Humans Eating Humans: The Dark Shadow of Cannibalism 0940121255, 9780940121256

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HUMANS EATING HUMANS The Dark Shadow of Cannibalism

by

Richard L. Sartore

Cross Cultural Publications, Inc. CrosSRoads “Books

|

HUMANS

EATING

RICHARD SARTORE

HUMANS

Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2022 with funding from Kahle/Austin Foundation

https://archive.org/details/nhumanseatinghuma0000sart

HUMANS

EATING

The Dark Shadow

HUMANS

of Cannibalism

by

Richard

L. Sartore

CROSS CULTURAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. CROSS ROADS BOOKS

Published by CROSS CULTURAL PUBLICATIONS, CROSS ROADS BOOKS Post Office Box 506 Notre Dame, Indiana, 46556, U.S.A.

Phone: (219) 272-0889 FAX:

(219) 273-5973

®1994 CROSS CULTURAL PUBLICATIONS, INC. All Rights Reserved ISBN: 0-940121-25-5 Library of Congress Catalog Number:

INC.

CONTENTS PELE EOVCUIC REO Slee

ots oie a cos ones 6 ooo AGN

Cannibalistic Characteristics

DEANE GS rales chee uy

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aS. 38

Vv

(Chart)............. xi

1, 27, 43, 55, 71, 89, & 101

I. Societies That Allegedly Ate Human Flesh ...... II. Rationale for Consuming Humans...........

3

. 29

III. Mythological Links to Flesh Eating..........

45

IV. Mortuary Cannibalism. ...................

57

V. Cannibalism and Children’s Literature........

73

VI. Modern Day Cannibalism. ................

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CLO LEMIOCE RS. cede

Acknowledgemients. CR CONES

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About the Author.

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INTRODUCTION The notion of a modern abhorrent to most people.

cannibalistic society seems We are a society that boasts

of an advanced technology, sensitivity and a world with individuals who have dignity, self-pride and deep concern. There is little discussion of what was supposedly involved with cannibalism and certainly there

is no tolerance for humans eating humans. Despite attitudes toward cannibalism, traces of this shocking act appear even discussions.

today

in

literature,

dreams,

myths

and

The impression of cannibalism is interesting because it is impossible to verify any of the earlier writings that were introduced as fact. Cannibal practices were described by travelers, missionaries, soldiers, and reporters. The accuracy of these reports is open to skepticism. Former records are suspect at best, but later reports tend to be more valid.

When about

we refer to cannibalism, we are generally thinking past

cultural

behaviors

that

endorsed

the

consumption of human beings. Each society had its own motives for eating human flesh. This can be easily traced to past historical documents. There has been debate as to whether or not cannibalism existed in the proportions that we will discuss but few deny that forms of cannibalism did indeed exist. The difference with that kind of behavior in modern society, however, becomes evident when one examines the discrepancy between past cultural indoctrination as opposed to isolated incidents within modern society. Today culture is adamantly opposed to eating human flesh. To function within a society that is opposed to this type of activity, is to label oneself as having a mental On one hand past cannibalism was condoned disorder. by practitioners while today it is repugnant to modern culture.

INTRODUCTION

‘i

Cannibalism

is not new to history. Researchers that one’s existence often involved eating humans.

reveal These

situations came about hundreds of thousands of years ago and developed naturally. Even as early as the New

Stone Age, bones had been dug up and it was demonstrated that eating humans may have been involved. This is not to say that the New Stone Age had a common practice of cannibalism. Yet, eating human flesh may have been present as early as this era. The Peking man, a predecessor of the homo sapien around 500,000 B.C., had been known to eat his fellow man. Cannibalism can be descried as a monstrous act against humanity or a holy worship to the gods. Explanations for cannibalism may be psychological, materialistic or culturally oriented. What exactly was meant by cannibalism is reflected by the people who practiced the act. We know that it was thought that cannibalism brought human understanding about life and death. Something that was true for every culture that I examined was that cannibalism rituals varied from people to people and from place to place. Ritual cannibalism is a part of the symbolic transfer of the psychological energies of a people into cultural change. The rituals of cannibalism provide a type of societal control transferring it from the physical to the psychological. During

the last few years

the topic of cannibalism

has

gained serious attention. People are concerned about what constitutes cannibalism and how it could be associated with carlier cultures. Cases in the news regarding serial killers and cannibalistic behavior have only expanded our curiosity. At first the topic seems morbid and hideous. With time, there is an interest that had been previously avoided. New facts have been

discovered and the promise of correlating these discoveries with our past knowledge of cannibalism generates enthusiatic concern.

INTRODUCTION

vii

Contrary to common belief, cannibalism is a very complex cultural practice. Reducing it to simplistic terms robs it of its cultural content. A number of practices are

involved including the acting out of myths, physical development,

sexuality,

revenge,

religion, mourning and overall life-style.

metaphors,

nourishment,

It may be seen

no reason. act with as plainly a reprehensible Nonetheless, a lifestyle is believed to be maintained with the consumption of human flesh.

There have been countless arguments with corresponding reports which indicate that tribal cannibalism did not exist. Stories have been traced to tribes who many feel fabricated the tales. To what extent these cannibalistic rites were factual will never be fully known. Yet we presume that cannibalism over the years has happened. What I intend to do in the following pages is to present incidents of cannibalism that were documented in literature.

This book will show that cannibalism is not about eating human beings but it represents the continuation and renewal of a cultural order. Even in modern day cases, cannibalism usually involves imminent starvation. There are exceptions, of course, as in the case of serial killers who ate their victims. By and large, past cannibalism did not direct itself merely for murder’s sake. The work intentionally focuses on a handful of societies that practiced cannibalism. Obviously there are a number that could have been cited, but the theme of why societies practice cannibalism is conveyed with these

select samples. come

observations. and

I recognize,

from numerous the

sources

though,

that the writings

and are extensive in their

In many cases, this is all we have to go on

validity

is

commensurate

with

what

was

considered as a good source of information for the time. The act of cannibalism was practiced for diverse motives.

INTRODUCTION

viii

Although there are variations, three major reasons seem First of all, there is gastronomic to be most common. cannibalism where humans are consumed for their taste The higher strata of various societies and food value. considered human flesh eating as a delicacy. Secondly, ritual cannibalism frequently had something to do with consuming the spirit of the victim by eating his flesh. We see this a great deal in wartime activities where victims are sacrificed and their body parts,

that are believed

give courage and strength, are eaten. cannibalism has to do with survival.

to

The last form of Some see eating

It was your enemy in warfare as a demeaning act. principally practiced by warring tribes that endorsed

cannibalism.

Every effort has to be made when examining cannibalism to guarantee that hearsay, folklore, associations and possibilities do not contaminate the research. In a court of law, any one of these four could not be used as substantial evidence. The judge is there to see that the truth is upheld and that the case is not contaminated. Like the legal system, social scientists need hard evidence.

One of the outstanding problems encountered during the course of this research was the evaluation method that authors used to reach their conclusions. A number of scholars felt that their assessment was accurate while others questioned the folklore and tale nature of the reports. The question is, what evaluation method should be used to draw our conclusions? Do we accept the information supplied by missionaries, travelers and

visitors

to strange

evaluation

that

lands?

includes

Do

we

rely on

cannibalism?

Do

a cultural we

believe

neighboring societies who might exaggerate the maneating nature of their neighbors? Do we listen to

psychologists in trying to determine the nature of the cultural psyche? Do we stick with first hand evidence

INTRODUCTION

ix

gained through fieldwork? Are anthropologists reflecting an anthropological perspective or are they just relating stories that broaden their thesis? These are but a few of the queries that I asked myself when examining different documentation on essentially similar events. There were differences in perception of what occurred. Furthermore, and customs

when cannibalism was built into the rites of a society, the likelihood that it existed

increased significantly.

Folktales and stories of human

flesh consumption reappeared on a regular basis. When the evidence was attribution--one tribe calling another tribe “man-eaters”--the evidence had to be viewed more critically. Cannibalistic societies saw this ritual as a form of social control, one that enhanced the mores, norms, societal and personal development before and after life. So the assessment of feedback that is available

to us

has

to be scrutinized

before

labeling

a society

“cannibalistic” or “non-cannibalistic”.

In regard to evaluation, I would like to take a moment to discuss a society’s “worst case scenario.” Each human society has a “worst case scenario” that describes what is essentially taboo to the residents. Several feel that this scenario includes incest while others point to human flesh eating. This scenario is usually based in symbolic form so as to avoid discussion. The act of incest, for example, is rarely a topic for discussion. Cannibalism, too, is surmised as a barbaric act left to primitives and animalistic people. These are“worst case scenarios” in our society, but in earlier societies, cannibalism was part of their custom and may not have been considered a “worst case scenario.” Unmentionable

topics,

such

as incest and

cannibalism,

Projection occurs are found in dreams and projection. when one individual or tribe spreads the rumor that

another is guilty of unmentionable

behavior.

Treatment

INTRODUCTION

of tribal members

may actually hinge on the notion

of

cannibalism. How people are perceived depends upon how they treat others. Cannibalism was never considered by the inhabitants as a questionable act. Only those who

were outside of that society looked in and judged that the ingestion of victims was wrong.

An important point has to be made regarding the research and thoughts expressed in the following chapters. The question arises, after countless investigations, did cannibalism really exist? Information gained from scholars and independent studies, indicates that people wanted

to believe

that it was

real.

For our

purposes,

however, the fact that they thought it was real- whether simply stories, tales or slanderous comments- had an impact on the tribes who allegedly practiced cannibalism

and the human race at large.

Being labeled a man-eating

people was certainly a rumor that enemy neighbors may wish to spread. But if people believed this tale, our view of that culture would be affected. What I intend to do is to offer common cannibalistic themes, always aware that the cannibalistic nature of a people may only be unsubstantiated stories that have a vast impact on different cultures.

The advantage in writing about cannibalism, my interest,

experience

and credentials,

aside from

is that

Iama

non-anthropologist in the humanities. The distinct slant that I bring to the writing is not clouded by an entrenched position and obscure theories. What you see is a practical approach by one who examines cannibalism from a perspective different than that typically related by

anthropologists.

This book is written for the scholar and

general reader but it proposes a distinct twist on an oldage concern. Richard L. Sartore Clifton Park, New York

CANNIBALISTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIETIES

PRIMITIVE

TRADITIONAL

MODERN

1. Myths

1. Myths

1. Myths

2. Dreams 3. Pictorial

2. Dreams 3. Priests

4. Symbols

4. Words

5, Rituals

5. Rituals

2. 3. 4. 5.

6. Rites of Passage

6.Witchcraft

7. Human

7. Rites of Passage

Dreams Priests Words Serial Murders 6. Rites of

Passage 8. Death 9. Taboos

Sacrifice Rites

8. Animal Sacrifice 9. Death Rites 10. Taboos

7. Symbolic Sacrifice 8. Death Rites 9. Taboos

*] would like to stress that numerous tribes possessed these characteristics but did not practice cannibalism.

What I am also suggesting is that these factors were used for rationalizations of cannibalism.

** In the initial primitive groups, the notion of cannibalism fits into the chart. We get to traditional and modern, animals were substituted for humans and finally replaced in modern times by a more symbolic sacrifice.

xi

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CHAPTER

MODERN

6

DAY CANNIBALISM

Snip, Snap, Snip, at last and at last he went the way of

every Single gingerbread boy that ever came out of an oven.... THE

GINGERBREAD BOY - Paul Galdone -

Today less is known about primitive cultures and their practice of cannibalism. Writing was not developed and pictorial information was limited. The discoveries recently, particularly in France and Britain, speculate

that

Stone

Age

cannibalism

did

take

place.

These

assumptions were based predominately on the kind of markings on buried bones which indicated that humans were butchered and eaten. Research reveals very little

about the mythological Stone Age.

Studies remains

continue and

ties to cannibalism

regarding

sundry

items

recent that

during the

discoveries

were

found

of bone in burial

areas. The challenge has always been - is this a burial rite or an act of cannibalism perpetuated by the societies involved? This distinction has been However, with new microscopes and bone examination has become easier Were the cuts on the bone made as a

difficult to discern. scientific methods, and more accurate. result of

HUMANS

92

EATING

HUMANS

cannibalism or are we seeing a mortuary death Examination of current writings often disagrees.

rite?

A famous case in London was Regina vs. Dudley and Two wellStephens, decided by a court in 1884.! respected English seaman by the names of Captain Tom Dudley and Mate Edwin Stephens of the yacht Mignonette were tried and sentenced to death for the murder of their shipmate Richard Parker. They were

convicted of killing and eating the flesh of seventeen-yearold Parker in order to save the crew. The crew was lost at sea for twenty four days, starving without water or food.

Cannibalism at sea, an ethical, moral and legal issue, is still debated

by the legal profession

today.

Would

it be

legal for starving individuals under near-death conditions to eat another human being in order to survive? Unlike Peking man, successors decided that the skull held the soul and thus were to treat it in a respectful manner. A new practice of burial resulted. Around 75,000 B.C.,

during the Neanderthal times skulls were actually treated with reverence and respect. Some were even worshipped. They were propped up to make a kind of memorial shrine. In modern day society there are similarities; for instance, when one considers the bust of famous people enshrined

in museums

one begins to get the impact of the skull.

Human sacrifices made to the gods in the past were carried out in a more acceptable ritualistic style. Lifestrength present in god was regenerated through the use of modern day rituals. The whole idea of life, birth, death, rebirth is still in existence today but our myths have changed. The transubstantiation of Jesus Christ became a key issue with Christians.

In the month of August 1846, a group of twenty-six men, fourteen

women

and

twenty-four

through Utah toward California.

children

traveled

The group led by George

MODERN

Donner

DAY CANNIBALISM

encountered

harsh

93

weather

and

geographic

obstacles which severely limited their progress.

pulling the wagons

eventually died.

Animals

With deteriorating

weather conditions and eventual starvation, cannibalism Without cannibalism, the party members occurred.2 would not have survived, for they lacked essential food.

Alfred Packer was the sole survivor of a gold-prospecting trip in the San Juan mountains

in 1874.

He admitted to

eating his five partners when the group became snowbound on a 9,000 foot mountain ridge. Experts have been seeking remains of victims of this nineteenth century

Supposed

act of cannibalism.3

Diggers hope to

separate the legend of Alfred Packer from the truth. Packer was eventually convicted of manslaughter and was sentenced.

and shipwrecks. is questioned.

The issue is very similar to planewrecks

Eating other human

beings for survival

Contemporary cases deal with exceptional

experiences.

There are isolated cases where cannibalism is reported.4 For example, within the United States there are instances of serial murders associated with cannibalism. The

motive

for cannibalism

in modern

times

has changed.

From 1914-1918 in parts of Germany and also after Stalin’s collectivism, records of witnesses confirm an increase in cannibalism. Even when Leningrad was under

siege in 1941-1944, there were reports of cannibalism.

At

the concentration camps of Buchenwald and Auschwitz human flesh was reported to have been consumed. In November 1961, the twenty-three year old Rockefeller disappeared.5 Michael Rockefeller son of Governor Nelson Rockefeller. Michael was generation heir to the dynasty founded by

Rockefeller.

Michael was the a fourthJohn D.

After graduating from Harvard cum laude in

1960, he later traveled with friends to New Guinea in an expedition sponsored by Harvard’s Peabody Museum. The

HUMANS

94

adventurous

EATING

HUMANS

Michael went to the yet-unexplored parts of

New Guinea where head hunting and cannibalism was practiced. The Peabody Expedition group was assigned the responsibility of filming and recording the customs of Michael was a sound New Guinea’s hidden tribes. technician assigned to the group. During the expedition that lasted six months, he became fascinated with the art of the Asmat people. He returned to collect the artifacts of this New Guinea tribe.

The topography was extremely

dangerous due to the insects, animals and terrain. Although headhunting was outlawed in the area, Michael wanted to obtain some decorated heads that were still available for his collection. On November 18th Michael set out on the boat with friends and traveled the

dangerous waters to Asmat.

When his boat was disabled

by the rough waters, two of his friends went to seek help. They did not return. The next day Michael decided to try

and swim the rough waters, filled with crocodiles and sharks, to get help. It was the last time that Michael was seen alive.6 His body was never found and the world initially became convinced that he died somewhere at sea.

One significant factor of the Michael Rockefeller incident is that it took place in an area of suspected cannibaiism

and headhunting. It still existed even though it was outlawed. The question remains whether Michael died at sea or was killed by a primitive tribe. A popular theory is that he was killed by the Otsjanep people of New Guinea

for the revenge of several deaths of villagers by the Dutch which had taken place several years earlier. The killing of Michael

was

deaths.

Reports indicate that no torture or suffering took

considered

revenge

and

payback

for those

place. The people of the Asmat tribal area lived in the Stone Age and many continued the practice of cannibalism.7 Some feel that the Michael Rockefeller disappearance had been covered up by an embarrassed

Dutch government.

MODERN DAY CANNIBALISM

95

If one subscribes to the theory that Michael Rockefeller was killed and devoured by a primitive cannibalistic tribe,

then the act of aggression and revenge would make sense. Cannibalism is an act of revenge. Eli Sagan, in his book HUMAN AGGRESSION AND entitled CANNIBALISM: CULTURAL FORM, points out that revenge is the main source of human aggression. Tribal and individual satisfaction is gained once the enemy is eaten.8

On October 12, 1972, an amateur rugby team chartered a Uruguayan Air Force plane for Santiago, Chile.9 The fifteen members on the rugby team and twenty-five of their friends and relatives never reached the destination. The pilot was not heard from and in the days that followed, weather was exceptionally harsh in terms of snow

in the Andes.

As days passed,

and there was

no

sighting of the plane, it was almost assumed that the forty-five passengers and crew could not have survived the crash.

The passengers did survive for ten days, however,

but soon the severe weather, the shortage of food and the extensive length of time involved prompted cannibalistic behavior. The crash victims finally decided to eat the dead in order to survive.!0 Ten weeks later two survivors found a Chilean peasant and a rescue ensued. Sixteen individuals survived the crash. Later,

from

on

November

Cambridge

8, 1972,

Bay with

an

Martin

English

Hartwell

nurse

took

and

off

two

Eskimo patients. The two patients were scheduled to be flown to a nearby hospital. One was a fourteen year old Eskimo boy who was diagnosed as having appendicitis.

The other was his aunt who needed surgery to deliver a premature baby. Poor instrument readings ended up with a crashed plane on a hillside. The nurse was killed instantly and the Eskimo woman died a few hours later. All attempts to survive seemed fruitless. The boy died in a few days. The outcome was that Hartwell, who was eventually saved, ate the human flesh of the nurse in

HUMANS

96

order to survive. accidental death. Any discussion

include

The about

EATING

HUMANS

inquest jury returned a verdict of modern

the medical advances

day cannibalism

concerning

kuru.!!

has

to

Kuru

was a newly discovered fatal disease (1957) that weakened the central nervous system. Women are the predominant

victims. The illness, usually resulting in death, was found among the inhabitants of the central highlands of New Guinea. Kuru was a disease of the central nervous system attributed to a slow viral infection.

Research

Vincent

studies of kuru are usually associated with Dr.

Zigas who

worked

for the Papua

New

Guinea

Department of Health and Dr. D. Carlton Gajdusek of the United States National Institute of Health. Initial reaction to kuru appeared to be that it was caused by a psychosomatic phenomenon related to sorcery. Later it was thought to have developed from a genetic basis. Boundaries of the kuru disease were strictly defined and those outside the boundaries never experienced the

disease. The Fore geographic area became the target of the disease. It was not until later that eating human flesh was associated with kuru.

Kuru encompassed Fore territory which included about 250 square miles. Interestingly, this disease was restricted to one area of the highlands suggesting that a genetic factor was involved in degenerating the nervous system. A predominance of kuru existed in females, approximately one male to fifteen females. It was not found in young children prior to the age of four-and-one-

half years old.

The fact that males rarely got the disease

led to speculation that the genetic approach had serious problems. The genetics was only one factor of a multitude of considerations that contributed to kuru. This attempt to identify the culprit of kuru continued. At first, the Fore and their past cannibalistic tendencies

MODERN DAY CANNIBALISM

97

were not related to kuru. It was not until later that kuru was tied in with cannibalism. The cases of kuru declined

after all cannibalism

in 1961 assess

had ceased.

In trying to

the cause of kuru, western science has unraveled a

neurological

mystery

that

extended

far

beyond

New

Guinea.

Despite Dr. Gajducek’s world-renowned research on the topic of kuru, William Arens, in an article entitled

“Anthropologists

Suggest

Cannibalism

is

a

Myth”

indicates that there are no reliable witnesses that can confirm the existence of cannibalism. Even in New Guinea, there is no first hand evidence that cannibalism is responsible for the spread of kuru- there is serious question whether cannibalism existed at all.!2 If Arens is correct, anthropologists are simply magnifying a myth. On the contrary, Dr. Gajeusek objects to Arens’ theory. To deny that cannibalism did not exist in New Guinea is

absolutely absurd given the amount of evidence for that practice.

In a recent case that occurred in the United States, two police officers made the gruesome discovery in Jeffrey

Dahmer’s home which revealed the eating of human flesh in countless instances.!3

Dahmer’s Milwaukee home was

a slaughterhouse. Human heads were found in the freezer and refrigerator. Remnants of bodies were also discovered throughout the apartment. Bones, decomposed bones, and a genital organ was found in a lobster pot. Chemicals and tools (such as chloroform and an electric saw) were also discovered. Dahmer confessed to the murders of the eleven males found in his apartment and those of at least six others that went back to as early as 1978. We know that he lured his victims

through their homosexuality acts and murdered them and allegedly ate their flesh. On the surface, he appeared to be a mild mannered type who worked in a chocolate factory. As deeper research indicated, he was in fact an

EATING

HUMANS

98

HUMANS

acclaimed homosexual and child molester who suffered from a very shaded past.!4 A jury found Dahmer sane and gave him life in prison without parole. What we call cannibalism today is not the cannibalism of the past. The Jeffrey Dahmer case is a modern example of “cannibalistic” behavior that involves killing in a serial manner. Serial killers, like Dahmer, are typically very bright and behave obsessively. Often their actions are

based on what transpired in childhood. Their intelligence and potential is channeled into killing. Researchers have suggested that murder, serial killings and eating human flesh can be related to neurological problems. Others have indicated that violence has always been part of their

life and anything related to violence is attractive to them. Drugs and alcohol are enhancing factors. We know that if the early warning signs had been heeded, then it would be unlikely that Jeffrey Dahmer would bizarre actions that he did. Dahmer

have taken the was ultimately

charged and convicted of a series of bizarre murders. What I found interesting was that the murders committed by Jeffrey Dahmer were of secondary interest to cannibalistic behavior that accompanied the crimes. Modern society has neglected past mythologies and

taboos

regarding

the

consumption

of human

flesh.

Therefore, when an incident such as the Dahmer case does occur, people are fascinated by the gruesome and

unconscionable manner in which the killings occurred. We have placed taboos on eating human flesh so that familiarity with cannibalism is foreign to us. When a human being is eaten, our interest perks up. The act of cannibalism is so taboo that modern man avoids it. In an article from the Associated Press found in THE TIMES sUNION. (April 257 -51992.6 pAwA-5) cnlitied CANNIBAL’S TRIAL A RARE PUBLIC SPECTACLE IN

RUSSIA, revealed.

the act of serial killing and cannibalism Andrei

R. Chikatilo,

a former

was

schoolteacher,

MODERN

DAY CANNIBALISM

99

killed and cannibalized 52 people in Russia. The 56 year old allegedly “gouged out his victims’ eyes. In other instances, he has said he cut off fingers, breasts and genitals, and ate some of the flesh.” Chikatilo was convicted by a Russian court for the murder and cannibalizing over fifty people from 1978 to 1990.15

Going back to prehistoric cultures, we realize that the human bones found in cave sites represent the exception to how the Stone Age population was buried. In the days of early man, people did not clutter up their caves with dead bodies. They frequently deposited them in some distant area. Human bones found in caves were usually people killed by natural causes. The fact that prehistoric bones indicate that cannibalism did take place does not mean that everyone was eaten in this fashion. Earlier indications are that man did eat other humans, especially for the “delicious bone marrow.” It would be impossible to escape a priority of eating and sexuality in cannibalism. They have been closely related socially.

Moreover,

this combination

of eating is carried

on

in

modern society.

Many of the expressions like “consumed”

and “devoured”

are used today in English to describe a

love-desire. “Gourmet” sex manuals and “cookbooks’ flourish in book stores. Sex is placed on menus in today’s books and recipes describe food and sex.

I cannot resist drawing an analogy between human flesh eating and animal consumption. Obviously I realize that a human being differs from an animal. Ask a committed vegetarian about this difference. Both animal and human consumption have to do with eating flesh. The victim has no say in the matter.

The human

are eaten during festive occasions.

modern society is humanize animals. Elsie is the aunt that you never had.

animal

roaming

supermarket,

the

woods.

and animal

What we have done in

So when

Porky Pig talks. Bambi is a cute

we

go to the

steaks and chops may be already packaged.

HUMANS

100

EATING

HUMANS

Wouldn't it be interesting if we put the cow’s picture next to the price. The caption would read: THIS ANIMAL WAS SLAUGHTERED FOR YOUR EATING PLEASURE. A sound chip that details the sounds of the last living minute would be included. Somehow I think that eating animal meat under these circumstances would not be as pleasurable. Remember that those who ate humans talked about the nutritional value of these beings that

were

considered

less than

human.

That’s enough

for

animals! Literature is a source of subtle communication of cannibalism. The topic is mentioned in both children’s and adult literature. Mythology throughout the ages does not overtly mention it. It is a tempered way of dealing with the topic that has been made a taboo subject in modern society. Words are a great way of disguising cannibalism without clearly saying that it is cannibalism. Mention in books and stories has become an acceptable means of communicating this concept. People are not encouraged to act-out but rather read about it in a transformed wording.

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FINAL COMMENTS

LODD Haven't you got a poet

Or something like that? MRS.

LOVETT

No, you see the trouble with poet Is, how do you know it’s Deceased? Try a priest. TODD (Tasting it)

Heavenly, (MRS. LOVETT giggles) Not as hearty as a bishop, perhaps, but not as bland as curate, either. MRS.

LOVETT

And good for business - always leaves you wanting more.

Trouble is, we only

get it in Sundays... SWEENEY TODD Music and Lyrics by - Stephen Sondheim -

EATING

HUMANS

104

HUMANS

We can see that symbolic rituals, even today, are bound up in how one feels about oneself, how one envisions his or her society and what is appropriate in life. Symbols represent meaning. In the earlier days when cannibalism was more widely practiced, the symbolic ritual of eating human flesh was imperative for achieving a specific goal whether it was to reduce famine or demoralize an enemy. Additionally, when one defiles and consumes a human

body, the process leads the eater to symbolic rebirth. The consumed flesh actually becomes the source for social and psychological development of a people. One psychoanalytic theory pertaining to modern society is

that cannibalism has to do with the sucking stage of children and the subsequent desire to bite. This urge to suck and eventually bite is controlled by a taboo which dissuades an individual from biting and eating human

flesh.

Similar taboos exist like those against expressed

forms

of sex,

another’s uncommon

incest

power

and

marriage.

through

eating

To

that

appropriate

person

is not

in cannibalistic societies.

Early-age sucking

and biting has been described as an

expression

of innate

addressed

in a number

aggression.

This

notion

was

of Freud’s writings and can be

linked to a possible motivator for cannibalism. In human flesh eating societies, youngsters are taught at a very

early age that consuming

another is a natural act in the

scope of that society's objectives. Knowing that the oral instinct of babies is pervasive, it is not difficult to associate its behavior with some cannibalistic tendencies. The initial act of desire is to destroy (eg. plants, meat or objects) and make them a part of the individual.

Young children respond to eating by tasting an assortment of food and non-food. During the oral stage of development,

youngsters

and things around

attempt

to consume

their environment.

people

They are known

FINAL COMMENTS

105

for biting, eating and digesting all sorts of things. It is not until they learn the taboo in our culture which forbids eating human flesh that they stop. It is

my

contention

that

earlier

cannibalism

is not

analogous to modern day cannibalism where a serial killer may be responsible for numerous deaths and finally eats his or her victims. Past cannibalism was a cultural ritual that insured the unity of the society. Modern day cannibalism is a mental dysfunction that causes a breakdown leading to killing and human consumption.

The modern day individual committing the act of “cannibalism” certainly gains satisfaction from the process but it is unrelated to the inborn code of the past. Cannibalism is an powerfully complex practice. It may simply be a desperate response to famine - eat or die! In some cases, ritualism is involved which focuses on the unanswerable questions of life- where did I come from? Where am I going? The practice of cannibalism maintains a strict social order based on a series of beliefs about eating humans. Sometimes enemies were eaten for their innate strength, supposedly held in the organs. The same act appeases the gods who seek blood in exchange for

continued societal assistance. evil comes considered

person

The concept of good and

into play. The victim of cannibalism is evil and it is necessary to eliminate that

in order to maintain

the social integrity of the

society. Cannibalism, therefore, becomes a metaphor for dominance in a society that seeks structure. Cannibalism

instills social stability by transmitting vital

ingredients from dead humans to live humans and from dead humans to gods. The social status structure is continuously enforced through cannibalism. There are those who eat humans and those who do not. There are those who consume certain parts of the human body and those who eat other parts. Some eat the entire human body while others eat none. As we have seen, there are

HUMANS

106

HUMANS

EATING

fertility rites and sexual prowess associated with cannibalism. To some, it is a status symbol reflected in Mortuary rituals . the number of individuals consumed. involving cannibalistic behavior were not unusual. All What they do in the process of relate to regeneration. consuming humans is not new at all. It has been witha myriad of cultures for generations and is a non-thinking act sanctioned by the society.

Contrary to common

belief, man-eating societies did not

capture Christian missionaries and eat them as a matter

of routine. Consuming humans was not based on an impulse or a whim. Cannibals were much more organized as they attempted

to serve

their gods.

Eating

human

beings for the sake of sampling was considered an antisocial act oftentimes punishable by death. There were numerous taboos associated with cannibalism. They centered around who you ate and for what purpose. In short, a meal of human flesh was commonly associated

with

social

and

spiritual

significance.

The

feasting

ceremonies were connected with life, death and reproduction. Enemies, slaves, deceased and captured

warriors were common meals. Eating human flesh meant a communion with one’s god and the instillment of life-

vitality.

Warriors of early tribal cultures were male and emphasized the superiority of the male species. To a large extent, male superiority was a by-product of warfare where males monopolized weapons and used sex as a means of power. The male dominance, then, was an expression

of circumstances

and

reproductive

pressures.

When one considers that women were seen as unclean during menstruation this become another factor that leads to male dominance. Also, much of the labor was divided in such a way that females did essentially

drudgery

work.

Confining

drudgery

work

to females

provided a distorted rationalization for male supremacy.

FINAL COMMENTS

107

Obviously, there are exceptions to the male dominance. Marvin Harris in CANNIBALS AND KINGS | remarked that:

The Iroquois, for example, are well-known for their incessant warfare and their training of males to be immune to pain. They are also well-known for their merciless treatment of prisoners of war. Captives were forced to run

a gauntlet, their finger-nails were pulled out and their limbs were hacked off, and they were finally decapitated or roasted alive at the stake - after which their remains were consumed in cannibalistic feasts. Yet the Iroquois were matrilineal, matrilocal, paid no

bride-price, were more or less monogamous, and had no elaborate religious complex for intimidating or isolating women. Many societies display a similar pattern of intense militarism combined with matrilineal rather than patrilineal descent and weak rather than strong male supremacist institutions. (Bear in mind, however, that matrilineal societies constitute less than 15 percent of all cases.)!

The fact is that much of the burden rested with the females who were the guardians of the male interests. When the males left for war, it was the females who took care of the children, became involved with agriculture, and made the daily decisions of life. Several characteristics appear to be innate in the cannibalistic belief system. Prisoners of war were often meant their wars had to be which victims of cannibalism perpetuated.

No war meant

no prisoners.

Since captives

were considered valuable possessions, personal care was taken before they were eaten. The prisoners could not be

HUMANS

108

EATING

HUMANS

sent back or absorbed into the tribe, so they were frequently put to death. As gruesome as torture seemed, it did provide revenge for family members who suffered Perhaps people did not losses during the war. instinctively torture but they did learn to integrate the concept into their rituals over the years. Societies such as the Huron Indians of Canada had trained their youth to be brutal. The point here is that just as people can

learn to like or dislike torturing, they also can learn to like or dislike human

The

flesh.

idea of getting victims

from

war-torn

battlefields

appeared to be the intent of the Aztecs. The killing of humans in this warlike manner was certainly not characteristic of most cannibalistic societies. Harris indicates in CANNIBALS AND KINGS: The Jews, the Christians, the Moslems, the Hindus, the Greeks, the Egyptians, the Chinese, the Romans-all went to war to

please their gods or carry out god’s will. Only the Aztecs felt it was saintly to go to war in order to supply vast numbers of human sacrifices. And while all of the other archaic

and not so archaic states engaged in butchery and mass atrocities, none of them did so on the pretext that the heavenly rulers had an uncontrollable desire to drink human blood.2

Trying to interpret the meaning of cannibalism and to what extent it existed over the years has been a challenging enigma dealt with by academics. An approach that attempts to deal with cannibalism and

how it is conveyed to us through research is the practice of “reductionism”. There are four levels of thought in “reductionism”. Reductionism says that you reduce all these thoughts to the basic level. For our purposes, the areas of thoughts are four and include cultural,

FINAL COMMENTS

109

psychological, biological and physics.

Now reductionism

simply means the opposite for it is not concerned with the major thought but a diminishment of a concept to its smallest level. Cultural is society, psychological is the mind, biological is the physical being, and physics is

reduced to the most basic level - the building blocks of the universe.

If you

make

that covers

an explanation

cultural, for example, it may be reduced to biological and The biologist reduces the cause to a related to genes. genetic

must

problem.

be reduced

And

the physicist

to the

basic

claims

building

that things

blocks.

The

question that is asked is where is the real cause? Reductionists claim that the real is when you reach a basic level.

There is a striking obviousness about the demise of rites of initiation. A few rites of passage remain in the modern world. They are associated in various degrees with the Christian

movement.

Initiatory rites such

as baptism,

ordination and confirmation still exist. The modern world has changed and the old rites of initiation no longer apply. The problem is that these rites are rarely replaced. There is a definite shortage of rites and oral teachings designed to maintain a religion’s social status. Those rites of initiation that bring an adolescent to adulthood are in rare supply. Myths and traditions are not carried on as a rule except through literature. Perhaps over three thousand years ago, individuals in societies had little concept of the distinction between out there from the I am personality. The distinction was rarely made. An I consciousness was not part of any cannibalistic tribe. As Julian Jaynes discusses in his book, titled THE ORIGIN OF CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE BREAKDOWN OF THE BICAMERAL MIND, about three thousand years ago our fore-parents suffered their first “nervous breakdown” which made them aware of

themselves

as I people and began to follow their own

HUMANS

110

independent

there

Cannibalism

voices.3

environment

rather

than

EATING

catered

taking

HUMANS

to the out

any

directions

from an I voice.

We frequently hear of the aggressive nature of human beings and thus attempt to minimize their negative actions. Some people are more aggressive than others but to say that aggressiveness is at the core of the world’s ills is ludicrous.

In their book ORIGINS

Richard

E. Leakey

and Roger Lewin point out:

The core of the aggression argument says that because we share a common heritage with the animal kingdom we must possess and express an aggressive instinct. And the notion is

elaborated with the suggestion that at some point in our evolutionary history we gave up

being

vegetarian

ape-like

creatures

and

became killers, with a taste not only for prey animals but also for each other. It makes a good

gripping

story.

More

important,

it

absolves society from attempting to rectify the evil in the world. But it is fiction -

dangerous fiction.4 Leakey and Lewin go on to say “If we are honest we have to admit that we will never fully know what happened to our ancestors in their journey towards modern humanity: the evidence is simply too sparse.”5 Despite our limited information about the development of cannibalism in human culture, we remain in a position to try to analyze the information that is available to us over the years. With the advances in science, this task has become easier. Advancements of disciplines contribute current

facts in understanding cannibalism and also raise more questions about the past. New burial sites that reveal human cannibalism and human evolution are increasingly discovered but will take years to assess.

FINAL COMMENTS

ial

The act of cannibalism is a cultural phenomenon. People are not inherently killers or cannibals. They become part of the culture that teaches them the merits of eating human flesh. When referring to the effects of cultural learning on behavior, Gordon C. Baldwin states in STONE AGE PEOPLES TODAY:

...what

language

an

individual

speaks

or

what kind of clothes he wears or what customs he follows depend upon the people with whom he grows up. For culture is learned, not inherited.6

Aggression is not new to societies. We tend to couple cannibalism and aggression together but there are other forms of aggression within and without a society. The inward aggression is often directed against a specific group

of

aggression,

people

within

the

on the other hand,

society.

The

outward

may be directed against

another society. Some cultures can practice both modes of behavior. A society legitimizes its own actions by

condoning

this type of aggression.

cannibalism

which

was’

This

sanctioned

leads by

us

to

entire

communities. Eating human flesh implies that the victims are sub-human beings and therefore aggression is legitimate. The writings of people like William Arens (THE MANEATING MYTH), questioning the existence of cannibalism as we know it, has served a positive purpose. They have caused us to reexamine the information we have about cannibalistic societies. Whether or not Arens is correct in his thesis is not known. Critics have stated that his evidence is weak and his historical references are severely limited. His methods, it is claimed, fail to meet basic requirements of historical analysis. Critics go on further by saying that there is an inadequate control of chronology, selective use of data and deficient treatment

HUMANS

112

EATING

HUMANS

of supportive evidence. This notwithstanding, Arens has made a contribution if only to place a big question mark

in the minds

of scholars.

One

may

argue that all the

evidence points to the fact that cannibalism did exist but our examination of the practice will never be taken lightly. People live in metaphorical ways of life. By this I mean the actions of cannibalistic cultures cannot be taken

literally or at face value. The meaning of cannibalism extended far beyond the killing and eating. Cannibalism itself was a metaphor. Our sense of language, with its many

meanings

and interpretations,

makes

it extremely

difficult to accurately define situations and gain a sense of reality. So that when we try to interpret what cannibalism was, we have that particular barrier to confront. Even though it is difficult to ameliorate, it is important to realize that this vague description does exist. The language we speak to describe situations such as cannibalism is metaphoric in nature. This lends itself to a wide variety of figurative interpretations.

Paintings and symbols left by prehistoric man are the best available description of their life. They tell what kind of

society it was, for instance hunter or gatherer, some

of

the notions of their culture, and an overall perspective of what transpired in their time. Evidently, there is very little directly related to cannibalism in these paintings and artifacts. Bones and skulls that are even found today, at least in large part, are connected with the ritual of dying. And speaking of the dead, pre-literate people tended to dispose of their corpses with arms, food and other means of survival. Cannibalism has been known to exist until recently in a few societies. And one can speculate that if it existed until recently in modern times, it could have also existed in a similar situation in prehistoric times.

FINAL COMMENTS

113

All

human institutions are symbolic of what they represent. Art, language, rituals, even cannibalism, stand

as a mutually agreed upon symbol for something else. Once people agree that a specific symbol represents a given activity, that symbol merges with the activity in a The symbolic activity of cannibalism, therefore, sense.

represents

a way

to communicate

to the gods,

foster

personal growth and insure happiness in afterlife. The act of cannibalism is symbolic but real to the people who practice the ritual.

I could not help thinking about Hans Vaihinger’s philosophy and the term as-if.7 This as-if philosophy blends well with the belief in cannibalism. We often draw a number of conclusions based on falsehoods and

generalities. As a result, a whole string of assumptions are developed based on as-if thinking. The initial as-if premise may be completely erroneous but the sequence of thinking makes sense even though it is wrong.8 Cannibalism may be a part of that as-if thinking where we make a false basic assumption and then develop stories based on that false assumption. By the time we’re

through,

a full exploded version

We

speak

then

of cannibalism

of cannibalism as

if it were

exists.

a factual

entity forgetting that it may have been based on a false premise. The fictional nature of abstractions and generalities start out the as-if philosophy of cannibalism.

The point here is that something unreal that is initially fabricated is the as-if and that fabrication becomes the truth in consequence. When we say that cannibalism may have existed if certain things were present, we are able to build an entire false case for the existence of cannibalism as we know it.

Finally, I would like to comment on Arens’s charge that no one has ever observed- this purported act- of

Consequently, we must be skeptical of its cannibalism. A view that Arens puts forth, that credible existence.9

HUMANS

EATING HUMANS

evidence does considers the

not exist, is too total history of

114

eyewitnesses or sound elementary when one

cannibalism. merely

To suggest that cannibalism is sometimes

a matter

of projection

and

attribution,

ignores

evidence that it has come to us through history that relates the contrary. Projection and attribution certainly did exist but that was only part of the picture. Missionaries, travelers, and individuals interested in societies

often witnessed

the act of cannibalism.

And

this witnessing occurred throughout the world and with diverse people. The strength of Arens’s writing is that he compels us re-examine our sources and look carefully at what we subscribe to be indicators of cannibalism. The question is again asked: did cannibalism really exist and, if so, to what extent? Extensive reports of

cannibalism in the past that occurred throughout the world appear to indicate that some cannibalism did happen. However, the extent may be far less than indicated by studies. Whether or not cannibalism took place is a moot question when one considers the impact it has had on future societies. W. I. Thomas, who has

had great influence

on sociology said

“if men

define

situations as real, they are real in their consequences” .!0 This statement has become known as the “Thomas theorem”. Thus, the notion of cannibalism, true or untrue, has had a vast impact on societal existence in years that followed. Believing in cannibalism made a culture cannibalistic, at least in the eyes of some observers.

The writing of Pascual Gisbert in his book PRELITERATE MAN sums up his perception of cannibalism:

...it cannot a priori be denied that among early men there might have been cases, perhaps many cases, of cannibalism. If it became common in some of the more advanced societies, there is no compelling

FINAL COMMENTS

115

reason to believe that it could not have been so in early society. But if we have to rely on

existing evidence,

then it can in no way be

admitted that cannibalism was the normal condition of man and that it was therefore natural to man even when other kinds of food

were available. Not only are proofs missing for making this devastating statement; the available evidence is clearly against it.11

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coun

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NOTES

CHAPTER

(fe

1 - SOCIETIES THAT ALLEGEDLY ATE HUMAN FLESH

Quoted

from Paul Brown

and Donald Tuzin (Edited

by), THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF CANNIBALISM, Society for Psychological Anthropology, 1983, p. 1. a.

See Garry Hogg, CANNIBALISM AND HUMAN SACRIFICE, The Citadel Press, 1966, p. 16.

3.

A review of where cannibalism was _ allegedly practiced” can be found in Garry Hoge’s introduction in the book CANNIBALISM AND HUMAN SACRIFICE, pp. 11-21.

4.

Ibid, p. 16.

D.

Ibid, p. 14.

6.

Quoted

from

William

Arens,

MYTH, Oxford University Press,

7.

Peggy Reeves Sanday, Cannibalism as a Cultural

THE

MAN-EATING

1980, p. 13.

DIVINE System,

HUNGER: Cambridge

University Press, 1986, p. 87.

8.

Two

readings

that describe

the Aztec

William Arens, THE MAN-EATING

and

Inga

Clendinnen,

world

AZTECS,

Cambridge

University Press, 1991.

9,

Sanday, DIVINE HUNGER:

are

MYTH, pp. 56-73

Cannibalism as a

NOTES

118

Cultural System, p. 173. 10. Lele

ibidyp. 2.

Hogg, CANNIBALISM

AND HUMAN

SACRIFICE,

p. 49.

12.

Quoted

from

Marvin

KINGS, Vintage Books,

Harris,

CANNIBALS

AND

1978, pp.147-148.

Lo:

Ibid, p. 154.

14.

Sanday, DIVINE HUNGER: Cultural System, p. 151.

15.

Ibid, p. 152.

MG

see Sigmund Freud, TOTEM Norton & Co. 1950, p. 2.

ae

Gordon -C. Baldwin, STONE. AGE. PEOPLES TODAY, W.W. Norton & Co., 1964, p. 87.

13:

Sanday, DIVINE HUNGER: Cultural System, p. 68.

19.

Ibid, chapter 3.

20.

Ibid, chapter 3.

Ze

Ibid pS.

22.

Ibid): Fz.

23.

Ibid, p. 125:

24.

Two

sources

that

mention

Cannibalism

as

AND

W.W.

TABOO,

Cannibalism

the

Iroquois

as

are

a

a

Eli

NOTES

62)

Sagan, CANNIBALISM: Human Aggression and Cultural Form, The Psychohistory Press,1974, pp. 9 & 75 and William MYTH, pp.127-129.

Arens,

THE

MAN-EATING

20.

Sanday, DIVINE HUNGER: Cultural System, p. 42.

26.

Ibid, p. 126.

af.

Baldwin, STONE AGE PEOPLES TODAY, pp. 99-100.

20.

The

reader

is directed

entitled

“Maori

found

in

December,

OCEANA,

Arens, THE

30.

ibid, ppeZ2-3 1:

b.

Ross

Cannibalism: Volume

Bowden's

An

as

a

article

Interpretation”, 55

Number

2,

1984, pp. 81-99.

20;

CHAPTER

to

Cannibalism

MAN-EATING

2 - RATIONALE

MYTH,

pp. 22-31.

FOR CONSUMING

Quoted from Bronislaw REPRESSION IN SAVAGE

HUMANS

Malinowski, SEX AND SOCIETY, Routledge and

Kegar Paul, Ltd., 1953, p. 19: Found in Eli Sagan, CANNIBALISM: Aggression and Cultural Form, Harper 9744 pas.

Human & Row,

See 1) (Mi) Lewis; “RELIGION: IN’ CONTEXT, Cambridge University Press, 1964, p. 68.

NOTES

120

HUNGER: Cambridge

DIVINE Sanday, Reeves Peggy Cannibalism as a Cultural System, University Press, 1986, p. 22. Sagan, CANNIBALISM: Cultural Form, p. 19.

Human

Aggression

and

Ibid, p. 20. Sanday, DIVINE HUNGER: Cultural System, p. 6.

Cannibalism

The reader may wish to consult Morton

WINDIGO

PSYCHOSIS,

American

as

a

I. Teicher,

Ethnological

Society, 1960. Ibid. 10.

Source

can

Psychosis:

be found The

in Lou

Anatomy

Marano, of

an

“Windigo Emic-Etic

Confusion,” CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY, No. 4, August 1982, pp. 385-412.

Vol. 23,

HO

Mircea Eliade, RITES AND SYMBOLS OF INITIATION, Harper & Row, Publishers, 1975, p. 3.

E2s

Ibid, p. 39.

13.

Ibid, p. 47.

14.

More information about the Jibaro Indians can be found in Gordon C. Baldwin, STONE AGE PEOPLES TODAY, W.W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1964,

pp. 121-131

and Eli Sagan, CANNIBALISM:

Human

Aggression and Cultural Form, Chapter 3. LS:

See

Garry

Hogg,

CANNIBALISM

AND

HUMAN

NOTES

121

16.

SACRIFICE, The Citadel Press, 1966, p. 117. Baldwin, STONE AGE PEOPLES TODAY, p. 129.

Wwe

Sagan,

CANNIBALISM:

Human

Aggression

and

Cultural Form, p. 102.

CHAPTER 3 MYTHOLOGICAL LINKS TO FLESH EATING Joseph Campbell, THE MASKS OF GOD: MYTHOLOGY, Penguin Books, 1986, p. 4.

PRIMITIVE

The reader is directed to Sigmund

Freud, TOTEM

AND

1950,

TABOO,

W.W.

Norton

& Co.,

pp.

125-

126. Joseph

Campbell,

THROUGH pk

TIME,

TRANSFORMATIONS

OF MYTH

Harper & Row, Publishers,

1990,

Mircea Eliade, RITES AND SYMBOLS OF INITIATION, Harper & Row, Publishers, 1975, p. xi.

See Carl G. Jung, MAN AND HIS SYMBOLS, Chapter 2 by Joseph L. Henderson, “Ancient Myths and Modern Man,” Dell Publishing Co., Inc., 1976, ea.

A classic book on dreams is a work by Sigmund Freud, THE INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS, W.W. Norton é& Co:.; Inc... 1950: David Feinstein and Stanley Krippner, PERSONAL MYTHOLOGY Jeremy 2. Tarcher, Inc., 1988;p: x1.

NOTES

122

See Paul Ricoeur, THE SYMBOLISM Harper & Row, Publishers, 1967.

See G.S. Kirk, THE NATURE Penguin Books, 1974. CHAPTER

4 - MORTUARY

Peggy Reeves Cannibalism as

OF

OF GREEK

EVIL,

MYTHS,

CANNIBALISM

Sanday, DIVINE a Cultural System,

HUNGER: Cambridge

University Press, 1986, Chapter 3.

Gordon C. Baldwin, STONE AGE PEOPLES TODAY, W.W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1964, pp. 99-101.

Eli Sagan, CANNIBALISM:

Human

Aggression and

Cultural Form, Harper & Row, Publishers, Do:

1974,

Mircea Eliade, RITES AND SYMBOLS OF INITIATION, Harper & Row, Publishers, 1975, p. 19.

Ibid, p. 31. William Arens, THE MAN-EATING University Press, 1980, pp. 89-95.

MYTH,

Oxford

Garry Hogg, CANNIBALISM AND HUMAN SACRIFICE, The Citadel Press, 1966, pp. 94-101. William

Graham

Sumner,

FOLKWAYS,

The

New

Aggression

and

American Library,1960, pp. 285-286.

Sagan,

CANNIBALISM:

Cultural Form, pp. 49-50.

Human

NOTES

10.

11. 12.

123

For a study of the Hua and Gimi see Sanday, DIVINE HUNGER: Cannibalism as a Cultural System. I. M Lewis, RELIGION IN CONTEXT, Cambridge University Press, 1986, pp. 73-74.

Richard E. Leakey and Roger Lewin, ORIGINS: What New Discoveries Reveal About the Emergence of Our Dutton,

less

Maurice DEATH

Species andi: ilts 1982, pp. 204-205. Bloch and AND THE

PossibleFuture,

E-.

Jonathan Parry (Edited by). REGENERATION OF LIFE,

Cambridge University Press, 1982, p. 4.

14.

Sagan, CANNIBALISM: Human Cultural Form, pp. 22-23.

CHAPTER

Aggression

and

5 - CANNIBALISM AND CHILDREN’S LITERATURE

i

See Jonathan Swift’s “A Modest Proposal” in M.H. Abrams (General Editor), THE NORTON ANTHOLOGY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE, W.W. Norton & Company, 1986, pp. 2174-2180.

ee

See Nicholas Tucker, THE CHILD AND THE Cambridge University Press, 1981, p. 100.

3:

reo Bruno Bettelheim, THE USES ENCHANTMENT, Alfred A. Knopf, 1977, p. 8.

4.

Ibid, pp. 8-9.

a

Alan

sbundes.

jp THES

STUDY

‘OF

BOOK,

— OF

FOLKLORE,

NOTES

124

Prentice-Hall. nev, 1963; pslL

The reader may wish to consult Maria Leach’s DICTIONARY OF FOLKLORE, MYTHOLOGY, AND LEGEND, Vol.1, 1949. See Marian S. Pyles, DEATH AND DYING IN CHILDREN’S AND YOUNG PEOPLE'S LITERATURE, MacFarland & Company, Inc., 1988.

Bettelheim, THE USES OF ENCHANTMENT,

p. 45.

Quoted in Ingri and Edgar Parin D’ Aulaire, BOOK OF

GREEK

MYTHS,

Doubleday

& Company

Inc.

PIG 2 Sp ae. Tucker, THE CHILD: ANDTHE

BOOK

pel=:

See Arthur Applebee, THE CHILD'S CONCEPT OF STORY, University of Chicago Press, 1978, p.38. Tucker, THE CHILD AND THE BOOK, Bettelheim, THE USES

p. 56.

OF ENCHANTMENT,

Tucker, THE CHILD AND THE

BOOK,

p. 27.

p. 37.

Catherine Storr, “Why Folk Tales and Fairy Stories Live--Foreéver,® in -SUITABLE; FORZCHIDDREN: Edited by Nicholas Stalker, University of California Press, 1976..p., 64: 16.

Dr.

J.

Langfeldt,

“The

Educational

and

Moral

Values of Folk and Fairy Tales,” in SUITABLE FOR CHILDREN, Edited by Nicholas Stalkner, University of California Press, 1976, p. 56.

NOTES

1ov&

Le.

19: 2Q,

125

Ibid, p. 61. Mario Jacoby, Verena WITCHES] -OGRES,

Kast and Ingrid Riedel, “AND —THE-?. DEVIL'S

DAUGHTER,

1992, p. viii.

Shambala,

Bettelheim, THE USES OF ENCHANTMENT, p. 166. Tucker, THE CHILD AND THE BOOK,

CHAPTER

6 - MODERN

p. 12.

DAY CANNIBALISM

See A. W. Simpson, CANNIBALISM AND THE COMMON LAW, The University of Chicago Press, 1984. See

George

R. Stewart,

ORDEAL

BY

HUNGER,

Houghton Mifflin Company, 1988. The reader may also wish to consult the PBS documentary THE DONNERGSPAR TY. “fin either New Yorker, September1992, volume 7, pp. 28-29. The story of Alferd Packer can be found in an article entitled “The Case of the Colorado Cannibal or ‘Have a Friend for Dinner” by Louise Boyd James in THE AMERICAN WEST CHRONICLE,

January/February

1990, pp. 1-2.

Another article is

called “The Case of the Colorado Cannibal” HEALTH, November/December 1992, Volume 6,

in

p79. The reader is directed to Harrison E. Salisbury, THE 900 DAYS, Harper & Row, 1969. See

Milt

Machlin,

THE

SEARCH

FOR

MICHAEL

NOTES

126

ROCKEFELLER,

G. P. Putnam’s Sons,

Go}

Ibid.

fs

Ibid.

3:

Eli Sagan, CANNIBALISM: Cultural jayeay

Form,

Harper

1972.

Human Aggression and

& Row,

Publishers,

1974,

9.

A complete summary of the incident is given by Piers Paul Read, ALIVE: The Story of the Andes Survivors, J. B. Lippincot Company, 1974.

LOs.

bid:

Il.

See Shirley Lindenbaum, Mayfield Publishing Company,

12.

Found in an article entitled “Antropologists Suggest Cannibalism is a Myth,” in SCIENCE, Vol. 232, June 20, 1986. pp. 1497-1500.

13.

See Joel Norris, Books, 1992.

14.

‘Ibid.

15.

JEFFREY

KURU 1979.

“SORCERY,

DAHMER,

Pinnacle

Found in an article by Joe Treen, “A Monster Caged Vol. 38, October 19, 1992. pp.

At Last,” PEOPLE, 93-98. CHAPTER

7 - FINAL COMMENTS

Quoted in Marvin

Vintage Books,

Harris, CANNIBALS

1978, pp. 86-87.

AND

KINGS,

NOTES

127

Ibid, p. 160. Julian Jaynes, THE ORIGIN OF CONSCIOUSNESS IN THE BREAKDOWN OF THE BICAMERAL MIND, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1976, Chapters 3 & 6. Richard E. Leakey and Roger Lewin, ORIGINS: What New Discoveries Reveal About the Emergence of Our Prtron,

Species and §9s27 p-9:

Its

Possible

Future,

E.P.

Ibid, p. 10. Gordon C. Baldwin, STONE AGE PEOPLES TODAY, W.W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1964, p. 18. For an examination of the ‘as if’ philosophy Hans Vaihinger, THE PHILOSOPHY OF ‘AS

see IF,

Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, 1965. Ibid. William

Arens,

THE

MAN-EATING

MYTH,

Oxford

University Press, 1980, p. 21. 10.

The

writings

of W.

I. Thomas

are

discussed

in

SOCIAL “BEHAVIOR “AND. “PERSONALITY: CONTRIBUTIONS OF W. I. THOMAS TO THEORY AND SOCIAL RESEARCH (Edited by Edmund H. Volkart), Social Science Research Council, 1951. Also, see W. I. Thomas, PRIMITIVE BEHAVIOR, AN INTRODUCTION TO- THE SOCIAL SCIENCES, McGraw-Hill, 1937.

i

Pascual

Gisbert

Manaktalas,

S.J.,

PRELITERATE

1967, pp. 222-223.

MAN,

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Abrams, M:He (General. Editor): THE NORTON ANTHOLOGY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. Jonathan Swift’s “A Modest Proposal.” W.W Norton & Company, New York: 1986.

Myth.”

. “Anthropologists Suggest SCIENCE vol. 232,

Cannibalism is a June) 20), 1986:

pp. 1497-1500.

Applebee, Arthur N. THE CHILD'S CONCEPT OF STORY. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago: 1978. Arens,

W. THE MAN-EATING Press, New York: 1980.

MYTH.

Oxford

University

Baldwin, Gordon C. STONE AGE PEOPLES TODAY. W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., New York: 1964.

Bendann, E. DEATH CUSTOMS: An Analytical Study of Burial Rites. Alfred A. Knopf, New York: 1930.

Bermdat, Ronald “M. EXCESS. AND University of Chicago Press, Chicago:

RESTRAINT. 1962.

Bettelheim, Bruno. THE USES OF ENCHANTMENT: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales. Alfred E Knopf, Inc. New York: 1976. Bloch,

Maurice and Jonathan Parry (Edited by). DEATH AND THE REGENERATION OF LIFE. Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge:

1982.

Bowden, Ross. OCEANIA. “Maori Cannibalism: An Interpretation”. Volume 55 Number 2, December, 1984. pp. 81-99.

REFERENCES

130 Brown,

Paul

and

Donald

Tuzin

(Edited

by).

THE

ETHNOGRAPHY OF CANNIBALISM. Society for Psychological Anthropology, Washington, D.C.: 1983. Brundage,

Burr

Cartwright.

Gods, Aztec Austin: 1979.

Campbell, Joseph. MYTHOLOGY.

World.

THE

FIFTH

University

SUN:

Aztec

of Texas

Press,

THE MASKS OF GOD: PRIMITIVE Penguin Books, New York: 1986.

Campbell, Joseph. TRANSFORMATIONS OF MYTH THROUGH TIME. Harper & Row, Publishers, New York: 1990. “Cannibal’s Trial a Rare Public Spectacle in Russia” THE TIMES UNION, Albany, New York (April 25, 1992) p. A-5.

Clendinnen, Inga. AZTECS. New York: I99OT.

Cambridge University Press,

D’Aulaire, Ingri and Edgar Parin. BOOK OF GREEK MYTHS. Doubleday & Company, Inc., New York: LoGZe Dundes, Alan. Hall, Inc.

THE STUDY New Jersey:

OF FOLKLORE. 1965.

Prentice-

Durkheim, Emile. THE RULES OF SOCIOLOGICAL METHOD. The Free Press, New York: 1982.

Eliade,

Mircea. RITES AND SYMBOLS OF INITIATION. Harper & Row, Publishers, New York: 1975.

Feinstein,

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and

Stanley

Krippner.

PERSONAL

REFERENCES

13]

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Angeles: Fernandez,

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Tarcher,

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of Tropes

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METAPHOR:

in Anthropology.

Press, California:

The Theory

Stanford

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Frazer, James George. THE GOLDEN BOUGH. Macmillan Company, New York: 1940. Freud, Sigmund. THE INTERPRETATION The Modern Library, New York: 1950.

Freud, Sigmund. TOTEM AND TABOO. Co., New York: 1950.

The

OF DREAMS.

W. W. Norton &

Gajdusek, D. Carleton and Judith Farquhar (Edited by). KURU. Raven Press, New York: 1981. Gisbert,

Pascual

Bombay:

S.J.

PRELITERATE

Harris, Marvin. CANNIBALS Books, New York: 1978. Hogg,

MAN.

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AND

KINGS.

Garry. CANNIBALISM AND HUMAN The Citadel Press, New York: 1966.

Hook7iR-H.. (Edited) Academic Press,

by): FANTASY New York: 1979.

AND

Vintage

SACRIFICE.

SYMBOL.

Jacoby, Mario, Kast, Verena and Ingrid Riedel WITCHES, OGRES, AND THE DEVIL'S DAUGHTER. Shambhala, Boston: 1992.

Jaynes, Julian. THE ORIGIN OF CONSCIOUSNESS IN THE BREAKDOWN OF THE BICAMERAL MIND. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston: 1976.

132

REFERENCES

Jung, Carl G. MAN AND HIS SYMBOLS. Chapter 2 by Joseph L. Henderson, “Ancient Myths and Modern

Man.”

Dell Publishing Co., Inc., New York:

Jung, C. G. and C. Kerenyi. MYTHOLOGY. Jersey: 1989. Kalish,

Richard

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ESSAYS

Princeton

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from Many Cultures.

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AND

Baywood

OF New

DYING:

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Kingston, Carolyn T. THE TRAGIC MODE IN CHILDREN’S LITERATURE. Teachers College Press, New York: 1974. Kirk, G.S. THE NATURE OF GREEK Books, New York: 1974.

Larsen, Stephen. THE MYTHIC Books. New York: 1990.

MYTHS.

Penguin

IMAGINATION.

Bantam

Leakey, Richard E. and Roger Lewin. ORIGINS: What New Discoveries Reveal About the Emergence of Our Species and Its Possible Future.

New York:

E. P. Dutton,

1982.

Levi-Strauss. THE RAW AND THE COOKED. Row, Publishers, New York: 1964.

Lewis,

I. M. RELIGION IN CONTEXT. University Press, New York: 1986.

Lindenbaum,

Danger

Shirley.

KURU

in the New

SORCERY:

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133

Machlin, Milt. THE SEARCH FOR MICHAEL G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York: ROCKEFELLER. 1972. Malinowski, Bronislaw. SEX AND REPRESSION IN

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London:

195s;

Routledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd.,

Marano, Lou. CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY. “Windigo Psychosis: The Anatomy of an Emic-Etic Confusion”. Vol. 23, No. 4. August 1982, pp. 385-

412. Norris,

Joel. JEFFREY York: 1992.

Pyles,

Marian S. DEATH AND DYING IN CHILDREN’S AND YOUNG PEOPLE'S LITERATURE. McFarland & Company, Inc., London: 1988.

Reaq.”

Piers Paul. ALIVE: The Story of the Andes Survivors. J. B. Lippincot Company, New York: 1974.

Ricoeur,

Paul.

Row,

THE

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DAHMER.

SYMBOLISM New York:

Rogers, Spencer L. THE SHAMAN. Publisher, Springfield: 1982.

Pinnacle

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Charles C. Thomas,

Russell, Mary D. “Mortuary Practices at the Krapina Neanderthal Site”. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ANTHROPOLOGY.» 727381397 (1987):

CANNIBALISM: Human Sagan, Eli. Cultural Form. Harper & Row, York: 1974.

Sanday,

Peggy Reeves.

Aggression Publishers,

DIVINE HUNGER:

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REFERENCES

134

as a Cultural System. Cambridge: 1986. Simoons,

Frederick

of Wisconsin

Simpson,

A.

W.

Cambridge University Press,

JN. EAT NOT THIS FLESH. Press, Madison:

Brian.

COMMON LAW. Chicago: 1984.

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AND

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The University of Chicago Press,

Sumner, William Graham. FOLKWAYS. American Library, New York: 1960.

Tannahill, Reay. FLESH AND BLOOD: Cannibal Complex. Stein and LOZ

The

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A History of the Day, New York:

Teicher, Morton I. WINDIGO PSYCHOSIS. American Ethnological Society, Washington: 1960. hickerrs Nicholas, SUITABLE FOR CHILDREN? University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles; 1976.

Dhucker,. “Nicholasi 7 (THE =CHILDeAND THE eBook Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1981. Vaithinger, Hans. THE* PHILOSOPHY sOrItns Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. London: 1965.

1h

Walens, Stanley. FEASTING WITH CANNIBALS. Princeton University Press. New Jersey: 1981.

Wilkin, Binnie Tate. SURVIVAL THEMES IN FICTION The PEOPLE. AND YOUNG FOR CHILDREN Scarecrow Press, Inc., New Jersey: 1978.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

There

are

many

people

to

thank

contributions in crafting this book.

for

their

learned

For those who have

assisted and promoted my thoughts, thank you. I am greatly indebted to my close colleagues and friends.

The late Bill Rawlin who provided illuminating ideas and concepts since the manuscript was a draft.

energy were

extensive.

Working

with

His time and

Bill was

a great

personal pleasure.

To Stephen

Pitkin

who

has

devoted

much

of his time

doing research on the topic of cannibalism. His advice and suggestions have been invaluable. I appreciate his excellent drawings. Thanks to Larry Crutchley for his assistance in teaching me how to use the computer and his comments about the style and clarity of the words. Larry has been for me an effective critic who added extensively to the book.

Stu Horn has demanded consistency, readability and lucidity in every paragraph. His encouragement in my intellectual efforts is always present.

I’m also grateful to Pieter manuscript and providing communicative powers. is deeply valued.

Hiemstra for reviewing the useful comments about its

His assistance in doing research

Finally, | am grateful to Eileen and Kristin Baker for typing, reading, and offering observations throughout the 135

time of the manuscript’s development. It is people like these who helped make the book what I always wanted it to be - a handbook about cannibalism that the readership can enjoy and learn from.

136

CREDITS The author would like to thank the following publishers for their generous selected works:

permission

to reprint excerpts

from

From BOOK OF GREEK MYTHS by Ingri D’Aulaire and Edgar Parin (1962). Selected quotes used by permission of Doubleday & Company Inc., New York, New York.

From CANNIBALISM AND HUMAN SACRIFICE by Garry Hogg (1966). Published by arrangement with Carol Publishing Group. A Citadel Press Book. From CANNIBALS AND KINGS: THE ORIGINS OF CULTURES by Marvin Harris Copyright (c) 1977 by Marvin Harris. Reprinted by permission of Random House,

Inc.

From CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY by Lou Marano, Vol. 23, No. 4, August 1982. Used by permission of The

University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. From THE MAN-EATING MYTH by William Arens (1980). Quote used with permission of Oxford University Press, New York.

From

ORIGINS

by Richard

E. Leakey and Roger Lewin

(1982). Selected quotes used USA, New York, New York.

137

by permission

of Penquin

Quotation from Typee is reprinted from Herman Melville, Typee, Omoo, Mardi, a volume in The Library of America series. Copyright 1982 by Literary Classics of the United States, Inc. By permission of The Library of America. From RELIGION IN CONTEXT by I. M. Lewis (1986), and THE CHILD AND THE BOOK by Nicholas Tucker (1981). Selected quotes used by permission of Cambridge University Press, New York, New York. Reproduced by permission of the American Anthropological Association from THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF CANNIBALISM, 1983. Not for sale or further reproduction. From: STONE. AGE PEOPLES MWTIODAY «by, Gordon .c— Baldwin (1964) and TOTEM AND TABOO by Sigmund Freud (1950). Selected quotes used by permission of W. W. Norton & Company, New York, New York.

From

SUITABLE

FOR

CHILDREN?

Controversies

Children’s Literature by Nicholas Tucker (1976).

quotes used by permission Press, Berkeley, California.

of University

in

Selected

of California

From THE USES OF ENCHANTMENT: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy Tales by Bruno Bettelheim (1976). Selected quotes used by permission of Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York, New York.

138

|

ABOUT

THE AUTHOR

Richard L. Sartore earned a Bachelor and three Master degrees: one advanced degree from State University College at New Paltz and the remainder from State University of New York at Albany. With over fifteen years experience as a teacher, counselor and administrator, he has had a continuous interest in cultures, rituals and

mythologies. A book written and edited by Mr. Sartore is entitled JOSEPH CAMPBELL ON MYTH AND MYTHOLOGY. More than a hundred of his articles and poems appear in scholarly journals and magazines. Three years were served as a Consulting Editor for the CLEARING HOUSE JOURNAL. He is currently a full time writer and Educational Consultant.

139

”

q

HUMANS EATING HUMANS by Richard L. Sartore

The author is an expert in the field of Guidance Counseling, having spent many years in the study and practice of this profession. He has published extensively in the fields of poetry, children's literature and nereture for Piysierlly challenged persons. The notion of a modern cannibalistic society seems abhorrent to most people. In earlier times, however, the practice was condoned by some societies, although precise

documentation of this is difficult. Often the practice was part of religious rituals. These rituals varied from people to people and from place to place.

Recent cases in the news have rekindled interest in the study of this practice and its social implications. This book focuses on a select number of societies that practiced cannibalism. What the dg mon patterns running thra view to separating facts

435-BAA-743