Identity and Internationalization in Catholic Universities : Exploring Institutional Pathways in Context [1 ed.] 9789004382091, 9789004382084

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Identity and Internationalization in Catholic Universities

Global Perspectives on Higher Education Series Editors Philip G. Altbach (Center for International Higher Education, Boston College, USA) Hans de Wit (Center for International Higher Education, Boston College, USA) Laura E. Rumbley (Center for International Higher Education, Boston College, USA) This series is co-published with the Center for International Higher Education at Boston College.

ඏඈඅඎආൾ 41

The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/gphe

Identity and Internationalization in Catholic Universities Exploring Institutional Pathways in Context Edited by

Hans de Wit, Andrés Bernasconi, Visnja Car, Fiona Hunter, Michael James and Daniela Véliz

අൾංൽൾඇ_ൻඈඌඍඈඇ

All chapters in this book have undergone peer review. The Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available online at http://catalog.loc.gov

ISSN 2214-0859 ISBN 978-90-04-38207-7 (paperback) ISBN 978-90-04-38208-4 (hardback) ISBN 978-90-04-38209-1 (e-book) Copyright 2018 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Rodopi, Brill Sense and Hotei Publishing. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner.

CONTENTS

Preface

ix

Lessons Learned and Possible Future Pathways: A Summary of Key Themes and Findings Hans de Wit, Andrés Bernasconi, Visnja Car, Tessa DeLaquil, Fiona Hunter, Michael James, Kelber Tozini and Daniela Véliz

xi

Part 1: Introduction 1.

Embedding Identity and Internationalization into Institutional Practice Fiona Hunter and Michael James

3

Part 2: Latin America 2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Exploring Levels of Internationalization in Latin American Catholic Universities Pedro Pablo Rosso

17

Internationalization as a Dimension of Identity in Latin American Jesuit Universities Ricardo Carbone Bruna

31

3RQWL¿FLD8QLYHUVLGDG&DWyOLFDGH&KLOHSearching for Meaningful Links between Identity and Internationalization Andrés Bernasconi, Daniela Véliz and Astrid Pickenpack

43

Universidad Alberto Hurtado, Santiago, Chile: Strengthening Mission through International Cooperation Sebastián Kaufmann and Constanza Bauer

55

3RQWL¿FLD8QLYHUVLGDG-DYHULDQD%RJRWi&RORPELDThe Emergence of a Symbiotic Relationship between Identity and Internationalization Luis Fernando Álvarez Londoño, S.J.

65

Universidad La Salle Mexico City: Polyphony of Values between Christian Identity and the Educational Market Demands Felipe Gaytán Alcalá

75

Universidade do Vale do Rio Dos Sinos, UNISINOS, Brazil: How Identity Has Given Meaning to the Internationalization Process 87 Cristiano Richter, Gustavo Borba, Laura Knijnik Baumvol, Paula Dal Bo Campagnolo and Sara Rudnicki v

CONTENTS

Part 3: United States of America 9.

Identifying Characteristics of Identity and Internationalization in Catholic Universities in the United States of America Michael James

97

10. Regional Perspectives from the USA: Understanding Internationalization Efforts in the Jesuit Higher Education Network 105 Bao Nguyen 11. Boston College: Integrating Identity into New Strategic Directions for Internationalization Hans de Wit and Michael James

121

Part 4: Asia Pacific 12. International Cooperation and Globalization in Asia and the Role of Jesuit Universities Miki Sugimura

135

13. Sophia University, Tokyo, Japan: When Identity Is Strengthened by New Understandings of Internationalization Miki Sugimura

147

14. Australian Catholic University, Melbourne: Expressing Identity through International Opportunity Anthony Casamento and Chris Riley

159

15. St. Paul University, Tuguegarao City, the Philippines: Preserving Catholic Identity with an Increasingly Diverse Student Population Jeremy Godofredo C. Morales

169

Part 5: Europe 16. Catholic Identity and Internationalization in Europe: Linking the Past to the Future Visnja Car

183

17. Universidad de Deusto, Bilbao, Spain: Internationalization as a Means to Realize Institutional Mission and Vision María J. Pando Canteli and Alvaro de la Rica Aspiunza

195

18. Universidad Loyola Andalucía, Sevilla, Spain: Cultivating Jesuit-Inspired Connections to Internationalization Francisco de Borja Martín Garrido

209

vi

CONTENTS

19. 8QLYHUVLGDGH&DWyOLFD3RUWXJXHVD3RUWXJDOHow Identity Guides International Partnerships and Positioning Isabel Capeloa Gil and Teresa Lloyd Braga

223

20. John Paul II University of Lublin, Poland: How History Defines the Relationship between Identity and Internationalization Visnja Car and Agnieszka Lekka-Kowalik

231

21. Tilburg University, the Netherlands: Attuning Catholic Identity to a Secular Society Visnja Car

243

22. Catholic University of Croatia: A Renaissance of Catholic Identity Visnja Car 23. Università Cattolica Del Sacro Cuore (UCSC), Milan, Italy: Re-Shaping Catholic Identity in a Changing Context Visnja Car and Fiona Hunter

257

269

Part 6: Global Perspectives 24. Identity Meets Internationalization: The Case of the International Association of La Salle Universities Carlos Coelho

283

About the Contributors

293

vii

PREFACE

The research project Catholic Universities: Identity and Internationalization is a cooperative research project between the Center for International Higher Education (CIHE) at Boston College (BC), the Center for Research on Educational Policy and Practice (&(33( DWWKH3RQWLILFLD8QLYHUVLGDG&DWyOLFDGH&KLOH38&&KLOH DQG the Centre for Higher Education Internationalisation (CHEI) at Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (UCSC). The three universities represent three of the types of Catholic universities and colleges: independent (UCSC), sponsored religious (BC), and pontifical (UCC). The goal of the research project was to explore the relationship between Catholic identity and mission and internationalization in Catholic universities of different types and located in different contexts. Guiding questions were: What is the rationale for internationalization at Catholic universities? Is it mostly financial, social, academic, or identity driven? Should students’ study abroad experience have a Catholic identity and mission component to it? How do Catholic institutions cooperate with other institutions? Is there an identity-based strategy behind the choice of partners? What is the influence of context? What is the role of associations of Catholic universities? The study is financially supported through two grants from the Luksic Fund, a fund of the Chilean Luksic family providing grants to stimulate cooperation between the PUC de Chile, Boston College, and University of Notre Dame, also in the United States. The first grant made it possible to do a pilot study between the three universities. This resulted in a first publication (Bernasconi et al., 2017). The pilot project laid the groundwork for the development of a larger research project, focused on comparative examination of internationalization in the Catholic higher education context, which is funded by a second grant from the Luksic Fund. This study involves sixteen case studies from Latin America (five), the United States (one), the Asia–Pacific (three), and Europe (seven). This book is the result from that broader study and includes, in addition to the sixteen institutional case study contributions, chapters on regional perspectives on Catholic higher education as well as more specifically Jesuit higher education and internationalization in the United States, Latin America, the Asia–Pacific region, and Europe. It also includes a contribution on the global network of La Salle Universities, as an example of an international association of Catholic universities. In the first chapter of this study, Fiona Hunter and Michael James introduce the theme of Catholic identity and internationalization. The study starts with a summary of key themes and findings by the editors and two graduate students at Boston College, Tessa DeLaquil and Kelber Tozini, in which the results of the study are summarized and analyzed, and recommendations are formulated on how Catholic institutions of higher education can strengthen the relationship between their identity and their internationalization strategy. ix

PREFACE

Draft case studies were prepared and presented for discussion at a seminar at the PUC, November 7–8, 2017. That seminar took place in conjunction with, and with a half day of overlap with the annual meeting on international education, November 8–10, 2017, at Universidad Alberto Hurtado in Santiago de Chile, cosponsored by the Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities (AJCU) International Education Conference and the Asociación de Universidades Confiadas a la Compañía de Jesús en América Latina (AUSJAL). This provided a broad basis for discussion on the objectives and conclusions of the study. We are grateful to our colleagues Constanza Bauer Campos and Sebastian Kaufmann Salinas at Universidad Alberto Hurtado for this suggestion and their support in the realization. Not every piece of data was available for all institutions included in the study. The case study reports, accordingly, explore the issue of interest from slightly different angles and with varied sources of evidence. Nonetheless, certain common areas and trends stand out from the materials and findings presented in the following chapters. In the introduction to our pilot study we made reference to these trends. In our summary, we elaborate further on them, based on the larger pool of case studies in this study. We have to acknowledge certain limitations in the realization of our study. Africa and the Middle East are not presented as regions or with case studies. Several attempts were made but without success. Given the increasing role of Catholic and other faith-based institutions of higher education in those regions, further study on these regions is recommended. Another limitation is the presence of only one American university and the absence of case studies from Canada and India. Also here, our efforts were in vain. It has, however, been possible to write two broader chapters on Catholic and Jesuit higher education in the United States. We would like to thank the Luksic Fund for its generous support to this study, which has allowed us to realize this study, fund meetings between authors and editors, and edit the two publications resulting from the study. We like to thank the authors and their institutions for their contribution to this study, and Hélène Bernot Ullerö, Liz Reisberg, and in particular Boston College graduate students Tessa DeLaquil and Kelber Tozini, for their support in the final editing of the book. REFERENCE %HUQDVFRQL $ GH :LW +  9pOL]&DOGHUyQ '   Catholic universities: Identity and internationalization, a pilot project. CIHE Perspectives (No. 3). Boston, MA: Boston College CIHE.

x

HANS DE WIT, ANDRÉS BERNASCONI, VISNJA CAR, TESSA DELAQUIL, FIONA HUNTER, MICHAEL JAMES, KELBER TOZINI AND DANIELA VÉLIZ

LESSONS LEARNED AND POSSIBLE FUTURE PATHWAYS: A SUMMARY OF KEY THEMES AND FINDINGS

Internationalization is a key concern for universities working to achieve their goals in different regions of the world, without neglecting their identity. The goal of this study is to explore the relationship between Catholic identity and internationalization in Catholic universities of different types and located in different contexts. Guiding questions are: What is the rationale for internationalization at Catholic universities? Is it mostly financial, social, academic, or identity driven? Should students’ study abroad experience have a Catholic identity and mission component to it? How do Catholic institutions cooperate with other institutions? Is there an identity-based strategy behind the choice of partners? What is the influence of context? What is the role of associations of Catholic universities? Catholic universities have unique missions, such as the formation of individuals inspired by a religious conviction to serve society and the Church. On the other hand, if an institution is tightly connected, as Catholic higher education institutions (HEIs) usually are, with an external religious organization—a relationship Bernasconi (2006) and Milian and Rizk (2017) call “affiliation”—it is to be expected that such affiliation would bring some measure of distinctiveness to the educational institution, providing it with a sense of mission, functions, policies, human and other resources, development strategies, and sources of legitimacy that derive more or less directly from this close association of the university with another institution. Indeed, the relationship between Catholic identity and mission, and institutional strategies and policies in Catholic HEIs have been explored (mostly in the United States) with respect to marketing (Milian & Rizk, 2017); policies toward unions (Beyer, 2015); teaching and learning (Hagan, 2016); inclusiveness (Ford & Glimps, 2016); the impact of philanthropy in the balance between a Catholic college’s service to the Church and its responsiveness to national policy (Gallo, 2013); religious and academic freedom (Russo & McGreal, 2012; García, 2012); pedagogy for justice and social learning (Bergman, 2011; Harrison, Kostic, Toton, & Zurek, 2010; Rausch, 2010); and culture (Morey & Piderit, 2006), among other issues. Although the bulk of this literature concerns US HEIs, there are also examples of scholarship and reflection in similar topics emerging from other contexts, such

xi

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as Chile (Imbarack, 2015) or China (Chen, 2004), and undoubtedly much that is published in languages other than English or in outlets not easily searchable through bibliographic databases. However, neither the above referenced works, nor more general reviews of Catholic higher education, such as Hunt, Joseph, Nuzzi, and Geiger (2003); Morey and Piderit (2006); or Gleason (1995), take internationalization as their main focus, as we do in this book. That is why it appears reasonable to seek a link between the Catholic identity and mission of these universities and their internationalization policy and practice, and to uncover empirical evidence to help develop practical and effective policies on central themes such as internationalization—a fundamental part of many universities’ developmental strategies—while paying special attention to each university’s specific context. In this summary chapter, we present key themes addressed. First, we address the concept of internationalization in higher education. Then we look at the role of Catholic higher education within the context of the Catholic Church, and explore how identity and internationalization are embedded in institutional practice. This is followed by an overview of the role of global and regional associations in Catholic higher education, and their attention to internationalization. This summary ends with key findings from a comparative analysis of the case studies and regional contexts presented in this book, and we define some questions for further discussion and study about ways universities can seek to balance their catholic identity and mission with their global engagement initiatives. INTERNATIONALIZATION IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Internationalization as a concept and strategic factor is a rather recent phenomenon, resulting from the fact that higher education, both at the level of the system and of the institutions, needs to act and react in an increasingly globalized knowledge society and economy. Internationalization, in particular in Catholic universities, has always been present in different ways: in research, in the inbound and outbound mobility of students and scholars, in the curriculum, but it has been more implicit and fragmented than explicit and central. From the 1980s onward, internationalization has gradually moved from being marginal to becoming a core phenomenon, as a consequence of such developments as the increasing importance of research and education for economic development (the knowledge economy and knowledge society), the rapidly growing demand for higher education in the world, the end of the Cold War, and regional cooperation in higher education—the latter particularly in Europe. In the 1980s and 1990s, the main focus was on mobility. This was a result of an unmet demand for higher education, triggering a drastic increase in the number of degree-seeking students, mainly from the developing to the developed world; the growth in the mobility of short-term credit students, in particular in Europe as a xii

LESSONS LEARNED AND POSSIBLE FUTURE PATHWAYS

result of the Erasmus program; an increase in short-term faculty mobility, primarily for research; and a gradual growth in franchise operations, branch campuses, and other forms of transnational education. This focus—referred to as “Internationalization Abroad” (Jane Knight, 2012)— is still prevalent. But by the turn of the millennium, a need emerged for HEIs to respond to a compelling call for globally competent citizens and professionals. This imperative required paying attention to the far larger group of nonmobile students and faculty, and to internationalizing the curriculum and teaching and learning. The notion of “Internationalization at Home” came to the fore. Over the past decade, the relationship between these two components— internationalization at home and abroad—and the need to create a more central, integrated, and systemic approach to internationalization have spurred an interest in “Comprehensive Internationalization” (Hudzik, 2015), to help eliminate fragmentation and marginalization. An updated definition of internationalization emerged, reflecting these broader understandings of the nature and purpose of internationalization: The intentional process of integrating an international, intercultural, or global dimension into the purpose, functions, and delivery of postsecondary education, in order to enhance the quality of education and research for all students and staff and to make a meaningful contribution to society. (de Wit et al., 2015) In other words, internationalization in higher education has evolved over the past 30 years from an ad hoc, marginal, and fragmented phenomenon to a central and comprehensive component of higher education policy—although, still, more in the rhetoric than in concrete action (de Wit & Rumbley, 2017). How do Catholic HEIs develop their policies and practices of internationalization? What rationales do they use to enhance the three pillars of internationalization: mobility, curriculum, and partnerships? How do they relate these policies and practices to their identity and mission? In other words: why are HEIs internationalizing, how does that relate to their programs and organizational strategies, and what outcomes do they look for? To answer these questions, we first go back to some of the defining dimensions of embedding identity and internationalization into institutional practice, as addressed in the introductory chapter. EMBEDDING IDENTITY & INTERNATIONALIZATION INTO INSTITUTIONAL PRACTICE

A significant part of being a Catholic HEI has to do with the relationship to the structural authority of the Roman Catholic Church. As an academic institution, a Catholic university is a member of the local community (including the local diocese), the national community (including the national conference of bishops), the international academic community (via the Roman Curia), and it is in service to the universal Church through the teaching and research functions proper to its role xiii

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(John Paul II, 1990). Every Catholic university must “maintain communion with the universal Church and the Holy See… the local Church and in particular with the diocesan Bishops of the region or nation in which it is located” (John Paul II, 1990, Part II, art. 5). The Congregation for Catholic Education is one of the dicasteries or departments of the Roman Curia—the central government of the Catholic Church in Rome. Within this Congregation is the Office for Universities. At this level, universal norms for Catholic universities are followed, as published in the Code of Canon Law (can. 807–814) and the apostolic constitution, Ex corde Ecclesiae. While these documents have specific regulatory functions in defining a Catholic HEI, the Congregation rarely intervenes in the management of an institution. Universities that include ecclesiastical faculties for the training of seminarians and the granting of ecclesiastical degrees have a distinct and formal connection to the Office for Universities within the Congregation for Catholic Education. The norms for ecclesiastical faculties have been followed as published in the apostolic constitution, Sapientia Christiana (John Paul II, 1979), now recently updated in Veritatis Gaudium (Francis, 2018). At the national or regional level, countries have an episcopal conference (a conference of bishops), which exercises pastoral functions over a regional or national community. For example, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops (USCCB) is the episcopal conference for the Catholic Church in the United States. Within the USCCB, the Committee on Catholic Education works to “[encourage] and [support] efforts in Catholic education by fostering the distribution and implementation of both universal Church documents on education as well as related documents developed by the bishops of the United States” (USCCB, n.d., n.p.) The USCCB also maintains relationships with bishops and diocesan offices, national education organizations, governmental and legislative bodies, and the Holy See and other episcopal conferences. At the local level the Code of Canon Law states, “… No university is to bear the title or name of Catholic university without the consent of competent ecclesiastical authority” (can. 808). The ecclesiastical authority in this case need not be the Congregation in Rome, nor a bishop from the national episcopal conference but is generally understood to be the diocesan bishop. Thus, “every Catholic University, without ceasing to be a University, has a relationship to the Church that is essential to its institutional identity” (John Paul II, 1990, No. 27). It is not a relationship of mandates and regulations. Rather, the institution participates in this mutually life-giving relationship by fulfilling its mission as an academic institution, in its teaching and research functions, properly ordered to the common good of society and to the service of the universal Church. In an age of significant transformation in societies around the world, the question of what makes a Catholic university Catholic is being asked again in many institutions. This question has no easy answer. Although the distinctive character is defined by the essential characteristics set out in Ex corde Ecclesiae, each university is affected by many factors in its own context that will lead it to view the issue from its own unique perspective. xiv

LESSONS LEARNED AND POSSIBLE FUTURE PATHWAYS

As Catholic universities reflect on how they can contribute to societal development and produce graduates who are equipped to work and live in the world from a Christian perspective, they also need to do so in the context of the growing challenges and pressures of globalization. This means that they are also required to think about the international dimension of their work and how it can enhance the institutional quality. While universities seek to redefine their Catholic identity, many are also facing the competitive pressures of internationalization, either to enhance their prestige or to guarantee sufficient student numbers. As internationalization increasingly becomes an institutional imperative, it is also being questioned in a number of countries around the world as the recent wave of antiglobalization challenges the values and benefits that universities attribute to internationalization. Therefore, while universities may perceive identity and internationalization as fundamental, they are also subjected to strong pressures from their environments. Furthermore, in some universities identity and internationalization may have developed independently of one another with no evident points of contact in institutional practice, while in others, there may be a more purposeful approach to build clear connections and enable the two dimensions to mutually reinforce one another. In whatever way a Catholic university defines its identity and its approach to internationalization, the cases described in this book indicate that there are a variety of approaches to do this, and that there is a significant variation in the degrees of intensity or intentionality in linking the two components of what is termed “missiondriven internationalization.” Universities—and Catholic universities are no exception—do not typically have a long tradition with strategic planning. It is a process that does not always sit comfortably in their culture and very often the first experience is not a successful one. The reasons for developing a plan may come from external pressures of government or funding agencies seeking accountability rather than from within, and the university may feel forced to comply rather than embrace it as an opportunity to think creatively and strategically about its future. Strategic planning, when properly done, offers an opportunity to the university to move away from a collection of loosely connected activities to an approach that links identity to internationalization, embeds both dimensions in institutional practice and enhances their potential to contribute to mission. As Fiorin (2015, p. 7) states in Instrumentum Laboris, the mission is derived from Catholic identity and puts it into practice. In order to do so, a model is presented in the introductory chapter on the way a university operates and how this should be reflected through the strategic planning process. It invites the university to start by having clearly in mind what its vision and mission should be in line with the context in which it is operating. Only then should it identify academic activities in terms of education, formation, research, and outreach, since it is through these activities that it will be able to carry out the vision xv

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and mission that it has chosen. Once the academic activities have been defined, the university can turn its attention to what support services need to be in place, and then finally to the resources required for effective operation. These four elements are described in sequence in four sections of the plan with clear objectives and actions, and each section supporting the previous ones. This model invites the university to plan for its future in an intentional, systematic, and holistic manner and proposes identity and internationalization as cross-functional dimensions. Both are expressed in the mission and vision and translated into specific academic activities and practices, support functions, and resource needs. The model is one that can be used by any university regardless of its circumstances or ambitions, and enables it to identify the ways in which identity and internationalization can mutually support one another. If identity and internationalization are considered to be essential, then they should be placed at the heart of the planning process where they can be given real meaning and where their respective roles can be reinforced. As they interact with one another, they can give greater value to the mission that each university seeks to deliver in the context of its own particular heritage and setting. One aspect of internationalization that is typically addressed in the planning process is the role of partnerships and networks and it is interesting to explore how these are developing in the context of Catholic Education. THE GLOBAL LANDSCAPE OF CATHOLIC ASSOCIATIONS AND NETWORKS

As an academic institution, a Catholic university is part of the local community and the international academic community, and it serves the universal Church through the teaching and research functions proper to its role (John Paul II, 1990). In its research function, the Catholic HEI has as its mission to examine: Serious contemporary problems in areas such as the dignity of human life, the promotion of justice for all, the quality of personal and family life, the protection of nature, the search for peace and political stability, a more just sharing in the world’s resources, and a new economic and political order that will better serve the human community at a national and international level. (John Paul II, 1990, No. 32) Given the vastness, complexity, and urgency of these problems, and the limited “economic and personal resources of a single institution, cooperation in common research projects among Catholic universities, as well as other private and governmental institutions,” (John Paul II, 1990, No. 35)—that is, international academic partnerships, associations, and networks—are imperative to facilitate the necessary collaboration to arrive at solutions. Thus, Catholic institutions, within their functions as both university and Catholic, must choose how to engage at the global level in order to fulfil their mission. xvi

LESSONS LEARNED AND POSSIBLE FUTURE PATHWAYS

Academic associations are groups of organizations or professional academic units that scale from departments to schools to institutions, or institutional constituents (faculty, administrators, and students), and may be single or multipurpose (de Wit, 2004). Academic associations may be classified according to the mission of the organization: multi-aim scholarly, multi-aim social, standards-oriented, discipline-oriented, or profession-oriented (Fumasoli et al., 2017). Academic associations may also be classified by membership levels: interpersonal, interunit, or interorganizational (Brass et al., 2004). For Catholic academic associations, a further level of classification exists by sponsoring religious order, for example by the Jesuits, or the Franciscans, or the Lasallians. Catholic HEIs may also be affiliated with nongovernmental Catholic service organizations such as Catholic Relief Services, Caritas International, or Jesuit Refugee Services. This reflects the particular mission of Catholic HEIs to promote social justice and student formation; as such, these relationships may include shortterm or long-term student mobility opportunities such as international service trips or student placements and internships.While numerous Catholic NGOs operate internationally, there appear to be but few Catholic academic associations and networks that function at that level, especially for interorganizational membership. The International Federation of Catholic Universities (IFCU) is an international academic association with institutional members (see Table 1). The Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities (ACCU) has some international member institutions, but primarily caters to North America. At the regional and national levels, Catholic academic interorganizational associations are more active, especially those affiliated to sponsoring orders. At the interunit and interpersonal membership levels, there are several international Catholic associations and networks that are largely discipline and profession-oriented. These academic associations frequently host conferences and publish scholarly journals, thus contributing to essential collaborative research. At a global level, however, it appears that the potential for Catholic universities to enhance their internationalization efforts through strategic use of associations and networks is still underdeveloped. Chapter 24 describes the global network of La Salle universities. This network, as well as the Association of Universities Entrusted to the Society of Jesus in Latin America (AUSJAL) and the Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities (AJCU) in the United States, are examples of global and regional cooperation. But in general internationalization is not yet very high on the agenda of other associations, such as IFCU. KEY FINDINGS FROM CASE STUDIES AND REGIONAL CONTEXTS

With these concepts, dimensions, and contexts in mind, we have looked for the relationship between Catholic identity and internationalization in different types of institutions and regions. Hereunder are some of the key findings. xvii

xviii Interpersonal

Discipline-oriented

Source: Data retrieved from each association’s website.

None

Interorganizational

None

None

None

None

Interpersonal

Interpersonal

Profession-oriented

None

Discipline-oriented/ Profession oriented Discipline-oriented

Interorganizational

Multi-aim social

Society of Jesus

Interorganizational

Interunit/Interpersonal

Discipline-oriented

Society of Jesus

None

Sponsoring Order

Multi-aim scholarly

Interorganizational

Multi-aim social

Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities Society for Catholic Scientists International Network of Catholic Astronomy Institutions Catholic Theological Ethics in the World Church Network

Interorganizational

Multi-aim scholarly

International Federation of Catholic Universities (IFCU) Jesuit Worldwide Learning (JWL) International Association of Jesuit Business Schools Catholic Peacebuilding Network Catholic Archive Society

Membership Level

Mission Type

Name of Association

100 members

3 HEIs

12 HEIs, 5 associations, 6 bishop’s conferences 200 members (archivists, historians) 29 international HEIs and approximately 200 US HEIs 600 members

107 HEIs

16 HEIs, 9 organisations

221 HEIs

Number of Members

Table 1. Examples of international Catholic academic associations and networks H. DE WIT ET AL.

LESSONS LEARNED AND POSSIBLE FUTURE PATHWAYS

Types of Catholic Institutions We identify four types of catholic institutions of higher education: ‡ Diocesan: a diocese or a conference of bishops founded and sponsors the institution, and the local bishop or a group of bishops exerts some role in its governance. ‡ Independent: the institution recognizes its Catholic inspiration and is sponsored and governed by a lay board. ‡ Sponsored-Religious: sponsorship comes from a religious order or congregation (for instance, the Society of Jesus) and the institution is governed by either a board of members of the order or congregation, or by a mixed board of clergy and lay members. ‡ Pontifical: the Holy See oversees the institution, which is either diocesan or sponsored religious. We have not encountered much difference in the relationship between the Catholic identity and internationalization strategy of the various cases we studied. Independent universities, Catholic by inspiration and/or by heritage, might be in general less explicit and focused in relating to these two dimensions than the others, but in general the difference in emphasis is marginal. Other factors are more important and are reviewed below. Historical Dimensions The modern foundation of many Catholic institutions of higher education is highly influenced by historical context and diverse developments in the political, economic, and sociocultural spheres. The historical context at the time of the founding has been imprinted in the organization of these Catholic institutions and influences their organizational behavior to this day. Especially in periods when universities are approaching jubilees, their history, heritage, and the reasons why they were founded gain in importance. During these periods, universities tend to be more self-reflective regarding their intellectual and scientific history and religious roots, becoming more aware of the adaptations (concessions) that have been made due to the demands of society, and awareness arises of the need to preserve and enhance their Catholic identity. Even in times when universities are more internationally oriented, they retain their national (and religious) identity (de Ridder-Symoens, 2006). Contexts Contexts define the relationship between identity/mission and internationalization in different ways. Whether the university is settled in a Catholic environment or where Catholics are a minority matters. We can compare for instance Sophia University in Japan to St. Paul University in the Philippines. Both are located in Asia, but xix

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Catholicism is in Japan a marginal religion while it is dominant in the Philippines. As their case studies make clear, both demonstrate a strong religious identity, but their different contexts lead to different choices in their internationalization initiatives. If the university is a regionally or globally highly ranked research university, the relationship between religious identify and internationalization is far looser than in other cases. We can compare the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile (PUC) to Alberto Hurtado University in Santiago, Chile. The first is a regionally highly ranked research university, while the second is a teaching institution with an emerging research profile. The PUC is founding its identity and internationalization policy on the quality of its research, while for Alberto Hurtado University the focus is on its social mission. Recently established universities are more explicit in the relationship between their Catholic identity and internationalization than older universities. When comparing Loyola Andalusia University to University Deusto in Spain, we see that the first is a young teaching institution, the second an older, well-established research university, and as a result Loyola Andalusia University is much more focused on its Jesuit identity than Deusto. Size also plays a factor: smaller institutions appear more focused on their Catholic identity in their internationalization efforts. In more secularized societies, Catholic identity is less dominant than in other contexts. This emerges when comparing Tilburg University in the Netherlands, a secularized society, to the Catholic University of Lublin, Poland, a country that is predominantly Catholic. In some cases, such as at Tilburg University, or at the Catholic University in Australia, Catholic identity plays a limited role overall, and does not appear to be related to their internationalization strategy. The Pillars of Internationalization While Catholic affiliation is usually a strong and explicit component of the universities’ mission and identity—and the same can be said of internationalization—in most cases the two dimensions appear unconnected. The relationship between Catholic identity and mission on the one hand and internationalization policy and practice on the other is in general limited and more implicit and indirect than explicit and direct. However, if we look at the three pillars of internationalization: mobility, curriculum, and partnerships, we have found that the relationship is stronger—although rather implicit—in internationalization of the curriculum than in mobility and partnerships. Implicit values, such as social justice or human rights, are in general manifest in internationalization strategies. Catholic universities see an important role in interfaith dialogue, maybe even more than in partnerships with fellow Catholic institutions. While young Catholic universities (University Loyola Andalucía, Catholic University of Croatia) consider their identity as a way to open doors to other Catholic partners, more established institutions do not prioritize Catholic partners above others. In those universities, Catholic partners are in general a minority. xx

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Tension between the Business and Reputation Model and the Mission-Driven Model There is a tension between the business/reputation model and the Catholic mission model. While institutions have to sustain themselves through tuition fees, endowments, and grants, and must compete at the national, regional, and global levels based on their reputation, depending on context this may or may not be compatible with their Catholic identity and mission—of, for instance, serving underserved groups in society. For example, for a university such as Boston College, providing financial aid to international undergraduate students is difficult from a business model perspective, but from a mission perspective it should be a driver. For a regionally top-ranked research university such as PUC in Chile, which sees as a priority to provide quality education and research and enjoys the reputation of being a quality institution, how does this that relate to its Catholic mission to foster educational opportunity and inclusion? In essence, there seems to be a tension between catholic with a “C” or a “c” in the internationalization strategy. FUTURE CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

In the current political climate of religious radicalization and intolerance and exacerbated nationalism, a process appears to be taking place of rethinking and reestablishing a relationship between Catholic identity and internationalization. Malini Sivasubramaniam and Ruth Hayhoe (2017) see the debate on the relationship between religion and education in a comparative and international perspective as timely. It comes at a critical period when religious tensions and fears of religiously rooted terrorism threaten to erode peace and national security around the world (…) Instances of religious radicalisation and intolerance frame many ethnic conflicts in our political landscape. Contrary to philosophical and sociological debates that have anticipated the demise of religion, there is renewed awareness of how important religious faith is in the lives of many and how deeply religion impacts communities. (p. 17) Sivasubramaniam and Hayhoe emphasize the role of education in interfaith dialogue and understanding of other religions, and call for more attention for this theme in the field of comparative and international education (p. 24). This book is intended as a contribution to that understanding. Katherine Marshall (2017) mentions six crucial topics where religious institutions should be particularly involved: ‡ ‡ ‡ ‡

Delivery and outreach to underserved populations Specific education and outreach to refugees and displaced populations Curricular focus on pluralism and “religious literary” Addressing education challenges surrounding values in education and understandings of citizenship xxi

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‡ Training of religious leaders ‡ Advocacy for education goals and reforms (p. 29) Catholic HEIs have always had an active role in the last two. In the current political climate globally, the first four are in need of greater attention. Exploring and defining the relationship between identity and internationalization is not specific for Catholic and other faith-based universities. All institutions of higher education have to define their internationalization strategy in relation to their history, context, and mission, and have to be more conscious about the way their global engagement can contribute to strengthening their identity. There is not one model to define the mutual relationship between the two, as context plays a significant role in the way Catholic universities put that relationship into practice. Our observation, however, is that in most cases there is no explicit reflection, by the university community, on the relationship between the two, and as a result no policy and practice in which that relationship is given shape and form. Although there are many instances in which internationalization relates to Catholic identity, and where Catholic identity influences international programs and activities, this generally happens in a fragmented, marginal, and implicit way. Finding a more explicit and intentional balance between the two dimensions is our recommendation. We are not suggesting to strive to connect all mobility, curriculum, and partnerships, exclusively to Catholic identity, as openness to the surrounding society is an essential part of Catholic identity. But exploring options whereby values embedded in Catholic identity drive the internationalization agenda and global engagement initiatives reinforce those values, would be a substantial move forward. In this respect, three questions in current Catholic higher education appear fundamental: Will emerging global trends change patterns of religious life and open new opportunities for faith-based education? How are Catholic universities affected by growing religious diversity and increasing secularization worldwide? And finally, how can these changes in the external context shape internationalization policies at Catholic universities? This is the first global study on the relationship between Catholic identity and internationalization. We hope that this research will be useful to senior management and professionals involved with internationalization at Catholic universities, and we welcome further research on related themes, for instance by widening the study to other faith-based institutions, or to a comparative review of Catholic and other faithbased university networks and associations. REFERENCES Bergman, R. (2011). Catholic social learning: Educating the faith that does justice. New York, NY: Fordham University Press. Bernasconi, A. (2006). Private universities’ institutional affiliations as a source of differentiation in Chilean higher education. Higher Education, 52(2), 303–342. Beyer, G. J. (2015). Labor unions, adjuncts, and the mission and identity of Catholic universities. Horizons, 42(1), 1–37.

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LESSONS LEARNED AND POSSIBLE FUTURE PATHWAYS Brass, D. J., Galaskiewicz, J., Greve, H. R., & Tsai, W. (2004). Taking stock of networks and organizations: A multilevel perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 47(6), 795–817. Chen, J. S. (2004). The rise and fall of Fu Ren University, Beijing. Catholic higher education in China. New York, NY: RoutledgeFalmer. Code of Canon Law. Chapter II. Retrieved from http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_P2O.HTM de Ridder-Symoens, H. (2006). The intellectual heritage of ancient universities in Europe. In N. Sanz & S. Bergan (Eds.), The heritage of European universities (2nd ed., pp. 79–89). Strssbourg Cedex: Council of Europe Publishing. de Wit, H. (2004). Academic alliances and networks: A new internationalization strategy in response to the globalization of our societies. In D. C. B. Teather (Ed.), Consortia: International networking alliances of universities (pp. 28–48). Carlton: Melbourne University Press. de Wit, H., Gacel-Ávila, J., Jones, E., & Jooste, N. (Eds.). (2017). The globalization of internationalization, emerging voices and perspectives. London & New York, NY: Routledge. de Wit, H., Hunter, F., Egron-Polak, E., & Howard, L. (Eds.). (2015). Internationalisation of higher education. Brussels: European Parliament. de Wit, H., & Rumbley, L. E. (2017). Professional development in international education: The example of the Boston College MA in international higher education. Internationalisation of Higher Education, A Handbook, DUZ/IAU, (3), 2–14. Ford, T. N., & Glimps, B. J. (2016). A comparison of “inclusiveness” in two liberal arts Catholic Universities: What nurtures an inclusive campus climate? In B. Glimps & T. Ford (Eds.), Gender and diversity issues in religious-based institutions and organizations (pp. 159–183). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Francis. (2018). Apostolic Constitution. Veritatis Gaudium. Retrieved from https://press.vatican.va/ content/salastampa/it/bollettino/pubblico/2018/01/29/0083/00155.html Fumasoli, T., & Seeber, M. (2017). Scholarly or socially relevant? An examination of European academic associations. European Educational Research Journal, 17(3), 385–403. Gallo, M. (2013). A third master? Examining the road to alumni philanthropic giving at an Irish Catholic College. Christian Higher Education, 12(4), 266–281. García, K. (2012). Academic freedom and the telos of the Catholic university. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Gleason, P. (1995). Contending with modernity: Catholic higher education in the twentieth century. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Hagan, M. (2016). Learning and teaching in a Catholic College: The importance of ethos. A study in Northern Ireland. International Studies in Catholic Education, 8(1), 102–119. Harrison, Y. D., Kostic, K., Toton, S. C., & Zurek, J. (2010). Globalizing social justice education: The case of the global solidarity network study e-broad program. The Internet and Higher Education, 13(3), 115–126. Hudzik, J. (Ed.). (2012). Comprehensive internationalization. New York, NY & London: Routledge. Hunt, K., Joseph, E. A., Nuzzi, R. J., & Geiger, J. O. (2003). Handbook of research on Catholic higher education. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. Imbarack, P. (Ed.). (2015). Educación católica en Chile: Perspectivas, aportes y tensiones. Santiago de &KLOH(GLFLRQHVGHOD3RQWLILFLD8QLYHUVLGDG&DWyOLFDGH&KLOH John Paul II. (1990). Ex corde Ecclesiae: On Catholic universities. Retrieved from http://w2.vatican.va/ content/john-paul-ii/en/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_jp-ii_apc_15081990_ex-corde-ecclesiae.html Knight, J. (2012). Concepts, rationales, and interpretive frameworks in the internationalization of higher education. In D. K. Deardorff, H. de Wit, J. Heyl, & T. Adams (Eds.), The Sage handbook on international higher education (pp. 27–42). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Marshall, K. (2017). Global education challenges: Exploring religious dimensions. In M. Sivasubramaniam & R. Hayhoe (Eds.), Religion and education, comparative and international perspectives (pp. 29–50). Oxford: Symposium Books. Milian, R. P., & Rizk, J. (2017). Marketing Catholic higher education: Holistic self-actualization, personalized learning, and wholesome goodness. Higher Education (Advance online publication). doi:10.1007/s10734-017-0193-2 Morey, M. M, & Piderit, J. J. (2006). Catholic higher education: A culture in crisis. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

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H. DE WIT ET AL. Rausch, T. P. (2010). Educating for faith and justice: Catholic higher education today. Collegeville, PA: Liturgical Press. Russo, C. J., & McGreal, P. E. (2012). Religious freedom in American Catholic higher education. Religion & Education, 39(2), 116–132. Sivasubramaniam, M., & Hayhoe, R. (2017). Introduction. Religion and education from a comparative and international perspective: Issues, tensions and possibilities. In M. Sivasubramaniam & R. Hayhoe (Eds.), Religion and education, comparative and international perspectives (pp. 17–25). Oxford: Symposium Books. USCCB. (1999). The Application of Ex corde Ecclesiae for the United States. Retrieved from http://www.usccb.org/beliefs-and-teachings/how-we-teach/catholic-education/higher-education/ the-application-for-ex-corde-ecclesiae-for-the-united-states.cfm USCCB. (2012). The Final Report for the Ten Year Review of The Application of Ex corde Ecclesiae for the United States. Retrieved from http://www.usccb.org/beliefs-and-teachings/how-we-teach/catholiceducation/higher-education/upload/Final-Report-for-the-Ten-Year-Review-of-The-Application-of-ExCorde-Ecclesiae-for-the-United-States-2012.pdf USCCB. (n.d.). Catholic education. Retrieved from http://www.usccb.org/beliefs-and-teachings/howwe-teach/catholic-education/index.cfm

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PART 1 INTRODUCTION

FIONA HUNTER AND MICHAEL JAMES

1. EMBEDDING IDENTITY AND INTERNATIONALIZATION INTO INSTITUTIONAL PRACTICE

INTRODUCTION

A Brief History The first European universities founded in the late twelfth and thirteenth centuries in various European cities were corporations of scholars chartered by the Holy See. When general rules for granting degrees were set, it was by order of pope or Church council. However, the main purpose of a papal charter, at that time, was to give scholars freedom from harassment by local secular or Church authorities. Despite these universities’ close ties with Rome, there was very little Church teaching about the role of Catholic universities, and until the New Code of Canon Law of 1983, the Church did not legislate policy on universities (Hellwig, 2003). In the meantime, universities diversified. After the Reformation, many were affiliated with the various Protestant denominations. And, in modern times, many of them abandoned religious affiliation. Around the globe, it became more common for universities to be chartered by state authorities. Occasional exhortations by popes and bishops mainly offered simple encouragement to students and professors in Catholic universities and colleges. Church teaching did not set out a comprehensive philosophy of Catholic higher education. This is understandable because in the centuries between the Council of Trent (1545–1563) and the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), most activities and institutions of the Catholic Church tended toward uniformity and strong continuity. On the other hand, the rectors of Catholic universities worldwide, who formed the International Federation of Catholic Universities—created by a Papal Decree in 1948, were preoccupied with defining what made a Catholic university Catholic in an age of so much social transformation. They worked for several decades and were much influenced by the 1965 document Gaudium et Spes (the Church in the Modern World) of the Second Vatican Council. The result of their efforts was a document, The Catholic University in the Modern World, that, with minor changes, formed the core of Part I of the Apostolic Constitution, Ex corde Ecclesiae (ECE, 1990). The main texts, then, which express the teaching of the Catholic Church about the makeup, task, and conduct of Catholic universities, are the papal document Ex corde Ecclesiae and the two conciliar documents of Vatican II, Gaudium et Spes

© KONINKLIJKE BRILL NV, LEIDEN, 2018 | DOI:10.1163/9789004382091_001

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and Gravissimum Educationis (the Declaration on Christian Education). There is considerable duplication among the three texts. This section of the chapter will address these vital documents by following the content of Part I of Ex corde Ecclesiae, weaving in material from the other two council documents only when it adds something or points to a different approach. From the Heart of the Church A significant consequence of the worldwide Second Vatican Council for Catholic colleges and universities was a new understanding of the Christian calling of the laity, in light of diminishing numbers in the vowed religious congregations. To the extent that the Catholicity of the colleges had largely been seen as the charge of the sponsoring religious community, there was a widening gap between the profession of faith and available human resources. Further, a move from ownership of colleges and universities by religious congregations to the installation of lay boards of trustees—without requiring any special introduction of lay trustees to the church-related history and commitment intrinsic to the colleges—was at first not appreciated (Gallin, 2000). Consequently, due to these and other factors, Catholic colleges and universities found that they could no longer take for granted the religious character of their institutions. They could no longer assume that the values and goals professed by the institutional mission were spontaneously implemented in practice. In response to these growing concerns, Pope John Paul II promulgated the apostolic constitution Ex corde Ecclesiae. This document identified the common characteristics of all Catholic colleges and universities. Every Catholic university, as Catholic, must have the following four essential characteristics: ‡ A Christian inspiration, not only of individuals but of the university community as such. ‡ A continuing reflection in the light of the Catholic faith upon the growing treasury of human knowledge, to which it seeks to contribute by its own research; ‡ Fidelity to the Christian message as it comes through the Church. ‡ An institutional commitment to the service of the people of God and of the human family in their pilgrimage to the transcendent goal, which gives meaning to life. Ex corde Ecclesiae poetically describes that the Catholic university pursues its objectives through its formation of an authentic human community animated by the spirit of Christ. The source of its unity springs from a common dedication to the truth, a common vision of the dignity of the human person, and, ultimately, the person and message of Christ, which gives its distinctive character to the institution (ECE No. 21). The Catholic University in the Modern World Over a century before the promulgation of Ex corde Ecclesiae, Blessed John Henry Newman (1872) described, in The Rise and Progress of Universities, a university as 4

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a place where inquiry is pushed forward, and discoveries verified and perfected, and rashness rendered innocuous, and error exposed, by the collision of mind with mind, and knowledge with knowledge. (p. 6) In the introduction to the Apostolic Constitution, Ex corde Ecclesiae, Pope John Paul II reflects personally on his own experience as a university professor of philosophy. He portrays the Catholic university as a place where the encounter of faith and reason is taken seriously and pursued into the great complexity of contemporary science, philosophy, social sciences, and so forth (ECE No. 1). He acknowledges that this involves creativity. Hence, there is bound to be some experimentation, some trial and error, some wrestling with the ways in which secular knowledge is incorporated into the way Catholics see everything by the light of faith. The search, scholarly synthesis, and teaching conducted in a Catholic university are crucial to the dialogue the Church conducts with the cultures of our time, which is essential to the future of the Church and of the world (ECE No. 3). Their fruitful pursuit depends on unconditional commitment to the truth, both on the immediate subject of study and at the deeper levels of human existence in which freedom, justice, and human dignity are grounded (ECE No. 4–6). It is an oft-repeated concern of Pope John Paul II and his successors that our rapid advances in science and technology can too easily cloud the human impact and meaning of society’s many possible developments. The popes have collectively expressed a great sense of urgency that Catholic universities and colleges, both in their research activities and in their teaching, must be concerned with maintaining the balance that puts human dignity and solidarity before the accumulation of power and wealth (ECE No. 7–8). In the final sections of the document, Pope John Paul II returns to the dominant theme of his pontificate: the importance to the work of the Church of understanding the complex culture of our age—what shapes people’s values and expectations, their thoughts and their actions, their relationships and their social structures. A section titled “Cultural Dialogue” returns to the Pope’s great hope that Catholic universities and other scholarly institutions will engage the multiple practical and theoretical problems of our contemporary society with special attention to “the meaning of the human person, his or her liberty, dignity, sense of responsibility, and openness to the transcendent […] the preeminent value of the family, the primary unit of human culture.” He calls on the universities to “discern and evaluate both the aspirations and contradictions in modern culture […] the impact of modern technology and especially of the mass media on persons, the family and the institutions and whole of modern culture” (ECE No. 45). Noting that the task of governing Catholic universities and college is increasingly falling to the laity, the Holy Father states his concern that all those responsible for Catholic higher education (such as the boards of trustees) be clear about its purpose: to be a “public, persistent, and universal presence” in the shaping of society’s culture and to graduate people who will take on professional and public responsibilities well equipped and critically aware of the issues from a Christian perspective (ECE No. 9–10). 5

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Mission-Driven Identity and Internationalization Today there are approximately 1300 Catholic colleges and universities worldwide and the number continues to grow. New Catholic institutions of higher education are predominantly located in Asia, where Catholic communities are growing most rapidly. However, it has emerged from a small pilot study (Bernasconi et al., 2016) that Catholic identity and internationalization do not appear to have any evident or natural points of contact in institutional life, but rather have developed independently, and often quite unsystematically, of one another. Internationalization and identity occupy different and separate organizational domains, they evolve without coordination, and a discourse alluding to where the two are woven together in a meaningful whole could not be found either in official documentation, or in the interviews we carried out with university leaders. (p. 5) Nevertheless, both identity and internationalization are currently aspects of institutional development that are in the spotlight. Identity may be an older and more established footprint (Bernasconi et al., 2016) but it is also the characteristic that is more likely to be in crisis or struggling to redefine itself in the current environment as highlighted in the recent survey on Instrumentum Laboris (2015). We cannot simply reflect once and for all on the original reasons that led to founding a Catholic school or university and leave it at that. We need to reflect continually on this point. In fact, this awareness allows us to grasp ever more clearly the original idea’s basic fruitfulness helping us to develop its presence and mission. Moreover, with the passing of time, the cultural and social circumstances can change and new problems can arise: and to address them it is not enough to look at the past. We must rise up to meet today’s new challenges. (Fiorin, 2015, p. 7) Internationalization, as it is understood today, has developed over the last 25 years and is increasingly perceived by higher education institutions more as an institutional imperative, rather than a choice. In the current context, it is identified as a key institutional response to the formidable range of issues relating to the globalization of higher education, and yet, at the same time, it is increasingly coming under challenge in certain countries around the world. A recent European study on the internationalization of higher education concludes that: […] the future of internationalization of higher education looks potentially bright […] but it is also challenged by increasingly profound, social, economic, and cultural issues, such as the financial crisis, demographic decline, immigration, and ethnic and religious tensions […] While it is true that these challenges could impact negatively on further internationalization, they also raise awareness of its importance in developing a meaningful response. (de Wit et al., 2015) 6

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So, while identity and internationalization may have different origins and be travelling at different speeds, they are both increasingly identified, within the institutions, as essential components for institutional development, and yet may be facing external (and at times internal) pressures that challenge the nature of institutional identity or the assumption that internationalization is necessarily a good thing to the benefit of all concerned. Whether universities see themselves as local or global players, identity and internationalization play a key part in establishing and sustaining their different roles. Each institution is faced with its own unique context. In some, identity or internationalization may be thriving more than in the other, or coming under increasing pressure to change, and how universities understand and deploy these two elements as a means to foster institutional growth is a function of many factors. Traditions, fundamental core values and missions, geographical location, size, academic configuration, stages of institutional development as well as internal character will all have impact on institutional choices, and on the ability to respond to the rapidly changing environment in which institutions now operate. No university operates in isolation and beyond the varying degrees of public accountability and institutional autonomy, they are increasingly expected to engage with a growing and more diverse body of external stakeholders, whose views and values may or may not align with those of the institution. Increasing competitive pressures on higher education institutions today, not only nationally but also across borders, for students, funds, and staff, require them to think strategically about positioning, and the link between identity and internationalization becomes more evident. International partnerships can become a key tool to innovate education and research, to benchmark institutional standards and practices, with a view to enhancing quality and strengthening the university’s position. Trends toward decreased tuition revenue and rising operating costs imply the need for planning for income generation, and opportunities offered by international student recruitment and strategic partnerships to access international funding sources are increasingly relevant (Davies & Hunter, forthcoming). Catholic institutions are no exception. They are as varied as secular institutions and the range of ability to respond to the changing environment is as wide. However, any institution seeking to develop a successful response to the current challenges it faces must be purposeful in its approach to both identity and internationalization, if it is to foster longer-term sustainability and embed institutional values and sense of purpose into everyday working practices. This requires strategic planning. Overcoming Resistance to Strategic Planning When properly done, strategic planning can play a key role in building a pathway for future development. However, it is not a process that always sits comfortably in many universities. They are typically complex, multilevel organizations with a broad range of objectives and areas of activity. The many academic units tend to act independently 7

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according to collegial traditions, often within the context of a bureaucratic culture imposed by government agencies through a top down approach and extensive regulation. This makes it difficult to build vertical alignment and horizontal coordination in order to synchronize directions and efforts between the various academic and administrative functions of the university. Consequently, universities often struggle to respond effectively to change, either externally or internally. The danger is that the declared goals for identity and internationalization are more rhetoric than reality, and that both are more a collection of fragmented activities, managed in an ad hoc manner by individuals or specialized units. Identity cannot be simply captured in a few sentences on a website, policy documents, or promotional materials, and left there. It must be defined, shared, and governed. It must find expression in teaching and learning activities, in the research agenda, in the recruitment policies, and in marketing strategies. This cannot be left to an ad hoc approach or to the work of a single office. If internationalization is understood to be about improving the quality of education and research for all students and staff and making a meaningful contribution to society (de Wit et al., 2015), it is hard to imagine how this can be done without an intentional, systematic process that can over time set up policies, structures, and procedures to internationalize teaching and learning, foster intercultural competences in students and staff, enhance standards, build partnerships and alliances, and so on. If it is to be embedded across key academic activities, it cannot be left exclusively to the international office. […] international education can no longer be seen as a fragmented list of activities executed by international offices and a small group of motivated internationalists among staff and students. Internationalization should on the contrary be integrated, broad and core. (Brandenburg & de Wit, 2011) Identity and internationalization are hailed as fundamental to mission, and yet they are typically not connected to one another, because they are not properly embedded in institutional practice. The problem is essentially a systemic one. Both identity and internationalization are often disconnected from each other and from many other parts of the institution. However, identity is an expression of institutional purpose and therefore a powerful guide to institutional decision-making and direction. Internationalization, when properly embedded, can serve as a strong driver for identity and institutional development. In order for them to be effective, they need to be managed through an institutional strategic planning process that identifies how the different activities will contribute to the delivery of the strategic objectives, and embeds them in the everyday life of the university. A Strategic Approach to Identity and Internationalization The effective delivery of institutional strategies is not easy […] It requires assessing institutional priorities, strategies, structures and established ways of 8

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working in a purposeful and critical manner in order to weave [identity and] internationalisation into the day-to-day fabric of the institution. This takes time and is rarely unopposed. (Hunter & Sparnon, forthcoming) It is recognized that strategic planning is far from easy, that it needs to be sensitive to the character, culture, and profile of the university, its current circumstances, and the system in which it is located. However, it is argued that a well thought-out plan will serve precisely to protect and promote the identity of the institution and to clarify in what way internationalization can underpin and foster its development. Strategic planning seeks out to answer three key questions (Davies, 2008). The first question is: Where are we now? The answer to this question is a reflection on how well the university is currently performing, and is best achieved through an open and frank analysis of current activities to establish how effective they are. This sets the point of departure for the whole process. The second question asks: Where do we want to be in the future? In other words, the university needs to reflect on what kind of institution it wants to become in the future, what it wants to do and for whom it seeks to do it. This implies an institutional conversation that can establish clarity around mission and vision as well as values and priorities. It imagines the institutional future and should be an inspirational one. The third question is: How do we get from where we are now to where we want to be? The answer to this question lies in the development of the strategic plan itself. However, the initial diagnostic process is a fundamental stage to provide the evidence and the information on which the contents of the plan will be developed. If the university undertakes a comprehensive review of its activities that is both honest and thorough, it will be able to identify a limited number of broad directions – such as identity and internationalization – that will be integrated across the plan. They will embody the institution’s future aspirations and indicate its positioning both internally and externally. In other words, a clear sense of institutional mission and vision should emerge from this process, and in the case of Catholic universities, the essential characteristics defined by Ex corde Ecclesiae will provide a key framework for reflection. There are many definitions of mission and vision but Behm and Berthold’s (2011) distinction is a useful one. They identify vision as the long-term view of how the university sees itself in the future, whereas the mission should convey concise information on the distinctive profile and fundamental tasks. They describe three key functions that a well-thought out mission and vision can deliver: firstly, orientation and direction by setting guidelines for strategic choices and decision-making, secondly motivation by encouraging institutional members to identify with the university and its chosen direction, and thirdly the more external function of legitimization and promotion of the university to its stakeholders (Behm & Berthold, 2011). The institutional mission is an expression of its identity and should underpin academic objectives, contributing to overall academic quality. The 2015 report on the questionnaire based on the Instrumentum Laboris states this clearly, “The 9

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mission stems from identity; it puts it into practice” (Fiorin, p. 7). The question is then how to put mission into practice through a strategic planning process. A Framework for Strategic Planning The framework for the strategic plan depicted below encourages the university to do two things when engaging in strategic planning: to think holistically about its activities and to recognize a hierarchy of objectives (Hunter & Sparnon, forthcoming). A represents vision, mission, and context. Vision and mission are derived from an assessment of current context, including internal and external factors. B represents the academic activities, which are the principal activities through which the university seeks to deliver its mission and vision. C represents the support activities whose primary purpose is to support academic activities. D represents resource management to enable the academic and support activities to operate effectively. Figure 1. Framework for strategic planning

The four circles depicted in the diagram, representing the way the university operates, can then become the four sections of the plan. The aims set out in Section A will provide the overarching context and direction for the plan and should remain stable throughout the lifetime of the plan. Unexpected events will inevitably occur and the academic activities (learning and teaching, research, outreach activities) set out in Section B can change as circumstances require. However, they should remain relevant to the vision and mission and should be evaluated against the extent to which they enable the mission and vision to be achieved. It is only once Section A and then Section B have been written, that Section C and then Section D should be considered. They are both support functions. The objectives and actions identified in Section C should always have the objective of enabling the delivery of the academic activities set out in Section B. These are functions such as Learning Resources, Student Services, Quality Assurance, Marketing, and so on. Section D is generally understood to mean the management of finance, human resources, and physical estate, all of which are geared at enabling the functions and 10

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activities in C and B. This is always the last section to be rewritten. Naturally, there is significant reiteration in the drafting process to ensure that the plan is coherent and feasible, and that all the different elements are interrelated and geared toward delivery of the institutional mission. So, where do identity and internationalization sit? What does placing them within this framework mean in practice? If the purpose is to ensure that they are both interconnected and embedded in the plan, they must find expression in Section A. Here they will be expressed as broad statements that need to be translated into core activities and practices. In Section B, the university can describe its graduate characteristics, and the role of identity and internationalization in forming these can be identified here. This will then be translated into specific actions for the curriculum, learning outcomes, content, pedagogy, and assessment. Likewise, a similar reflection should take place in defining the objectives for research and knowledge transfer, capacity building, and outreach. Universities need to develop a broader approach to internationalization in line with their own identity. In terms of education, this means developing an approach that includes all students, one that actively supports the integration of student groups with different ethnic, cultural, and religious backgrounds, and one that values and promotes international and intercultural knowledge and skills in all disciplines. It can also mean developing programs focused on improvement of society, the environment, the economy, and health, or providing outreach programs that open the campus and its course offer to a wider audience, including migrant and minority students. In terms of research, this can mean identifying research not only with a global outlook but with local relevance as well. It is important to conceive of internationalization reaching not only across borders, but into local communities. In its partnership policy, a university can encourage collaboration not only with prestigious institutions, but also with international partners that share common challenges in a way that the outcomes also serve the local communities. In other words, it is important to define in what way institutional identity and internationalization can contribute to curricular content, approach to teaching and learning, research, and outreach that is not only consistent with mission but actively contributes to its delivery. Returning to the framework, once the university has identified how it will embed identity and internationalization into the academic activities, it will need to reflect on what this means in terms of Section C and what modifications will need to be undertaken in functions such as the provision of learning resources or student and staff services in general. There will be implications for the communications and marketing strategies, as well as for the university quality assurance mechanisms. Equally in Section D, there are many questions that will need to be asked about resource management. Most strategies lead to an increase in volume and scope of activities and it is fundamental to consider the various resource implications, in terms of the funding and changes in human resources policies that will be required, for recruitment but also for promotion and professional development. However, 11

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there are also issues for the university estate that a university may wish to consider in terms of how current social spaces and classrooms align with institutional values or promote internationalization. If social interaction is an important value, is this also being promoted through the use of social and classroom spaces? Once these questions have been answered, they must be translated into clear objectives and actions that start in Section B and are followed through in Sections C and D for them to become reality. By embedding clear objectives with actions to identity and internationalization in each of the sections, their contribution to the delivery of mission will not only assume a strategic approach, but necessarily become more collaborative in nature, as the different objectives are interlinked and interdependent. It will also be possible to identify where identity and internationalization share common objectives, and where there is potential for mutual support and strengthening. And if there is any risk of conflict between the two objectives, this can also be addressed in the planning stages ahead of implementation. It has already been said that strategic planning is not a straightforward process. And many plans fail because they are not implemented, or are poorly implemented. Having a strategic plan in itself is not enough. Successful implementation depends on the ability to elaborate realistic action plans, assign clear responsibilities, develop effective planning calendars, allocate necessary budgets, and so on. It means continually managing, monitoring, and if necessary modifying the plan to adapt to the needs of the institution, and it also means facilitating a high quality dialogue across the university to ensure commitment and achievement. Inspirational leadership and a supportive culture are key to developing a willingness to experiment and learn new tools, techniques, and working practices. If Catholic universities see themselves as agents called upon to respond to the many challenges of a complex world, then they should place both identity and internationalization at the very heart of their strategic planning process. Identity and internationalization should be understood in terms of their role and value to mission, and specific objectives and actions should be identified to translate these into reality. Only in this way, will they embed themselves in everyday institutional practice and become not only powerful levers for institutional wellbeing, but also key cross-functional dimensions of the social purpose of higher education, one which in today’s context is more important than ever. CONCLUSION

For a contemporary consideration of Catholic identity and internationalization of Catholic universities, it is salient to recall that a major breakthrough of the Second Vatican Council of the Roman Catholic Church in the early 1960s was the document Gaudium et Spes. Building on the vision of the Church as People of God, the document addressed not the responsibility of the hierarchy, but the vocation of lay leadership in a complex and rapidly changing world. Describing major world problems from a gospel perspective, the document identified Catholic universities among the 12

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agents to respond. What Gaudium et Spes and Ex corde Ecclesiae—and many of the social encyclicals of the last five popes—make clear, is that the human problems and challenges of our time are inevitably worldwide problems (James, 2006). For Catholic higher education to address the ethical challenges of globalization and plurality, it is necessary to cultivate a global awareness and to build the resources for global outreach through an intentional, mission-driven planning process. REFERENCES Behm, B. L., & Berthold, C. (2011). Developing strategies for a higher education institution and its faculties/departments. In S. Bergan, E. Egron-Polak, & J. Kohler (Eds.), Leadership and governance in higher education: Handbook for decision-makers and administrators (Vol. 1, pp. 1–29). Berlin: Raabe Academic Publishers. Bernasconi, A., de Wit, H., & Veliz-Calderon, D. (2016). Catholic universities: Identity and internationalization, a pilot project (CIHE perspectives No. 3). Boston, MA: Boston College Center for International Higher Education. Brandenburg, U., & de Wit, H. (2011, November 15). Has international education lost its way? Chronicle of higher education. Retrieved from http://www.chronicle.com/blogs/worldwise/has-internationaleducation-lost-its-way/28891 Davies, J. L. (2008). Strategic planning in Irish universities at academic unit level. Dublin: Irish Universities Quality Board. Davies, J. L., & Hunter, F. (2019). Globalisation in higher education and the implications for the design and implementation of institutional strategies for internationalisation. In P. Teixeira & J. C. Shin (Eds.), Encyclopedia of international higher education systems and institutions. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. de Wit, H., Hunter, F., Howard L., & Egron-Polak, E. (Eds.). (2015). Internationalization of higher education. Brussels: European Parliament, Directorate-General for Internal Policies. Fiorin, I. (2015). Educating today and tomorrow: A renewing passion. Challenges, strategies and perspectives that emerge from the responses to the questionnaire of the instrumentum laboris. Retrieved from http://www.usccb.org/beliefs-and-teachings/how-we-teach/catholic-education/upload/ 3_Challenges-perspectives-form-responses-to-questionnaire.pdf Gallin, A. (2000). Negotiating identity: Catholic higher education since 1960. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. Hellwig, M. K. (2004). What makes our colleges Catholic? In Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges, Association of Jesuit Colleges and Universities, & Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities (Eds.), Mission and identity: A handbook for trustees of Catholic colleges and universities (pp. 45–52). Washington, DC: Author. Hunter, F., & Sparnon, N. (2018). Warp and weft: Weaving internationalization into institutional life. In D. Proctor & L. Rumbley (Eds.), The future agenda for internationalization in higher education: Next generation insights into research, policy, and practice. New York, NY: Routledge. James, M. (2006). The academic profession, the common good, and globalization. Current Issues in Catholic Higher Education, 25(1), 121–135. John Paul II. (1990). Apostolic constitution Ex corde Ecclesiae of the Supreme Pontiff John Paul II on Catholic universities. Washington, DC: Office for Pub. and Promotion Services, United States Catholic Conference. Newman, J. H. (2007). Rise and progress of universities: Newman reader. Pittsburgh, PA: The National Institute for Newman Studies. Vatican Council. (1998). Pastoral constitution on the Church in the modern world: Gaudium et Spes. Boston, MA: Pauline Books & Media.

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PART 2 LATIN AMERICA

PEDRO PABLO ROSSO

2. EXPLORING LEVELS OF INTERNATIONALIZATION IN LATIN AMERICAN CATHOLIC UNIVERSITIES

INTRODUCTION

This chapter describes an attempt to assess internationalization in Latin American Catholic universities through a retrospective analysis of the data available in the respective institutional web sites and in the Scopus Scientific Publications database. The paucity of the data made the task rather difficult, but it was possible to compare institutions using the following indicators: the number of incoming exchange students, the percentage of foreign co-authors in research publications, international recognition, and membership in international networks. TYPES OF LATIN AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES

Considering that most of the leading Latin American universities are pontifical universities, but different in nature than the ecclesiastical pontifical universities based in Rome, it is important to clarify their status. Catholic universities belong to two main categories: ecclesiastical and non-ecclesiastical ones. The former, including single faculties, are devoted “to investigate the sacred disciplines or those connected to the sacred and to instruct students scientifically in the same disciplines” (Can. 815). These institutions “can be established only through erection by the Apostolic See or with its approval; their higher direction also pertains to it” (Can. 816 §1). For this reason, every ecclesiastical university is also a pontifical university. Most of their students belong to the clergy or to religious congregations of women. They grant ecclesiastical degrees in theology, philosophy, canon law, biblical studies and church history. They follow the regulations and guidelines of the Apostolic Constitution Sapientia Christiana. Presently, the Latin American institutions of higher education licensed by the Holy See are the following: Facultades de Filosofía y Teología, San Miguel (Argentina); Facultade Jesuíta de Filosofia e Teologia, %HOR+RUL]RQWH%UD]LO DQG6HPLQDULR3RQWLILFLR6DQWR7RPiVGH$TXLQR6DQWR Domingo (Dominican Republic). The non-ecclesiastical Catholic universities are institutions that the Canon law defines as: “… one which is under control of the competent ecclesiastical authority or of a public ecclesiastical juridical person, or one which in a written document is acknowledged as Catholic by the ecclesiastical authority” (Can. 803). Although

© KONINKLIJKE BRILL NV, LEIDEN, 2018 | DOI:10.1163/9789004382091_002

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some schools are deemed “Catholic” because of their identity and a great number of students enrolled are Catholic, it is also stipulated in canon law that “no school, even if it is in fact Catholic, may bear the title ‘Catholic school’ except by the consent of the competent ecclesiastical authority” (Can. 803 n.3). These institutions adhere to the rules and guidelines of the Apostolic Constitution, Ex corde Ecclesiae (John Paul II, 1990). The Latin American pontifical Catholic universities have been granted that title by the Apostolic See because some have ecclesiastical faculties, such as theology or canon law, that are licensed by the Apostolic See, and others because the Holy See’s authorities participate in the election and appointment processes of their rectors (presidents). In addition, there are Catholic universities that have not been canonically established. However, their mission is inspired by Catholic values and the tenets of the Catholic faith. An example of this type are the universities related to Opus Dei. A BRIEF HISTORY OF CATHOLIC HIGHER EDUCATION IN LATIN AMERICA

Higher education in Latin America has evolved in three very different historical stages: (1) the colonial stage; (2) the republican stage; and (3) the modern stage. By contrast, in Brazil, the only Latin American country that during colonial times was under Portuguese rule, no universities were created during the colonial stage. The Colonial Stage The Spanish colonies had two types of institutions of higher education: colegios menores and universities. The first, equivalent to Anglo-Saxon colleges, taught theology, Latin and canon law, and only granted baccalaureate degrees. The universities, modeled after Salamanca University, had a school of arts and schools of theology, law, and medicine (Rodríguez, 1973). The Spanish crown requested (and was granted) by the Holy See the right to exercise royal patronage over the church. This involved the right to appoint high officials of the church, such as bishops and archbishops, and members of cathedral chapters. Royal patronage also included the right to collect a tithe in order to finance the construction of churches, convents, seminaries, schools and higher education institutions (Martínez, 2007). Therefore, all the institutions of higher education created during colonial times were Catholic, even those created and managed by the state. All public or royal universities had schools of theology and taught canon law, for this reason they were also licensed by the Apostolic See. Thus, they were both royal and pontifical universities. The Spanish crown created about half of the 30 universities that existed in the various viceroyalties of its American dominions. The remaining were created and supervised by religious orders (Tünnermann, 1998). From humble beginnings with the early missionaries, the church became the single most important institution in colonial Latin America. Everyone who lived 18

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in the region was nominally a member of the church. Religious orders, initially Franciscans and Dominicans, and later on the Jesuits, created in their missions vertically integrated commercial activities such as the production of agricultural goods and different kinds of manufactured items. The revenues were used to expand their missionary activities, including the creation of schools, colleges and universities. The first institution of higher education on American soil was the 8QLYHUVLGDGGH6DQWR7RPiV6DLQW7KRPDV8QLYHUVLW\ RIWKH'RPLQLFDQ)ULDUVLQ what is now the Dominican Republic (Rodríguez, 1973; Tünnermann, 1998). It was founded in 1518 as a Colegio Menor and received recognition from the Holy See as a full-fledged university in 1538. However, the Jesuits soon became the most active order in the field of higher education and some of their universities were considered the best. In addition, several Jesuit priests taught in the royal universities. Thus, when the Spanish crown ordered the dissolution of the Jesuit order in 1776 and evicted its members from its dominions, the colonial system of higher education suffered a considerable intellectual loss. To make things worse, the universities created by other religious orders were considered of inferior quality than the royal institutions. In fact, most of the diocesan clergy preferred to study theology, philosophy or canon law in public universities. For these reasons their enrollment started to decline, and they were forced to close. At the beginning of the 19th century, when the wars of independence began, Latin America only had royal universities. The Republican Stage When independence was declared the Latin American church was in a state of great disarray and confusion (Dussel, 1967). Besides the political change, the success of the independence movements also meant a cultural revolution, at least for the educated strata of society. In the years ensuing independence this became a source of deep political strife between the church and the new political leadership, with most of them imbued by the political ideas of the French Revolution, including popular sovereignty, civil equality, individual representation, the conventional nature of political authority, freedom of thought and of the press, and a division of powers that privileges the legislative as the power that represented the nation. In addition, the moral dimension of liberal ideas provided a perspective of the Spanish monarchy as a paradigm of tyranny and despotism (Dussel, 1967). More broadly, they came to see the colonial past as an age of obscurantism, ignorance, and backwardness of which the church was an inherent part. These ideas prevailed in higher education institutions and in a few years the former royal and pontifical universities, now run by authorities appointed by government officials, became strongholds of liberal ideas. For all practical purposes, after 1825 the church was left without Catholic universities in the former hispanic colonies (Tünnermann, 1998). In the second half of the nineteenth century the conflict between the republican governments, led by liberals, and the church and its conservative supporters began to escalate (Catholic Encyclopedia, 2017; Williamson, 2013). The church 19

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condemned liberalism, secularism, freedom of thought and toleration in Pope Pius IX’s encyclical, Syllabus Errorum (Syllabus of Errors), published in 1864. On the other hand, liberalism found a new creed in positivism, a concept proposed by Auguste Comte in his Cours de Philosophie Positive, published between 1832 and 1840. Comtean philosophy was most influential in the field of higher education where social reformers introduced new curricula that privileged the study of the empirical sciences. Following Comte, many members of academic circles believed that education was instrumental to end prejudice and introduce new generations to “a common reservoir of truth.” Along these lines, the state should abstain from favoring any religious doctrine in the public institutions. The church reacted to this belligerent state of affairs by creating, or rather recreating, Catholic universities (Rodríguez, 1973; Tünnermann, 1998). In Latin America, the first Catholic institution of higher education of the republican era was the Academia Pontificia de Guadalajara (Pontifical Academy of Guadalajara), created in 1872, but forced to close by the Mexican government in 1895. The Universidad 3RQWLILFLD GH