In Black and White: Race and Sports in America 9780814786659

Citation preview

In Black and Whit e

In

BLACK and WHITE Race and Sports in America Kenneth L. Shropshire

Foreword by Kellen Winslow

N E W YOR K UNIVERSIT Y PRES S

New York and London

NEW YOR K UNIVERSIT Y PRES S

New Yor k and Londo n Copyright © 1996 by Ne w Yor k Universit y All rights reserve d

Library o f Congres s Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a Shropshire, Kenneth L . In black an d whit e : race an d sport s i n America / Kennet h L . Shropshire, p. cm . Includes bibliographical reference s an d index . ISBN 0-8147-8016-4 (cl . : alk. pap. ) 1. Discrimination i n sports—Unite d States . 2. Racism—Unite d States. 3. Afro-Americans—Sports. I . Title. GV706.32.S48 305.8'00973—dc20 95-5020 0 CIP New Yor k University Pres s books ar e printed o n acid-fre e paper , and thei r binding material s ar e chose n fo r strengt h an d durability. Manufactured i n the United State s o f Americ a 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

For Theresa an d Sa m

The onl y chang e i s tha t basebal l ha s turne d Paig e fro m a second-class citizen into a second-class immortal. —Leroy "Satchel" Paige, following his induction into a wing in Baseball's Hall of Fame dedicated to Negro League baseball players

••

•

Contents Foreword by Kellen Winslow xi Preface: Sports, Race, and Scholarship xvii Acknowledgments xxvi Introduction: The Realities of Racism and Discrimination in America 1 1 Th 2 Sittin 3 Th

e Roots of Racism and Discrimination in Sports 2

0

g in with the "Good Old Boys": Ownership 3

6

e Front Office an d Antidiscrimination La w 6

4 "Fea

r of a Black Planet": The Front Office 7

5 Color-Blin 6 "Th 7 Th

d Propositions: The Collegiate Ranks 10

e Whit e Man' s Ic e I s Colder , Hi s Suga r Sweeter , His Water Wetter, His Medicine Better": Sports Agents 12 e Next Millennium 14

2 6 3 8 2

Notes 161 Index 205

IX

•J

•

Foreword

Kellen Winslow

I mus t admi t t o yo u ho w muc h I hav e struggle d i n writin g th e fore word fo r thi s book . Whe n firs t asked , I quickl y accepted , feelin g honored t o be selecte d b y a perso n I respect an d admir e a grea t deal . My firs t attemp t wa s adequat e bu t no t wha t h e wa s lookin g for . H e wanted m e t o bar e m y soul , t o tal k abou t issue s tha t mos t peopl e d o not wis h t o thin k abou t whe n i t come s t o th e sacre d worl d o f sports . That's when m y tas k became difficult . T o do th e job requested o f me, I had t o revisit m y experience s an d emotions . I had t o share with other s those thing s tha t I an d n o doub t man y other s similarl y situate d ha d buried an d hidde n fro m myself . The trut h o f th e matte r wa s an d i s simpl y this : I a m a n African American mal e wh o ha d a specia l talen t t o pla y sports , i n m y cas e football. A s long as I was o n the field o f play I was treate d an d viewe d differently tha n mos t African-America n me n i n thi s country . Becaus e of my physica l abilities , society accepte d an d eve n catere d t o me. Rac e was no t a n issue . Then realit y cam e calling . Afte r a nine-yea r caree r i n th e Nationa l Football Leagu e fille d wit h honor s an d praises , I stepped int o th e rea l world an d realized , i n th e word s o f Muhamma d Ali , tha t I was "jus t another nigger. " Now tha t m y specia l talent t o catch a football an d ru n over , around , and awa y fro m would-b e tackler s wa s gone , th e image s an d stereo types tha t applie d t o African-America n me n i n thi s countr y attache d themselves t o me . Mayb e the y alway s applie d t o me , bu t I wa s to o deeply entrenche d i n th e artificia l environmen t o f collegiat e an d pro XI

xii Foreword fessional sport s t o se e th e light . I n othe r words , a s I believ e man y African-Americans wh o enjo y som e leve l o f succes s i n societ y do , I had begu n t o rea d an d believ e m y ow n pres s clippings . I wa s a collegiate AU-American , a first-roun d draf t pick , th e 13t h playe r se lected i n 197 9 b y th e Sa n Dieg o Chargers . I becam e a Pr o Bow l performer, a n All-Pr o selection , an d wa s name d t o th e All-Decad e team o f th e 80 s an d th e All-Quarte r Centur y team . I appeare d o n television an d radio , hoste d m y ow n gol f tournamen t fo r loca l chari ties, an d ra n a fla g footbal l leagu e fo r boy s an d girl s a s a n alternativ e to tackl e football . A prominen t citize n o f th e Sa n Dieg o community , I was a t on e tim e a membe r o f seve n differen t charitabl e an d commu nity boards, an activ e member i n my church , an d i f I do sa y s o myself , maybe not the most intelligen t an d articulat e athlet e ever, but certainl y not th e least . Given thi s background , I believe , agai n a s man y othe r African American me n similarl y situated , tha t m y opportunitie s i n th e sport s industries an d societ y afte r m y playin g day s wer e ove r hav e no t bee n as lucrative a s those o f m y white counterparts . Many individual s hav e moved fro m th e playin g fiel d t o th e fron t offic e o r fro m th e playin g field t o th e broadcas t booth . Th e overwhelmin g majorit y o f thos e individuals wer e no t African-Americans . Wh y i s that whe n a majorit y of player s o n th e fiel d o f pla y ar e African-American ? I wil l no t bor e you wit h number s t o validat e thi s statement . Simpl y tur n o n you r television an d se e for yourself . When I retired fro m th e San Dieg o Charger s i n 1988, 1 had on e yea r remaining o n a five-yea r guarantee d contract . I had planne d o n play ing ou t th e fina l yea r o f m y contrac t an d the n retirin g bu t wa s no t physically abl e to du e t o a knee injury . Durin g th e negotiation proces s over th e fina l year , I raise d th e possibilit y o f joinin g th e organizatio n in som e officia l capacity . I didn't sugges t th e coachin g staf f fo r severa l reasons. First , a t th e tim e I di d no t wan t t o coach . Secondly , th e Chargers alread y ha d a n African-America n o n th e coachin g staff , m y dear frien d an d forme r roommat e Charli e Joiner . I t ha d bee n m y experience i n colleg e an d i n th e pro s tha t ther e i s rarel y mor e tha n one, perhaps tw o African-America n coache s o n a staff . I ha d delusion s o f startin g of f wit h som e smal l title—perhap s

Foreword xii i assistant genera l manager—tha t woul d allo w m e to learn th e busines s and g o t o la w schoo l a t night . Afte r finishin g la w school , I migh t take ove r a s genera l manage r spendin g th e majorit y o f m y caree r i n professional footbal l wit h thi s organization . Wh y not ? I was a sta r o n the field , a n asse t t o th e community , an d a n intelligent , educated , articulate individual . Besides , I ha d see n others—grante d mos t wer e not African-American—d o th e sam e thin g o n othe r team s an d i n other sports . Yet, when I asked, tha t opportunit y wa s no t mad e avail able t o me. It was tim e t o go . Unceremoniously cas t to the street . Was rac e a facto r i n tha t decision ? Mayb e ther e wer e othe r factor s to be considered an d weighe d t o some lesser o r greater extent , but on e would b e hard presse d t o convince me tha t race was not a major facto r in that decision . Mayb e I cut m y ow n throa t whe n aske d b y a reporte r a fe w week s befor e m y earl y retiremen t whethe r o r no t I woul d lik e to join the coachin g staf f whe n I did retire . I couldn't hel p but wonder , when aske d tha t question , abou t th e whit e reporter' s limite d vie w o f my abilitie s an d desires . Why no t as k m e i f I wanted t o join th e fron t office? Mayb e becaus e h e ha d neve r see n suc h a transition before . Hi s question recall s th e whit e hig h schoo l counselor s wh o advis e blac k students t o g o t o trad e schoo l s o the y ca n ge t a job rathe r tha n g o t o college wher e the y coul d ge t a n education . Expectation s wer e limite d based o n th e colo r o f m y skin . My respons e t o th e reporter' s questio n wa s fran k an d surprise d even me . I told hi m tha t I did no t wan t t o coac h an d besides , even i f I did, ther e wa s alread y on e African-America n o n th e staf f an d I di d not wan t Charli e t o hav e t o leav e s o tha t I coul d hav e a job . The n I told hi m tha t I would reall y lik e t o wor k i n th e fron t office , bu t I fel t those chance s wer e ni l becaus e whe n I walke d dow n tha t hal l o f power I di d no t se e anyon e wh o looke d lik e me . Realit y wa s settin g in. I n hindsight , I should no t hav e bee n surprise d whe n th e Charger s were no t intereste d i n m y joinin g th e fron t offic e staff , becaus e b y example, the y ha d tol d m e s o man y time s before. I just ha d no t hear d them. In 1993 , whil e doin g color-commentar y fo r m y alm a mater , th e position o f athletic director opene d up . I was, of course, flattered whe n asked b y th e searc h committe e i f I would b e intereste d i n submittin g

xiv Foreword an applicatio n an d I did s o with on e understanding. Tha t understand ing wa s tha t I be considere d a s a seriou s candidat e an d no t b e use d as th e blac k candidat e s o ofte n neede d t o fulfill , i n thi s case , stat e requirements o f affirmativ e actio n an d equa l opportunity . With thi s understandin g i n place , I proceeded t o rall y m y suppor t and prepar e mysel f fo r th e intervie w process . I solicited an d receive d letters o f recommendatio n fro m member s o f th e athletic , corporate , legal, an d politica l communit y statin g m y abilitie s t o d o th e jo b de spite my lac k of actua l experienc e i n an athletic department . M y initia l interview wit h th e selectio n committe e wen t well . I was place d o n a short list of three for fina l interview s with the Chancellor, the outgoin g Athletic Director , th e Directo r o f Admissions , an d th e Intercollegiat e Athletics Committee . My fina l interview s wen t fin e an d th e feedback wa s ver y positive . I was tol d tha t th e Chancello r woul d hav e th e fina l sa y an d woul d b e settling o n a final choic e soon . His decisio n t o nam e th e then-Associat e Athleti c Directo r a s th e new athleti c directo r cam e t o m y attentio n th e da y befor e th e pres s conference whe n I receive d a cal l fro m a membe r o f th e pres s at tempting t o confir m a rumo r h e ha d gotte n win d of . Tha t rumo r wa s that th e Chancello r wa s holdin g a pres s conferenc e th e nex t da y t o announce hi s selectio n o f th e Associat e Athleti c Directo r an d wante d to kno w i f I ha d a comment . I chos e no t t o commen t o n a rumo r because I ha d hear d nothin g fro m th e Chancello r himself . I hope d i t was onl y a rumor . To m y dismay , i t wa s no t idl e gossip . Earl y th e nex t morning , twenty minute s befor e th e pres s conference , I received a cal l fro m th e Chancellor informin g m e o f his decision . I admi t m y disappointmen t i n no t gettin g th e position , mostl y because I a m a competitiv e perso n an d hat e t o lose . But , m y greates t disappointment wa s ove r th e timin g an d manne r i n whic h I wa s informed o f th e fina l decision . U p t o tha t point , I ha d considere d myself a seriou s candidate . No w I bega n t o wonde r i f I wa s jus t that high-profil e African-America n neede d t o mak e everythin g loo k proper. I n hindsigh t I should hav e see n th e writin g o n th e wall , but I was blinde d b y th e possibilit y tha t th e Universit y o f Missour i wa s

Foreword x v considering hiring me, an African-American, a s their Athletic Director . The tell-tal e sig n shoul d hav e bee n whe n th e schoo l hire d a ne w football coac h befor e hirin g a ne w athleti c director . Th e logica l pro gression would hav e been t o hire a n athleti c director , who woul d the n be responsibl e fo r hirin g hi s o r he r ow n footbal l coach . I knew thi s a t the time , bu t th e allur e o f bein g th e firs t African-America n athleti c director i n th e Bi g Eight Conferenc e prevente d m e fro m acting . I eve n went agains t th e soun d advic e o f individual s I respecte d greatl y t o withdraw, holdin g ou t hop e tha t thei r instinct s wer e wrong . No t so . They wer e righ t an d I was wrong . Was race a factor i n th e fina l decision ? Again , I believe so , but ho w much o f a factor I will never know . I do kno w however , tha t everyon e involved i n th e fina l decisio n proces s wa s a whit e mal e ove r th e ag e of fifty-fiv e wit h a backgroun d a grea t dea l differen t fro m m y own . Certainly i t i s possibl e tha t th e othe r individua l wa s muc h mor e qualified fo r th e positio n tha n I . I hav e n o proble m acceptin g tha t possibility. However , I cannot shak e th e feelin g tha t wit h al l I brough t to the table—a la w degree ; practical business experience ; my statu s a s a forme r studen t athlete , a collegiat e All-American , an d a n alumnus ; my stella r professiona l career ; leadershi p skills ; a bi t o f charisma ; a command o f th e Englis h language—that , i f I wer e white , th e jo b would hav e been min e t o tur n down . What m y experience s hav e taugh t m e tim e an d tim e agai n i s tha t race i s still , an d wil l b e fo r som e tim e t o come , a majo r facto r i n th e decision-making proces s fo r off-the-fiel d position s i n professiona l an d college sports . I n th e worl d o f sport s ther e exis t tw o set s o f rules : those fo r th e fiel d o f pla y an d thos e fo r of f th e field . O n th e fiel d o f play th e rule s ar e clearl y defined , fair , an d unambiguous . Wha t ha s t o be achieved i n order t o be th e victor i s set in concrete. It is here, on th e field o f play , where you r race , with a fe w exceptions , doe s no t matter . Winning i s the name o f th e game . Off th e field , th e rule s fo r succes s becom e raciall y abstract . I n hi s book, In Black and White: Race and Sports in America, Kennet h Shrop shire literall y paint s i n blac k an d whit e a realisti c pictur e o f th e racia l climate i n sport s fo r al l t o see . Th e impression s lef t upo n th e reade r are precise an d stark . Race still matters i n the decision-making proces s

xvi Foreword

and chang e wil l onl y occu r whe n th e decision-makin g body , o n al l levels, becomes mor e diverse . In Black and White is a mus t rea d fo r anyone seekin g t o understan d th e obstacle s tha t hav e impede d th e natural progressio n o f African-American s a s hea d coaches , adminis trators, agents, and owners.

•J

•

Preface: Sports, Race , and Scholarshi p Sports It wa s th e firs t Basebal l Networ k meeting. 1 On e b y one , th e African American basebal l heroe s o f m y yout h steppe d u p t o microphone s and tol d eac h othe r ho w the y ha d bee n treate d b y th e team s tha t formerly employe d the m a s players. Some went o n t o talk abou t wha t they ha d wante d but , du e t o thei r color , basebal l ha d no t allowe d them t o receive . Willie Stargel l prodde d thos e h e kne w ha d bee n hur t t o ste p u p and spea k t o th e group . Thi s wa s a roo m fille d wit h tru e believer s i n the existenc e o f racis m an d i n th e ide a tha t opportunitie s ha d bee n denied t o the m becaus e o f thei r race . Man y heroe s cried . Som e coul d not fin d th e words t o explain how the y had suffered . Th e meeting wa s private, but thi s wa s validatio n t o m e tha t blac k men , n o matte r ho w powerful, famous , o r intelligent , wer e defenseles s agains t racism . My motivation s fo r writin g thi s book ar e many. Th e main goa l i s t o respond t o those who ask , "Wha t ca n we d o abou t th e underrepresen tation o f African-American s i n th e top-leve l position s i n sport s man agement? " Th e firs t tim e I trul y recognize d th e difficult y i n re sponding t o thi s wa s whil e servin g a s a n attorne y fo r th e Basebal l Network. O n th e heel s o f A l Campanis' s 198 7 statemen t tha t black s lacked th e "necessities " t o manag e i n baseball , th e Network' s initia l meeting, where Stargel l urged th e ballplayers t o speak, was organize d by a n a d ho c grou p o f activ e an d retire d Majo r Leagu e Basebal l players. 2 Th e ultimat e goa l o f thi s grou p wa s t o pul l togethe r thes e xvn

xviii Preface athletes an d t o pus h thos e minoritie s wh o ha d th e "necessities' ' int o the ol d boys' network o f whic h the y ha d neve r bee n a part . The firs t meetin g include d a stunnin g arra y o f ove r tw o hundre d active an d forme r ballplayers . Thos e wh o attende d tha t firs t meetin g and subsequen t gathering s feature d a lis t o f basebal l legends , includ ing Fran k Robinson , Willi e Stargell , Don n Clendennon , Do n Baylor , Dusty Baker , Dav e Winfield , Bob Watson, an d Vad a Pinson . Althoug h not al l chos e t o speak , thos e wh o di d detaile d thei r desire s t o coach , manage, scout , o r wor k otherwis e fo r th e gam e the y love d an d t o which the y ha d give n muc h o f thei r lives . Ofte n individual s men tioned tha t the y ha d no t receive d opportunitie s tha t thei r whit e team mates had . Over a two-yea r period , th e Basebal l Networ k me t wit h Commis sioners Pete r Ueberrot h an d Bar t Giamatt i an d th e managemen t o f Major Leagu e Basebal l o n severa l occasions . Th e meeting s als o in cluded leagu e consultant s an d th e longtim e civi l right s leader s Clif ford Alexande r an d Harr y Edwards . Togethe r th e partie s wer e abl e t o "network" an d t o cross-referenc e informatio n regardin g managemen t opportunities an d minorit y candidates . It is impossible t o measure th e continuing impac t o f thi s organization . Th e grou p wa s abl e t o con vey—quietly—the availabilit y o f baseball jobs for man y o f those wh o gave thei r live s t o th e sport . Th e grou p als o was therapeutic , enablin g many t o share—som e fo r th e firs t time—th e frustratio n o f seekin g employment i n baseball . In 1987,1 was in a room with the then commissioner an d his advisers, and som e Networ k boar d members , discussin g th e minorit y hirin g problem, when th e Commissioner asked , open-endedly, "Wha t shoul d we do? " Severa l suggestion s wer e throw n ou t an d comment s wer e made. One was "Why don't you use your power to act in the 'best inter ests of baseball' 3 and mandat e tha t each team in the league hire at leas t one minority a t a top-level position by X date?" The response wa s tha t African-Americans ha d bee n throug h tha t before. I n the late 1960s , we were told , whe n ther e wa s som e succes s i n gettin g universitie s t o in crease thei r minorit y hiring , th e negative outcom e wa s tha t th e schoo l administrators snatche d u p anyon e i n sight . A janitor migh t b e mad e an assistant coach simply because he was black .

Preface xi x There wa s no t muc h dissen t t o thi s response . Thi s boo k seek s t o respond t o th e quer y b y th e commissione r an d t o other s seekin g change i n sports . I hav e bee n involve d i n sport s a t othe r level s a s well . I earne d a scholarship t o pla y footbal l a t Stanfor d Universit y i n 1973 . I di d no t play much , but th e experienc e i s one o f which I am mindful . Thi s wa s at a time when ther e were fewe r tha n a half-dozen African-American s on ful l scholarshi p o n Stanford' s team . Almos t al l o f th e African Americans o n th e tea m ha d bee n hig h schoo l quarterbacks , bu t the y were // converted ,, t o othe r position s a t th e colleg e level . Th e quarter back convert s include d futur e Pr o Bow l wid e receiver s Ton y Hil l o f the Dalla s Cowboy s an d Jame s Lofto n o f th e Buffal o Bills . Thi s wa s a classi c proble m o f a previou s er a tha t toda y ha s almos t cease d completely. I wa s a n offensiv e lineman . Ofte n I wa s th e onl y blac k playe r o n my en d o f th e practic e fiel d wit h fello w linemen . Further , th e blac k players voluntaril y sa t a t separat e table s fo r meal s durin g training . (This still frequently occurs , at all levels of sport.) During my freshma n year, there was no t on e African-America n o n th e coachin g staff . Ther e also wer e n o African-American s i n administrativ e position s i n th e athletic department . These ar e al l memorie s o f a n experienc e o f whic h I a m ver y fond , because o f th e camaraderi e wit h bot h African-America n an d whit e players. But certainly th e influence th e experience had o n m e i s differ ent fro m tha t i t ha d o n th e whit e offensiv e guard s wh o line d u p nex t to me . I have als o worked i n sport s management . A t th e 198 4 Los Angele s Olympic Organizin g Committee , I ha d th e secon d longes t tenur e fo r an African-America n male . I reached th e leve l o f assistan t vic e presi dent prio r t o th e completio n o f th e committee' s work . Th e African American mal e wit h th e longes t tenur e wa s Joh n Carlos , on e o f th e greatest sprinter s o f al l time , o f 196 8 Mexic o Cit y Olympic s black gloved fist-salut e fame . H e certainl y influence d m y view s o n thes e issues throug h year s o f conversatio n a s well .

xx Preface

Race A lette r m y fathe r receive d a s h e sough t t o begi n hi s professiona l career reflect s a n earlie r tim e an d th e type s o f issue s I became awar e of earl y on . Althoug h th e settin g i n m y father' s cas e wa s no t sports , the issu e stil l was rac e i n America : December 6th , 195 2 Dear Dr . Shropshire : Thank yo u fo r you r recen t applicatio n fo r a n assistan t resi dency i n surger y i n Peoples Hospita l beginnin g Jul y 1,1953 . Peoples Hospita l ha s neve r ha d a Negr o a s a membe r o f ou r house staff , eve n thoug h w e recogniz e th e importance o f makin g facilities availabl e t o you r race . At present , w e ar e workin g o n a plan t o integrat e Negroe s int o ou r hous e staf f an d hav e dis cussed thi s with variou s communit y leaders . We ar e extremel y anxiou s tha t thi s progra m succee d an d i n view o f th e fac t tha t w e prefe r t o mak e promotion s fo r ou r resident staf f fro m withi n th e organization , i t wa s agree d b y al l interested partie s tha t i t woul d b e bette r t o star t th e firs t Negr o at Peoples Hospita l a s an intern an d promot e hi m a s merited . We realiz e tha t thi s doe s no t mee t you r need s fo r residenc y training a t th e present time , but fel t tha t yo u migh t b e intereste d in knowin g tha t mor e an d mor e hospital s ar e recognizin g thei r obligations t o members o f minorit y groups . We do appreciat e you r interes t i n People s Hospita l an d regre t that w e canno t offe r yo u th e trainin g yo u desire . Very truly yours , Peoples Hospital There ar e time s whe n I reflec t o n ho w muc h rac e relation s hav e improved i n thi s countr y sinc e 1952 . Tha t lette r woul d no t b e sen t today. Bu t a s I complete d th e firs t draf t o f th e manuscrip t fo r thi s book, m y wif e jarre d m e wit h a n ironi c dos e o f reality . Sh e i s a physician i n th e 1990s . While workin g wit h a white physicia n traine d in m y father' s era , sh e an d th e whit e physicia n ha d a professiona l disagreement. Th e whit e physicia n lef t th e operatin g roo m mutterin g

Preface xx i the word s "craz y nigger. " Th e spiri t an d racis m o f th e pas t affec t African-Americans wh o hav e presumabl y mad e i t today, regardless o f whether the y ar e successfu l physician s o r famou s athletes .

Scholarship With thi s background i n both sport s an d race , it wa s difficul t t o writ e from th e mor e distan t perspectiv e o f a scholar abou t th e confluenc e o f these issues . Today , a s a professor , I specializ e i n th e busines s o f sports a t the Wharton Schoo l o f th e University o f Pennsylvania. I have endeavored t o us e th e traditiona l tool s o f a scholar , bu t m y back ground necessaril y ha s foun d it s wa y int o thi s wor k a s well . Indeed , this boo k represent s th e intersectio n o f tw o area s tha t hav e ha d a tremendous impac t o n m y life . An d i f on e step s back , th e realit y i s that both rac e an d sport s significantl y affec t mos t Americans . My goa l i n writin g thi s book wa s t o focu s o n evenhande d method s of addressing a continuing proble m tha t likel y will not disappear . Thi s is reflecte d i n th e majorit y o f th e interview s I conducted . I di d no t ask merely , "Wha t problem s exist? " bu t rather , "Wha t solution s ar e applicable?" an d "Ho w ca n w e mak e thing s better? " Th e interview s were bot h forma l an d informal ; the y wer e informationa l an d thu s served t o balance th e persona l biase s I admittedly bring . I spoke wit h team owners , presidents , vic e presidents , genera l counsels , leagu e officials, colleg e athleti c director s an d coaches , sport s agents , colleg e athletes, professional athletes , former athletes , consultants, an d fello w scholars. Th e interviewee s wer e me n an d women , African-American s and whites , old-timer s an d newcomers . Wher e peopl e requested , th e interviews wer e of f th e record . Bu t whateve r th e leve l o f formality , I attempted t o synthesiz e th e view s o f al l wit h who m I spok e int o something mor e tha n a critique . I also mad e th e effor t t o explai n wh y change i s important . I suppos e I coul d duc k behin d m y Wharto n professo r titl e an d write abou t th e busines s o f sport s withou t openl y injectin g m y back ground. M y belie f i s tha t th e realitie s I an d thos e clos e t o m e hav e encountered an d th e effor t I hav e mad e t o confron t m y ow n biase s add valu e t o thi s work . I hav e bee n influence d b y m y experience s

xxii Preface both i n an d ou t o f sports . Bu t I a m als o a scholar . Year s o f researc h have gon e into my understandin g o f the legal, business, and sociologi cal aspect s o f sport s presente d here . I hop e thi s wor k help s pus h u s toward a societa l goa l o f confrontin g racis m directl y an d removin g racism—but not , a t thi s point , race—fro m employmen t decision s a t all levels. As I complete d thi s manuscrip t I telephone d Cliffor d Alexander , whom I ha d me t i n th e earl y day s o f th e Basebal l Network . I aske d him fo r an y fina l advic e h e migh t have . Hi s sag e word s wer e t o remember an d acknowledg e tha t a lot o f progres s ha s been made , bu t there remain s s o much t o do .

A Note on Content and Terminology Many specifi c rac e an d discriminatio n problem s ar e beyond th e scop e of thi s book . Fo r instance , th e rac e problem s o f Latino s i n sport s provide muc h materia l fo r deliberation. 4 Hocke y aficionado s wil l point t o th e salar y discrepancie s tha t favo r U.S . and Anglo-Canadia n players relativ e t o Frenc h Canadian s an d Europeans. 5 Jewis h athlete s also suffe r fro m discrimination , rangin g fro m harassmen t t o bein g barred fro m sport s organizations. 6 Abroad , th e Hawaiian-bor n sum o wrestler Saleva a Atisanoe , know n a s Konishiki , ha s face d racis m i n Japan a s he has attempte d t o move u p i n tha t conservativ e sport. 7 Although th e discriminatio n problem s relativ e t o al l o f thes e groups an d t o other s will , o n occasion , b e touche d upon , th e chie f focus o f this work i s African-Americans i n or striving fo r managemen t and othe r "powe r positions' 7 i n sports . I have decide d t o mak e thi s a bipolar—black an d white—racia l analysis , wit h a complet e aware ness o f th e debate , i n th e academ y an d elsewhere , ove r a two-side d view o f race . Th e histor y o f sports , however , set s i t apar t fro m an y other institutio n i n America. Basebal l is most illustrativ e o f th e specia l discrimination black s hav e faced . Th e histor y o f th e gam e i s fille d with black s passin g o r attemptin g t o pas s a s Nativ e American s o r Latinos becaus e thos e racia l group s wer e allowe d t o pla y th e gam e and manage . On e o f th e earlies t blacks , frustrate d i n hi s attempt s t o play i n th e whit e worl d o f organize d sports , said a t th e time , "I f I ha d

Preface xxii i not bee n quit e s o black , I migh t hav e caugh t o n a s a Spaniar d o r something o f tha t kind... . M y ski n i s agains t m e / ' 8 Th e histor y o f racism fo r African-American s i n sport s i s distinct . Eve n mor e narrow , the focu s i n thi s book i s primarily o n African-America n males . What constitute s "powe r positions " i s loosel y defined , bu t holder s of thes e post s ar e generall y th e peopl e wh o hav e responsibilit y for , a s well a s benefi t financiall y from , th e performanc e o f athletes . Some , such a s coaches , genera l managers , an d owners , hol d wha t ar e re ferred t o genericall y a s "fron t offic e positions. " Others includ e athleti c directors an d sport s agents . Racis m exist s i n ancillar y area s o f sport s as well, particularly i n broadcasting an d prin t media . Thi s i s exempli fied b y th e smal l numbe r o f African-America n sport s columnists , reporters, an d radi o an d televisio n executives . Illustrativ e o f this , o f nearly sixtee n hundre d dail y newspaper s i n th e Unite d States , onl y seven ha d full-tim e African-America n sport s columnist s i n 1993. 9 This book doe s no t attemp t t o cover ever y issu e relativ e t o African Americans i n ever y sport . Aut o racing , an d th e difficult y African American driver s suc h a s Willy T. Ribbs have ha d i n finding sponsors , is certainl y on e are a tha t deserve s attention . Th e representatio n an d development o f African-American s i n othe r individua l sport s suc h a s golf, tennis , gymnastics , swimming , an d martia l art s meri t particula r attention. I n th e spor t o f rowing , fo r instance , citie s ar e beginnin g t o recognize th e effect o f the private-club natur e o f boathouses an d regat tas, wher e minoritie s ar e usuall y no t participants. 10 Althoug h no t directly addresse d i n th e book, muc h tha t i s written o n othe r sport s i s applicable t o these issues . Hockey, th e fourt h majo r tea m spor t i n th e Unite d States , i s no t included either . Hocke y i s a spor t playe d largel y b y Canadian s an d others i n cold-weather , nonurba n areas . Thes e ar e region s no t highl y populated b y blacks . Rac e issue s i n th e Nationa l Hocke y Leagu e ar e magnified b y th e historic lac k o f involvemen t o f African-American s i n the sport , no t onl y a s player s bu t a s spectators , an d certainl y o n management an d ownershi p levels . Additiona l reason s fo r thi s ar e obvious—equipment i s expensive, and i t has never been a very visibl e sport t o African-Americans. 11 With regar d t o terminology , minorities i s probably a n inappropriat e

xxiv Preface

word t o us e t o describ e African-American s an d Latino s i n sports . I n the National Basketball Association and the National Football League, those groups represent the majority whil e whites are in the minority. I use the term minority to indicate those groups traditionally viewed a s the minority in American society at large. Similarly, although the preferred usag e herein is African-American , not al l blacks in sports ar e Americans, particularly i n baseball. Issues regarding "black " Latino s ar e ofte n reflecte d i n th e discussion s o f African-Americans herein . A t mos t o f thes e junctures I use th e ter m black instead of African-American .

••

•

Acknowledgments On bot h a forma l an d a n informa l basis , man y involve d i n th e busi ness o f sport s assiste d m y researc h fo r thi s book . Thos e currentl y o r formerly i n th e business wh o hav e aide d m y thinkin g include , amon g others, Mar k Alarie , Lesli e Alexander , Jerom e Allen , Maso n Ashe , Dusty Baker , Bren t Benner , Lucie n Blankenship , Joh n Carlos , Dor m Clendennon, Marvi n Cobb , Mary Davis , Doug Glanville , Harold Hen derson, La i Hennigan, Manni e Jackson , Newto n Jackson , Bill y "Whit e Shoes" Johnson , Bil l Johnston , Te d Leland , Wil l Miles , Ro b Moor , Cheryl Nauman , Pete r O'Malley , Kevi n Ramsey , Jerr y Reinsdorf , C . Lamont Smith , Jimmy Le e Solomon, Bob Steiner, Bill Strickland, Ralp h Stringer, Davi d Sussman , Ja y Weiner , Bil l White, an d Kelle n Winslow . Thanks als o to those who chos e t o speak t o me i n confidence . Those outsid e th e worl d o f sport s wh o assiste d i n variou s way s include, Elija h Anderson , Timoth y Davis , Jame s T . Gray , G . Richar d Shell, and Pau l Weiler, who al l reviewed variou s versions of the manu script. Fo r researc h an d editoria l assistance , m y thank s g o t o Chery l Butler, Jennife r Fox , Brya n Glass , Amand a Gross , Rosly n Levine , Ra fael Rodriguez , Scott Rosner, Melissa Shingles , Sarbjit Singh , and Mek ita Toliver . Thanks fo r th e earl y clerica l an d administrativ e assistanc e o f Ra e Goodman an d th e longer-ter m assistanc e o f Lis a Kmetz . Thanks t o m y agen t Denis e Stinso n fo r he r extraordinar y effort s and support . Thank s als o t o Nik o Pfun d fo r quickl y an d confidentl y bringing th e suppor t o f NYU Pres s behind wha t h e perceived t o be a n important project . For discussion s o n sport s an d rac e issue s ove r th e year s I giv e XXV

xxvi Acknowledgments thanks t o many . I relie d o n al l fo r assistanc e rangin g fro m lifelon g conversations t o some long forgotten remot e reflections . I n addition t o those alread y named , a n incomplet e lis t includes , Eri c Ajaye , Cliffor d Alexander, Michae l Alston , Ra y Anderson , Dariu s Anthony , Phi l Asbury, Lace y Atkinson , Kennet h Bacon , Keit h Barnes , Ton i Barnes , Herman Beavers , Fred a Berman , Pau l Birden , Marci a Boddie , Gar y Bostwick, Laure n Boulware , Jacqu i Bowles , Tod d Boyd , Jame s Brock enbury, Aubre y Brown , Car l Brown , Fran k Brown , Reggi e Brown , Jerry Bryant, Robert Bryant, Bill Burke, Keith Calhoun-Senghor, Made lyn Cobb , Ti m Cobb , Wayn e Collette , Enni s Cooper , Loi s Corrin , Ro n Crawford, Anit a DeFrantz , Carl Douglas, George Duncan , Susan Dun nings, Gerald Durant , Stepha n Earl , Harry Edwards , Joan Evans , Don ald Eversley , Joh n Finley , Velet t Finley , Car l Fletcher , Darry l Fraser , Darrell Gay , Bar t Giamatti , Bil l Gould , Alle n Green , Jame s Hamilton , James Hardin , Joh n Haydel , Ton y Hill , Michae l Hollingsworth , Mar vin Holmes , Ti m Jefferson, Ma e Jemison , Bo b Johnson, Lyn n Johnson , Sherrie Johnson, Josetta Jones, Michael King , Stanley King , Joe Knight , Tetteh Kofi , Melani e Lawson , Feli x Leatherwood , Ton y Lecour , Pete r Lewis, Charle s Lowery , Georg e Madison , Georg e McKenna , Mor a McLean, Ralp h Moore , Warren Morrison , Bil l Moultrie, John Murphy , Tommy Myers , Brend a Neal , Ric h Nichols , Lee Nunnery , Charle s Og letree, Dion Peronneau , Alle n Perry , Lorett a Polk , Rick y Roberts , Har vey Schiller , Bryan t Seaman , Warne r Sessions , Tedd y Shaw , Jame s Sherrard, E . R . Shipp , Rober t Smith , Donal d Stevenson , Ewar t Thomas, Jerr y Thomas , Winsto n Thompson , Henr y Tillman , Dougla s Toomer, Reggi e Turner , Pete r Ueberroth , Pete r Vaughan , Me l Vines , Darrell Walker , Ricke y Walker , Fre d Washington , Gar y Watson , Ren a Wheaton, Arlen e Williams , Terri e Williams , Geral d Wilson , Solomo n Young, and Aaro n Youngblood . The Hastings Law Journal, the University of Colorado Law Review, an d the Marquette Sports Law Journal were kin d enoug h t o publis h article s that ultimatel y evolve d int o portion s o f thi s book i n volum e 4 7 of th e Hastings Law Journal, "Merit , OY Bo y Networks , an d th e Black Bottomed Pyramid " (1996) ; volume 6 7 o f th e Universit y o f Colorad o Law Review , "Diversity , Racis m an d Professiona l Sport s Franchis e Ownership: Change Mus t Com e fro m Within " (1996) ; and volum e 6 of

Acknowledgments xxvii the Marquette Sports Law Journal, "Sports Agent s an d Rac e Conscious ness" (1996) . I express m y appreciatio n t o all of them . I als o wan t t o giv e specia l acknowledgmen t t o m y wife , Diane , th e true athlet e i n th e famil y I than k yo u fo r takin g th e tim e t o rea d th e manuscript, t o giv e m e time , an d fo r allowin g m e t o shar e som e o f your lif e i n thi s work . Als o t o m y olde r brother , Claudius , thank s fo r leading th e wa y fo r m e throug h lif e an d fo r insight s a s coac h an d athlete o n th e issue s herein . Finally , t o m y mother , Jane , thank s fo r everything includin g sendin g clipping s tha t alway s fin d thei r wa y into m y work . Especiall y thank s fo r th e lette r sen t t o m y fathe r fro m Peoples Hospita l se t fort h i n th e Preface . Tha t lette r allowe d hi m t o have a tangible presenc e i n thi s book a s well .

••

•

Introduction: The Realitie s of Racis m and Discriminatio n in America We hav e n o solution s t o th e problem s face d b y minoritie s i n attaining equitabl e employmen t status—othe r tha n t o simplisti cally expect that persons who hire be race and gender blind. —Bob Steiner, director of public relations, Los Angeles Lakers Must I striv e towar d colorlessness ? Bu t seriousl y an d withou t snobbery, thin k o f wha t th e worl d woul d los e i f tha t shoul d happen. Americ a i s wove n o f man y strands ; I would recogniz e them and let it remain so. —Ralph Ellison, Invisible Man

Racism in the United States C. L . R . Jame s ha s writte n eloquentl y o n th e rol e o f rac e i n sports . Players o f al l races an d classe s could com e togethe r an d participat e i n a game , suc h a s hi s belove d cricket , withou t regar d t o rac e o r class . Race wa s rarel y a n issu e amon g th e player s onc e o n th e field . Bu t i n James's Wes t India n cricke t world , racis m kep t blac k player s fro m playing for som e clubs , from bein g captains o f the one s for whic h the y could play , an d fro m involvemen t i n th e overal l managemen t o f th e sport. Rac e problem s i n Americ a toda y similarl y impac t o n th e busi ness o f sports . Thu s th e rac e problem s i n Americ a a t larg e canno t b e ignored i n a n analysi s o f th e business o f sports . I t is the rac e issue s i n society tha t ar e the framewor k fo r thi s book .

1

2 Introduction The prospect s fo r solvin g th e rac e problem s o f th e Unite d States , particularly discriminatio n agains t African-Americans , ar e dismal . The 199 2 Rodney Kin g cas e i n Lo s Angeles , wherei n a suburba n jur y acquitted whit e L.A . polic e officer s o f usin g excessiv e forc e o n King , an African-American , despit e a videotap e o f th e beating , cas t th e fundamental racis m o f th e America n crimina l justic e syste m i n stark , violent relie f ye t again— a searin g reminde r t o thos e wh o believe d such inequitie s wer e behin d us . Hidde n camera s als o revea l tha t dis crimination stil l exists in housing, lending, and eve n retail. 1 The videotape make s thos e otherwis e unawar e cognizan t o f th e realit y o f dis crimination i n th e United States . The initia l Rodne y Kin g cas e verdic t i s on e o f th e mos t prominen t contemporary exhibit s o f America n racism . Tha t event , however , wa s overshadowed b y th e aftermat h o f th e verdic t i n th e murde r tria l o f O. J. Simpson i n Los Angeles i n 1995 . The former professiona l footbal l player, Heisman Troph y winner , an d Hal l o f Fam e membe r wa s foun d not guilt y o f killin g his ex-wif e an d he r friend . Simpso n i s black. Bot h victims were white. During the trial police misconduct and racism wer e found. Thes e corruptio n problem s surface d alongsid e stron g circum stantial an d scientifi c evidenc e agains t Simpson . Vision s o f African American group s cheerin g th e verdict an d white s lookin g stunne d ar e ingrained i n all who observe d th e post-trial event. The reactions clearl y illustrated th e distance between blacks and whites. There was no videotape o f th e murders . Bu t th e tria l was , i n effect , a yearlon g videotap e for all to watch. The reactions to the long-running tap e were apparentl y impacted b y th e background o f th e viewer . N o secto r o f societ y i s free of the malady. In reported lega l opinions fro m th e not-too-distant past , black patron s wer e segregate d o n th e secon d floo r o f a motel, 2 a blac k businessperson agreein g to rent an office wa s later told by the landlor d that it was unavailable; 3 and a n accusation o f theft wa s made agains t a black travele r wh o wa s simpl y seekin g a refund o n his bus ticket. 4 Ex amples of this type of racism are seemingly endless . In Bosto n i n 1990 , polic e readil y believe d Charle s Stuar t whe n h e said a black ma n ha d murdere d hi s pregnan t wife . Stuart , late r foun d to be the perpetrator, initiall y was not eve n a suspect. 5 I n a 199 4 action

Introduction 3 brought b y th e Unite d State s Departmen t o f Justice agains t th e Chev y Chase Federa l Saving s Bank , a n $1 1 millio n settlemen t wa s reache d because th e suburba n Washingto n D.C . ban k ha d n o branche s i n predominantly blac k neighborhoods. 6 I n Milwauke e th e polic e alleg edly refuse d t o tak e seriousl y th e complaint s o f th e blac k an d Asia n neighbors o f mas s murdere r Jeffre y Dahmer. 7 The incident s ar e no t simpl y regional . Nationally , th e imag e o f Willie Horto n pushe d whit e voter s awa y fro m presidentia l candidat e Michael Dukakis t o George Bush in 1988 . In 1994, Denny's Restaurant s paid 5 4 millio n dollar s t o settl e rac e bia s suit s file d b y thousand s o f black customers , wit h complaint s rangin g fro m bein g refuse d servic e to being asked t o pay i n advance. 8 Also in 1994 , a study commissione d by the United State s Office o f Personnel Management foun d tha t blac k federal worker s ar e fire d a t approximatel y twic e th e rat e o f whites. 9 The federa l governmen t i s th e larges t employe r o f African-American s in the country Eve n allowin g fo r ove r twent y factors , including differ ences i n age , education , an d jo b performance , th e stud y concluded , with grea t clarity , tha t thi s discriminator y practic e existed. 10 Black s made u p 1 7 percent o f th e federa l workforc e bu t 3 9 percen t o f thos e fired durin g 1992 , the yea r studied. 11 An d sadly , aroun d th e countr y the number s o f hat e an d bia s crime s an d segregate d school s hav e increased a s well. 12 The law s hav e change d t o outla w discrimination , ye t discrimina tory practice s continue . Racis m i s ingraine d i n ou r cultur e an d ou r national psyche . On e commentato r ha s appropriatel y state d th e vie w of man y tha t "racia l progres s i n th e Unite d State s i s characterize d b y an evolutionary proces s tha t has yet to work throug h it s final stage." 13

The Use of Statistics to Prove Racism Paralleling society , attempt s t o en d al l bu t th e mos t rigi d an d institu tionalized racia l inequalities i n the business o f sports have been gener ally unsuccessful . Accordin g t o on e 199 5 study , African-American s constituted th e followin g percentage s i n th e top-leve l position s i n professional sports : 0 percent o f th e majority owner s an d commission -

4 Introduction Table 1: Racial Composition of

Players NBA NF

White 1990-9 Black Latino White 1991-9 Black Latino White 1992-9 Black Latino Other* White 1994-9 Black Latino

1 28 2 3

5

% 199 72% 0% 25% 75% 0% 23% 77% 0% 0% 18% 82% 0%

L ML

0 39

% 199 61% 0%

B

1 68

1991

36% 62% 2%

1992

1992

30% 68%