices and the adoption of a pedagogy that is either inclusive or exclusive. On the other hand, the learner-dimension starts with the learner’s background in terms of the cultural capital, social artifacts such as language and values which may influence the learner’s ability to engage in meaningful inclusive learning and widened participation in the teaching and learning process. Again, Makoelle (2016) is of the view that if these are not aligned to the ideals of inclusion, they may pose a serious barrier to inclusion.

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The environment-dimension of an inclusive space encapsulates the conditions for teaching and learning. It represents aspects of the social that may include but not limited to collaboration, cooperation, tolerance, respect, support, belongingness, welcoming and freedom for innovation and creativity. The environment dimension according to Makoelle (2016) may enable or constrain the agency of both the teacher and the learner in a quest for a teaching (by the teacher) and learning (by the learner) that is effectively inclusive and embracing. Makoelle (2016) postulates that inclusion cannot thrive if the three dimensions are not geared towards ensuring its success. If any of the three is not alighted the space thus become non-inclusive. The interplay between the three classroom dimensions is crucial for the success of inclusion. Figure 2 below shows an inclusive classroom and how the agency of both teachers and learners intersects with the environment to produce an inclusive space and thus an inclusive atmosphere. Makoelle (2016) avers that both teachers and learners exercise their agency within the process of teaching and learning and that the classroom environment may enable or constrain the agency thus stifling the process of inclusion. As a result, the classroom has to exhibit the enabling character in order to enable teachers and learners to act freely and feel they belong to an inclusive classroom community.

4 Teacher Dimension and Iclusion in the Classroom Teacher Dimension

Inclusive Space

Environment Dimension

Learner Dimension

Fig. 1  Representation of an inclusive space

Teachers are at the heart of the implementation of inclusion in the classroom. Managing an inclusive classroom as used in this chapter, implies the process of structuring or adapting the school system and classroom to cater for the effective teaching and learning of learners with diverse abilities in an inclusive classroom. This process requires changes in structure, culture, and operating procedures in the learning environment (Acedo 2008). The definition suggests that inclusive classrooms need to thrive on uncertainty, have a

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Fig. 2  Inclusive Classroom

greater capacity for collective problem-solving and be able to respond to the diverse needs of learners. It also implies that inclusive classroom requires a different kind of leadership, a ­leadership that acknowledges ‘differences’ and works to bring about equality. According to Swart et al. (2017) teachers are instrumental in determining the quality of inclusion. Given the necessary support, teachers can play a crucial role in transforming schools, and the opposite is true. Being directly involved in the implementation of an inclusive education policy teachers’ competencies in this area are of utmost importance. As Makoelle (2012) currently observes, the effectiveness of inclusion in education depends on high quality of teachers’ training to equip them to meet the needs of a diverse classroom population. Teachers who teach learners with special needs require specialised training. The basic professional training must prepare the educator to respond to a wide range of learners’ needs

(Thomas and Feiler 1988). All teachers should be equipped to accommodate diversity among learners and to recognise the need of some learners for alternative instruction. Teachers should be trained to work with each other, as well as with other professionals such as occupational therapist, physiotherapist, social workers, other specialists and parents for the benefit of the learners with barriers to learning in main-stream schools (Draft Guidelines for Inclusive Learning Programmes 2005). Thus, collaborative teaching is essential if effective teaching of learners with diversified needs is to be successful in inclusive classrooms. Therefore, collaborative teaching should not be neglected because that has an effect on effectiveness of teaching and learning in the classroom. An enabling environment must be established for the provision of quality education for all learners (Conceptual and Operational Guidelines for Full-service Schools 2005). Full-­service schools should address and remove

Managing an Inclusive Classroom in Eswatini: A Case Study

various barriers that hamper learning; these include negative attitudes to, and stereotyping of learners with barriers to learning. Competences teachers need to manage inclusive classroom as proposed by (Renaissance Group 2004 p. 204) include – but are not limited to the following: • “Ability to use a variety of teaching strategies to accommodate the diverse needs of learners • The ability to modify assignments for learners, how to design classroom activities with many levels that learners have • The ability to learn how to value all kinds of skills that learners bring into class including not only academic skills but also social skills • Ability to assess learners to determine their capabilities and competencies and reporting on individual progress of learners • The ability to provide daily success for all learners • Using a variety of classroom management strategies • Developing of individual programme (IEP) for learners” It seems that empowering teachers with necessary skills is essential as it transforms them into competent educators. Efforts should be made to equip and assist teachers as they strive to improve academic performance and social skills of diverse learners in an inclusive classroom. From the given information, it can be said that teachers’ preparation is essential if teachers are to manage inclusive classrooms, without it many will fail to execute their duties effectively. If teachers lack competencies in managing their inclusive classrooms, problems such as stress, lack of confidence and fatigue are likely to manifest. The implementation of inclusive education is not without its problems and challenges as it is a contemporary phenomenon. Despite teachers’ determined efforts to deliver in an inclusive class, barriers that are still a hindrance in successful implementation of inclusive education still exist. The next section focuses on some of the common barriers.

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4.1 Barrier’s Teachers Encounter in Managing Inclusion in their Classroom Barriers encountered by teachers in managing inclusive education in their classroom are reviewed under teachers’ attitudes, teaching-­ learning resources, friendliness of learners’ environment, human capital, and efficacy of the administration. (a) Teachers’ attitudes According to Msango et al. (2000), the first barrier of inclusion is the traditional attitude to children with disabilities. This mindset leads to the exclusion of learners with disabilities from their local schools. To mitigate this challenge, Msango et al. (2000) suggest that classroom environments should be democratic in practice. Research reveals that the attitudes of teachers towards educating learners with diverse barriers to learning have been put forward as a decisive factor for making schools more inclusive (Engelbrecht and Green 2001). In a study conducted by Hay et al. (2001), teachers felt unprepared and unequipped to work in inclusive classrooms. Similarly, Bothma et al. (2000) also found that the attitudes of primary teachers towards inclusive education their beliefs regarding the South African policy of Inclusive Education were negative. The researchers concluded that the teachers’ attitudes could become a critical barrier to successful implementation of the inclusive education policy. (b) Teacher training and preparedness The challenge faced by many teachers in Eswatini is that they have not been trained to cope with diversity of learners in classrooms. As such, they have a negative attitude towards inclusive education. Dr. Gordon Porter, an expert in the field of inclusive education, maintains that teachers need to be assisted to achieve positive changes in attitudes. Porter explains that teachers need to be open to new teaching methods and circumstances in order to achieve effective inclusion schools (UNESCO 2000).

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A study conducted in Eswatini by Thwala enable the predetermined goal in managing et  al. (2020), on teachers’ experiences with inclusion to be realised (Walton 2002). Teaching Dyslexic learners in mainstream classrooms, is not a random process, but teachers apply sperevealed that teachers had negative attitudes cific strategies to make lessons effective. As towards including learners with dyslexia. revealed by literature on inclusion (Makoelle Teachers perceived dyslexic learners as incapa- 2016), examples of effective teaching strategies ble. In schools where this research was con- include; differentiation, co-teaching, co-operaducted, at the end of the year when results were tive learning, activity-based learning, and effecdiscussed, dyslexic learners were either failed or tive teaching. illegitimately “promoted” to the next class if they A number of different pedagogical approaches had already repeated a grade for numerous times. or strategies (Florian 2007; Nind et al. 2003; Rief This was done under the impression that such and Heimburge 2006) have been presented as learners could not do much, and were not being helpful for teachers working with learners expected to pass after all. Some teachers felt that in inclusive learning environments. Examples of there was need to have designated schools for inclusive approaches that align with some basic dyslexic learners. The teachers pointed out that principles of inclusive pedagogy include, but are teaching dyslexic learners was draining to them not limited to: differentiated instruction, univeras extra effort was required in the exercise. They sal design for learning and inclusive pedagogical perceived inclusion as a challenge because it approach in action framework (2013). These indirectly demanded that they go an extra mile, approaches were developed in the late twentieth which was taxing. The teachers confided that this century, and were largely derived from models of challenge caused them to reject learners with special education. Many of them are still evident dyslexia in their classrooms. in classrooms around the world today. Effective The findings presented above are in direct teachers ensure that all learners in their classes contrast with the ideals of inclusion. Inclusion participate and achieve. Based on approaches promotes equal participation and non-­that appear to have been effective, a set of prindiscrimination against all learners in the learning ciples for the development and implementation process, irrespective of their abilities within a of inclusive education pedagogy, as identified in single education and training system, and with a the academic literature, can be discerned. continuum of learning context and resources Several scholars concur that the learning enviaccording to the need (Department of Education ronment should be conducive for learning to 2001:6). From the aforementioned literature, it effectively take place. Therefore, teachers should can be said that; to implement inclusive educa- use different teaching methods to embrace everytion successfully, more work is required in one learner to achieve his/her full potential. teacher training to help shift the educators’ men- Teachers should be cognisant of the fact that tal dispositions. As it stands, teachers in the edu- learners learn differently and may need different cationally inclusive setting are less positive due types of support. As previously mentioned, there to poor specialised training in working with are at least five strategies that can promote effeclearners experiencing barriers. tive inclusion in education. These are: differentiation, co-teaching, co-operative learning, activity-based learning, and effective teaching. 4.2 Teacher Pedagogical Practices Each strategy is discussed in turn. The purpose of this section is for teachers to recognise the importance of using a range of teaching strategies to minimise barriers to learning for effective education. Strategies are systematic plans or tactics that can be employed to

(a) Using differentiation in class Differentiation is the manner in which a teacher plans for and responds to different learners’ needs (Enabling Education Network 2000).

Managing an Inclusive Classroom in Eswatini: A Case Study

Simply put, differentiation is teaching in ways that make learning accessible to all learners. It is the concept of inclusion that responds to the idea that; within every classroom there are learners with unique needs, background, interests, and preferred learning styles. As a concept, differentiation recognises that every learner is ­ unique; has a distinct learning style, and learns at a different pace. It is an approach that provides children with multiple options for receiving information and making sense of ideas. In order to meet learners’ needs, teachers modify the content, the teaching methodology, and classroom activities. Active learning, which is fundamental to the differentiation strategy, requires teachers to engage learners of all abilities in the learning process. Thus, differentiation entails flexibility in the approach to teaching. That is, adapting the curriculum and methods of teaching rather than expecting learners to fit into the curriculum (Janney and Snell 2013). By using differentiation, a teacher adjusts or modifies content, teaching methods, and assessment strategies to accommodate all learners according to their individual needs. There are three categories of differentiated learning, namely; differentiation by access, differentiation by teaching style and differentiation by learning objectives (Florian 2007). Differentiation by access involves choosing appropriate ways of ensuring curriculum access and participation for, and by all learners (Nghipondoka 2001). This could be in terms of sitting arrangement, adapted material and equipment, choosing a suitable language and determining the appropriate method of communication, modifying physical infrastructure, ensuring physical aids are available and functioning properly. Meanwhile, differentiation by learning objective is setting suitable learning objectives. A maximum of three objectives should be clearly articulated with a clear indication that all learners’ needs have been considered. The learner should choose learning outcomes that are appropriate and attainable for the learners in the chosen class. Lastly, differentiation by teaching style entails choosing teaching methods that take into account various learning styles (Nghipondoka 2001).

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Modifying and adjusting instruction to allow all learners to access the general education curriculum is at the core of inclusive education. Despite the increase in teachers’ awareness that differentiation provides better opportunities for learning, it seems traditional teaching methods in which all learners receive the same instruction is still popular among teachers (Kurth et al. 2012; Vlachou and Fyssa 2016). However, effective teachers ensure that learners in their classes participate and achieve. Such teachers know that learners learn differently and may need different types of support. In stressing the point, Broderick et  al. (2005) observe that; when teachers effectively differentiate instructions, they constantly assess learners’ understanding. As such, they are able to teach responsively and enable learners to demonstrate competence in varied, meaningful ways. In turn, this practice ensures that most learners can participate successfully as full members of inclusive classrooms. (b) Co-teaching Co-teaching has been recommended as an approach to foster transition from a dual to a more blended and contemporary educational practice for learners, with and without disabilities in an inclusive classroom (Friend et al. 2010). In a co-teaching relationship, teachers share roles and responsibilities, including differentiated instructional methods, in an attempt to blend their expertise for learners with and without disabilities. Friend et  al. (2010) describe six approaches / variations of co-teaching that co-­ teachers can implement based on learners’ needs: (a) one teach, one assist; (b) station teaching; (c) parallel teaching; (d) alternative teaching; (e) teaming and; (f) one teach, one observe. According to Dlamini et  al. (2010), inclusive education is enhanced when teachers co-operate with one another and receive flexible support from a range of colleagues. This seems to be effective for the development of academic and social skills of learners with special educational needs. As noted by Strogilos and Stefanidis (2015), international literature has limited information on the development, the use, and the quality of modifications pro-

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vided in single-taught and co-taught classes with learners with disabilities. Based on the given information, it can be argued that additional support needs to be flexible, well-­coordinated and planned if co-teaching is to be effective. (c) Effective teaching Finally, effective education is highlighted. Literature on effective schools and effective instruction can be adapted to inclusive education. This includes; setting goals, education based on assessment and evaluation, high expectations, direct instruction and feedback. However, accommodation of the curriculum is needed, not only for those with special educational needs (SEN) at the lower end of the continuum, but also for all learners, including non-SEN learners. With regard to learners with SEN, in most countries this approach is defined in terms of the individual educational plan (IEP). An important consideration for good practice is that the IEP should fit within the normal curriculum framework (Okech 2010). Mugambi (2017, pp.  101–102) summarises the key features of an inclusive classroom procedures and practices as follows: • “Establishment of classroom routine that is sensitive to individual needs and cultural norms of learners. • Ensuring that classroom responsibilities are inclusive and not stereotyped. • Provision of instructional resources that reflect diversity of learners. • Ensuring that all learners feel accepted and gain a sense of belonging. • Provision to each learner a balance of challenge and support to scaffold new learning. • Emphasis and modeling values of fairness acceptance, kindness, respect and responsibility to and for all people. • Making education relevant to learners‟ needs and interests. • Teaching and modeling independent learning skills. • Recognition and value for learner improvement and acknowledging success of each individual learner.

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• Use of evaluation methods that are equitable an • Take into account the diversity of learners life experiences and learning needs for example refugee experience. • Use of flexible approaches to eliminate barriers and transform learning experiences. Teachers should provide differentiated instruction by acknowledging that learners learn at different rates and in different ways” From the above discussion one can conclude that inclusion in class is not a process that can be achieved in one day. Achieving inclusion is a challenge because of the difficulty in addressing implementation problems, such as rigid school policies, failure to collaborate with other teachers, absence of dialogue among teachers and co-­ ordination among different stakeholders. To achieve inclusion, there should be collaboration among all stakeholders, including learners. This implies that teaching should not be a prerogative of the class teacher. Instead, all members of staff in a school should participate in teaching learners with special education needs. Therefore, all teachers should have some competences to manage an inclusive classroom. As asserted by Okech et al. (2021), creating an inclusive learning environment where there is respect for all learners is a major step towards inclusion, and is therefore mandatory for teachers. Additionally, the authors state that this approach can work well when merged with elements such as inclusive classroom space, infrastructure, good arrangement of furniture and classroom display, manageable class size as well as enough resources. On the other hand, Mpu and Adu (2020) posit that collaboration roles, information sharing workshops, time management, adequate resources, reduced class sizes and training for school administrators are integral in the implementation and promotion of inclusive education in schools. In the same vein, Okech et al. (2021) highlight that in Uganda primary schools, some of the teaching and learning strategies used by teachers to accommodate diverse learners include scaffolding, peer-tutoring, flexible grouping of learners. However, teachers lament that

Managing an Inclusive Classroom in Eswatini: A Case Study

lack of training in inclusion limits their effort in effectively implementing inclusion. This sentiment is also shared by Mugambi (2017) who emphasises on the elimination of the “one-size-­ fits-all” mentality in favour of differentiation as a principle for inclusion. It is clear that teachers have a role to play in providing an inclusive learning environment that requires establishment of an environment in which every learner can participate and actively engage despite any barriers they may have at any one particular time. This can be achieved through applying flexible teaching strategies, planning and organization. The next section focuses on the classroom environment. To begin with, a classroom is a learning space, with a special formation determined by the teacher (Gremmen et  al. 2016). As described by Ito (2012), classroom arrangement is all about the physical space; including classroom equipment, sitting arrangement (desk placement), teaching materials, delivering instruction as well as classroom location within the school. There are two important aspects to the classroom environment; the physical, and the psycho-social environment. Landsberg et  al. (2005) assert that the learning environment should be structured in such a way that learners know what is expected of them, and should work according to a consistent schedule to create a predictable environment for learners. It stands to reason that effective classroom arrangement should enhance learning and decrease distractibility. Moreover, it should be safe and barrier-free for full participation for all. The psycho-social environment, according to Khumalo (2000), entails a classroom that provides a safe and supportive environment in which all learners are willing to participate in class activities without being ridiculed. Engelbrecht and Green (2001) assert that when the classroom atmosphere is not conducive, learning is affected. The teacher has the responsibility of creating and maintaining a classroom atmosphere that nurtures the personal, cognitive, and social development of all learners. Buttressing the fact, Harrower and Dunlap (2001) elucidate that teachers should tailor their inclusive classrooms to meet the specific needs of

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their homogenous group of learners. The authors propound that this starts with a detailed review of each learner’s Individual Educational Plan (IEP). Personal teaching, as well as learning styles, and specific educational needs of the learners should largely determine how the teacher designs his or her classroom space. (d) Eswatini context It is important to note that Eswatini has made attempts to include learners with diverse needs; however, the theoretical underpinnings of inclusive education are not always reflected in practice. Several challenges have hindered the process of implementing inclusive education effectively. These challenges include teachers’ inability to work with multidisciplinary personnel and difficulties in implementing an inclusive curriculum. It is imperative that teachers address the needs of all learners, and that demands commitment and the use of appropriate teaching methods. If teachers are not motivated and incapable of implementing inclusive education, they will have challenges dealing with learners in an inclusive classroom. In such cases, the tendency is for teachers to focus simply focus on completing the syllabus at the expense the learners whose needs are not met. Diversity calls for teachers to be ready to address barriers to learning, something that is impossible if teachers lack knowledge of inclusive education. It is therefore, crucial that teachers get support from the relevant stakeholders.

5 Learner Dimension and Iclusion in the Classroom In Eswatini, most learners with disabilities are currently educated in general schools with support provided by the Ministry of Education and Training. Current legislation (Education and Training Sector Policy 2018) encourages the inclusion of learners with disabilities in preschools, primary, and secondary education. Additionally, the law promotes the participation

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of learners with disabilities in early childhood care centers, primary, and secondary school classrooms in accordance with the international movement on inclusive education. This legislation encourages the development of inclusion through individualised instruction and the use of modifications of the general education curriculum. In order to realise inclusive learning teachers, employ various methods to facilitate inclusive learning. Howgego et al. (2014) Define inclusive learning as an adaptation of both teaching methods and classroom environment such that all learners are supported, engaged and included. While there are many of these strategies of learning facilitation, in this chapter only co-operative learning and activity-based learning are discussed as examples.

5.1 Co-Operative Learning Co-operative learning, also known as peer tutoring, involves heterogeneous grouping of learners, allowing learners with a variety of skills and traits to work together. It encourages the high achieving group to assist learners who have academic difficulties to understand and perform better (Van Zyl 2002). Heterogeneous grouping and a more differentiated approach in education are necessary and effective when dealing with the diversity of learners in the classroom. This strategy offers alternative means of learning through flexible instruction, thus enhancing achievement in the inclusive classroom. Heterogeneity is important given the need for skills required for teachers to effectively handle diversity within classrooms. Indeed, heterogeneous grouping is also a prerequisite for co-operative learning (Winter 2006). Co-operative learning or peer tutoring is effective in both cognitive and affective (social-­ emotional) areas of learners’ development. Learners who help each other, especially within a system of flexible and well-considered groupings, profit from learning together. Moreover, there are no indications that learners with no special needs suffer from this situation, in terms of missing new

challenges or opportunities the more co-operative learning takes place (Musibala 2000).

5.2 Activity-Based Learning Van Zyl (2002) contends that activity-based learning gives emphasis to learning in a natural setting, thus moving it from being solely a classroom-­based activity to encouraging and preparing learners to learn in a community setting. Learners who experience barriers to learning often have problems with learning. Some learners are hyperactive, others are slow, and there are those who lack motivation to learn and easily get bored. When learners are actively involved in the learning process, their morale is boosted and they develop confidence. According to Nghipondoka (2001), inclusive education requires curricula that are activity-based so that learners can learn through personal experiences. This is achieved through activities that lead to discovery, movement, and interaction with the community. Nghipondoka (2001: pp.  29–30) highlights some classroom aspects of teaching that can promote active participation as follows: • “Learning through experience • Lesson based on discovery, movement, and interaction with environment • Differentiated activities • Clearly differentiated objectives leading to meaningful activities • Clarification of skills and concepts to be mastered • Sound interpersonal relationship between teachers and learners and among learners themselves • Co-operative learning and peer tutoring” Based on the given information, it can be said that teaching to promote active participation involves multiple classroom dynamics. While these approaches were proved to be helpful in facilitating learner learning, however in Eswatini context, Thwala and Makoelle (2022) highlighted some of the challenges that may be a barrier to inclusive learning i.e. teacher capacity

Managing an Inclusive Classroom in Eswatini: A Case Study

and skills to facilitate an inclusive learning, inflexible curriculum, overcrowded classrooms, application of less inclusive assessment strategies and late or non-identification of learning barriers among the learners. Therefore, while the idea of inclusive learning has potential in Eswatini classrooms more has to be done to address all related challenges in order to promote and sustain inclusive learning.

6 Environment Dimension and Iclusion in the Classroom An inclusive schools’ culture is a very complex but multifaceted phenomenon which traditional management theory fails to account for. All considered, inclusive schools and classrooms require an inclusive culture. An inclusive culture, according to Mukhopadhyay and Prakash (2004), is a culture that acknowledges that learners with disabilities are everyone’s responsibility. The culture of an inclusive school and classrooms values and embraces diversity. As such, learners with disabilities should not be seen as ‘having problems’ but be seen as different or unique. This calls for teachers should to modify and adapt their practices to suit the learner characteristics at hand  – not the other way round. In order make inclusive education successful, school leadership and the teachers need to work in collaboration to produce an inclusive environment. Therefore, building an inclusive culture starts in the classroom with how teachers and learners engage in teaching and learning. Developing an inclusive culture is to build some degree of consensus around inclusive values within classrooms and the school community (Acedo 2008). Respect for diversity from teachers, for instance, could be perceived by learners as a form of participation within an inclusive classroom. As advanced by Acedo (2008), schools should build close relations with parents and communities based on developing a shared commitment to inclusive values. This requires schools to draw on the knowledge and views of parents, teachers, caregivers, school committees, and learners to find out what barriers to learning

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and participation exist within the school culture, policies, and practices in order to identify priorities for change. Viewed this way, the culture of an inclusive school has a direct influence on what happens in the classroom. However, an inclusive classroom may not just occur in a vacuum, there are several factors which may contribute to building an effective inclusive environment. in this sect. I highlight the significance of resources, learners’ attitudes and teachers’ ability to promote an inclusion in the classroom.

6.1 Teaching-Learning Resources Teaching and learning resources are a challenge towards the implementation of Inclusive Education. Wanjohi (2014) mentions that in most schools especially in developing countries such as Eswaniti, educational facilities are inadequate. These range from lack of adequate reading materials, to desk, and classrooms among others. The author states that inclusive education has led to an increased number of learners in the learning institutions which lead to the shortage of teaching resources in the schools. Consequently, the shortage of teaching and learning materials impacts negatively on learners, especially those with special needs (Oakes and Saunders 2002). The authors also postulate that state that lack of resources to meet the educational needs of learners with disabilities in regular schools causes most parents to doubt whether the needs of their children are adequately met in these schools. As a result, some of the learners are withdrawn to special schools with more facilities. To that end, Oakes and Saunders (2002) suggest that resources should be allocated to support services for the running of the schools. Appropriate technical aids should also be provided to ensure the successful operation of an inclusive education system.

6.2 Friendliness of Learners’ Environment Another barrier in the implementation of inclusive education is the lack of friendliness (hostility) in the learners’ environment. Sugiharto

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(2008) submits that in most developing countries, parents of learners with special needs are cautious about placing their children in an inclusive classroom because of fear that the children would be ridiculed by other learners, or be unable to learn effectively in an inclusive classroom. In addition, the scholar mentions that in some countries, the curriculum policy is “one-sided” or biased, and fails to meet the needs of learners with special needs in an inclusive classroom. Another observation is that the assessment approach and strategy fail to capture learners’ diverse backgrounds and needs. With friendly learning environment, inclusive learners would be able to work independently and develop their creativity, thus benefiting the learners across the curriculum. This challenge is not different from the situation in Eswatini schools.

In Eswatini’s classroom context it stands to reason that in order to attain an inclusive classroom environment, several aspects are important. First, the education provision to attain inclusion requires that resources be made available to teachers and are taught how to maintain a friendly but inclusive classroom atmosphere. Second, that learners voice be heard, be involve in leading own learning, be kept motivated and interested in learning. Lastly, in order to promote an inclusive classroom environment all barriers to learning have to be identified and attempts made to remove or minimize their impact, especially to disadvantaged learners who are vulnerable to exclusion and marginalisation.

6.3 Teacher’s Ability to Promote an Inclusive Learning and Teaching Environment

Despite the extensive literature on inclusive classrooms, there is a noticeable absence of information and guidance in Eswatini context on how classroom theories and principles underlying inclusion translate into effective teaching practices. Several lessons are drawn within the Eswatini classroom context. The analysis of teacher-dimension, learner-dimension and environment dimension and classroom inclusivity shows that Eswatini teachers are still not mostly prepared in translating inclusive theory into practice through the teaching and learning process. Thus, the success of inclusion in the Eswatini classrooms depends on the ability of teachers to respond to diversity in the classroom. Teachers’ understanding of inclusive teaching and learning approaches is critical in the implementation of inclusive education. Classroom practices by Eswatini teachers must respond to the individual learning needs of all learners. It would be prudent if Eswatini teachers maintain a positive attitudes towards inclusion and are prepared on how to modify and adapt the way they work in order to benefit learners with a wide range of learning needs. Teachers should have appropriate skills and be flexible regarding teaching methods. They should also be in a position to arrange learners according to their needs in the classroom while employing various strate-

Creating an enabling inclusive environment is might be complex and if teachers are unable or not skilled to do, it may act as a barrier to inclusion. Based on her 2006 study, Gwala contends that teachers do not show an understanding of inclusive education and are uncertain of their roles. The scholar found that teachers’ lacked knowledge and had little or no experience towards inclusive education and thus lack the ability to create an inclusive teaching and learning environment in the classroom. The uncertainty about roles and inadequate training in teaching learners with barriers in learning results in many teachers holding negative attitudes toward inclusion of such learners in mainstream education. Research shows that many teachers feel unprepared to support learners with disabilities socially, academically, and behaviourally (Hinton et  al. 2008; Horrocks et  al. 2008; Symes and Humphrey 2010). One of the major challenges teachers face in teaching learners with special needs in inclusive classrooms is inadequate knowledge about what constitutes learners’ special needs. The problem is compounded by the lack of in-service support, such as workshops.

7 Conclusion and Recommendations

Managing an Inclusive Classroom in Eswatini: A Case Study

gies, materials, and alternative tasks. Moreover, teachers in Eswatini should learn to apply various inclusive teaching strategies e.g. differentiated instruction, bearing in mind that Eswatini classrooms are composed of learners with diverse needs and abilities. In essence, effective inclusion may occur when Eswatini teachers are in the position to modify the curriculum to the needs of all learners. The provision of inclusive and acceptance of the social environment within classrooms is necessary to help learners reach their full potential and for them to feel supported, welcomed, and appreciated. It is therefore, important for teachers to recognise the importance of using a range of teaching strategies in each lesson, and to collaboratively plan active learning opportunities that are both engaging and inclusive. It is also evident that Eswatini teachers who work with learners with a wide range of needs in inclusive classes encounter several challenges, which makes inclusive practice tricky to implement. Earlier discussion pointed at challenges including teaching-learning resources, teacher lack of capacity and skills as well as an overall unfriendly classroom environment. This implies the need for more resources, support, and training on inclusive practice for teachers so that they can facilitate a conducive classroom environment for learners with special educational needs. The strategies suggested hitherto are by no means exhaustive in managing an inclusive classroom in Eswatini. As the country continues to implement inclusive education, several issues need to be addressed. Some of the issues are as follows: • Employing more teachers so that there is a reduced teacher-learner ratio, • Modifying the curriculum to suit learners with different abilities and with diverse learning styles. • A change of attitude towards inclusive education. • Pre-service and post-service teachers need training. • Relevant teaching and learning materials need to be brought to schools.

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Another important issue that also deserves attention is the assessment of learners who experience barriers to learning. It is also imperative that other researchers address issues that affect learners with special needs in inclusive classrooms in Eswatini. It seems that, as long as the barriers remain unaddressed, teachers will always have difficulties managing inclusive classrooms. While the implementation of inclusion in Eswatini classrooms is work in progress and ongoing, this chapter, however, initiates a conversation about practices in managing inclusive classrooms in Eswatini classroom context. The chapter has provided some insights into experiences and perceptions in managing inclusion in classrooms.

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Non-governmental and Community-Based Organisations as Enablers of Inclusion in Education Paseka Andrew Mosia and Malephoto Niko Lephoto

for the vulnerable and direct intervention by running schools, their efforts are sometimes not well coordinated, overlap and need governments to plan how to best harness the NGOs’ services to complement existing programmes.

Abstract

The study explored various ways in which non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and community-based organisations (CBOs) contribute to inclusive education. A qualitative literature review methodology was adopted to identify and analyse the literature for the study. The study found that although inclusive education has been advocated for many years, challenges remain that impede access to education for all. The exclusion of vulnerable learners from accessing education led to the emergence of NGOs and CBOs to advocate for the right to education and social inclusion. Aligned with the role of NGOs in education interventions is the involvement of international donors directly and/or indirectly in funding the least developed countries such as Lesotho, with limited resources, to enhance inclusive education. Such support came in the form of International NGOs (INGOs) funding governments directly or the INGOs providing money to local NGOs and CBOs to run support programmes that complement government efforts on broadening access to education for all. The study concludes that although NGOs and CBOs are important in improving education for all through advocacy initiatives P. A. Mosia (*) · M. N. Lephoto National University of Lesotho, Roma, Lesotho

Keywords

Enablers · Inclusive education · NGOs and CBOs · Vulnerable learners · Lesotho

1

Introduction

Despite education being a basic human right endorsed by the United Nations (UN) member states seven decades ago, access to education for all remains threatened as an extraordinary number of children remain out of school (United Nations 2020). The actual domestication and efficient implementation of international laws ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education are undermined by inadequate funding in low and lower-middle-income countries (United Nations 2020). Notably, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and community-based organisations (CBOs) play a critical and complementary role, particularly with core issues such as funding the education of vulnerable learners and providing welfare services for them (Abiddin et al. 2022). Amongst others, NGOs work for the attainment

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Hlalele, T. M. Makoelle (eds.), Inclusion in Southern African Education, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43752-6_15

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of the right to education by addressing issues related to marginalisation, blind spots, and silences (Bartenge 2016). The current study addresses a broad research question namely, how do NGOs and CBOs enhance access to education for vulnerable children? In particular, the paper answers the following questions: 1. What role do NGOs and CBOs play in enabling education provision for the vulnerable? 2. To what extent are NGOs and CBOs successful in enhancing inclusive education in Lesotho? In addressing the above questions the current study explores multiple perspectives and possibilities of enablement of education by describing how neglect of international conventions/laws gave birth to activism against exclusion. The study argues that governments’ neglect of their role to include All learners in their education provisions led to an active role of organisations advocating for the needs of the vulnerable in education. The chapter equally illustrates the persistent pattern of educational exclusion from persons with disabilities to those affected by socioeconomic disadvantage at the global level and narrows the attention to sub-Saharan Africa in general and Lesotho in particular. In addition, the chapter aligns the engagement of NGOs and CBOs in education with the role of donor funding in education and the way donors maintain control of education funding in developing countries of which Lesotho is one.

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imply concerted consensus across UN member states, disharmonies in implementation attract the scrutiny of the efficiency of the UN mandate (Kincheloe and Mclaren 2011). The study used a semi-systematic or narrative review approach to a literature review which is qualitative in nature. According to Snyder (2019), a narrative review approach examines how research in selected fields of study developed over the years and explains certain phenomena. Therefore, reviewed literature was selected purposively on conceptual grounds to address the goal of the study (Gentles et al. 2016) which is to explore multiple perspectives and possibilities of enablement of education for all by assessing the role played by NGOs and CBOs. The following four search engines, google, google scholar, PubMed, and Science Direct were used to search and retrieve relevant publications for this study. Researchers used several phrases such as NGOs as enablers of inclusive education, CBOs as enablers of inclusive education, organisations that influence inclusive education in Lesotho, etc. to retrieve relevant literature. From the publications retrieved, abstracts and/or introductions were read to determine the relevance of each publication. The inclusion or exclusion criteria were based on whether a publication addressed the goal of the study. Thematic or content analysis was used as a preferred technique or method for identifying, analysing, and reporting patterns in the literature used for the study (Braun and Clarke 2006).

2 Methodology

3 Nexus Between International Legislation and Disability-­ Rights Activism

The study adopted a qualitative research methodology undergirded by the critical theory paradigm. The selected paradigm helped the study to “disrupt and challenge the status quo” of the current models of education provision globally by interrogating the extent to which international (UN) policies and principles on inclusive education are uniformly implemented (Kincheloe and Mclaren 2011, p.  285–6). While the policies

International conventions and treaties on education are mandatory to the UN member states but are hardly implemented nationally without forces external to governments. The right to education was affirmed seven decades ago (UN General Assembly 1948) and has been reaffirmed in several international treaties over the years. For example, the Convention against Discrimination in Education endorses education provision that is

Non-governmental and Community-Based Organisations as Enablers of Inclusion in Education

of acceptable standard and quality (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO] 1960); the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights speaks of developing individuals to their full potential for them to have a sense of dignity (UN General Assembly 1966); while the Convention on the Rights of the Child highlights the principle of equality of opportunity in accessing education to enable all children to become productive citizens (United Nations 1989). Utter neglect of these treaties globally gave birth to strong disability activism in education embodied by the social model of disability. The model maintains that the social participation of people with disabilities has been undermined for years (Barnes and Mercer 2004) because ‘normality’ is used as the yardstick for all social engagements (Finkelstein 1993). Therefore, inadequate social participation of persons with disabilities gave birth to the social model of disability which promoted their right to live independently, work and influence decisions in their lives (Anastasiou and Kauffman 2013; Shakespeare 2013). The model was born out of social activism and revolution by persons with disabilities and their organisations to fight rigid social practices that excluded them (Barnes 2013). The revolution is credited to Vic Finkelstein and Paul Hunt, among others, whose ideas were critical in forming the Union of the Physically Impaired Against Segregation (UPIAS) in the 1970s (Thomas 2004). By their continued exclusion of vulnerable learners from education, schools are deemed as “capitalist agencies of social, economic, cultural and bureaucratic reproduction” promoting privilege instead of accommodating the needs of all learners (Kincheloe and Mclaren 2011, p. 287). Critical theorists deal with issues of power and justice and challenge the way society is organised to protect the interest of privileged groups (Kincheloe and Mclaren 2011). The rise of NGOs and SBOs advocacy and their education provision services countered the medical model pronouncements of doom for vulnerable learners leading to exclusions from education (Slee 2013). As Slee (2013) observes critical theory and social

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model initiatives challenge the status quo where social institutions compete with each other instead of collaborating to share ways of accommodating all learners. That is, social institutions are socially oppressive hence the argument in critical theory for social ideological transformation to liberate the minority in society. This liberatory framework has typified major international policy frameworks such as the Salamanca Statement which depicts the influence of critical theory and the social model of disability by arguing that schools, their philosophies, and programmes must change to embrace diversity and contribute to success for the vulnerable groups in society (UNESCO 1994). Despite the overwhelming influence of the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on inclusive education systems across the world, many forms of exclusion remain. This explains why there is continued advocacy by NGOs and CBOs for an inclusive, equitable, and quality education.

4 The Centrality of Equity as a Principle for Inclusion in Education The 2030 sustainable development agenda calls for inclusive and equitable quality education to reduce “unequal distribution of resources and opportunities” (UNESCO 2020, p.  6), and to move beyond mere physical to meaningful epistemological access for those at schools (Chikoko 2016). Bashir et  al. (2018) maintain that provision of education must be fair and inclusive to achieve equity. To attain this fairness, inclusive education initiatives must identify and respond to individual needs. However, recent data shows that approximately 40 percent of primary school-­ aged children with disabilities in low and lower-­ middle-­income countries are out of school with 55 percent not attending lower secondary education (Global Partnership for Education 2018). UNESCO (2020) states that “258 million children, adolescents, and youth, or 17% of the global total” were out of school in 2018 and Sub-­ Saharan Africa contributed 38 percent to this global total (p. 6). The socioeconomic disadvan-

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tage of learners in low- and middle-income countries has been highlighted as the key barrier to education, and in this regard, children with disabilities are doubly disadvantaged as most come from poor families. The exclusion of a high number of school-aged children from education globally is unsustainable hence the vibrant existence of forces external to governments advocating equitable educational opportunities. Thus, NGOs and CBOs working in education are catalysts for change in what looks like an untenable situation. The persistent exclusion should be understood against the background of what some writers see as the eternal struggle against the ‘norm’, hence the need for interest groups to continually challenge the status quo. For Slee (2014) formal education was never intended for all, but schools were a means of sorting ‘human capital’; “schooling reflected and reproduced class inequalities” (p.  10). Similarly, Sayed and Soudien (2003, p.  10) state that formal education, “even in its ‘universal’ form, is both a means of social mobility and access and also a means of social selection.” Discourses of inclusion or exclusion are premised on the principles of what is just when viewed from either of the lenses of race, class, disability, or gender (Sayed and Soudien 2005), hence perceptions of injustice always abound. It should not be surprising therefore that 70  years since the declaration of education as a human right and after more than 25  years of intense global dialogue on inclusive education, many low- and middle-income countries find the inclusion ideal hard to put into practice (Ainscow 2020). Therefore, inclusive education as underpinned by policy, practice, or both, currently fails to reduce the plight of vulnerable learners but for the advocacy of interest groups (NGOs and CBOs) whose role are discussed next.

5 NGOs and CBOs as Enablers of Inclusion in Education: A Global View Non-governmental organisations constitute a variety of institutions that are independent of governments and provide humanitarian services

P. A. Mosia and M. N. Lephoto

(Singal 2020). That is, advocacy for inclusion in education has primarily been characterised by philanthropic efforts as evidenced by the work of Vic Finkelstein, Paul Hunt, and others who conceived the social model of disability. Singal (2020) notes that organisations for persons with disabilities are among the oldest NGOs to ever fight for inclusive education. The Global Partnership for Education (2018) notes that most educational services for children with disabilities are largely provided by NGOs and disabled people’s Organisations (DPOs) through segregated special education programmes. Segregated programmes do not constitute inclusive education as understood in this chapter, but are rather alternative provisions for learners excluded by conventional education systems. For example, Burundi’s education sector plan (ESP) excludes plans for learners with disabilities and explicitly states that they would be supported by NGOs and other interest groups (Global Partnership for Education 2018). Similarly, in countries where education opportunities are skewed in favour of boys, some NGOs mount programmes that promote the education of girls (Brophy 2020). Comparably, Peters (2004) illustrates a situation where SAMADHAN, an NGO in India, inspired parents of children with disabilities to do away with their negative attitude about schooling by being engaged in their children’s learning. Basically, NGOs, DPOs, and CBOs collaborate with governments to exchange resources, expertise, and programmes. To enhance inclusive education and improve chances for vulnerable children to become productive future citizens, liberal funding from developed countries is availed to developing countries. Basically, “education systems rarely provide all the resources they would wish to from state funds alone. … [hence] governments establish partnerships with other potential resource-­ providers” (UNESCO 2002, p.  111) and so, international donors and NGOs are sources of additional resourcing for education. For example, in December 2021 the Global Partnership for Education (GPE) approved US$580 million in new grants to help education systems in 20 countries to:

Non-governmental and Community-Based Organisations as Enablers of Inclusion in Education improve access to education, strengthen teacher training, provide school meals and support analyses of sector progress in Bangladesh, Burundi, Cambodia, the Republic of Congo, Dominica, Eswatini, Grenada, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Lesotho, Malawi, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Syria, Togo, Yemen and Zambia (GPE 2021).

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3). Strengthening institutional capacity and project management (US$4.50 million) and 4). Community-based school construction (US$4.33 million) (Ministry of Education and Training 2019a, pp. 8–10). Similarly, Lesotho received the Basic Education Strengthening Project grant of $7.5 million from the Global Partnership for Notably, there has been a lack of tangible results Education for a period spanning 4  years from from the use of donor funding, and this has neces- May 2021 to September 2024 towards improving sitated the monitoring of the utilisation of donor student retention and teaching quality in junior funding by developing countries. As early as secondary schools (World Bank 2021). The two 20 years ago, Peters (2004) noted that the inter- are examples of SWAs for educational funding national community required vibrant civil society and show the role of international NGOs in organisations such that in countries where DPOs improving access to education. and CBOs by parents were weak, a UN Committee Alternatively, international INGOs may use on disability recommended funding to activate local NGOs to execute PBAs in a bid to improve their advocacy for inclusive education. Therefore, aid efficiency and deliver tangible results aspired advocacy for inclusive education as currently by the Paris Declaration and AAA (OECD 2005, pursued by NGOs interlinks with the need to 2008). That is, development agencies, that are not improve transparency by governments and keen to invest directly in government, use NGOs increase their effective use of donor funding. and CBOs through PBAs (Riddell and Nino-­ This shift is inspired by the 2005 Paris Declaration Zarazua 2016). Interventions of this nature are on Aid Effectiveness which resolved to take mea- widely acknowledged in education as UNESCO surable steps to ensure that the aid money invested (2020) notes that creating equitable opportunities in low-income countries, for developmental proj- for learners at risk does not rest with governects, produces better impact and improves the ments alone; it benefits from interventions from performance of such countries (OECD 2005). multiple stakeholders. While states have the priSimilarly, the Accra Agenda for Action (AAA), mary duty to provide education, Bashir et  al. which reaffirmed commitment to the Paris (2018) observe that in sub-Saharan Africa non-­ Declaration, requires donor recipients to produce state actors such as religious institutions, NGOs, “concrete and monitorable actions to accelerate etc. provide education privately. Bergmüller progress to meet those commitments” (OECD (2016) asserts that NGOs, as stakeholders, 2008, p. 2). enhance civic participation, and are centres for Against this background, Riddell and Nino-­ empowerment. However, the role of NGOs in the Zarazua (2016) observe that international aid in education provision can be viewed with sceptieducation is disbursed through two media, cism because they mostly depend on donor fundnamely sector-wide approaches (SWAs) and ing for their programmes making their programme-­based approaches (PBAs). With the interventions temporary. For example, in looking SWAs, International NGOs (INGOs) fund minis- at the experiences of NGOs’ interventions in edutries or departments of education directly. For cation in one Kenyan region, Bartenge (2016) example, in 2016 the Government of Lesotho concluded that interventions from NGOs were received US$25 million in funding from insufficient and unreliable in supporting the long-­ International Development Agency to address the term education goals of a country. The study furfollowing: 1). Improving the teaching and learn- ther notes that while NGOs may provide fees and ing environment in targeted primary and second- uniforms, they usually do not cover additional ary schools (US$11.39 million); 2). Strengthening costs such as transportation and food for the vulschool accountability for student learning and nerable, making the beneficiaries remain vulnerretention in targeted schools (US$4.78 million); able to school dropouts (Bartenge 2016). Thus,

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NOGs working within both SWA and PBA frameworks only play a complementary role in education provision.

P. A. Mosia and M. N. Lephoto

and communities and they are bound by the rules and regulations of the GoL (Kingdom of Lesotho 2010). Consequently, the GoL incurs the costs of running them, including payment of teachers’ salaries and benefits, development, and mainte6 An Overview of Basic nance of such school facilities, etc. (Kingdom of Education Context Lesotho 2010). Scrutiny of the basic education system in in Lesotho Lesotho shows that there is poor access at ECCD The Lesotho formal education system has, for a and secondary education levels. As Fig. 1 shows, long time, had a 3–7–3-2 pattern. There is pre-­ less than 30% of 3 to 5-year-olds attended ECCD primary for children between 3 to 5  years old between 2016 and 2019 and the rate of participawhich runs for 3  years, and primary school for tion was gradually declining. Data for 2020 and children between 6 to 12 years old and runs for 2021, once published, may show far lower par7  years. Similarly, the secondary school had ticipation since the Covid-19 pandemic led to the lower secondary and upper secondary with the loss of income for most parents who subsequently former running for 3 years from grades 8 to 10 could no longer afford ECCD fees. culminating in the Junior Certificate (JC), and An analysis of the Ministry of Education and 2  years of upper secondary from grades 11–12 Training data for 20  years ending in 2019, as ending with learners writing Lesotho General shown in Fig.  2, illustrates that since the introCertificate of Secondary Education (LGCSE) or duction of free primary education in Lesotho in O level. Recently, the Government of Lesotho 2000, the GoL made progress in increasing has restructured the basic education to take four access to primary education. However, there is instead of 5 years before learners sit the Lesotho poor retention of learners within the system as General Certificate of Secondary Education evidenced by high fluctuation in learner partici(LGCSE) examinations while the JC examina- pation between different years. tions have been eliminated. Successful compleWhile Fig.  2 below shows high participation tion of the LGCSE leads to admission at the in primary education, Fig. 3 displays the contrast; tertiary education level. not all learners who complete primary education The Government of Lesotho (GoL) lacks the transition into secondary education. Until 2009, capacity to build schools and has relied on the less than 30 percent of the primary education intervention of non-state agencies in providing completers enrolled in secondary education. The resources such as school infrastructure and even slight change in secondary education participaraising money to pay teachers’ salaries through tion from 2009 onwards could be ascribed to the fees. Above 90 percent of 2204 early childhood beneficence of broadened access at the primary care and development (ECCD) centres are either level and the introduction of new legislation privately, community, or church-owned while which mandated the Ministry of Education and above 80 percent of 1483 primary and over 70 Ministry of Social Development to subsidize vulpercent of 344 secondary schools are owned by nerable children’s participation at the secondary churches and communities (Ministry of Education education level by paying school fees and providand Training 2017). The ECCD and secondary ing textbook fees (Kingdom of Lesotho 2010; education subsectors are fee-bearing, and the Kingdom of Lesotho 2011). payment of fees has denied access to education Figure 3 illustrates the impact of the socioecofor many children from poor backgrounds. nomic background of learners on educational Nonetheless, unlike the ECCD centres, most pri- access and provides a fertile ground for NOGs mary and secondary schools are classified by sec- and CBOs advocacy initiatives to influence the tion 12 of the Lesotho Education Act of 2010 as GoL to scrap fees at the secondary education public schools despite being owned by churches level. Independent literature confirms that the

Non-governmental and Community-Based Organisations as Enablers of Inclusion in Education

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29.7

29.5

27.5 26.7 2016

2017

2018

2019

Fig. 1 Lesotho ECCD Net Enrolment Ratio, 2016–2019. (Source: Ministry of Education and Training Education Statistical Bulletin 2019b) 92.0 90.0

89.4

88.0 87.0 86.0

85.2

85.0 84.0 82.0

84.0 82.7

83.0 83.1

85.8

83.9 81.4

82.0

80.0 78.0 76.0

80.9

81.8 81.6

81.1

77.3

76.6

75.8

74.0

Fig. 2 Lesotho Primary Education Net Enrolment Ratio, 2000–2019. (Source: Ministry of Education and Training (2000–2019))

cost of education at secondary school leads to exclusion. For example, the World Bank (2015) states that Lesotho is one of the ten most unequal countries in the world. Notably, between 2002 and 2018, 60 percent of Basotho lived below the poverty line and the majority live in rural areas relative to 28 percent who live in urban areas (World Bank 2019). It is this context of abject poverty in Lesotho which draws donor funding from INGOs into the Ministry of Education’s

budget as illustrated by recent funding targeting the SWAs interventions. Access to education for learners with disabilities shows that a higher number of children with disability are enrolled in primary schools compared to both pre-primary and secondary education levels. Similarly, the retention of learners with disabilities, as evident in the Ministry’s data, declines in double figures (Ministry of Education and Training 2018–2019), hence the continued

P. A. Mosia and M. N. Lephoto

216 60

50

46.8 46 8 43.1

40

30

23.8

25.4

25.7

27

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37.3 3 7.3 3

37.7 37. 37 .7

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43.3

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20

10

0

Fig. 3 Lesotho Secondary Education Enrolment Ratio, 2004–2019. (Source: Ministry of Education and Training (2004–2019))

need for interest groups to advocate for inclusion in education.

7

NGOs and CBOs as Enablers of Inclusion in Education in Lesotho

Inclusion in education in Lesotho has had a slow start and remains marred by a myriad of policy, administration, and practice challenges. As noted earlier, governments in developing countries hardly have the requisite resources to cover costs for their education systems. Thus, exclusion of vulnerable groups noted in Figs.  1, 2, and 3, therefore, result from, among others, insufficient resources. According to Mariga et  al. (2014), Lesotho is a perfect example of an inclusive education initiative pioneered by local communities in partnership with NGOs and the government. Johnstone and Kgothule (2018) affirm that inclusive education initiatives in Lesotho started through initiatives by a civil society organisation, “Hlokomela Bana” [take care of kids], calling for a national dialogue on how to educate children with disabilities. The Parent Associations organ-

ised community meetings, in collaboration with local community leaders such as chief and headmen, NGOs, and DPOs, aimed at addressing negative attitudes towards disability inclusion by raising awareness and understanding of the needs of children with disabilities (Mariga et al. 2014). Fox and Fisher (1993) indicate that faithbased organisations (churches) played a critical role in shaping the education system in Lesotho to what it is today but do not view themselves as NGOs. Nonetheless, it is notable that to date, over 80 percent of primary and secondary schools are church schools and this includes ownership of special schools while the GoL is yet to develop its first special school. The work of NGOs and CBOs as agents of change in Lesotho is closely linked to donor funding. According to Fox and Fisher (1993) several international organisations and development partners to Lesotho such as UNICEF, European Economic Commission, United Nations Development Programme have taken lead in promoting NGO activities, including direct grant assistance to a number of Lesotho NGOs, as well as providing the Lesotho Council of Non-Governmental Organisations (LCN) with a grant to cover start-up costs of its secretariat.

Non-governmental and Community-Based Organisations as Enablers of Inclusion in Education

The beneficence of this funding for inclusive education in Lesotho is attested to by Mariga et al. (2014) who note: In Lesotho, Zanzibar and Tanzania, international donors covered some of the start-up costs of inclusive education. In association with UNICEF, Save the Children (UK) provided technical support over a six-year period to the Ministry of Education in Lesotho. This covered the costs of a national advisor (Lilian Mariga) plus additional training, resource and evaluation costs.

As Bartenge (2016) argues, NGO support is temporary and unsustainable. Notably, while UNICEF engaged Mariga as a consultant for inclusive education in Lesotho in the late 1980s to early 1990s, inclusive education remains without a structure for providing education support services for learners with disability (Mosia 2011). Arguably, when NGOs support is short-lived, and resources deplete before the Ministry of Education has developed its own structure, the support bears minimal fruits. Most non-governmental organisations’ activities supporting the inclusive education agenda in Lesotho have adopted PBAs where they deliver specific interventions that enhance inclusion. That is, instead of funding being given directly to the government, activities of the organisations complement activities of the Ministry of Education to address barriers to good inclusive education practices (World Vision International 2019). Programme activities of each NGO in Lesotho target intervention of choice, be it access to early childhood done by the Catholic Relief Agency, learner vulnerability from socioeconomic disadvantages carried out by World Vision, reduction of early pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases leading to learner dropouts by Lesotho Planned Parenthood Association or addressing barriers linked to policy and practices on disability inclusion pursued by LNFOD. The Ministry of Education and Training has the opportunity to get feedback on how it implements its programmes from regular meetings with NGOs and other development partners at the Local Education Group (LEG) level. Since LCN works as the National Education Coalition in Lesotho and is the organising body for all NGOs

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and civil society organisations (CSOs) advocating inclusive education, it promotes inclusion at the LEG (UNICEF 2017; Kingdom of Lesotho 2021). Similarly, UNICEF advocates for inclusive education at LEG events and other forms of outreach geared towards policymakers and the general public and it funds research on the needs of children with disabilities as well as hosts roundtables, workshops, and events for government partners (UNICEF 2017).

7.1 NGOs and CBOs’ Role at the ECCD Level Framed within the PBAs, the Catholic Relief Services (CRS) interventions in Lesotho have focused on early childhood development programming since 2011 (Catholic Relief Services 2020). Three projects have typified the CRS intervention at this level namely, 1). Whose Child is This? (WCiT) that focuses “on increasing access to IECCD services and improving quality of developmental outcomes for children 0-5 years in Lesotho”; 2). Strengthening Care in Early Childhood that deals with “supporting some of the most vulnerable children, ages 0 to 3 years, in day-care centres in the industrial areas of Lesotho; and 3). Karabo ea Bophelo (KB) (which translates as ‘a solution to good health’) which “is a fiveyear USAID funded activity to prevent new HIV infections and reduce vulnerability among orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) and adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) in Lesotho” (Catholic Relief Services 2020, p.  2). Among other achievements, the CRS to date managed to have ‘154 pre-school teachers and daycare centre caregivers trained on ECD’; ‘More than 121 pre-schools and day-care centres served’; ‘Over 10,000 children reached with IECCD services’; 12,910 parents and caregivers reached including the formation of 223 SILC groups with 3643 members’; and ‘1,136 caregivers reached with child nutrition support through cooking and learning sessions’ (Catholic Relief Services 2020, p. 2). Sebatane et al. (2012) affirm that the CRS develops education materials for early childhood education and provides training in technical

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knowledge and practical implementation skills for teachers at ECCD to efficiently improve the development of children at their disposal. The Ministry of Education is part of a UNICEF and Global Partnership for Education pilot programme called Better Early Learning and Development at Scale (BELDS) that enhances quality ECCD in the country. According to UNICEF (2020), the BELDS investment has resulted in a strong analysis of the pre-primary sub-sector in the education sector analysis (ESA) and has consequently created momentum around critical initiatives such as improvements in research, the revision of the ECCD curriculum, the launch of the first diploma-level pre-primary teacher training course in the country and the development of early learning and development standards for children between 0 and 5 years old. UNICEF also provides advocacy and technical support to strengthen ECCD as well as indirectly providing support to the Ministry by working collaboratively with other international and local organizations such as UNFPA, UNESCO and UNAIDS, and CSOs for policy support related to Early and unintended pregnancies, child marriage and comprehensive sexuality education, and other areas affecting children and adolescents (UNICEF 2020).

7.2 Interventions for the Socio-­ Economically Disadvantaged As noted earlier, above 60 percent of Basotho live below the poverty line and reside in the rural parts of the country, some NGOs, in their approach to inclusive education, organise PBAs targeting communities, schools, families or individual learners. In the early 1990s, Fox and Fisher (1993) record that Save the Children Fund UK as an INGO which registered to work in Lesotho in 1984, promoted School Feeding Programme (SFP) and sponsorships of vulnerable children and later in the 1990s it also included disability support projects along with other interventions. In Lesotho, interventions in learner vulnerability due to socioeconomic disadvantage is almost synonymous with the World Vision.

P. A. Mosia and M. N. Lephoto

The 2012 World Vision Annual report highlights the key mandate of World Vision in Lesotho as protecting children and enabling access to education by ensuring that they are food secure and healthy (World Vision Lesotho 2012). The World Vision programmes particularly focus on the poorest and most vulnerable children to empower them and their families to improve child survival, development, protection, and participation (Tardi 2012). World Vision does this by teaching families how to start vegetable gardens, buying school uniforms for the needy, and providing food for learners at risk of dropping out due to poverty (World Vision  Lesotho 2012). However, Mosia and Lephoto (2015) note that secondary schools’ learner psychosocial vulnerability remains a challenge undermining existing interventions of the World Vision, as schools lack structures for screening psychosocial vulnerability or providing counselling support. It can be argued that when interventions by NGOs and CBOs are not integrated into the relevant ministry’s programmes or cannot influence certain complementary services, their effect may be undermined.

7.3 Interventions in Disability Inclusion Khatleli et al. (1995) observe that prior to 1980, the provision of education for children with disabilities was the primary responsibility of NGOs, churches, and individuals leading to the uprise of parents’ organisations demanding social justice in education as noted earlier. The start of groundwork on developing special education in the Ministry of Education was a result of support from donor-funded projects by USAID and Save the Children Fund (UK) respectively which used PBAs. That is, funds were allocated for performance of a specific function done for the Ministry by two consultants (Khatleli et al. 1995). The advocacy of parents and the Lesotho National Federation of Disabled (LNFOD) cannot be overlooked for the events leading up to these interventions. For example, Johnstone and Kgothule (2018) indicate that advocacy for the development of inclusive education policy within

Non-governmental and Community-Based Organisations as Enablers of Inclusion in Education

the Ministry of Education was noted by LNFOD as a challenge related to poor budgeting. The Ministry had no funds reserved for policy development for years. Following advocacy from LNFOD that was supported by UNICEF and other partners, the Disability Equity Bill was passed in parliament in November 2020 paving the way for implementing the inclusive education policy in 2021 (UNICEF 2020). Another achievement of the LNFOD advocacy is the adoption of the Lesotho Inclusive Education Policy in 2018 in which UNICEF pledged funding to LNFOD to promote its implementation (LNFOD 2018).

8 Conclusions and Recommendations Although education has been adopted as a human right by the United Nations member states, persons with disabilities and other vulnerable groups continue to suffer exclusion after 70 years of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The perpetual exclusion led to the formation of activism by disability rights groups leading to the formation of the social model of disability. The continual exclusion of vulnerable learners from education shows that education systems are not ready to promote the rights of all hence the call for equity as the core principle for the 2030 sustainable development agenda. Equity presupposes that learners whose needs are higher will receive additional resources to elevate their participation to the level of peers without barriers. However, the least developed countries such as Lesotho lack the financial and human resources to enhance education for all. In the absence of economic support from developed countries, education systems in the least developed countries fall back on the natural selection narrative which brands formal education as a system for selection and exclusion. Notable about the continued exclusion is the need for those excluded to rise, individually and collectively, and use the support of advocacy interest groups such as CSOs, NGOs, and CBOs to engage governments on the exclusion. Although there is donor funding for struggling

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economies, through SWAs, to boost their social expenditure, the initiatives seem inadequate to ensure access to education for all. The funding directed to the least developed countries through PBAs is used by NGOs, CSOs, and CBOs to support communities, schools, or learners directly. However, the work of these organisations is sometimes not well coordinated, is short-lived, overlaps and does not address the needs of all vulnerable groups of learners. It is noted that Lesotho receives millions of dollars annually in donor funding for the financing of its educational sector and also has a thriving NGO sector that is similarly donor-funded. The activities carried out by the NGO communities in Lesotho vary according to their individual mandates. It is worth noting that in their varied activities, NGOs, CSOs, and CBOs are instrumental in supporting the needs of vulnerable learners to remain longer in school. However, without the proper coordination of activities done by the individual organisations, and government, some vulnerable groups would either remain unattended or receive support that is short-lived due to inadequate funding. The study recommends that NGOs and CBOs must work collectively to identify barriers to educational access in Lesotho, identify resources to address them, and source funds jointly to avoid duplication. Additionally, the GoL must work collaboratively with NGOs to the extent that it may fund educational initiatives that NGOs and CBOs perform well.

References Abiddin NZ, Ibrahim I, Abdul Aziz SA (2022) Non-­ governmental Organisations (NGOs) and their part towards sustainable community development. Sustainability 14:4386. https://doi.org/10.3390/ su14084386 Ainscow M (2020) Inclusion and equity in education: making sense of global challenges. Prospects 49:123–134 Anastasiou D, Kauffman JM (2013) The social model of disability: dichotomy between impairment and disability. J Med Phil 38(1):441–459 Barnes, C. (2013). Disability studies and the academy – past, present and future. Ars Vivendi J 4:3–12

220 Barnes C, Mercer G (2004) Theorising and researching disability from a social model perspective. In: Barnes C, Mercer G (eds) Implementing the social model of disability: theory and research. The Disability Press, Leeds Bartenge C (2016) Non-governmental organizations’ and education in marginal communities: a case study of Turkana-central. Accessed at T50/67482/2013 Bashir S, Lockheed M, Ninana E, Tan J (2018) Facing forward: schooling for learning in Africa. World Bank, Washington DC Bergmüller C (2016) Global education and the cooperation of NGOs and schools: a German case study. Int J Dev Educ Glob Learn 7(3):47–62 Brophy M (2020) The role of NGOs in supporting education in Africa. J Int Comp Educ 9(1):45–56 Catholic Relief Services (2020) Early childhood development in Lesotho. CRS, Maseru Chikoko V (2016) Issues in Africanising higher education. In: Msila V, Gumbo M (eds) Africanising the curricula: indigenous perspectives and theories. Sun Press Finkelstein V (1993) The commonality of disability. In: Swain J, Finkelstein V, French S, Oliver M (eds) Disabling barriers – enabling environments. London, Sage Fox L, Fisher W (1993) Lesotho PVO/NGO assessment: the potential for an increase role in USAID/ Lesotho’s transition strategy. Management Systems International, Washington Gentles SJ, Charles C, Nicholas DB, Ploeg J, McKibbon KA (2016) Reviewing the research methods literature: principles and strategies illustrated by a systematic overview of sampling in qualitative research. Syst Rev 5(172):1–11 Global Partnership for Education (2018) Disability and inclusive education: a stocktake of education sector plans and GPE-funded grants, working paper #3. GPE, Washington Global Partnership for Education (2021) GPE approves US$580 million in grants to 20 countries. https://www.globalpartnership.org/news/ gpe-­approves-­us580-­million-­grants-­20-­countries Johnstone CJ, Kgothule RJ (2018) Inclusive education in Lesotho. In: Engelbrecht P, Green L (eds) Responding to the challenges of inclusive education in South Africa. Pretoria, Van Schaik Khatleli P, Mariga L, Phachaka L, Stubbs S (1995) Schools for all: national planning in Lesotho. In: O’Toole B, McConkey R (eds) Innovations in developing countries for people with disabilities. Lisieux Hall Publications, Chorley, pp  135–160. http://www. eenet.org.uk/resources/docs/inno_dev_coun.php Kincheloe JL, Mclaren P (2011) Rethinking critical theory and qualitative research. In: Hayes K, Steinberg SR, Tobin K (eds) Key works in critical pedagogy. Bold visions in educational research, vol 32. SensePublishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-­94-­60 91-­397-­6_23 Kingdom of Lesotho (2010) Education act no. 20 of 2010. Government Printing, Maseru

P. A. Mosia and M. N. Lephoto Kingdom of Lesotho (2011) Children’s protection and welfare act of 2011. Government Printing, Maseru Kingdom of Lesotho (2021) Basic education strengthening project (BESP). Kingdom of Lesotho, Maseru LNFOD (2018) Securing participation of persons with disabilities in the constitutional reforms and fostering inclusive education: Lesotho project report. LNFOD, Maseru Mariga L, McConkey R, Myezwa H (2014) Inclusive education in low-income countries: a resource book for teacher educators, parent trainers and community development workers. Atlas Alliance and Disability Innovations Africa, Cape Town Ministry of Education and Training (2000–2019) Education statistics bulletin. MOET, Maseru Ministry of Education and Training (2004–2019) Education statistics bulletin. MOET, Maseru Ministry of Education and Training (2017) Education statistics bulletin. MOET, Maseru Ministry of Education and Training (2018–2019) Education statistics bulletin. MOET, Maseru Ministry of Education and Training (2019a) Education statistics bulletin. MOET, Maseru Ministry of Education and Training (2019b) Lesotho education quality for equality project. Ministry of Education and Training, Maseru Mosia PA (2011) Education support services for learners with special education needs in Lesotho: international practices and local realities. Lesotho Soc Sci Rev 15(1 & 2):69–80 Mosia P, Lephoto M (2015) Supporting vulnerable learners in the Lesotho education system: the case of Lekhalong combined school. Tsebo J Humanit 2(5):79–94 OECD (2005) Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, OECD Publishing. https://doi. org/10.1787/9789264098084-­en OECD (2008) Accra Agenda for Action. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264098107-­en Peters SJ (2004) Inclusive education: an EFA strategy for all children. World Bank, Washington Dc Riddell A, Nino-Zarazua M (2016) The effectiveness of foreign aid to education: what can be learned? Int J Educ Dev 48:23–36 Sayed Y, Soudien C (2003) (Re)framing education exclusion and inclusion discourses: limits and possibilities. IDS Bull 34(1):9–19 Sayed Y, Soudien C (2005) Decentralisation and the construction of inclusive education policy in South Africa. Comp J Comp Int Educ 35(2):115–125 Sebatane E, Lefoka P, Connolly S (2012) Ngoana eo ke oa Mang? A guide for strengthening teacher capacity. Catholic Relief Services, Maseru Shakespeare T (2013) The social model of disability. In: Davis LJ (ed) The disability studies reader. Routledge, New York Singal N (2020) Role of non-governmental organisations as providers of and advocates for inclusive education. Paper commissioned for the 2020 global education monitoring report, inclusion and education

Non-governmental and Community-Based Organisations as Enablers of Inclusion in Education Slee R (2013) Meeting some challenges of inclusive education in an age of exclusion. Asian J Incl Educ 1(2):3–17 Slee R (2014) Discourses of inclusion and exclusion: drawing wider margins. Power Educ 6(1):7–17 Snyder H (2019) Literature review as a research methodology: an overview and guidelines. J Bus Res 104:333–339 Tardi R (2012) The right to inclusive education for children with disabilities. Good Practices in the CEECIS Region and Recommendation to the Albanian Government Thomas C (2004) How is disability understood? An examination of sociological approaches. Disabil Soc 19(6):569–583 UNICEF (2017) Annual results report  – Education. UNICEF, New York United Nations (2020) Policy brief: education during COVID-19 and beyond. Accessed at https://www. un.org/development/desa/dspd/wp-­content/uploads/ sites/22/2020/08/sg_policy_brief_covid-19_and_education_august_2020.pdf United Nations Children’s Fund (2020) Country Office Annual Report 2020. www.unicef.org/media/100361/ file/Lesotho-­2020-­COAR.pdf United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) (1960) Convention Against Discrimination in Education. Available at: https:// www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3880.html. Accessed 24 Feb 2022 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (1994) The Salamanca statement and framework for action on special needs education. UNESCO, Salamanca

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United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2002) Open file on inclusive education: support materials for managers and administrators. UNESCO, Paris United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2020) Global education monitoring report 2020: inclusion and education: all means all. UNESCO, Paris United Nations General Assembly (1948) Universal Declaration of Human Rights 217 A (III). Available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b3712c.html. Accessed 24 Feb 2022 United Nations General Assembly (1966) International covenant on economic, social and cultural rights, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 993, p. 3. Available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b36c0.html. Accessed 24 Feb 2022 United Nations General Assembly (1989) Convention on the rights of the child, 20 November, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1577, p.  3. Available at: https:// www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b38f0.html. Accessed 24 Feb 2022 World Bank (2015) Lesotho: systematic country diagnosis. World Bank, Washington DC World Bank (2019) Lesotho poverty assessment: Progress and challenges in reducing poverty. World Bank, Washington DC World Bank (2021) Basic education strengthening project (BESP). World Bank, Washington DC World Vision Lesotho (2012) World vision 2012. World Vision Annual Report, Maseru World Vision Lesotho (2019) Case study  – Lesotho: Strengthening government efforts. World Vision, London

Infusion of Inclusion in Mauritian Initial Teacher Education Programmes Seema Goburdhun

teacher education programmes useful in preparing them for inclusion, there is still a need to revisit the structure, organisation, and time allocated to modules that would ultimately prepare teachers for a truly inclusive classroom.

Abstract

In tandem with the quest for enablement, this chapter draws from the perspectives of trainee teachers to reflect on the infusion of inclusion in Mauritian initial teacher education programmes. With the recent reforms in education in 2016, it was expected that the curricula for teacher education programmes are revised to produce teachers who are ready for inclusive classrooms. The Mauritian education system previously adopted a binary system comprising mainstream and special schools. The new National Curriculum Framework provided for the inclusion of children with special needs in mainstream schools through a four-year extended programme. This bears implications for various stakeholders in the education sector, among whom there are not only teachers, rectors, and managers who have to cope with the demands of diverse learners, but also trainee teachers. This chapter focuses on the latter group. Narrative inquiry was used as a methodology to understand the lived experiences of four trainee teachers in their preparation for inclusive classrooms. Findings show that although the trainee teachers found

S. Goburdhun (*) Mauritius Institute of Education, Reduit, Mauritius e-mail: [email protected]

Keywords

Inclusive classrooms · Infusion · Perception · Programme structure · Teacher education programme · Trainee teacher

1

Introduction

Although the post-Salamanca conference (UNESCO 1994) replaced special needs education with inclusive education, which advocated that ‘segregated educational solutions were to be avoided, and the mainstream classroom should open up to diversity’ (Nilholm 2021:358), the latter remains a contested concept in the absence of a universally agreed definition. Schwab, Sharma & Loreman (2018: 31) argue that even though the scope of inclusive education, which was originally conceived for students with disabilities, has broadened to encompass a broad range of student diversity such as “socioeconomic, linguistic, cultural, and religious backgrounds, as well as various gender identities and sexual orientations, and more recently students from refugee back-

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Hlalele, T. M. Makoelle (eds.), Inclusion in Southern African Education, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43752-6_16

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grounds”, nevertheless, the implementation of inclusive practices within the classrooms remains a matter of concern. Concurring with the above view, there are many (Artiles et al. 2011; Florian 2014; Loreman et al. 2014; Ni Bhroin and King 2020) who contend that the implementation of inclusive education within and across countries varies considerably and continues to meet challenges. Nilholm (2021) and  Makoelle (2016)  claim that the lack of knowledge to create inclusive classrooms, diverging views of stakeholders such as rectors, school managers, teachers, and parents about the suitability of inclusive classrooms, and the persistent continuation of segregated educational practices are some of the challenges in the implementation of inclusive education. With these views in mind, it can be concluded that a major reason for the persistence of segregated educational practices could be attributed to the lack of teacher preparation for a truly inclusive classroom. Studies conducted in Malawi, Namibia, and Zimbabwe (Chitiyo et  al. 2019) seem to support this argument as they highlight the importance of teachers’ training in ensuring success in the implementation of special and inclusive education, and in maintaining standards and quality in student learning. A report by the Ministry of Education, Arts and Culture (2018) in Namibia supports the need for specific training of teachers for inclusive classrooms. The report stresses the need for both theoretical and practical training on topics that include, among others, practical classroom modifications, curriculum adaptation and differentiation, and classroom management. In addition to teacher preparation for inclusive education, Pantic and Florian (2015) foreground the concept of ‘inclusive pedagogy’ to cater to individual differences between learners while avoiding the marginalisation of some learners. This chapter attempts to explore in-service secondary school trainee teachers’ perception of the infusion of inclusive education in teacher education programmes offered by a teacher training institute in Mauritius, a small island

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developing state in the south-west Indian Ocean, and to what extent the programmes prepare them in their practice for inclusive classrooms.

2 Policy Context in Mauritius Drawing from the philosophical tenets of inclusion in education, which propounds heterogeneity within a group as both desirable and unavoidable, and that differences in ability are not an indicator of worth (Newton et  al. 2014), the government in Mauritius focuses on equity and quality learning opportunities for all. The policy of the Ministry of Education lays down the commitment to build inclusive schools and develop strategies that attend to children with learning difficulties or children with special needs. To this end, the National Curriculum Framework (NCF 2015: 33) states: ‘‘Every child, irrespective of achievement level, should be considered as an inclusive part of the school and the school should have the prime responsibility to help every child achieve. Children should not feel that they do not belong to the school community because they do not achieve in the same way as their peers”. Moreover, in line with the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 4), which seeks to ensure inclusive and equitable education and lifelong opportunities for all (UNESCO 2015), the Ministry of Education, through the latest educational reform, the Nine Year Continuous Basic Education (NYCBE) (2016), aims to provide every child with an opportunity to develop his/ her intrinsic qualities, irrespective of social background, gender, level of academic readiness and abilities, needs, interests, and learning styles (NCF 2015: 45–46). It is thus observed that the nine-year curriculum strives to “promote an inclusive environment which enables ALL learners to experience quality education, realise their full potential and achieve excellence” (NCF 2016: 16). To attain the above objectives, the four-Year Extended Programme (FYEP) was introduced in the Mauritian educational system

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for learners who have failed to achieve the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Level 1 at Primary School Achievement Certificate (PSAC). Accordingly, the FYEP enables these learners to join the Foundation Year where they are given the opportunities to develop their basic literacy and numeracy skills in addition to acquiring social and life skills. It is believed that the deployment and use of a differentiated pedagogy and appropriate learning materials in the FYEP will benefit these learners. It is noted from the above discussion that in order to achieve its objective of inclusive classrooms, the NYCBE (2016) foregrounds three key elements of inclusivity. These are curriculum differentiation, inclusive pedagogy, and collaborative practices.

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(Tomlinson et al. 2003). Ronksley-Pavia (2010:4) also suggests methods that can assist in differentiating curriculum, for instance, “assessing learners’ prior skills and comprehension”, “grouping flexibility to allow gifted learners to work with like-minded peers”, and “planning autonomous research tasks where learners learn how to extend and direct their own learning”. It is noted that these methods are not only limited to educational context but can be adapted to other setups especially when engaging students in specific activities to cater to their interests. In Mauritius, the NCF lays emphasis on the use of curriculum differentiation strategies by teachers in transacting the curriculum content according to the differences observed among learners (NCF 2016:29). It is to be further noted that varied teaching methods and materials pro3 Curriculum Differentiation mote the learning of themes, topics, and concepts effectively. More importantly, differentiation Curriculum differentiation and adaptation are allows access to the same curriculum by providmuch debated in education nowadays (Smale-­ ing learning, teaching, assessment, and detailing Jacobse et  al. 2019; Abodey and Ansah 2017; learning outcomes that are tailored to students’ Tomlinson 2015). Teachers are urged by policy- needs and different levels of achievement (NCF makers to embrace diversity in classrooms and to 2016: 30). This brings to the fore another key adapt the curriculum and their instruction to concept in inclusive education, namely inclusive accommodate students’ diverse learning needs in pedagogy. their classrooms (Schleicher 2016; UNESCO 2017). Abodey & Ansah (2017: 40) refer to a differentiated curriculum “as one that is individual- 4 Inclusive Pedagogy ised to meet the diverse needs of all the students in one class”. Ronksley-Pavia (2010), on the The concept of inclusion in education, which other hand, describes differentiation as modify- seeks to address the learning needs of all chiling the regular curriculum by adjusting the pro- dren, with a focus specifically on those who are cess, skills, and content along with the learning vulnerable to marginalisation and exclusion, has environment to suit the needs of diverse learners. gained currency not only in countries in the The author further proposes the need to include a Global North but also in countries in the southern range of enrichment programmes to widen the African region such as Zimbabwe, Namibia, scope of the curriculum and develop students’ South Africa, and Mauritius among others skills and abilities along with their cognitive abil- (Walton and Engelbrecht 2022). Black-Hawkins ities. From the above views, it can be concluded (2017) stated that although the terms ‘inclusive that differentiation is a philosophy of teaching education’, ‘inclusive practice’, and ‘inclusive that acknowledges and respects differences in pedagogy’ are often used interchangeably in the students’ learning and strives to help all students literature, they are not synonymous. Florian develop and grow. (2015a) considers inclusive education as the This implies that teachers need to modify cur- encompassing concept and posits that recognisricula, teaching methods, resources, and learning ing inclusive education is the foundation of activities to meet students’ learning needs both inclusive practices and inclusive pedagogy.

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While Ainscow et  al. (2006), Messiou (2017), and Slee (2018) view inclusive education, on the one hand, as a process that maximises learning and increases the engagement of all students, inclusive pedagogy, on the other hand, is described by (Florian 2014 cited in Moriña 2020: 135) “as an approach to teaching and learning in which teachers respond to learners’ individual differences, in order to avoid excluding certain students”. The third concept, which is inclusive practice, refers to teaching practices that advance the learning and engagement of all learners, eventually reducing marginalisation. A few examples of inclusive practices as suggested by Kagan and Kagan (2009), Simon et al. (2018), and Topping (2015) include cooperative learning, lesson study, and peer tutoring. A synthesis of these studies would suggest that all children can learn when the conditions are suitable. This view is further supported by Florian (2015b), who highlights that the initial point for developing inclusive pedagogy is to acknowledge that every learner is different and that learning must be improved for all students. In line with the above discussion, the nine-­ year curriculum in Mauritius is dynamic, flexible, and adaptable to the different needs of children and schools. It caters to the attainment of learning outcomes for learners with diverse needs, interests, and abilities by providing needs-based learning support and appropriate remedial measures. The curriculum also outlines the changes in pedagogical practices and assessment to accommodate the learning needs through differentiation in methods and materials for slow learners and those with special educational needs (NCF 2015).

5 Collaborative Practices – School Staff and Inclusion Lakkala et al. (2021: 2) state that “a supportive school climate and safe teacher-student relationships increase students’ engagement”. These authors further purport that students’ engagement

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with their studies is increased when they experience a sense of community and satisfaction with their educational needs. Many studies (Hansen et al. 2020; Lakkala et al. 2021; Mulholland and O’Connor 2016; O’Rourke 2014; Miltenienė and Venclovaitė 2012) have foregrounded the significance of community, cooperation, and teamwork in inclusive education. Joseph et  al. (2013), on the other hand, attribute teachers’ disposition to managing their classes as the foremost challenge to the successful implementation of inclusive education. These authors contend that teachers have been trained to work and have control over their classes alone for years. It can thus be argued that the traditional strategy of managing one’s own class is one of the barriers to the successful implementation of inclusive education. Furthermore, a study conducted by Lingard and Mills (2007) point to teachers not possessing sufficient competence to teach diverse students. However, while aspiring for inclusive education, teachers are under pressure to develop school cultures that are more collaborative to meet the diverse needs of all students. Concurring with these views, Sheppard (2019) mentions that the varied attitudes and the ensuing actions of the teacher determine the success of inclusionary practices in schools. It is thus observed that a change in educational policies warrants new ways of working in schools to advance support for all learners in inclusive settings and ensure closer collaboration with different stakeholders. The NCF in Mauritius categorically states that the staff of the school should not be segregated into those looking after high achievers and those who take care of children with special needs or learning difficulties. Educators should not feel that low-achieving students belong to some special educators only. Inclusion therefore also means the inclusion of all teachers with every type of learner. Opportunities should be provided for all teachers to plan and work together with the support teachers, though there will be a category of trained educators to offer special support to learners with special needs (NCF 2016). It can be observed that, although the NCF in Mauritius portrays an ideal curriculum that

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addresses diversity and inclusivity, the implementation reveals a dissonance in the theory and practice of inclusiveness. While an inclusive classroom favours diversity in classroom, it can be noted that at the end of 6 years of schooling, there is already a categorisation of learners into mainstream and extended programme classrooms. Although the curriculum for both groups of learners is the same, the extended learners are exposed to adapted textbooks. However, at the end of the nine-years of schooling, both the Extended and the Mainstream learners are expected to take the same examination. This raises the fundamental question of the understanding of inclusive classrooms by the stakeholders in the Mauritian context. This dilemma is further compounded by some teachers’ practice in the classroom, which involves addressing the diverse needs of all learners alike; thus, negating the very essence of the philosophy of inclusiveness. There is hence a need for further discussion around two major areas: teachers’ perception of inclusive classrooms and teachers’ preparedness for inclusive education. The purpose of this chapter is to explore teachers’ preparedness for inclusive classrooms and how the teacher training programme in Mauritius infuses elements of inclusivity in different courses to prepare teachers to meet the multifold challenges posed in classrooms in the wake of curriculum reform.

6 Teachers’ Perceptions of Inclusion in Classrooms Maciver et  al. (2018), Magumise and Sefotho (2018), Mngo and Mngo (2018), and Joubert and Harrington (2020) consider inclusion as the placement of learners with disabilities in general education classes. This requires a fundamental change in the way the teacher addresses the individual needs of each child if the process of inclusion is to be ensured in its true sense. Studies, such as Loreman et  al. (2007); Newton et  al. (2014); Schwab et  al. (2018) show that despite the continued impetus for inclusive practices, both primary and secondary school teachers

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demonstrated a mixed attitude toward inclusion in classrooms. Wiggins (2012) highlights a strong relationship between secondary school teachers’ perceptions of inclusion and classroom setting, thus concluding that teachers with experience in teaching within inclusive classrooms held favourable perceptions toward inclusive education than those teachers who did not teach in inclusive classrooms. A study by Newton et al. (2014) on the perceptions of teachers on general education at the upper secondary level revealed teachers expressing more positive attitudes toward mainstreaming than inclusion, thus reiterating the notion that not much has changed over the years regarding schoolteachers’ perceptions of inclusive education. Sharma et  al. (2003) found that training in special education appeared to lessen pre-service teachers’ concerns regarding inclusive education. Similarly, Subban and Sharma (2001) revealed that teachers who reported having undertaken training in special education generally held more positive perceptions about implementing inclusive education. Loreman et  al. (2007) reported similar findings which showed that teachers’ perceptions of inclusive education were negatively impacted by their training, or lack of it, in special/inclusive education. This brings us to a very important aspect of the debate in inclusive education with greater emphasis on teacher preparedness for inclusion.

7 Teacher Preparedness for Inclusion in Education Teacher educators are continuously exploring ways to make inclusive education units of study more effective, and at the same time, there is an ongoing debate about what components are needed for a successful approach to addressing inclusive education in teacher preparation courses. Different courses emphasise different aspects, such as skills and competences, positive attitudes towards inclusion, and greater contact with people with disabilities (Forlin and Chambers 2011). However, preparing teachers to

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adopt an inclusive approach to education involves not only identifying the components of effective approaches for teacher education, but also considering the situation in a specific country, such as the cultural context, the historical and political developments in education, and the nature of the education systems and schools in that country. Symeonidou and Phtiaka (2014) refer to this as a complex and challenging endeavour when they contend that students may graduate with conflicted views about inclusive education. This may be because the student-teachers were not adequately supported to develop their own ethical commitment to inclusion, or because students’ personal views regarding the teacher’s role in educating students with disabilities conflict with the views embedded in the curriculum or espoused by teacher educators (Symeonidou and Phtiaka 2014). A study conducted by Walsh (2018) reveals teachers’ unpreparedness to teach in an inclusive environment mainly because of a lack of training. These teachers believed that working in an inclusive environment while using a trial-and-error approach results in educational failures which adversely affect learners. Srivastava et al. (2015), as well as Zwane and Malale (2018), concur with the above views and emphasise the necessity for teachers’ preparedness for inclusion and the need to revisit teacher education curriculum, design, and programmes to equip teachers with relevant knowledge about inclusive teaching methods.

8 Teacher Education Programme on Inclusion in Education in Mauritius Joseph et al. (2013) contend that a careful analysis of education institutions reveals that many teachers teach and assess without considering learners’ diversity. Chesley and Jordan (2012) further state that teacher training institutions need to transform their programmes to reflect the realities of twenty-first-century schools. The growing interest in creating inclusive classrooms demands that learners be provided additional

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support to achieve curriculum objectives. Consequently, this calls for the development and implementation of teacher education programmes that aim to prepare teachers to be receptive to the diverse needs of learners in classrooms (Mintz 2019). While developing and implementing a responsive teacher education programme to cater to diversity may be challenging for teacher education institutions at a global level, it is even more crucial in the context of southern African countries such as South Africa, Namibia, and Mauritius due to the continuing marginalisation of vulnerable children from the schooling system. It is to be noted that in Mauritius, teacher education programmes are guided by the ideals of the Sustainable Development Goal 4 of the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development which mandates nations to “ensure inclusive and equitable access to quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (NCF 2016: 12). Subsequently, improving the quality of education in schools relies on evidence and practice-based teacher preparation courses. Driven by the values of inclusivity, equity, and diversity, teacher education programmes in Mauritius are designed to enable students to experience and understand the “complexity of what it means to teach in contexts of challenging classroom situations” (B.Ed Programme Handbook, 2019–2021: 5).

9 Research Methodology 9.1 Research Design – Narrative Inquiry This qualitative study aimed to understand in-­ service trainee teachers’ perception of teacher education programmes offered by a teacher training institute in Mauritius and critically examined the extent to which the designed programmes infuse inclusion in the preparation of trainee teachers for inclusive education and inclusive classrooms. Given that the focus of the study was to understand trainee teachers’ perceptions of

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infusion of inclusion in teacher education programmes, the interpretivist paradigm was deemed appropriate. Consequently, considering the ontological and epistemological tenets of interpretivist paradigm, narrative inquiry as a method was adopted to study the phenomenon. Stephens (2014) argues that narratives operate in diverse ways and at a number of levels, which is why they are one of the rare methods that offer “an intrinsic relationship between content, form, audience, and context” (Ramasawmy 2016:21). My choice of adopting a narrative inquiry approach was further guided by the belief that narratives offer the possibility of using meaning created in personal stories to interrogate current practices and plot the future. In addition, Lemley and Mitchell (2011), Wang et  al. (2015), and Wang and Geale (2015) posit the narrative approach as the collection and analysis of the accounts people tell to describe experiences and offer an interpretation. The approach thus acknowledges human experiences as dynamic, and in a state of constant flux. In addition, stories add value by making “the implicit explicit, the hidden seen, the unformed formed, and the confusing clear” (Chou et  al. 2013; Morgan, 2007; Wang, 2017 cited in Hlalele and Mashiya 2019). I thus tapped into the narrative expressions of trainee teachers enrolled in the various teacher education programme dispensed by the institution and which were specifically designed to prepare teachers for inclusive classrooms in secondary schools.

9.2 Selection of Research Participants A purposive convenience sampling strategy was adopted to identify in-service trainee teachers registered in the teacher education programmes. I targeted trainee teachers enrolled for undergraduate (Bachelor in Education (B.Ed)) and Post Graduate in Education (PGCE) teacher education programmes. I was guided in my choice of selection from the above two groups of trainee teachers as they cater to learners with diverse profiles

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in secondary schools. I selected four trainee teachers (two from B.Ed and two from PGCE programme) who showed a willingness to be participants in the study. My selection of two participants from each of the above two mentioned programmes was informed by the need to hear the diverse voices of the participants.

9.3 Data Generation and Presentation The four participants were interviewed individually at their convenience and at their choice of venue. The interview questions focussed on the relevance of the programme content and how it shaped and prepared them for their inclusive classroom practices. The interviews with the four participants were audio recorded with their consent and transcribed and sent to the participants for member checking (Creswell and Miller 2000) to ensure trustworthiness. Furthermore, to ensure the integrity of the narrative framework (Webster and Mertova 2007) and to provide the overall context, content, and texture to the narratives (Floyd 2012), diverse documents, especially the B.Ed (2020–2022) and PGCE (2021–2022) handbooks, and SEN Strategic Papers Strategic Document (2017) were consulted in the process of gathering data. I chose to present the narratives of the participants gathered from in-depth interviews in the form of vignettes, which according to Wilks (2004:80), are generally used in research ‘as elicitation tools’ to generate data (Gray et al. 2017; Hughes and Huby 2004; Sleed et al. 2002). As vignettes bring forward personal stories and emotional aspects to describe a lived experience, I attempted through the vignettes to highlight trainee teachers’ experience of engaging with the programme and their preparedness to cater to inclusive classrooms. The vignettes in this study are crisp, yet textured write-ups providing brief accounts of the lived experiences of the four trainee teachers. To ensure the anonymity of the participants in the construction of the narratives, pseudonyms have been used.

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9.4 Narratives of Participants

Vignette 1 Anna is currently pursuing her undergraduate studies at the teacher training institute in Mauritius and is in the final year of her completion of programme. She mentions being engaged in the teaching profession for the past twenty years and has had a wide range of experience in dealing with learners with diverse needs. She had followed other teacher education programmes at the institute prior to embarking on the undergraduate course offered for secondary school teachers. She adds that before enrolling on the Bachelor in Education (B.Ed) secondary programme, she devised her own way to deal with the diversity of learners in classrooms. She categorically states that by diversity she refers to the difference in cognitive, behavioural, social, and emotional levels of the learners. Anna summarises the above situation by referring that “it is as if I have to deal with students of the level of pre-primary, primary and secondary learners in the same classroom”. She further mentions that the content of the module ‘Fundamentals of Inclusive Education’ which she followed in the second year of her undergraduate teacher training programme has changed her perception of an inclusive classroom as she is more aware of the varied needs and interests of learners in the same classroom and that as a teacher, she must ensure that the learning needs and style of each student is catered. She found the content of the module helpful in preparing her to be truly involved in the inclusive classroom”. She elaborates that the aspects of “differentiated lesson plan”, “approaches to inclusion”, “differentiated curriculum”, and “inclusive pedagogy” that she learnt in her teacher Education programme have helped her in shaping her classroom practices. However, she reflects that, given the importance attached to inclusive practice globally, more time and space should be allocated in the programme structure for inclusive education. In addition, the modules on inclusive education should be introduced in the first year of the programme itself as she feels that the module lays the foundation for the understanding of other areas such as inclusive pedagogy and differentiated lesson planning, curriculum, and assessment. Anna is also satisfied with the support she receives from the different stakeholders such as the rector, psychologists, school counsellors, and social workers when dealing with issues that concerns the students.

Vignette 2 Tim successfully completed the B.Ed secondary teacher education programme in 2012, and has been working as a secondary school teacher for the past ten years. Tim mentions that the teacher education programme has evolved since he followed the course. There were no modules that specifically dealt with Special Education Needs or Inclusive Education when he was enrolled on the programme. Nevertheless, he emphasises that focus was laid on attending to the needs of mixed-ability learners in the classroom and for teachers to ensure that none of the students were excluded. Tim also mentions the inclusion of students with socioeconomic, and cognitive differences in the same classroom and the range of strategies that he uses to deal with his learners’ individual differences. He further points out that since he was not exposed to the various modules when he was following the professional development programme, he was not fully conversant with the theories and concepts of inclusive education and the issues and challenges associated with the teaching of inclusive classrooms. However, he would be keen to follow stand-alone modules on inclusive education and practices to sharpen his knowledge and skills to be effective in his teaching practices. In the same vein, Tim adds that support from different stakeholders in schools, which is the key to successful inclusive practice, is lacking in the school where he teaches. In addition, he deplores the mindset of teachers, who are focused on completing the syllabus for end-of-year assessment rather than devising ways and means to ensure that no child is left behind. Such a mindset, he feels, is a constraint in the creation of a truly inclusive classrooms.

Infusion of Inclusion in Mauritian Initial Teacher Education Programmes

Vignette 3 Kevin is in the final semester of the Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) programme, which is proposed by the institution for degree holders in a specific discipline. He mentions having enrolled for the programme as he joined the teaching profession without any professional development course to his credit. As a young novice teacher, he explains that enrolling in the PGCE is the best decision he has taken in his professional career. Although he has not yet completed his course, he feels confident when he is in his classroom and knows how he will conduct his classes and deal with students’ queries and problems which are both academic and socio-emotional. As he works with extended programme students, he encounters multiple challenges that range from academic to psychological and behavioural problems. However, he maintains that he can cope with the above challenges mainly due to modules such as ‘Developmental and Educational Psychology’ and ‘The Social Context of Teaching and Learning’ which he completed earlier during the programme. He further mentions that he was unaware of concepts like “differentiated curriculum” and “differentiated lesson plans” and having learnt these in the aforesaid modules has enabled him to cater to the needs of his learners. Nevertheless, he states that the challenges associated with the implementation of such concepts cannot be ignored. He works with a large class and with limited time on the timetable to complete the school curriculum, which at times is a daunting task. He further mentions that he is currently following the Elective module ‘Introduction to Special and Inclusive Education’ and would have wished to be exposed to module at the beginning of the semester rather than in the final semester of the course. Kevin adds that although he learnt about ‘differentiated curriculum’ and ‘innovative pedagogy’, it was in the elective module that he was introduced to the concept of ‘Inclusive Lesson Plan’ and as he teaches learners of extended programme, the knowledge of inclusive lesson planning’ would have been helpful to him when planning for his classes and for his school-­ based experience component. He adds that he is glad he chose this elective and recommends that it should be a core module for all trainee teachers.

Vignette 4 Marie successfully completed the PGCE teacher education programme six months ago. She had enrolled for the professional development course after having taught for eight years in different secondary schools in the island. Marie mentioned that the prime reason for enrolling on the PGCE programme was to upgrade her qualifications. She felt that just having a degree in the subject that she was teaching was not sufficient to deal with the challenges of the teaching profession. She mentioned that for a teacher, apart from possessing the content knowledge in the subject, it was important to be well versed with the pedagogical knowledge and this was the reason that pushed her to take up the PGCE course. She further added that with the recent reforms in the educational system, and with teachers expected to deal with classes with a diversity of learners, she felt that the challenges were multifold. Marie explained that prior to the PGCE programme, she would use the same teaching strategies and methods for all learners and would be really upset when students would not respond to her in class. Reflecting on her professional development journey, she says the module ‘Developmental and Educational Psychology’, especially, has been helpful in making her realise the diverse emotional and psychology needs of learners, which also at times emanate from the social and economic background and context of the learners. The most important learning gain for Marie has been to prepare resources, and plan lesson and assessment tasks to cater to the different levels and abilities of the learners. She adds that she would hear about ‘inclusive classroom’ and ‘catering to learners with different abilities’ in various workshops and forums that she attended; however, how to kickstart the process to make her class inclusive was not clear to her until she embarked on the PGCE programme. Marie further adds that there are many challenges in teaching a class that has learners with diverse cognitive levels, along with behavioural and emotional problems in classes such as the extended programme class. She is of the view that although the PGCE programme has prepared her to teach in inclusive classrooms, she feels that the programme structure and content should be reviewed. For instance, she says the module ‘Introduction to Special and Inclusive Education’ is offered as an elective. She feels that it should be a core module. She regrets not having opted for this elective and says she learnt from other trainees about the content and the relevance of the module in preparing teachers for inclusion.

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9.5 Data Analysis I used thematic analysis as the analytical framework to understand and make meaning of the participants’ narratives. Thematic analysis is the process of identifying patterns and themes within qualitative data. Kampira (2021:5) explains thematic analysis as a “data analysis procedure that centres on identification, description, explanation, substantiation, and linkages of themes”. The author further states that thematic analysis is “premised on the view that all information is conveyed with meaning and this meaning can be deduced from identifying a central idea or a cluster of ideas that gives it a comprehensive meaning” (ibid). Braun and Clarke (Braun and Clarke 2006, cited in Maguire and Delahunt (2017)), consider thematic analysis to be foundational in nature and applicable to rigorous qualitative data analysis processes. Nowell et  al. (2017) believe that flexibility and ease of use as the underlying advantage of thematic analysis. Using Braun and Clarke (2006) six-phase guide to conducting thematic analysis, I began by familiarizing myself with the data by reading and re-reading it and noting down initial ideas. My next step in data analysis process was to generate initial codes, then search for themes, review the themes, and finally define and name these themes. Consequently, following the construction and representation of the teacher trainees’ narratives in the form of vignettes, four emerging themes were identified. These are ‘Teacher trainees’ perception of inclusion’; ‘Efficacy of Teacher Education programmes’; ‘Teachers’ knowledge, attitudes, and skills in relation to inclusion’; and ‘Teacher Preparation for School Based Experience for Inclusive Classroom’. These themes have been analysed and discussed in detail in the following section.

10 Findings and Discussion Theme 1: Teacher Trainees’ Perception of Inclusion The four trainee teachers perceived an ‘inclusive classroom’ as a class where learners with diverse learning needs were accommodated in the same

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classroom. Anna refers to this diversity as “it is as if I have to deal with students of the level of pre-primary, primary and secondary learners in the same classroom”. While Anna, Marie, and Kevin interpreted diversity in relation to the ‘cognitive, behavioural, social, and emotional level’ of the learners, Kevin referred to learners with diverse learning abilities as ‘mixed ability’ learners. Thus, while the interpretation of ‘inclusive education’ and ‘inclusive classrooms’, as perceived by the teacher trainees, may appear limited and narrow, as none of the teacher trainees mention the inclusion of disabled learners in the class, they concur with the view of Forlin (2010a, cited in Symeonidou 2017:2) that “although the initial focus of inclusive education was on disabled students, a broader interpretation of inclusion emphasizes the need to provide quality education for a broader range of pupils, including those from different ethnic, racial, cultural, or linguistic backgrounds”. Moreover, even though there is no explicit mention of the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) and policy documents in their narratives, a deeper analysis of the participants’ responses reflects the philosophy of the National Curriculum Framework (2016) that espouses inclusive and equitable education and lifelong opportunities for all learners in Mauritius. Theme 2: Efficacy of Teacher Education Programmes Findings from the participants’ narratives reveal that although the teacher education programmes offered by the institute help in preparing teachers for inclusive classrooms, nevertheless the structure and the time allocated need to be reviewed. Tim, on the one hand, states, “the teacher education programmes have evolved” since he followed the course. “There were no modules that dealt specifically with Special Education Needs or Inclusive Education” when he was enrolled in the programme. Marie, on the other hand, referred to the module “Introduction to Special and Inclusive Education” offered as an elective for the PGCE programme and believes she would have benefitted from it being a core module. Kevin echoes Marie’s view when he reiterates that he is “currently following the Elective module ‘Introduction to Special and Inclusive

Infusion of Inclusion in Mauritian Initial Teacher Education Programmes

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Education’ and would have wished to be exposed to the module at the beginning of the semester rather than in the final semester of the course”. Referring to the time allocated to modules that prepare teachers for inclusive classrooms, Anna mentioned that “more time and space should be allocated in the programme structure”. The above statements from the trainee teachers highlight issues in teacher education programmes, as averred by Symeonidou (2017) for inclusive education with regard to conceptualisation, design, and implementation. Symeonidou (2017: 5) further referred to these issues as the “ideological gap between special and inclusive education”. It can further be argued that although policy documents advocate the principles and key elements of inclusive education, the same is not reflected in teacher education programmes. As the participants have highlighted the concepts and contents of the module exposing teacher trainees to, and providing insights into, addressing diversity in classrooms, the programme structure should provide more in-depth information in terms of content and should be introduced at the initial stages of the course rather than in the final semester. It can be argued that teacher trainees are the key actors in the implementation of inclusive classrooms and therefore their voices should be taken on board when deciding the content of the course which determines the conceptualisation of inclusion.

skills, and attitudes to be effective in inclusive classrooms”. For instance, the modules “Psychology of Educators” and “The Social Context of Teaching and Learning” prepared them to deal with learners from different social backgrounds and cater to their psychological and emotional needs. It can be noted that the narratives reveal that in order to achieve the government’s policy of inclusive education as laid down in the National curriculum Framework (2015) and the Nine Year Continuous Basic Education (2016), teacher education programmes need to be revisited and emphasis be laid on module content that overtly deals with the concepts of inclusion and prepares trainee teachers in the effective implementation of same. It can be argued that trainee teachers enrolling in teacher education programmes, for whichever level it may be, are inadequately prepared and equipped to promote inclusive education, as stated by Forlin and Nguyet (2010). Allan (2003, cited in Symeonidou 2017: 5) posits that, “even teacher educators who have the requisite skills and are committed to promoting the principles of inclusive education are faced with responsibilities that appear to be contradictory”. It can thus be concluded that teacher education programmes need to be reviewed and restructured to ensure that knowledge, skills, and attitudes essential for inclusive education are provided sufficient space and time in the teacher education programmes.

Theme 3: Teachers’ Knowledge, Attitudes, and Skills in Relation to Inclusion The participants are unanimous in acknowledging the extent to which the teacher education programmes have benefitted them in relation to dealing with inclusion in their classrooms. For instance, Anna highlighted the relevance of the module “Fundamentals of Inclusive Education” in providing her with the necessary knowledge with respect to “differentiated lesson plans”, “approaches to inclusion”, “differentiated curriculum”, and “inclusive pedagogy”. Kevin and Marie emphasised that although “some of the modules of the teacher education programme did not explicitly relate to the specific content and context of inclusion, nevertheless, they implicitly helped in acquiring the relevant knowledge,

Theme 4: Teacher Preparation for School-­ Based Experience for Inclusion in Classroom Studies (Peebles and Mendaglio 2014; Sharma et  al. 2012) point to attitudes, knowledge, and skills of teacher trainees about inclusion that may be influenced by the study component that includes fieldwork. Tim’s narrative, for instance, highlights that “the knowledge of inclusive lesson planning” would have helped him plan classes for the school-based experience. In addition, it can be noted in the narratives of the participants that in the absence of any prior training, the teacher trainees “devised ways and means to address the diversity of learners in their respective classrooms”. Nevertheless, the participants’ voices foreground the need for a teacher education programme to reconsider the “programme

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structure and the organisation of the delivery of modules that would equip them with the required knowledge, skills, and attitudes for effective inclusive education”. As stated by Lancaster and Bain (2007), field experience is key in reinforcing teacher education courses for inclusion.

11 Conclusion At the outset, the study was undertaken to understand how inclusion is infused into teacher training programmes in Mauritius. Guided by the sustainable development goals (SDG 4), the Mauritian government, through the recent NYCBE reform, affirms its commitment to ensuring inclusive classrooms. The ministry of education guarantees that the philosophy and principles of inclusive education are reflected in the classrooms. To this end, the teacher training institute in Mauritius has attempted to infuse within its various programmes modules that address the theoretical and practical elements of inclusive education. The adoption of narrative inquiry as a methodology enabled close scrutiny of the lived experiences of the four trainee teachers. It shed light on their perception of the infusion of inclusion in teacher training programmes, as experienced by them, and the extent it has been useful in preparing them for inclusive classrooms. Trainee teachers are of the view that although teacher education programmes have evolved and attempt to address the needs of the present context, there is a need to revisit the programme structure if the government’s policy of a truly inclusive education and classroom is to be achieved.

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Conclusion Dipane Hlalele

Abstract 

The understanding of the notion of inclusion has evolved from the assumption that it was about learners with special needs and disability to a wider understanding of diversity which may include aspects of gender, ethnicity, language, socio-economic status, race, health and others. However, it must be born in mind that inclusion is an evolving concept, although when analysing the literature from these countries seems as though there is now general consensus about what inclusion means in a schooling context. We concur with experts that inclusion can be infused within the African indigenous way of molding the becoming of the child. However, we are of the view that dislodging the dominant western epistemologies demystifies authenticity of learning practices and experiences, learning content and embraces indigenous communities and their knowledge.

Human dignity cannot be fully valued or respected unless individuals are able to develop their ‘humanness’ to the full extent of its potential. Each human being is uniquely talented. Part of the dignity of every human being is the fact and awareness of this uniqueness. An individual’s human dignity cannot be fully respected or valued unless the individual is permitted to develop his or her talents optimally. Constitutional Court (RSA), 1996

D. Hlalele (*) University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa e-mail: [email protected]

In this book, the authors presented chapters which are based on the recognition and indispensable drive to humanize the dehumanized, recentre the marginalised and charter inclusive learning spaces and communities. In tandem with the Constitutional Court (1996), the authors also observed the uniqueness of each individual as suggested in chapter one. Basically, we need to understand ways in which we exclude, ways in which we differ in order to be inclusive and it is in this state when we are able to create conducive learning spaces for the optimisation of individual talents. As a result whiles we acknowledge other forms of humanizing perspectives and philosophies, we decided to ground the debates and discussions in this book within the African philosophy of Ubuntu which resonates with preamble statement of this concluding chapter cited from the Constitutional Court. As Akabor and Phasha (2022) put it Ubuntu allows people to act with respect, dignity and sensitivity towards one another in order to build a collaborative but supportive inclusive community. In addition, there is evidence of addressing Sustainable Development Goal 4 which implores the world to: ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all (UNESCO 2015). Whilst we concede the noble intention to imbue schools and educational processes with inclusion and equity, we need not be oblivious to the fact that inclusion in the southern African context remains, dynamic, complex and is an evolving phenomenon (Thwala and Makoelle 2022). Agreeable to this notion is Kanyopa Theresia who, in chapter one contends that the struggle to inclusion is a ‘long, arduous

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 D. Hlalele, T. M. Makoelle (eds.), Inclusion in Southern African Education, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43752-6_17

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and challenging of inclusive education journey’. The author further concludes that dealing with exclusion in South African schools as a single discourse is inappropriate. Thus, to be able to deal with exclusion in South African schools needs teachers and schools’ administrators to be aware of how they implement diversity and interpersonal dynamic in the educational setting. Whilst acknowledging that classrooms are increasingly becoming diverse, Ashnie Mahadew emphasises the significance of relationship building in the quest for affirming diversity of learners and learning environments. We, the editors. Wish to point out two issues, i.e., diversity has and continues to become latent until awareness is raised about it-at this level, what has been at the back screen of human consciousness migrates to the front screen. Secondly, classrooms become increasingly diverse as a result of the arrival of diverse learners from elsewhere due to mobility. To drive her point home, Mahadew uses the early childhood care and education sector as a critical period for all learning and the earlier interventions are made, the better for children, their families and the society at large. Also tapping into the early childhood education sector is Awudu Mohammed who, in chapter two, argues that inclusion is a dynamic and transforming policy aiming to bring together children with learning barriers to have fair access to quality education under a single roof. Using a sense making lens, which denotes how humans detect, choose out, and understand concepts in their surroundings and frequently entails acquiring knowledge, understanding that knowledge, and then putting that knowledge to use to complete an action, Mohammed cautions that current early childhood classrooms include children with diverse learning needs including cultural or linguistic diversity, religious beliefs, gender barriers, sexual orientation, age, socioeconomic status, personal circumstances, family disruption, children with disabilities and special needs. In contrast with chapters three and four, Nthabiseng Ngwenya and Tsediso Makoelle provide an adult education perspective to under-

D. Hlalele

standing inclusion in education. This sector is often neglected as basic and higher education sectors undeniably enjoy most attention. Through this chapter, we learn about the significance of recognising and adapting our teaching and learning practices to cater for the diversity of adult leaners in public adult learning centres. In chapter five, Munyaradzi Chidarikire focussed the gaze on inclusion in rural Zimbabwean schools. Noting the marginalisation of rural voices in respect of inclusion, the author advocates for the re-imagining of the rural school context with a view to re-interrogating latent issues of diversity including gender equality, language proficiency, teen pregnancy, and sign language learning, among others. Lastly, even though our intention was to gunner perspectives from the broader southern African region, we receive contributions from South Africa, Zimbabwe, Lesotho Eswatini and Mauritius, including a special contribution by invitation from Ghana. The editors are of the opinion that a more concerted effort aimed at reaching the length and breadth of the subcontinent may benefit future publications. It must be born in mind at this stage that inclusion is work in progress and some of the works presented in this book might be far from conclusive. However, this book may be regarded as a starting platform for conversations about how education systems grapple with the notion of inclusion in Southern African school context. It could be seen as lying a groundwork for further deliberations, engagements and policy review regarding the process of operationalisation of inclusion in schools and department of education. We are also mindful that inclusion is sometimes tight to the political structure of a country and that the current evidence shows us that inclusion usually thrive in political structures that embraces civil liberities and freedom. Be that as it may, inclusive education in some contexts might compete with political and economic priorities by governing structures and as a result in some situations it could be relegated down further in the priority list (Magnússon et al. 2019).

Conclusion

References Akabor S, Phasha N (2022) Where is Ubuntu in competitive south African schools? An inclusive education perspective. Int J Incl Educ. https://doi.org/10.1080/1 3603116.2022.2127491 Magnússon G, Göransson K, Lindqvist G (2019) Contextualizing inclusive education in educational policy: the case of Sweden. Nord J Stud Educ Policy 5(2):67–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/20020317.2019.1 586512

239 RSA (1996) Constitutional law of the Republic of South Africa. Government Printers, Pretoria Thwala S, Makoelle TM (2022) Teachers’ preparation for the implementation of inclusive education in primary schools in Eswatini. Cambridge Scholars, Newcastle UNESCO (2015) SDG4-education 2030, Incheon declaration (ID) and framework for action. For the implementation of sustainable development goal 4, ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all, ­ED-2016/ WS/28