Human Interaction, Emerging Technologies and Future Applications III: Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Human Interaction and Emerging Technologies: Future Applications (IHIET 2020), August 27-29, 2020, Paris, France [1st ed.] 9783030553067, 9783030553074

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Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 1253

Tareq Ahram Redha Taiar Karine Langlois Arnaud Choplin   Editors

Human Interaction, Emerging Technologies and Future Applications III Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Human Interaction and Emerging Technologies: Future Applications (IHIET 2020), August 27–29, 2020, Paris, France

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing Volume 1253

Series Editor Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Advisory Editors Nikhil R. Pal, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India Rafael Bello Perez, Faculty of Mathematics, Physics and Computing, Universidad Central de Las Villas, Santa Clara, Cuba Emilio S. Corchado, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain Hani Hagras, School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, UK László T. Kóczy, Department of Automation, Széchenyi István University, Gyor, Hungary Vladik Kreinovich, Department of Computer Science, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA Chin-Teng Lin, Department of Electrical Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan Jie Lu, Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia Patricia Melin, Graduate Program of Computer Science, Tijuana Institute of Technology, Tijuana, Mexico Nadia Nedjah, Department of Electronics Engineering, University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Ngoc Thanh Nguyen , Faculty of Computer Science and Management, Wrocław University of Technology, Wrocław, Poland Jun Wang, Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong

The series “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” contains publications on theory, applications, and design methods of Intelligent Systems and Intelligent Computing. Virtually all disciplines such as engineering, natural sciences, computer and information science, ICT, economics, business, e-commerce, environment, healthcare, life science are covered. The list of topics spans all the areas of modern intelligent systems and computing such as: computational intelligence, soft computing including neural networks, fuzzy systems, evolutionary computing and the fusion of these paradigms, social intelligence, ambient intelligence, computational neuroscience, artificial life, virtual worlds and society, cognitive science and systems, Perception and Vision, DNA and immune based systems, self-organizing and adaptive systems, e-Learning and teaching, human-centered and human-centric computing, recommender systems, intelligent control, robotics and mechatronics including human-machine teaming, knowledge-based paradigms, learning paradigms, machine ethics, intelligent data analysis, knowledge management, intelligent agents, intelligent decision making and support, intelligent network security, trust management, interactive entertainment, Web intelligence and multimedia. The publications within “Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing” are primarily proceedings of important conferences, symposia and congresses. They cover significant recent developments in the field, both of a foundational and applicable character. An important characteristic feature of the series is the short publication time and world-wide distribution. This permits a rapid and broad dissemination of research results. ** Indexing: The books of this series are submitted to ISI Proceedings, EI-Compendex, DBLP, SCOPUS, Google Scholar and Springerlink **

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11156

Tareq Ahram Redha Taiar Karine Langlois Arnaud Choplin •

•

•

Editors

Human Interaction, Emerging Technologies and Future Applications III Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Human Interaction and Emerging Technologies: Future Applications (IHIET 2020), August 27–29, 2020, Paris, France

123

Editors Tareq Ahram Institute for Advanced Systems Engineering University of Central Florida Orlando, FL, USA Karine Langlois Fondation EFOM Boris DOLTO Paris, France

Redha Taiar Campus du Moulin de la Housse Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne Reims, France Arnaud Choplin IFMK Nicois Université Côte d’Azur Nice Cedex 3, France

ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic) Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing ISBN 978-3-030-55306-7 ISBN 978-3-030-55307-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

This book, entitled Human Interaction and Emerging Technologies III: Future Applications, aims to provide a global forum for presenting and discussing novel human interaction, emerging technologies and engineering approaches, tools, methodologies, techniques, and solutions for integrating people, concepts, trends, and applications in all areas of human interaction endeavor. Such applications include, but are not limited to, health care and medicine, sports medicine, transportation, optimization and urban planning for infrastructure development, manufacturing, social development, a new generation of service systems, as well as safety, risk assessment, and cybersecurity in both civilian and military contexts. Rapid progress in developments in cognitive computing, modeling, and simulation, as well as smart sensor technology, will have a profound effect on the principles of human interaction and emerging technologies at both the individual and societal levels in the near future. The book, which gathers selected papers presented at the 3rd International Conference on Human Interaction and Emerging Technologies: Future Applications (IHIET 2020), August 27–29, 2020, Paris, France, focuses on humancentered design approach that utilizes and expands on the current knowledge of design and emerging technologies supported by engineering, artificial intelligence and computing, data analytics, wearable technologies, and next-generation systems. This book also presents many innovative studies with a particular emphasis on emerging technologies and their applications, in addition to the consideration of user experience in the design of human interfaces for virtual, augmented, and mixed reality applications. Reflecting on the above-outlined perspective, the papers contained in this volume are organized into eight sections, including: Section Section Section Section Section

1 2 3 4 5

Human-centered Design Artificial Intelligence and Computing Augmented, Virtual and Mixed Reality Simulation Wearable Technologies and Affective Computing Human–Computer Interaction

v

vi

Section 6 Section 7 Section 8

Preface

Healthcare and Medical Applications Human Technology and Future of Work Emerging Technologies and Applications

Our appreciation also goes to the members of the Scientific Program Advisory Board who have reviewed the accepted papers that are presented in this volume. We hope that this book, which presents the current state of the art in human interaction and emerging technologies, will be a valuable source of both theoretical and applied knowledge enabling the human-centered design and applications of a variety of products, services, and systems for their safe, effective, and pleasurable use by people around the world. August 2020

Tareq Ahram Redha Taiar Karine Langlois Arnaud Choplin

Contents

Human-Centered Design Looking at Driving Automation from a Passenger’s Perspective: Driving Experience and Gaze Behavior During Fully Automated vs. Human Vehicle Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cornelia Schmidt, Franziska Hartwich, and Josef F. Krems

3

Designing Robo-Taxis to Promote Ride-Pooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Angela Sanguinetti, Beth Ferguson, Jamie Oka, Eli Alston-Stepnitz, and Kenneth Kurani

10

How to Measure UX and Usability in Today’s Connected Vehicles . . . . Rico Ludwig, Arne Bachmann, Stefanie Buchholz, Kathrin Ganser, Daniel Glänzer, and Audrey Matarage

17

Exemplification of Assessing Human Centered Design Processes from ISO 9241-220 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rüdiger Heimgärtner The Importance of Feedback for Object Hand-Overs Between Human and Robot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marco Käppler, Barbara Deml, Thorsten Stein, Johannes Nagl, and Hannah Steingrebe

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29

Using Technology to Encourage the Participation of Persons with Disabilities: Exploring Cultural Leisure Activities in a Theatre Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zakia Hammouni, Walter Wittich, Eva Kehayia, Ingrid Verduyckt, Natalina Martiniello, Emilie Hervieux, and Tiiu Poldma

36

Exploring the Acceptance of the Web-Based Coding Tool in an Introductory Programming Course: A Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . Igor Škorić, Tihomir Orehovački, and Marina Ivašić-Kos

42

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An Exploratory Approach Towards Fashion E-tail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carolina Bozzi, Marco Neves, and Claudia Mont’Alvão

49

Data-Driven Analysis of Human-Machine Systems – A Data Logger and Possible Use Cases for Field Studies with Cordless Power Tools . . . Matthias Dörr, Julian Peters, and Sven Matthiesen

56

Landing UX Design Thinking Tools and Strategies in a Chinese Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Di Zhu, Wei Liu, Sheng Tang, Minjing Wang, Yao Liu, and Jueyi Sheng

63

Pedestrian Traffic Planning with TOPSIS: Case Study Urdesa Norte, Guayaquil, Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Andrea Perez Lopez, Maikel Leyva Vazquez, and Jesús Rafael Hechavarría Hernández Multicriteria Algorithms for Multisensory Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alexandro Magno da Rocha Vianna An Objective Rating Approach for Vibration Discomfort Evaluation in Power Tool Ergonomics – Examination of Higher Frequency Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sebastian Zimprich, René Germann, Sebastian Helmstetter, Simon Saurbier, and Sven Matthiesen Exploring Interaction Qualities from Teenagers’ Studying Behavior for Learning Feature in Museum Exhibit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Xin Xin, Wei Liu, Yumei Yan, Xin Zhao, Nan Liu, Xinyue Huang, and Junyi Zhou Human Digital Twins and Cognitive Mimetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pertti Saariluoma, Jose Cañas, and Antero Karvonen

69

77

84

91

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The Influence of Lighting Settings on Museum’s Brand Image and Human Satisfaction in Exhibition Halls Using Virtual Reality . . . . 103 Youmna Ahmady and Yamuna Kaluarachchi Effects of Colors Toward Pleasant Impression on Sofa Furniture Through Electroencephalography (EEG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Phetnidda Ouankhamchan and Tsutomu Fujinami HelaBeat: An Extensible Audio Streaming Mobile Application . . . . . . . 115 Dushani Perera, Maneesha Rajaratne, and Shiromi Arunathilake BraVo: A Physiological Indication System for Female College Students to Manage Depression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Wei Liu, Jinge Huang, Wenjie Pan, Yancong Zhu, Mengfan Li, and Han Xu

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Effects of Different Scheduling Systems on Crew’s Situation Awareness Under Long-Term Operation Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Hao Chen, Liping Pang, Xiaoru Wanyan, Shuang Liu, and Yufeng Fang Ecological Border Implementation: Proposal to Urban-Natural Transition in Nigeria, Guayaquil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Andrea Salvador Minuche, Rosa María Pin Guerrero, Jesús Rafael Hechavarría Hernández, and Maikel Leyva Vázquez Exploring a Taxonomy of Interaction in Interactive Sonification Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Visda Goudarzi Artificial Intelligence and Computing Talker and Team Dependent Modeling Techniques for Intelligent Interruption Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Nia Peters Dimensionality Reduction and the Strange Case of Categorical Data for Predicting Defective Water Meter Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Marco Roccetti, Luca Casini, Giovanni Delnevo, and Simone Bonfante Speaker Verification Method Using HTM for Security System . . . . . . . 160 Yuki Sakaguchi, Rin Hirakawa, Hideki Kawano, Kenichi Nakashi, and Yoshihisa Nakatoh Research on Precision of Transmission Mechanism in Flight Control Deck Suite of Civil Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Fang Zhang, Xianchao Ma, Yinbo Zhang, and Ruijie Fan A Framework for Selecting Classification Models in the Intruder Detection System Using TOPSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Miguel Angel Quiroz Martinez, Deivid Temistocles Leon Rugel, Carlos Jose Espinoza Alcivar, and Maikel Yelandi Leyva Vazquez Augmented, Virtual and Mixed Reality Simulation Physical Add-Ons for Haptic Human-Surrounding Interaction and Sensorial Augmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Eva Lindell, Arthur Theil, Li Guo, Nasrine Olsson, Oliver Korn, and Nils-Krister Persson A Mixed Reality Interface for Handheld 3D Scanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Jérôme Isabelle and Denis Laurendeau A Comparative Study of 3 DOF Travel Techniques for Immersive Virtual Flythroughs: The Leap Motion and the Oculus Rift S Hand Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Jean-François Lapointe, Norman G. Vinson, and Bruno Emond

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Use of Virtual Reality in the Nursing School’s Toco-Surgery Teaching Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Leticia Neira, Edson Castañeda, and Cesar Torres Digital Technologies in Expanding the Boundaries Through Immersive Spaces: Case Studies in Vessel and Yacht Design . . . . . . . . . 209 Giuseppe Carmosino, Arianna Bionda, Silvia Piardi, and Andrea Ratti Sound Perception in 3D Virtual Environments: Application to a Roman Theatre of Hispania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Javier Alayón, José A. Romero-Odero, Miguel Galindo, Francisco J. Nieves, and Sara Girón Design of an Innovative System of Safety and Health at Work Applied to Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Julián Casañas, Daniela Burbano, Nathalia Cortes, Valentina Espinosa, and Estefany Rey-Becerra Wearable Technologies and Affective Computing Instagram Photo-Sharing and Its Relationships with Social Rewards and Social Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Julie Maclean, Yeslam Al-Saggaf, and Rachel Hogg Building a Unique Method to Teach How to “Design” with and for ICS Materials in the Wearable Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Venere Ferraro and Stefano Parisi Emotion Detection Based on Smartphone Using User Memory Tasks and Videos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Nicolas Simonazzi, Jean-Marc Salotti, Caroline Dubois, and Dominique Seminel On Air: Interacting with Podcasts as an Auxiliary Educational Resource . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Gonçalo Falcão and Sebastião Salgado Human–Computer Interaction Design of Digital Mediation Tool for Self-disclosing PTSD . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Maria Gaci, Caroline Bendahan, Isabelle Vonèche Cardia, Marina Fiori, Delphine Preissmann, and Denis Gillet Mind-Reading Chatbots: We Are Not There Yet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Baptiste Jacquet and Jean Baratgin Approaching Instant Messaging (IM) by Connecting Usage Scenario and User Interaction for More Meaningful Notification . . . . . . 272 Ole Goethe

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A Multilayered Contextually Intelligent Activity Recognition Framework for Smart Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Nirmalya Thakur and Chia Y. Han NeuroDesign: Embracing Neuroscience Instruments to Investigate Human Collaboration in Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Jan Auernhammer, Wei Liu, Takumi Ohashi, Larry Leifer, Eric Byler, and Wenjie Pan Research on Instructor’s Teaching Styles: Efficiency Factors in Human - Machine Interaction Training with Aircraft Simulators for Chinese Pilots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Yancong Zhu, Wei Liu, Qiang Li, Xiaohan Wang, Jingshu Zhang, Nan Wang, and Wenxi Li An Intelligent Ubiquitous Activity Aware Framework for Smart Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Nirmalya Thakur and Chia Y. Han Towards a Knowledge Base for Activity Recognition of Diverse Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Nirmalya Thakur and Chia Y. Han Towards a Language for Defining Human Behavior for Complex Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Nirmalya Thakur and Chia Y. Han User Interface in Virtual Space Using VR Device with Eye Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Kazuki Komoriya, Taiga Sakurai, Yusuke Seki, Munehiro Takimoto, and Yasushi Kambayashi A Framework for Facilitating Human-Human Interactions to Mitigate Loneliness in Elderly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 Nirmalya Thakur and Chia Y. Han Healthcare and Medical Applications Segmentation of Musculotendinous Structures of the Hip from 3D Imaging for Patient-Specific Individualization of Biomechanical Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Christopher Fleischmann, David Scherb, Irina Leher, Alexander Wolf, Jörg Miehling, Sandro Wartzack, and Stefan Sesselmann Move Ahead with Mahalanobis Distance - Pattern Approach . . . . . . . . 338 Shuichi Fukuda How Does the COM Position of a Vacuum Cleaner Affect Muscle Activities While Vacuuming? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 Difu Qin, Zhanxun Dong, Yuxuan Liu, Dong Wang, and Shiyao Qin

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Sitting Posture Assessment Method for Back Pain Prevention System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Daiki Joumori, Rin Hirakawa, Hideaki Kawano, and Kenichi Nakashi Effective Speech Features for Distinguishing Mild Dementia Patients from Healthy Person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Kazu Nishikawa, Rin Hirakawa, Hideki Kawano, Kenichi Nakashi, and Yoshihisa Nakatoh Blink Detection Using Image Processing to Predict Eye Fatigue . . . . . . 362 Akihiro Kuwahara, Rin Hirakawa, Hideki Kawano, Kenichi Nakashi, and Yoshihisa Nakatoh Human-Technology and Future of Work New Investment of Innovative Design of the Future Workstation: Advancing Sedentary Work Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Dosun Shin, Matthew Buman, Pavan Turaga, Assegid Kidane, and Todd Ingalls Industry 4.0 in Logistics and Associated Employee Competencies – A Technology Providers’ Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Markus Kohl, Sophia Knauer, and Johannes Fottner Digital Twin Modeling of Smart Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 Dessislava Petrova-Antonova and Sylvia Ilieva Upper Limbs Motion Tracking for Collaborative Robotic Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 Elisa Digo, Mattia Antonelli, Stefano Pastorelli, and Laura Gastaldi Relationship Between Frugal and Inclusive Innovation and Digital Employment Solutions (DES): A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Marja Ahola and Afnan Zafar Are Charts Going Digital? The Case of Data Visualization on Portuguese Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 Salomé Esteves and Marco Neves Following Up on the Digitalization Initiatives in the Norwegian Petroleum Activity: Regulatory Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 Linn Iren Vestly Bergh and Elisabeth Lootz Approaches to Improve Shop Floor Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 Sven Hinrichsen, Benjamin Adrian, and Andreas Schulz Deliver Insights, Not Information: The Power of Data Visualization to Improve Care Delivery and Patient Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Viraj Patwardhan, Neil Gomes, and Tiffany D’souza

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Enabling New Forms of Work Organization on the Shop Floor Through Technology-Driven Innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 Stefanie Findeisen, Carmen Constantinescu, and Bastian Pokorni Comparison of Muscular Activity Analysis for Electrical Technicians in High Voltage Lines Using Exoskeleton in the Colombian Industry, Enel-Codensa Study Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Sebastián Peláez, Christian Zea, Iván Mondragón, Rodolfo García, and Giovanni Hernández Prevention of Occupational Risks Related to the Human-Robot Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 Laurie Brun and Liên Wioland Emerging Technologies and Applications Voice Commerce - Studying the Acceptance of Smart Speakers . . . . . . 449 Silvia Zaharia and Matthias Würfel Creating a New Self-sustaining Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 Shuichi Fukuda A Cyber-Physical System for Low Cost Monitoring and Sensing of Rural Areas Using Sensors, Microcontrollers and LoRa Network: Agriculture 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 João Victor Bonella Lopes, Ana Cecilia Villa-Parra, and Teodiano Bastos-Filho The Efficiency of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in High and Low Turbulence Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 Krystian Pawłowski A Model Utilizing Green Lean in Rice Crop Supply Chain: An Investigation in Piura, Perú . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 Astrid Baca-Nomberto, Maria Urquizo-Cabala, Edgar Ramos, and Fernando Sotelo-Raffo Application of Lean Manufacturing in a Peruvian Clothing Company to Reduce the Amount of Non-conforming Products . . . . . . . 481 Stephanie Cuellar-Valer, Angie Gongora-Vilca, Ernesto Altamirano-Flores, and Daniel Aderhold Mega Science Projects for Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 Marina V. Nurbina, Nurzhan N. Nurakhov, Artem A. Balyakin, and Natalya Yu. Tsvetus

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Production Process Optimization Model to Increase Productivity of Microenterprises in the Industrial Chemical Sector Using 5S and TPM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 Leonardo Chancahuana-Palomino, Alondra Ortiz-Licas, Ernesto Altamirano-Flores, and Daniel Aderhold Improvement of the Manufacturing of Aluminum Pots Using Lean Manufacturing Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 Ximena Cusihuallpa-Vera, Evelyn Suarez-Montes, Juan Quiroz-Flores, and Jose Alvarez Production Model to Improve the Efficiency of a Peruvian Cotton Knitwear Export Company Using 5S, Standardization of Operations and Autonomous Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 Thania Baldeon-Lazaro, Pedro Malasquez-Salas, Gino Viacava-Campos, and Daniel Aderhold Supply Chain Management Based on House of Risk: A Case Study in a Peruvian Banana Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 Carla Avila-Arteaga, Gianfranco Arauco-Galarza, Edgar Ramos, and Miguel Shinno-Huamani Fraud Detection in a Financial Payment System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 Dushani Perera, Manisha Rajaratne, Damitha Sandaruwan, and Nihal Kodikara Mobile Phone Usage Habits of Chinese Graduate Students and the Training of MTI Interpreters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527 Weihua Du Collaborative Model to Reduce Stock Breaks in the Peruvian Retail Sector by Applying the S&OP Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 Franco Paredes-Torres, Genesis Almeyda-Crisostomo, Gino Viacava-Campos, and Daniel Aderhold Applying Lean Agriculture in Organic Apple Production: Case Study in Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 Francisco Gonzales-Gutierrez, Vanessa Huaman-Sanchez, Fernando Sotelo-Raffo, and Edgar Ramos Model to Improve the Efficiency in the Extrusion Area in a Manufacturing SME of the Industrial Plastic Sector Based on SMED, Autonomous Maintenance and 5S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545 Carlos Arroyo-Huayta, Sebastian Cruces-Raimudis, Gino Viacava-Campos, Claudia Leon-Chávarri, and Daniel Aderhold

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Leagile Model in the Avocado Supply Chain: Case Study in Huaral, Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 Angelo Guzman-Marco, Sebastian Paredes-Robalino, Edgar Ramos, and Fernando Sotelo-Raffo Improvement for Production Management and Control Using Lean Manufacturing Tools in the Manufacturing of Posts and Accessories . . . 560 Mariella Ortiz-Bailon, Ruben Vera-Espino, Juan Quiroz-Flores, and Jose Alvarez Application of Human Factors Engineering Principles to the Design and Development of Medical Wearable Sensor for Cardiac Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 Natalia Glazkova, Clement Fortin, and Tatiana Podladchikova Improvement of the Polymer Insulation Production Process Using Lean Manufacturing Tools and Plant Layout Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573 Flavio Arroyo-Andrade, Pebelyh Coral-Rodriguez, Jhonatan Cabel-Pozo, and Jose Alvarez Productivity Model Focused on Six Sigma and Lean Manufacturing to Improve the Quality of Service in SMEs in Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Luis Cardenas and Gianpierre Zapata Process Improvement Proposal for the Reduction of Machine Setup Time in a Copper Transformation Company Using Lean Manufacturing Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585 Anthony Lora-Soto, Cristhoffer Morales-Silva, Jose Llontop-Jesus, and Nestor Mamani Combined Method Redesign for the Packing Area in a Peruvian Bakery SME Provider of National Food Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 Mario Quintanilla-Anicama, Johana Congona-Garcia, Edgardo Carvallo-Munar, Iliana Macassi-Jauregui, and Luis Cardenas Production Model to Increase Productivity and Delivery Compliance in the Peruvian Textile Sector by Applying Value Stream Mapping, 5S and Flexible Production Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599 Víctor Barzola-Cisneros, Jose Calderon-Tirado, Gino Viacava-Campos, and Daniel Aderhold Production Model for the Reduction of Order Delivery Time in a Peruvian Metalworking Company Based on the Six Sigma DMAIC Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606 Anelit Espinoza-Cuadros, Miriam Criollo Marcavillaca, Pablo Mendoza-Vargas, and Jose Alvarez

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Governance of Ambient Assisted Living for Age Friendly Inclusive Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 Somesh Sharma, Alberto Gianoli, and Harry Geerlings Proposal for an Early Warning System Against Flood Risks in the Urban Area of Milagro Canton, Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 Andrés Murillo, Rosa Pin, Gabriela Vega, and Jesús Hechavarría Process Management Model Aligned to the Civil Service Law in Public Entities of Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624 Luis Cardenas and Gianpierre Zapata Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631

Human-Centered Design

Looking at Driving Automation from a Passenger’s Perspective: Driving Experience and Gaze Behavior During Fully Automated vs. Human Vehicle Control Cornelia Schmidt(&), Franziska Hartwich, and Josef F. Krems Cognitive and Engineering Psychology, Chemnitz University of Technology, Wilhelm-Raabe Str. 43, 09120 Chemnitz, Germany {Cornelia.Schmidt,Franziska.Hartwich, Josef.Krems}@psychologie.tu-chemnitz.de

Abstract. The idea of transferring vehicle control to an automated system and thereby transforming from driver to passenger has raised safety concerns among potential users. To examine vehicle occupants’ perception (perceived safety and driving comfort, monitoring gaze behavior) of automated vehicle control in light of actual system experience, a driving simulator study with 50 participants was conducted comparing automated vs. human vehicle control from a passenger’s perspective. Automated vehicle control was perceived as less safe and comfortable, resulting in the majority of participants preferring human vehicle control. Correspondingly, participants performed more monitoring gaze behavior during automated than human vehicle control. The results underline the importance of a transparent, user-adaptive system design to create positive driving experiences especially during the first contact, thereby ensuring acceptance and usage by diverse users, who differ in their attitude towards automated vehicles. Keywords: Autonomous driving User preference


Driving comfort
Monitoring behavior


1 Introduction Driving automation promises a wide range of mobility benefits, such as increased efficiency, traffic safety and comfort [1]. In higher automation levels, such as fully automated driving (FAD, SAE level 5, [2]), the human driver is supposed to transfer vehicle control completely to the automated system, which results in a role change from active driver to passive vehicle occupant [3]. This frees the vehicle occupant from any driving demands and monitoring tasks [4], which should result in higher driving comfort [5] and the opportunity to focus on driving unrelated tasks, e.g. sleeping [4]. However, the acceptance and usage of driving automation depends on the potential users trusting the automated system enough to give up vehicle control [6]. A comparable, yet more familiar role is the role as passenger with another human driver executing vehicle control [7]. In both cases, the vehicle occupant is relieved from any © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 3–9, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_1

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driving task. Nevertheless, the two cases differ considerably regarding the vehicle control allocation: In contrast to driving with a human driver, vehicle control is allocated to an unfamiliar automated system during FAD. In several surveys, potential users seemed generally open to automated driving [8], but indicated resistance towards transferring vehicle control to an automated system [9] and safety concerns regarding system functionalities [10]. Only few studies examined the user perspective based on actual system experience by comparing automated vehicle control (AVC) to human vehicle control (HVC) [7]. These examinations indicated that passengers put fewer trust in an automated system than in a human driver. All findings indicate that the users might not automatically experience automated driving positively. However, feeling unsafe and uncomfortable as well as distrusting an automated system [4] endangers its acceptance and usage [6]. Therefore, it is necessary to examine the effects of automated vehicle control on passengers’ subjective experience during driving in order to understand the reasons for their reduced trust and to derive ways to improve their experience of automated driving [1]. 1.1

Research Objective

In a driving simulator study, we examined passengers’ perception of AVC in comparison to HVC, which was operationalized in terms of their driving experience (perceived safety and comfort) and their gaze behavior during driving (as an indicator of their trust in the system). Since potential users are likely more familiar with HVC than with AVC, the following hypotheses (H) were formulated: • H1: HVC is perceived as (a) safer and (b) more comfortable than AVC. • H2: The majority of users prefer HVC to AVC. In addition, we examined passengers’ monitoring gaze behavior. Previous findings show that lower trust in an automated system resulted in more gaze behavior towards informative areas, such as the street, mirrors and the instrument cluster, to monitor the system and driving events [4]. It seems likely that feeling unsafe and uncomfortable during driving results in a similar effect. In this study, the monitoring gaze behavior is defined as gazes to the following areas of interest (AOIs): (a) the mirrors, giving information about current driving events and (b) the instrument cluster and the head unit, both presenting driving related information (i.e. current speed), but the latter with better visibility from the passengers’ seat. In line with H1, we hypothesized: • H3: During AVC, users execute more monitoring gaze behavior than during HVC, indicated by (a) higher procentual fixation durations to the mirrors, (b) higher procentual fixation durations to the instrument cluster and the head unit, (c) a higher number of gaze transitions between street and instrument cluster and (d) a higher number of gaze transitions between street and head unit.

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2 Method 2.1

Participants

The 50 participants (28 female, 22 male) taking part in the driving simulator study were aged between 20 to 43 years (M = 25.9, SD = 4.7). All held a valid driver’s license for M = 8.3 years (SD = 4.6) and had no prior automated system experience. 2.2

Facilities and Driving Simulator

The study took place in a fixed-base driving simulator with a 180° horizontal field of view, additional side and rear-view mirrors and a vehicle mockup, fully equipped up to the B-pillar. A test track with a length of 7 km was created using the SILAB 5.1 simulation environment, including an urban road segment with a speed limit of 50 km/h and a rural road segment with a speed limit of 100 km/h. The track included multiple complex scenarios, such as intersections and lane changes onto the opposite lane to avoid an obstacle. The drive along the test track was prerecorded and replayed identically for both drives and all participants. Hence, both drives represented the same trip with identical maneuver execution, but with a different presentation: The HVCdrive was presented with a human driver, portrayed by a researcher on the driver’s seat pretending to drive. In contrast, a fully automated driving system performing every facet of the driving task with an empty driver’s seat was presented for the AVC-drive. During both drives, the steering wheel moved automatically, but during HVC, the driver pretended to steer. The gaze behavior of the participants was recorded using the mobile SMI eye tracking glasses and the SMI Be Gaze 3.7 gaze analysis software. 2.3

Questionnaires

The passengers’ perceived safety and driving comfort were assessed using two rating scales ranging from 0 (totally disagree) to 100 (totally agree). Depending on the experienced drive, the wording was adjusted to correspond to either AVC or HVC: (a) perceived safety – “During the drive, I was sure that the vehicle/driver was able to handle traffic situations safely at any time”, (b) driving comfort – “Overall, the drive felt very comfortable to me”. The participants’ preference regarding the drives was assessed by the item “During which of the two drives did you feel that road traffic could be handled more safely?”, followed by an open-ended item asking participants to justify their choice. 2.4

Procedure

The study started with instructions about the procedure and signing an informed consent. The participants subsequently completed a questionnaire assessing demographic variables, followed by information and instructions regarding simulator sickness. Then, they sat down in the passenger’s seat of the simulator and were equipped with the eye tracker, which was calibrated before each drive. Every participant

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experienced both drives in randomized order, half of the participants started with the AVC- and the other half with the HVC-drive. After each drive, driving experience was assessed via questionnaires. Study conduct lasted about 1.5 h and was monetarily compensated.

3 Results 3.1

Perceived Safety and Driving Comfort

Data Preparation and Analysis. The effect of vehicle control allocation on perceived safety and driving comfort (H1) was analyzed using dependent t-tests. Outliers were removed. When normal distribution was not achieved, the nonparametric equivalent was executed, which verified the results. The item assessing the preference for either HVC or AVC (H2) was analyzed descriptively. The justification answers were categorized and quantified. Perceived Safety and Driving Comfort. A significant main effect of vehicle allocation was found, showing that HVC (M = 79.59, SD = 16.05) was rated as significantly safer than AVC (M = 63.20, SD = 19.41), t(45) = 5.6, p < .001, r = .64. The participants also rated their driving comfort as significantly higher for HVC (M = 78.32, SD = 15.71) than for AVC (M = 69.30, SD = 18.63), t(46) = 3.28, p = .001, r = .44. Drive Preference and Justifications. The majority of participants (69.4%) preferred HVC to AVC. The justifications for their choice could be assigned to three categories: (a) human driver, (b) automated system and (c) test track. Most of the 34 participants preferring HVC listed human driver related justifications (91.2%), such as the human driver exercising vehicle control (29.4%), the ability to control and assess the drivers’ behavior (26.5%) and trusting the driver (20.6%). Missing experience with the automated system (8.8%) and missing system transparency (8.8%) were some justifications against the automated system, named by 20.6% of the group preferring HVC. In contrast, most of the 15 participants preferring the AVC listed automated system related justifications (86.7%), such as the system’s ability to evaluate the situation (40.0%), its timely reactions and calm driving style (26.7%) or their trust in the automated system (20.0%). Of the group preferring AVC, 33.3% listed justifications against the human driver, such as the driver’s faultiness (13.3%) or insecurity and inattentiveness (13.3%). Only a small portion in both groups (HVC: three vs. AVC: five participants) listed test track related reasons, e.g. repetition of the test track. 3.2

Monitoring Behavior

Data Preparation and Analysis. Using the BeGaze 3.7 analysis software, the recorded gaze data were mapped onto the AOIs relevant for monitoring gaze behavior: the left, right and rearview mirrors, the instrument cluster, the head unit and the street. Participants’ procentual fixation duration (PFD) on an AOI was computed:

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PFD = fixation duration AOI X/fixation duration all AOIs * 100. The PFDs of the three mirrors were combined. The number of transitions between the street and the instrument cluster as well as the street and the head unit were counted. Due to technical problems, four participants were removed from the analyses. After removing outliers, the effect of vehicle control allocation on the monitoring behavior (H3) was analyzed using dependent t-tests. The non-parametric equivalent, used in case of violations of the normal distribution, confirmed the results. Procentual Fixation Duration (PFD). A significant effect of vehicle control allocation was found for the mirrors, t(39) = 2.96, p = .002, r = .43, and the instrument cluster, t(37) = 3.92, p < .001, r = .54. During AVC, the PFD to the mirrors and the instrument cluster was significantly higher than during HVC (see Table 1). Regarding the head unit, the effect was not significant, t(40) = .78, p = .220, r = .12. Number of Transitions. A significant effect of vehicle control allocation was found for the number of transitions between the street and the instrument cluster, t(34) = 3.32, p = .001, r = .49, but not for the transitions between the street and the head unit (t(34) = .09, p = .926, r = .02). Regarding the former, participants executed more transitions during AVC than HVC (see Table 1).

Table 1. Descriptive statistics for the gaze behavior during AVC vs. HVC. AVC M (SD) Mirrors 2.91 (2.64) Procentual Fixation Instrument cluster .62 (.57) Duration Head unit .98 (.91) Number of transitions Instrument cluster – street 4.34 (3.08) Head unit – street 7.06 (6.03)

HVC M (SD) 1.96 (2.19) .22 (.34) .85 (.85) 2.17 (2.61) 6.94 (6.24)

4 Discussion and Conclusions The current study evaluated the effects of AVC vs. HVC on the passengers’ driving experience and gaze behavior. Since AVC is less familiar and raises safety concerns [10], we hypothesized that it would be perceived as less safe (H1a) and comfortable (H1b), and would not be preferred to AVC (H2). The current findings supported these hypotheses. In comparison to AVC, HVC was perceived as significantly safer, more comfortable and was preferred by the majority of the participants. The participants justified their preference for HVC with, for example, higher trust in and the ability to control the human driver, whereas missing experience with the system and missing system transparency were listed against AVC. In line with their subjective experience, the participants showed significantly more monitoring gaze behavior during AVC than HVC, supporting hypothesis H3. Higher procentual fixation durations towards the mirrors (H3a), the instrument cluster (H3b) and more transitions between the instrument cluster and the street (H3c) were executed

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during AVC, mirroring the subjectively unsafe and uncomfortable driving experience. However, gazes towards the head unit (H3b) as well as the number of transitions between the head unit and the street (H3d) were not significantly higher during AVC. This could be explained by the fact that the participants tended to rely stronger on the more familiar instrument cluster to monitor the driving behavior than the head unit. The findings clearly indicate that despite the similar roles taken on by vehicle occupants during AVC and HVC, the perception of both cases is very dissimilar. This gap could be bridged by a highly transparent automated system presenting the users with intuitively understandable information [11] to ensure the acceptance and usage especially during the first contact with automated vehicles. Results also indicated different user groups varying in their attitudes towards automation, which in turn points towards the importance of individual adaptability of the information presented during fully automated driving. Acknowledgments. This study is part of the research project AutoAkzept, which is funded by the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure (BMVI) under grant no. 16AVF2126E.

References 1. ERTRAC: Automated Driving Roadmap (2017). https://www.ertrac.org/uploads/ documentsearch/id48/ERTRAC_Automated_Driving_2017.pdf 2. SAE International: Taxonomy and definitions for terms related to on-road motor vehicle automated driving Systems (2018). www.sae.org/standards/content/j3016_201806 3. Nordhoff, S., van Arem, B., Happee, R.: A conceptual model to explain, predict, and improve user acceptance of driverless vehicles. Transp. Res. Rec. 2602, 60–67 (2016) 4. Hergeth, S., Lorenz, L., Vilimek, R., Krems, J.F.: Keep your scanners peeled: gaze behavior as a measure of automation trust during highly automated driving. Hum. Factors 58, 509– 519 (2016) 5. Engelbrecht, A.: Fahrkomfort und Fahrspaß bei Einsatz von Fahrerassistenzsystemen [Driving Comfort and Enjoyment when Using Driver Assistance Systems]. Disserta-Verlag, Hamburg (2013) 6. Lee, J.D., See, K.A.: Trust in automation: designing for appropriate reliance. Hum. Factors 46(1), 50–80 (2004) 7. Strauch, C., Mühl, K., Patro, K., Grabmaier, C., Reithinger, S., Baumann, M., Huckauf, A.: Real autonomous driving from a passenger’s perspective: two experimental investigations using gaze behaviour and trust ratings in field and simulator. Transp. Res. Part F 66, 15–28 (2019) 8. Fraedrich, E., Lenz, B.: Societal and individual acceptance of autonomous driving. In: Maurer, M., Gerdes, J.C., Lenz, B., Winner, H. (eds.) Autonomous Driving: Technical, Legal and Social Aspects, pp. 621–640. Springer, Heidelberg (2016) 9. Wolf, I.: The interaction between humans and autonomous agents. In: Maurer, M., Gerdes, J. C., Lenz, B., Winner, H. (eds.) Autonomous Driving: Technical, Legal and Social Aspects, pp. 103–124. Springer, Heidelberg (2016)

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10. Schoettle, B., Sivak, M.: Public opinion about self-driving vehicles in China, India, Japan, the U.S., the U.K., and Australia (No. UMTRI-2014-30). The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor (2014) 11. Drewitz, U., Ihme, K., Oehl, M., Schrödel, F., Voßwinkel, R., Hartwich, F., Schmidt, C., Pape, A.-A., Fleischer, T., Cornelsen, S., Lüdtke, A., Gräfing, D., Trende, A.: Automation ohne Unsicherheit: Vorstellung des Förderprojekts AutoAkzept zur Erhöhung der Akzeptanz automatisierten Fahrens. [Automation without uncertainty: Introducing the research project AutoAkzept for enhancing the acceptance of automated driving.] In VDI (ed.). MenschMaschine-Mobilität 2019. Der (Mit-)Fahrer im 21. Jahrhundert!? VDI-Berichte 2360, pp. 1– 19. VDI Verlag, Düsseldorf (2019)

Designing Robo-Taxis to Promote Ride-Pooling Angela Sanguinetti(&), Beth Ferguson, Jamie Oka, Eli Alston-Stepnitz, and Kenneth Kurani Institute of Transportation Studies, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA, USA {asanguinetti,bferguson,jloka,ecalstonstepnitz, knkurani}@ucdavis.edu

Abstract. Robo-taxis (automated vehicles operating in a ride-hailing model) have the potential to improve mobility while reducing traffic, emissions, and energy use. However, such outcomes depend largely on increasing riders per vehicle. Public policy that incentivizes industry to design robo-taxis to support ride-pooling may be critical to achieving positive outcomes. This research reviews current shared automated vehicle designs and literature related to potential consumer risks and benefits of ride-pooling in robo-taxis in order to articulate potential design solutions to promote pooling. Keywords: Automated vehicles


Ride-sharing
Ride-pooling
Design

1 Introduction Projections of the future of urban transportation suggest the convergence of “three revolutions”—vehicle electrification, automation, and shared mobility—could halve global CO2 emissions by 2050 [1]. This estimate reflects a “dream scenario” in which consumers relinquish private car ownership in favor of pooling rides in shared automated vehicles (SAVs), resulting in a reduced vehicle-miles-travelled (VMT), traffic, energy use, and emissions [2]. Achieving this dream scenario thus depends largely on consumers’ willingness to share part or all of their ride with others. Early deployments of SAVs have primarily been short, fixed-route, higher occupancy shuttles for first-and-last-mile travel, with pooling as the only option. SAVs are now expanding into ride-hailing services (such as Waymo)—called “robo-taxis.” Little is known regarding consumer willingness to pool in this context of lower occupancy shared vehicles where there may be the option to take a private ride instead of pool. This paper reviews innovative SAV designs and relevant research in order to articulate features of robo-taxi vehicle and service design that might promote ridepooling (Fig. 1 introduces our concept design). The SAV design review explored innovative design features in deployed SAVs, conceptual designs and prototypes identified via online searches. The literature review focused on social and environmental psychology theory and consumer research regarding SAV deployments and analogous modes (e.g., pooled ride-hailing, public transit).

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 10–16, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_2

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Fig. 1. Electric, shared, and automated RoboTaxi concept with flexible seating and separation screen guards. Image: B. Ferguson, D. Swindle, 2020

2 SAV Design Review We reviewed 12 SAV designs, including 6 high-occupancy and 6 lower-occupancy (more comparable to the idea of robo-taxis). The most prevalent innovative SAV design feature is larger windows than conventional vehicles. Other common features include tall frames and large, sliding curbside doors, facilitating easy, safe and fast ingress and egress. High-occupancy SAVs tend to be more utilitarian, maximizing seating and standing room for shorter, slower trips, e.g., in dense urban areas. In contrast, lower occupancy SAV designs tend to provide more comfort and amenities, e.g., bucket seats and extra (interior) storage space so passengers can quickly store and retrieve their belongings upon entry and exit. Features like tables and wood floors resemble living and working spaces. We also see personal lighting and climate controls, charging ports for personal electronics, and even noise-canceling technology and screens to create private spaces. Other interior features include innovative safety measures (e.g., emergency stop buttons, cameras, and intercoms) and infotainment (e.g., digital screens). Unique exterior features include murals and colored lights or screens to communicate with pedestrians and passengers outside the vehicle (Table 1).

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A. Sanguinetti et al. Table 1. SAVs reviewed Vehicle IDEO Volkswagen Sedric Yanfeng Zoox Navya Autonom Cab Renault EZ-GO MOIA Volkswagen Continental CUbE Olli Mercedes-Benz URBANETIC EasyMile EZ10 Navya Autonom Shuttle

Occupancy 4 4 4 4 6 6 7 8 8 12 15 15

Special feature(s) Private pods Augmented reality Interior storage Augmented reality Infotainment Wood floors Interior storage Standing room Video surveillance Augmented reality Standing room Video surveillance

3 Literature Review and Design Recommendations The next sections summarize our literature review and design recommendations, organized into two main categories: risks and benefits of ride-pooling in robo-taxis. Risks and benefits are further organized according to five key theoretical themes: personal space, defensible space and perceived control (related to risks), and restorative environments and social capital (related to benefits). 3.1

(Mitigating) Risks of Ride-Pooling in Robo-Taxis

Personal Space. One risk of ride-pooling in robo-taxis is infringement of personal space that causes discomfort and stress. Personal space is “the emotionally-tinged zone around the human body that people feel is ‘their space’” [3]. To cope with personal space infringement, we rely on defense mechanisms such as avoiding eye contact, also called “civil inattention”. However, these strategies do not eliminate the stress response to personal space infringement in public transportation [4]. Seating configuration and territorial props in robo-taxis can influence perceived personal space. For example, a redesign of the San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) trains replaced seats that faced each other with forward-facing ones, making it easier to avoid eye contact [5]. Territorial props, such as armrests, tables, and other demarcations and barriers between passengers, can increase perceptions of personal space and are underutilized in SAVs to-date [6]. Proxemics interacts with time to impact perceptions of personal space in public transit. It is much easier for riders to tolerate short periods of crowding, and stops give momentary relief from crowding as passengers get off and others get on. Perception of crowding may be more likely when sharing space with strangers in a robo-taxi, particularly for prolonged periods of time. One solution is to offer more personal space to each passenger than you would find in larger public transit vehicles. Increasing vehicle

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size might reduce vehicle efficiency and fleet owner profits, but a more desirable robotaxi service might be more efficient and profitable overall. Defensible Space. Safety concerns will likely be a significant barrier for ride-pooling in robo-taxis, similar to safety concerns with the current ride-hailing industry and with automated buses [7, 8]. The theory of defensible space can suggest strategies to mitigate these risks. Defensible space enables people to monitor their own security; it includes the concepts of territoriality, image, natural surveillance, and safe adjoining spaces [9]. Territoriality (feeling a space is one’s own) is associated with vigilance and incidence reporting, and could be fostered in robo-taxis by assigning a particular car or fleet to a certain group of people (e.g., women-only). Passenger rating systems could also increase users’ sense of ownership via control of who they ride with (though this may create equity issues). Territoriality over other spaces, such as a user’s home and workplace, should also be considered, with provisions to protect privacy. For example, a robo-taxi service could give users the option to enter “private” pick-up and drop-off locations near their actual origin and destination [10]. Robo-taxis would not require a human operator, but riders may require one to feel at ease [7]. This relates to the concept of image; a vehicle without a driver, particular with the prospect of sharing with strangers, may not appear safe. Video surveillance may be sufficient for some and other possibilities include a remote human administrator that riders can see on a screen and speak to (and vice versa) [11]. Large windows in current SAV designs support natural surveillance, creating visibility into and out of the vehicle, which early SAV users report mitigates perceived safety risks [6]. Windows should not be heavily tinted and interiors and adjacent spaces during ingress/egress should be well lit. Along with the presence of security cameras and a remote administrator, these visible features can create an image of safety. Proximity and access to safe adjoining spaces is a challenge for robo-taxis since they are mobile. In the context of bustling city traffic, robo-taxis could offer plenty of safe adjoining spaces (e.g. sidewalks, commercial buildings); but in rural areas and high-speed freeways, there would be a need to create virtual safe adjoining spaces, such as access to a remote human administrator and an emergency button or hotline [6]. Perceived Control. Perceived control over environmental conditions—feeling you have the ability to control something, whether or not you act on it—can mitigate the stress responses to aversive stimuli [12]. This concept relates to personal and defensible space, and to issues around convenience, comfort and cleanliness. Perceived control can be enhanced by providing personal climate controls, lighting and ports for personal electronics. Perceived control over timing can be supported by a real-time navigation display, keeping passengers informed of their location and scheduled arrival, and designing for quick ingress/egress (e.g., minimal height difference between the car floor and curb). Flip-up seating and other accommodations that can be reliably reserved for riders with varying physical abilities and needs (e.g. those with wheelchairs, walkers, or strollers) would give them the kinds of control they would need. Interior storage space would also aid in timing as well as perceived control and security. The current COVID-19 global pandemic is having overwhelming immediate impacts on ride-pooling, including for the currently limited shared automated vehicle

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deployments and more common modes such as public transit and conventional ridehailing. There may be long-term ramifications for shared and pooled modes, including consumer demand and possibly regulations for new norms aimed at creating the most hygienic conditions possible. Design solutions will likely become even more critical to promoting pooled travel across all these modes. Non-porous and easy-to-clean surface materials and physical barriers (e.g., clear acrylic barriers) can promote hygiene and related perceived control. Services may adopt practices of providing hand sanitizer and disinfectant wipes, and apps can allow users to report when cleaning is needed. 3.2

(Promoting) Benefits of Ride-Pooling in Robo-Taxis

Restorative Environments. Robo-taxis could serve as restorative environments, or sites that provide relief from stress and accumulated strains on attention. Restorative environments have four key qualities: Being Away, Fascination, Extent, and Compatibility [13]. Some AV design concepts and other services are already moving in this direction. Examples include lots of wood surfaces and natural elements [14], thematic designs [15], and augmented reality windshield for AVs [16]. These features could promote pooling if they were not also offered for private ride-hailing trips.

Fig. 2. Robo-Taxi design features to promote ride pooling. Image: B. Ferguson, A. Sanguinetti, D. Swindle, J. Oka, 2020

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Social Capital. Social capital (SC) refers to the social networks characterized by mutual trust, cooperation, and reciprocity that contribute to community, culture, and economy [17]. Casual social interactions on public transit have been noted as “society’s most extensive opportunities to interact with people outside the individual’s common social circles” [18]. A recent study found that nearly a third of the users of pooled ridehailing services (e.g., UberPool and Lyft Line) reported making a useful social connection on a pooled ride [19]. Robo-taxis can provide a similar opportunity. Some AV designs are envisioning sociopetal seating orientations where passengers face each other, which is conducive to social interaction, or swivel seats that allow for flexibility, though practical concerns with orienting seats different ways include a probable higher level of car sickness and need to reconfigure airbags and seatbelts [20]. Environmental psychology theories are helpful in identifying other ways to promote social interaction. For example, the concept of triangulation refers to a shared stimulus in small urban spaces, such as art, that could prompt strangers to interact [21]. The stimulus could also reinforce community identity, e.g., community-relevant art and local trivia games or conversation prompts. The theory of third places (public spaces where social interaction occurs) is also relevant and provides a set of requirements for fostering social capital [22]. Third places provide a welcoming and comfortable atmosphere for all, often with a playful tone. Accessibility is crucial, to ensure diversity; pricing schemes should not create or exacerbate equity issues. Warm lighting, comfortable seats, accommodations for food and drink (cup holders at minimum, mobile coffee shops as an extreme case), as well as themed designs celebrating local culture, could all help make robo-taxis welcoming.

4 Conclusion This research identified factors, categorized as risks and benefits, that may influence consumers’ willingness to ride-pool in robo-taxis, and developed hypotheses about robo-taxi design features that might promote pooling. Figure 2 depicts many of these features. Future research should attempt to quantify the relative impacts of these different design features on consumer willingness to ride-pool in robo-taxis. Acknowledgments. This study was funded by the University of California Institute of Transportation Studies from the State of California via the Public Transportation Account and the Road Repair and Accountability Act of 2017 (Senate Bill 1).

References 1. Fulton, L., Mason, J., Meroux, D.: Three Revolutions in Urban Transportation. UC Davis and ITDP (2017) 2. Sperling, D.: Three Revolutions: Steering Automated, Shared, and Electric Vehicles to a Better Future. Island Press, Washington, D.C. (2018) 3. Sommer, R.: Personal Space. The Behavioral Basis of Design (1969) 4. Evans, G.W., Wener, R.E.: Crowding and personal space invasion on the train: please don’t make me sit in the middle. J. Environ. Psychol. 27(1), 90–94 (2007)

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5. Marshall, A.: Hidden art of designing trains for anti-social commuters. Wired (2016) 6. Merat, N., Madigan, R., Nordhoff, S.: Human factors, user requirements, and user acceptance of ride-sharing in automated vehicles. In: International Transport Forum Roundtable on Cooperative Mobility Systems and Automated Driving, pp. 6–7 (2017) 7. Piao, J., McDonald, M., Hounsell, N., Graindorge, M., Graindorge, T., Malhene, N.: Public Opinions towards implementation of automated buses in urban areas, No. ITS-2632 (2015) 8. Chaudhry, B., El-Amine, S., Shakshuki, E.: Passenger safety in ride-sharing services. Procedia Comput. Sci. 130, 1044–1050 (2018) 9. Newman, O.: Defensible Space. Macmillan, New York (1972) 10. Pham, A., Dacosta, I., Jacot-Guillarmod, B., Huguenin, K., Hajar, T., Tramèr, F., Hubaux, J.P.: PrivateRide: a privacy-enhanced ride-hailing service. Proc. Priv. Enhancing Technol. 2, 38–56 (2017) 11. Dekker, M.J.: Riding a self-driving bus to work: investigating how travellers perceive ADSDVs on the last mile (2017) 12. Averill, J.R.: Personal control over aversive stimuli and its relationship to stress. Psychol. Bull. 80(4), 286 (1973) 13. Kaplan, S.: The restorative benefits of nature: toward an integrative framework. J. Environ. Psychol. 15(3), 169–182 (1995) 14. Murphy, T.: WardsAuto. With Moss Underfoot, BMW Reimagines Interiors (2017) 15. Eldredge, B.: Taipei’s subway trains get surreal interior redesign Curbed (2017) 16. Soltero, R.: Apple wants to make a futuristic AR windshield for autonomous cars (2018) 17. Putnam, R.D.: Bowling alone: America’s declining social capital. In: Culture and Politics, pp. 223–234. Palgrave Macmillan, New York (2000) 18. Currie, G., Stanley, J.: Investigating links between social capital and public transport. Transp. Rev. 28(4), 529–547 (2008) 19. Safa, P.: Forget Tinder and LinkedIn. Ridesharing is the new social centre (2018) 20. Diels, C., Erol, T., Kukova, M., Wasser, J., Cieslak, M., Payre, W., Bos, J.: Designing for comfort in shared and automated vehicles (SAV): a conceptual framework (2017) 21. Whyte, W.H.: The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces. Project for Public Spaces, New York (1980)) 22. Oldenburg, R.: The Great Good Place: Café, Coffee Shops, Community Centers, Beauty Parlors, General Stores, Bars, Hangouts, and How They Get You Through The Day. Paragon House Publishers, New York (1989)

How to Measure UX and Usability in Today’s Connected Vehicles Rico Ludwig(&), Arne Bachmann, Stefanie Buchholz, Kathrin Ganser, Daniel Glänzer, and Audrey Matarage P3 Automotive GmbH, Heilbronner Straße 86, 70191 Stuttgart, Germany {Rico.Ludwig,Arne.Bachmann,Stefanie.Buchholz, Kathrin.Ganser,Daniel.Glaenzer, Audrey.Matarage}@P3-group.com

Abstract. Besides hard factors like horsepower or consumption, today’s connected cars need soft factors being available as criteria for purchasing decisions. User experience (UX), as one of these soft factors, is essentially influenced by services available inside the vehicle. Almost every new vehicle offers a variety of mostly Internet-enabled services to improve the driving experience and to make customers happier. One challenge is to make UX measurable regarding experiences and knowledge inside the vehicle. It has been researched what influencing factors significantly characterize the evaluation of in-car UX. A combination of assessment of relevance, usability testing of pre-defined use cases as well as gathering of quantitative parameters helped create a characteristic variable as a measure of UX inside vehicles. The final evaluation tool is to allow the formation of a holistic opinion about experiences and knowledge inside vehicles and to enable a comparability of UX of complete vehicles as well as of developmental states. Ultimately this not only supports customers in their purchasing decision process, but also manufacturers developing and optimizing new and existing solutions. Keywords: User experience evaluation testing
Evaluation method


Connected car
Scenario-based

1 Introduction to User Experience and Connected Car User Experience (UX) is an interdisciplinary field highly influenced by design, technology and psychology. In the past 20–30 years, the topic has become increasingly important. However, there is still no uniform and, above all, generally accepted definition. In the norm ISO 9142-210, for example, UX is defined as comprising “a person’s perceptions and reactions that result from the actual and/or expected use of a product, system or service”. This means that in order to assess the user experience, for example of a product or service, perceptions and reactions of users need to be evaluated. It is therefore not surprising that there is no general test procedure that ultimately provides a concrete value for the user experience. Digitization in the automotive world has led to an increasing number of digital and connected services in vehicles. There are weather services, news, calendar and email © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 17–21, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_3

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services, online radio services, emergency and breakdown services, various navigation services, music streaming services, services for chatting, gaming, telephoning, watching TV; Voice recognition, fatigue recognition, you can control your vehicle remotely or send the key digitally to friends, and of course there is a browser for surfing the Internet directly in the vehicle - in the connected vehicle, the connected car. Whereas in the past, when car buyers were primarily interested in horsepower, engine capacity or speed, nowadays the performance of these mentioned services plays an increasingly significant role in the purchase decision. That’s why today product managers and developers want to know where they stand with their digital innovations compared to their competition. These developments result in the necessity of benchmarking to make the user experience of these digital services measurable with each other.

2 How Does P3 Test the Digital Services in the Connected Car? At P3 automotive we have been carrying out user experience benchmarks for more than six years. In 2014 we ordered several vehicles for the first time and tested them extensively. We finally published the results of our first excursion into the world of user experience testing in connect magazine. This project marked the starting point in this topic. One year later we enhanced our know-how when we carried out a user experience benchmark for one of our customers. For this UX benchmark, we carried out extensive research and identified service categories most relevant to users, such as navigation or infotainment. We then developed persona profiles as well as special use cases designed for each category and tested them live with previously acquired test persons. Since connected services are not only limited to the car HMI, our test persons had to explore all relevant touchpoints, which are defined as points of contact between a user and a system (e.g. brand). Our three touchpoints were primarily the vehicle itself, the manufacturer’s smartphone app and its web portal, which was accessed on a laptop. First the test persons should put themselves in a specific scenario where they had to complete different use cases. An exemplary use case for the infotainment category would be: display the weather at your destination. The test persons were asked to run this use case, recording their thoughts and feelings as well as their positive and negative findings. After one tester had completed all use cases for a service category and all impressions had been recorded, the overall experience was rated good/bad using a simple 7-point Likert scale. In the end, this made it possible to calculate the average value for all test subjects. This procedure was repeated for all categories and touchpoints. Finally, we let the test persons fill out the meCUE questionnaire. which is based on the CUE model by Manfred Thüring and Sascha Mahlke. It highlights the differences in the perception of task-related and non-task-related product qualities, and additionally captures user emotions [1]. In our framework it was used to enable test persons to assess the vehicle’s overall experience. Through analyzing the test results, we identified guideline values for the quality of UX for each service category. We also received detailed, qualitative feedback on the

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tested services. In addition, the results of the meCUE questionnaire were another indicator for the overall comparison of the vehicles (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. UX benchmark - P3 Connected Car Experience Days 2017

In the following years we have conducted a number of other UX benchmarks. A highlight were the P3 Connected Car Experience Days (CCED) in Berlin, when we tested the latest vehicles from ten different manufacturers and presented the results to numerous participants from the automotive industry and, above all, demonstrated them live in the vehicles. To date, we have gained a great deal of experience and identified the following relevant questions, which must be answered in advance of user experience testing for vehicles: 1. 2. 3. 4. 2.1

What is the goal of a UX benchmark? Who are the testers and how many? What test methodology is used? How many vehicles should be tested? What Is the Goal of a UX Benchmark?

The question that basically arises at the beginning of every project. Which goals should be achieved by conducting the benchmark? What insights should be gained? What types of results should be generated? It is particularly important to define which services are to be tested to what extent and at which touchpoints. This question usually depends on the client. In marketing and sales, we now know that different insights are important than with a UX benchmark for a development department. While the UX of linking processes between driver and vehicle is

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sometimes the focus, other projects require a detailed look at infotainment services such as Bluetooth audio streaming. This needs to be clarified in advance, because the use cases will later build on these decisions as the basis of the entire benchmark. 2.2

Who Are the Testers and How Many?

A first distinction can be made between two categories: Either the UX benchmark is carried out by experts or test subjects are acquired for the tests. If the decision is made by experts, two to four UX experts are usually enough. UX experts are fundamentally characterized by sound knowledge in the areas of usability and user experience. Extensive knowledge of the automotive sector is also mandatory for vehicle UX tests. The situation is different for test subjects, in principle no prior knowledge is necessary and sometimes undesirable. However, a much higher number of test subjects is required. Again, the goals of the benchmark are important: If, for example, only usability weaknesses are to be discovered, good results can already be achieved with six to eight test subjects. A reliable UX test, which is supposed to provide a reliable general impression of a product or service, requires at least 20 test persons. In order to get a more concrete picture, it still makes sense to have only certain customer groups tested and to select the test subjects beforehand. 2.3

Which Test Methodology Is Used?

The test methodology depends primarily on whether it is a test with expert or with test subjects. For the first-mentioned, heuristics or checklists are mostly used. For test subjects, however, there are numerous different methods, from simple questionnaires to Thinking Aloud to eye tracking. Questionnaires are probably the most commonly used means of determining the quality of user experience. They are available for all aspects, including emotion detection, subjective usability and user experience, or visual aesthetics. Well-known examples are the Affect Grid, the SAM, the AttrakDiff2, the UEQ or the VisAWI. The advantages are simple usage and evaluation. However, the results are always subjective and cannot be recorded during but only after a task. With the Thinking Aloud method, a test subject verbalizes his or her own thoughts during a test. This helps to better understand their thinking processes when working on tasks. According to Jakob Nielsen, Thinking Aloud might be the most valuable method of usability engineering [2]. It is flexible and can be used with little effort. However, Thinking Aloud can influence cognitive processes and change the behavior of the test person. Eye tracking is particularly suitable for capturing the visual attention a test subject pays on specific areas, e.g. when selecting a radio station. The results can then be used to optimize the presentation of information [3]. Even the smallest details can be captured using eye tracking without disturbing the behavior of the test subject. However, this is associated with high acquisition costs.

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In summary, it can be said that each method for evaluating the user experience in the vehicle must be individually designed with regards to the goals to be achieved. 2.4

How Many Vehicles Should Be Tested?

The question of the number of vehicles to be tested is important because other factors depend on it. First of all, the number of vehicles is decisive for the duration of the test. The more vehicles to be tested, the more time generally needs to be scheduled for the benchmark. Although this problem could be solved well by parallelization and certain study designs, the necessary number of test subjects is rarely available or only with increased resource efforts. In addition, the number of vehicles is important for the test organization, because a sufficiently large and ideally covered location should be determined in advance. Often the opinion between our customers and us differ on this question. Understandably, the largest possible pool of benchmark vehicles should be generated for your test vehicle. For the reasons mentioned above, however, this is often associated with considerable additional outlay or additional costs. More test vehicles may also result in a higher workload for the test persons, thus in a less reliable evaluation. From our experience, a test set of five benchmark vehicles has proven to be optimal.

3 Conclusion With all the experience we have gained during the last six years, we figured out that there is not the one and only UX evaluation tool or methodology that should be used as the state-of-the-art measurement tool. Together with our clients and partners we have realized, that a set of methodologies – each one depending on particular requirements – is ideal to provide most stakeholders with their desired insights. Our set of use cases and questionnaires allows us to generate results, which are comparable between different vehicles and services and picture a clear overview and ranking. Using additional methods like Thinking Aloud or observation ensures product owners, designer and developers to get very detailed information on how people are using their systems and software. Eventually these insights are indispensable to evolve and improve the UX of a system or service.

References 1. Smith, T.F., Waterman, M.S.: Identification of common molecular subsequences. J. Mol. Biol. 147, 195–197 (1981) 2. Thüring, M., Mahlke, S.: Usability, aesthetics and emotions in human–technology. Int. J. Psychol. 42, 253–264 (2007) 3. Nielsen, J.: Usability Engineering. Academic Press, London (1993) 4. Schiessl, M., Duda, S., Thölke, A., Fischer, R.: Eye tracking and its application in usability and media research. MMI-Interakt. J. 6, 41–50 (2003)

Exemplification of Assessing Human Centered Design Processes from ISO 9241-220 Rüdiger Heimgärtner(&) Intercultural User Interface Consulting (IUIC), 93152 Undorf, Germany [email protected]

Abstract. The human centered design (HCD) process assessment model (PAM) is intended for use when performing conformational assessments of the process capability on the development of interactive systems. The HCD processes reference model (PRM) specified in ISO 9241-220 together with the rules of how to assess the processes defined in HCD-PAM must be applied when performing an HCD process assessment. In this paper, the HCD-PAM applying the HCD-PRM is exemplified by a practical example of assessing the HCD.3.4.2 process. Keywords: Capability
Maturity
Process assessment model
Process reference model
Human centered design
User centered design
ISO
UX
Standards
User experience
ISO 9241-220
Human centered design processes
IUIC
IUID
PAM
PRM
Processes
Models
HCD
SPICE

1 Introduction The aim of usability engineering is to do everything necessary in a development process to steer it towards an optimal quality of use of the final product. With a seamless HCD development process, mistakes and unproductivity can be prevented and product quality rises with high quality process output contributing to a high-quality interactive product (cf. DIN EN ISO 9241-210:2011-01 [1]). Behind such experiences a causal relationship between process and product quality is assumed, which consists in the fact that a more mature process with a lower probability of error produces higher quality products than a less mature process. Since quality cannot be achieved without a sustainable focus on user requirements, usability engineering is also referred to as a human-centric development process. Experience from various fields of technology shows that it is possible for a development process recognized as mature to produce products of higher quality. The term “process” can be understood at three levels of abstraction: WHAT, HOW and DOING. Capturing experience acquired during product development (i.e. at the DOING level) in order to share this experience with others means creating a HOW level containing decisions on solutions for concrete templates, proceedings, and tooling. However, a HOW is always specific to a context such as a company, an organizational unit, or a product line. For example, the HOW of a project, organizational unit, or company A is potentially not applicable to a project, organizational unit, or company B. DOING and HOW might be expected to adhere to the principles represented by HCD-PAM indicators for process outcomes and process © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 22–28, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_4

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attribute achievements at the WHAT level. Performing a process assessment contains performing interviews on the actual DOING, investigating work products and tool repositories as well as reading through the defined HOW, followed by the mapping of this information to indicators and determining the capability profile of the process.

2 HCD Process Capability Determination In ISO 9241-220:2019-03 [2], each HCD process is described in terms of a purpose statement. For each purpose statement a list of specific outcomes is mapped, as a list of expected positive results of the process performance. This HCD-PRM provides a set of processes shown in Table 1. HCP.3 is divided into further process groups according to the main HCD activities described in ISO 9241-210 [1] and considered in ISO 9241220:2019-03 [2]. Table 1. HCD processes according to ISO 9241-220:2019-03 [2]. Unique identifier

Process name

Primary audiences

HCP.1 HCP1.1 HCP.1.2

Ensure enterprise focus on human-centred quality Incorporate human-centred quality in business strategy Institutionalize human-centred quality

HCP.2 HCP.2.1 HCP.2.2 HCP.2.3

Enable human-centred design across projects and systems Integration of human-centred design Resources for human-centred design Authorization and control of human-centred quality

HCP.3 HCP3.1 HCP.3.1.1 HCP.3.1.2 HCP.3.1.3 HCP.3.1.4 HCP.3.1.5 HCP.3.2 HCP.3.2.1 HCP.3.2.2 HCP.3.3 HCP.3.3.1 HCP.3.3.2 HCP.3.3.3 HCP.3.4 HCP.3.4.1 HCP.3.4.2 HCP.3.5 HCP.3.5.1 HCP.3.5.2 HCP.3.5.3 HCP.4 HCP.4.1 HCP.4.2 HCP.4.3 HCP.4.4

Execute human-centred design within a project Plan and manage human-centred design for the project Establish human-centred quality objectives Manage threats and opportunities that can arise from use of the interactive system Define extent of human-centred design in the project Plan each HCD process activity Manage HCD process activities within the project Identify the context of use Identify the intended user population and differentiate groups of users Identify other aspects of the context of use and reported issues Establish the user requirements Identify the user needs Specify the user requirements Negotiate the user requirements in the context of a project Design solution that meets user requirements Specify the user-system interaction Produce and refine user interface design solutions User-centred evaluation Plan for evaluation throughout the project Plan each evaluation (what to evaluate and how) Carry out each evaluation Introduction, operation and end of life of a system Introducing the system Human-centered quality in operation Human-centered quality during upgrades Human-centred quality at the end of life of a system

Executive responsible for human-centred quality Ensures: Executive management Those responsible for (HCD) processes used by the organization Ensures: Project, product and usability management Technical leadership responsible for human-centred design. Ensures: Project and product management

Technical leadership responsible for HCD Ensures; Service and support management

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The HCD-PAM selects processes from the HCD-PRM and supplements it with indicators that support the collection of objective evidence which enable an assessor to assign ratings for processes according to the capability levels (CL) of the processes. Thereby, the assessor identifies whether the process outcomes and the process attribute outcomes (achievements) are present or absent in the instantiated processes of projects and organizational units. The capability dimension of the HCD-PAM consists of six capability levels (CL 0-5) as defined in ISO/IEC 33020:2015 [3] incorporating nine process attributes (PA). Process capability level 0 – defining an incomplete process – does not include any type of indicators, as it reflects a non-implemented process or a process which fails its process purpose. At this level there is little or no evidence of any systematic achievement of the process purpose. Process capability level 1 defines a performed process, where the implemented process achieves its process purpose. The process performance process attribute for level 1 is a measure of the extent to which the process purpose is achieved. This means level 1 is reached, if the intent of the process specific base practices are met and the work products are produced (evidencing the process outcomes). In contrast to level 1, the performance indicators on level 2–5, represented by generic practices and resources, relate to all process in the process reference model. To evaluate the processes using this HCD-PAM, the processes in the process dimension can be drawn from the HCD process reference model (based on ISO 9241220:2019-03 [2]). Each table related to one process in the process dimension contains the process reference model and the process performance indicators necessary to define the processes in the process assessment model. The process references model describes the processes by ID, name, purpose, benefit and outcomes. The process performance indicators consist of base practices and output work products. Work product characteristics (WPC) are provided as guidance for the attributes to look for, in a sample work product (WP) and to provide objective evidence supporting the assessment of a process. As an example of a process description, Table 2 shows the HCD process HCP.3.4.2 according to ISO 9241-220:2019-03 [2]. Table 2. HCD process description HCP.3.4.2 according to the HCD-PRM in ISO 9241220:2019-03 [2] where the activities have been turned into base practices of the HCD-PAM Process ID Process name Process purpose

Process benefit

HCP.3.4.2 Produce and refine user interface design solutions To produce and iteratively evaluate user interface design solutions from a user perspective to ensure that user requirements have been met NOTE 1. For an existing or procured system, if any gaps in meeting the human-centered quality objectives are identified, this process can be used to decide how it can be configured or customized to produce the optimal user interface design User interfaces are designed that satisfy the user requirements and take account of the human-centered quality objectives. The iterative design of the user interface supports early identification and economical resolution of defects or other issues that cause human-centered quality problems (continued)

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Table 2. (continued) Process ID Process outcomes

Base practices

HCP.3.4.2 a) The potential benefits of innovative solutions for the user interface design have been considered b) User interface technology is selected that supports the identified usersystem interaction c) A user interface design solution is available that enables completion of one or more tasks by the intended range of users d) The user’s interaction with the user interface design solution has been evaluated for acceptable human-centered quality before technical implementation e) Decisions are made on how to deal with identified problems related to the human centered quality for the redesign of the interactive system and/or, when necessary, alternatives such as training, help, or user support are to be provided f) Necessary corrective actions are initiated if the user interface design solution does not sufficiently meet the user requirements g) The development team has a basis for the technical implementation of the system (whether a new release of an existing system, a customization of a procured system or components, or development of a new system) HCP.3.4.2.BP1: Explore the potential benefits of using an innovative solution (the use of creative design and/or new technologies). [a] HCP.3.4.2.BP2: Select the appropriate user interface technology for the system to support the identified user-system interaction, in conjunction with other project stakeholders. [b] HCP.3.4.2.BP3: Create an interface design solution that implements one or more user’s requirements that support tasks defined in the context of use description. [c] HCP.3.4.2.BP4: If providing accessibility, decide whether to use a single design for all approaches or whether to support individualization to specific user needs. [c] HCP.3.4.2.BP5: Identify appropriate interaction styles (dialogue techniques). [c] HCP.3.4.2.BP6: Derive the necessary interaction objects, the sequence and timing (dynamics) of the interaction and the navigation structure. [c] HCP.3.4.2.BP7: Design the information architecture to allow efficient access to interaction objects. [c] HCP.3.4.2.BP8: Identify and apply appropriate guidance for the design of the user interface and interaction of both hardware and software of the user interface according to the target platform. [c] HCP.3.4.2.BP9: Construct testable user interface design alternatives with a level of detail and realism that is appropriate to the issues that need to be investigated. [c] NOTE 2 The user interface design solution can be a prototype that is as simple as a sketch or static mock-up or as complicated as a fully functioning interactive system with more or less complete functionality (continued)

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R. Heimgärtner Table 2. (continued)

Process ID

Output work product

HCP.3.4.2 HCP.3.4.2.BP10: Evaluate design with users in order to identify previously unidentified context information, identify emergent needs, and refine the user requirements, to identify design improvements and to ensure that any required objectives for human-centered quality have been achieved. (HCP 3.5) [d] HCP.3.4.2.BP11: Iteratively adapt the concept based on the findings of user-centered evaluation until an acceptable cost-effective solution is obtained. [e, f] i) Take account of the costs and benefits of proposed changes when deciding what will be modified ii) Decide (using HCP.3.5) if the user interface design solution sufficiently meets the user requirements HCP.3.4.2.BP12: Communicate the acceptable solution to the development team, based on the user requirements and tasks to be supported by the solution. [g] NOTE 3 For a ready-to-use system (where the design is not under control of the project), evaluate the system (HCP 3.5) to determine whether it adequately meets then requirements established in HCP.3.4.1 CIF.8 user interface specification (a, b, c, d, g) 2.09 architectural design description (c, e, g) 8.17 system interface requirements (b) Technological possibilities are in 8.17 system interface requirements Refinement includes development of low-fidelity prototypes

3 Exemplifying a Process Assessment Rating The assessment procedure contains at least the following steps: • Explain process purpose and benefit and most important requirements of the process to the audience (process stakeholders), • Interview the audience regarding process life based on purpose, base practices and work products and collect documented evidences, • Rate the evidence according to the rating scale, i.e. N – not achieved, P – partially achieved, L – largely achieved, F – fully achieved. • Accumulate the ratings for one process (e.g. HCP.3.4.2) to an overall rating considering: – Achievement of process purpose, – Achievement of all base practices, – Achievement of work products, – Achievement of generic practices. As an example, the summary of the results of the rating up to level 2 could appear as presented in Table 3. HCD processes of the executing process group (HCP.3) are rated according to the performance process attribute (level 1) and the management process attributes (level 2). The only process that reached level 2 in this example is

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HCP.3.4.2 (Produce and refine user interface design solutions) indicating that all base practices are achieved and the work products of this process (such as system interface requirement, architectural design description and user interface specification) are available and reviewed, and the process is managed in a proper way. Other processes such as HCP.3.1.1 (Establish human-centered quality objectives) are not performed and managed properly and the work products are mostly missing or the quality criteria for the work products are not met. Table 3. Example rating of the HCP.3 Process Group from ISO 9241-220:2019-03 [2].

4 Discussion Even if the presented HCD-PAM is still in a development state and, hence, must be improved and worked out in detail in accordance with all other relevant standards. However, the principles of this HCD-PAM have been confirmed for years by assessments in the automotive industry regarding software engineering processes. Therefore, it serves to assess the process capability of development processes for interactive products based on objective indicators for process capability and thereby to achieve quality of use referring to the HCD processes defined in ISO 9241-220:2019-03 [2] to a similar benefit. Furthermore, according to DIN SPEC 92412:2015-11 [4], following a HCD-PRM in conjunction with an elaborated HCD-PAM ensures the involvement of users as requirement donors and as evaluators of the achieved quality of use, the application of suitable usability engineering methods, the documentation of design decisions with relevance for the quality of use, the establishment of a quality management system for the quality of use and setting up process roles with suitably qualified personnel. This finally increases the organizational maturity considering HCD.

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5 Conclusion and Outlook Assessing human centered design (HCD) processes using an HCD process reference model (PRM) and an HCD process assessment model (PAM) raises the awareness in organizations for considering the human centered design approach in the development of interactive products necessary for high quality of use. In the next step, pilot assessments are planned to assess the HCD processes in interested organizations to improve the HCD-PAM concept, its application and its benefits.

References 1. DIN EN ISO 9241-210:2011-01: Ergonomics of human-system interaction - Part 210: Human-centred design for interactive systems 2. ISO 9241-220:2019-03: Ergonomics of human-system interaction - Part 220: Processes for enabling, executing and assessing human-centred design within organizations 3. ISO/IEC 33020:2015: Information technology - Process assessment - Process measurement framework for assessment of process capability 4. DIN SPEC 92412:2015-11: Ergonomics of human-system interaction - Auditing procedure for the development of interactive products based on DIN EN ISO 9241-210

The Importance of Feedback for Object Hand-Overs Between Human and Robot Marco Käppler1(&), Barbara Deml1, Thorsten Stein2, Johannes Nagl2, and Hannah Steingrebe2 1

Institute of Human and Industrial Engineering, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany {marco.kaeppler,barbara.deml}@kit.edu 2 BioMotion Center, Institute of Sports and Sports Science, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany {thorsten.stein,johannes.nagl, hannah.steingrebe}@kit.edu

Abstract. Robot systems will soon be able to hand over objects to humans as well as receive objects from humans in a robust way. From an ergonomics point of view, it is required to evaluate those robot systems and their interactions with humans based on appropriate parameters and design them accordingly. Therefore, we conducted an experiment with human-to-human hand-overs. The aim was to analyze different conditions of hand-overs that occur in our daily life such as different spatial direction, cups with varying filling quantities and varying states of perception of the receiving person. It was shown that cups with a higher filling level lead to a significantly higher duration of the interaction phase than cups with a lower filling level. Additionally, perceptual impairment of the receiver and thereby a lack of feedback led to a higher duration of the interaction phase. Keywords: Human-robot interaction
Object handover of phases
Perceptual impairment
Feedback


Classification

1 Introduction Based on the current development in the field of robotics more and more people will make direct contact with robot systems in the next years. The industry has already successfully implemented robots in order to increase productivity and execute dangerous tasks [8]. Out of security reasons, the majority of robots used in industry is working in separate spaces without direct contact with humans. Latest progress in robotic intelligence and technology allows for increasingly safe and reliable interaction between robots and humans [4, 7]. Rehabilitation programs based on robotic support show that robotic systems can benefit patients, nursing staff and relatives. For a variety of people with physical impairments, assisting robots could significantly improve their quality of life. Robots that are able to assist humans both at home and in the working environment in a safe and smooth way, must be able to carry and hand over common objects, such as tools or dishes [4]. Usually, we use a wide variety of subtle and © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 29–35, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_5

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unconscious signals to express our intention to hand over something. Posture, hand and arm position, gaze behavior and grip force, as well as their respective change over the course of action are used to code the intention and as well as the when and where [1, 3, 6, 9]. A better understanding of human-human hand-overs leads to well-founded decisions in the development of designing human-robot interaction, which in turn leads to safer and more reliable human-robot interaction [5]. Having the current technical development of robotics in mind, the evaluation and design of robots and their interactions with humans will be more and more important in the near future. From a human factors and ergonomics point of view, appropriate parameters are necessary to do so. To gain a better understanding of how humans hand over objects, an experiment was conducted. During the experiment, objects with varying difficulty, from different directions and with varying states of perception of the receiving person were given from one subject to the other. The goal of the study is to identify phases in the motions of the handover process. Based on qualified motion phases, the effects of different spatial directions, varying difficulties in handing over the objects and distinct perceptual impairments are to be analyzed.

2 Materials and Methods 2.1

Subjects

In this study 20 adults participated which, according to their own statements, were healthy. The participants were between 20 and 32 years old and right-handed (Age: 24, 2 ± 3 years, Height: 176 ± 8 cm; Weight: 74 ± 12 kg). All people participated voluntarily and were explicitly informed about the procedure of the study, possible risks, their rights and the anonymity of the data before the experiment. For this purpose, they signed a statement of agreement. All participants had normal, or corrected-tonormal vision. All participants showed normal anticipation of time and movement (tested with ZBA [2]). 2.2

Experimental Setup

With the intention of studying the influence of the spatial direction on the hand-over movement, the area of recording was shaped like a circle around a chair in the middle as seen in Fig. 1. Six wooden columns were positioned on that circle with cups on top to which reflecting markers were attached. In order to study the implication of varying difficulties in the handover process the cups had different filling quantities. Six cups were not filled at all, six cups were filled with 50% water and another six cups were filled with 90% water. The influence of variety in perceptual impairment on the handover process was studied by having the receiving person wear black painted ski goggles and ear protection (3M Peltor X5A, SNR = 37 dB).

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Fig. 1. Experimental setup.

2.3

Experimental Procedure

In the beginning of each recording Subject 1 (P1) is sitting on the chair while Subject 2 (P2) is standing on the green mark behind P1. The order in which the cups had to be picked up and handed over was pseudorandom. In each run, every cup and therefore every possible direction occurred once. All participants had the same order of cups. All 20 participants had to perform 42 handovers divided upon six scenarios from a passing and a receiving perspective, see Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Experimental design.

2.4

Data Processing and Statistics

The kinematic data were recorded by an optoelectronic system (Vicon Motion Systems; Oxford Metrics Group, Oxford, UK). The passively reflecting markers, which were attached to the participants’ skin, recorded the motion using an infrared camera. The accuracy of the 3D position of each marker is calculated with a deviation under 1.0 mm. In the presented work the coordinates of the markers were recorded by 11 infrared cameras. Motion data was recorded and processed with the software Vicon Nexus 1.8.5. further data processing was conducted using the software MATLAB (R2019b) and the statistical calculations were made using the software JASP (Version 0.11.1). The quantification of the differences between different spatial directions, different percentages of filling and the varying perceptual impairment was accomplished by

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comparing the duration needed in the phase of interaction during the handover. There, we focused on the three markers of the transferring persons hand, the cup and the receiving persons hand. A one-way ANOVA with repeated measurement and a two-way ANOVA with repeated measurement was used for calculations because of the experiments repeated measurement design. The results were checked post hoc by a Bonferroni test.

3 Results For better understanding, the handover process has been split up into different phases based on events. The phases were identified using the markers on the transferring hand, receiving hand and cup. Based on the velocity profiles in Fig. 3 the following phases were determined. The getting phase starts with the initial movement of the transferring person towards the object and ends with the firm grip on the object. The transport phase begins with the transferring person’s firm grip on the object and ends with the receiving person’s firm grip on the object. From the receiving person’s firm grip on the object onwards, the whole handover process is in the interaction phase, which ends with the transferring person letting go of the object. Therefore, the interaction phase is the period between the start and the end of interaction.

Fig. 3. Classification of phases based on velocity profiles of the transferring hand (blue), the receiving hand (orange) and the cup (yellow).

In the following, the influence of the independent variables spatial direction, percentage of cups’ filling and perceptual impairment of the receiver on the interaction phase is going to be analysed. The statistical comparison of the duration of the interaction phase shows no significant differences between the different spatial directions (F(5) = 1.148, p = 0.344, η2 = 0.004). On the other hand, the statistical comparison of the duration of the interaction phase shows significant differences between the different filling conditions of the cup (F(2) = 129.877, p < .001, η2 = 0.416) as well as between the two conditions of perceptual impairment (F(1) = 77.504, p < .001, η2 = 0.196).

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Moreover, the statistical comparison of the duration of the interaction phase shows significant interaction effects between the cups’ filling and the receiving persons perceptual impairment (F(2) = 62.600, p < .001, η2 = 0.100) (Fig. 4).

Duration in s

Duration of the interaction phase 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 not impaired impaired

not impaired 0% 0.159

50% 0.239

90% 0.368

0.539

0.72

impaired

Filling quantity

Fig. 4. Differences in duration of the interaction phase depending on cups’ filling quantities and perceptual impairment.

In the following calculations, we take a closer look at the differences that appear in the different filling quantities and perceptual impairment of the receiver. In the first section, the different filling quantities without perceptual impairment are compared. The mean duration of the interaction phase shows no significant difference between the 0% filling (0,159 ± 0,072 s) and the 50% filling condition (0,239 ± 0,085 s) without impairment respectively (t(19) = −2.733, pbonf = 0.120). On the other hand the mean duration of the interaction phase shows significant difference between the 0% filling (0,159 ± 0,072 s) and the 90% filling condition (0,368 ± 0,095 s) without impairment respectively (t(19) = −7.113, pbonf < .001). The mean duration of the interaction phase between the 50% filling (0,239 ± 0,085 s) and the 90% filling condition (0,368 ± 0,095 s) without impairment respectively also shows significant difference (t(19) = −4.380, pbonf < .001). In the second section, the same filling quantities are compared with and without impairment. The mean duration of the interaction phase shows significant difference between the 50% filling not impaired (0,239 ± 0,085 s) and 50% filling impaired condition (0,539 ± 0,168 s) (t(19) = 9.520, pbonf < .001). The mean duration of the interaction phase also shows significant difference between the 90% filling not impaired (0,368 ± 0,095 s) and the 90% filling impaired condition (0,72 ± 0,233 s) (t(19) = 11.162, pbonf < .001). The mean duration of the interaction phase shows significant difference between the 50% filling impaired (0,539 ± 0,168 s) and the 90% filling impaired condition (0,72 ± 0,233 s) (t(19) = −6.137, pbonf < .001).

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4 Discussion It was shown that cups with a higher filling level lead to a significantly higher duration of the interaction phase than cups with a lower filling level. Additionally, the receivers’ perceptual impairment led to higher duration of the interaction phases compared to when the receiver was fully sighted and able to hear. The direction from which the hand-over was conducted did not show a significant influence on the interaction phase. In this study, 1200 hand-overs were observed. None of these hand-overs completely failed and the participants spilled no water. Therefore, we conclude that the participants tried to execute their hand-overs as safely and as reliably as possible. By increasing the level of water in the cups, the hand-overs became more difficult, due to the higher risk to spill water. To achieve the same safety and reliability of the handovers they needed to be performed slower and more carefully. In the interaction phase of a hand-over, the transferring person as well as the receiving person send and receive feedback about the state of the hand-over. The transferring person will not release the object until he/she receives feedback that the receiving person has a save grasp on the object. By impairing the vision of the receiving person, he/she was neither able to send nor to receive feedback about the state of the hand-over. The receiving person was only able to rely on haptic feedback. This leads to the assumption that the lack of subtle communication of feedback leads to an increase of time in the interaction phase of a hand-over. Based on these results robots should necessarily be able to send visible feedback about the state of the interaction to prevent the feeling of uncertainty both for the transferring person as well as for the receiving person to implement faster and smoother hand-overs from robot to human and vice versa. Acknowledgement. The study was promoted as part of the BMBF project “SINA - Sichere Wahrnehmung zur flexiblen Assistenz in dynamischen und unstrukturierten Umgebungen”.

References 1. Basili, P., Huber, M., Brandt, T., Hirche, S., Glasauer, S.: Investigating human-human approach and hand-over. In: Dillmann, R., Vernon, D., Nakamura, Y., Schaal, S., Ritter, H., Sagerer, G., et al. (eds.): Human Centered Robot Systems (Cognitive Systems Monographs, Bd., vol. 6, pp. 151–160. Springer, Berlin (2009) 2. Bauer, H., Guttmann, G., Trimmel, M., Leodolter, M., Leodolter, U.: (o. J.). ZBA – Zeit- und Bewegungsanti-zipation. Wiener Testsystem. SCHUHFRIED GmbH (1999) 3. Chan, W.P., Parker, C.A.C., van der Loos, H.M., Croft, E.A.: A human-inspired object handover con-troller. Int. J. Robot. Res. 32(8), 971–983 (2013) 4. Glasauer, S., Huber, M., Basili, P., Knoll, A., Brandt, T.: Interacting in time and space. Investigating human-human and human-robot joint action. In: IEEE RO-MAN, 2010. 19th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication, Viareggio, Italy, 13–15 September 2010, pp. 252–257. IEEE, Piscataway (2010)

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5. Grigore, E.C., Eder, K., Pipe, A.G., Melhuish, C., Leonards, U.: Joint action understanding improves robot-to-human object handover. In: 2013 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), conference digest (S. 4622––4629). 3–7 November 2013, Tokyo, Japan. IEEE, Piscataway (2013) 6. Huber, M., Knoll, A., Brandt, T., Glasauer, S.: Handing over a cube. Spatial features of physical joint-action. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1164, 380–382 (2009) 7. Huber, M., Rickert, M., Knoll, A., Brandt, T., Glasauer, S.: Human-robot interaction in handing-over tasks. In: RO-MAN 2008 - The 17th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication, pp. 107–112. IEEE (2008) 8. Kulić, D., Croft, E.A.: Safe planning for human-robot interaction. J. Robot. Syst. 22(7), 383– 396 (2005) 9. Strabala, K., Lee, M.K., Dragan, A., Forlizzi, J., Srinivasa, S.S.: Learning the communication of intent prior to physical collaboration. In: 2012 IEEE RO-MAN: The 21st IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication, pp. 968–973. IEEE (2012)

Using Technology to Encourage the Participation of Persons with Disabilities: Exploring Cultural Leisure Activities in a Theatre Environment Zakia Hammouni1,3(&), Walter Wittich1,3, Eva Kehayia2,3, Ingrid Verduyckt1,3, Natalina Martiniello1,3, Emilie Hervieux4, and Tiiu Poldma1,3 1

3

Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada [email protected] 2 McGill University, Montréal, Canada Centre for Interdisciplinary Rehabilitation Research of Greater Montreal, Montreal, Canada 4 The Segal Centre for Performing Arts, Montreal, Canada

Abstract. Inclusive ‘relaxed performances’ are leisure activities where people can participate, within a theatre environment, often with the use of assistive technologies, adapted texts and scripts that support interaction and social inclusion. This paper presents a participatory collaborative research project that examines the challenges faced by people living with disability when accessing theatre performances, and how design, technology and adaptations can facilitate participation and promote empowerment. Embracing a participatory approach with attention given to persons with visual impairments, people with mobility impairments persons with language and communication limitations and those on the autism spectrum, data was collected in 4 phases, from the pre-performance to the presentation of the performance. Post-performance analysis used interpretive approaches and evaluation analysis. Results include the development of potential strategies for the inclusion of people from all perspectives in performances. These strategies include the use of audio description which provides visual information about gestures, props and the layout of the stage. Keywords: Inclusive theatre
Technology
Co-creation
Participatory action research
Relaxed performance
Social inclusion
Disability
Design strategies

1 Introduction The enjoyment of cultural activities, such as the theatre, is an integral part of leisure and social participation for everyone in society. Yet, for persons with disabilities participating in the theatre experience can be a challenge. Several theaters around the world have begun adopting new ways of accommodating audiences to include people with dementia, profound multiple learning disabilities and autism [1] with adapted © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 36–41, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_6

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performances. These ‘relaxed performances’ facilitate participation through the use of assistive technologies, changes to the environment itself and adapted material that is integrated into the overall theatre experience, supporting interaction and social inclusion in the theatre environment. This research project presents the creation of a ‘relaxed performance’ in the Segal Centre for the Performing Arts, to understand how transforming the environment supports both performers and audiences alike in their performance experience.

2 Background and Objectives of the Project This intersectoral project explores how cultural recreation and leisure activities, specifically in the form of a theatre performance, can become accessible to individuals with different abilities and how technology can interface to accommodate different impairments and facilitate the experience. Theatre performances are enjoyed by audiences worldwide and yet, due to stigma and stereotyping, as well as historic practice and traditions, these activities can be exclusive. Attending a theatrical performance provides an individual with a social, educational and an aesthetic experience. Artful experiences are vital for our sense of self while allowing us to find meaning [2]. Too often people with disabilities have difficulty accessing cultural activities such as going to the theatre; however, everyone has the right to the transformative experience of art. The objectives of this multi-sectoral project include understanding what barriers exist within the theatre performance offered to the public in its current form, how the environment might be adjusted to account for different needs and desires, and what elements of the environment, social, physical, communicational and technological elements and technical aids might constitute developing universal accessibility to a theatre space. Our interest is to examine the challenges in accessing live performances. This project centers around a “relaxed performance” at the Segal Centre for Performing Arts in Montreal, Canada. The Segal Centre has taken important steps to improve physical accessibility and aid at performances. However, the theatre environment, as well as the information provided to audiences, until now, has not been universally accessible for people living with a disability such as persons with visual, auditory, motor or communication disorder, or those on the autism spectrum. In 2015, the Segal Centre committed to expanding its programming and operations to welcome everyone into the audience such that all are able to experience arts and culture without barriers. This project will enhance this initiative and expand the centre’s accessibility scope.

3 Methodology Embracing a participatory approach, the project proceeds with four phases. The participatory approach is guided by research through design, where co-designing the various materials for the performance depends on the discussion with both the theatre personnel and the researchers at each phase of the project. This is done with the overarching goal of creating a relaxed performance that integrates technology, knowhow and design elements that facilitated the enjoyment of the performance for both

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persons with disabilities and for the audience as a whole. The team members are informed by input from the audience, the theatre’s performers (on-stage), crew members (back-stage), ushers and theatre employees (front of house, box office, communications team and other departments). The research team consisted of researchers of differing abilities from the health/rehabilitation disciplines, architecture and design. The team also included the various personnel at the Segal Centre, local community partners and cultural groups, and rehabilitation research centres. A particularly innovative aspect of this project was the composition of a research team from the ground up, inclusive and including the theatre itself. The Segal Centre team members included both front-of-house staff, back-of-house staff and all levels of Centre administration. The active and engaged participation of the centre was both a catalyst for the research project and enabled the adaptive technologies and changes suggested for the social and environmental aspects of the theatre to be considered as integral aspects of the performance. The 4 phases proceeded as follows: 1) Pre-performance staff training and pre-visit to determine the environmental characteristics; 2) Walk-through of the participants with researchers assessing facilitators, challenges, spatial characteristics, language and spatial barriers. The visit included the backstage, on-stage and front- and back-of-house aspects of the theatre. Researchers assessed both spatial and social characteristics might influence social and physical participation. Researchers documented the theatre spaces during the walk-through that captured the “pre-environment” using the Environment Quality Satisfaction Tool [4, 5]. Information gathered from the first two phases has been used to inform the preparation of the ‘relaxed performance’; 3) Evaluation of the pre-performance conditions; and 4) Presentation of the performance itself and the postperformance. The project team and the audience participants from Phase 1 participated in a rehearsal to glean the possible issues that might arise. The Centre itself prepared for the relaxed performance by organizing a “Quiet room” for persons needing such a space. They also were able to organize on-site technological aids for access to the apps for those who might not have a connected phone. The Centre advertised the availability of the audio-description to its “friends of Segal” through multiple partners in their network. The ‘relaxed performance’ took place following this initial assessment, with the team members and the audience participants from Phase 1 evaluating the successes and unresolved challenges of making the event accessible as a relaxed performance. The documentation of both the participant experiences and the visual characteristics was conducted using a modified version of Visual Content Analysis [5, 6]. Finally, a post-performance analysis proceeded in two distinct stages, after the rehearsal and again post-performance using various evaluation tools and interpretive approaches.

4 Results and Discussion Results emerged in the analysis of each phase. During the pre-performance and postperformance phases, researchers noted the aspects of the proposed relaxed performance that needed fine-tuning. During the post-rehearsal interviews, both audience participants and actors with disabilities provided important feedback. This led to the development of potential strategies for the implementation of the various support

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mechanisms for the performance itself. With the collaboration of the Centre, the researchers collected both visual and auditory data and were able to suggest changes during the pre-performance and post-performance. These were fine-tuned post rehearsal and before the actual performance, including incorporating materials such as adapted written descriptions in both large print and braille, as well as an audio description. The outcomes and effects of this project fall into theatre-specific adaptations that will benefit the centre studied for all future events. They include i) physical aspects of the environment such as lighting/seating adjustments and accessibility; ii) security within the theatre space itself; and iii), the development of a tactile map as an accessibility technology. In terms of the physical space, access issues were documented and found to be somewhat deficient in terms of universal design principles. In terms of theatre accessibility, while arrival is facilitated by easy access off the ground level foyer area, in the theatre beyond the first row, aisles and spaces were very tight, and accessing the theatre space from the higher levels was a little more of a challenge. The security of the environment (ii) was enhanced with support services provided and adequate lighting to allow people to be guided to the theatre. It was noted that the Quiet room provided a place for people to congregate should the theatre become too noisy, especially for those on the autistic spectrum. The room included social activity tables and an area for quiet contemplation (tent) with subtle lighting. The development of technological aids such as the tactile map (iii) were valuable tools created for the Centre, and that can easily be adapted, should the structure and layout of the building change or expand over time. From the disability/health perspective, spoken word theatre is not easily made accessible to a variety of audiences with a disability [7]. Live audio description for the visually impaired [8], sub- and supra-titles for the hearing impaired [9], or simultaneous sign language interpretation for the culturally Deaf [10] can be included. However, challenges remain in accomplishing universal accessibility for all individuals simultaneously [11]. From the technology/accessibility perspective, both spatial and technological tools were developed to measure the spatial qualities of the environment and to support mechanisms to guide the audience participants to have an improved social experience. The audio description provides access to the visual elements of a movie, theatre performance, museum exhibit or other art form, just as captioning provides access to auditory dialogue. Narrators provide objective descriptions of scenes, costumes, actions and other key features that are integral to understanding the performance. The app used for the performance was fully accessible to blind and low vision users who rely on built-in screen reading software, magnification or braille output. Professionally trained describers were situated in another room, with camera access to the stage. They voiced descriptions throughout the play that all app users could access through their headphones and this was very well received. Patrons with visual impairments were able to understand the story more fully with the inclusion of audio description that provided information about gestures, props and the layout of the stage. This result is in concordance with Holland [8] who showed that audio description is a tool for people living with a visual impairment, to describe succinctly what is happening on the theatre stage in the silent intervals between programme commentary or dialogue in order to convey the main visual elements of a performance. Persons with hearing impairments could

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also adjust the amplification as needed. The application used for this purpose was also fully accessible. The spatial mapping of the environment and the creation of haptic tools support the theatre experience before (guidance, accessibility), during (following along, understanding) and after (reacting, leaving) the performance. The collaboration with a Montreal-based partner to create a tactile map and the collaborative efforts of all researchers and partners in creating support documents highlight an intersectoral perspective, providing an enriching support for the Segal Centre and the performers, frontof-house staff and the back-stage crew. In terms of visual and verbal adaptations, during the rehearsal researchers noted issues in terms of the lack of adaptive material and also in terms of the support for way-finding in terms of signage in the environment. The Centre was very supportive of the adaptive materials provided. Overall the participants and research team were satisfied with the results of the performance about the project, and the capacity of the researchers to respond at the various phases, each time assisting with tools to facilitate the performances and add to the overall positive experiences of the participants. It is also of note that the theatre performers, the back-stage personnel and the researchers were able to engage together to reflect both on the experiences in real time, and then adjust the tools being developed for the performance at each turn. The collaboration and co-operation was a great example of research through design, where co-designing and refining was dependent upon the responses of all involved at each phase. Since the performance, the Centre has confirmed that it is engaging with interested audience members on the different ways that relaxed performances are organized, through their newsletters and targeted information mailings. Their intention is to continue to promote these types of performances and in advance via their usual communication streams.

5 Conclusion The relaxed performance is a vital means for people to participate in cultural activities. Technological tools can enhance the participation of people with disabilities who attend a theatre performance and the tools used here were based on the groundwork of the researchers to both establish needs, and then co-design the solutions for the issues that were raised. Audio description provided access, while captioning provided access to auditory dialogue. Narrators provided objective descriptions of scenes, costumes, actions and other key features that are integral to understanding the performance. These various support materials developed enhanced the enjoyment of the performance for everyone. While the project is still ongoing, post-performance there was an enthusiasm to develop further tools and broaden the audience for whom the relaxed performance might be targeted. And while results are still emerging in the evaluation and analysis phases, when complete the research team will provide best practice ideas to the theatre management for improving the accessibility within the scope of the Segal Centre’s existing capacity. Future research work might be useful to further explore the specific needs of different populations, and to explore further the ways that the relaxed performance might be enhanced and inclusive. Special services such as the quiet room can be communicated to the patrons, to further encourage attendance. In this type of

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cultural experience, the enjoyment of the theatre performance is an experience for everyone. Acknowledgments. Many thanks to all our partners, including the Segal Centre for Performing Arts, Federation CJA, Société Inclusive, CRIR/Institut Nazareth et Louis-Braille du CISSS de la Montérégie Centre, CRIR/Centre de réadaptation Lethbridge-Layton-Mackay du CIUSSS du Centre-Ouest-de-l’Île-de-Montréal.

References 1. Fletcher-Watson, B.: Relaxed performance: audiences with autism in mainstream theatre. Scott. J. Perform. 2(2) (2015) 2. Dewey, J.: Art as experience. In: Ross, S. (ed.) Art and Its Significance, pp. 204–220. State University of New York, Albany (2018) 3. Rubin, H.J., Rubin, I.S.: Qualitative interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data. Sage (2011) 4. Poldma, T., Dastoor, D., Brack, H.: Lighting Study at the Moe Levin Center of the Douglas Hospital. Analysis report of Phase 1: exploration Study of the Effects of Light on Behaviour and Wellbeing of People with Dementia in a Specialized Environment (2007) 5. Poldma, T., Labbé. D., Kehayia, E., et al.: La participation sociale des personnes vieillissantes en centre commercial: un laboratoire vivant. In: Vieillissement et aménagement. Perspectives plurielles. Montreal, Canada, Les Presses de l’Université de Montréal, pp. 227–242 (2018) 6. Rose, G.: Visual Methodologies. SAGE Publications, London (2001) 7. Bailey, S.D.: Wings to Fly: Bringing Theatre Arts to Students with Special Needs. Woodbine House, Rockville (1993) 8. Holland, A.: Audio description in the theatre and the visual arts: images into words. In: Audiovisual Translation, pp. 170–185. Palgrave Macmillan, London (2009) 9. Diaz Cintas, J., Orero, P., Remael, A.: Media for All: Subtitling for the Deaf, Audio Description, and Sign Language. Brill Rodopi, Leiden (2007) 10. Knigge, M., Erkau, J.: Cinema and theatre: accessible entertainment, with benefits for all. In: Caltenco, H., Hedvall, P.-O., Larsson, A. (eds.) Universal Design 2014: Three Days of Creativity and Diversity. The authors and IOS Press (2014) 11. Story, M.F.: Maximizing usability: the principles of universal design. Assist Technol. 10, 4– 12 (1998)

Exploring the Acceptance of the Web-Based Coding Tool in an Introductory Programming Course: A Pilot Study Igor Škorić1(&), Tihomir Orehovački1, and Marina Ivašić-Kos2 1

Faculty of Informatics, Juraj Dobrila University of Pula, Zagrebačka 30, 52100 Pula, Croatia [email protected] 2 Department of Informatics, University of Rijeka, Radmile Matejčić 2, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia

Abstract. Web-based coding tools are a popular alternative to desktop applications widely employed in education. Understanding the factors that affect the acceptance of web-based coding tools is a prerequisite for their successful application. With an aim to determine to what extent students’ attitude towards programming and their previous programming knowledge affect students’ acceptance of the web-based programming tool, an empirical study was carried out in which the technology acceptance model (TAM) was employed as a theoretical backbone. Participants in the study were students enrolled to the introductory programming course who used Repl.it as a representative sample of the web-based coding tool. The psychometric features of the introduced research framework were examined by means of the partial least square structural equation modelling technique. The study findings revealed that attitude towards programming does not play an important role in the adoption of a web-based coding tool. Keywords: Web-based coding tool
Technology acceptance model
Introductory programming course
Empirical study
Post-use questionnaire

1 Introduction Problems related to successful teaching of programming are widely represented in Computer Science (CS) education research [1]. Programming is a core competence of CS and every student should successfully adopt it. However, the practice has shown that acquiring this skill remains a difficult task [2]. Therefore, researchers are constantly trying to introduce new pedagogical interventions and new tools that will ease a learning process. The development and application of novel tools are a significant part of research in CS education [3]. The web-based coding tools represent a widespread alternative to their desktop counterparts used in programming education. Availability on various platforms at any time and from any place, needlessness for installation and maintenance, suitability for face-to-face and online teaching, and support for collaborative learning are just some of their advantages. Considering these tools are © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 42–48, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_7

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commonly employed in educational ecosystem, we initiated an empirical study on their acceptance by students enrolled in introductory programming course.

2 Research Model and Hypotheses Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) [4] is one of the most influential models in research on software adoption. Its psychometric features of validity and reliability have been confirmed in a number of studies where TAM was enhanced with variety of constructs. In this paper, TAM has been used as a background for identifying the antecedents of students’ acceptance of the web-based coding tool. According to the main postulates of TAM, the behavioral intention to use the system (BIU) predicts actual use, the user’s attitude toward using the system (ATU) is determined by the BIU while ATU is affected by perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEOU). In that respect, we are proposing following five hypotheses: H1: Perceived usefulness has a significant positive effect on attitude towards using. H2: Perceived usefulness has a significant positive effect on behavioral intention. H3: Perceived ease of use has a significant positive effect on attitude towards using. H4: Perceived ease of use has a significant positive effect on perceived useful-ness. H5: Attitude towards using has a significant positive effect on behavioral intention. For the purpose of our study, TAM has been extended with two additional constructs: attitude towards programming (ATP) and previous programming knowledge (PPK). Davis envisaged this type of extension in the model through the concept of external variables. The reason why we have chosen these two constructs is the impact they have on student learning performance. The most frequently mentioned factor related to programming performance is prior programming experience. Numerous studies (e.g. [5–8]) provide evidence that previous programming knowledge positively influences success in programming courses. The second construct, entitled attitude towards programming, was added to the research model for similar reasons. Students’ attitudes towards a course affect their achievements and programming is not an exception in that respect. Some studies (e.g. [9, 10]) have found a positive correlation between attitude towards programming and achievement in a programming course. Therefore, we are proposing following four hypotheses: H6: Attitude towards programming has a significant positive effect on perceived usefulness. H7: Attitude towards programming has a significant positive effect on perceived ease of use. H8: Previous programming knowledge has a significant positive effect on perceived usefulness. H9: Previous programming knowledge has a significant positive effect on perceived ease of use. The proposed research framework is presented in Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1. The research framework

3 Methodology This study is a part of a larger project exploring the adoption of teaching tools in computer science education. The aim of this research was to determine suitability of TAM in the context of student acceptance of the web-based coding tool. Sample of students was composed of students enrolled to Faculty of Informatics and Department of Computer Science of the Juraj Dobrila University of Pula in Croatia. Data was collected by means of the post-use questionnaire consisted of two items related to respondents’ demography and 27 items designed for examining the constructs that constitute the research model. Apart from gender and age, answers to the questionnaire items were modulated on a five-point Likert scale (1 – strongly disagree to 5 – strongly agree). During the semester, students used the desktop version of the integrated development environment (Dev-C ++) for the purpose of lab-based exercises while during the research session they used Repl.it web-based coding tool for the first time. At the beginning of the study, the lecturer briefly presented features of Repl.it tool to students. As a follow up, by working as a group in the multiplayer mode, the students and the lecturer completed together a source code analysis and a problem solving session. The aforementioned mode of the Repl.it tool enables students to work simultaneously on the same code, observe the work of others, comment, correct errors, and run programs. At the end of the study, the lecturer asked all participants to complete the questionnaire that was created and administrated by means of the Google Forms. Validity and reliability of the introduced research framework were explored with the partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) technique in SmartPLS 2.0 M3 [11].

4 Findings A total of 56 students participated in the study. Majority of them (73.2%) were male. At the time study took place, the half of respondents were 19 years old, 19.6% were 20 years of age, 14.3% were 21 years old while remaining 16.07% had between 22 and 25 years of age. The analysis of the measurement model included testing the reliability

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of manifest and latent variables and convergent validity. First, we performed confirmatory factor analysis to test the construct validity of manifest variables (items) in the instrument. As shown in Table 1, standardized loadings of all items were greater than 0.707 threshold [12] so we retained all manifest variables in the model. Table 1. Standardized factor loadings and cross loadings of manifest variables ATU1 ATU2 ATU3 ATU4 ATU5 ATP1 ATP2 ATP3 ATP4 BIU1 BIU2 BIU3 BIU4 BIU5 PEOU1 PEOU2 PEOU3 PEOU4 PU1 PU2 PU3 PU4 PU5 PPK1 PPK2 PPK3 PPK4

ATU 0.8665 0.7990 0.7803 0.8570 0.8669 0.3617 0.3768 0.4518 0.3811 0.7829 0.8062 0.8127 0.7312 0.8448 0.4671 0.4589 0.4923 0.5637 0.7552 0.6448 0.5377 0.7221 0.6391 0.1544 0.1814 −0.0198 −0.1235

ATP BIU 0.4771 0.7400 0.4508 0.7454 0.4074 0.6148 0.1525 0.8399 0.3524 0.7412 0.9158 0.2166 0.9155 0.2736 0.9066 0.3522 0.9070 0.2007 0.2146 0.8485 0.2987 0.9423 0.2726 0.8887 0.2289 0.8944 0.2865 0.9102 0.3719 0.4602 0.3675 0.2925 0.3263 0.4347 0.3501 0.4020 0.3386 0.7897 0.2061 0.6809 0.2200 0.5193 0.1680 0.7881 0.2897 0.6955 0.5439 0.0861 0.4356 0.1134 0.4260 −0.0523 0.2382 −0.2260

PEOU PU 0.5928 0.6729 0.5958 0.6411 0.5551 0.5553 0.4177 0.8082 0.6612 0.7179 0.4102 0.2436 0.4603 0.3031 0.4463 0.3237 0.4117 0.2204 0.5559 0.7538 0.4629 0.7786 0.4999 0.6941 0.3670 0.8331 0.5333 0.8190 0.7677 0.4430 0.6899 0.3080 0.7156 0.4529 0.7835 0.5623 0.5975 0.8657 0.3580 0.8037 0.5480 0.7412 0.5426 0.7923 0.3979 0.8551 0.2852 0.1667 0.2703 0.0958 0.1058 −0.1125 0.1194 −0.1589

PPK 0.1184 0.2726 0.2167 −0.0593 0.1042 0.4304 0.5154 0.4486 0.5743 −0.0106 0.0302 0.0499 0.0718 0.1606 0.3584 0.1998 0.1299 0.1749 0.0807 −0.0421 0.1008 0.1593 0.1076 0.9143 0.8715 0.7081 0.7424

Reliability of latent variables was examined using the composite reliability and Cronbach’s alpha. Values of both Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability were above 0.707 [13] which provides support for the internal consistency at the level of every construct in the measurement model. An average variance extracted (AVE) value of all constructs was above 0.50, which indicates that the shared variance between a latent variable and its items is larger than variance of the measurement error [14]. The aforementioned results are summarized in Table 2. In order to test significance of path coefficients in the structural model, we performed the bootstrapping procedure with

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5000 samples and 56 cases. The results of hypotheses testing are presented in Table 3. All paths between the four constructs from the original TAM appeared to be significant in the context of our study. More specifically, it has been confirmed that perceived usefulness affects attitude towards using (H1) and behavioral intention (H2), perceived ease of use was found to have influence on attitude towards using (H3) and perceived usefulness (H4), while attitude towards using is a significant predictor of behavioral intention when the use of the web-based coding tool is considered (H5). The reported findings are in line with those revealed is prior studies (e.g. [15]). The path analysis uncovered that previous programming knowledge does not contribute significantly to perceived usefulness nor perceived ease of use which is the reason why hypotheses H8 and H9 were rejected. Table 2. Convergent validity and internal consistency of latent variables Construct Attitude towards using Attitude towards programming Intention to use Perceived ease of use Perceived usefulness Previous programming knowledge

AVE 0.6968 0.8304 0.8053 0.5479 0.6608 0.6620

Composite reliability Cronbach’s alpha 0.9198 0.8909 0.9514 0.9320 0.9538 0.9392 0.8286 0.7248 0.9066 0.8711 0.8857 0.8469

Table 3. Hypotheses testing results Hypotheses b H1. PU -> ATU 0.6522 H2. PU -> BIU 0.4207 H3. PEOU -> ATU 0.2768 H4. PEOU -> PU 0.6027 H5. ATU -> BIU 0.5423 H6. ATP -> PU 0.0770 H7. ATP -> PEOU 0.4510 H8. PPK -> PU −0.1134 H9. PPK -> PEUO 0.0464 * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p

T statistics 6.0438 4.9677 2.2222 5.1363 5.9379 0.4563 3.4471 0.5112 0.2572 < 0.001

p-value *** *** * *** *** ns *** ns ns

Supported Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No No

Concerning attitude towards programming, it was found that it has significant impact on perceived ease of use but does not affect the perceived usefulness to the significant extent. Therefore, hypothesis H7 was confirmed while hypothesis H6 was rejected. The determination coefficient indicates the proportion of endogenous latent variables’ variance explained by the set of predictors. Study findings revealed that 37.7% of variance in perceived usefulness is explained by perceived ease of use, 22.8% of variance in perceived ease of use was accounted for by previous programming knowledge, 72.1% of variance in attitude towards using was explained by perceived

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usefulness and perceived ease of use while 84.5% of variance in behavioral intention was accounted by attitude towards using and perceived usefulness. According to Orehovački [16], values of 0.15, 0.34, and 0.46 for determination coefficient can be, as a rule of thumb in empirical studies related to the adoption of various software, interpreted as weak, moderate, and substantial, respectively. Taking the set forth into consideration, predictors of behavioral intention and attitude towards use have substantial explanatory power, predictor of perceived usefulness has moderate explanatory power while predictor of perceived ease of use has weak explanatory power.

5 Conclusion The objective of the work presented in this paper was to examine psychometric features of the research framework composed of TAM model enhanced with two additional constructs: attitude towards programming and previous programming knowledge. Study findings revealed that neither attitude towards programming nor prior programming knowledge significantly affect perceived usefulness while only previous programming knowledge affects perceived ease of use. As all other empirical studies, this one also has its limitations which should be acknowledged. Although students in our study served as a representative sample of users, they were from only one university. Given that a more heterogeneous sample of study participants could provide entirely different answers to post-use questionnaire items, the reported findings should be interpreted carefully. In addition, only one web-based coding tool was used in this study which means that reported findings cannot be generalized to other similar tools. Taking the set forth into consideration, predictors of behavioral intention and attitude towards using have substantial explanatory power, predictor of perceived usefulness has moderate explanatory power while predictor of perceived ease of use has weak explanatory power.

References 1. Valentine, D.W.: CS educational research: a meta-analysis of SIGCSE technical symposium proceedings. ACM SIGCSE Bull. 36(1), 255–259 (2004) 2. Watson, C., Li, F.W.: Failure rates in introductory programming revisited. In: Proceedings of the 2014 Conference on Innovation & Technology in Computer Science Education, pp. 39– 44. ACM (2014) 3. Sheard, J., Simon, S., Hamilton, M., Lönnberg, J.: Analysis of research into the teaching and learning of programming. In: Proceedings of the Fifth International Workshop on Computing Education Research Workshop, pp. 93–104. ACM (2009) 4. Davis, F., Venkatesh, V.: A critical assessment of potential measurement biases in the technology acceptance model: three experiments. Int. J. Hum Comput Stud. 45(1), 19–45 (1996) 5. Bergin, S., Reilly, R.: Programming: factors that influence success. In: 36th SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, pp. 411–415 (2005)

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6. Hagan, D., Selby, M.: Does it help to have some programming experience before beginning a computing degree program? In: 5th Annual SIGCSE/SIGCUE ITiCSE Conference on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education, pp. 25–28 (2000) 7. Holden, E., Weeden, E.: The impact of prior experience in an information technology programming course sequence. In: 4th Conference on Information Technology Curriculum, pp. 41–46 (2003) 8. Wilson, B., Shrock, S.: Contributing to success in an introductory computer science course. ACM SIGCSE Bull. 33(1), 184–188 (2001) 9. Baser, M.: Attitude, gender and achievement in computer programming. Online Submiss. 14(2), 248–255 (2013) 10. Facey-Shaw, L., Golding, P.: Effects of peer tutoring and attitude on academic performance of first year introductory programming students. In: Frontiers in Education 35th Annual Conference (2005) 11. Sarstedt, M., Cheah, J.: Partial least squares structural equation modeling using SmartPLS: a software review. J. Mark. Anal. 7(3), 196–202 (2019) 12. Hulland, J.: Use of partial least squares (PLS) in strategic management research: a review of four recent studies. Strat. Manag. J. 20(2), 195–204 (1999) 13. Hair, J., et al.: PLS-SEM: indeed a silver bullet. J. Mark. Theory Pract. 19(2), 139–152 (2011) 14. Hartshorne, R., Ajjan, H.: Examining student decisions to adopt Web 2.0 technologies: theory and empirical tests. J. Comput. High. Educ. 21, 3 (2009) 15. van der Heijden, H.: Factors influencing the usage of websites: the case of a generic portal in The Netherlands. Inf. Manag. 40(6), 541–549 (2003) 16. Orehovački, T.: Methodology for evaluating the quality in use of Web 2.0 applications. University of Zagreb (2013). (in Croatian)

An Exploratory Approach Towards Fashion E-tail Carolina Bozzi1(&), Marco Neves1, and Claudia Mont’Alvão2 1

Centro de Investigação em Arquitetura, Urbanismo e Design, Faculdade de Arquitetura, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal [email protected], [email protected] 2 PUC-Rio | LEUI, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil [email protected]

Abstract. This paper is part of a broader study of which the objective is to investigate, map, and discuss the UX throughout the consumer journey when buying apparel online. Clothes possess some characteristics best explored by touch, but this is not possible in online shopping. Consumers are expected to make decisions based on product presentations composed mainly of visual and textual descriptions. In this paper we intend to discuss users’ views towards online shopping and to do so, we have chosen an exploratory approach as our first practical step and conducted exploratory interviews with 24 women, in Portugal, to understand their feelings towards buying clothes online. In a previous study, we conducted exploratory interviews with 19 people in Brazil. We drew a parallel between the two sets of interviews to find differences and similarities. Keywords: Design


UX
E-commerce
Apparel
Human-centered design

1 Introduction When buying online consumers are not able to fully assess product attributes that are essential to determine quality, such as texture. This situation may result in purchases that do not meet consumers’ expectations and high return and exchange rates, or even, to disposal. Up to 10% of what is bought in-store are returned, compared to up to 40% online. Over 25% of returned items end up in landfills and represent around €5,5 Bn worth of goods yearly [1]. Product presentations are key to address these issues. How companies present products plays a significant role in the way content is understood. Consumers adopt omnichannel strategies to overcome the impossibility to touch products, especially those with as many experience attributes as clothes [2]. The present study intends to discuss users’ views towards online shopping through exploratory interviews, to then find ways to improve communication between retailers and consumers and enable more conscious buying decisions. In this paper, we describe and analyze a set of exploratory interviews conducted with 24 women, in Portugal.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 49–55, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_8

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2 Theoretical Background Throughout the critical review of the extant literature, we noted there is a myriad of references from marketing and business management areas. There are studies [3–7] that investigate processing and recollection of information in online product presentations to understand how to persuade consumers. The concept of mental imagery is recurrently mentioned, it refers to how sensory or perceptual experience is represented in consumers’ working memories (8). Scholars, especially those of marketing, attempt to examine how different forms of product presentation help to shape mental imagery [8–15]. We believe that Design can contribute to the formation of mental imagery for consumers to make well-informed purchase decisions, placing their well-being as priority. This approach is beneficial to the individuals involved in the process, and for businesses alike, if we consider the consumers’ lifetime value, which is the result of consumers’ relationship with a brand throughout their lives [16]. If the consumer is well informed, trusts this information and does not buy products that may not meet their expectations, they become more valuable to the company in their long-term relationship. 2.1

Mental Imagery

Mental imagery is related to consumers’ ability to recall previous experiences when a product is physically absent. In this situation, they make evaluations using their imagination [15]. In online retail, pictures of products in a real consumption context indicate that concrete images are effective to facilitate the virtual experience by a greater elaboration of mental imagery. The impact of processing information about a product is essential when purchasing online due to the lack of direct contact. Vivid information can potentially bring the consumer closer to what would be a direct experience and reduce uncertainty [17]. Photos depicting real consumption situations can help decision-making, leading consumers to imagine themselves using the product [15] and contributing to elaboration and quality. Elaboration refers to the number of images evoked in an individual’s mind, and quality refers to the vivacity, clarity, intensity, sharpness, and appeal [12]. Mental imagery of products in consumers’ minds can become an important source of information as they make judgments [10]. Thus, when consumers experience a high level of mental imagery, they can obtain enough information to make a purchase decision without having direct contact with the product [15]. 2.2

Human-Centered Design

Human-centered design comprehends a broader context than user-centered approaches, the latter focuses on technology and how humans interact with it, they tend to be limited and designers are unable to consider context and sociocultural meaning [18]. Making consumers more aware of their choices and not only persuading them to buy could be considered human-centered as it also encompasses social impacts. However, it is essential to focus efforts not only on providing consumers with rich and complete product descriptions, but also, to help them understand information and provide means

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to use it [19]. Being transparent and enabling well-informed purchase decisions are attitudes aligned with Corporate Social Responsibility [CSR], that business and society should be interwoven rather than distinct entities [20].

3 Exploratory Interview We conducted semi-structured interviews to obtain users’ opinions about online shopping to understand more deeply the customer journey. They were asked about difficulties when buying online and issues regarding apparel. We used WhatsApp, the questions were recorded and sent to the interviewees who, in turn, recorded their answers. We interviewed 24 women, from 25 to 47 years old, from 03/05/2019 to 02/10/2019. All the interviewees had bought online, only 2 had never bought clothes. The interviews were transcribed and analyzed using Content Analysis methodology [21]. The answers were codified and grouped into 12 context units; we will analyze the top 5 which represent 73% of total mentions (168) (Table 1).

Table 1. Top 5 context units from the content analysis of the exploratory interviews Theme/Category # Mentions Information 35 Size 29 Opinion about online shopping 22 Difficulties 20 Online purchases 16

% 21 17 13 12 10

Below is the list of questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What do you think about online shopping? Do you think it is difficult or easy to buy online? Do you think it is difficult or easy to buy apparel online? How do you choose your size when buying clothes online? Do you have any comments?

The next paragraphs discuss the most representative answers of the top 5 context units. Information: Product descriptions are not essential for all users, whereas, product dimensions help the decision-making process. There is a general concern regarding the accurateness of information “…I try to guide myself by the things that are written, usually, on the websites, they have tables that indicate the weight, height… etc. And the truth is that it often doesn’t work”. Photographs are essential; they help users to imagine how the product would fit, they use the models as a guide to visualize the product “…so the model is going to tell me how that outfit will look on me”, “…I try to see if the model who is wearing the

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product if her body is a little bit like mine”. Therefore, it is important to work with models whose bodies match the target audience or present the product on more than one model with different body shapes. Users know photographs might be manipulated and prefer, in addition to the professional photographs, ones that are sent by fellow consumers. As well as showing “real” people wearing products, photographs on different bodies also help consumers to picture themselves wearing them, “simulating the product experience can be an efficient decision-making strategy” [22], “And this always gives me a more realistic view of the product, I can see better, in people’s homes, how the fabric will fit…”. Product reviews also aid users to imagine real consumption situations, “…and a plus for me is if there are also reviews…”. Familiarity with brands and products helps to determine quality, fit and feel of clothing, it facilitates product assessment mitigating perceived risk [22] “…I only buy clothes from stores I know”, “…I usually buy from the brands I’ve already bought and I know exactly what my size is…”. Size and fit: Some interviewees described experiences buying clothes that did not fit as expected, it is not only a matter of size but of how the product fits, “Size and color were ok, but the clothes didn’t look nor fit well”. The interviewees revealed to try on a product at a brick-and-mortar store and then buy it online or vice-versa “…another thing I do is to go to the store, try-on the clothes and then order it online”, “…sometimes I go to the brick-and-mortar store, but if there is an online store, I check the products, see what interests me, I write it down and I sometimes go there, in person, to see if it’s what I really want…”. Opinion about online shopping: The opinion about online shopping was positive, it is seen as “essential for a good business nowadays”. It is considered simple, convenient and practical, “I like to buy online. I think it’s very simple”. As you can shop from home, it is convenient for people with mobility issues or who live in small towns, “And also, for me, for example, who lived in Itanhandú, that is a small town in the country and there aren’t many options”. The interviewees believe, it makes shopping easier, “…it saves time of searching and price comparing”. Despite increasing numbers of e-shoppers, there are still those who are resistant, especially due to issues regarding trust and safety “…I am insecure about buying online…”. Difficulties: Among the difficulties are issues regarding size, “The difficulty is determining whether it will fit”. Some users see their “out-of-standard” bodies as an issue when determining their size, “…I don’t have a standard body…”, they think online shopping is “Easier for thin people”. Lack of information and non-intuitive websites are barriers for users, “…if there aren’t some basic information, I usually don’t buy at the store”, “…my difficulty is usually this, the fact that the website is not intuitive, and it’s not easy to, to buy”. Online purchases: Although the interviewees buy from groceries to services as booking hotel rooms “…I buy from food to clothes…”, there is still some resistance to buying clothes. “I don’t buy (clothes) because usually it doesn’t meet my expectations…”.

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4 Comparing Interviews In a similar study [23], 19 people were interviewed, and their answers divided into 3 groups: trust, price, and delivery. In 2017, we included men in our sample, at the time we were determining our target, the interviewees were from different regions of Brazil (90%), and from the USA (10%). In Table 2 are the main differences between the samples.

Table 2. Comparing interview samples Categories Age group Sample size Gender Nationality

Current study 25–47 24

Bozzi & Mont’alvão, 2017 23–77 19

Women Brazilians in Portugal, Brazilians, Portuguese, Others.

52% W, 48% M Brazilians in EUA and Brazilians

Trust: Not trusting online shopping was an impediment, and still is. There are still people who do not feel comfortable buying online. The lack of clear information results in low levels of confidence (24). The different size tables adopted by apparel companies are a barrier for some users, and it was noted in both interviews. Price: Interviewees were more price-sensitive in 2017 than now. The current sample of interviewees did not mention price as often. Delivery: Some individuals stated that they did not buy online because there was no one to receive the order. Currently, with consolidated omnichannel strategies, companies offer deliveries at stores or strategic points, overcoming past issues.

5 Conclusion Trust is paramount to support buying decisions, interviewees repeatedly referred to the importance of quality and familiarity and product information can be a signal that affects consumers’ perception of quality (5). A signal is an action to communicate information that is difficult to observe and used by consumers to assess quality when it is not possible to have direct contact with products [25]. Mental imagery plays a critical role in how products are represented in consumers’ minds (8). When consumers experience a high level of mental imagery, they may obtain enough information without having direct contact with the product [15]. This corroborates the verbalizations of the exploratory interviews. Women who consider their bodies to be “out of standard” often do not relate to photos of products on slimmer models, it is challenging to imagine themselves in a future consumption situation. On

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the other hand, consumers with bodies like the models’ in the photographs manage to form a high level of mental imagery. Issues regarding size are still a major concern. Currently, there are mechanisms to assist overcoming the impossibility to manipulate products and enabling more realistic experiences as videos, interactive simulations etc., but are seemingly not enough. Ecommerce is seen as a more sustainable channel as it uses fewer resources than brick-and-mortar alternatives. However, if a consumer goes to a store to exchange or return a product, it increases the impacts on the environment and business. Additionally, on-demand and shorter delivery windows, sometimes called “The Amazon Effect” [26] can also increase the environmental footprint as logistic routes are more complex and optimization is more difficult due to the unpredictability of the process.

References 1. Reagan, C.: That sweater you don’t like is a trillion-dollar problem for retailers. These companies want to fix it. CNBC.com (2019). https://www.cnbc.com/2019/01/10/growingonline-sales-means-more-returns-and-trash-for-landfills.html. Accessed 8 Mar 2020 2. Weathers, D., Sharma, S., Wood, S.L.: Effects of online communication practices on consumer perceptions of performance uncertainty for search and experience goods. J. Retail. 83, 393–401 (2007) 3. Flavián, C., Gurrea, R., Orús, C.: The effect of product presentation mode on the perceived content and continent quality of web sites. Online Inf. Rev. 33(6), 1103–1128 (2009) 4. Blanco, C.F., Sarasa, R.G., Sanclemente, C.O.: Effects of visual and textual information in online product presentations: looking for the best combination in website design. Eur. J. Inf. Syst. 19(6), 668–686 (2010) 5. Wang, Q., Dai, Y.: The influence of online product presentation and seller reputation on the consumers’ purchase intention across different involvement products. In: Proceedings of the Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems, PACIS 2013 (2013) 6. Yi, W., Chen, C., Chen, J., Liu, H.: The effects of online product presentations on purchase intention. Technol. Econ. Dev. Econ. 24(5), 2045–2064 (2018) 7. Li, M., Wei, K.K., Tayi, G.K., Tan, C.H.: The moderating role of information load on online product presentation. Inf. Manag. 53(4), 467–480 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.im.2015. 11.002 8. MacInnis, D.J., Price, L.L.: The role of imagery in information processing: review and extensions. J. Consum. Res. 13(4), 473 (1987) 9. Lutz, K.A., Lutz, R.J.: Imagery-eliciting strategies: review and implications of research. Adv. Consum. Res. 5, 611–620 (1978) 10. Schwarz, N.: Feelings as information: informational and motivational functions of affective states. In: Higgins, E.T., Sorrentino, R.M., (eds.) Handbook of Motivation and Cognition, pp. 527–561. The Guilford Press, New York (1990) 11. Schwanenflugel, P.J., Harnishfeger, K.K., Stowe, R.W.: Context availability and lexical decisions for abstract and concrete words. J. Mem. Lang. 27, 499 (1988) 12. Walters, G., Sparks, B., Herington, C.: The effectiveness of print advertising stimuli in evoking elaborate consumption visions for potential travelers. J. Travel. Res. 46, 24–34 (2007) 13. Nowlis, S.M., Mandel, N., McCabe, D.B.: The effect of a delay between choice and consumption on consumption enjoyment. J. Consum. Res. 31, 502–510 (2004)

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14. Flavián, C., Gurrea, R., Orús, C.: The influence of online product presentation videos on persuasion and purchase channel preference: the role of imagery fluency and need for touch. Telemat. Inform. 34, 1544–1556 (2017) 15. Yoo, J., Kim, M.: The effects of online product presentation on consumer responses: A mental imagery perspective. J. Bus. Res. 67(11), 2464–2472 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jbusres.2014.03.006 16. Armstrong, G., Kotler, P.: Marketing: an introduction. In: 12th Globa. Essex, Pearson (2015). 672 p 17. Peck, J., Childers, T.L.: Individual differences in haptic information processing: the “need for touch” Scale. J. Consum. Res. 30, 430–442 (2003) 18. Gasson, S.: Human-centered vs. user-centered approaches to information system design. J. Inf. Technol. Theory Appl. 5(2), 29–46 (2003) 19. Mason, A.M., De Klerk, H.M., Sommervile, J., Ashdown, S.P.: Consumers’ knowledge on sizing and fit issues: a solution to successful apparel selection in developing countries. Int. J. Consum. Stud. 32, 276–284 (2008) 20. Wood, D.J.: Corporate social performance revisited. Acad. Manag. Rev. 16, 691–718 (1991) 21. Bardin, L.: Análise de conteúdo. In: 1st ed. São Paulo: Edições 70 (2011) 22. Petrova, P.K., Cialdini, R.B.: Evoking the imagination as a strategy of influence. In: Handbook of Consumer Psychology (2015) 23. Bozzi, C., Mont’Alvão, C.: E-Commerce Em Interfaces Digitais: Identificando Problemas Ergonomicos. In: Anais do 16° USIHC – Congresso Internacional de Ergonomia e Usabilidade de Interfaces Humano Computador. Florianópolis (2017) 24. Bedford, A.: Trustworthiness in Web Design: 4 Credibility Factors. Nielsen Norman Group (NN/g) (2016). https://www.nngroup.com/articles/trustworthy-desig 25. Rao, A.R., Qu, L., Ruekert, R.W.: Signaling unobservable product quality through a brand ally. J. Mark. Res. 36, 258–268 (1999) 26. Sion, L.: Delivery in the age of Amazon. Bringg Delivery Technologies Ltd., Israel (2019)

Data-Driven Analysis of Human-Machine Systems – A Data Logger and Possible Use Cases for Field Studies with Cordless Power Tools Matthias Dörr(&), Julian Peters, and Sven Matthiesen Karlsruher Institut für Technologie (KIT), IPEK - Institut für Produktentwicklung, Kaiserstr. 10, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany [email protected]

Abstract. For the optimization of human-machine systems, it is necessary to gather knowledge about human-machine interaction. For power tools this knowledge is often built up in laboratory and field studies. A problem that often arises is the high amount of effort required for the attachment of measurement equipment, which makes it difficult to conduct large studies, especially in the field. The effort could be reduced by using a data logger, but it is not clear which measurement variables and record frequencies are relevant. In this paper requirements for a data logger to capture the human-machine interaction are presented. Furthermore, a realization of a data logger and four suitable studies are presented. This allows large field studies to be carried out much more easily, making it possible to optimize power tools on the basis of big data collected in the field. Keywords: Human-machine system
Usability testing Power tool
Data logger
Machine learning


Human factors


1 Introduction Knowledge of human-machine interactions is necessary for the optimization of humanmachine systems. Many systems already have sensors installed that provide useful information about human-machine interaction. If further information is required, field or laboratory studies are carried out in which users are observed and measurement equipment is used to capture the interactions between user and machine. The acquisition of human-machine interaction plays a particularly important role for power tools because, unlike many other human-machine systems, the user is involved in the flow of information and power [1] and therefore the efficiency and performance of power tools depends on human factors such as muscle power or the expertise of the user [2]. Due to the important role and the lack of sensors in most power tools, many laboratory and field studies are carried out when optimizing power tools. In the studies, the measuring equipment is usually attached individually either to the power tool [3] or to the user. A problem that arises is the high effort, which is caused by the fact that the measuring equipment has to be attached over and over again © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 56–62, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_9

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during a study when changing the power tool or test person. Besides, the user is often influenced by measurement equipment in studies, especially in the field. For example, he cannot work completely free on a construction site if the device is connected to additional cables or if measuring foils are on the handle. To reduce the effort and the influence, the use of data loggers is a potential solution, whereby a simple attachment to the power tool and no modification of the power tool is requested [4]. This paper presents requirements for a data logger to enable large laboratory and field studies to be conducted with less effort. For this purpose, four studies are presented as possible use cases for a data logger. Afterwards, requirements for data logger are derived from the presented use cases. Finally, a realization of a data logger, which meets the requirements, is presented.

2 Use Cases for a Data Logger The following section presents four use cases for sensor data from a data logger attached to a power tool. 2.1

Acquisition of Usability Aspects

The perceived application quality of a human-machine system can be divided into different usability aspects [5]. Three relevant usability aspects are noise, torsional impacts and vibrations, among others. Noise can severely affect the user’s comfort and makes it necessary to wear hearing protection. Torsional shocks can occur regularly during use, for example when screwing in, and can impair comfort. Also, they can occur abruptly and accidentally, for example, if the drill jams during drilling, and cause direct injury to the user. The vibration radiation from a power tool into the user’s handarm system is of great importance from a comfort and health point of view. Power tools that emit high vibrations cause discomfort and reduced performance for the user and may even cause illnesses that damage blood vessels, nerves, bones, joints, muscles or the connective tissue of the hand or forearm [6, 7]. 2.2

Acquisition of Power Tool Orientation and Movement

The detection of the orientation and movement of the power tool and thus of the human hand plays a major role. The hand movement allows conclusions about the execution of the application and the degree of expertise of the user [2]. Besides, the position and movement can be used to determine the comfort of the user by evaluating the joint angles [8]. 2.3

Acquisition of Usage Context

The recognition of the usage context of human-machine systems provides valuable information during the usage phase, which the developer would otherwise only be able to collect with great effort [9]. For example, with the knowledge of the usage context, customer preferences can be identified in the field [10].

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Studies have already shown that the recognition of the usage context from sensor data in power tools is possible using machine learning methods (classification). The ability of a user-independent classification of more than three applications could not be shown yet [9, 11, 12]. 2.4

Acquisition of User Forces

In human-machine systems such as power tools, the user is involved in the information and power flow. User forces can be utilized to quantify the power flow between user and power tool. User forces can be used to determine the quality of the application and to evaluate usability [13, 14]. The user forces at the interface between the workpiece and power tool or at the interface between user and power tool cannot be measured directly without influencing the user or using a static test setup. In a study, it could be shown that user forces in the tool contact can be calculated from operating parameters of a power tool using machine learning methods [4].

3 Requirements for a Data Logger In this chapter, the necessary measured variables and sampling frequencies for the data logger are derived from the four use cases. With the aims of an easy attachment on the power tool to reduce the effort for large studies and to find a sensor position with high information content, the interface between battery and power tool is found as the optimal position for cordless power tools. On this position the data logger can be attached and exchanged with very little effort and measurements can include the electrical power supply. In the use case “acquisition of usability aspects”, the required measured variables are sound pressure, vibrations and angular velocity. For vibrations, frequencies up to 1400 Hz [6] are relevant for health hazards. When evaluating comfort based on vibration, the main components are below 1000 Hz [15]. Since the amplitude of the individual frequencies is relevant for the analysis of damage and comfort, the required sampling frequency must be doubled to 2800 Hz due to the Nquist theorem. For the angular velocity, a maximum frequency below 1000 Hz can be assumed due to the high inertia of the power tool. For noise, frequencies up to 16 kHz are relevant. In the use case “acquisition of power tool orientation and movement” the device movement can be obtained by sensor fusion from the measurement data of an inertial measurement unit (IMU). The measured values of a 9-DOF IMU consist of acceleration, angular velocity and magnetic field in their three axes. The characteristics of the movements and reactions of the human body have frequencies of up to 15 Hz for the main energy component and remain below an amplitude of 16 g [16]. In the use cases “acquisition of usage context” and “acquisition of user forces” machine learning methods are used. Therefore, the measurement variables must contain as much information as possible about the user forces and the usage context. For this reason, measurement variables that have a physical reference to the forces or the usage context are relevant. Therefore, current and voltage are particularly important because

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they have a correlation with the torque (electric motor) and the contact pressure force (friction equation). Vibrations and sound pressure are also very important, as they describe the oscillations of the system by the vibration of the housing and their sound emission (sound pressure), thus enabling a correlation to the speed of the powertrain. Many measured variables of existing data loggers refer to the environment (ambient temperature, humidity, GPS position etc.) and are not relevant for these two use cases. The measurement variables derived from the applications including the sampling frequencies are shown in the following (Table 1). Table 1. Measurement variables, their use cases and sampling frequencies Measurement variable Sound [dB]

Use case Usability aspects User forces/Usage context Acceleration (X, Y, Z) [m/s2] Usability aspects Power tool orientation User forces/Usage context Angular velocity (X, Y, Z) [°/s] Usability aspects Power tool orientation User forces/Usage context Magnetic field (X, Y, Z) [µT] Power tool orientation User force/Usage context Battery current [A] User forces/Usage context Battery voltage [V] User forces/Usage context

Required sampling frequency 16000 Hz 2800 Hz [6]

10000 Hz

15 Hz [16] 200 Hz [4] 200 Hz [4]

4 Realization of a Data Logger In this chapter, a data logger is presented that meets the presented requirements. The data logger consists of a self-developed circuit board and housing, which can be inserted between the power tool and a battery. The circuit board is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Circuit board and housing of the data logger

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The board is equipped with a microcontroller and the following sensors: shunt (battery current), voltage divider (battery voltage), capacitor microphone (sound pressure), 2 IMUs (acceleration, angular velocity, magnetic field), real time clock (time). These can be used to measure the quantities in the specified record frequency. The data transfer to a computer can be done using the SD card or a serial connection (USB). To enable dynamic and robust measurements, a circular buffer was used to buffer new sensor values. Writing the sensor values from the circular buffer to the main memory is done as a basic load, which is interrupted by cyclic timer interrupts of the measurement routine, storing new sensor values in the circular buffer. This allows the best possible utilization of the microcontroller’s capacity. The possible record frequency based on the activated sensors is shown in the following (Table 2). Table 2. Sampling frequency depending on the measurement variables to be recorded Combination of measurement variables to be recorded Battery current/voltage, sound pressure Battery current/voltage, sound pressure, acceleration Battery current/voltage, sound pressure, acceleration, angular velocity, magnetic field

Maximum sampling frequency 16000 Hz 3200 Hz 1600 Hz

The housing of the data logger is adapted to each battery platform of the power tool manufacturer. This offers the advantage that the data logger can be used with different power tools with the same battery platform. The applicability for different power tools is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Data logger attached to a cordless screwdriver, multitool, angle grinder (based on [4]) and a drywall screwdriver

5 Conclusion In this paper, four applications were presented where a data logger can be used to capture human-machine interaction with power tools. The necessary measured variables and sampling frequencies for these applications were derived and a realization of a data logger was presented. With the presented data logger, large laboratory studies or

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field studies can now be carried out to investigate aspects of human-machine interaction with much less effort. This allows more factors and subjects to be studied, which leads to more comprehensive and precise findings.

References 1. Matthiesen, S., Mangold, S., Bruchmüller, T., Marko, A.: Der Mensch als zentrales Teilsystem in Wechselwirkung mit handgehaltenen Geräten – Ein problemorientierter Ansatz zur Untersuchung dieser Schnittstelle. In: 25. DfX Symposium 2014, Bamberg, Germany, 1–2 October, pp. 193–204 (2014) 2. Germann, R., Jahnke, B., Matthiesen, S.: Objective usability evaluation of drywall screwdriver under consideration of the user experience. Appl. Ergon. 75, 170–177 (2019) 3. Matthiesen, S., Gwosch, T., Schäfer, T., Dültgen, P., Pelshenke, C., Gittel, H.-J.: Experimentelle Ermittlung von Bauteilbelastungen eines Power Tool Antriebsstrangs durch indirektes Messen in realitätsnahen Anwendungen als ein Baustein in der Teilsystemvalidierung. Forschung im Ingenieurwesen 80(1–2), 17–27 (2016) 4. Matthiesen, S., Dörr, M., Zimprich, S.: Testfallgenerierung ‐ Vorgehen zur Lastkollektivermittlung durch Data Mining am Winkelschleifer. In: 29. DfX-Symposium, Tutzing, Germany, 25–26 September, pp. 295–306 (2018) 5. Matthiesen, S., Germann, R.: Meaningful prediction parameters for evaluating the suitability of power tools for usage. In: Procedia 28th CIRP Design Conference, Nantes, France, 23–25 May, pp. 241–246 (2018) 6. Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. DIN EN ISO 5349-1:2001-12: Messung und Bewertung der Einwirkung von Schwingungen auf das Hand-Arm-System des Menschen. Beuth Verlag GmbH 7. Dong, R.G., Welcome, D.E., McDowell, T.W., Xu, X.S., Krajnak, K., Wu, J.Z.: A proposed theory on biodynamic frequency weighting for hand-transmitted vibration exposure. Ind. Health 50(5), 412–424 (2012) 8. Matthiesen, S., Germann, R., Schmidt, S., Hölz, K., Uhl, M.: Prozessmodell zur anwendungsorientierten Entwicklung von Power-Tools. In: Zweite transdisziplinäre Konferenz: Technische Unterstützungssysteme, die die Menschen wirklich wollen, Hamburg, Germany, 12–13 December, pp. 223–232 (2016) 9. Voet, H., Altenhof, M., Ellerich, M., Schmitt, R.H., Linke, B.: A framework for the capture and analysis of product usage data for continuous product improvement. J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 141(2) (2019) 10. He, L., Chen, W., Hoyle, C., Yannou, B.: Choice modeling for usage context-based design. J. Mech. Des. (134) (2012) 11. Dörr, M., Ries, M., Gwosch, T., Matthiesen, S.: Recognizing product application based on integrated consumer grade sensors: a case study with handheld power tools. In: Procedia 29th CIRP Design Conference, Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal, 8–10 May, pp. 798–803 (2019) 12. Heinis, T.B., Loy, C.L., Meboldt, M.: Improving usage metrics for pay-per-use pricing with IoT technology and machine learning. Res. Technol. Manag. 61(5), 32–40 (2018) 13. Matthiesen, S., Uhl, M.: Methodical approach for the analysis of the active user behaviour during the usage of power tools. In: 28. DfX Symposium, Bamberg, Germany, 4–5 October, pp. 1–12 (2017) 14. Uhl, M., Bruchmüller, T., Matthiesen, S.: Experimental analysis of user forces by test bench and manual hammer drill experiments with regard to vibrations and productivity. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 72, 398–407 (2019)

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15. Kern, T.A.: Entwicklung Haptischer Geräte: Ein Einstieg für Ingenieure. Springer Verlag, Berlin (2009) 16. Dominguez-Vega, Z., Martinez-Mendez, R., Lorias-Espinoza, D.: High sampling rate datalogger for the characterization of acceleration signals on the human body running. In: International Conference on Electronics, Communications and Computers (CONIELECOMP), Cholula, Mexico, 25–27 February, pp. 173–177 (2015)

Landing UX Design Thinking Tools and Strategies in a Chinese Context Di Zhu, Wei Liu(&), Sheng Tang, Minjing Wang, Yao Liu, and Jueyi Sheng Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, People’s Republic of China {di.zhu,wei.liu}@bnu.edu.cn, {sheng.tang, mingjing.wang,yao.liu,jueyi.sheng}@mail.bnu.edu.cn

Abstract. Successful application of User eXperience (UX) design thinking relies on appropriate tools and strategies. The aim is to enhance the interaction and user experience of a design thinking course in a Chinese context, particularly for elementary and high schools attached to Beijing Normal University. It includes two cases face to two different target user groups: young parents and high school teachers. By using a human-centered design process, the study uses qualitative field research methods to understand parents’ and teachers’ attitudes and needs for initiating such courses. Interactive prototypes are developed to aid teaching, an online platform to assist management, and the research team invites users to experience and evaluate these human-computer user interfaces. After iterations of conceptual evaluation, one design solution is a novel design thinking course service combined with interactive toolkits, public services, and the other solution is an online design thinking learning platform that supports multi-user online collaborations. Keywords: UX strategies
K12 design thinking course design
E-learning platform


Human centered

1 Introduction Design thinking is a human-centered approach, not only provides a creative problemsolving process to address challenges, but also fosters desirable characteristics [1, 2]. It is a process that can benefit all kinds of users, even those who are elementary students. Students always work on observing and transforming objects in their daily life [3]. Numerous researchers set design thinking courses towards elementary students and high school students, and the studies proved that these courses improved the students’ disposition towards mathematics, teamwork, communication skills [4], and they can move into the innovative processes that are beyond their capabilities [5]. There are some universities launched studies about teaching design thinking for K-12. The UX master program (BNUX) at Beijing Normal University builds up Empathy Design Thinking courses in the Experimental Primary School and the Second High School attached to Beijing Normal University. These courses get high praise from students, teachers as well as parents. Because of limited teaching resources, they cannot afford © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 63–68, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_10

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more students to enroll. However, there are many good examples of computational thinking which integrate programming courses [6]. Wing proposed computational thinking to solve problems, design systems, and understand behavior by teaching kids to think like a computer [7, 8]. However, computational thinking learning focuses on the ideate and prototyping phase. It neglects the importance of empathy. Most of these courses lack practical, concrete, learning experiences, and processes. Landing UX design thinking in a Chinese context needs support from teachers and parents. It should involve more qualified teachers and gain more awareness of parents. More and more tools and methods were adopted to facilitate learning [9]. Moreover, it also engages teachers to iterate curriculum and adopts more computer-based tools to support learning. However, teachers’ qualification is a significant challenge because they lack relevant training and should have rich experience in applying design methodology [10]. Accurately, they should understand how to foster design competencies. From parents’ perspective, they do not understand the meaning and importance of design thinking at first, and they are worrying the outcomes of design can match courses’ objectives [11], and which traits students get. From a broader view, there are insufficient educational resources and insufficient attention to design thinking courses, especially in China. E-learning platforms create opportunities for UX design thinking learning, which allows ‘anytime-anywhere’ access by students as well as teachers [12]. There are collaborative communities of learning where students can exchange ideas. However, E-learning platforms do not support studies as group learning. This study showcases a real-world project organized by the Center of Design Research (CDR) at Stanford University and the Innovation Center for China-U.S. Youth Exchange at Beijing Normal University. The aim is to enhance the interaction and user experience of a design thinking course in a Chinese context.

2 Settings The UX Foundation course is a semester-long project-based design course and has been operating continuously for four years [13]. This study articulates a new attitude towards the use of methods to stimulate creativity in first year UX master students in our institute. In the fall semester of 2019, 76 first year BNUX students worked on seven design briefs assigned by five companies. There is a design brief from Stanford, which includes ten students and two groups. As the first collaboration between Stanford CDR and BNUX, the course is instructed by professors who have diverse backgrounds and aided by Research Associates and six second-year master students as teaching assistants. It also has external mentors from CDR and bi-weekly review via teleconferencing. Students come from different backgrounds and disciplines, including various forms of psychology, engineering, business, and economics, which improves outcomes and enhancing interprofessional collaboration [14, 15]. By using the iterative design process, the research team understands parents’ in elementary schools and teachers’ in high school attitudes and needs in this course and explores opportunities to improve their experience.

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3 Methodology The best way to learn the design tools and processes is to practice it through a realworld design innovation challenge. Through the projects, students experience an intense and iterative process of discovery, research, design, test, and iterate new concepts. By using a series of the human-centered design process, this study uses qualitative field research methods, i.e., 1-on-1 interview method and observation method, to understand parents’ and teachers’ attitudes and needs for initiating such courses. The study clusters these findings and insights and translates into design opportunities. Based on these opportunities, the research team designs interactive prototypes to aid elementary design thinking teaching, and an online platform for high school teachers to assist management. This study also invites users to experience and evaluate these human-computer user interfaces. After iterations of conceptual evaluation, the team finalizes two of the designs and shoots video scenarios to present detailed interactions and features.

4 Course Service and Support for Elementary Schools The student team studies busy-working parents who are eager to get involved in parenting kids. The researchers conducted 1-on-1 interview with five parents whose kids are studying in elementary school and obtained more than 30,000 words transcripts. It is found that due to conformity behavior and mind of rivalry, they are quickly getting influenced by other parents. They usually learn about the education courses in the parents’ group and like to compare with others. They have an open mind and often take their kids to museums on weekends to expand the horizon, and also take them to study abroad during their annual leave. It results in parents are more likely to sign up extracurricular classes to foster specific skills, which are not attractive for their kids. Compared with a few years ago, parents realize the limitations of exam-oriented education and hope to cultivate their kids’ creativity. However, they are confused by the advertisements and afraid of making a decision. The parenting paradigm shifts from an ‘authoritarian’ to an ‘authoritative’ technique. It is found that parents wish their kids to develop some meaningful hobbies instead of playing mobile games. They wish their kids to have the expertise, at least in one specialty. To fulfill parents’ needs, this study designs a cooperation empathy design thinking course with a Non-profit Organization (NGO). It is a platform that contains projects, courses, study tours, competitions, and inhibitions. Parents and children can choose a project they are interested in practice and find some interesting questions. After register, they can have some online classes to learn the design thinking method and process. After building a prototype, children can attend a study tour, competition, or exhibition.

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Fig. 1. Journey map of the UX design thinking course.

There are three phases of the journey map (see Fig. 1) when parents choose an extracurricular class for their children. Parents receive course information via friends. After evaluating the course, parents decide whether to sign up for this course. In the course, parents receive dynamic reports of performance and feedbacks. With collaboration with NGOs, kids get more opportunities to realize the world. Finally, they see the design of their kids applied in NGOs.

5 E-Learning Platform for High School Teachers This design faces high school general technology teachers. These teachers would like to set a creative scenario for students that students learn problem-solving skills and encourage them to solve problems in the real world. However, design thinking is a flexible methodology that needs systematic learning. Through user research, one result shows that teachers want to learn it via workshops form, but a face-to-face workshop limits by time and distance. They expect more convenient ways to study.

Fig. 2. User interface of individual post-it (a) and whole view of C-Box (b).

Based on the above findings, an E-learning platform was designed specifically for high school teachers, which supports remote teamwork, group voice, and video

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connection. There are three features: My Workshop, Teachers Club, Teaching Cases. My Workshop: a main feature of the platform, supports group cooperation to learn a method online. Teacher Club: a channel to know more teachers. Teaching Cases: the base of a case to inspire teaching. This platform adapts to multiple types of devices, such as laptops, tablets, etc. Furthermore, it supports team collaboration and sharing ideas with operation history and multi-users operation reminders. All operations are stored and display immediately. The design demonstrates C-Box, a decision-making method. There are three steps of using C-Box, write down ideas on a post-it, compare the priority of each idea, select ideas. After the online introduction of C-Box, group members receive a mission of the course. As Fig. 2a shows, every member writes down ideas on post-it contains handwritings, texts, highlights, or drawing. Then they use the drag-and-drop gesture to move and arrange all post-its (see Fig. 2b). At last, they select ideas from a particular quadrant. Six high school teachers participated in the conceptual evaluation. The test results show that they can effectively learn and use the toolkit and online platform. The research team iterated the interface by adding the search box and the index bar on the left side.

6 Conclusion The project topics are loosely defined, and the BNUX students are required not only to come up with radically brilliant ideas but also to visualize the concept. This course is the first memorable and intense experience that students go through in their two-year study journey. One design solution is that a novel design thinking course service combined with interactive toolkits, public services, and the other solution is an online design thinking learning platform that supports multi-user collaborations. The teaching topic focuses on designing a garbage classification toolkit that parents could supervise the learning progress of their children. The online learning platform demonstrates how users learn C-Box, i.e., a decision-making method, and collaborate with others online. Finally, the research team shoots video scenarios to present detailed interactions and features. These design solutions help ideate solutions and fill gaps by utilizing appropriate UX methodologies and strategies towards the target user groups: parents of elementary school students and high school teachers. Acknowledgments. We would like to thank our teaching team, students, and the Fulbright Research Scholar Grant (ID: PS00284539).

References 1. Rowland, G.: Shall we dance? A design epistemology for organizational learning and performance. Educ. Technol. Res. Dev. 52(1), 33–48 (2004) 2. Voogt, J., Roblin, N.: A comparative analysis of international frameworks for 21st century competences: implications for national curriculum policies. J. Curric. Stud. 44(3), 299–321 (2012)

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3. Koh, J., Chai, C., Wong, B., Hong, H.: Design thinking for education: conceptions and applications in teaching and learning. Springer (2015) 4. Ke, F.: An implementation of design-based learning through creating educational computer games: a case study on mathematics learning during design and computing. Comput. Educ. 73, 26–39 (2014) 5. Kangas, K., Seitamaa-Hakkarainen, P., Hakkarainen, K.: Design thinking in elementary students’ collaborative lamp designing process. Des. Technol. Educ. Int. J. 18(1), 30–43 (2013) 6. Yadav, A., Zhou, N., Mayfield, C., Hambrusch, S., Korb, J.: Introducing computational thinking in education courses. In: Proceedings of the 42nd ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, pp. 465–470 (2011) 7. Wing, J.: Computational thinking. ACM. Communications 49(3), 33–35 (2006) 8. Kafura, D., Tatar, D.: Initial experience with a computational thinking course for computer science students. In: Proceedings of the 42nd ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, pp. 251–256 (2011) 9. Ge, X., Leifer, L.: Design thinking at the core: learn new ways of thinking and doing by reframing. In: Proceedings of the International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers Digital Collection (2017) 10. Scheer, A., Noweski, C., Meinel, C.: Transforming constructivist learning into action: design thinking in education. Des. Technol. Educ. Int. J. 17(3), 8–19 (2012) 11. Apeddoe, X., Schunn, C.: Strategies for success: uncovering what makes students successful in design and learning. Instr. Sci. 41, 773–791 (2013) 12. Garrison, D.: E-learning in the 21st Century: A Framework for Research and Practice. Routledge, Abingdon (2011) 13. Zhu, D., Liu, W., Lv, Y.: Reflection on museum service design based on a UX foundation course. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, pp. 264–274. Springer (2019) 14. Atwal, A., Caldwell, K.: Do multidisciplinary integrated care pathways improve interprofessional collaboration? Scand. J. Caring Sci. 16(4), 360–367 (2002)

Pedestrian Traffic Planning with TOPSIS: Case Study Urdesa Norte, Guayaquil, Ecuador Andrea Perez Lopez1(&), Maikel Leyva Vazquez2, and Jesús Rafael Hechavarría Hernández1 1

Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, University of Guayaquil, Cdla. Salvador Allende Av. Delta y Av. Kennedy, Guayaquil, Ecuador {andrea.perezlo,jesus.hechavarriah}@ug.edu.ec 2 University Politecnica Salesiana, Guayaquil, Ecuador

Abstract. The article focuses on proposing sustainable solutions for pedestrians that give continuity in its path and make the place attractive to walk, contemplate or take a break including green infrastructure around it to increase the amount of green area per inhabitant which It is lacking. The general objective proposes to develop a plan for pedestrian and cycle path mobility with a green area to improve the connectivity of the study sector. The study methodology is developed in four steps in which the quality of pedestrian infrastructure is identified, the quantity and quality of demand for pedestrian mobility is determined and the designs of the proposal for pedestrian mobility (road cycle) and the proposal of green areas through a database of Question Pro being evaluated in the TOPSIS platform to determine the guidelines of the proposal design of the two focus groups of the study. Keywords: Pedestrian mobility areas
Pedestrian infrastructure


Green infrastructure
Road cycle
Green

1 Introduction The inclusion of pedestrians in the structuring guidelines of a road has now allowed the generation of minimum spaces for pedestrian crossing and in this case in particular they are dangerous steps considering the ramps for vehicular access that limit the passage. However, the pedestrian circulation was not always like that, at the beginning of Urdesa Norte as a citadel, the pedestrian transition was broader and it had basic furniture that allowed it to have a constant and calm pedestrian mobility. But in the last two decades, through the influence of many large cities listed as developed, individual car transport was prioritized rather than more sustainable and healthier modes of transport [1]. As a result, traffic jams, air pollution and unsafe conditions are a daily reality in the Urdesa Norte citadel. On the other hand, walking and cycling are effective means of transport for short to medium distances [2] which in this case is a stretch of 880 meters that connects neighboring neighborhoods such as Lomas de Urdesa, Kennedy Norte and gives access to the University of Guayaquil. While there is a great deal of research on modeling and analysis of urban mobility based on motorized vehicles, there is much less research focused on non-motorized © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 69–76, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_11

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vehicles, and there is almost no research on the comparison of the behavior of pedestrians and cyclists [3]. In this article, through the modeling of realities and decision-making TOPSIS [4] a detailed quantitative analysis of a set of data, for the same period and location, covering the shared mobility of pedestrians and bicycles is presented. We contrast the mobility patterns in both modes and the best solution is discussed. Among the key aspects for the analysis of pedestrian mobility are climatic conditions, time of day and mobility options as variables to determine the frequency of pedestrian trips [5] thus analyzing a design that improves the user experience (older adults and young university students). As a general objective, it is proposed to develop a pedestrian mobility and cycle path plan with a green area that improves connectivity in the Urdesa Norte sector of the City of Guayaquil. Within the specific objectives we have: • • • • •

Identify the quality of the pedestrian and road infrastructure of the sector. Determine the quantity and quality of demand for pedestrian mobility. Select the best intervention alternative using the TOPSIS method. Design a proposal for pedestrian mobility and cycle paths. Design green areas that allow continuity to the ecosystem of the sector.

It should be noted that in many places there are soft qualitative criteria that a good road design should incorporate such as accessibility and connectivity [6].

2 Methodology The methodology starts from the theoretical review of case studies, opening its development in four steps in which the quality of the pedestrian infrastructure is identified, the quantity and quality of demand for pedestrian mobility is determined and the preliminary designs of the proposal of pedestrian mobility (cycle path) and the proposal of green areas in the TOPSIS platform to determine the preferences of the users which will guide the final design of the proposal [7]. To obtain more reliable results, the QuestionPro platform [8] was used to obtain the sample size to be chosen, which will be evaluated through mathematical calculations on the TOPSIS platform. The methodology bases its results on the experimental participation [9] of the two focus groups of the study (elderly and young) to express their experiences in design workshops.

3 Results 3.1

Theoretical Review and Case Studies

The sector under study is limiting with several citadels, which makes it be crossed as an interconnection to get from one place to another, but if what is required is to move to a nearby place, it is what we could call residential tourism, and it takes advantage of two essential factors, such as time and landscape, with mobility being the element that connects them [10].

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These displacements are associated with the appearance of lifestyles and residential strategies related in the first place to the functions of leisure [11], and being inhabited by a large number of older adults, retirees and children, spaces are needed in those who can move freely and independently. 3.2

Pedestrian Infrastructure Quality

Through tours and field observation within the Urdesa Norte citadel, you can see the sidewalks are damaged by time and lack of maintenance and have their own designs proposed by each resident and in other cases there are ram-pas that hinder the passage and are unsafe for the pedestrian Some of the luminaries are aerial and are located in the middle of the sidewalk which distorts the pedestrian crossing, the sewer covers are poorly placed and in other cases they are open. At the floor level the signage is in current maintenance. 3.3

User Demand

To determine the number of pedestrians, the traditional method of manual counting was used by means of gauges, which will be carried out at intersections, and on the sidewalks of greater congruences such as bus stations and the church, it will be carried out in counts successive of short periods, to avoid that the variations lead to deceptive results and to be able to arrive at an average value by units of time [12]. The population of the Urdesa Norte sector is 19,740 inhabitants, according to data from the National Institute of Statistics and Census [13]. Taking this data, at present, it is shown by counting that there are 13,987 inhabitants as a result, which corresponds to the population of Urdesa Norte between 18 and 24 years (youth group) and over 64 years (elderly group) which keep constant pedestrian mobility in the sector. These data are distributed in 54% for the group of young people - 7553 users and 46% for the group of older adults - 6434. 3.4

Preliminary Design of Pedestrian Mobility and Green Areas

Considering the population that inhabits the chosen sector, mostly young university students who rent apartments within homes, and older adults, we have analyzed the leveling and expansion of sidewalks so that adults can move freely without fear of stumbling or fall, as well as the pedestrianization of a part of the Fourth Avenue which is the street of the church which is very busy, so the vehicle speed limit should be 20 km/h. Third Avenue is for bus transit, so at the height of the Church there is a pedestrian street that connects with Fourth Avenue, which will need a zebra crossing for the crosswalk. In addition, it is proposed to enable cycle routes in the 2 main avenues of the sector and that connect with Kennedy Norte and Urdesa to the University of Guayaquil. The proposal for the design of green areas starts with the interconnection of these two large parks (Urdesa Norte Park and Kennedy Linear Park) generating a green corridor that increases the urban green index of the sector to obtain healthier pedestrian mobility.

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Native and introduced species will be used in the study sector such as trees like Cascol (Enterolobium cyclocarpum), Lluvia de oro (Laburnum anagyroi-des); Membrillo bushes (Cydonia oblonga) and ground cover such as Hierba de San Juan (Hypericum calycinum) and in the area of the salty estuary species of Jelí mangrove (Conocarpus erectus) will be reforested. These species were selected through the guideline of the Cielo Florido guide of the city of Guayaquil [14], which already presents an alternative species that adapt to the climate of the study sector. 3.5

QuestionPro

The interview was conducted by former residents of the Urdesa Norte citadel, determining the sample size is 374 participants corresponding to the total sample per 13987 count, calculated with the QuestionPro page simulator, with a 95% confidence level and a margin of error of 5%. To obtain reliable results, amphorae were installed in places of mass grouping of people such as shops, church, restaurants and bus stops [15]. The most important conclusions obtained about the interviews are: In the study sector, 98.60% of the population frequently walks the streets. 97.20% think that the sidewalks are in poor condition. 86.60% feel discomfort and discomfort when walking pedestrians and go to nearby sectors. 97.90% agree with having green areas in their pedestrian path 79.60% would like to have a bike path network that allows them to move to surrounding sectors. 3.6

TOPSIS

The technique for ordering preferences for similarity with ideal solutions (TOPSIS) is a multicriteria method for ordering a finite number of alternatives [16]. The selected alternative will have the distance greater than the ideal negative distance and the shortest distance to the ideal positive solution. The TOPSIS algorithm is developed as follows: Step 1: The normalized decision matrix (R) is determined. The initial decision matrix is normalized (D) is normalized to be able to make the comparison between criteria: xij rij ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 2 Rm i¼1 xij

ð1Þ

Step 2: Calculate the standardized weight matrix (V) with weights obtained using the diffuse decision map method. Values with standardized weights can be calculated as follows: vij ¼ rij
wj Where wj is the weight and Rm j¼1 wj ¼ 1.

ð2Þ

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Step 3: Define the ideal positive () and ideal negative () s alternatives. The criteria values in the ideal positive and ideal negative alternatives correspond to the highest attainable level and the worst level respectively: Aþ ¼

      maxni¼1 jj 2 I þ j ; minni¼1 jj 2 I j ¼ v1þ ; v2þ ; . . .; vnþ ; y

A ¼



       minni¼1 jj 2 I þ j ; maxni¼1 jj 2 I j ¼ v 1 ; v2 ; . . .; vn ;

ð3Þ ð4Þ

Where I þ and I they constitute the set of cost and benefit type criteria, respectively. Step 4: Calculate the distance measure based on the Euclidean distance. The distance to the positive ideal solution is: siþ

¼

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

ffi

þ ; i ¼ 1; . . .; n Rm j¼1 aij  aj

ð5Þ

Additionally, the distance to the ideal negative solution is: s i

¼

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

 Rm j¼1 aij  aj ; i ¼ 1; . . .; n

ð6Þ

Step 5: Calculate the relative proximity to an ideal alternative and sort according to preferences. The relative proximity to the ith value of the ideal alternative is as follows: Piþ ¼

siþ

s i

ð7Þ

þ s i

The set of alternatives can be ordered in descending order of Piþ ; where the highest value means a better option (Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4). Table 1. Step 1: Options and criteria/ratings Weight

0.1 Cost Build cycle via 4 Sidewalk arrangement 5 Build green areas 3 Pedestrianize Av. 4th 2

0.4 0.4 0.1 Social benefit Environmental benefit Economic benefit 3 5 3 5 5 5 4 5 3 1 1 4

Table 2. Step 2: Normalize the matrix Build cycle via Sidewalk arrangement Build green areas Pedestrianize Av. 4th

Cost 0.544331 0.680414 0.408248 0.272166

Social 0.42008 0.70014 0.56011 0.14003

Environmental 0.5735 0.5735 0.5735 0.1147

Economic 0.391 0.651 0.391 0.521

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3.7

Si+ 0.118 0.041 0.063 0.29

Si− 0.2154 0.2908 0.2503 0.0429

Pi 0.646 0.877 0.798 0.129

Rank 2 1 3 4

Final Proposal

Through this methodological process it was possible to structure a proposal according to the needs of the users and that meets the priorities of the two focus groups of study refining interventions in the First and Second Avenues (Cycle track), Third and Fourth (Urban furniture and sidewalks continuous); as well as the interconnection between the Urdesa Norte Park with the Kennedy North Linear Park, through a pedestrian bridge providing them with a profile of jelis mangroves, any system integrated with green areas with endemic species and introduced to improve the quality of life of the inhabitants of the citadel Urdesa Norte (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Proposal of intervention of pedestrian mobility in the citadel Urdesa Norte, of the Guayaquil City.

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4 Conclusions With the development of this proposal, it is intended to turn Urdesa Norte into an icon of pedestrian mobility, since this citadel interconnects several productive and educational sectors of the city, therefore, it is expected to achieve a sustainable road development, which makes this sector a cozy place, easily accessible, with recreation and recreation areas and, above all, interpret the needs of users through an integrated mobility system between seniors and young people.

References 1. Bongiorno, C., Santucci, D., Kon, F., Santi, P., Ratti, C.: Comparing bicycling and pedestrian mobility: patterns of non-motorized human mobility in Greater Boston. J. Transp. Geogr. 80 (2019) 2. Jeong, D.Y., Kwahk, J., Han, S.H., Park, J., Lee, M., Jang, H.: A pedestrian experience framework to help identify impediments to walking by mobility-challenged pedestrians. J. Transp. Heal. 10, 334–349 (2018) 3. Gamble, J., Snizek, B., Nielsen, T.S.: From people to cycling indicators: documenting and understanding the urban context of cyclists’ experiences in Quito, Ecuador. J. Transp. Geogr. 60, 167–177 (2017) 4. Franco Puga, J., Colorado Pástor, B., Hechavarría Hernández, J.R., Leyva, M.: Design criteria in vernacular architecture as a proposal for low-income dwelling for urban parishes of the Babahoyo canton, Ecuador, pp. 1164–1170 (2020) 5. Delso, J., Martín, B., Ortega, E.: A new procedure using network analysis and kernel density estimations to evaluate the effect of urban configurations on pedestrian mobility. The case study of Vitoria –Gasteiz. J. Transp. Geogr. 67, 61–72 (2018) 6. Planificación, I.D.E., Urbano, Y.D., Promover, P.: Redalyc. Instrumentos de planificación y diseño urbano para promover al peatón en las ciudades. Un estudio comparado entre Chile y Alemania (2016) 7. Awasthi, A., Omrani, H., Gerber, P.: Investigating ideal-solution based multicriteria decision making techniques for sustainability evaluation of urban mobility projects. Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract. 116, 247–259 (2018) 8. Nasseri, M.: Book review. System 72, 241–243 (2018) 9. Bottin-Rousseau, S., Perrut, M., Picard, C., Akamatsu, S., Faivre, G.: An experimental method for the in situ observation of eutectic growth patterns in bulk samples of transparent alloys. J. Cryst. Growth 306(2), 465–472 (2007) 10. Falcón, H.S., Tacoronte, D.V., Santana, A.G.: La movilidad urbana sostenible y su incidencia en el desarrollo turístico Sustainable urban mobility and its impact on tourism development 19(1), 48–63 (2016) 11. Huete Nieves, R., Mantecón Terán, A.: Más allá del turismo: movilidad residencial europea y nuevos núcleos urbanos. Boletín la Asoc. Geógrafos Españoles, no. 56, pp. 111–128 (2011) 12. Maya, E.: Métodos y técnicas de investigación Una propuesta ágil para la presentación de trabajos científicos en las áreas de arquitectura, urbanismo y disciplinas afines (2014) 13. Base de Datos – Censo de Población y Vivienda. https://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/basede-datos-censo-de-poblacion-y-vivienda/. Accessed 13 Feb 2020

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14. Proyectos — Fundación Ecológica Proyecta Verde. https://www.proyectaverde.com/proy ectos. Accessed 13 Feb 2020 15. López-Sánchez, M.P., Alberich, T., Aviñó, D., Francés García, F., Ruiz-Azarola, A., Villasante, T.: Participatory tools and methods for community action. SESPAS Report 2018. Gaceta Sanitaria 32, 32–40 (2018). Ediciones Doyma, S.L 16. Valero Fajardo, C.L., Hechavarría Hernández, J.R.: PEST analysis based on fuzzy decision maps for the ordering of risk factors in territorial planning of the Vinces Canton, Ecuador, pp. 1190–1194 (2020)

Multicriteria Algorithms for Multisensory Design Alexandro Magno da Rocha Vianna(&) DNAhub, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil [email protected]

Abstract. Verbal responses are not always consistent with neural responses when asked about a particular experience. The objective of the research is to verify the difference between an observer's verbal and neural response when interacting with food. Analyze these responses and their influence on the choice process through Neuroscience and Neurodesign tools. Keywords: Multisensory Neuroscience


Neurodesign
Stimuli
Behavior
Experience


1 Introduction Observation of the states of greatest attention, retention and relationship with an option selected by the observer. Measurement of sensorializations through the Electroencephalogram and Magnetic resonance. Tabulation of users’ responses using Fuzzy Logic. The tabulation of these data aims to verify whether the positive responses (the food that pleased you most and which are the most important elements for that) apply in general terms (verbal response and cognitive response) in other users belonging to the same group of people. From the data and processes of the applications described above, or the questionnaire to be made, which can be done through an observer’s sensory mapping, “patterns in neurophysiological processes” are used with verbal response, and how much these types of use are performance of the processes of attention, retention (selection of an option) and satisfaction (eating again) of a food (selection of an option).

2 Hypothesis Hypothesis 1 Is it possible to impact and influence the processes of attention, retention and memory? What variables influence these processes and what responses generate those variables. Hypothesis 2 Can a Scale of Positive sensorializations x Negative sensorializations be developed, which will generate experiences with more attention, retention and memory? Can it be used to design more impactful experiences for a niche or segment?

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 77–83, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_12

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3 Methodology An adopted methodology uses a method of crossing supply and demand matrices to identify the distances between the different product alternatives in meeting the requirements of its customers according to the profile demanded by them. Phases: Identification > Personas Selection > People who represent as personas Application > Sensory scale (linguistic variables and neural response) - I created > Multicriteria algorithm for sensory analysis - I created > ARM (open) and EEG (impacted areas) > Hormone identification analysis * 10 people maximum > SAATY scale for verbal response > Observation of impacted area > Fuzzification and defuzzification of results (normative maximizing) > Answer 1: Selection of the option Answer 2: evaluation of the experience at a rational and emotional level.

4 Results The attributes selected for the selection of hamburgers were: Vomiting - any reaction linked to purging food from the mouth, being completed or verified through expression; Disgust - I didn’t even want to try it; Bad - unsatisfactory taste; Indifferent - it’s not bad, but it’s also not good; Good - satisfied with the taste; Great - satisfied with the taste, would eat again; Delicious - delight. Importance for the objective (Tables 1, 2 and Figs. 1, 2 and 3). Table 1. Sensory scale. Attribute Sensory scale Vomiting Disgust Bad Doesn’t matter Good Great Delicious

Terms Weak 1111 1111 1123 4455 4557 7778 7899

Medium 1111 1112 2233 4555 5557 7788 7999

Strong 1111 1122 3333 5555 5777 7889 8999

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Table 2. Vector Vector 1123 2334 3445 4557 7889 Expendable Unsatisfactory Important Satisfactory Crucial

Fig. 1. Option 1 (A)

Fig. 2. Option 2 (B)

Fig. 3. Option 3 (C)

At the same time that the observer responds verbally, his brain is analyzed in ARM, checking if the areas responsible for the feeding process such as salivation, digestion, etc. their interest, engagement, excitement, focus, relaxation and stress are stimulated and through EEG. Some of these states are linked to the production of hormones such as serotonins and endorphins, which are related to pleasure. These data generate an interference model for establishing criteria of the Fuzzy set of pertinence and can be crossed to generate a score for each experience with each burger, which can be measured and compared (Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 and Tables 3, 4).

Table 3. Matrix of sensations Sensations Image A Image B Image C Importance for the objective Vomiting Weak Weak Good Crucial Disgust Weak Weak Great Crucial Bad Good Weak Good Very important Doesn’t matter Good Weak Weak Important Good Weak Good Weak Important Great Weak Good Weak Very important Delicious Weak Great Weak Crucial Image linguistic terms: Weak, Good and Great Linguistic terms of Importance for the objective: Indifferent, Important, Very important and Crucial.

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Fig. 4. Verbal response graph Table 4. Neural Stimuli Stimuli Image A Image B Image C Importance for the objective Body Genicuate Weak Great Weak Very important Cortex Visual Good Great Weak Very important Ghrelin Good Weak Weak Very important Nucleus Accumbens Great Great Weak Indifferent Serotonins Good Great Weak Crucial Endorphins Good Great Weak Very important Image linguistic terms: Weak, Good and Great Linguistic terms of Importance for the objective: Indifferent, Important, Very important and Crucial.

Fig. 5. Stimuli Núcleo Accumbens

Fig. 6. Stimuli Corpo Geniculado

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Fig. 7. Neural response graph

Fig. 8. EEG measurement of: excitement, engagement, focus, interest, relaxion and stress.

Fig. 9. Graph of the sensory response attributes – notes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 9 and the corresponding linguistic variables.

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Fig. 10. Graph of the sensory response attributes – notes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 9 and the corresponding linguistic variables.

5 Conclusions Through this project, a multicriteria algorithm for sensory analysis was developed. The analysis showed that the verbal response hid the observer’s willingness to try option C, while the neural analysis clearly demonstrated it. In general terms, it can assist in choosing a menu or analyze and select multisensory analogues for a campaign so that it is more representative for the consumer and thus humanizes more brands, products and services.

References 1. Bendasoli, P.F.: O paradoxo de Mozart. O&S - Salvador, vol. 17, no. 53, pp. 259–277, Abril/Junho 2010 2. Carter. R.: Mapping the Mind. California Okland University of California Press (2000) 3. Cslkszentmihalyi’s, M.: Psicologia da ótima experiência. Harper Collins e-books, New York (1996) 4. Dispenza, J.: Evolving your brain and the science of creating personal reality. Deerfiel Beach. Health Communications Inc. (2008) 5. Etzkowilz, H.: Tríplice hélice. Industria, Governo, Universidades. Madri -Triple Helix Institute (2009) 6. Feldman, R., Forrest, J., Happ, B.: Self-Presentation and Verbal Deception: Do SelfPresenters Lie More? Massachusetts. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. (2002) 7. Florida, R.: The Flight of the Creative Class. And How It’s Transforming Work, Leisure, Community and Everyday Life. Basic Books, Nova York (2002) 8. Freud, S.: Interpretação dos sonhos. São Paulo. Companhia das Letras, vol. 4. ano de publicação 2019 (1900) 9. Freud, S.: O inconsciente. The Unconscious, Rio de Janeiro, Imago, vol. 1, pp. 98–136 (1915) 10. Freud, S.: Ego e o id. Rio de Janeiro, Editora Imago (2004) 11. Gil, A.C.: Métodos e técnicas de pesquisa social - Métodos e técnicas de pesquisa social Antonio Carlos Gil, 5 edn., São Paulo Atlas (2007) 12. Herzberg, F.: The motivation to work. Reino Unido, Editora Routledge (1959) 13. Jordan, P.: Designing Pleasurable Products. CRC Press, Cleveland (2000) 14. Khaneman, D., Tversky, A.: Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision Under Risk. Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky (1979) 15. Kotler, P., Keller, K.: Administração de Marketing, 12a edn. Pearson Prentice Hall, New Jersey (2012)

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16. Krippendorff, K.: Intrinsic Motivation and Human-Centered Design. Pennsylvania. University of Pennsylvania, Departmental Papers (ASC) (2004) 17. Lindstrong, M.: A Lógica do consumo. Harper Collins Brasil (2016) 18. Maslow, A.H.: Motivation and Personality. Nova Iorque, Editora Harper & Row, Publishers (1970) 19. Norman, D.: Emotional Design: Why We Love or Hate Everyday Things. Basic Books, New York (2005) 20. da Rocha Vianna, A.M.: Neurodesign - Projeto de graduação em Design Gráfico com habilitação em comunicação visual e ênfase em marketing (2014) 21. Ross, T.: Fuzzy Logic With Engineering Applications, 3rd edn. Wiley, Hoboken (2010) 22. Simon, H.: Prêmio Turing da ACM, juntamente com Allen Newell, pelas suas contribuições básicas à Inteligência Artificial, à Psicologia de Cognição Humana, e ao processamento de listas (1975) 23. Tanaka, K.: Introdução aos conjuntos nebulosos. Tradução de Osvaldo R. Saavedra. GSPDEE –UFMA (2003)

An Objective Rating Approach for Vibration Discomfort Evaluation in Power Tool Ergonomics – Examination of Higher Frequency Components Sebastian Zimprich(&), René Germann, Sebastian Helmstetter, Simon Saurbier, and Sven Matthiesen Karlsruher Institut für Technologie (KIT), IPEK - Institut für Produktentwicklung, Kaiserstr. 10, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany {sebastian.zimprich,sven.matthiesen}@kit.edu

Abstract. The workers productivity in the usage of power tools depends directly on the perceived comfort during the application. A comfort aspect that is felt particularly intensely is the vibration emissions of power tools. Vibrations strain the user in a physically and psychologically way. Hereby, the ahv-value (DIN EN ISO 5349-1) already considers harmful effects of vibrations on the human hand arm system, but it is not suitable to judge the discomfort of vibrations. An objective value for vibration discomfort evaluation in power tool applications does not exist. This paper analyses biological basics for human vibration sensing in power tool applications to investigate the correlation between the perceived vibration discomfort and objective vibration measurements in angle grinder applications. In addition to the known ahv-value, a new value is introduced which takes higher frequency components into account and suits to the perceived vibration discomfort for the tested applications with two angle grinders. Keywords: Human-machine system
Usability testing Vibration comfort
Vibration filter
Power tool


Ergonomics


1 Introduction User-centered products should be matched exactly to the users requirements. In product development of user-centered products different methodical approaches to identify relevant usability aspects do exist [1–3]. Hereby, usability aspects can be effects of the user, the product, or the environment which have a direct influence on the perceived quality of a product [4, 5]. Particularly relevant for user-centered product development are usability aspects with a high impact to the user’s perception. In order to improve the products suitability of usage, those usability aspects are specifically addressed in product development [6]. In this context, vibration emission play a distinctive role, because they are perceived particularly intensively by the user, which can cause to discomfort [7]. The higher the discomfort during the usage, the more the user is negatively influenced in his application. Dianat and Kuijt-Evers stated for example in © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 84–90, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_13

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this context, that the user’s productivity depends on the perceived comfort during the application [8, 9]. Therefore, to improve the comfort of a power tool, the negative influences of vibrations must be reduced as good as possible. An objective measurement value for the vibration discomfort evaluation of power tools, as it exists for automotive [10], is missing in power tool applications yet. On the other hand, there are measurement values as the ahv value which are used to refer on health effects of vibration on the hand arm system [11]. Hereby, according to DIN EN ISO 5349-1, the measured acceleration components of individual frequency ranges are weighted with a factor that describes the damage potential of the frequency. This weighting factor decreases strongly from a frequency as of 16 Hz. Considering the fact that humans can perceive frequencies up to 2000 Hz, the question arises to what extent the ahv filter can be used to judge the discomfort [12]. Therefore, the following research question was investigated within this contribution: • Is the ahv value suitable for comfort evaluation in power tool applications? In order to identify the power tools relevant vibration features for comfort, it must be considered which frequency range can be physically perceived by humans. Depending on the body region and frequency range, the perception of vibrations takes place via different receptors [12]. The palm of the hand mainly absorbs vibrations in power tool applications, therefore tactile receptors are most relevant for perception. The tactile receptors can be divided into subgroups according to their response speed and frequency range. The “Rapid Adapting” sensors have their highest sensitivity range in the range of 10–100 Hz and react to changes in speed of the skin to 500 Hz. The “Fast Adapting” sensors are considered to be the most sensitive vibration sensors. They can detect vibrations between 80 Hz and 1000 Hz, with their highest sensitivity being in the range of 300–400 Hz [13]. In combination, the tactile receptors show a highly sensitive perception range between 10–1000 Hz [13]. This range must be considered when evaluating the vibration comfort. As these frequencies cannot be seen as hard frontiers, the influence of even higher and lower frequency component should be evaluated for vibration comfort, which leads to a frequency range from 5–2000 Hz [12]. The ahv value as an evaluation parameter for vibration comfort seems not suitable, since the weighting factors focus on the low-frequency areas, which are harmful for health. Higher component frequency vibrations are almost not considered in the calculation of the ahv value, but can lead to discomfort for the user. Nevertheless, power tool manufacturers use the value due to the lack of alternatives to evaluate vibration comfort [14]. This leads to the second research question: • Is an objective measurement value, considering the relevant frequency range from 5–2000 Hz, more suitable for comfort evaluation in power tool applications than the ahv value? To answer this question, an experimental study has been conducted. The vibration comfort during the application is rated by five experienced users for two angle grinders and four different applications. The perceived vibration comfort is compared to the ahv value, which is common for evaluating the daily exposure to hand-arm vibrations, and

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to a newly introduced value for vibration comfort, which is derived from the humans awareness area of vibrations in this paper [15].

2 Methods and Materials 2.1

Experimental Setup

The following chapter describes the experiment to answer the two research questions. The perceived vibration comfort for two angle grinders in different applications is evaluated together and compared with two objective vibration measurements: The ahv value and a newly introduces value. The measurements are performed with two professional angle grinders from wellknown power tool manufacturers. Both grinders have the same nominal electrical power (2400 W) and disc diameter (230 mm). The power tools (PTs) have a comparable ahv value in grinding mode (PT A: 5,4 m/s2, PT B: 5,5 m/s2). Five experienced test users were selected for manual tests. All of them are experienced in working with angle grinders. Tests were performed with the two angle grinders in four different applications (cutting steel, cutting concrete, roughing steel and grinding steel). Replicate measurements were added to obtain more reliable results and lead to a total of 440 test runs in this study. To obtain constant test conditions, a new workpiece is used in each test case. To ensure a comparable test procedure, reference measurement before and after each measurement are performed and evaluated. Figure 1 shows a test run while grinding steel.

Fig. 1. Test run grinding steel

For data collection, the angle grinders are equipped with PCB 356A02 acceleration sensor at the side and main handle. The ahv value is calculated according to DIN ISO 5349 [11]. For taking higher frequency components into account, the acceleration comfort vibration value (acv value) is introduced, which is calculated with a constant weighting factor of one in the bandpass from 5 to 2000 Hz, based to the ahv values calculation. A high acv value represents a high stimulus in high frequency components.

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The ahv and acv values weighting factors are plotted in Fig. 2. The measured vibration data indicate that angle grinders emit vibrations in higher frequency range.

Fig. 2. Weighting factors of the ahv and acv value in an angle grinders frequency range

Since the perception of the vibration comfort can be distorted by the acceleration sensors, another five experienced test persons were selected for the subjective evaluation without acceleration sensors. All of them are experienced in working with angle grinders. The evaluation is carried out after each application based on a survey. In the survey the test persons evaluate the grinders on a scale (1 very bad - 9 very good). Noise, handling, ergonomics and performance are evaluated beside the vibration comfort.

3 Results The group of experienced test persons evaluated the angle grinders during several hours of working on outstanding vibrations. The analysis of the subjective vibration evaluation resulted in an average vibration rating of 7.6 points for the angle grinder B and an average of 5.3 points for the angle grinder A (scale 1 very bad - 9 very good). Ahv and acv values for the main and side handle are shown representatively for the application “grinding steel” in Fig. 3.

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Fig. 3. ahv and acv values for grinding steel

The grinding application is particularly suitable for evaluation, as the external disturbance variables caused by the user’s working method are kept very small. As it can be seen the acv value is much higher than the ahv value, as it considers a bigger frequency range and weights the frequency components on a higher factor. The determined average ahv value in this application is even lower than the value stated by the manufacturer for both grinders, but it is still on the same level for both power tools. Taking the acv value into account, a clear difference between the two products can be determined. The mean acv value at the main handle of power tool A is more than twice as large as the one from power tool B. The measured values of the side handle provide a similar picture. The high acv value of power tool B goes along with a lower rated vibration comfort. Therefore, the thesis, that the ahv value has less correlation with the subjective evaluations than the calculated acv value can be confirmed. With these results, the two research questions can be answered: – The ahv value is not suitable to predict the perceived vibration comfort in the usage of angle grinders. – The acv value maps perceived vibration comfort in a better way than the ahv value, due to the consideration of the higher frequency components. This suggests that the higher frequencies have a clear influence on the perceived vibrations.

4 Discussion and Conclusion In this contribution an experimental study has been conducted to analyze the perceived discomfort by vibrations during the usage of power tools. In order to identify an objective measurement value for the perceived comfort the known ahv value has been used to evaluate the vibrations. Despite having a comparable ahv value (A: 5,4 m/s2 vs. B: 5,5 m/s2), angle grinder A is rated much worse in the subjective perceived vibration comfort than angle grinder B (A: 5,3 vs. B: 7,6). Own measurements confirmed the ahv value information provided by the manufacturers. As vibration frequencies up to 2000 Hz are noticeably in power tool applications and the ahv value weights especially low frequencies, it is plausible that the ahv value and the perceived vibration comfort do not correlate. Taking the higher frequencies up to 2000 Hz into account, the acv value shows that a high level of discomfort due to vibration correlates with higher

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measured values (A: 53,7 m/s2/47,2 m/s2 vs. B: 19,8 m/s2/26,1 m/s2 at main/side handle). The high acv value suggests a high discomfort potential in higher frequencies ranges. The assumption that higher frequencies have a significant influence on the perceived discomfort should be analyzed in further research. Furthermore, to verify these results, it is suggested to expand this study to more angle grinders and power tools. Analysing the human’s vibration sensing it can be shown that there are frequency ranges from 5 to 2000 Hz with higher and lower sensitivity for vibrations. To improve the avc-values validity and allow the specific identification of optimization potential in product development, the weighting factors from 5 to 2000 Hz should be considered according to their ranges respectively their discomfort potential. In this evaluation, all frequencies from 5 to 2000 Hz are weighted equal, as the exact discomfort potential of single frequency ranges is unknown yet.

References 1. Dumas, J.S., Redish, J.C.: A Practical Guide to Usability Testing, Rev. edn. Intellect, Exeter (1999). 404 p. 2. Freund, J., Takala, E.-P., Toivonen, R.: Effects of two ergonomic aids on the usability of an in-line screwdriver. Appl. Ergon. 31(4), 371–376 (2000) 3. Malinowska-Borowska, J., Zieliński, G.: Coupling forces exerted on chain saws by inexperienced tree fellers. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 43(4), 283–287 (2013) 4. Aptel, M., Claudon, L., Marsot, J.: Integration of ergonomics into hand tool design: principle and presentation of an example. Int. J. Occup. Saf. Ergon. JOSE 8(1), 107–115 (2002) 5. Germann, R., Jahnke, B., Matthiesen, S.: Objective usability evaluation of drywall screwdriver under consideration of the user experience. Appl. Ergon. 75, 170–177 (2019) 6. Kuijt-Evers, L.F.M., Twisk, J., Groenesteijn, L., de Looze, M.P., Vink, P.: Identifying predictors of comfort and discomfort in using hand tools. Ergonomics 48(6), 692–702 (2005) 7. Matthiesen, S., Uhl, M.: Methodical approach for the analysis of the active user behavior during the usage of power tools. In: Design for X. Beiträge zum 28. DfX-Symposium Oktober 2017. DfX-Symposium, pp. 1–12. TuTech Verlag, Hamburg (2017) 8. Dianat, I., Nedaei, M., Mostashar Nezami, M.A.: The effects of tool handle shape on hand performance, usability and discomfort using masons’ trowels. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 45, 13–20 (2015) 9. Kuijt-Evers, L.F.M., Vink, P., de Looze, M.P.: Comfort predictors for different kinds of hand tools: differences and similarities. Int. J. Ind. Ergon. 37(1), 73–84 (2007) 10. Deprez, K., Moshou, D., Anthonis, J., de Baerdemaeker, J., Ramon, H.: Improvement of vibrational comfort on agricultural vehicles by passive and semi-active cabin suspensions. Comput. Electron. Agric. 49(3), 431–440 (2005) 11. DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung e. V.: Mechanische Schwingungen - Messung und Bewertung der Einwirkung von Schwingungen auf das Hand-Arm-System des Menschen: Teil 1: Allgemeine Anforderungen. Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin 13.160 (2001). 27 p. 12. Kern, T.A., Matysek, M. (eds.): Entwicklung haptischer Geräte: Ein Einstieg für Ingenieure, p. 486. Springer, Berlin (2009) 13. Schmidt, R.F., Schaible, H.-G., Birbaumer, N.-P.: (eds.) Neuro- und Sinnesphysiologie, 5., neu bearb. Aufl. ed. Springer Medizin, Heidelberg (2006). 519 p.

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14. Genau, C.: Das neue PFERD-Werkzeugsystem als Alternative zu Schruppscheiben. In: 7. VDI-Tagung Humanschwingungen 2018. VDI Verlag GmbH, Düsseldorf, pp. 281–288 (2018) 15. DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung e. V.: Handgehaltene motorbetriebene Maschinen – Messverfahren zur Ermittlung der Schwingungsemission: Teil 1: Winkelschleifer und Vertikalschleifer (ISO 28927-1:2009); Deutsche Fassung EN ISO 28927-1. Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin 17.160, 25.140.01 (2010) 36 p.

Exploring Interaction Qualities from Teenagers’ Studying Behavior for Learning Feature in Museum Exhibit Xin Xin(&), Wei Liu, Yumei Yan, Xin Zhao, Nan Liu, Xinyue Huang, and Junyi Zhou Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, People’s Republic of China {xin.xin,Wei.liu}@bnu.edu.cn

Abstract. Increasing interactivity in exhibit is always an issue in museum exhibition, nowadays education becomes an important feature in museum, and how to impart knowledge in an interactive way, have audiences understood well is a barrier. The objective of this research is to investigate the interaction qualities in daily studying for teenager students. Workshop and interviews were conducted, and the result revealed affected by atmosphere, emotional involvement, economy, accurate and immediate feedback, interests exploration and adventure, reality connection, auxiliary by multiple channel and well organized are the core qualities. In addition, these qualities will be the guidance for museum exhibit design to enhance the experience and efficiency of learning in museum. Keywords: Interaction qualities


Teenagers
Museum
Exhibit

1 Introduction Learning is an effective way to promote individual development [1]. Learning takes place in formal and informal ways [2], for example, a traditional classroom and training course are formal education, non-school-based environments and free-choice learning [2] are informal, such as, visiting museum, study trip or company visit are informal education. Teenagers who are in junior or senior high school spend almost whole day attending classes and homework. Academic learning is an important part of their lives. Under the current social environment, school students also attach great importance to the development, their interests and specialties. Museum is one of main sites, where students could get knowledge in. Museum experts has recognized that museum has already changed into a place of education for learning [3] and has it unique pedagogy feature, it has been defined as scientific discipline and designed concerning on peculiarities [4]. To have visitors obtain knowledge in a nature way, interactive exhibit in museum has increasingly grown as essential element in learning experiences [3]. This paper reports on a qualitative study of how to get the interaction qualities from teenagers’ daily study. With these interaction qualities, designers could apply them into

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 91–96, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_14

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an exhibit interactive design to enhance the acceptance and understanding of knowledge meanwhile the visiting experience.

2 Background As museum has transferred its duty in society from ‘being about something to being for somebody’ [5], its important focusing on the needs of audiences and their learning [6]. With the developing of human-computer interaction technology, AI, big data etc., interaction techniques are appealing for exhibits in museum, but designers have the barrier in how to apply these technologies supporting productive learning [7]. The new technologies and digital construction have been crucially attracting young generations and new audiences [8]. Edutainment, interactivity and immersive experiences are highlighted both in academics world and museums [9]. Many museum visitors are groups of teenagers of middle school and high school students who visit the museum as part of their formal or informal study. In china, students are the main audience group in museum; teenagers take 25%–40%, even more than 50% [10]. Schools have set museum as their second classroom. The international council of museums (ICOM) set the topic of International Museum Day as ‘Museums and Young’ in 2006, it indicated that the education function of museum is a worldwide issue. The young generations with Information and Communication Technologies (ICTS) [11] makes museum must adjust their services to improve user involvement and participation [12]. There have been many researches on the cognitive characteristics of teenagers’ learning, but there are still few researches on the characteristics of learning behaviors, learning scenes, tools and activities of contemporary teenagers have changed greatly compared with the past.

3 Method We conducted observations, workshops and interviews with teenagers, as well as unofficial interviews and engagements with parents and staffs in museum. Through this study, we sought to explore teenagers learning context and interactive behaviors. The context and behaviors not only refers to organized and purposeful academic activities, but also extend to all the activities when they are acquiring knowledge. Different types of learning activities usually take place in different situations and help us find natural interaction qualities, but not only the mode in-class learning. 3.1

Workshop

A workshop was conducted to explores various situations in which teenagers have learning behaviors, whether there are common types of interactive activities in different contexts, and the items or products that they often interact with, and provides the basis for formulating the interview outline. Seven teenagers, aged between 13 and 15, were obtained through recruitment information released by Beijing Museum of Natural History. The workshop consisted of three parts: introduction, mining learning scenes

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and objects, and understanding learning behaviors and feelings. After fully understanding the topic, seven young participants reflected on the topic and expressed it in turn according to the seating order. After each round of speech, group discussion session was held. After collecting and sorting out the above materials, we obtained the common scenes of teenagers’ learning behaviors, the learning activities occurring in different scenes, and the items used in the activities. 3.2

Interview

Interviews were adopted to gradually understand of teenagers’ interactive behaviors and feelings in learning process. We further explore the interactive behaviors and feelings of young people in the corresponding situations during learning, and the motivations for various learning behaviors. Six teenagers aged 12 to 17 were interviewed. Interviewer respondent and asked questions and reorder the questions based on the interviewee’s answer, avoided duplicate questions, deleted unnecessary questions, and increased the number of questions based on respondents’ attitudes and attitudes in the interview outline [13]. Each interview takes about 1.5 h.

4 Result From the workshop, we found that the current learning scene of teenagers is no longer limited to traditional schools, nor does it only use physical objects such as textbooks and electronic dictionaries. Their learning scenes are richer than before, and the devices are all connected to the internet. At the same time, their learning activities are more diverse. We concluded three typical learning contexts: public scene, private scenes and mobile scene, in addition, three related tools: studying tools, mobile devices and software applications. These dimensions were applied in the semi-structured interview outline. 4.1

Affected by Atmosphere

Current atmosphere has an effect on the behavior of teenagers, that is, a sensory-wrap fitting experience can promote them to be engaged in current activities. The atmosphere works in three main ways: immersion, suggestion and fit. Multi-sensory experience can make people feel “immersed in learning”. Recently, I replaced my desktop PC with a huge screen, and I connected to the speakers from my aunt. The speakers buzzed all day, which made me feel that the knowledge poured into my brain from both ears. (E48) When teenagers positively do activities that fits the environmental conditions, they will feel comfortable because of being integrated into it. 4.2

Emotional Involvement

Teenagers are prone to be involved in activities with emotions. They fully express their emotions by performing ritual behaviors, empathizing with anthropomorphic objects,

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expressing personality, and strengthening identity in groups. Emotional involvement further allows them to fully engaged in current activities. (When watch movies with a projector) I have a sense of ceremony and I will be involved in it. (B67) Teenagers project emotions on the objects they interact with, personifying them. I interact with learn tools for fun. (C56 + C58 + C59–C61) For the participant, translation software is not just a tool; it is an object with emotion. Therefore, he is eager to interact with it, making fun of the translation application by looking up uncommon words. In this process, he had a deeper understanding of the knowledge in an amusing way. 4.3

Economy

Teenagers take strategies to carry out activities at the least cost. Place books of my interest on a specific shelf (A12) When reading on an e-reader, the software will record my progress automatically, and present directly at next time. (B72) By reading books with an e-reader that automatically records progress, or playing games online with a fixed ID, or putting the books to read in a specific place, the participants can be prepared to continue the activities. This way, they can reduce unnecessary consumption for preparing and carry out activities with less distraction. 4.4

Accurate and Immediate Feedback

By some precise interactive behaviors or functions with immediate feedback, teenagers gain accurate cognition of current activity state and process, obtaining a sense of control simultaneously. It improves their learning efficiency. Twist the alarm clock knob to timing; I always twist to the exact position. I feel that sometimes I take things too seriously, being a bit obsessive (E27). Information available at any time and any place can transmit more efficiently. Immediate feedback contributes to the sense of certainty and control of current state. For instance, the participants reflected that: In “Tik Tok” application (a global video community powered by music), it is very easy and quick to choose which video you want to see. You just need to slide your fingers to switch to the next (D30). Smooth and quick gestures created by many interactive device or application designers’ help users switch information, enabling the process more efficient and bringing relaxed mood. Therefore, designing more novel and fascinating interactive gestures for adolescents’ learning tools or devices is a crucial work for designers. 4.5

Reality Connection

One of the most novel findings is that the connection with reality is an important way of interaction when people learning something. The participants reflected that: The dialogue process when using the smart speaker is consistent with the communication process between people which is direct and natural (D1).

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The smart speaker’s voice answer is simple but accurate and has a positive mood like human beings (D2). D1 and D2 described the communication with smart speaker is so nature like talking with real people which can stimuli the participant to keep on using it and have more emotional satisfaction. In other words, similarity with reality allows us to learn new content persistently and continuously. 4.6

Auxiliary by Multiple Channel

The participants will not only do their best subjective effort to learn, but also find the assistance methods to help them do it better. We clustered the interviews and found that the teenagers will adopt internal or external methods to assist certain behaviors and their continuous development, which include feedback/excitation, using constraints and using reminders. (I was playing a card game in the phone) When I draw, a card comes along with a gorgeous animation, I will want to continue recharging the game and drawing more cards (C47). Teenagers will be easily attracted by gorgeous or novel effect and then the kind of feedback excite them to do the next behavior and arouse the enthusiasm of something tedious. Therefore, combining the learning and such stimulus together can help teenagers study or interact with unfamiliar knowledge. 4.7

Well Organized

The teenagers tend to planned behavior when studying. They emphasized that when organizing a series of actions, the entire process that is purpose-oriented and organized until the end of the activity can help them obtain, choose and resolve the certain problems in the series of link. Click the “Wow” button at the end of the WeChat Official Account’s article, which can help me quickly find this post (B7). B7 illustrated an effective solution that they can read this article conveniently in the “Wow” Favorites to improve the efficiency. Time for the teenagers learning is limited so that how to study efficiently is a big issue.

5 Discussion and Conclusion Many efforts have been done for increasing the understanding of this multifaceted and rich topic. In this paper, we have provided deep insight into the interaction quality of teenagers’ learning behavior. Through extensive qualitative engagement, we have identified several essences, which could be applied in interactive design for exhibits. Our analysis provides multiple opportunities for future museum design innovation that build on these known qualities that teenagers have. Foregrounding aspects of interactions that are important in building and maintaining museum learning system. The research group discussed on possible solutions as below, but not limited:

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Online and offline connection for exhibits: teenagers handle electronic devices very well and would like to have accurate and immediate feedback, an online and offline service could be a win-win solution, especially under 5G tech. Multiple channel interaction to foil study atmosphere: designers can consider to creating immersion context to enhance interaction experience, meanwhile improve learning efficiency. This multiple channel could also connect to ‘reality connection’ to stimulate the natural interaction between human body and exhibit medium. However, some limitation need to be considered in the study. The number of participants selected in this study are not sufficient. Due to the rapid spread of coronavirus in China, it was quite difficult to continue research in museums, so the results are difficult to generalize to the entire museum field.

References 1. Xinchun, W., Zheng, Z., Juan, X., Changyun, K.: The essential characteristics of museum– based science learning and its influential Factors. J. Beijing Norm. Univ. ( Soc. Sci. Ed.) 05, 13–19 (2009) 2. Falk, J.H., Dierking, L.D.: Learning from Museums: Visitor Experiences and the Making of Meaning. AltaMira Press, Walnut Creek (2000) 3. Andre, L., Durksen, T., Volman, M.L.: Museums as avenues of learning for children: a decade of research. Learn. Environ. Res. 20(1), 47–76 (2016) 4. Milovanov, K.Y., Nikitina, E.Y., Sokolova, N.L., Sergeyeva, M.G.: The creative potential of museum pedagogy within the modern society. Espacios, 38(40), 27–37 (2017) 5. Weil, S.: From being about something to being for somebody: the ongoing transformation of the American museum. Daedalus 128(3), 229–258. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20027573 6. Kelly, L.: Evaluation, research and communities of practice: program evaluation in museums. Arch. Sci. 4, 45–69 (2004) 7. Roberts, J., Lyons, L.: The value of learning talk: applying a novel dialogue scoring method to inform interaction design in an open-ended, embodied museum exhibit. Int. J. Comput. Support. Collab. Learn. 12(4), 343–376 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11412-017-9262-x 8. Rubino, I., Barberis, C., Xhembulla, J., Malnati, G.: Integrating a location-based mobile game in the museum visit: evaluating visitors’ behaviour and learning. J. Comput. Cult. Herit. 8(3), 1–18 (2015) 9. Mencarelli, R., Pulh, M.: Museoparks and re-enchantment on the museum visits: an approach centred on visual ethnology. Qual. Mark. Res. Int. J. 13(2), 148–164 (2012) 10. Shan, J.: The social responsibility and social educational of museum. Southeast Cult. 6, 9–16 (2010) 11. Prensky, M.: Digital natives, digital immigrants. On Horiz. 9(5) (2001) 12. Cerquetti, M.: More is better! Current issues and challenges for museum audience development: a literature review. J. Cult. Manag. Policy 6(1) (2016) 13. Boyce, C., Neale, P.: Conducting in-depth interviews: a guide for designing and conducting in-depth interviews for evaluation input, monitoring and evaluation - 2. Pathfinder International (2006)

Human Digital Twins and Cognitive Mimetic Pertti Saariluoma1(&), Jose Cañas2, and Antero Karvonen1 1

University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland [email protected] 2 University of Granada, Granada, Spain

Abstract. Digital twins – digital models of technical systems and processes – have recently been introduced to work with complex industrial processes. Yet should such models concern only physical objects (as definitions of them often imply), or should users and other human beings also be included? Models that include people have been called human digital twins (HDTs); they facilitate more accurate analyses of technologies in practical use. The cognitive mimetic approach can be used to describe human interactions with technologies. This approach analyses human information processes such as perceiving and thinking to mimic how people process information in order to design intelligent technologies. The results of such analyses can be presented as an ontology of human action, and in this way included in HDT models. Keywords: Digital twins
Human-systems integration
Cognitive mimetic
AI

1 Introduction Digital twins – computational models of industrial objects – are becoming an important part of technological thinking [1, 2]. They can be used to design, operate and maintain complex systems. They are often used to model physical objects in industry such as turbines, power stations, control systems or paper machines. However, they can also be used to assess how people interact with industrial processes. All technology is intended to improve people’s quality of life. Therefore humans should always be considered an essential part of technology systems. People are not only users of technologies; they are also targets of technical actions and organised around technical artefacts. Thus, modelling technologies should not be limited to technical artefacts; they should also take into account peoples’ various roles and actions around artefacts. When digital twins include human beings in their different roles, the models can be called human digital twins (HDTs) [3]. HDTs model how technical artefacts are used. Thus, they can provide information about human differences and difficulties in the practical use of technical artefacts. HDTs can be used to obtain information about the logic of using an artefact, their usability problems as well as how people like to use them. Moreover, HDTs can model exactly how people use a particular technology. Thus, industry can use HDTs in their research on human factors and in their search for effective work and organisational practices. HDTs connect accurate pictures of the inner principles of technical artefacts with accurate pictures of how humans use or relate to the artefacts. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 97–102, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_15

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2 Cognitive Mimetic Approach It is far from clear how to use digital twins to obtain relevant knowledge about people. The simplest models concern the use of controls and feedback systems. However, sophisticated systems should also provide information about how effectively people can use the systems – for example, how to design the controls so they are easy and pleasant to use. Too many industrial accidents are caused by poorly designed controls [4]. Furthermore, in many technical processes, such as those used in factories, a human operator intervenes and adjusts the physical processes based on information they obtain from multiple sources. Thus the control and feedback systems are used by the intelligent process controller of today: the human operator. Obtaining accurate pictures of the mental contents and processes that guide operators’ actions also paves the way for automation and highlights their information requirements. HDTs should model not only how artefacts work, but how people use them. One approach to building HDT models is to apply the cognitive mimetic approach, which we define as using human information processes to design intelligent systems [5]. Mimetic design involves using a source in the natural or artificial world to inspire technological solutions. Cognitive mimetics studies human shared and individual cognitive processes, as well as the mental content, representations, and constraints that establish the boundaries and forms these processes take. It analyses how people carry out intelligent tasks, and uses this information to design novel technological solutions. Cognitive mimetic researchers study how people process information while using technologies. The results of analysing human actions and performances and can be used to build HDT models. The first example of cognitive mimicking and human information processing was perhaps Turing’s model of the mathematician: the Turing machine. His focus was not on human biological structures (differently from biomimetic), but their information processing [6]. Later, Herbert Simon and colleagues began to empirically study human cognitive processes and thus extended mimetic thinking from introspective analysis to objective or behavioural [5]. Applying cognitive mimetics to HDT modelling involves explaining how (and why) people act, what they do, what kinds of difficulties they have, and how they feel about using technologies. Thus, cognitive analysis makes it possible to include all the main aspects of using technical artefacts in the model, which mimics real human information processing.

3 Ontology of Modelling Models of artefacts and human action can be expressed as ontologies. Ontologies are descriptions of information content; they are often considered basic units in the science of information content [7]. Ontologies are essentially conceptual systems that describe the attributes of ground concepts and their systems. The basic questions of human– technology interaction can be presented as an ontology:

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1. action 1:1 goal 1:1:1 static 1:1:2 dynamic 1:2 agent 1:2:1 role 1:2:2 age 1:2:3 skills 1:3 artefact (tool) 1:3:1 functionalities 1:3:1:1 knowing that 1:3:1:2 knowing how 1:3:1:3 tacit and explicit 1:3:2 functional logic 1:3:3 user interface 1:3:4 manipulation 1:3:4:1 direct 1:3:4:2 indirect 1:3:5 efficiency 1:4 object 1:4:1 physical object 1:4:2 information 1:4:3 states 1:4:3:1 initial 1:4:3:2 goal 1:5 context 1:5:1 physical 1:5:2 social 1:5:2:1 legal 1:5:2:2 interest groups 1:5:3 information 2. technical interaction 2:2 input 2:2 output 2:3 operations 3. usability 4. user experience 5. technology in life This schematic ontology illustrates how human–technology interaction concepts can be presented. They can also be seen as issues that designers must analyse and solve. The five main categories refer to the action (what people do), agent (person who is doing something), technical interaction (i.e., the input, the processing logic and output), usability (i.e., can people use the technical artefact) and user experience (do people like to use the artefact). The final issue is the role of technology in human life.

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Digital twins (of physical processes) can connect to many categories and attributes by providing a parallel complementary picture of the target or artefact. It is also important to keep in mind that the user’s picture of the system is not necessarily the same as that of designers or managers. For example, an operator in a paper mill understands the technical system in a different sense than a chemical engineer designing the overall process. Thus it is not possible to reduce many complex and dynamic factory processes to pure physical or engineering knowledge.

4 Air Traffic Controllers – A Case Analysis The case of air traffic controllers illustrates how these ontologies could be applied to create digital twins in order to investigate how technologies can improve their task. The main objective of the controllers’ actions is to maintain the vertical and horizontal distances between airplanes so they do not enter into a “conflict situation” in which they may collide. This main objective explains and justifies all the other partial objectives. When a controller asks a pilot to climb to a particular altitude, his ultimate objective is to prevent the aircraft from entering a conflict situation with another aircraft in the immediate future. In this way, it is possible to analyse how the controller’s cognitive decision-making processes manage the information he is perceiving and to predict the future positions of the aircraft. Based on these predictions of future positions, the controller is not able to understand the action of asking the pilot to change altitude. The devices used by the controller must be analysed from the point of view of how he or she interacts with them. The functionalities that are included in the radar of a control position are those that the controller needs to perform its task. However, these functionalities must be designed to ensure the controller has an effective, efficient, satisfactory and positive experience when interacting with them. The control positions are designed to suit the preferences of each individual controller. Therefore, where digital twins mimic the control task, individual differences and references must be taken into account. As for the objects of the actions, it is necessary to take into account the fact that the control acts on both “proximal” and “distal” objects. Proximal objects are, for example, the representations of the aircraft on the radar screen, while distal objects are the aircraft themselves. Psychologically speaking, actions on proximal vs. distal objects involve different types of cognitive processing. The physical and social context in which the controller acts is very important. The physical context, for example, is very different for a tower controller and a route controller. The tower controller has a direct perception of its objects (the airplanes), while a route controller can only perceive nearby objects (the objects on the radar screen). Finally, the social context is essential to air traffic controllers’ work, since they work with the pilot and other controllers – called “collaterals” – who are responsible for other sectors of the airspace. Depending on the circumstances in a control position, there may be two controllers, the “executive” and the “planner”. Therefore, issues of social and organisational psychology are very relevant in control tasks.

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5 Uses of Human Digital Twins Constructing digital twins can be based on in-depth cognitive science, which allows technical designers to construct well-designed human–technology interaction processes. This also makes it possible to consider users’ minds. An important approach to modelling the mind was developed based on Turing’s as well as Newell’s and Simon’s thinking within cognitive psychology. Cognitive researchers began to consider the human mind as an information processing system [6, 7]. Following this hugely influential way of thinking, one can suggest that constructing HDTs could be based on the idea that they are information processing systems. The cognitive mimetic approach can be applied in this context. Cognitive mimetics analyses human information processes such as perceiving and thinking to mimic how people process information for designing intelligent technologies. Building human digital twins (HDTs) with parallel human information processing models could thus make use of the ideas in cognitive mimetics. Thus, research on (and the concept of) information processing could unify people and research artefacts into a single model. HDTs would facilitate a number of possible improvements to design and development processes. For instance, one can follow usability and user experience problems based on knowledge collected in digital twins, or study individual and group differences in working with technologies. For example, if two work shifts on a factory line have essentially different outcomes, this must be based on how the operators work rather than how the machines are performing. Thus, HDTs can make it possible to analyse how to improve the conditions and work habits and thus to improve the use of technical artefacts. HDTs may improve design communication and how expertise is organised. One difficulty associated with constructing technologies can be differences in educational backgrounds. As human researchers are used to the ways people think in psychology or sociology, technical people may have great difficulty understanding how people operate technologies. The opposite may be equally difficult, as human researchers are often not very competent with mathematics, materials, properties of machine elements and phenomena such as friction, which are commonplace issues for technical people. HDTs can therefore make communication easier. Finally, a key idea in cognitive mimicking involves supporting the design of artificial intelligence (AI). One may ask whether twinning is a proper way to use cognitive mimetics. Digital twins are models of industrial processes, and thus they need not have any role in AI design. However, digital twins maybe used to describe information processing, and thus HDT modelling can be used to develop AI solutions for existing work processes. Acknowledgement. This paper has been supported by BF SEED-project.

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References 1. Gelernter, D.: Mirror Worlds. Oxford University Press, Oxford (1991) 2. Grieves, M., Vickers, J.: Digital twin: mitigating unpredictable, undesirable emergent behavior in complex systems. In: Transdisciplinary Perspectives on Complex Systems, pp. 85–113. Springer, London (2017) 3. Wilson, H., Daugherty, P.: Collaborative intelligence: humans and AI are joining forces. Harv. Bus. Rev., 2–111 (2018) 4. Saariluoma, P., Kujala, T., Karvonen, A., Ahonen M.: Cognitive mimetics - main ideas. In: Proceedings on the International Conference on Artificial Intelligence (ICAI), pp. 202–206. The Steering Committee of the World Congress in Computer Science, Computer Engineering and Applied Computing (WorldComp) (2018) 5. Newell, A., Simon, H.A.: Human Problem Solving. Prentice-Hall, Engelwood Cliffs (1972) 6. Turing, A.M.: On computable numbers, with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem. Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. 42, 230–265 (1936–7) 7. Saariluoma, P., Cañas, J., Leikas, J.: Designing for Life. Macmillan, London (2016)

The Influence of Lighting Settings on Museum’s Brand Image and Human Satisfaction in Exhibition Halls Using Virtual Reality Youmna Ahmady1,2(&) and Yamuna Kaluarachchi2 1

British University in Egypt, Cairo, Egypt [email protected] 2 London South Bank University, London, UK {Ahmadyay.y,yamuna.kaluarachchi}@lsbu.ac.uk

Abstract. This paper analyses the influence of museum lighting design on the brand image and human satisfaction inside exhibition halls, taking Birmingham museum and art gallery as the case study of this research focusing on the exhibition that included the ancient Egyptian displays. Four different generated lighting scenes using virtual reality were generated. The results showed that the lighting had an impact on the brand image and affect the willingness of people to revisit the museum and recommend it to family and friends. This research considers the museum’s visitors as active participants not just passive recipients of environmental stimuli. The research tried to provide a better understanding of how the exhibition environment in terms of lighting is perceived and provide further insight into how exhibition lighting design can enhance the visitor’s experience and create a brand image. According to the research results, visitors tend to be willing to return and stay longer in the presence of diverse and exciting lighting settings. Keywords: Brand image


Lighting
Museums
Virtual reality

1 Introduction Light in “museum quality” has become the benchmark, even for other types of architecture. The main objective of this research is evaluating how lighting can be used as a branding tool which contributes to the brand image of museums that encourages community engagement. Good museum lighting not only meets the requirements of the visitors, but also of the curators and operators as visual comfort, optimum perception of the exhibits, clear and safe orientation in the building lead to a high quality experience, and also conservation of the exhibits as well as economic efficiency and sustainability which are important factors. Lighting concepts which meet these criteria contribute to preserving the cultural heritage of humanity for future generations. The term atmospherics was first used in describing the design of retail environments, where it has been defined as “the conscious designing of space to create certain effects in buyers” [10]. The idea behind the atmospherics is that the environment has the ability to © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 103–108, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_16

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influence behavior of people which will then influence people in distinctive and anticipated ways through design options. Atmospherics is now broadly recognized as an important component of quality experience in different leisure settings and the expression is now commonly used by marketers as a way to explain the overall design and atmosphere of a leisure, retail or service environment [2], it is concluded that atmospheric factors such as colour schemes, layout, lighting and signage are important factors to create the overall perception of an exhibition environment as it characterizes the visitor’s experience from a marketing perspective. 1.1

The Influence of Museum’s Brand Image and Satisfaction on Visitors’ Loyalty

Exhibitions are considered effective branding tools as every exhibition has its own theme and its narration that specifically reflect a museum’s brand [17]. The word of mouth is an important support as the positive messages of friends and family members’ are reliable sources, which show visitors’ honest impressions [16]. Visitors’ loyalty is also related to repeated experiences as these imply a psychological commitment of preference [6]. It was expressed by [15] that visitor’s satisfaction has a positive impact on loyalty. While, it was concluded by [19] that satisfaction is a fundamental element that leads to loyalty. Yet still, other studies have demonstrated that other factors also have a major effect on loyalty such as visitor experience quality or other experiences dimensions and destination image [4, 15]. Customer loyalty’s bond becomes stronger when these organizations show their commitment to their customers across marketing strategies, by firstly gathering information of their customers’ needs and preferences [5]. Loyalty has been related to different aspects which includes attitudinal, behavioral or combined intentions [3]. Attitudinal loyalty indicates that visitors recommend the visit or revisit the place [3]. While, the behavioral loyalty is defined by visitors’ intentions of revisiting the exhibition and repeating the experience [18]. Composite loyalty is the combination of attitudinal and behavioural loyalty [14]. 1.2

The Link Between Satisfaction and Loyalty

In order to assess the affective and cognitive elements of people’s experiences in spaces, satisfaction should be measured [18], compared against the expectations concerning the visit [1]. Accordingly, visitors will then start to make a reference framework so that they can generate comparative judgments [4]. Therefore, it is a concern that has to be considered for long-term business success [8]. Previous studies have indicated an adequate level in the relationship between satisfaction and loyalty throughout encouraging revisit intentions and recommendations to others [4, 6]. It has been discussed that visitors are more likely to be fascinated by major attractions in the first time and tend to spend more time, while repeated visitors tend to visit fewer places and spend more time at each attraction [13].

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Impact of Lighting Design on Brand Image

It is shown by history that companies benefit from architectural design and symbols to be able to communicate their brand identity [12]. Service businesses needs to adopt consistent design strategies to assist in forming a uniform image to the consumer to have a well-defined brand identity. Although design parameters as furniture, colour and material have been recognized more widely in the 1960s within visual guidelines, lighting design is considered relatively new [11]. To market a brand, it is considered as “a name, term, sign, symbol or design, or a combination of them, intended to identify the goods or services of one business that offer a service to differentiate them from those of competitors” according to American Marketing Association [10]. The museum’s main aim is to communicate a brand strategy of the museum brand image in the mind of the visitor as a receiver in what is called the visual identity of a brand, in addition to the actual personality of a brand there are long known characters when it comes to conveying a specific visitor’s experience [9].

2 Research Methodology Quantitative numeric data was collected using surveys through the use of Virtual Reality. The aim of the quantitative phase was to find out any statistical relationship between museum’s brand image and visitors’ willing to revisit, and recommend the museum to others and the existing lighting settings through different generated lighting scenes. To obtain an evaluation of four different light settings and two exhibition views, the experiment participants were asked to write their opinion regarding light and brand aspects, using Likert scale to quantify this stimulus and subjective reactions The lighting was evaluated via the following five factors Uniform/Differentiated, Bright/Dark, Warm/Cool, Diffused/Contrast, evenly lit/Targeted and Colourful/Neutral. A virtual model of an exhibition hall, similar in dimensions to the actual hall in the Birmingham Museum in UK, was designed and modelled. In this study, to evaluate the brand image created by the museum, five-level Likert scale on used tendency to revisit, tendency to recommend to others and how visitors find the image of the exhibition through lighting. Since Likert scale has been widely used for experiments, and numerous studies exist, which discuss its reliability and validity. Therefore, the Likert five-point scale (1–5) in the semantic differential method will be used to evaluate the computer-generated scenes of the simulated exhibition with different colour and lighting conditions for each question, which quantify the visual scene and subjective reactions with either ‘Strongly disagree’ and ‘Strongly agree’ at the different ends of the scale axis.

3 Procedures of the Experiment To obtain an evaluation of four different light settings and four exhibition views, the experiment participants were asked to write their opinion regarding light and brand issues. A virtual 3D model of an exhibition hall, similar in dimensions to the actual hall

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in the Birmingham museum, was designed and modelled. There are some key variables to be examined in this study included colour hues, lighting arrangements/distribution (general lighting and accent lighting) and correlated colour temperatures (daylight and warm white). As those are the key variables present in leading museums exhibition halls based on a thorough review and analysis of architecture and exhibition design literature. The generated lighting scenes were based on visual perception theories and qualitative lighting design guidelines. Therefore, four scenes will be generated for each exhibition view. The existing scene (Birmingham Museum in UK) which is the first scene is downwards (DL) and general lighting. Second simulated generated scene is accent lighting (AL) and wall washers (WW). Third scene is the black box design and the fourth scene used accent lighting and coloured projection (AP). The four scenes of the exhibition hall in 360 form in shown in Table 1. Table 1. Four simulated scenes of the main hall at the Birmingham Museum in UK.

Scene 1

Scene 2

Scene 3

Scene 4

4 Data Analysis and Results Spearman correlation was used to check the research hypothesis which stated that the more the lighting characteristics of the exhibition spaces are diverse and exciting, the better the exhibition space is perceived, the longer visitors will stay and be willing to return thus contributing positively to the museum’s brand image. The test will show whether there is a link between how visitors perceived the atmosphere in terms of different lighting settings and how they reacted in contributing to the museum brand image. The results show the correlation, significance and number of observations. In order to determine the statistical significance, the standard alpha level of 0.05 was used. The correlation table showed significant relationship between different types of lighting and branding parameters, there is a positive relationship between Bright/Dark, evenly lit/Targeted and Colorful/Neutral and the willing of people to revisit the exhibition because of the lighting conditions, rho = 0.275, n = 160, p < 0.000, rho = 0.174, n = 160, p < 0.028, rho = 0.314, n = 160, p < 0.000 respectively. There is a strong positive relationship between recommending the visit of the exhibition hall to others and Diffused/Contrast Lighting, rho = 0.309, n = 160, p < 0.000 and also a positive

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strong relationship with Colourful/Neutral, rho = 0.352, n = 160, p < 0.000. All lighting parameters has a relationship with the willingness of people to recommend to other people to visit the exhibition hall for the preferred lighting settings except for warm/Cool as the relationship is not statistically significant. This proves the hypothesis that the more exciting the lighting characteristics of the exhibition, the longer visitors will stay and be willing to return thus contributing positively to the museum’s brand image.

5 Conclusion The results indicated that visitor’s satisfaction according to lighting has an impact on their loyalty and hence their willingness to revisit the museum and recommend it to others. According to [7] who stated that when visitors become loyal they tend to recommend it to others and hence affecting the museum brand image. Therefore, the objective of increasing visitors’ satisfaction will increase visitors’ loyalty thus improving their willingness to return and enhancing the brand image. Therefore, visitor’s lighting preferences that leads to visitors’ satisfaction should be taken into consideration when designing exhibition halls to create spaces that really work for people and enhance their willingness to return. One of the important contribution of this research is shedding light on museum’s brand image in relation to visitors’ lighting preferences and hence their satisfaction as it has a positive impact on visitors ‘loyalty. The other contribution that was considered is that loyalty itself has a direct relationship with two aspects that contribute to the museum brand image which are revisit and recommendation intentions. Yet still, there are some limitations, this research just took place in one museum which is the Birmingham museum therefore future research should extend the analysis on more museums in addition to analysing other atmospherics other than lighting and analyse its effect on the museum brand image.

References 1. Agyeiwaah, E., Adongo, R., Dimache, A., Wondirad, A.: Make a customer, not a sale: tourist satisfaction in Hong Kong. Tour. Manag. 57, 68–79 (2016) 2. Baker, J., Parasuraman, A., Grewal, D., Voss, G.B.: The influence of multiple store environment cues on perceived merchandise value and patronage intentions. J. Mark. 66(2), 120–141 (2002) 3. Bigné, E., Sánchez, I., Sánchez, J.: Tourism image, evaluation variables and after purchase behaviour: inter–relationship. Tour. Manag. 22, 607–616 (2001) 4. Campón-Cerro, A.M., Hernandez-Mogollón, J.M., Alves, H.: Sustainable improvement of competitiveness in rural tourism destinations: the quest for tourist loyalty in Spain. J. Destin. Mark. Manag. (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm 5. Chen, J., Gursoy, D.: An investigation of tourists’ destination loyalty and preferences. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag. 13(2), 79–85 (2001)

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6. Chi, C.G.Q., Qu, H.: Examining the structural relationships of destination image, tourist satisfaction and destination loyalty: an integrated approach. Tour. Manag. 29, 624–636 (2008) 7. Gursoy, D., Chen, J.S., Chi, C.G.: Theoretical examination of destination loyalty formation. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag. 26(5), 809–827 (2014) 8. Kim, K., Hallab, Z., Kim, J.N.: The moderating effect of travel experience in a destination on the relationship between the destination image and the intention to revisit. J. Hosp. Mark. Manag. 21, 486–505 (2012) 9. Kirby, A., Kent, A.: Architecture as brand: store design and brand identity. J. Prod. Brand. Manag. 19, 432–439 (2010) 10. Kotler, P.: Marketing Management. Prentice Hall International, London (2000) 11. Meggs, P.: A History of Graphic Design. Allen Lane, London (1983) 12. Messedat, J.: Corporate architecture: Entwicklung, Konzepte, Strategien. Ludwigsburg: aved. (2005) 13. Oppermann, M.: Tourism destination loyalty. J. Travel. Res. 39, 78–84 (2000) 14. Petrick, J.F.: Are loyal visitors desired visitors? Tour. Manag. 25(4), 463–470 (2004) 15. Radder, L., Han, X.: An examination of the museum experience based on Pine and Gilmore’s experience economy realms. J. Appl. Bus. Res. 31(2), 455 (2015) 16. Simpson, P.M., Siguaw, J.A.: Destination word of mouth: the role of traveler type, residents, and identity salience. J. Travel. Res. 47(2), 167–182 (2008) 17. Wallace, M.A.: Museum Branding How to Create and Maintain Image, Loyalty, and Support. Altamira Press, Lanham (2006) 18. Yoon, Y., Uysal, M.S.: An examination of the effects of motivation and satisfaction on destination loyalty: a structural model. Tour. Manag. 26(1), 45–56 (2005) 19. Yuksel, A., Yuksel, F., Bilim, Y.: Destination attachment: Effects on customer satisfaction and cognitive, affective and conative loyalty. Tour. Manag. 31, 274–284 (2010)

Effects of Colors Toward Pleasant Impression on Sofa Furniture Through Electroencephalography (EEG) Phetnidda Ouankhamchan(&) and Tsutomu Fujinami Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, 1-1 Asahidai, Nomi, Ishikawa 923-1292, Japan [email protected]

Abstract. Color is an important element in product development marketing strategies. Understanding the relation of the pleasant impression and colors on a particular type of object is an essential contribution to product development design to meet customer needs. Emerging technologies to capture physiological - objective indicators have the potentials to deepen understanding of customer preferences. In this study, we investigated Kansei evaluation of pleasantness toward sofa with different color attributes through back-ear EEG measurement. In this pilot study, the result shows that the most pleasant color for the particular object could be from the list of an individual’s favorite colors with different degrees of positive evaluation. The early positive P100 ERP, N400 ERP, and LPP from the back - ear recording could be evoked through this Kansei evaluation of sofa colors with the potentials to become prominent features to identify the most pleasant sofa color among the group of individuals. Keywords: EEG
ERP components words
Sofa
Colors


Pleasantness impression
Kansei

1 Introduction Traditional marketing research has employed various questionnaire tools to interview customers for preferences. Although the survey approach through the questionnaire is simple with low cost, the evidence involving human opinion and expression is more subjective and contain bias [1]. This limitation could make it difficult to understand human’s implicit intention in the domain of customer preferences. Modern marketing research has attempted to access hidden information of customer perceptions and preferences through objective indicators such as reaction time responses, physiological indicators such as heart rate, brain activities, galvanic skin response [2]. Color is an important element in product design and marketing strategy. Color preference varies on individuals and depending on types of objects [3]. It will provide an insight that is beneficial to production design to know what activity is going inside the customers’ brains when they are feeling pleasant impression toward colors on a particular type of product.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 109–114, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_17

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We measure in this pilot study event-related potential (ERP) components recorded by a back-ear EEG headband along with Kansei evaluation concerning pleasantness of the sofa with different colors to find objective indicators of the customer-oriented product evaluation. We hypothesize that early event-related potential (ERP) components could be elicited from back ears near lateral temporal lopes during an evaluation of pleasant colors for a sofa item since the early modulation of ERP components in between 100 ms to 200 ms at the time-lock to onsets of affective visual and auditory have been found [4, 5]. Further, we observe pleasant colors for sofa to examine if pleasant sofa colors are related to favorite colors of individuals.

2 Method 2.1

Participants

Twelve postgraduate students with some intention for purchasing furniture in future participated in this experiment with standard procedures of data collection. Participants included five females and seven males with age mean at 29.6 years.

Fig. 1. (A) A participant is given 7000 ms as at maximum to evaluate after each sofa stimuli presented. Responding to a 5-Likert-scale with buttons as (B).

2.2

Stimuli

The stimuli consist of 48 trials from four sets of the stimulus. Each set is for each sofa type with 12 colors. The four sofa types are similar in size of three seats with L-shape. We modified colors regardless of a color degree in color hue wheel and color stimulation using Adobe photoshop to generate standard colors for the four sofa types in purple, blue, cyan, green, olive, grey, yellow, ivory, orange, brown, red, pink. Each stimulus was under standard web resolution with 964  685 pixels (width  height). 2.3

Procedure

The experiment included two main sessions. (1) The survey questionnaires of demographic information and purchase behaviors were conducted. Then, the participants evaluated their favorite colors in general. A participant evaluated how much he likes

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each color using five-point Likert scales. Twelve colors that were utilized in this survey session are the same colors as used for the stimuli employed in the EEG experiment. (2) The EEG experimental session. A participant sat comfortably in front of the 27-in. screen display of window system for operation and received a brief description of the experimental procedure and stimuli. A single sofa image was randomly presented as shown in Fig. 1. (A). The participants followed the instruction to evaluate each trial by thinking how much they feel “pleasant” to the sofa with the given color before pressing the button corresponding to the evaluation degree as shown in Fig. 1. (B). The MUSE EEG headband was placed on a participant’s head to record the neural brain activities during the whole session of the EEG experiment.

3 Results 3.1

Kansei Subjective Responses

Table 1 shows that the cyan color derived from the combination of a blue and a green hue was voted for favorite color in general by 11 participants (92% of participants) and 8% of the participants evaluate the cyan as their neutral favorite color. Nearly 67% of participants vote red, ivory and yellow as their favorite colors. When considering with the sofa, grey becomes the most pleasant sofa color, following by cyan and orange for the second raking of pleasant sofa colors as shown in Table 1. Table 1. The percentage by the number of individuals who evaluate Kansei words: “favorite” and “pleasant” by the Likert scales. The (*) indicates the first ranking of evaluation for each Kansei word evaluation. Colors Favorite colors general) High Neutral Grey 25% 58% Ivory 67% 8% Brown 33% 25% Purple 33% 50% Blue 58% 33% Cyan 92%* 8% Green 58% 25% Olive 42% 25% Yellow 67% 0% Orange 50% 33% Red 67% 25% Pink 42% 25%

(in Low 17% 25% 42% 17% 8% 0% 17% 33% 33% 17% 8% 33%

Pleasant colors sofa High Neutral 50%* 25% 8% 83% 25% 50% 25% 17% 8% 75% 33% 42% 17% 33% 25% 33% 8% 50% 33% 50% 0% 83% 17% 67%

for Low 25% 8% 25% 58% 17% 25% 50% 42% 42% 17% 17% 17%

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Event-Related Potential Components During the Kansei Evaluation

In Fig. 2, the two figures at the top show average ERPs from TP9 placed on a left-back ear and TP10 on a right-back ear during the Kansei evaluation. The middle and the bottom show the average ERPs after sofa colors that are voted for neutral pleasantness and low pleasantness, respectively. Figure 2 also show that there are three ERP components: (1) A positive early ERP component at 100 ms from the time-lock on stimuli, (2) an early N400 component with a negative waveform between 250 ms to 500 ms, (3) a late positive potential (LPP) components evoked between 500 ms to 900 ms.

Fig. 2. The visualization of the average ERPs from the participant A5 regarding the pleasant degrees. The left figures show the average ERPs from TP9, and the right show the average ERPs of TP10 placed behind the ears during EEG recording.

According to the grand average of ERP components of two channels from all participants in Fig. 3, P100 amplitudes modulate higher than those of LPP and N400 components after each stimulus for the pleasantness evaluation. The highest average

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amplitude of LPP happens with a grey color which is rated as the most pleasant sofa color. The highest amplitude of N400 occurs at cyan which is the most favorite color by individuals, but not selected as the most pleasantness color for sofa furniture.

Fig. 3. The grand average of amplitudes of ERPs across 12 colors.

4 Discussion The finding of sofa color evaluation is partly supported by the ecological valence theory related to human’s color preference that which color a person likes varies across objects [3]. This pilot study shows that the most pleasant sofa colors are not necessary to be the same as the most favorite colors as reported by individuals. However, an extremely pleasant sofa color of each individual is mostly the one among colors that are reported as neutral favorite colors with the middle scales in the five - Likert scales, in which the interpretation of neutral refers to “sometimes this color is fine for me”. Moreover, a pleasant sofa color may be considered with other factors such as complements to the room decoration, and other psychological aspects that need to be further investigated when the sample evidence shows that red is highly voted by individuals, but no one is happy to have a red sofa. This initial study observes neural activities through the ERP components recording by a back-ear EEG headband during the pleasant evaluation of sofa colors. The visualization during this Kansei evaluation shows an early ERP component with positive waveform at 100 ms after the stimuli. The grand average of P100 amplitudes on each sofa color evaluation occurs similarly, thus, this component seems not to be sensitive to differentiate the different degrees of pleasantness regarding different colors voted by a group of individuals. Moreover, the N200 components seem to be evoked in recognition - related tasks of affective stimuli such as emotional faces and pictures, but not during this pleasant evaluation although previous works claimed that the affectionrelated stimuli can elicit N200 components [4–6]. Further than expectation, N400 and LPP - ERP components are elicited during this pleasant product evaluation. The N400 is found in this study, which is reported to be associated with events related to perceptual and information integration during semantic processing [7]. We found the grand average of the largest N400 on the color that is voted as the most favorite color but not selected as the most pleasant sofa color.

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The controversy may have evoked a large N400, the controversy that is found in between the degree evaluation of pleasantness on a particular object and intuitively favorite emotion. A large LPP component is elicited from either negative or positive emotional intensity [8, 9]. However, it is unclear to identify those with the neutral pleasantness and those with negative pleasantness based on the study of Kansei evaluation while the LPP component relatively reflects the evaluation result of a sofa color with the highest pleasantness. This pilot study shows an evidence that pleasant colors for a particular object could match one of the favorite colors with different degrees of evaluation. The back-ear EEG headband shows the potential to promote practical marketing researches since it is easy to wear. The results show that P100, N400, and LPP components are associated with features detected through Kansei evaluation concerning pleasantness with colors for a particular object. The study, however, investigated only in the group level. Our future work is to continue with more data and mathematic models to extract prominent ERP features as objective indicators to identify different degrees of customer-oriented evaluation at global and individual levels more effectively.

References 1. Bertrand, M., Mullainathan, S.: Do people mean what they say? Implications for subjective survey data. Am. Econ. Rev. 91, 67–72 (2001) 2. Cartocci, G., et al.: Electroencephalographic, heart rate, and galvanic skin response assessment for an advertising perception study: application to antismoking public service announcements. J. Vis. Exp. 2017, 1–9 (2017) 3. Palmer, S.E., Schloss, K.B.: An ecological valence theory of human color preference. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 107, 8877–8882 (2010) 4. Van Strien, J.W., Langeslag, S.J.E., Strekalova, N.J., Gootjes, L., Franken, I.H.A.: Valence interacts with the early ERP old/new effect and arousal with the sustained ERP old/new effect for affective pictures. Brain Res. 1251, 223–235 (2009) 5. Iwaki, T.: Application of the emotional S1-S2 paradigm for evaluating kansei information using brain potentials. In: Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Biometrics and Kansei Engineering, ICBAKE 2011, pp. 155–160 (2011) 6. Schweinberger, S.R., Pickering, E.C., Jentzsch, I., Burton, A.M., Kaufmann, J.M.: Eventrelated brain potential evidence for a response of inferior temporal cortex to familiar face repetitions. Cogn. Brain Res. 14, 398–409 (2002) 7. Dozolme, D., Brunet-Gouet, E., Passerieux, C. Amorim, M.-A.: Neuroelectric correlates of pragmatic emotional incongruence processing: empathy matters. PLoS ONE 10 (2015) 8. Cuthbert, B.N., Schupp, H.T., Bradley, M.M., Birbaumer, N., Lang, P.J.: Brain potentials in affective picture processing: covariation with autonomic arousal and affective report. Biol. Psychol. 52, 95–111 (2000) 9. Brown, S.B.R.E., van Steenbergen, H., Band, G.P.H., de Rover, M., Nieuwenhuis, S.: Functional significance of the emotion-related late positive potential. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 6, 1–12 (2012)

HelaBeat: An Extensible Audio Streaming Mobile Application Dushani Perera(&), Maneesha Rajaratne, and Shiromi Arunathilake University of Colombo School of Computing, Colombo, Sri Lanka {2015cs102.stu,2015cs107.stu,sda}@ucsc.cmb.ac.lk

Abstract. With the increasing demand for applications supporting mobility, well-structured and competent mobile applications are a growing need. The music industry is one of the prominent sectors which is expanding its services to mobile platforms. This paper presents a novel design of a Mobile Music Streaming Application which provides music streaming services to users efficiently and effectively. Keywords: Human-computer interaction
Music recommender system
Usercentered design
Usability and user experience
User customization
Audio streaming
Machine learning

1 Introduction Music streaming has offered the music industry and its artists a method for sharing and circulating music to users all over the world [1]. An efficient streaming application does not solely depend on the different features and components it has, as the efficiency and effectiveness of these components also play a major role. This paper presents a detailed description of the music streaming application named ‘HelaBeat’ which is the outcome of this research project. This application is currently available on the Google Play Store. This application focuses on providing efficient search suggestions, suitable recommendations and quick streaming. In order to achieve these features, research on each of the areas was carried out. Methods and techniques identified from this research were analyzed to choose the best way of implementing the new application. With this development based on research and a comprehensive literature review, ‘HelaBeat’ Android application is able to serve the community with convenient access to music and the artists with a platform to reach the public efficiently.

2 Overview of the Mobile Application The ‘HelaBeat’ Android application has four main components: A Music Streaming Component, An Autosuggest and Auto-completion Search Suggestions Component, User Preference-based Recommendations, and User Analytics. The ‘Music Streaming Component’ develops a platform to play music over the internet for a compelling and stable experience. This component handles streaming of music and at the same time, it blocks unauthorized interceptions to the music stream. It keeps buffered data to provide © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 115–121, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_18

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a better experience to the user. Keeping cached data is useful in this component since the need for searching for content again is then eliminated. The ‘Autosuggest & Autocomplete suggestions Component’ focus on developing functionality to provide efficient as-you-type suggestions to speed up human-computer interactions. Users will get suggestions for their search query in the areas that are preferred by them. The main advantage of this component is that the suggestions users get are tailored for them. Hence users would not consider moving to another application. The ‘Recommendations Component’ provides personalized recommendations to users. This is the second major research component of the project. This focuses on providing relevant recommendations to users. It involves research to identify and understand users’ preferences. These preferences lead to the generation of results which keep the user intrigued and satisfied. Hybrid method was selected as the most suitable method. The ‘User Analytics Component’ analyses song streaming and user preferences. This generates analytics of the songs in the system. It also looks into providing a better view of what type of work the users expect to see from the artist.

3 Case Study on Similar Systems 3.1

Spotify

Spotify was first launched in October 2008 in Europe. Music can be browsed utilizing a search device by track name, artist, album etc. Users don’t yet have the feature to explore and suggest users towards new music. Users may make a collection of most loved tracks committed to a specific topic, time, type, artist etc. Spotify gives search recommendations to users through auto-suggest and auto-complete alternatives [6]. 3.2

Apple Music

Apple Music has become one of the biggest competitors to Spotify over the last year. Apple Music connects users with the artists they love [1]. Apple Music also automatically compares every track in a user’s music collection to Apple’s music library in order to understand what the user wants to hear. Apple Music also provides autosuggestions. 3.3

Pandora

Pandora is a USA based audio content streaming provider. Each user receives a personalized stream of songs. This is a complex labelling process with precisely defined methodology.

4 Chosen Development Methodology The Software Development Life Cycle used for the project is the Feature Driven Development (FDD) approach. The ‘HelaBeat’ app includes several novel research components as well as a large number of development features. Thus, continuous

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development, integration and testing should be done. This approach was chosen over other methods as FDD mixes best practices that are all driven by importance. It is an iterative and incremental agile methodology with the objective of delivering software quickly and efficiently. This project includes multiple features upon which the project would be built incrementally until its completion.

5 Components of the System 5.1

Music Streaming Component

This component includes both streaming and streaming analytics functionality. The main focus of this component is preserving the quality of the audio file as practically as possible within a data stream arriving over a network connection. Android APK has its own Media Player API which can be used to control the playback of audio files and streams. This is used to create a music player alongside the streaming application where the user can get a good streaming experience. The streaming behavior (Fig. 2) is developed according to the best practices mentioned in the Android developer guide for developing a media application. Given the options of selecting between using Android inbuilt media player class or the third-party library Exoplayer [9, 10], Exoplayer was selected to build the customized streaming component on top of the Android APK. The request for streaming a song will go through the ‘Endpoint 1’ shown in Fig. 1. Thereafter, the streaming service in the backend opens a web socket to stream the particular song from Amazon Simple Storage Service (S3). Android media service will then respond to the data stream and will start playing the song. 5.2

Auto Complete Suggestion

Autocomplete suggestions will be provided in the system by combining users’ search preferences and search history [16]. Existing approaches to query auto-completion can be classified into two broad categories: heuristic models and learning-based models [17, 18]. Heuristic approaches seek to compute a score directly by considering different sources for each possible query completion that indicates how likely it is that this query would be issued [19, 20]. In contrast, learning-based approaches, are based on learning algorithms and aims to extract dozens of reasonable features to capture the characteristics of each query completion. This learns the behavior of each user and query. These two approaches can be split into two groups: time-sensitive and user-based [16]. Time may affect a query’s popularity, hence time-related aspects have been studied extensively for auto-completion. The user-centered approach is mainly focused on a user’s previous search history and a user’s profile information, such as age and gender, respectively [21].

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Fig. 1. High-level architecture

5.3

Recommendation Engine

The system is developed in two versions: beta and alpha. The app is released to the Google Play Store and users’ listening behavior is analyzed and used to create and improve the recommendation system. Similar to the first iteration where user profiles were built using age, profession, and preferred music type, additional preference data will be collected from a sample community of users and the initial recommendation model is modified according to that data. When developing the recommendation engine, three main components are addressed: Dynamic playlist generation, Next track recommendation and Automatic playlist continuation. Dynamic Playlist Generation. Users typically prefer certain categories of media items at different times & occasions. Recommending playlists for users is an efficient method to deal with efficiency [2, 3, 5]. By looking at the results of approaches that different researchers have taken and also by considering the limitations of the studied approaches [14, 15], Neighborhood based methods and Matrix factorization techniques with content-based approach (metadata) were selected to recommend songs and to generate playlists for users. The way of development is using KNN (K-NearestNeighbors) approaches in machine learning with similarities between playlists most likely to provide sufficient accuracy in the recommendation [11, 12]. Next Track Recommendation. Next-track music recommendation is a specific form of music recommendation that relies mainly on the user’s recently played tracks to create a list of tracks to be played next [8, 11]. Session-based approaches are a good way to predict the user’s immediate next actions [4]. Computationally and conceptually

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simple methods often lead to predictions [7] that are similar and accurate better than deep learning-based models. Session-based KNN (K-Nearest-Neighbors) is selected to build the Next-track recommendation components. Automatic Playlist Continuation. Automatic Playlist Continuation is a more challenging and the newest research area in the Music streaming industry. Automatic playlist continuation shares characteristics of session-based recommendation scenarios.

Fig. 2. Overview of the Android streaming component

5.4

User Analytics

User analytics is the most important metric of the system. The analysis is done based on user profiles. Some personal data (name, age, gender, profession) and general user preferences about artists and music styles are collected at the signup for this purpose. Analytics will be used in future for song predictions (in search auto-suggestion) and dynamic playlist creations (recommendation). There after the users listening history is collected for further analysis. All user-related data (user profile data) is stored in a Firebase document database. This gives fast access and querying of user data. This data will provide a platform for artists to understand how their music is consumed and help in future productions.

6 Future Work The app ‘HelaBeat’ Android application is currently available on Google Play Store. This application has the ability to expand into new horizons. One such form of novelty and capability which may be integrated to the application is the fingerprinting and identification of music items. This can provide the ability to generate recommendations based on music characteristics such as melody, harmony, rhythm, timbre and form.

7 Conclusion The ‘HelaBeat’ Music Streaming application utilizes a novel approach in providing user preference-based recommendations and search suggestions. Users’ data are continuously collected from explicit and implicit feedback methodologies [13]. This data is

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used to gain knowledge of habits, emotional state, genera goals, age, profession of the users which leads to providing context-aware recommendations and suggestions to searches. Autosuggestions and recommendations are provided based on these data which makes them tailored to each user. ‘HelaBeat’ uses a hybrid approach of these methods which makes efficient suggestions and effective recommendations and allows artists to improve their future productions using user analytics.

References 1. Coffey, A.: The impact that music streaming services such as Spotify, Tidal and Apple Music have had on consumers, artists and the music industry itself (2016) 2. Nielsen Music, U.S. Music 360: 2018 Report Highlights (2018) 3. Bang, S.-W., Jung, H.-W., Kim, J., Lee, J.-H.: An auto playlist generation system with one seed song. Int. J. Fuzzy Log. Intell. Syst. 10, 19–24 (2010) 4. Quadrana, M., Cremonesi, P., Jannach, D.: Sequence-aware recommender systems. ACM Comput. Surv. 51 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1145/3190616 5. Bonnin, G., Jannach, D.: A comparison of playlist generation strategies for music recommendation and a new baseline scheme, pp. 16–23 (2018) 6. Swanson, K.: SPEA Undergraduate Honors Thesis A Case Study on Spotify Exploring Perceptions, pp. 1–38 (2013) 7. Ludewig, M., Jannach, D.: Evaluation of session-based recommendation algorithms. User Model. User Adapt. Interact. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11257-018-9209-6 8. Ludewig, M., Kamehkhosh, I., Landia, N., Jannach, D.: Effective nearest-neighbor music recommendations, pp. 1–6 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1145/3267471.3267474 9. Media app architecture overview: Android Developers. https://developer.android.com/guide/ topics/media-apps/media-apps-overview 10. ExoPlayer: Google Developers. ExoPlayer. Advances in Next-Track Music Recommendation (2017). https://exoplayer.dev/ 11. Su, X., Khoshgoftaar, T.M.: A survey of collaborative filtering techniques. Adv. Artif. Intell. 2009, 421425 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1155/2009/421425 12. O’Bryant, J.: A survey of music recommendation and possible improvements (2017) 13. Hariri, N., Mobasher, B., Burke, R.: Context-aware music recommendation based on latent topic sequential patterns. https://doi.org/10.1145/2365952.2365979.2014 14. Celma, Ò.: Music recommendation. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-13287-2_3.2010 15. Shokouhi, M., Radinsky, K.: Time-sensitive query auto-completion. In: Proceedings of the 35th International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval, SIGIR 2012, pp. 601–610. ACM, New York (2012) 16. Cai, F., Liang, S., de Rijke, M.: Time-sensitive personalized query auto-completion. In: Proceedings of the 23rd ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management, CIKM 2014, pp. 1599–1608. ACM, New York (2014) 17. Whiting, S., Jose, J.M.: Recent and robust query auto-completion. In: Proceedings of the 23rd International World Wide Web Conference, WWW 2014, pp. 971–982. ACM, New York (2014) 18. Bickel, S., Haider, P., Scheffer, T.: Learning to complete sentences. In: Proceedings of the 16th European Conference on Machine Learning, ECML 2005, pp. 497–504. Springer, Heidelberg (2005)

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19. Hofmann, K., Mitra, B., Radlinski, F., Shokouhi, M.: An eyetracking study of user interactions with query auto completion. In: Proceedings of the 23rd ACM Conference on Information and Knowledge Management, CIKM 2014, pp. 549–558. ACM, New York (2014) 20. Li, L., Deng, H., Dong, A., Chang, Y., Zha, H., Baeza-Yates, R.: Analyzing user’s sequential behavior in query auto-completion via Markov processes. In: Proceedings of the 38th International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval, SIGIR 2015, pp. 123–132. ACM, New York (2015) 21. Mitra, B.: Exploring session context using distributed representations of queries and reformulations. In: Proceedings of the 38th International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval, SIGIR 2015, pp. 3–12. ACM, New York (2015)

BraVo: A Physiological Indication System for Female College Students to Manage Depression Wei Liu1, Jinge Huang1(&), Wenjie Pan1, Yancong Zhu1, Mengfan Li2, and Han Xu3 1

Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, People’s Republic of China {wei.liu,jinge.huang,wenjie.pan, yancong.zhu}@bnu.edu.cn 2 BAIC Group, Beijing 101300, People’s Republic of China [email protected] 3 ICBC Bank, Beijing 100000, People’s Republic of China [email protected]

Abstract. Bravo is a corset-type wearable device for female college students with depression to detect physiological indicators, to monitor depression levels, and to provide expert advice, e.g., professional counselling service. The system consists of two main components. One is a series of sensors that record the user’s physiological indicators, which measure and evaluate depression levels comprehensively. The other one is a compatible mobile application that allows the user to query physiological conditions and to receive corresponding expert advice. The design and implementation fit into privacy needs, offer supporting data to healthcare providers. The goal is to provide the female college students with a real-time mental health monitoring channel to predict and prevent depression and to establish an active social support community. Keywords: Depression
Use scenarios design
Sensors
User eXperience


Wearable technology
Interaction

1 Introduction Depression is a common mental illness characterized by depression, loss of interest, loss of concentration, guilt or loss of self-worth, accompanied by problems such as insomnia or appetite disorders [9]. Long-term moderate or severe depression can lead to serious illness and even suicide. In recent years, the incidence of depression has been increasing year by year. According to the data released by the World Health Organization (WHO), the total number of people of all ages suffering from depression will reach three hundred and fifty million [8]. Fu et al. [5] revealed that about eighty percent of the people who commit suicide each year are depressed. According to recent statistics [9] in China, about forty million people suffer from depression, and more than seventy percent of them fail to find and receive treatment in time, including many college students. Specifically, depression has become the second leading cause of death among college students. A questionnaire survey of one thousand two hundred and © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 122–127, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_19

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seventy-two college students showed that three hundred and nighty eight students were depressed, with a depression rate of thirty-three-point six percent. In this research, female college students with mild depression are studied and analyzed, and a wearable device called BraVo that embedded into women’s bras is designed. Its control system is designed based on the Intel CurieNeuron Kit. The neuromorphic memory technology is used to realize tasks, like real-time monitoring, classification, and autonomous learning. It records the abnormal situation in real time and pays close attention to the health status of female patients with depression.

2 Related Work In addition to traditional psychological interventions, scientists use technology to deal with depression. Chow et al. [3] proposed an integrated framework of DEMONS that combines passive and active data sources using a wearable sensor and a smartphone application. It helps college student understand temporal relations between selfreported affect and physiological variables (e.g., heart rate variability) linked to depressive symptoms. Dickerson et al. [4] also conducted system research at the same time. A real-time depression monitoring system was created to potentially detect early signs of a depression episode and track progress of managing depressive illness for families. Abouelenien et al. [1] analyzed different features automatically extracted from people’s thermal and physiological modalities and developed a system that integrates both thermal and physiological features to improve stress detection rates. Considering the characteristics of depression, Siegmund et al. [7] designed and developed a wearable device called Talis which uses emotion recognition as an interface between patient and machine by identifying the positive and negative phases of the patient that support psychotherapeutic treatment through speech recognition and for direct communication and post-evaluation. In addition, recent studies show that reasonable use of mood-adjusting applications in mobile phones by depressed patients alleviate depression symptoms to a certain extent. Brandt et al. [2] found that using a nurse-supported smartphone app to reduce depressive symptoms among people with chronic diseases is possible and the most-perceived benefits by the patients. The Moment [6] is a mobile application to monitor emotional up-and-downs for people with depression or bipolar disorder. It reveals their emotional patterns, and eventually finds a peaceful way to deal with their emotions. The studies above focus on the detection and treatment of depression in various aspects, but do not focus on specific groups of people. The prototypes failed to utilize emerging wearable and mobile technologies, and the privacy of depression patients is not well protected with current designs. To improve the fit, our research focuses on female college students with mild depression, and on implementing interventions and treatments through combination of physical/tangible and digital interfaces.

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3 Settings The Co-making the Future China-US Young Maker Competition [10] is an activity supporting the China-US high-level consultation on people-to-people social and cultural exchange. In the past spring semester, the research team mentored and worked with fifty student makers who worked in teams of five on design briefs concerning health and fitness, community development, education, energy, and transportation by combining innovative design and cutting-edge technologies. BraVo was one of the ten experiential prototypes. It won the first prize of China-US Maker Beijing Division and has been patented as a new utility model by the State Intellectual Property office of China (ZL201721457774.2).

4 Empathy of Users Female college students are the target user group. A combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods was adopted in this study. Two hundred female college students at Beijing Normal University were invited to fill in an SDS depression selfassessment questionnaire [9]. The subjects are randomly selected according to grade and different study disciplines. Followingly, three focus group discussions were organized. Seven female college students were invited to participate in each discussion, which lasted one hundred to one hundred and twenty minutes. Physiological multichannel recorders were applied to test and record physiological parameters. According to the results of the previous questionnaire, targeted questions were raised, such as family, marriage, health, professional satisfaction, and academic performance. Physiological polysomnography was applied to test and record physiological parameters. Apart from current smart medical monitoring wearable devices, new forms were demanded to protect privacy issues and to reduce internal stress during usage. They were unwilling to wear the current devices, such as bracelets, any time because of exposure to the public view. They were afraid of exposing privacy would refuse to use these devices. On the other hand, bracelets sometimes would cause self-suggestion effects for users with potential mental illness, make them believe they have a mental illness, thus aggravating their condition development of the illness. The following insights were revealed: 1) Mild depression is commonly experienced among female college students. They require real-time psychological state and seek for help, i.e., counselling. 2) Psychological issues are a sensitive topic among female college students because they involve personal privacy. They are reluctant to admit and refuse to seek medical treatment. Therefore, it is crucially important to protect privacy while solving psychological problems.

5 Use Scenario Figure 1 shows Xiaomei, a senior female student, is now preparing for the national postgraduate entrance examination. She is under high pressure of study. Facing concerns of her parents and friends, Xiaomei always shows her optimism. In fact, she

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could not sleep well every night, fearing that she would fail her examination. After a while, Xiaomei seems not in a good state, and her study efficiency decreases. Xiaomi goes back to her hometown to see her mother, who is worried about her mental state. The mother buys BraVo and presents it. Xiaomei returns to school on Monday but continues to have insomnia at night. One morning, Xiaomi feels physical pressure. Its mobile application reminds her depression index has risen recently, suggesting her to adjust herself through exercise. Xiaomei follows BraVo’s advice and starts running for a while every night. After a few days, her insomnia eases, her sleep quality improves, and her study efficiency improves as well. The BraVo application reminds her recent physical and emotional changes are better and sends her words of encouragement.

Fig. 1. Xiaomei’s user journey map without and with BraVo.

6 Interaction Design BraVo adopts the form of a lady’s corset, which is as natural as the second skin of a woman. It is invisible and a natural form to protect their privacy. The form provides a more natural and relaxed product experience. Its sensor measures depression-related physiological indicators to comprehensively evaluate the user’s depression level. Meanwhile, combined with feedback from its mobile application, it helps the user understand situations and offers suggestions. The product takes the prevention of depression as the leading function to reduce the occurrence of mental illness from the root. The prevention of this product can be divided into 3 categories: 1) the prevention of depression in patients with potential depression, 2) the prevention of aggravation in the treatment of depression, 3) the prevention of recurrence after the treatment of depression. When BraVo detects her potential depression risk, it gives pressure feedback on the corset to alert her to pay attention to her mental health. It pushes the detected physiological index information for review. The user interface provides users with corresponding advice and consulting services according to depression levels.

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When wearing, the user launches the mobile application to create an account and fills in relevant personal information during the initial use to create a personal profile. The user interface is divided into four features: status, data, suggestions, and my. By clicking the status screen, she queries the current status of various physiological indicators. On the data interface, she views recent data analysis of various physiological indicators to understand her recent situations when BraVo detects her potential depression risks. At the time, she is provided with corresponding suggestions and consulting services in a timely manner on the suggestions interface. The my interface shows energy consumption and provides a channel for finding psychological counselling services. The interaction logic: 1) using sensors to collect physiological indicators, 2) evaluating depression levels through back-end algorithms, 3) giving feedback to users through the product and mobile application based on depression levels.

7 Implementation The BraVo prototype embeds sensor measurement elements in the inner layer of the corset. The core motherboard of the sensor is hidden in the inner layer. The physiological indicator measurement sensor is arranged to the surface layer adhered to the skin to facilitate accurate data collection. There are three types of sensors: 1) heart rate variability index is measured and calculated by the heart rate detection sensor, 2) sleep index is measured by the heart rate detection sensor combined with vector sensor, 3) skin electrical index and skin temperature difference index are calculated by skin sensor measurement. The user fills in her weight information into the mobile application to record the weight change index. Ten female college students across greater Beijing area tried out the BraVo prototype in a controlled lab setting and provided positive comments. The sensors were able to detect accurate data and the mobile user interface was both novel and up to date.

8 Conclusion and Perspectives The research team found that the female population has a higher prevalence of depression, and college students are one of the top incidence groups. In a qualitative study, the SDS evaluation form were collected to understand their current depression situations and found that privacy was an essential issue to be taken care of. Based on these findings, the team designed and preliminarily implemented BraVo, a natural wearable device that both assist the target users to record physiological indicators, to manage depression levels, to receive psychological support, and to protect privacy. In terms of product form, more use scenarios and product adaptability will be considered, such as sleeping experience. New materials will ensure pleasant user experience (i.e., comfort) and accurate detection of physiological data. Although BraVo has been patented and potential investors are found, mass production and a mature business model are not yet available. After putting into the market, the research team will keep improving the initial algorithm by collecting a large amount of usage data to achieve a higher accuracy rate. The team will try to expand target user groups,

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learn new sensor integration technologies, and explore new product design possibilities, e.g., BraVo 2.0 for preventing lactation or postpartum depression, or a unique design for male users. Medical institutions are main stakeholders of BraVo, as it is easy-to-use and user-friendly. These institutions can sell BraVo as a device to exam pre-depression, real-time monitoring, or an auxiliary tool to treat depression. Potential non-profit investors (i.e., universities and high schools) foresee BraVo as a brand for organizing community-based activities to draw attention to women’s depression. Potential commercial investors (i.e., clothing firms) foresee BraVo as a brand series for shaping women’s health and improving awareness through embedding emerging science and technology. As one of BraVo’s key features recommends online and offline psychological counselling services, the team plans to establish a win-win collaborative business model with psychological counselling centers in greater Beijing area by assigning a group of consultants to provide such services within one year. Acknowledgments. This research is supported by the Faculty of Psychology at Beijing Normal University and the Fulbright Research Scholar Grant (ID: PS00284539).

References 1. Abouelenien, M., Burzo, M., Mihalcea, R.: Human acute stress detection via integration of physiological signals and thermal imaging. In: Proceedings of the 9th ACM International Conference on PErvasive Technologies Related to Assistive Environments (2016) 2. Brandt, L., Hidalgo, L., Diez-Canseco, F., Araya, R., Mohr, D., Menezes, P., Miranda, J.: Addressing depression comorbid with diabetes or hypertension in resource-poor settings: a qualitative study about user perception of a nurse-supported smartphone app in Peru. JMIR Ment. Health (2019) 3. Chow, P., Bonelli, W., Huang, Y., Fua, K., Teachman, B., Barnes, L.: DEMONS: an integrated framework for examining associations between physiology and self-reported affect tied to depressive symptoms. In: Proceedings of the 2016 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing, pp. 1139–1143 (2016) 4. Dickerson, R., Gorlin, E., Stankovic, J.: Empath: a continuous remote emotional health monitoring system for depressive illness. In: Proceedings of the 2nd Conference on Wireless Health (2011) 5. Fu, G., Chen, C., Liao, W.: The effect of emotionality in lie-detection questions on skin conductance response. Chin. J. Clin. Psychol., 321–323 (2008) 6. Huang, S., Kwan, C., Sano, A.: The moment: a mobile tool for people with depression or bipolar disorder. In: Proceedings of the 2014 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing, pp. 235–238 (2014) 7. Siegmund, D., Chiesa, L., Horr, O., Gabler, F., Braun, A., Kuijper, A.: Talis - a design study for a wearable device to assist people with depression. In: Proceedings of the IEEE 41st Annual Computer Software and Applications Conference, vol. 2, pp. 543–548 (2017) 8. Su, Z., Yan, S., Li, Y.: Changes of depressed patients’ physiopsychological indexes resulting from stress-coping. J. Clin. Rehabil. Tissue Eng. Res. 11(52), 10658–10661 (2007) 9. Sun, R., Wu, N., Yang, S.: Suggestions on clinical application of heart rate variability detection. Chin. J. Cardiovasc. Dis. 4, 12–15 (1998) 10. The Co-making the Future China-US Young Maker Competition (2019). http://www. chinaus-maker.org. Accessed 22 Jan 2020

Effects of Different Scheduling Systems on Crew’s Situation Awareness Under Long-Term Operation Conditions Hao Chen1, Liping Pang1, Xiaoru Wanyan1(&), Shuang Liu1, and Yufeng Fang1,2 1

Beihang University, Xueyuan Road. 37, Haidian District, 100191 Beijing, China [email protected], {pangliping, wanyanxiaoru}@buaa.edu.cn, [email protected] 2 Aviation Industry Corporation of China, Shuguang Xili, Chaoyang District, 100028 Beijing, China

Abstract. The crew’s cognitive ability has become a critical issue in long-term marine tasks with different scheduling arrangements. The present study aims to investigate the impact of long-term operation and different scheduling systems on situation awareness (SA), one of the most important cognitive abilities. 15 male simulated crew members, randomly divided into three groups of five each, were involved in the ship simulation operation experiment for 9 days. The experimental stage of three days each was adopted as within-subject factor, while the scheduling system was set as the between-subject factor, including three kinds of 24-h schedules. SA was measured by 3D-SART subjective scale and situation present assessment technique (SPAM) in an everyday indicatormonitoring task. The results showed the stable enhancement of the subjects’ SA with the increase of the experimental stage, and significant difference of SA did not exist among the subjects under different scheduling systems. It suggests that operators have good adaptability to the different scheduling systems under longterm operation conditions. Keywords: Cognitive ability
Long-term working
Scheduling systems Situation awareness
Offshore operation management




1 Introduction Research on human’s cognition and performance in offshore operation has become a critical issue [1, 2]. Common influencing factors of human’s operational ability include (but not limited to) marine environment [3], circadian rhythm [4], scheduling system [5], long-term work [6], fatigue and mood (such as depression) [7]. From the perspective of offshore operation management, long-term work and scheduling system have complicated effects on the circadian rhythms of human beings [8, 9], and consequently result in variations in human’s cognitive abilities and behaviors, which may increase the probability of human errors [10] and reduce human reliability [11]. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 128–133, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_20

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Human reliability or human errors in marine crews is related to the safety, efficiency and sustainability of offshore operations, and thus, it is important to require crewmembers to maintain favorable cognitive ability, of which situation awareness (SA) plays an important part [12]. Human errors in any of the three levels of SA [13], including perception (SA1), comprehension (SA2) and projection (SA3), will lead to the decrease of human reliability. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the influence of long-term work and scheduling system on SA and its subcomponents.

2 Experiment Method Fifteen male simulated crew members were involved as subjects, and their mean age was 24.20 years (SD = ± 2.48). All subjects, right-handed, were in good health with normal or corrected-to-normal vision and normal hearing. The subjects had enough sleep without vigorous exercise before the ship simulation operation experiment. The research was approved by the Biomedicine Ethics Committee of Beihang University. Written informed consent was obtained from all subjects. A closed simulated ship cabin was used in our experiment, in which all subjects were accommodated for 11 days, including the former two days of training and the latter nine days of formal experiment. Each subject was required to perform an indicator-monitoring task, that is, to monitor six dials displayed (shown as Fig. 1) on the interface simultaneously for 10 min [14].

Fig. 1. Screenshot of the video in which the pointers (the solid lines) crossed over the thresholds (the dashed lines) in random frequency and velocity.

Two-factor mixed design was adopted in the experiment, in which the experimental stage was the within-subject factor, while the scheduling system was the betweensubject factor. In the current study, the 9-day experimental period was divided into three equal parts, including the first three days (stage 1), the middle three days (stage 2), and the last three days (stage 3). In addition, the fifteen subjects were also randomly divided into three groups of five each to implement three different scheduling systems, respectively. As demonstrated in Fig. 2, all of the three 24-h schedules counted from 00:00 to 24:00 each day, including the schedule 1 (4-h work/8-h sleep/4-h work/8-h

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activity), the schedule 2 (4-h sleep/4-h work/8-h activity/4-h sleep), as well as the schedule 3 (8-h sleep/4-h work/8-h activity/4-h work). The 10-min indicator monitoring task was performed in the activity period of each experimental day.

Schedule 1

Schedule 2

Schedule 3

4-hour working

4-hour sleep

4-hour acƟvity

Fig. 2. 24-h scheduling systems for the three groups of subjects.

The subjects’ SA was measured by 3D-SART subjective scale and situation present assessment technique (SPAM). Each subject was required to answer six different SPAM questions corresponding to the three levels of SA (perception as SA1, comprehension as SA2, and projection as SA3). Every two SPAM questions were randomly selected from the test database preset and proffered in turn at the 3rd, 6th and 9th minute during the monitoring task. All the subjects were required to answer the SPAM question as soon as possible under the premise of ensuring the accuracy. When completing the experiment, the subjects were asked to fill in the 3D-SART subjective scale.

3 Results and Discussion The indicators of SA were analyzed by IBM SPSS Statistics software (version 23.0) with 0. 05 confidence degree. Two-way repeated measurement of ANOVA was adopted to examine the main effects of the two independent variables on SA. The Mauchly’s test was used to test the sphericity of the data. The Greenhouse-Geisser test was employed to correct the lack of sphericity. The Post-hoc comparison was LSD method. 3.1

Experiment Stage

The main effect of the experimental stage was not significant for the score of 3D-SART subjective scale (P > .050), however, as for the SPAM response time, the main effect of the experimental stage was significant (P = .002). As presented in Table 1, the SPAM response time in the experimental stage 1 was significantly higher than those in the experimental stage 2 (P < .001) and 3 (P = .005), nevertheless, the difference was not obvious between the experimental stage 2 and 3 (P > .050). Further statistical analysis of the SPAM response time for the three levels of SA showed that the SPAM response time of SA2 in experimental stage 1 was significantly higher than that in experimental stage 2 (P = .007), and the response time

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of SA2 in stage 2 was also enhanced than that in stage 3 (P = .038). For SA1 and SA3, the response time in stage 1 was significantly increased than that in stage 2 (P = .004; P = .004), and no other significant difference was found (P > .050). Table 1. ANOVA of SPAM response time for the three experimental stages. Significance level Stage-i Stage-j 1 2 1 3 2 3 ** p < 0. 01; * p < 0. 05.

SA

SA1

SA2

SA3

.000** .005** .525

.004** .072 .179

.007** .000** .038*

.004** .103 .876

The experiment results showed that the subjects’ SA and abilities of perception (SA1), comprehension (SA2), and projection (SA3) were enhanced to a certain extent, and the improvement of SA2 was especially obvious and sustaining. It can be inferred reasonably that the enhancement of the subjects’ SA in the 9-day experiment is mainly due to the continuous improvement of comprehension ability. The above results indicated that the subjects represented good adaptability to the operation task and the operation environment with the increase of the experiment stages. 3.2

Scheduling System

The main effect of the scheduling system was not significant (P > .050) for the both SA measurements, which implied that all the three scheduling systems enabled the subjects to maintain stable SA in the experiment. Under the three different scheduling systems, the subjects were able to provide similar abilities of perception, comprehension, and projection, manifesting as indistinguishable SA. This revealed that the subjects adapted to the three scheduling systems in the short term, and the different schedules did not weaken the subjects’ SA. One new unexpected result was obtained through further analysis of the subdimension of the 3D-SART subjective scale. As shown in Table 2, there was a significant difference (P = .040) between the schedule 1 and the schedule 2 for the attention resource surplus (i.e. the gap between the attention resource supply and demand), manifesting as the subjects’ attention resource was insufficient in schedule 1 while surplus in schedule 2. From the respect of SA, it suggested that the schedule 2 is a more conducive option than schedule 1 for maintaining sufficient cognitive resources, especially when there is an emergent task need to be dealt with. Reasonably, the variations of SA may be caused by the extent of attention resource surplus, indicating the precautions and directions for the scheduling system design in tasks with high requirements for attention resources.

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SA

Attention resource surplus

.408 .040* .232 .068 .695 .767

4 Conclusion In the present study, a closed cabin simulation experiment was performed to investigate the effects of long-term operation conditions and different scheduling systems on crew’s situation awareness. The subjects showed favorable adaptation to the increase of experimental stage. Different scheduling systems did not deteriorate the subjects’ SA, whereas the possible damage to attention resource surplus should be considered. Besides, the SPAM measurement revealed more sensitivity than the 3D-SART subjective scale to SA in the current study. Future efforts will consider extending the experimental days and increasing the number of subjects to explore the complicated changes of SA in long-term work under different scheduling systems. Moreover, subjects’ operation performance and physiological index such as eye movement can be adopted to provide a multivariate method for inspecting the variation of crew’s cognitive ability during voyage. Acknowledgments. This research was financially co-supported by the jointly program of National Natural Science Foundation of China and Civil Aviation Administration of China (No. U1733118), as well as Liao Ning Revitalization Talents Program (XLYC1802092).

References 1. Islam, R., Hongyang, Y.: Human factors in marine and offshore systems. Methods Chem. Process. Saf. 2, 145–167 (2018) 2. Strand, G., Mary, A.L.: Human factors modelling in offshore drilling operations. J. Loss Prev. Process. Ind. 43, 654–667 (2016) 3. Noroozi, A., et al.: Effects of cold environments on human reliability assessment in offshore oil and gas facilities. Hum. Factors J. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. 56(5), 825–839 (2014) 4. Ferguson, S.A., et al.: The influence of circadian time and sleep dose on subjective fatigue ratings. Accid. Anal. Prev. 45, 50–54 (2012) 5. Benchekroum, T.H., Gomes, J.O.: Resilience and situation awareness in operators’ activities during shift changeovers in nuclear power plants. In: World Congress on Ergonomics (2009) 6. Hansen, J.H., Geving, I.H., Reinertsen, R.E.: Adaptation rate of 6-sulfatoxymelatonin and cognitive performance in offshore fleet shift workers: a field study. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 83(6), 607–615 (2010) 7. Sneddon, A., Mearns, K., Flin, R.: Stress, fatigue, situation awareness and safety in offshore drilling crews. Saf. Sci. 56, 80–88 (2013)

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8. Kelly, T.L., et al.: Nonentrained circadian rhythms of melatonin in submariners scheduled to an 18-hour day. J. Biol. Rhythm. 14(3), 190–196 (1999) 9. Wang, X.S., et al.: Shift work and chronic disease: the epidemiological evidence. Occup. Med. 61(2), 78–89 (2011) 10. Skalle, P., Aamodt, A., Laumann, K.: Integrating human related errors with technical errors to determine causes behind offshore accidents. Saf. Sci. 63, 179–190 (2014) 11. El-Ladan, S.B., Turan, O.: Human reliability analysis—Taxonomy and praxes of human entropy boundary conditions for marine and offshore applications. Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 98(1), 43–54 (2012) 12. Sneddon, A., Mearns, K., Flin, R.: Situation awareness and safety in offshore drill crews. Cogn. Technol. Work 8(4), 25–267 (2006) 13. Stanton, N.A., et al.: State-of-science: situation awareness in individuals, teams and systems. Ergonomics 60(4), 449–466 (2017) 14. Eisma, Y.B., Cabrall, C.D., de Winter, J.C.: Visual sampling processes revisited: replicating and extending Senders (1983) using modern eye-tracking equipment. IEEE Trans. Hum. Mach. Syst. 48(5), 526–540 (2018)

Ecological Border Implementation: Proposal to Urban-Natural Transition in Nigeria, Guayaquil Andrea Salvador Minuche1(&), Rosa María Pin Guerrero1, Jesús Rafael Hechavarría Hernández1, and Maikel Leyva Vázquez2 1

Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, University of Guayaquil, Cdla. Salvador Allende Av. Delta y Av., Kennedy, Ecuador {maria.salvadormi,rosa.ping, jesus.hechavarriah}@ug.edu.ec 2 Faculty of Commercial Education and Sciences, Bolivariano Technological Institute of Technology, Guayaquil, Ecuador [email protected]

Abstract. Lack of territorial planning by municipal governments derives in the irregular and unsustainable growth of cities. Nigeria, Guayaquil has experienced deep ecosystem vulnerability since people first started to populate the territory in the mid 80’s; turning it into an endangered ecosystem. Through a SWOT and TOPSIS analysis, this research proposes the creation of a “module” that aims to strengthen the relationship between both urban and natural spaces, by reforesting the mangrove swamps. Thus, benefiting the ecosystem, taking steps to achieve the percentage of green spaces stipulated by the World Health Organization (WHO), and addressing several SDG’s established by the United Nations (UN). The results show that the ecological border prototype is viable if the conditions in which it takes place consider: (a) cooperation communitymunicipality and (b) material implementation according to the TOPSIS method. This will make the project sustainable and long term beneficial for the territory. Keywords: Urban prototype areas
TOPSIS


Ecological border
Urban resilience
Green

1 Introduction Diverse academics [1] have highlighted the lack of governmental capacity to improve the livelihood of its citizens, while at the same time limiting city growth and regulating the creation of green spaces. Due to the irregular city growth characterized by illicit property sales within Nigeria, Guayaquil, the territory has experienced geographical demarcations that have dramatically affected the mangrove swamp’s ecosystem; leaving it vulnerable and potentially endangered. The conception of a module prototype aims to generate a dynamic transition between the consolidated area in Nigeria, Guayaquil, and its estuary. The objectives of the proposal align with its ultimate purpose which is implementing an ecological border that seeks to provide sustainability © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 134–139, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_21

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and resilience to cities by identifying internal and external agents that part-take in the decision-making process for its development. GIS [2] and SWOT [3] analyses provided the evaluation of specific characteristics of the Case Study, Nigeria. This allowed the investigation to delve in real life scenarios within the community to provide appropriate assessment. The methodologic backbone is supported by bibliographic revision of high impact, indexed academic magazines [4, 5, 6]. Thus, ensuring model-composition against environmental dynamisms. Furthermore, it classifies conventional and biological materials according to their potential application and functionality though diffuse decision maps with TOPSIS [7] under criteria pondered under AHP-analyzed parameters [8] for sustainability and resistance.

2 Tools and Methods 2.1

The Geographic Information System GIS

The viability of this proposal was evaluated through the implementation of two complementary tools necessary for a proper analysis tailored to Nigeria’s Case Study. First, the Geographic Information System (GIS) and second, a SWOT analysis. The former allows us to allocate the problematic while the latter helps us develop sustainable proposals that respond to said problematic. Subsequently, by binding both tools, the city is expected to have a greater chance to generate resilience after taking on the project (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Mangrove swamp area comparison, Coop. Nigeria 2000 vs 2019. Source: Own elaboration.

The World Bank [9] states that Ecuador has a yearly population growth of 1.76%. In 2010, the national country-wide Census [10] registered 88K habitants in Nigeria spread across 2471 acres of land. Population projections can calculate those numbers to be close to 104K, in the same territory, to the present day. However, what almost 20 years ago was 85.5 acres of green areas (mangrove swamp), is now 13.5 acres. This means that Nigeria now has 0.5% of green spaces per habitant; far below the suggested 9% by WHO.

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SWOT Analysis Table 1. SWOT analysis-characteristics result.

Strengths Geographical location Culture and Gastronomy Infrastructure Utility services Land access Sea access Opportunities Reforesting mangrove swamp’s ecosystem and biodiversity Attracting local tourism Diversify economic income Protect the coastline Source: Own elaboration.

Weaknesses Poverty Delinquency Contamination Unemployment Deficient education Threats Soil’s propensity to erosion Further irregular population expansion within the territory Ignorance to sustainability-related information

Considering the aforementioned SWOT analysis, several strategies can be crafter to ensure the viability of the project. For instance, taking advantage of Nigeria’s geographic location is key in order to rebuild its landscape, foster the cultivation of the mangrove swamp, and bring back flora and fauna. Using the reforestation of the mangrove swamp and its benefits, such as the proliferation of sea life, can promote fishing activities and eradicate poverty while branching out work and production opportunities. While this is important for the development of the community, Nigeria’s ancestral culture and Esmelandenian background is remarkable for its potential to promote an eco-friendly tourism that is adaptable to the paths and trails in the area; furthering a holistic and sustainable development (Table 1). 2.3

Prototype Evaluation

The methodology contemplates an Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) during the decision-making process. This qualitative and quantitatively weights the materials that Table 2. Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) material parameters.

Source: Own elaboration.

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Table 3. Result of the TOPSIS methodology, material parameters.

Source: Own elaboration.

will likely be used in the prototype. The Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity (TOPSIS) analysis allows us to rate each material according to how sustainable, viable and applicable they can be within diverse territories, taking into consideration their adaptability, versatility and flexibility (Tables 2 and 3). The table above shows that the optimal applicable materials for building the prototype tailored to Nigeria, Guayaquil, come down to a metal structure with an epoxy finish and anti-corrosive pigments. For the flooring, treated wood biomaterial is suggested. In order to extend its life span, it would need to be previously treated with UV ray protection and agents that fight insects and fungi. The ponderation for these materials was executed by taking into consideration its local production and how easy its acquisition can be to the inhabitants of the area. Moreover, it also contemplates the materials’ resistance and durability juxtapositioned to its price and functionality. In spite of the benefits that could potentially come through the implementation of materials composed of biopolymers, this option is discarded for this particular project due to its lack of local production.

Fig. 2. Structure and platform of the module. Source: Own elaboration.

3 Dynamic Module This prototype is thought out to have a hexagonal shape that comes together with its surroundings. Its urban composition can dock according to the type of intervention or the desired effect in the designated territory, Its shape allows the ecological border to be implemented and as a result it gives birth to fragmentations of green spaces within the

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Fig. 3. Ecological border implementation. Source: Own elaboration.

landscape. On one hand, its articulated system makes it possible for the structure to shape-shift in order to adapt to the necessities of the territory. On the other hand, within the mechanics of the module, folding parts of itself are added in order to extend the area of influence when needed. This will propitiate its versatility (Figs. 2 and 3).

Fig. 4. Proposal to urban-natural transition. Source: Own elaboration.

Additionally, the suggested prototype includes a reservoir that allows the propagation of the mangrove swamp. This is where the community comes in. In this stage of the project, they are key players in securing the lasting efficiency of the modules by depositing the seeds produced by the mangrove swamp in the propagation reservoir. This could also strengthen the relationship between the community and the ecological border once they get to grasp all of its potential benefits (Fig. 4).

4 Conclusion What determines the success of a project? Nigeria, Guayaquil is only one example of how a territory can benefit from an ecological border. For this particular case study, infrastructure such as the communal house can be used to provide information on the benefits of caring and properly handling the sowing and preservation of the mangrove swamp. This could exacerbate educational principles and solidify values that aid in the integral development of the community by creating awareness of its importance

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through motivational talks that seek to reduce the weaknesses of Nigeria. Thus, improving their living conditions. As final remarks, it is also relevant to state that the natural purification that the mangrove swamp provides can reduce contamination levels and prevent soil erosion while also providing protection to the houses bordering the estuary. For these homes specifically, however, it would be beneficial to generate an early warning system that alerts of possible fallouts and plan accordingly to prevent more families from locating in the same area. Not only does the proposal directly address 6 of the 17 UN SDGs, but also has the potential to target another 5. Replicability of the module implementation in other scenarios with similar and different characteristics is highly recommended. Not only because it will provide society with further knowledge on the matter, but mostly because the sustainability of our cities calls upon action to guarantee the livelihood of future generations [11].

References 1. Rojas, M.J.C.: Los espacios verdes en la ciudad sostenible. Observatorio Medioambiental 20, 37 (2017) 2. Acuña-Piedra, J.F., Quesada-Román, A., Vargas-Bolaños, C.: Cobertura y Distribución de las Especies de Mangle en el Humedal Nacional Térraba-Sierpe, Costa Rica. Anuário do Instituto de Geociências 41(1), 120–129 (2019) 3. Meza, P.N.A., Valencia Segura, F.: Biblioteca El Manglar, con criterios sostenibles en el Distrito de Buenaventura-Resiliencia Urbana. Una mirada académica desde el Pacífico. Editorial Universidad Santiago de Cali (2020) 4. Barragán, J.M., de Andrés, M.: Expansión urbana en las áreas litorales de América Latina y Caribe. Revista de Geografía Norte Grande 64, 129–149 (2016) 5. Hajar, S., Tanjung, I.S., Tanjung, Y.: Aplicación de un enfoque participativo en el empoderamiento de las aldeas costeras, p. 7. Educación, Política y Valores, Dilemas Contemporáneos (2020) 6. Campos, G.: Análisis de situación participativo de las comunidades pesqueras artesanales del municipio de Arraial do Cabo, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil, en el marco del proceso de planificación territorial municipal (2019) 7. Murillo, C.Z., Hechavarría Hernández, J.R., Vázquez, M.L.: Multicriteria Analysis in the Proposed Environmental Management Regulations for Construction in Aurora, Guayas, Ecuador. Adv. Intell. Syst. Comput. 965, 101–113 (2020) 8. Pérez-Ramírez, R., Martínez-Damián, M.Á.: Multi-criteria decision model to select the best productive projects in rural Mexico. Agroproductividad, 13(2) (2020) 9. Osorio Acosta, E., Marqués Pérez, I., Segura García del Río, B.: Identificación espacio temporal de la incidencia del turismo en la dinámica poblacional rural en la Comunitat Valenciana. Economía Agraria y Recursos Naturales-Agricultural and Resource Economics 19(2), 163–180 (2020) 10. Espinoza, J.J.R.: La migracion y el racismo como rasgos complejos de los afrodescendientes del barrio Nigeria. INNOVA Res. J. 2, 1–6 (2017) 11. Keiner, M., Koll-Schretzenmayr, M., Schmid, W.A. (eds.): Managing Urban Futures: Sustainability and Urban Growth in Developing Countries, Routledge (2016)

Exploring a Taxonomy of Interaction in Interactive Sonification Systems Visda Goudarzi(&) Audio Arts and Acoustics Department, Columbia College Chicago, 33 E. Ida B. Wells Dr. 601G, Chicago, IL 60605, USA [email protected]

Abstract. This paper explores a variety of existing interactive sonification systems in the context of interactive sound art. In design of interactive sonification from technological standpoint, the stress is put on studying the usability and functionality of the systems. We explore the focus towards creative aspects of interaction in both technology development and sound creation stages. In some artistic sonifications, the control is in the hand of the technology creators, in some others in the hand of the artists, and sometimes in the hand of the performers or the audience members. The numerous relations and interactions between performers, composers, technologists, data domain scientists, environment and audiences make it difficult to classify the complex phenomenon of interactive sonification. Some challenges in such systems are the ownership of technical and aesthetic components, balancing engagement and interaction among different stakeholders (domain scientist, designer, composer, spectator, etc.) and encouraging audience engagement. Keywords: Auditory display
Sonification sonification
Human computer interaction


Parameter mapping
Interactive

1 Introduction The process of design and development of interactive systems in sound art used to be a separate task from sound creation. From design and development to installation or performance. New interfaces for sound creation, however, allow sound artists and composers to engage themselves more in the process of system design and development. In sonification though, this process has always been an interdisciplinary approach involving scientists, systems designer, sonification experts, and sound artists (not necessarily including them all.). In HCI and software development, an iterative approach of design and development is common where evaluations allow to improve the system’s functionality in successive iterations. Applications of adapted iterative HCI methods in sound creation range from interaction design to creativity support in sound and technological domains. Studies which incorporate HCI methods to evaluate sound creation systems are mostly focused on how musical tasks are performed. Aspects evaluated might be related to performance [26], the quality of the user experience, interaction, and the degree of expressiveness [2, 24], the usefulness of the system [7] or audience’s engagement [5]. In interactive sonification systems the focus © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 140–145, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_22

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has been either on the quality of interaction [1, 13] or on meaning making of sound [15]. There have also been discussions that aesthetics and meaning making of sonification are not two separate aspects [18]. In terms of the quality of sound and aesthetics, there has been discussions on how sonification can benefit from methods used in sound art to make the listening experience more pleasant and informative regarding data extraction [16]. Vickers and Hogg place sonification in “Ars Informatica-Ars Musica” Aesthetic Perspective space and suggest not to differentiate between musical and nonmusical sonification. They suggest “listening” as the most desired skill for sonification designers and focus on the aspects that sonification and sound art share. In the contrary, Polansky [20] significantly differentiates between scientific and artistic sonification and finds the two approaches the closest only if the composer intends to “manifest” mathematical or formal algorithms. Vickers and Barrass [26] connect the functional sonification and the aesthetic approach, suggesting a design-oriented process where data can be understood and enjoyed. We suggest to direct attention away from the system’s accuracy and efficiency. We are more intrigued by non-quantifiable goals and notions such as creativity and engagement. In terms of interaction, we find Suchman’s perspective [25] appropriate for interactive and particularly participatory sound systems. She moves away from a goal-oriented interactivity and meaningful action towards a concept of interactivity in which action is central and goals are emergent. Furthermore, the iterative development of software engineering is not necessarily transferrable to artistic creation of sonifications. In artistic production iterative processes are part of the creative experimentation and not part of the evaluation of a completed artwork [3]. Furthermore, sonification experts [26] state that art and aesthetics are not synonym and aesthetics should not take away from the reliable communication of data.

2 Scope of Interaction In traditional sound making systems (e.g. musical instruments), the designer of the sound system was usually a different person than the musicians (composers or performers). Due to rapid technological advancements, the gap between designers and sound makers has gotten smaller. Examples include the democratization of sound and musical instruments, the evolution of Internet, open source software, community-based design and DIY (Do It Yourself) instruments. However, the creative aspects of sound making are usually left to musically trained people. In interactive sonification, the sound creation task has sometimes been in the hand of technology developers but it has rarely gone beyond achieving aesthetically pleasing sounds (as opposed to annoying sounds!). Such approaches have only focused on cosmetic values of aesthetics and ignored the potential of a more semantically rich and complex auditory display [22]. Moreover, computing systems such as tablets and mobile devices, which used to be specifically deployed by engineers and experts, have become more popular among the general public. This has led to a different media ecology, extending the cultural context for interactions through consumer devices and creating a new platform for engagement in interactive sound creation, by using one’s own devices. Having such powerful and potentially sonic devices in hand, the stage of creativity that has so far been limited to a

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small elite of educated musicians, expands [6]. Furthermore, improvement of user experience in computer music languages has encouraged more sound artists to get more involved in the development process. In developing interactive sonification systems, the stakeholders are usually: data scientists, system designers/developers, sonification experts, composer/sound makers, audience or users. 2.1

Design and Development

In designing an interactive sonification system there is usually a plan for data preparation and development of the system and a set of alternatives and successive elaborations. Whether the main design decisions are made by the sonification designer or the sound maker depends on the goals and complexity of the system. These two stakeholders might be even the same person in designing smaller systems. Available computer languages could also have a huge influence on the focus of the design process. McCartney [19] describes the early computer music languages as strong in abstractions but providing very few control and data structures and little or no user functions. Later on, computer music languages such as Supercollider, Max and Pd allowed abstractions, so that in some cases the users are not even noticing that they are programming. These languages allowed for more participation of composers and sound makers in the process of programming sound systems, without requiring extensive software engineering training. Most importantly, the orientation of these programming languages towards live interaction brought HCI into the focus of both composition and data-sonification, bringing about important changes in both fields. Furthermore, depending on where the control and mapping happens, the design decisions are made in that stage of development. For example, Salter et al. [23] distinguish between instrumental paradigms of mapping and controller-based ones.

3 Aspects of Interaction 3.1

Engagement

As Hermann and Hunt state [13], some electronic instruments are not engaging enough for both performer and audience because of the lack of continuous energetic input that is expected from acoustic instruments. Therefore, expanding the field of sonification beyond installation or performance to audience engagement would be beneficial. This has led to creation of multi-user instruments, which have switched the role of a passive audience to an active player. Dixon [9] identifies four types of interaction based on different levels of engagement: navigation, participation, conversation and collaboration. Engaging the audience is not a new approach in sound art, but engaging them to the extent of being the main creators has not been explored in depth. In recent years, since crowd sourcing and creating content by users have become more common, interfaces that take advantage of that also entered the music world, such as Tweetscapes [14] and TweetDreams [8]. In Tweetscapes online data from German Twitter streams is sonified and visualized in real-time. The sounds are based on a large sound database and randomly – but reproducibly fixed – assigned to different semantic terms

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(hashtags). These sounds are then modified according to metadata, e.g. from which location in Germany the tweet was sent. Another example is TweetDreams which is a sonification of tweets from the audience played by a laptop ensemble. The piece is not as precisely choreographed as Telesymphony, which gives the audience a certain freedom to “compose” (at least composing their own tweets) within the framework of the sonification design. Still conducting the piece is left in the hands of the designer. The individual cannot change the direction of the whole structure of the ensemble, but has at least control over his/her own sounds (or tweets). We would like to distinguish between three types of audience participation, with increasing level of engagement: crowdsourcing, active performance and co-authorship. In participatory systems crowdsourcing refers to audience- computer interaction systems that allow a large crowd to participate in the process of sound making mainly by functioning as a source of data, such as TweetDreams [13], Flock [11] and One-Man Band [4]. In active performance the role of the audience is similar to that of a performer but is actively involved in real-time control of sound parameters that are determined by the sonification/system designer. Even though design decisions are made by the creator of the system, the audience is able to explore the “space” defined by the designer and interact with it by setting runtime control data. This form of engagement implies a hierarchically structured interaction model, based on the dichotomy between the creator/designer and spectator/performer. The most active form of audience participation is co-authorship. Instead of setting the values of a fixed set of run-time control variables, the audience is invited to participate in the creative process, by making design decisions regarding the input data, sound material, and the processes applied to it. In this case, the designer’s role is limited to the creation of a platform that enables collaborative sonification, while it involves little to no aesthetic responsibility at all. Some examples of sonification systems using this approach are SysSon [12] and MALLOMARCH [27]. 3.2

Control

Two main challenging HCI aspects of interactive sonification systems are control and mapping. Here we examine the control aspects according to Pressing [21] related to interactive systems: Multiplicity of control: By multiplicity of control we refer mainly to the differentiation between single-user and multi-user systems. An example of an interactive sound system with multiple control channels is the reacTable [17]. Type of control: The type of control refers to the different human-computer interfaces that can be used as part of the audience-system interaction. This interaction can be tangible and embodied, non-tactile etc. Mapping: Mapping processes can be linear (a simple scaling of input values to control values) or non-linear and based on dynamical processes (e.g. dynamical systems modeling, machine learning etc.). An example of a linear mapping process is assigning the keys of a MIDI keyboard to pitches, while an example of a dynamical mapping process, based on machine learning, is the software Wekinator [10]. Control parameters: Sound parameters, the value of which can be set by the user. Modality: Control modality refers to the type of control value (discrete or continuous) and depends on the control parameter itself, as well as the type of the interface. For

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example, faders allow for continuous control and are more suitable for controlling a parameter like amplitude, while buttons could be used for triggering actions.

4 Reflections As we study human’s interaction with sonification systems, challenges arise in engagement aspects of such systems. Technological advancements and new artistic concepts have led to a closer collaboration among the traditionally distinct fields of design, composition and performance and enabled various forms of audience participation. Strategies in interactive sonification systems can vary from a passive participation in which the audience functions simply as a source of data creation for sonification to active participation in the performance and creation of sound art. We call for an improvement in balance of responsibilities and interaction between different stakeholders. Questions regarding authorship certainly arise as a result of this shift of creative responsibility: is sonification the work of the sonification designer who developed the system or is it a creation of the participants? Is the goal of the creative process still the artifact or does the goal shift from the aesthetic artifact to the interaction itself? And, finally, how does collective creative responsibility affect the aesthetics and meaningfulness of sonification and communication of data?

References 1. Antle, A.N., Corness, G., Bevans, A.: Springboard: designing image schema based embodied interaction for an abstract domain. In: Whole Body Interaction, pp. 7–18. Springer, London (2011) 2. Bau, O., Tanaka, A., Mackay, W.E.: The A20: musical metaphors for interface design. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression, NIME (2008) 3. Bilda, Z., Edmonds, E., Candy, L.: Designing for creative engagement. Des. Stud. 29(6), 525–540 (2008) 4. Bott, J.N., Crowley, J.G., LaViola, J.J., Jr.: One man band: a 3D gestural interface for collaborative music creation. In: Proceedings of the Virtual Reality Conference, VR 2009, pp. 273–274 (2009) 5. Bryan-Kinns, N., Hamilton, F.: Identifying mutual engagement. Behav. Inf. Technol. 31(2), 101–125 (2009) 6. Cope, D.: Computer models of musical creativity. MIT Press, Cambridge (2005) 7. Coughlan, T., Johnson, P.: Interaction in creative tasks: ideation, representation and evaluation in composition. In: Proceedings of the ACM Human Factors in Computing Systems, CHI 2006 (2006) 8. Dahl, L., Herrera, J., Wilkerson, C.: Tweetdreams: making music with the audience and the world using real- time twitter data. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression, NIME 2011, pp. 272–275 (2011) 9. Dixon, S.: Digital Performance: A History of New Media in Theater, Dance, Performance Art, and Installation. MIT Press, Cambridge (2007)

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10. Fiebrink, R., Trueman, D.: End-user machine learning in music composition and performance, Present. In: CHI 2012 Work. End-User Interact. with Intell. Auton. Syst. Austin, Texas, 6 May 2012, pp. 14–17 (2012) 11. Freeman, J., Godfrey, M.: Creative collaboration between audiences and musicians in Flock. Digital Creat. 21(2), 85–99 (2010) 12. Goudarzi, V.: Designing an interactive audio interface for climate science. IEEE Multimedia 22(1), 41–47 (2015) 13. Hermann, T., Hunt, A.: The discipline of interactive sonification. In: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Interactive Sonification, pp. 1–9, January 2004 14. Hermann, T., Nehls, A.V., Eitel, F., Barri, T., Gammel, M.: Tweetscapes - real-time sonification of twitter data streams for radio broadcasting. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Auditory Display, ICAD 2012 15. Hermann, T., Ritter, H.: Sound and meaning in auditory data display. Proc. IEEE 92(4), 730–741 (2004) 16. Hogg, B., Vickers, P.: Sonification abstraite/sonification concrete: An’aesthetic persepective space’for classifying auditory displays in the ars musica domain. In: Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Auditory Display, London, UK (2006) 17. Jordà, S.: Multi-user instruments: models, examples and promises. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression, NIME 2005, pp. 23–26 (2005) 18. Leplaitre, G., McGregor, I.: How to tackle auditory interface aesthetics? Discussion and case study. In: Proceedings of the 10th Meeting of the International Conference on Auditory Display, Sydney, Australia (2004) 19. McCartney, J.: Rethinking the computer music language: SuperCollider. Comput. Music J. 26(4), 61–68 (2002) 20. Polansky, L.: Manifestation and Sonifiction (2002). https://emsic.dartmouth.edu/*larry/ sonification.html. Accessed 10 June 2020 21. Pressing, J.: Cybernetic issues in interactive performance systems. Comput. Music J. 14(1), 12–25 (1990) 22. Roddy, S., Furlong, D.: Embodied aesthetics in auditory display. Organ. Sound 19(01), 70– 77 (2014) 23. Salter, C.L., Baalman, M.A., Moody-Grigsby, D.: Between mapping, sonification and composition: responsive audio environments in live performance. In: International Symposium on Computer Music Modeling and Retrieval, pp. 246–262. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, August 2007 24. Stowell, D., Plumbley, M.D., Bryan-Kinns, N.: Discourse analysis evaluation method for expressive musical interfaces. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression, NIME 2008 (2008) 25. Suchman, L.A.: Plans and Situated Actions: The Problem of Human-machine Communication. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1987) 26. Vickers, P., Barrass, S.: Sonification design and aesthetics. In: Hermann, T., Hunt, A., Neuhoff, J.G. (eds.) The Sonification Handbook. Logos Verlag, Berlin (2011) 27. Wanderley, M.M., Orio, N.: Evaluation of input devices for musical expression: borrowing tools from HCI. Comput. Music J. 26(3), 62–76 (2002) 28. Wolf, K.E., Oda, R.: MALLOMARCH: a live sonified performance with user interaction. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Auditory Display, ICAD 2016 (2016)

Artificial Intelligence and Computing

Talker and Team Dependent Modeling Techniques for Intelligent Interruption Interfaces Nia Peters(&) 711th Human Performance Wing, Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright Patterson AFB, Dayton, USA [email protected]

Abstract. The Collaborative Communication Interruption Management System or C-CIMS [1] uses machine learning techniques to build task boundary inference models to send interruptions at appropriate times within distributed multi-user, multitasking interactions. The primary objective of this work is to explore improving C-CIMS performance using speaker and team dependent machine learning techniques. This has the potential to optimize system performance for each talker or team engaged in the interaction. An analysis of variance illustrated that there is a significant difference in C-CIMS performance using the talker-dependent models compared to the team-dependent models. Additionally a subset of talker and teams significantly outperform the baseline model. These results motivate the continued exploration of additional techniques to maximize C-CIMS performance in making improved accurate decisions in disseminating interruptions. Keywords: Intelligent interruption management communication
Human machine interaction


Collaborative

1 Introduction Interruption science explores the disruptiveness of interruptions on human performance. A key motivation for this research is as users progressively multitask with proactive systems they are increasingly receiving interruptions. The definition of an interruption within this context is as an unanticipated request for task switching from a person, an objective, or an event while multitasking [2]. Manipulating the timing of interruptions [3–6] using system-mediated interruptions [7] within multitask environments [8] is explored to alleviate the consequences of this disruptiveness. Anticipating the end of a task is a strategy proposed within a single-user, multitasking interactions to disseminate system-mediated interruptions. Interrupting tasks at random moments can cause users to take up to 30% longer to resume the task, commit up to twice the error, and experience up to twice the negative effect than interruption dissemination at the end of a task or subtask [3, 9, 10]. Additionally within multi-user, multitasking interactions, interruptions disseminated at the end of a task resulted in

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 149–154, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_23

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improved multitasking performance compared to random and fixed timing strategies [11, 12]. For single-user, multitasking interactions systems such as OASIS [13] and TARPAV [14] use system-state information and physiological data respectively to predict the end of a task as candidate interruption times. For distributed multi-user, multitasking interactions, C-CIMS [1] uses speech information to predict the end of tasks as candidate times to interrupt. C-CIMS can serve domains such as emergency management environments, military and commercial air communication interactions, and even technical support and customer telephone domains. C-CIMS leverages spoken information between two people (multi-party) performing a primary task as well as a secondary orthogonal task (multitasking) within a distributed environment. In previous implementations of C-CIMS [15–18], the dialogue from the primary task is used to infer the end of a task as a candidate moment to send an interruption related to a secondary task. The data from the primary task is used to build the models that will inform C-CIMS interruption decisions. Within the defense domain talker and team dependent models or user-dependent models could improve C-CIMS performance by using data from training scenarios to build user-dependent C-CIMS models and optimize on individual or team interaction. The objective of this paper is to empirically explore the implication of talker-dependent and team-dependent models on-CIMS performance.

2 Methods The goal of this study was to compare two proposed user-dependent models, talkerdependent and team-dependent models to a baseline model and evaluate the implication of these models on C-CIMS performance. The research questions include: Research Question I (RQ1): Is there a difference in C-CIMS performance for different user-dependent models? • H01: There is no difference in C-CIMS performance for different user-dependent models • H1: There is a difference in C-CIMS performance for different user-dependent models Research Question II (RQ2): Is there a difference in C-CIMS performance for specific user-dependent models? • H02: This is no difference in C-CIMS performance for specific user-dependent models • H2: This is a difference in C-CIMS performance for specific user-dependent models 2.1

Data

The Tangram Task is a collaborative communication task where distributed users communicate over push-to-talk to rearrange Tangram shapes in corresponding order.

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Within 15 min participants go through several trials of rearranging various Tangram sets. One person has the interface shown in Fig. 1a and the other has the exact same interface with the Tangram shapes rearranged shown in Fig. 1b.

(a) Tangram Task – Screen I

(b) Tangram Task – Screen II

Fig. 1. Tangram task interface [11]

Participants described their shapes, rearranged them, and pressed DONE before moving on to another set of shapes. The utterances from the data collection were hand transcribed by 3 annotators. To get the most accurate transcriptions, utterances with 100% word agreement for 2 out of 3 annotators were used in our analysis. This resulted in 11,069 utterances total. 2.2

Modeling

In order to build the user-dependent models, the utterances from the Tangram task were trained and tested on different subsets of data. Baseline: all utterances used for training/testing Talker-dependent: Each talker’s utterances used for training/testing Team-dependent: Each team’s utterances used for training/testing C-CIMS uses words and phrases from the primary task (Tangram) to make task boundary inferences as candidate interruption times into a potential secondary task. The intuition of this model is that affirmation cues (e.g. got it) are useful predictors of the end of task [1, 18]. A functional definition of a task boundary is a timestamp after both participants press the DONE button and proceed to a subsequent Tangram task. To evaluate C-CIMS performance we use the F1 score, the harmonic mean between the precision and recall. The precision is the portion of task boundary detections that were actually correct and the recall is the portion of the present task boundaries that were correctly detected. To build our model we experimented with a number word-to-vector features and machine learning approaches. We settled on using the N-GRAM Term Frequency – Inverse Document Frequency (NGRAM-TF-IDF) and Random Forest machine

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learning algorithm [19]. For robustness we used a 20-fold cross-validation approach to train and test the model.

3 Results and Discussion To address RQ1, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to evaluate differences between the baseline, talker-dependent, and team-dependent models. The independent variable was the model including three levels: baseline, talker-dependent, team-dependent. The dependent variable was the C-CIMS model performance measured by the F1 score. The ANOVA was significant at the 0.05 level, F(2,1577) = 13.89, p < 0.001. Figure 2 illustrates C-CIMS performances across the different models.

Fig. 2. C-CIMS performance across difference user-dependent models

A post hoc comparison using the Tukey HSD shows no significant difference between the baseline and talker models but significance between the talker and team models. Prior to making any strong claims about these results, assumptions of homogeneity and normality were tested. The Levene’s Test results is F(2,1577) = 52.98, p < 0.001, violating the assumption of homogenous variance and the Shapiro-Wilk test was also significant violating a test of normality. Since the assumptions of homogeneity and normality were violated, the non-parametric test Krustal-Wallis was conducted. Significance was found (Chi square = 19.941, p < 0.001, df = 2) among the 3 models thereby allowing us to reject the null hypothesis. To answer RQ2, an ANOVA was conducted to evaluate the difference between the baseline model and all the individual talker and team dependent models. The independent variable was the user-dependent models: 61 team-dependent models, 17 talkerdependent models, and 1 baseline model. The dependent variable was the F1 score. The ANOVA was significant at the 0.05 level F(78,1501) = 4.34, p < 0.001. Again the homogeneity and normality assumption were violated. A Krustal-Wallis nonparametric test found significance (Chi square = 311.099, p < 0.001, df = 78) leading to rejection of the null hypothesis. For the talker-dependent models the distribution of over, same, and underperformance compared to the baseline is 11.8%, 58.8%, and 29.4% respectively. For the

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team-dependent models the distribution is 9.8%, 39.4%, and 50.8%. This large portion of underperformance in the team-dependent models contributes to the low teamdependent performance evaluated in RQ1. The results for RQ1 illustrate that if we collapse across all talker-dependent models and team-dependent models and compare it to the baseline, the team-dependent model is significantly lower than both the baseline and talker because there is a large percent of team-dependent models that are driving the overall performance down, expressed in the results that address RQ2. Conversely, there is a subset of teams and talkers that significantly outperform the baseline model. These results motivate a proposed selection criteria: if the user-dependent model significantly outperforms the baseline model, select it otherwise select the baseline model to optimize C-CIMS. A constraint to these finding is the trade-off space in the time/complexity used to build user-dependent models and the performance gain compared to a general baseline model. This work extends [15–17] in proposing another implementation of C-CIMS within distributed multi-user, multitasking environments.

4 Conclusion In conclusion an empirical analysis compared talker-dependent, team-dependent, and baseline models as proposed implementations of the Collaborative Communication Interruption Management System (C-CIMS). Results suggest C-CIMS performance is comparable between speaker-dependent and baseline models which both significantly outperform team-dependent models. The results illustrate that developing userdependent models can provide some overall benefit to improving C-CIMS performance. An extension of this research is the exploration of the trade-off space in time used to build user-dependent models and performance. Finally we can use the outcome of this paper for future exploration of the implications of interruption strategies on human performance similar to [12] with a focus on the relationship between interruption system performance and human performance.

References 1. Peters, N.: Collaborative Communication Interruption Management System (C-CIMS): modeling interruption timings via prosodic and topic modelling for human-machine teams. Doctoral Dissertation, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh (2017) 2. Arroyo, E., Selker, T.: Attention and intention goals can mediate disruption in humancomputer interaction. In: IFIP Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, Berlin (2011) 3. Bailey, B., Konstan, J.A.: On the need for attention-aware systems: Measuring effects of interruption on task performance, error rate, and affective state. Comput. Hum. Behav. 22(4), 685–708 (2006) 4. Czerwinski, M., Cutrell, E., Horvitz, E.: Instant messaging and interruption: Influence of task type on performance. In: OZCHI Conference Proceedings (2000) 5. Monk, C., Boehm-David, D., Trafton, G.: The attentional costs of interrupting task performance at various stages. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, Los Angeles (2002)

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6. Czerwinski, M., Cutrell E., Horvitz, E.: Instant messaging: effects of relevance and timing. In: People and Computers: XIV: Proceedings of HCI (2000) 7. McCrickard, D.S., Chewar, C.M., Somervell, J.P., Ndiwalana, A.: A model for notification systems evaluation assessing user goals for multitasking activity. ACM Trans. Comput.Hum. Interaction (TOCHI) 10(4), 312–338 (2003) 8. McFarlane, D., Latorella, K.: The scrope and importance of human interruption in humancomputer interaction design. Hum.-Comput. Interaction 17(1), 1–61 (2002) 9. Adamczyk, P., Bailey, B.: If not now, when? The effects of interruption at different moments within task execution. In: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (2004) 10. Iqbal, S., Bailey, B.: Investigating the effectiveness of mental workload as a predictor of opportune moments for interruption. In: CHI 2005 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (2005) 11. Peters, N., Romigh, G., Bradley, G., Raj, B.: A comparative analysis of human-mediated and system-mediated interruptions for multi-user, multitasking interactions. In: International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics. Springer, Cham (2017) 12. Peters, N., Romigh, G., Bradley, G.: When to interrupt: a comparative analysis of interruption timings within collaborative communication tasks. In: Advances in Human Factors and Systems Interactions. Springer (2017) 13. Iqbal, S., Bailey, B.: Effects of intelligent notification management on users and their tasks. In: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computer Systems (2008) 14. Adamczyk, P., Iqbal, S., Bailey, B.: A method, system, and tools for intelligent interruption management. In: Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Task Models and Diagrams (2005) 15. Peters, N.: Interruption timing prediction via prosodic task boundary model for humanmachine teaming. In: Future of Information and Communication Conference. Springer, Cham (2019) 16. Peters, N., Bradley, G., Marshall-Bradley, T.: Task boundary inference via topic modeling to predict interruption timings for human-machine teaming. In: International Conference on Intelligent Human Systems Integration. Springer, San Diego (2019) 17. Peters, N., Romigh, G., Raj, B.: Topic and prosodic modeling for interruption management in multi-user multitasking communication interactions. In: AAAI Fall Symposium Series. AAAI, Virginia (2017) 18. Shivakumar, A., Bositty, A., Peters, N., Pei, Y.: Real-time interruption management system for efficient distributed collaboration in multi-tasking environments. In: 23rd ACM Conference on Computer-Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing. ACM, Minneapolis (2020) 19. Bansal, S.: A Comprehensive guide to understand and implement text classification in python. In: Analytics Vidhya (2018)

Dimensionality Reduction and the Strange Case of Categorical Data for Predicting Defective Water Meter Devices Marco Roccetti(&), Luca Casini, Giovanni Delnevo, and Simone Bonfante Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Bologna, Mura Anteo Zamboni 7, 40126 Bologna, Italy {marco.roccetti,luca.casini7, giovanni.delnevo2}@unibo.it, [email protected]

Abstract. Further to an experiment conducted with a deep learning (DL) model, tailored to predict whether a water meter device would fail with passage of time, we came across a very strange case, occurring when we tried to strengthen the training activity of our classifier by using, besides the numerical measurements of consumed water, also other contextual available information, of categorical type. Surprisingly, that further categorical information did not improve the prediction accuracy, which instead fell down, sensibly. Recognized the problem as a case of an excessive increase of the dimensions of the space of data under observation, with a correspondent loss of statistical significance, we changed the training strategy. Observing that every categorical variable followed a quasi-Pareto distribution, we re-trained our DL models, for each single categorical variable, only on that fraction of meter devices (and corresponding measurements of consumed water) that exhibited the most frequent qualitative values for that categorical variable. This new strategy yielded a prediction accuracy level never reached before, amounting to a value of 87–88% on average. Keywords: Machine learning design
Human-machine-bigdata interaction loop
Human data science
Water metering and consumption

1 Introduction We developed a machine learning-based classifier, tailored to predict whether a mechanical water meter device would fail with passage of time and intensive use. After a one-year long process, a recurrent deep neural network was trained with a sample of data, extrapolated from 15 million readings of water consumption, gathered from 1 million meters [1–3]. The available data were essentially of two types: continuous vs categorical. Categorical being a type of data that can take on one of a limited and fixed number of possible values, on the basis of some qualitative property; while continuous, in this case, are the values of the measurements. taken at the meter devices, of the quantity of consumed water (in cubic meters). © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 155–159, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_24

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In a recent and further validation experiment, this classifier worked on a set of 2.062 defective water meters, plus 15.652 non-defective ones, and achieved an accuracy, in terms of failure prediction, of 86%, where these predictions were based on the observation of just the numerical values returned by the measurements of the consumed water. A very strange case, instead, occurred as soon as we tried to extend the training activity of our classifier, by adding all the categorical information available, in particular: a) the type of material of which the meter was constructed, b) the type of the meter, c) the manufacturer of the meter, d) the type of use of the meter (e.g., residential vs industrial usage). Surprisingly, the addition to the training phase of all this categorical information (or simply a combination of some of them) did not yield a better prediction accuracy, which instead decreased to 83%, on average [4]. Impressed by the fact that those additional qualitative properties of meter devices have made the prediction capabilities of our deep learning model worse than expected, we reconsidered a famous theory which goes by the name of curse of dimensionality, as proposed by R.E. Bellman [5]. Oversimplifying, it dictates that cursed phenomena may occur in various domains, such as machine learning, when the dimensionality of the supplied data increases. The problem being one of statistical significance, as the total volume of the space under observation increases too much, thus making the available data become sparse. To verify our hypothesis, we have resorted to a different technique with which to train our classifier. This technique went as follows. We considered each single categorical variable in isolation and noticed that each of those categorical variables was subjected to a quasi-Pareto distribution. In simple words, only a small fraction (about 1/5) of the possible qualitative values that a given categorical variable may take were present in the largest part of the population of the meter devices under observation (circa 90%). Upon verification of this condition, we then retrained our classifier four different times: one training activity for each categorical variable. Within each retraining activity, we did not use the most frequent qualitative values of that categorical variable as new additional data to train our classifier, yet we trained it again with just that fraction (almost 90% of the total amount) of meter devices (and correspondent numerical readings) that exhibited the most frequent qualitative values of that categorical variable. This procedure yielded surprising results which are as follows. The prediction accuracy of our classifier always improved. When the categorical variable indicated above with a) (i.e., type of material) was employed, the accuracy increased from 86% to 88%; with variables b) and c) (i.e., the type of meter device and the manufacturer) we reached respectively 87% and 88%; while with variable d) (i.e., usage of the meter device) the accuracy stabilized to 87%. To complete the description of our experimental scenario, it is worth mentioning that our deep learning models were implemented with the Keras framework, utilizing TensorFlow as a backend. As to the metrics for measuring the prediction accuracy, we adopted the Area Under the Curve (AUC) of the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC). For each experiment, we used 80% of the available samples (i.e., meter devices) for the training phase, while the remaining 20% was used on testing. With this paper, our intention is to precisely describe the aforementioned phenomenon and the problem that emerged, along with the solution we devised.

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To anticipate the conclusion, we can maintain that all our results has come as an empirical confirmation of the efficacy of a dimensionality reduction to get to a good point in a realistic and complex data science project [6]. The reminder of the paper is structured as follows. The next Section provides a basic background for an emerging problem of dimensionality management in the data science project we were developing. Sections 3 illustrates, respectively, the problem and then the solution we devised, while finally Sect. 4 concludes the paper.

2 Background We worked on a dataset comprised of about one million mechanical water meter devices and their relative measurements of consumed water, also indicated as readings (about fifteen million in total). Besides the numerical values represented by the readings, we were provided also with other contextual information of categorical type, such as: a) the type of material of which the meter was constructed, b) the type of the meter, c) the manufacturer of the meter, and finally d) the type of usage of the meter. Returning to the phase of training a neural model with the aforementioned water meter devices and readings, we chose a set of 17.714 water meters (and relative readings), based on a selection process described in [1–3]. In particular, as to the nonfaulty water meters, 15652 were the ones with exactly three valid readings. Instead, with defective meter devices, the concept of plateau must be first introduced. Things happen like that: usually, before failing, on a water meter device two (or more) identical measurements of consumed water can be read. This series of identical readings can be defined as a plateau. If we want to design an intelligent (and useful) neural model, this should be able to anticipate a possible water meter failure, before a plateau occurs. In fact, as soon as a plateau is observed, one could immediately conclude that that device has some problem, without even resorting to any automatic intelligent support. For this reason, as to defective devices, we trained our neural model to learn how to discover a failure, utilizing three consecutive readings. These three readings are comprised of a first, regular one, plus the subsequent two, belonging to the plateau. At the end, the number of defective water meter devices we used amounted to 2062. To conclude, our deep learning model (call it: DNN) takes as input just the numerical readings of consumed water, and it is composed by three hidden layers: i) a GRU (Gated Recurrent Unit), ii) a densely connected layer with 32 neurons, and finally iii) a densely connected layer with 128 neurons. Each layer employs the RELU (Rectified Linear Unit) as the activation function. This deep learning model has been implemented using the famous Keras and Tensorflow software frameworks. It has been trained using Adam as the optimization algorithm, for eighty epochs. As already anticipated, we employed the Area Under the Curve (AUC) of the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) as performance metrics, and in each experiment, we used 80% of the available samples for the training phase, leaving the remaining 20% for testing. At the end, with our DNN we achieved an AUC-ROC of 86% in the testing phase, which can be considered a good result, in terms of failure prediction accuracy for water meter devices.

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3 Results and Discussion At that point, with the aim of achieving an increase in the prediction accuracy we tried to ameliorate the training activity of our classifier, by adding all the categorical information available (we have already mentioned before and precisely): a) the type of material of which the meter was constructed, b) the type of the meter, c) the manufacturer of the meter, d) the type of use of the meter. Surprisingly, the introduction of all this categorical information (or simply a combination of some of them), instead of improving the accuracy of our predictions, just made it worse, falling down to a value of 83% on average. After serious considerations, our hypothesis was that such a performance deterioration has come with the increase of space dimensions, caused by the introduction of all those categorical attributes, as explained by R.E. Bellman with his famous theory known as the curse of dimensionality [5]. To verify our hypothesis, we developed an alternative technique with which to train our classifier. This is as follows. We counted the values each single categorical variable could take, and noticed the presence of a quasi-Pareto value distribution. Simply explained: of all the possible qualitative values of each categorical variable, only a small fraction (about 1/5) were present in the largest part of the water meter devices population (circa 90%). Upon verification of this condition, we definitely left the idea to use our categorical variables, as additional data, to train our model. Instead, we used them to discard all those water meter devices (and their corresponding readings) that were in the tail of the quasi-Pareto distribution (around 10-15% of devices were discarded, on average), and then we retrained four different neural models, one for each different categorical variable, namely DNNX with X = A, B, C, D. Each of these models was trained with the number of devices reported in Table 1 (rightmost column). The results of this new training procedure are reported in Table 2. In all the examined cases, we achieved an increase of the failure prediction accuracy, In particular, with DNNB and DNND the prediction accuracy stabilized from 86% to 87%, while with DNNA and DNNC we reached 88% of such accuracy.

Table 1. Number of dimensions (total and taken), with the corresponding number of water meters Attribute X

Dimensions of X

Selection of values considered for X

X X X X

98 45 48 14

23 7 11 3

= = = =

A B C D

# Water meters used for new training Faulty Non-faulty 1855 (90%) 13474 (86%) 1854 (90%) 13707 (88%) 1889 (92%) 13369 (85%) 1945 (94%) 13963 (89%)

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Table 2. Testing prediction accuracy results: AUC-ROC Neural model Testing 88% DNNA DNNB 87% DNNC 88% DNND 87%

4 Conclusion We have first described a strange case of a not useful usage of contextual information to train a neural model designed to predict defective water meter devices. We have then interpreted this problem as an implication of a space dimension increase and have resorted to an alternative strategy to train our neural model leading to a stable improvement in the ability to predict when a meter device can fail (around 87–88%). Acknowledgments. We are indebted towards the company that has provided the data. To guarantee its privacy, we keep it here anonymized.

References 1. Casini, L., Delnevo, G., Roccetti, M., Zagni, N., Cappiello, G.: Deep water: predicting water meter failures through a human-machine intelligence collaboration. In: Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing. Springer (2020) 2. Roccetti, M., Delnevo, G., Casini, L., Zagni, N., Cappiello, G.: A paradox in ML design: less data for a smarter water metering cognification experience. In: ACM International Conference Proceeding Series. ACM (2019) 3. Roccetti, M., Delnevo, G., Casini, L., Cappiello, G.: Is bigger always better? A controversial journey to the center of machine learning design, with uses and misuses of big data for predicting water meter failures. J. Big Data 6(1), 70 (2019) 4. Delnevo, G., Roccetti, M., Casini, L.: Categorical data as a stone guest in a data science project for predicting defective water meters. In: 4th Annual Science Fiction Prototyping Conference 2020: Designing your Future with Science Fiction (2020) 5. Bellman, R.: Adaptive Control Processes: A Guided Tour. Princeton University Press, Princeton (1961) 6. Casini, L., Marfia, G., Roccetti, M.: Some reflections on the potential and limitations of deep learning for automated music generation. In: IEEE International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications, PIMRC (2018)

Speaker Verification Method Using HTM for Security System Yuki Sakaguchi(&), Rin Hirakawa, Hideki Kawano, Kenichi Nakashi, and Yoshihisa Nakatoh Kyushu Institute of Technology, 1-1, Sensui-cho, Tobata-ku, Kitakyusyu-shi, Fukuoka 804-0015, Japan [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. In recent years, we have been using biometric verification systems in various places such as daily life and businesses. However, it’s insufficient in hospital and food factory to introduction of the security system of the room access control. This is because they wear gloves, masks and hats in hospitals and factories, so they cannot verify faces or fingerprints. In this study, we propose a speaker verification system using HTM (Hierarchical Temporal Memory). We verify speaker and detection of unlearned speakers by experiments. In addition, we consider the use in hospitals and factories, and also evaluate it in a noisy environment. The evaluation values are Precision, Recall, and F-measure. The experimental results show that in the case of 10 learners, F-measure exceeded 0.6 in the classification of 2 classes of learners and non-learners. Keywords: Security system HTM


Speaker verification
Voice authentication


1 Introduction In recent years, we have been using biometric systems in various places such as daily life and businesses [1]. For example, fingerprint verification to manage entrance and exit of offices, condominiums and elevators, face verification to prevent ticket resale when entering the live concert hall, etc. On the other hand, it’s insufficient in hospital and food factory to introduction of the security system of the room access control. They have controlled the intrusion there by installing surveillance cameras instead of security systems. Although the installation of a surveillance camera controls intrusion, it is difficult to prevent it in real time. Hygiene management is the most priority there. The security system is indispensable from the viewpoint of foreign matter contamination. Because they have to wear masks, gloves and caps there, they cannot use fingerprint or facial verification. Iris verification is a method of verifying with a pattern of a human iris. It is the most accurate biometric verification method. The disadvantage is that it is expensive to commercialize. Retinal verification is a technique to verify by the pattern of capillaries in the human retina. It is still insufficient. The current technology takes a long time to commercialize. Vein verification is a technique to verify by vein pattern such as palm and finger. It can’t match while wearing gloves. Voice verification is a method to © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 160–165, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_25

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verify by acoustic feature quantity and linguistic feature quantity of voice. It can match even when wearing gloves, masks, and hats. In this paper, we focus on voice verification. It is more important to detect outsiders than to recognize individual in order to prevent malicious acts such as intrusion and foreign matter contamination. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to verify the detection of unlearned speakers using voice verification. In addition, since ambient noise affects speech verification, we also verify in noisy environments. In this study, we propose a speaker verification system using Hierarchical Temporal Memory (Hereinafter referred to as HTM) [2–4]. We explain the principles of HTM in Sect. 2. The processing speed of HTM speaker verification is faster than speaker verification using conventional machine learning and statistical model [5]. We think that it was suitable for this research in which real-time property was required. Fingerprint and facial verification, which are primarily used for biometric verification, may not work in hospitals or factories where gloves, masks, or hands are full. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to recognize each registered speaker and unregistered speaker under noiseless and noisy environments using the proposed HTM speaker verification system. In addition, we evaluate its effectiveness.

2 Speaker Verification Method Using HTM 2.1

Overview

We describe HTM speaker verification method used in this study. The outline of the learning is shown in Fig. 1. In this experiment, we use a sampling frequency of 16 kHz for the input speech. First, we divide the input speech into frames (1 frame = 0.05 s). Second, we convert it to log mel spectrogram. The log mel spectrogram per frame is about 20–25 dimensions. It isn’t constant because the number of dimensions differs depending on the condition. Next, we input log mel spectrogram into the encoder. The encoder digitizes input speech (log mel spectrogram). We input the value of the log mel spectrogram of each frame to the encoder, and make an array of about 60–70 bits represented by 0 and 1. HTM learns by using the sequence in which all of them are connected.

Fig. 1. Overview of HTM speaker verification method

2.2

Hierarchical Temporal Memory

HTM is a method of machine learning. It is a model of the operating principle of the human neocortex. The reason why HTM proponent Jeff Hawkins focused on the neocortex, according to him, is that the neocortex is involved in all the activities essential for intelligence (memory), and he predicts that elucidating the function of the

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neocortex will lead to the elucidation of human intelligence (memory) and the implementation of intelligent machines [6]. HTM differs from existing neural networks in three ways. They are (1) hierarchical structure, (2) sparse distributed representation (spatial pooling) and (3) concept of time (time pooling). (1) Hierarchical structure The hierarchical structure of HTM is a structure in which regions are connected hierarchically. The region is composed of several cells (The nucleus of a neuron in a brain cell. Activated when 1 is entered.) arranged in columns. The hierarchical structure of HTM is always aggregated as it rises. Multiple elements in the child region aggregate to one element in the parent region. The patterns learn at each level of the hierarchical structure are combined and reused at higher levels to save learning time and memory consumption. (2) Sparse distributed representation (Spatial pooling) Only a few of the myriad neurons in the region of HTM are active at any given time. In other words, HTM region always keeps the input sparse. This feature is called “spatial pooling”. (3) (3) Concept of time (Time pooling) It is very important that the input information to HTM changes with time. HTM learns the sequence (things that change with time) and predicts the next state. This feature is called “time pooling”. We explain learning and verification of HTM follows. First, HTM converts the speech data in bit strings by the encoder into a sparse distributed representation by the SP (Spatial Pooling) layer. Second, HTM stores temporal learning and transition information of active cells in the TM (Temporal Memory) layer and create a speaker model. Next, HTM converts the test speech data into a sparse distributed representation by the SP (Spatial Pooling) layer as well. In addition, HTM predicts patterns based on patterns learned and compares them with actual patterns in the TM layer. Here, HTM calculates outlier represented by 0–1. A high outlier indicates that a phenomenon which does not agree with the prediction occurs. In other words, a low outlier indicates that a match has been made.

3 Experimental Condition 3.1

Speech Date

The speech corpuses used in this experiment are RedDots [7–9]. We used 15 (4 women and 11 men) utterances of “My voice is my password.” from this speech corpus. We recorded the added noise in Kokura Memorial Hospital. Each person learned using five voices. There were 3 types of speakers: 3 speakers, 5 speakers, and 10 speakers. In the evaluation, we used five voices of each learning speaker and one voice of each of five non-learning speakers. We used clean speech and speech with SNR of 10 dB and 5 dB for the evaluation samples. All speeches were the same utterance as “My voice is my password.”

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Evaluation Method

We used Precision, Recall, and F-measure (Harmonized Precision and Recall averages) in this experiment. Precision ¼ Recall ¼ F measure ¼

• • • • 3.3

TP : TP þ FP

TP : TP þ FN

2  Precision  Recall : Precision þ Recall

ð1Þ ð2Þ ð3Þ

TP (True Positive): Positive is correctly predicted as positive. FP (False Positive): Negative is accidentally predicted as positive. FN (False Negative): Positive is accidentally predicted as negative. TN (True Negative): Negative is correctly predicted as negative. Experimental Result

We show the average of F-measures (macro mean) of registered and unregistered speakers by number of registered speakers in Fig. 2. As the number of registered speakers increased, the evaluation became lower. This indicates that the recognition becomes difficult due to the increase of registered speakers.

Fig. 2. Average F-measure of each registered and unregistered speaker

In addition, in this study, since the detection of an unregistered speaker takes priority over the recognition of an individual, the average of F-measures as an alternative recognition of a registered speaker and an unregistered speaker is shown in Fig. 3.

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Compared with Fig. 2, the evaluation was lower only when the number of registered speakers was 3, but was higher when the number of registered speakers was 5 or 10.

Fig. 3. Average F-measure of registered and unregistered speakers

4 Conclusion In this study, we verified speaker recognition and detection of unregistered speakers using the HTM speaker verification system and evaluated their effectiveness. In the recognition of each registered speaker and non-registered speaker, the evaluation becomes lower as the number of registered speakers. When the noise is added at 10 dB SNR, the number of registered speakers becomes low in all patterns. The evaluation became lower when the noise was added at 5 dB SNR. F-measure was also sometimes less than 0.5, and its accuracy was insufficient. In recognition of registered or unregistered speakers F-measure exceeds 0.6 for all registered speaker patterns. As the number of registered speakers increased, the evaluation did not drop rapidly. Since there are two classes to classify, we think that the increase in the number of registered speakers did not have much effect. The evaluation became lower when noise was added. However, there was not much difference when the experimental result of the voice added with the SNR of 10 dB was compared with the voice added with the SNR of 5 dB. It was found that the presence or absence of noise had a greater effect than the magnitude of the noise. A future challenge is to provide a threshold between unregistered and registered speakers that is aware of Precision and Recall of the unregistered speakers. In addition, we are planning to test using features other than log mel spectrogram.

References 1. Biometric market. https://mag.osdn.jp/pr/17/02/20/173001 2. Numenta, Inc, altalk K.K.: Hierarchical Temporal Memory including HTM Cortical Learning Algorithms (2010)

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3. James, M., Ernest, F., Dhireesha, K.: IEEE: a mathematical formalization of hierarchical temporal memory’s spatial pooler (2016) 4. Xi, C., Wei, W., Wei, L: An overview of hierarchical temporal memory: a new neocortex algorithm (2012) 5. Hiroki, U.: A study on comparison of speaker verification methods using various machine learning, pp. 38–39 (2019) 6. Jeff, H, Sandra, B, Ito, F.: thinking brain thinking computer, pp. 53–54. Random House Ltd., New York (2005) 7. RedDots. https://sites.google.com/site/thereddotsproject/ 8. Kong, A.L., Anthony, L., Guangsen, W., Patrick, K., Niko, B., David, V.L., Hagai, A., Marcel, K., Carlos, V., Bin, M., Haizhou, L., Themos, S., Jahangir, A., Albert, S., Javier, P.: The RedDots data collection for speaker recognition (2015) 9. Hossein, Z., Lukas, B., Hossein, S., Jan, H.C.: Spoken Pass-phrase Verification in the i-vector Space (2018)

Research on Precision of Transmission Mechanism in Flight Control Deck Suite of Civil Aircraft Fang Zhang(&), Xianchao Ma, Yinbo Zhang, and Ruijie Fan COMAC Shanghai Aircraft Design and Research Institute, No. 5188 Jinke Road, Pudong New Area, Shanghai, China {zhangfang1,maxianchao,zhangyinbo,fanruijie}@comac.cc

Abstract. This paper studies and analyzes the precision calculation method of the transmission mechanism of the roll axis, pitch axis and yaw axis of the Rod and Disc Type aircraft’s Flight Control Deck Suite. As the input of flight control system, Flight Control Deck Suite’s accuracy analysis directly affects the position of control surface. The systematic and accurate calculation process ensures that the Flight Control System has good maneuverability. Keywords: Rod and dis type aircraft


Accuracy
Transmission mechanism

1 Introduction The primary flight control system is mainly used to realize the roll, pitch and yaw control and trim of the aircraft in the air, the air deceleration control and the breaking and lifting control after the aircraft is grounded. In the initial stage of civil aircraft design, it is necessary to analyze the influence of the accuracy of each link of the main flight control system on the surface deflection of the control surfaces (ailerons, elevators, rudders, spoilers and horizontal stabilizers). The calculation results need to meet the system design requirements. The primary flight control system errors mainly come from cockpit control devices, primary flight control devices, flight control computers, actuators, etc. Among them, the cockpit control system is the input of the flight control system, and the accuracy analysis results of its transmission mechanism directly affect the accuracy of the position of the control surface. Cockpit control system mainly includes roll axis, pitch axis and yaw axis. The cockpit roll axis mainly controls the movement of aileron control surface, and the rod-and-disc aircraft mainly includes control wheel, control module, release mechanism and torque tube, etc. The cockpit pitch shaft transmission mechanism mainly controls the movement of elevator control surface. The rod and disc type aircraft mainly includes the control column, push-pull rod, control module, release mechanism, torque tube, etc. The cockpit yaw axis mainly controls the movement of rudder control surface, and the rod and disc type aircraft mainly includes rudder pedal assembly, push and pull rods, control modules, etc.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 166–172, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_26

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This paper studies and analyzes the precision calculation method of the transmission mechanism of the roll axis, pitch axis and yaw axis of the cockpit control system of rod-and-disc aircraft.

2 Precision Analysis of Roll Axis Transmission Mechanism The cockpit roll axis mainly controls the movement of aileron control surface, mainly including the following equipment: control wheel, control module, release mechanism and torque tube, etc. The mechanical movement diagram of control wheel is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Mechanical movement diagram of control wheel

After simplifying the cockpit roll transmission mechanism in Fig. 1, it is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Simplified diagram of cockpit roll axis movement

The precision analysis process shows as following: TfeelspringPilot ¼ BTfeelSpringPilot þ KfeelSpringPilot  DhPilot :

ð1Þ

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TfeelSpringPilot – BTfeelSpringPilot – KfeelSpringPilot – DhPilot –

reaction torque generated by the feel force spring of the control module being driven, N.m; the starting force torque generated by the feel force spring of the control module being driven, N.m; stiffness of the feel force spring of the control module being driven, N.m/°; Angular Displacement Caused by Driving, °

TfeelspringCopilot ¼ BTfeelSpringCopilot þ KfeelSpringCopilot  DhPilot : TfeelSpringCopilot – BTfeelSpringCopilot – KfeelSpringCopilot – DhPilot –

reaction torque generated by the feel force spring of the control module being driven, N.m; the starting force torque generated by the feel force spring of the control module being driven, N.m; stiffness of the feel force spring of the control module being driven,N.m/°; Angular Displacement Caused by Driving, ° K1&2 ¼

K1&2 – K1 – K2 –

K1  K2 : K1 þ K2

ð3Þ

left and right Torque Tube continuous installation stiffness, N.m/°; left Torque Tube stiffness, N.m/°; right Torque Tube stiffness, N.m/°; DhBT ¼

DhBT –

ð2Þ

BTFeelSpringCopilot : K1&2

ð4Þ

Deviation Angle Caused by Starting Moment of Right Aileron Module, °;

The equivalent continuous stiffness of Torque Tube 1, Disconnect Unit, Torque Tube 2, feel spring, Trim Torque Tube is: 1 1 1 1 ¼ þ þ : K K1&2 KFeelSpring1stOfficer R2  KATTT K– KfeelSpringCopilot –

ð5Þ

The equivalent continuous stiffness of Torque Tube 1, Disconnect Unit, Torque Tube 2, feel spring, Trim Torque Tube; The maximum stiffness of control module, N.m/°;

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It can be seen from the above formula that the equivalent stiffness mainly comes from the stiffness of the copilot control module. The equivalent reaction torque of the co-pilot can be calculated according to the following formula: Tequivalent

Tequivalent JDU –

Copilot

–

Copilot

¼ ðDhPilot  JDU  DhBT Þ  K:

ð6Þ

pilot and copilot equivalent reaction torque, Nm; Angular Displacement Caused by Positive Driving, °;

Since the RVDT is located at the input of the co-pilot side module, we calculate the angular deviation of the two torque tube. This angle is generated by the angular deviation of 2 torque tube (between RVDT of 2-side modules). Dh ¼

Dh –

Tequivalent Copilot : K1&2

ð7Þ

Deviation Angle Caused by two torque tube, °;

The total deviation between the 2 control modules RVDT is: DhRVDT ¼ JDU þ DhBT þ Dh: DhRVDT –

ð8Þ

Deviation Angle between two control modules’ RVDT, °.

3 Precision Analysis of Pitch Shaft Transmission Mechanism The cockpit pitch shaft transmission mechanism mainly controls the movement of elevator control surface, mainly including the following equipment: control column, function module, disconnect unit, etc. The mechanical movement diagram of control column is shown in Fig. 3.

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Fig. 3. Mechanical movement diagram of control column

After simplifying the cockpit roll transmission mechanism in Fig. 3, it is shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of mechanical movement of control column

The torque of the RVDT shaft on the co-pilot side is: TCoPilotRVDT ¼ ðhCoPilotRVDT Þ  KCoPilotSpring þ BUCopilot þ TFriction : TCoPilotRVDT – hCoPilotRVDT – KCoPilotSpring – BUCopilot – TFriction –

the the the the the

ð9Þ

torque of the RVDT shaft in copilot side, Nm; input angle of copilot side, °; stiffness of feel spring force in copilot side, Nm/°; break out force, Nm; maximum friction torque, Nm;

Assumed as a pure stiffness structure, the torque is: TPilotRVDT ¼ ðhPilotRVDT  DaÞ  KPilotSpring þ BUPilot : TPilotRVDT – hPilotRVDT – KPilotSpring –

the torque of the RVDT shaft in pilot side, Nm; the input angle of pilot side, °; the stiffness of feel spring force in pilot side, Nm/°;

ð10Þ

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BUPilot – Da –

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the break out force, Nm; the maximum internal deviation angle, °; DhPilot ¼

TPilotRVDT : KA Shaft

ð11Þ

Therefore, the total deviation of RVDT between the 2 functional modules is: DhRVDT ¼ DhPilot þ Da: KA Shaft – DhPilot –

ð12Þ

Simplify the series stiffness of the mechanism, Nm/°; Angle of RVDT on the pilot side due to simplified mechanism, °.

4 Precision Analysis of Yaw Shaft Transmission Mechanism The cockpit yaw axis transmission mechanism mainly controls the movement of the rudder control surface, rudder pedals, control modules, rudder trim mechanisms, etc. The mechanical movement diagram of rudder pedals is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Mechanical movement diagram of rudder pedals

Considering the function of the flight control system computer system, the differences of pedal stiffness and clearance are not considered. The following factors need to be considered for RVDT tracking accuracy: A) installation error at 0: mechanical installation error. Can be eliminated by electronic zeroing. B) No backlash gear error in full motion: namely the gear spindle deflection. C) RVDT error at 0: based on RVDT characteristics, there is no repeat error.

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D) RVDT error in full motion: based on RVDT characteristics, there is no repeat error. E) RVDT error in full temperature range: based on RVDT characteristics, no repeat error. F) Angle conversion between two channels: mechanical conversion based on two rotors. Can be eliminated by electronic zeroing. When considering the accuracy of each link of RVDT, the error should be considered comprehensively add calculation (eg. The installation error don’t be considered because it can be eliminated of electronic rigging), which can calculate the comprehensive error between different RVDT channels.

References 1. Zhang, M.: Flight Control System. National Defense Industry Press, Beijing (1984) 2. Li, J.: Design and Research of RVDT sensor simulation Circuit. Des. Res. Civil Aircraft 02, 56–59 (2011) 3. Guo, J.: Analysis of control precision for fly-by-wire control system. Friends Sci. 20, 42–43 (2011)

A Framework for Selecting Classification Models in the Intruder Detection System Using TOPSIS Miguel Angel Quiroz Martinez(&), Deivid Temistocles Leon Rugel, Carlos Jose Espinoza Alcivar, and Maikel Yelandi Leyva Vazquez Department Computer Science, Salesian Polytechnic University, Guayaquil, Ecuador [email protected], {dleonr,cespinozaa}@est.ups.edu.ec, [email protected]

Abstract. As the network has expanded considerably, security mechanisms are a key issue in networks. Intrusive activities, such as unauthorized access and data manipulation, are increasing. Therefore, the role of the Network Intrusion Detection System (NIDS) in monitoring network traffic for activity and determining whether an intrusion has occurred is very important. The performance of an IDS depends on the selection of the classification model and training data, however, many classifiers generate similar results when measuring performance. The technique of order of preference for similarity to the ideal solution (TOPSIS) is used to select one or more alternatives based on the criteria. The main objective is to present some classification models used in a data set to select the best alternative according to the performance criteria using the TOPSIS method. The deductive method and selection research technique were applied to study the NSL-KDD. Keywords: Machine learning NSL-KDD


Intrusion Detection System (IDS)
TOPSIS


1 Introduction As computer network-based applications continue to grow every day, they handle billions of data packets that travel anywhere on the Internet. Valuable data is always attractive to intruders, making it vulnerable to network intrusions. Due to this growth, intrusive activity has increased, making security a major issue on networks. It is thus necessary to improve security mechanisms, such as the IDS intrusion detection system, which is used to examine the intrusive activity that occurs in a network or system [1]. In general, IDSs can be grouped into signature and anomaly-based detection. Signature-based detection uses a database containing several known attack signatures, and data intrusion is detected using known threat patterns [2]. Anomaly-based detection, on the other hand, identifies unusual intrusion behavior, generating alerts when activities deviate from normal behavior [3]. These IDS systems are trained to learn normal and abnormal network traffic activities, and the ideal signal and performance must have maximum detection accuracy and minimum false alarm rate [4]. For this © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 173–179, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_27

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training it is crucial to use a network traffic data set, it is also necessary to take advantage of the exploratory analysis of the data provided by the data mining models, and then proceed to their subsequent cross validation according to the desired performance criteria. Several classification algorithms have been proposed to design an intrusion detection model [5]. The selection is made using the technique of order of preference by similarity to the ideal solution (TOPSIS) is an effective method of decision making with multiple objectives (MCDM) is applied to the classification or ordering of a set of alternatives [6]. The study objective of this article is to present five different classifiers such as Logistic Regression, Naïve Bayes, Random Forest, Neural Network, kNN together with different criteria such as accuracy, exhaustiveness, precision and F-Measure applied to an NSL-KDD based data set in order to select the best model according to the performance criteria using the TOPSIS method.

2 Preliminary In this section, you will find each of the important elements that make up the research work, we offer a brief overview of multi-criteria decision making (MCDM), we present the TOPSIS method algorithm, the NSL-KDD data set and the machine learning classifier models with the performance metrics. 2.1

Multi Criteria Decision Making (MCDM)

Multi-criteria decision-making processes are structured methods used to organize and evaluate complex decisions such as the political, economic, socio-cultural, technological, environmental and legal (PESTEL) aspects of our daily lives. It was first introduced in the early 1970s as the study of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision-maker and has now been researched and refined. MCDM methods provide an effective tool for structured problem management decisions by evaluating and identifying value-based alternatives [7]. 2.2

Topsis Method Algorithm

TOPSIS is based on the concept in which the best alternative was selected. TOPSIS requires a performance score of each Ai alternative on each Ci criterion [8]. Each of the steps within the proposed TOPSIS algorithm is detailed below: The TOPSIS method is based on previous knowledge of the decision matrix D = [aij]: 2












.. .

3 a1n a2n 7 7 7 7


5

am2






amn

a11 6a 6 21 D¼6 6 4




a12 a22

am1

ð1Þ

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Step 1. The standardized decision matrix R = [rij] is calculated. Each rij item is calculated as shown: aij ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ; j ¼ 1; 2; . . .; n : rij ¼ qP m 2 i¼1 aij

ð2Þ

Step 2. The standardized weighted decision matrix V = [vij] is calculated. Each rij element is multiplied by its weight assigned to each criterion wj: vij ¼ rij
wj ; j ¼ 1; 2; . . .; n:

ð3Þ

Step 3. Define the ideal positive PIS alternative solution and the ideal negative NIS solution. Note: I and J compose the set of criteria type cost and type benefit: A

þ

    n   n þ  ¼ maxjj 2 I j ; minjj 2 I j ¼ v1þ ; v2þ ; . . .; vnþ : i¼1

i¼1

    n   n þ    A ¼ minjj 2 I j ; maxjj 2 I j ¼ v 1 ; v2 ; . . .; vn : 

i¼1

i¼1

ð4Þ ð5Þ

Step 4. Calculate the separation measurement based on the Euclidean distance of each concept to the PIS and NIS: diþ

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ffi

2 Xm þ ¼ vij  vj ; i ¼ 1; 2; . . .; n: j¼1

ð6Þ

d i

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ffi

2 Xm  ¼ vij  vj ; i ¼ 1; 2; . . .; n: j¼1

ð7Þ

Step 5. Calculate the relative closeness for each alternative to the PIS: Ciþ ¼

diþ

d i ; 0  Ciþ  1: þ d i

ð8Þ

Step 6. The last step of the algorithm classifies the alternatives in order. The best alternatives will be those with the highest C+i value, i.e. closest to 1. 2.3

Dataset NSL-KDD

NSL-KDD is a well-known data set and represents an improved version of the original KDD Cup 99 data set with concise data for network intrusion detection system (IDS) investigation [9]. It contains 42 attributes with 125,973 instances, classified into 67,343 instances of normal traffic and 58,630 instances of abnormal traffic. NSL-KDD data is grouped into three main attribute types: basic attributes, traffic attributes, and content attributes [10]. NSL-KDD has huge records of instances, that is why its short

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version is widely used and is called KDDTrain + _20Percentage is a subset of 20% of the KDDTrain file that contains a total of 25,192 instances, of which 1,349 are normal traffic and 1,743 are attack traffic [11]. By using the Orange Data Mining tool in a regular use of the widget, this data set is taken to evaluate and test the machine learning classifiers, using 10 times cross validation we observe their performance in Test & Score [12]. The results are encouraging and most of the models have a favorable score. 2.4

Machine Learning Classifier Models

This section provides an overview of the fundamental self-learning classification models used to predict whether the package is normal or malicious in the intrusion detection system (IDS) [13]. The main classifiers used are: Logistic Regression (LR) works for binary classification or multi-class classification, the probability of an instance is predicted using the logistic function of the task. Naïve Bayes (NB) is based on Bayes’ theorem, the assumptions are the independence between the predictors, the probability that the presence of each attribute does not influence the others. Random Forest (RF) is an outstanding model based on a decision tree at the time of learning and works by searching for proximity, then averaging its predictions. Neural Network (NN) is an optimized model, which consists of a set of (artificial) units connected to each other and transmitting signals inspired by the functioning of the brain through the Multi-Layer Perceptron algorithm. k-Nearest Neighbors (kNN) is used to try to seed groups of similar patterns with sampling data sets to find the distance between neighbors [14]. 2.5

Performance Metrics

To evaluate the performance of machine learning classifier models in intrusion detection systems (IDS) [15, 16]. In general, the metrics are: Accuracy (A) is the percentage that were correctly classified, over a total number of classifications. Precision (P) is the percentage of correct positional ratings over all positive ratings. Recall (R) is the percentage of positive instances that are correctly classified. F-Measure (FM) is the harmonic mean between the precision metric and the recall metric [17].

3 Case Study The case study applies to a well-known data set, the NSL-KDD data set. The alternatives considered will be noted by Ai (i = 1, 2,…,m). Where A1 is Logistic Regression, A2 is Naïve Bayes, A3 is Random Forest, A4 is Neural Network, A5 is k-Nearest Neighbors. While the criteria used to evaluate the performance of the alternatives are Cj (j = 1,2,…,n). Where C1 is Accuracy, C2 is Precision, C3 is Recall, C4 is F-Measure. Based on the above parameters, a decision matrix m x n (5  4) is created whose generic element aij, Table 1.

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Table 1. Decision matrix D = [aij] A1 A2 A3 A4 A5

C1 0,893 0,919 0,997 0,995 0,987

C2 0,896 0,925 0,997 0,995 0,987

C3 0,893 0,919 0,997 0,995 0,987

C4 0,893 0,919 0,997 0,995 0,987

The standard elements are calculated by (2) as shown in Table 2. Table 2. Standardized decision matrix R = [rij] A1 A2 A3 A4 A5

C1 0,4163 0,4284 0,4648 0,4639 0,4601

C2 0,4170 0,4305 0,4640 0,4630 0,4593

C3 0,4164 0,4285 0,4648 0,4639 0,4602

C4 0,4163 0,4284 0,4648 0,4639 0,4601

To obtain the standardized weighted decision matrix it is calculated by (3). Then the values of the ideal solution A+ and A− are determined using (4) and (5), see Table 3. Table 3. Standardized weighted decision matrix with A+ and A− ideal values 1

A A2 A3 A4 A5 A+ A−

C1 0,1040 0,1071 0,1162 0,1159 0,1150 0,1162 0,1040

C2 0,1042 0,1076 0,1160 0,1157 0,1148 0,1160 0,1042

C3 0,1041 0,1071 0,1161 0,1160 0,1150 0,1162 0,1041

C4 0,1040 0,1071 0,1162 0,1159 0,1150 0,1162 0,1040

The Euclidean distances of each PIS and NIS alternative are estimated using (6) and (7), then relative proximity is measured (8) and classified, as illustrated in the Table 4.

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A A2 A3 A4 A5

d+i 0,0240 0,0178 0,0000 0,0004 0,0023

d−i 0,0000 0,0062 0,0240 0,0235 0,0217

C+i 0,0000 0,2591 1,0000 0,9806 0,9031

Rank 5 4 1 2 3

Finally, between 5 models of machine learning with respect to 4 criteria, after using this method. The classification obtained is clearly as follows A3 > A4 > A5 > A2 > A1.

4 Conclusion and Future Work According to the study presented here, it is concluded that within the machine learning classification models the results are encouraging and most of the models obtain a favorable score in terms of accuracy. In order to select the machine learning model, the main thing to consider is that it must satisfy the need to identify the problem and the target field concerning the NSL-KDD data set. The TOPSIS technique selects the best machine learning sorting model in a structured and simple way according to the performance criteria. For future work it is proposed to carry out the evaluation with other classifiers or unsupervised algorithms that may work well for the IDS domain and, however, are not analyzed here, such as the use of the discriminating multinomial and self-organizing map. Acknowledgments. This work has been supported by the GIIAR research group and the Salesian Polytechnic University of Guayaquil.

References 1. Deshmukh, D.H., Ghorpade, T., Padiya, P.: Improving classification using preprocessing and machine learning algorithms on NSL-KDD dataset. In: Proceedings - 2015 International Conference on Communication, Information & Computing Technology, ICCICT 2015, pp. 1–6 (2015) 2. Kunhare, N., Tiwari, R.: Study of the attributes using four class labels on KDD99 and NSLKDD datasets with machine learning techniques. In: Proceedings - 2018 8th International Conference on Communication Systems and Network Technologies, CSNT 2018, pp. 127– 131 (2018) 3. Thomas, R., Pavithran, D.: a survey of intrusion detection models based on NSL-KDD data set. In: ITT 2018 - Information Technology Trends Emerging Technology Artifical Intelligence, pp. 286–291 (2019) 4. Meena, G., Choudhary, R.R.: A review paper on IDS classification using KDD 99 and NSL KDD dataset in WEKA. In: 2017 International Conference on Computer, Communications and Electronics, COMPTELIX 2017, pp. 553–558 (2017)

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5. Sivanantham, S., Abirami, R., Gowsalya, R.: Comparing the performance of adaptive boosted classifiers in anomaly based intrusion detection system for networks. In: Proceedings - International Conference on Vision Towards Emerging Trends in Communication and Networking, ViTECoN 2019, pp. 1–5 (2019) 6. Panda, M., Jagadev, A.K.: TOPSIS in multi-criteria decision making: a survey. In: Proceedings - 2nd International Conference on Data Science and Business Analytics, ICDSBA 2018, pp. 51–54 (2018) 7. Singh, R., Kumar, H., Singla, R.K.: TOPSIS based multi-criteria decision making of feature selection techniques for network traffic dataset. Int. J. Eng. Technol. 5, 4598–4604 (2013) 8. Patsariya, P., Singh, R.R.: Classifier rank identification using multi-criteria decision making method for intrusion detection dataset. Int. J. Innov. Technol. Explor. Eng. 9, 1732–1738 (2019). https://doi.org/10.35940/ijitee.A5223.119119 9. Hakim, L., Fatma, R., Novriandi: influence analysis of feature selection to network intrusion detection system performance using NSL-KDD dataset. In: Proceedings - 2019 International Conference on Computer Science, Information Technology, and Electrical Engineering, ICOMITEE 2019, vol. 1, pp. 217–220 (2019) 10. Tungjaturasopon, P., Piromsopa, K.: Performance analysis of machine learning techniques in intrusion detection. In: ACM International Conference Proceeding Series, pp. 6–10 (2018) 11. Yihunie, F., Abdelfattah, E., Regmi, A.: Applying machine learning to anomaly-based intrusion detection systems. In: 2019 IEEE Long Island Systems, Applications and Technology Conference, LISAT 2019, pp. 1–5 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1109/LISAT.2019. 8817340 12. Zhou, Y., Cheng, G., Jiang, S., Dai, M.: Building an efficient intrusion detection system based on feature selection and ensemble classifier (2020) 13. Halimaa, A.A., Sundarakantham, K.: Machine learning based intrusion detection system. In: Proceedings International Conference Trends Electronics Informatics, ICOEI 2019, pp. 916– 920 (2019) 14. Hamid, Y., Sugumaran, M., Journaux, L.: Machine learning techniques for intrusion detection: A comparative analysis. In: ACM International Confernce Proceeding Series, 25– 26-August, pp. 0–5 (2016) 15. Zhang, C., Ruan, F., Yin, L., Chen, X., Zhai, L., Liu, F.: A deep learning approach for network instrusion detection based on NSL-KDD dataset, pp. 41–45 (2019) 16. Gao, X., Shan, C., Hu, C., Niu, Z., Liu, Z.: An adaptive ensemble machine learning model for intrusion detection. IEEE Access. 7, 82512–82521 (2019) 17. Singh, T., Kumar, N.: Machine learning models for intrusion detection in IoT environment: a comprehensive review. Comput. Commun. (2020)

Augmented, Virtual and Mixed Reality Simulation

Physical Add-Ons for Haptic HumanSurrounding Interaction and Sensorial Augmentation Eva Lindell1,2, Arthur Theil3, Li Guo1,2, Nasrine Olsson4, Oliver Korn3, and Nils-Krister Persson1,2(&) 1

Swedish School of Textiles, Polymeric E-textiles, University of Borås, 501 90 Borås, Sweden {eva.lindell,li.guo,nils-krister.persson}@hb.se 2 Smart Textiles, Smart Textiles Technology Lab, University of Borås, 501 90 Borås, Sweden 3 Affective and Cognitive Institute, Offenburg University of Applied Sciences, Offenburg, Germany {arthur.theil,oliver.korn}@hs-offenburg.de 4 Swedish School of Library and Information Science, University of Borås, 510 90 Borås, Sweden [email protected]

Abstract. Interaction and capturing information from the surrounding is dominated by vision and hearing. Haptics on the other side, widens the bandwidth and could also replace senses (sense switching) for impaired. Haptic technologies are often limited to point-wise actuation. Here, we show that actuation in two-dimensional matrices instead creates a richer input. We describe the construction of a full-body garment for haptic communication with a distributed actuating network. The garment is divided into attachabledetachable panels or add-ons that each can carry a two dimensional matrix of actuating haptic elements. Each panel adds to an enhanced sensoric capability of the human- garment system so that together a 720° system is formed. The spatial separation of the panels on different body locations supports semantic and theme-wise separation of conversations conveyed by haptics. It also achieves directional faithfulness, which is maintaining any directional information about a distal stimulus in the haptic input. Keywords: Smart textiles
Haptic communication Directional faithfulness
Multi-panel


Sense technology


1 Introduction Even if human awareness of his/her surrounding is dominated by sight and hearing, human interaction and sensing with the surrounding (nature, artefacts, other humans etc.) is more heterogeneous and includes many so called NANV (Non audial, nonvisual) communication modalities [1], including haptics [2] i.e. covering both tactile or cutaneous [3] (touch, also pain, thermal) and kinaesthetic senses (mechanoreceptors in © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 183–188, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_28

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muscles and tendons [2]). Even if perhaps tactual is a more proper term [4] haptics has become much used as an umbrella term for technologies exploring, supporting and using, touch senses whether this is passive (body parts not in movement) or active (body parts are exploring the surrounding, including cognitive expectations). An emerging part of haptic technology is haptic communication, which is to involve the touch sense for receiving messages. Haptics is part of the larger field of sense technology or sense science (compare life science) which is a field working with exploring, maintaining and enhancing human senses. There are several features specific to haptic communication; a. Simply taking use of an underused sense and by this getting more input possibilities to the human b. Unburden other senses, typically sight and audial, if these modalities already are maximized in a given situation. c. Potentially, a more direct access to the cognitive system might be possible. d. Haptic communication has the ability to convey different emotional experiences and improve social interactions [5] e. Including those persons not having access to (full) sight and hearing i.e. persons having deafblindness (DB) as well as divers, certain kind of first responders such as fire fighters, combat vehicle staff is possible. This is sense switching. Sense switching is extracting information within a stimulus coupled to a certain sense and remake this to another stimulus, typically then of a perceivable sense for certain impairments. f. The use of haptic communication may increase the sense of co-presence and facilitate collaboration in shared manual tasks [6] g. New kinds of sensation and new ways of communicating new kinds of content might be possible Persons having deafblindness (DB) is group with specific needs and conditions. For this group haptic communication is the major mean of accessing the surrounding and getting information about other humans. It is a versatile group, with both those that are congenital deafblind and acquired at a prelingual or post lingual age [7]. Needs are highly different. Personalization is therefore valuable. Different haptic sign languages (hand-by-hand, tactile fingerspelling etc.) has been developed and often human assisting interpreters are used. Social haptic language, SHL, as developed by Riitta Lahtinen [8] is based on having an interpreter (sender) giving haptic stimulus, most often on the back, or on the shoulders. Signs used, inform on what is happening in the surrounding, asking and responding to questions etc.

2 Multidimensional Haptic Communicative Input The realization of haptic communicative devices needs to take the everyday life of the users into account’ and by this being portable i.e. to belong to the artefact family of wearables. Many types of means for generating haptic stimulus could be of interest; tactors of different kinds such as vibro-tactile elements [9], heat element using Peltier elements [2], skin drag [10], pressure[11], pressure by air jets[12], brushing[13]. Here

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we have no preference of any of these. Still, the spatial arrangement of the haptic actuating elements has to be discussed. Calling a single actuator, a “dot”, that potentially could be on and off, and when on, showing different amplitudes or frequencies, as point wise actuation or zero dimensional actuation, 0D we notice that this is a much used situation in wearables or otherwise. However, the informational content has the risk of being limited, more or less only like an alarm function. This is what is used in smartphones for notifications for incoming phone calls or text messages. Instead, arranging actuators in a linear order, one dimensional, 1D, opens up for temporal sequencing of the actuators, still being part of the same message. This enhances the potential richness of the information that can be conveyed but cannot be driven too far as the spatial resolution of human tactile sensitivity is limited and varies over the body. Two-dimensional actuation, 2D, is the arrangement of actuators on a limited part of the body so that the set of actuators still could be said to be in a plane or having maximum one single curvature. If of more complicated geometry, switching between concave and convex shape, (pseudo) three dimensional, 3D, could be the term used. This also includes the case when covering different body parts. (Full-fledged three-dimensional actuator arrangements are probably of less interest as humans cannot, by the tactile sense, detect things outside of each other and actuators risk to cover each other.) Actuators in a 2D arrangement could be in any non-array formation but a matrix arrangement is perhaps first at hand, by this forming columns and arrays. There are several reasons why 2D is more interested than 0D and 1D: a. 2D is containing 2nm signs, where n is the number of rows and m columns. The number of combinations grows fast, beyond human discrimination capacity, but is not different from a linear array with the same number of dots b. As mentioned, 0D, can only convey some information that is synonymous with “Something is happening” but nothing more (like what is happening, if several things are happening, from where somethings is happening etc.). 0D is necessary indexical and symbolic in a semiological parlour, whereas 2D could potentially also mimic reality in some very simple meaning and being iconic c. 2D opens up for dynamic patterns (so 1D), dots could become vibrating in certain order d. For the 2D case it is potentially possible to let columns and row carry meaning. Rows could, say, stand for a certain general class (say: related to food/eating, related to moving, related to friends/relationships etc.) and magnitude could be expressed as how many columns in row that are used. This could not be done for 0D and 1D e. By 2D directional information is possible. By activating some of the actuators in a sequence this could mimic from where a certain phenomenon is coming (left-right, up-down) f. If there is an (predetermined) origin it is possible to illustrate close and far away g. It is possible to illustrate “much” easily in 2D by having all vibrators active simultaneously but this also goes for 1D with “higher-lower” possibilities and, say, “left-right”, “little-much” h. This leads to that quantification, and that numbering is possible in 2D

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i. When an interpreter is describing a room in SHL with interesting objects, significant persons etc. a map is drawn on the back of a person with first a frame for the walls, and then signs for what is important and where that is placed giving some apprehension for the spatial distribution. Such localisation of interesting objects is possible in 2D j. 2D is a step towards haptic pictures (i.e. leaving symbols) which are such that they mimic the tactile aspects of an object with a lot of tactile contrast of its parts

3 All Body Multi-panel Communicative Suit This list is simultaneously argument for that textiles are useful. Textiles are twodimensional and covers large parts of the body. Enrich textiles with actuators, or even better, inherent actuating functionality [14] and take advantage of that textiles in the form of garments enable good skin contact due to its elastic properties, a platform for haptic communication is established. Textiles could handle human form factors that are complicated with concave-convex intermixing and only few protrusions (waist, neck etc.) that can overcome ever-present gravitation that always cause a downward movement on any worn devices. Interpreters using the abovementioned SHL uses a certain body part – often the back – for describing a scene, say a room the users is about to enter with significant persons and exits, speakers, foods etc. This is one conversation on a certain topic. It might be that another conversation such as detailed descriptions of what a speaker says. Often – due to the interplay between interpreter and user both, in advanced and during the situation – a new body part, say upper arm, is used for the novel topic. Another topic might emerge were it might be bewildering if the back or arm should be used and “overwrite” the previous conversation. Further on, there might be useful directional information that can be signed on the body part closest to where things are happening in the surrounding. All this leads to that enabling haptic input at many, spread body locations is of value and that a modular system for different body parts that can be customized after the individual and the expected events is of interest. Garment was designed and manufactured in-house. The pattern consisted of ten pieces for different body locations such as back, arms, and thighs. Attachment of the actuators is done by a Velcro surface (warp knitted Veltex) on the inside of the garment pieces and the actuators placed in Velcro pockets. The different pieces are fitted to the body with the help of straps, both elastic and non-elastic depending on placement on the body. Together almost the whole body except for hands and faces can be used for maximal input (of course filtered by human psychophysical capacity). The design is such that each panel can be worn irrespectively of other panels. The suit is part of a larger system [15] not here described with cameras and other sensors capturing info from the surrounding. There are a number of arguments that panels for different body parts, as physical add-ons are useful. First Argument: Enabling Customization and Mission Specificity. Panels could be added and worn according to need. Factors determining when attached or detached are a) disabilities, if any; b) personalities; c) stigma, empowering: d) sizes; e) planned

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tasks, type of mission; f) other clothing worn or not worn. Panels are following a modular philosophy and as such supporting cost effectiveness, repair and waste treatment. Second Argument: Different Topics - Different Panels. As explained above, different conversation themes and topics trigger the use of different panels in SHL. It is also the case that spatial separation of the panels enables semantic and theme-wise separation. Third Argument: 2D Arrangement. As discussed and argued above arrangement of the actuating elements in a matrix has many benefits. Panels could be made (and are) of such sizes that a 2D arrangement could be integrated. It could also be that a panel could be devoted to a certain (class of) concept classes or intensities could be conveyed by one module and details and sub concepts by another. Fourth Argument: Directional Faithfulness. Directional faithfulness is the characteristic of a sense that a proximal stimulus convey information about the direction (i.e. some angle and some distance) of the distal stimulus. Sight have this. Tactile sense shows directional faithfulness. Then any technology mimicking haptic senses should also have this property. Thus, textiles should be constructed so that the haptic interface maintains directional faithfulness. Panels on different parts of the body together are able to catch haptic stimuli from directions not only 360° in any horizontal plane but 720 fully surrounding the human body.

4 Conclusions We have argued that 2D haptic arrangement are of high value and that a textile suit with panels for different body locations both support this and enable sensorial augmentation and sense switching. Garment in ten pieces independent of each other has been designed and opens up the way for high comfort products. Acknowledgments. This work has been partially funded by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 780814 SUITCEYES.

References 1. Stöhr, A., Lindell, A., Guo, L., Persson, N.-K.: Thermal textile pixels: the characterisation of temporal and spatial thermal. Materials 12(22), 3747 (2019) 2. Lederman, S.J., Klatzky, R.L.: Haptic perception: a tutorial. Atten. Percept. Psychophys. 71, 1439–1459 (2009) 3. Loomis, J.M., Lederman, S.J.: Tactual perception. In: Boff, K., Kaufman, L., Thomas, J. (eds.) Handbook of Perception and Human Performance, Organization, New York (1986) 4. Fernandes, A., Albuquerque, P.: Tactual perception: a review of experimental variables and procedures. Cogn. Process. 13, 285–301 (2012) 5. Rantala, J., Raisamo, R., Lylykangas, J., Ahmaniemi, T., Raisamo, J., Rantala, J., Mäkelä, K., Salminen, K., Surakka, V.: The role of gesture types and spatial feedback in haptic communication. IEEE Trans. Haptics 4(4), 295–306 (2011)

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6. Chellali, A., Dumas, C., Milleville-Pennel, I.: Influence of Haptic Communication on a Shared Manual Task in a Collaborative Virtual Environment. Interact. Comput. 23(4), 317– 328 (2011) 7. Flemming, A.-L., Damen, S.: Definitions of deafblindness and congenital deafblindness. Res. Dev. Disabil. 35(10), 2568–2576 (2014) 8. Lahtinen, R.M.: Haptices and Haptemes Helsinki Paperback (2008) 9. Jones, L.A., Held, D.A.: Characterization of tactors used in vibrotactile displays. J. Comput. Inf. Sci. Eng. 8(4), 044501 (2008) 10. Ion, A., Wang, E.J., Baudisch, P.: Skin drag displays: dragging a physical tactor across the user’s skin produces a stronger tactile stimulus than vibrotactile. In: Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2015). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, pp. 2501–2504 (2015) 11. Kim, K., Colgate, J.E., Peshkin, M.A., Santos-Munné, J.J. Makhlin, A.: A miniature tactor design for upper extremity prosthesis. In: Frontiers in the Convergence of Bioscience and Information Technologies, Jeju City, pp. 537–542 (2007) 12. Bliss, J., Crane, H., Mansfield, P.: Information available in brief tactile presentations. Percept. Psychophys. 1, 273–283 (1966) 13. Strasnick, E., Cauchard, J.R., Landay J.A.: BrushTouch: exploring an alternative tactile method for wearable haptics. In: Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2017). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, pp. 3120–3125 (2017) 14. Maziz, A., Concas, A., Khaldi, A., Stålhand, J., Persson, N.-K., Jager, E.W.H.: Knitting and weaving artificial muscles. Sci. Adv. 3(1), e1600327 (2017) 15. Olson, N., Urbanski, J., Persson, N.-K., Starosta-Sztuczka, J., Fuentes, M.: Sensor technology, gamification, haptic interfaces in an assistive wearable. In: 34th Annual Assistive Technology Conference Scientific/Research Proceedings, vol. 7 (2019)

A Mixed Reality Interface for Handheld 3D Scanners Jérôme Isabelle(&) and Denis Laurendeau Université Laval, Quebec City, QC, Canada [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. The user interface is an essential part of handheld 3D scanners. During the scanning process, it provides feedback to the user to help him operate the scanner in an efficient way. For instance, it generally displays the reconstructed 3D model in real-time to let the user know which parts of the object have been captured and which have not. Traditionally, this type of information is displayed on a 2D screen, via a graphical user interface. Instead, we propose to use a mixed reality headset. We claim that this technology is better suited for handheld 3D scanning because it allows the reconstructed 3D model to be blended into the user’s perception of the real world. To validate this claim, we developed a prototype that uses the HTC Vive Pro headset as an interface for a handheld 3D scanner based on a Primesense Carmine RGB-D Camera. Keywords: 3D user interface
Augmented reality
Mixed reality
Handheld 3D scanner
3D reconstruction

1 Introduction Handheld (or portable) 3D scanners allow the acquisition of the shape and possibly the appearance of an object in real-time. The main advantages of these devices over other 3D scanning technologies are its great flexibility and portability. However, since they are operated by hand, they are subject to human limitations. Thus, a crucial aspect of the design of a handheld 3D scanner is its user interface. Nowadays, the vast majority, if not all handheld 3D scanners, include a graphical user interface (GUI) that provides feedback and/or guidance to the user during the scanning process. Depending on the specific system, the display can take many forms: a computer monitor, a built-in screen, a tablet or a smartphone. In this paper, we explore the use of a mixed reality (MR) headset as a user interface for the operation of handheld 3D scanners. We claim that this 3D user interface is more suitable for the task of 3D scanning than 2D GUIs because it allows the visualization of the reconstructed 3D model directly over the real object, from the user’s viewpoint and in 3D. The resulting interaction is similar to spray painting in the real world, a very natural and intuitive activity. This paper describes a prototype of the system that was built using the HTC Vive Pro Full Kit [1] virtual reality (VR) system and the Primesense Carmine 1.09 [2] RGB-D camera. The stereo front-facing cameras on the © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 189–194, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_29

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headset are used to create an MR experience and the RGB-D camera is mounted on a Vive Controller to build a handheld 3D scanner.

2 Related Work The idea of using mixed reality headsets to improve the 3D scanning/reconstruction experience is very recent. Therefore, the literature addressing this specific topic is scarce. In their work, Andersen et al. presented a novel approach to photogrammetric acquisition that uses an augmented reality (AR) head-mounted display (HMD) [3]. The HMD generates a coarse 3D model of the scene that is analyzed at runtime to predict a set of views for surface coverage. The view locations are then rendered in the headset to interactively guide an operator in the image acquisition process. This approach applies to photogrammetry while ours applies to handheld 3D scanning. These two 3D reconstruction techniques require different interactions and often produce very different results. Generally, it is much easier to obtain high quality results with a handheld 3D scanner than it is with photogrammetry technology. Wu et al. also proposed a system that provides real-time visual guidance and feedback about the 3D reconstruction process using a mixed reality headset [4]. However, the reconstruction is not performed by moving a handheld device around the object. Instead, the scanner (RGB-D camera) is mounted on the headset and the user must rotate the object in his hands to capture its geometry. This is clearly not suitable for heavy or large size objects. Moreover, their system seems to only provide monoscopic vision of the real world, whereas ours provides complete stereoscopic vision for a better depth perception.

3 System Description 3.1

Use Case

Figure 1 shows the view of an operator scanning an object using our system. First, the operator must choose which part of the scene will be reconstructed by moving a virtual cube frame attached to the scanner. The size of the cube can be changed using the up and down buttons of a Vive Controller’s trackpad. Everything outside this volume will be ignored during the reconstruction. When the operator is satisfied with the position and size of the reconstruction volume, he can start the scan by pressing the controller’s trigger. During the scan, the operator can see the real-time 3D model of the object being rendered on top of the real-world object. This allows the operator to intuitively assess the progression of the scan. The surface of the 3D model that is seen by the camera is colorcoded according to the distance between the camera and the surface. The red color means that the scanner is too far; the blue color, that it is too close; and the green color, that it is at a valid distance. At any time during the scanning process, the operator can pause or resume the scan using the left button of the trackpad and hide or show the 3D model

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using the right button of the trackpad. These features are particularly useful when the operator wants to assess the quality of the 3D model and compare it with the real object.

Fig. 1. Cropped left-eye view of the operator before starting the scan (left image) and during the scan (middle and right images).

3.2

Software Architecture

Our application was built with the Unity game engine [5] and uses 3 plugins: the SRWorks SDK [6], the SteamVR plugin [7] and a native 3D reconstruction plugin. The SRWorks SDK provides many features related to the front-facing cameras of the Vive Pro such as stereo pass-through augmented reality and depth mapping. The SteamVR plugin is used to handle inputs from the controllers. Finally, the native 3D reconstruction plugin allows us to access the functionalities of the 3D reconstruction engine (in C++) in Unity scripts (in C#). 3.3

Handheld 3D Scanner

On the software side, the 3D reconstruction is performed using a slightly modified version of Kinfu_remake [8], an open source and optimized implementation of the popular KinectFusion algorithm [9]. On the hardware side, our homemade handheld 3D scanner is composed of a Primesense Carmine 1.09, which is an RGB-D camera, and an HTC Vive controller (Fig. 2). The camera is mounted on the controller using a custom 3D printed support. The controller has many purposes in our system. It offers a comfortable handle to the scanner, gives access to multiple input buttons to control the scanning process and is an essential part of the calibration process.

Fig. 2. Front (left image) and side (right image) views of the handheld 3D scanner.

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Calibration

Figure 3 illustrates the different coordinate frames and rigid transformations of our system. In order for the 3D model to be properly aligned with the real-world view in the headset, the depth measurements must be mapped into the virtual world space. As shown in Fig. 3, the only missing transformation to complete the chain is the one between the RGB frame and the controller frame. Indeed, the camera driver automatically transforms the depth coordinates into the RGB frame, and the controller and headset are both tracked in the virtual world through the SteamVR Base Stations system. Fortunately, this problem has been well studied by the robotics community. It is known as the hand-eye calibration problem and many solutions have been proposed. The first step of our calibration procedure is to perform camera calibration. This is done by capturing several images (20) of a chessboard pattern from different viewpoints. To compute the camera parameters, we use the OpenCV [10] implementation, which is based on the work of Zhang [11] and Bouguet [12]. Simultaneously, for each camera pose, we record the transformation between the controller frame and the virtual world frame. Then, we use the hand-eye calibration method of Daniilidis [13], also implemented in OpenCV, to estimate the transformation between the controller frame and the RGB frame. This method accepts the following input: the set of extrinsic parameters found by the camera calibration and the recorded transformations between the controller frame and the virtual world frame. Once the system is calibrated, the volume pose and the RGB pose are transformed into the virtual world frame and used to initialize the reconstruction engine. The transformed RGB pose is also used to automatically relocalize the sensor when the Iterative Closest Point (ICP) based tracking provided by Kinfu_remake is lost.

Fig. 3. Diagram of the different coordinate frames and rigid transformations of our system.

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Rendering and Occlusion

There are 3 things that need to be rendered in the headset: the real world, the cube frame and the reconstructed 3D model. The real-world view and the cube frame are both rendered using Unity’s built-in renderer. We use the SRWorks SDK plugin to enable stereo video pass-through in the headset. The plugin also generates a depth map that is used to handle occlusion between the real world and the cube frame. With regard to the reconstructed 3D model, we adopt the rendering algorithm of KinectFusion [9], which is based on the raycasting of the Truncated Signed Distance Function (TSDF) volume. However, instead of raycasting once from the camera’s viewpoint, we raycast twice from the eyes’ viewpoints to generate two slightly different images. The pixels of the images that correspond to the object are opaque whereas pixels in the background are transparent. The images are copied into Unity textures and alpha blended with the textures generated by Unity’s built-in renderer. The result is a 3D model being rendered on top of everything else.

4 Limitations and Future Work The most limiting factor of our system is that it takes tremendous amounts of computation to perform real-time 3D reconstruction and to render everything twice in the headset. We tested the prototype on a PC equipped with an Nvidia GTX 1060 GPU and an Intel i7-3930 K CPU, and we could barely achieve 30 fps when rendering a volume of 5123 voxels. This is far from the 90 fps framerate targeted for a smooth experience. This limitation could be solved with more efficient algorithms or with better hardware. For instance, it would be interesting to see if we could exploit the real-time ray-tracing capabilities of the new Nvidia RTX graphic cards in our system. Another limitation concerns the headset itself. The Vive Pro performs very well as a VR headset. However, its MR capabilities are underwhelming to say the least. The video pass-through functionality has a low resolution (480p) and high latency (200 ms), creating a disappointing immersion experience for the user. Moreover, the tracking system of the Vive Pro is based on external Base Stations, which considerably limits the portability of the 3D scanning system. In future work, it would be interesting to try other mixed reality headsets. Finally, our implementation does not handle occlusion between the raycasted 3D model and the other rasterized graphics. In some specific situations, this can be a little confusing for the user. However, the rendering pipeline could be modified to allow polygon-based graphics to be composited on the raycasted view with correct occlusion handling [9].

5 Conclusion We have presented the first system that uses a mixed reality headset as an interface for handheld 3D scanners. We are confident that this new technology can improve the usability of a handheld 3D scanner, although a user study is necessary to fully validate

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this claim. We developed a prototype using an RGB-D camera as the scanner and the HTC Vive Pro as the headset. It allowed us to better understand the various challenges related to the implementation of such a system. Although we did not achieve a performance high enough for a smooth MR experience, we were still able to provide a basic solution on which to build future optimized implementations. Acknowledgments. This work was supported by a grant from the NSERC-Creaform Industrial Research Chair on 3D Scanning. We also thank Denis Ouellet for his help in the design of the 3D printed part.

References 1. Vive Pro Full Kit. https://www.vive.com/us/product/vive-pro-full-kit/ 2. PrimeSense Carmine 1.09. http://xtionprolive.com/primesense-carmine-1.09 3. Andersen, D., Villano, P.: AR HMD guidance for controlled hand-held 3D acquisition. IEEE Trans. Visual Comput. Graphics 25(11), 3073–3082 (2019) 4. Wu, Y.C., Chan, L., Lin, W.C.: Tangible and visible 3D object reconstruction in augmented reality. In: 2019 IEEE International Symposium on Mixed and Augmented Reality (ISMAR), pp. 26–36 (2019) 5. Unity. https://www.unity.com 6. SRWorks SDK. https://developer.vive.com/resources/knowledgebase/intro-vive-srworks-sdk/ 7. SteamVR Unity Plugin, https://assetstore.unity.com/packages/tools/integration/steamvr-plug in-32647 8. KinFu remake. https://github.com/Nerei/kinfu_remake 9. Izadi, S., Kim, D. Hilliges, O., Molyneaux, D., Newcombe, R., Kohli, P., Shotton, J., Hodges, S., Freeman, D., Davison, A., Fitzgibbon, A.: KinectFusion: real-time 3D reconstruction and interaction using a moving depth camera. In: Proceedings of the 24th Annual ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology, pp. 559–568 (2011) 10. OpenCV. https://opencv.org/ 11. Zhang, Z.: A flexible new technique for camera calibration. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 22(11), 1330–1334 (2000) 12. Camera Calibration Toolbox for Matlab. http://www.vision.caltech.edu/bouguetj/calib_doc/ 13. Daniilidis, K.: Hand-eye calibration using dual quaternions. Int. J. Robot. Res. 18(3), 286– 298 (1999)

A Comparative Study of 3 DOF Travel Techniques for Immersive Virtual Flythroughs: The Leap Motion and the Oculus Rift S Hand Controllers Jean-François Lapointe(&), Norman G. Vinson, and Bruno Emond National Research Council of Canada, Digital Technologies, Human-Computer Interaction, Ottawa, Canada {jean-francois.lapointe,norman.vinson, bruno.emond}@nrc-cnrc.gc.ca

Abstract. This paper describes a comparative study of two different 3 degreesof-freedom (DOF) flythrough techniques for immersive 3D environments. The results of this qualitative study indicate that the use of the Oculus Rift S hand controllers provides a greater usability than the use of Leap Motion free hand gestures system for a simple 3 DOF flythrough travel task inside immersive virtual environments. However, the correction of technical issues with the current Leap Motion free hand gesture recognition system could lead to different results. Keywords: Travel techniques Flythrough


Immersive virtual environments
Usability


1 Introduction Travel and wayfinding are the two components of the navigation task. While travel relates to the motor task, wayfinding relates to the cognitive process of determining and following a route between an origin and a destination [1]. Virtual flythrough is a common travel metaphor used for viewpoint control in 3D virtual environments (VEs) [2, 3]. There is, however, a large set of possible travel techniques to achieve this metaphor and designers of VR systems should have access to some information regarding the usability of those travel techniques in order to guide them in the design of those systems [4]. Therefore, we conducted an experiment to help designers choose their travel technique when comes the time to implement a flythrough system for immersive virtual environments.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 195–201, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_30

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2 Method T General: a within-subject experimental design is used and the order of presentation of conditions is counterbalanced, i.e. half of the participants first tested the gesture UI and then the hand controllers UI, while the other half of the participants did the opposite. 2.1

Experimenter/Participants

A single experimenter with usability expertise introduced the participants to their tasks and the UIs. In total, 16 unpaid participants volunteered and completed the experiment. The participants were recruited by email inside the NRC. Fourteen of the participants were male, and two were female. Twelve of them were right-handed, four were lefthanded and none was ambidextrous. All except two had medium or high familiarity with video games, the sample had the following age distribution of 25/60/45 (min/max/average). They all had normal or corrected-to-normal vision. 2.2

Task

Each participant had to travel inside the immersive 3D virtual environments by using each of the 3 DOF provided by the UI and reaching the largest sphere in the virtual environment. 2.3

Evaluation Environment

Physical environment: participants were initially placed standing upright on the floor at the centre of a 2 m  2 m interaction zone. Virtual environment: a 3D virtual environment composed of a blue horizon with several spheres located in it that acted as landmarks in this 3D space to improve wayfinding [5]. Each participant was equipped with a Head-Mounted Display (HMD), which allowed the participant to gaze around the whole virtual environment in realtime simply by moving the head around, hence the use of the qualitative word “immersive”. 2.4

Travel Techniques

Participants used two different 3 DOF travel techniques for their virtual flythroughs, namely travel with the Oculus Rift S hand controllers and travel with the Leap Motion free hand gesture recognition system. 2.4.1 Travel with Hand Controllers Each of the two hand controllers (see Fig. 1) is equipped with a thumbstick.

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Left-hand controller + right-hand controller Fig. 1. Oculus Rift S hand controllers

Moving the left-hand controller’s thumbstick forward or backward, moved the avatar forward or backward respectively in the environment’s horizontal (x/z) plane. Moving the right-hand thumbstick forward and backward moved the avatar up/down along the environment’s vertical (y) axis. Moving the right thumbstick to the right or left, rotated the avatar around the environment’s vertical (y) axis in the same direction (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Avatar motion

2.4.2 Travel with Free Hand Gestures The orientation of the palm of the hand determined the direction of travel with gestures. To move forward, the users would hold up either hand (or both hands) with the palm(s) facing forward. To move backward, the gesture was similar, but the palm faced backward (toward the user’s body) instead, and similarly for (up/down)ward. To rotate, users would point their thumb in the direction in which they wanted to rotate (Fig. 3).

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Forward

Backward

Rotate right

Fig. 3. Travel with free hand gestures

Another important difference between controller and gesture navigation involved the rotation of the avatar. When using gesture navigation, the user could rotate the avatar around the y-axis by turning his body to the left or right. The HMD-mounted gesture sensor detected when the user turned his body. The system then used this signal to smoothly change the avatar’s orientation accordingly. The forward/backward gestures therefore always appeared to the users as producing forward/backward motion. In contrast, the hand controllers did not detect changes in the orientation of the user’s body. If the user turned her body left or right, the avatar maintained its orientation. The user’s body orientation was then out of alignment with the avatar’s. The consequence in such a situation was that executing either a forward or backward movement no longer appeared to the user as moving forward or backward. For example, if a user rotated his/her body 90° to the right, the avatar’s forward direction would remain toward 0°. If that user then executed a forward movement, the avatar’s movement would appear as a movement to the left instead, in alignment with the avatar’s forward direction (Fig. 4). This misalignment confused a few users momentarily. The experimenter explained the source of error and the users turned back to their original orientation. Gesture recognition used a LeapMotion device fixed to the Oculus HMD along with the Leap Motion Orion beta version 4.0.0 of the software.

Fig. 4. Physical body/Avatar misalignment

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Upon arrival, participants were asked to read a consent document. If they agreed to participate, they signed it and were provided with instructions about the task and how to navigate with gestures and the controllers. The experimenter answered any questions they may have had about the documents or their participation. The experimenter assisted the participants in putting on and adjusting the Oculus HMD. Each participant stood while using each navigation method in sequence. After completing the tasks with each navigation mode, the participants were screened for signs of cybersickness [6]. They were also provided with the definition of the term usability as found in [7] and then asked to rank each of the two interfaces in terms of its usability to achieve the task. They were then asked to complete a commonly used System Usability Scale (SUS) [8–10] questionnaire for each of the two interfaces. Finally, they were asked for comments on the interfaces themselves and were requested to provide demographic information (age, gender, handedness, familiarity with computer games). 2.6

Instructions Given to the Participants

All participants were instructed to first simply to travel around the space. They were required to move up and down, turn to the left and right, and move forward and backward. Their second task was to locate a large blue sphere nearby, and to travel to it. Participants often forgot the instructions and were reminded verbally by the experimenter on how to proceed. When participants experienced difficulties, the experimenter assisted them.

3 Results 12 out of the 16 participants ranked the hand controllers’ interface as more usable than the gesture interface for 3 DOF travel inside the immersive virtual environment. As for the SUS score, they are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Means and standard deviations for the System Usability Scale (SUS) Statements I would like to use this system frequently I found the product unnecessarily complex I thought the system was easy to use I think that I would need the support of a technical person to be able to use this system

Total sample N; M (SD) 32; 3.59 (1.24)

Gestures N; M (SD) 16; 3.44 (1.26)

Controllers N; M (SD) 16; 3.75 (1.24)

32; 2.16 (1.27)

16; 2.56 (1.36)

16; 1.75 (1.06)

32; 3.28 (1.51) 32; 1.84 (1.19)

16; 2.94 (1.53) 16; 2.00 (1.21)

16; 3.63 (1.45) 16; 1.69 (1.20)

(continued)

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Statements I found the various functions in the system were well integrated I thought there was too much inconsistency in the system I would imagine that most people learn to use this system very quickly I found the system very cumbersome to use I felt very confident using the system I needed to l earn a lot of things before I could get going with this system Overall SUS scoring

Total sample N; M (SD) 32; 3.06 (1.37)

Gestures N; M (SD) 16; 2.69 (1.30)

Controllers N; M (SD) 16; 3.44 (1.36)

32; 2.50 (1.55)

16; 3.00 (1.59)

16; 2.00 (1.37)

32; 3.75 (1.22)

16; 3.56 (1.21)

16; 3.94 (1.24)

32; 2.56 (1.46)

16; 2.75 (1.53)

16; 2.38 (1.41)

32; 3.41 (1.21)

16; 3.00 (1.10)

16;3.81 (1.22)

32; 2.00 (1.14)

16; 2.06 (1.00)

16; 1.94 (1.29)

32; 65.1 (23.4)

16; 58.1(21.5)

16; 72.0 (23.8)

From the table, we can see that the hand controllers again scored a much better SUS than the freehand gestures interface (72.0 vs. 58.1). An analysis of variance (ANOVA) with pseudo-F test reveals that this difference is almost significant, F(1, 15) = 3,76, p = 0.071. The largest differences between the two interfaces are related to system integration (poor for gestures) and inconsistency (high for gestures). Generally, the participants commented that they found the gestures unreliable (as reflected in the corresponding SUS scores). However, they also stated that that they would have liked to use the gestures if they had been more reliable. Two participants reported minor cybersickness symptoms: light-headed and postural instability. Both reported after one set of tasks but both reported they wanted to continue anyway. Symptoms were no worse following second block.

4 Conclusion We compared the usability of two 3 DOF flythrough travel techniques in immersive 3D virtual environments. The first travel technique was based on free hand gestures, using the Leap Motion device while the other used the Oculus Rift S hand controllers. Results indicate that the hand controllers are more usable than the current freehand gesture travel technique. However, the poor reliability of the gesture-based technique might have influenced the results though so that improvements to this technology might change the results in its favour. As such, it is not possible to draw solid general conclusions about free hand gestures interfaces. Acknowledgements. The authors thank all the participants to this study. This experiment has been approved by the Research Ethics Board from the National Research Council of Canada (protocol 2019-134). This research has been funded by the Digital Technologies Research Centre of the National Research Council of Canada.

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References 1. LaViola, Jr., J.J., Kruijff, E., McMahan, R.P., Bowman, D.A., Poupyrev, I.: 3D User Interfaces: Theory and Practice, 2nd edition (2017) 2. Usoh, M., Arthur K., Whitton, M., Steed, A., Slater M., Brooks, F.: Walking > virtual walking > flying, in virtual environments. In: Proceedings of the ACM International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (SIGGRAPH), pp. 359–364 (1999) 3. Oberhauser, R., Lecon, C.: Virtual reality flythrough of program code structures. In: Proceedings of the Virtual Reality International Conference - Laval Virtual (VRIC 2017), 22–24 March, Laval, France, 4 p. (2017) 4. Lapointe, J.-F., Savard, P., Vinson, N.G.: A comparative study of four input devices for desktop virtual walkthroughs. Comput. Hum. Behav. 27(6), 2186–2191 (2011) 5. Vinson, N.G.: Design guidelines for landmarks to support navigation in virtual environments. In: Proceedings of CHI 1999, pp. 278–285 (1999) 6. LaViola Jr., J.J.: A discussion of cybersickness in virtual environments. SIGCHI Bulletin 32, 47–56 (2000) 7. ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee (JTC) 1, Information technology, Subcommittee (SC) 7, Software and systems engineering. Systems and software engineering — Software product Quality Requirements and Evaluation (SQuaRE) — Common Industry Format (CIF) for usability: User needs report. ISO/IEC-25064:2013(E), International Organization for Standardization/ International Electrotechnical Commission (2013) 8. Brooke, J.: SUS: a “quick and dirty” usability scale. In: Jordan, P.W., Thomas, B., Weerdmeester, B.A., McClelland, A.L. (Eds.) Usability Evaluation in Industry. London: Taylor & Francis, London, UK, pp. 189–194 (1996) 9. Sauro, J., Lewis, J.R.: Quantifying the user experience - practical statistics for user research, 2nd edn. Morgan Kaufmann publishers (2016) 10. Brooke, J.: SUS: a retrospective. J. Usability Stud. 8(2), 29–40 (2013)

Use of Virtual Reality in the Nursing School’s Toco-Surgery Teaching Process Leticia Neira(&), Edson Castañeda, and Cesar Torres Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, Mexico [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. At this work a virtual reality environment is created, in order to simulate a medical training room. This aims to help in nursing teaching process focuses on Toco-surgery, a medical area which match Labor and Delivery. At first, a virtual scene, which replicates the real area were medical students are trained, was designed. Then interaction aimed to show students both procedure and tools they needed to know at medical area. Finally, tests were made with a group of people who already knew procedures and another that were in the learning process. Keywords: Toco-surgery


Virtual reality

1 Introduction Virtual Reality applications increase in different areas. Although entertainment gaming still is its most typical use, serious games are further developed every day. “Serious games have primarily been used as a tool that gives players a novel way to interact with games in order to learn skills and knowledge, promote physical activities” [1]. Main applications of these games are education and training. As an immersive environment, VR focus on user interaction. “VR allows a level of self-reflectiveness that is higher than the one provided by memory and imagination, and it is more controlled than the one offered by direct “real” experience” [2]. At the same time, VR technologies can be easily adapted to what makes of learning as meaningful as possible. “This flexibility can be also used to provide systematic experiential training that optimize the degree of transfer of training or generalization of learning to the person’s real world environment” [3]. Other main advantage is safety: a user can interact with risky procedure in a safe interface. “In order for transformation to occur, student engagement must occur and the more that the student is engaged, the higher probability of success in the simulation module” [4]. Medical field can be really benefited from virtual reality tools. As Javaid indicates, these tools can be applied in diagnosis, exercise in therapy, education and training, surgery practice and even mental health treatment [5]. However, initial investment in VR apps is higher than the one in alternatives. “The costs associated with initial technology purchase remain high, relative to the price of textbooks and online resources” [6]. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 202–208, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_31

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Clinical skills teaching is a field facing challenges, in which becomes hard to have neither time, personnel nor tools to train students. Medical teaching method usually involves learning and training, then guided practice and finally autonomous practice. This teaching involves training for a long time towards knowing tools and procedures. “VR systems are viewed as being more adaptable in clinical settings, allowing users to feel immersed into an environment or into any activity” [7]. Teaching involves guiding in ways students get a meaningful experience. “Training is easier if the experience is pleasant or enjoyable, which means higher level of engagement and understanding” [8]. Previous research already started comparing traditional to virtual reality training. Although some studies show higher scores in the virtual reality groups, some other studies conclude the opposite [9]. Goal should be for the experience to be as meaningful as real practice. In education, a virtual reality tool can be helpful in familiarizing when reading textbooks in school or when starting to work in a hospital [10]. Learning from interaction helps increase user interest on the topic. “Students can freely travel in VR environments and acquire information of interest to them, which creates a studentcentered learning environment” [11]. This work aims to propose a virtual reality environment evaluation for medical teaching. This proposal focused in designing an interface for nursing training of Tocosurgery process.

2 Materials and Methods In order to propose an environment as described, it was needed a sample of virtual reality interaction and a way to test how useful the sample was in teaching. Before deciding what the sample would be about, a research process was made in order to know what nursery students learn at the beginning of their lessons. Then, a virtual reality environment was designed and created. After that, there were test in which it was evaluated if a tool with such goals would be valuable in helping in students learning. Required hardware while developing this proposal was a gaming laptop with graphic card and 8 GB RAM minimum, an Oculus Rift virtual reality headset and an Emotiv EEG device, used in research field for monitoring human brain activity. 2.1

Research

The medical institution who approached at the beginning of the project gave the designers an insight of what the Toco-surgery teaching was about. For this proposal, designers focused in both the room area where doctors teach and what students learned at first or what they already needed to know so they can learn these procedures. At the end of these stage, it was decided the extend of what a sample of virtual reality environment would show.

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Virtual Reality Environment Design

Once sample environment content was defined, next step was to define the sequence of interaction for the user. The engine where the sample was developed according to the sequence was Unity 3D. Before developing, that environment required 3D models to include. However, as development would be only a sample for the proposal, it was decided to use already created models bought in Unity Asset Store. Then the models where arranged in a Unity Scene, and interaction was implemented using Oculus Rift libraries. 2.3

Testing

Two tests were carried out to evaluate usability of the virtual reality tool. To test the student interest, the EEG device was used. This device allowed to measure different emotions. User wore both the VR headset and EEG device while using the VR environment. After using the sample, a survey was applied in order to test if user considered the guidance in the environment was enough and evaluate the changes a full environment should have. Both tests were applied to students who already knew the procedures and those who did not know it, with a total of 18 acceptable samples and 2 discarded.

3 Results At designing stage, a virtual room for teaching Toco-surgery process was created. This room should include delivery table, light support utility carts, waste disposal red bin, hand-wash, trash can, and material as blankets, scalpel, and tweezers. This sample environment aims to show information about the tools the students will be using while learning. The virtual scene created is shown in Fig. 1. Sequence to follow was that user moved around the room and after finish with that, he started looking the tools he will use in learning process, so user knew them.

Fig. 1. Proposed room design for Toco-surgery teaching.

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For user interaction, it was decided to use the Gaze Control configurations of Oculus. In this sample, users focus their gaze in a tool of the scene, and then a text box with the name of the object appeared. By using only gaze for these interactions, hand controllers a free for other actions when an interface is further developed (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Proposed room design for Toco-surgery teaching.

Next, users tested sample environment. By using Emotiv software, it was possible to monitor emotions when they wear the equipment to use the sample. Figure 3 shows how tests were applied.

Fig. 3. Applied usability and interaction test.

From people with experience and people without experience, there were similar reactions. Although content was simple for this proposal, both experienced people and students showed an interest around 50%. In the examples of Fig. 4, there was 45% of interest for students and 55% in the case of experienced people. On the other hand, engagement was higher on students.

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Fig. 4. Sample of Emotiv data of a non-experienced user.

Surveys related to the performance of the interface. Surveys had five possible grades: 5-Excellent, 4-Good, 3-Normal, 2-Bad, 1-Awful. In the case of guidance, more of 90% people indicated instructions provided by the environment were good at least. At the same time, opinion is similar in the interaction case. 72% of people considered the proposed interaction as excellent (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Survey results related to experience and guidance provided by interface.

4 Discussion Testing results show that an environment who applies the principles of interaction considered there was of interest for people. Although many of results were excellent, there are improvements a full interface should consider. In surveys there were comments related to make an interface as realistic as possible, as they want not just to look at object, but to grab some of them.

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However, a complete environment will require a further evaluation. At this point, only usability was evaluated. Users understood instructions and liked the way the interacted with a virtual room. As interaction become more complete, evaluation should consider even more the traditional teaching process. It is suggested that for the development of a more complete environment, a comparison with real teaching process is constant in order to evaluate how helpful a tool is and if there is any extra benefits or disadvantage by using this tool. During the development case, some researchers consider medical virtual reality applications should focus on unexpected outcomes, so students are able to interact and learn from difficult scenarios. As Semeraro indicates, “severe adverse events with significant implications for patients’ outcome, represent the ideal workshop for simulated training of healthcare personnel to crisis management without risk for patients” [12].

5 Conclusion This research defines the needs of a virtual room for Toco-surgery teaching purposes, which can be useful in a development of a complete teaching interface. In terms of interactions, it is recommended to combine different controller options. If gaze control is used in identification tasks, then controllers can focus in manipulation sections of the procedure in order to make a realistic interface. In order to test an interface with similar purposes, a method to evaluate usability could be conducted, in which evaluations considers experienced people and unexperienced people in the medical field. By evaluating guidance and user experience, it can be assumed that virtual reality experience will be useful for the target students. Then by evaluating interest and engagement with an EEG monitoring device is possible to see if experience is likely to be meaningful for student, creating a better learning environment.

References 1. Ma, M., Jain, L.C., Anderson, P.: Future trends of virtual, augmented reality, and games for health. In: Ma, M., Jain, L.C., Anderson, P. (eds.) Virtual, Augmented Reality and Serious Games for Healthcare 1. ISRL, vol. 68, pp. 1–6. Springer, Heidelberg (2014) 2. Riva, G., Baños, R.M., Botella, C., Mantovani, F., Gaggioli, A.: Transforming experience: the potential of augmented reality and virtual reality for enhancing personal and clinical change. Front. Psychiatry 7, 164 (2016) 3. Riva, G., Wiederhold, B.K.: The new dawn of virtual reality in health care: medical simulation and experiential interface. In: Annual Review of Cybertherapy and Telemedicine 2015: Virtual Reality in Healthcare: Medical Simulation and Experiential Interface, vol. 219, pp. 3–6. IOS Press (2015) 4. Davis, A.: Virtual reality simulation: an innovative teaching tool for dietetics experiential education. Open Nutrition J. 9, 65–75 (2015) 5. Javaid, M., Haleem, A.: Virtual Reality applications toward medical field. Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health (2019)

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6. McCarthy, C., Uppot, R.: Advances in virtual and augmented reality—exploring the role in health-care education. J. Radiol. Nursing 38, 104–105 (2019) 7. Bond, S. Laddu, D., Ozemek, C., Lavie, C., Arena, R.: Exergaming and virtual reality for health: implications for cardiac rehabilitation. Curr. Probl. Cardiol. (2019) 8. Fairén, M., Farrés, M., Moyés, M., Insa, E.: Virtual reality to teach anatomy. In: Proceedings of the European Association for Computer Graphics: Education papers. Eurographics Association, Goslar, DEU, pp. 51–58 (2017) 9. Rourke, S.: How does virtual reality simulation compare to simulated practice in the acquisition of clinical psychomotor skills for pre-registration student nurses? A systematic review. In: International journal of nursing studies, vol. 102 (2019) 10. King, D., Tee, S., Falconer, L., Angell, C., Holley, D., Mills, A.: Virtual health education: scaling practice to transform student learning. Nurse Educ. Today, 71 (2018) 11. Chou, C., Tsai, C., Tsai, H.: Developing a networked VRML learning system for health science education in Taiwan. Int. J. Educ. Dev. 21, 293–303 (2001) 12. Semeraro, F., Bergamasco, M., Frisoli, A., Holtzer, M., Cerchiari, E.: Virtual reality prototype in healthcare simulation training. Resuscitation, 77 (2008)

Digital Technologies in Expanding the Boundaries Through Immersive Spaces: Case Studies in Vessel and Yacht Design Giuseppe Carmosino1, Arianna Bionda2, Silvia Piardi1, and Andrea Ratti1(&)

2

1 Design Department, Politecnico di Milano, Via Giovanni Durando, 38/a, 20158 Milan, Italy {Giuseppe.Carmosino,Silvia.Piardi, Andrea.Ratti}@polimi.it Department of Management, Economics and Industrial Engineering, Politecnico di Milano, Via Lambruschini 4/b, 20156 Milan, Italy [email protected]

Abstract. New VR and AR environments have been gradually coming in the world of the pleasure maritime industry implying new possibilities of experiences for costumers. In this perspective, the paper investigates the potential role of digital technology in expanding or shifting the physical boundaries of a cruise vessel or a yacht. Through case studies analysis, the study presents a reflection on the state of the art of virtual, augmented and merged reality environments in the sector, highlighting both the key concept of convergence vs divergence between the physical and digital worlds, and the purposes in technology enhancing. The results point-out how new technologies are breaking down the barriers made up of a simple physical fitting, expanding the boundaries through the use of immersive experiences, even if future scenarios are still open in the cross sectorial purpose of VR, AR and MR technology use. Keywords: Vessel & Yacht design experiences


Digital technologies
Immersive

1 Introduction With emerging digital technologies and reactive materials, the cruising and yachting industry are rapidly evolving marking a shifting toward exclusive and tailored onboard experiences. In the CLIA – the Cruise Lines International Association – report about the state of Cruise Industry, the cruise trends for 2019 are outlined in: instagrammable cruise travel, on-board smart tech, gen Z at sea, achievement over experiences [1]. Since 2017 MSC, an Italian company become a global cruise line, has already detected these new trends by launching innovative vessel cruises on the market, contributing to the development of a new generation of vessel cruises: the ‘Smart-ships’. The ‘smart features’ of these new ships consist in online check-in, radio-frequency

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 209–215, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_32

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identification (RFID) armbands, cruise-planning app, virtual balcony staterooms, high-speed internet connectivity on board, robotic technology and transformable public venues [2]. This significant passage is on one hand a further development of the ‘Fun-ships’ and on the other hand a concrete answer to the last issues of security, health and safety. In the 70s, moving from great Liners to Vessel cruises, the ‘Fun-ships’ have increasingly taken on the shape of a place of entertainment and fun, or even better of escapism, rather than just a means of transport. Besides the cabins, new spaces dedicated to fun and getting back into shape found a place on the ships, such as wellness centers, saunas, massage cabins, Jacuzzi whirlpools, swimming pools, super-equipped gyms. Then in the 90s these new spaces multiplied, transforming the ships into floating resorts, with dimensions that could exceed the gross weight of 100,000 tons [3]. As in the cruising sector, yacht design projects are involving more and more “soft” features for higher sensory expression, seeking for a sense of communion between the customers and the sea. Spaces themselves are evolving with glass and material technology advancing to create a real or an augmented continuity between indoors and outdoors. In this perspective, a question emerging in the research activity is: can digital technology, used in the construction of immersive spaces, have the ability to expand or shift the physical boundaries of vessels? Many authors have written on the development of Liners, a few researchers have investigated on Vessel Cruises and Yacht Design and very few ones have analyzed the contribute of new technologies in the cruise ships. New Virtual Reality (VR), and Augmented Reality (AR) environments, already widespread in other sectors, such as museums, are gradually coming into the world of the shipping industry, implying new possibilities of immersive space experiences and offering a viable and more sustainable alternative to the growth of ‘Megaships’.

2 Methodology Engaged from several years in the research and teaching on vessel and yacht design, Politecnico di Milano is investigating the latest interesting development on digital technologies and smart materials in the field of vessel and yacht design, which may change the architecture of the spaces of ships vessels. The didactic activity represents a further opportunity to test the outcomes of the researches and to disseminate the research activity. Moreover, it’s a chance for cruise companies and yachting shipyard to detect future scenarios in the development of the marine interior. Case studies from cruising and yachting sector and from didactic experience developed within the path of Interior Design bachelor’s degree at the School of Design, at the Yacht and Cruising Vessel Design Master Bachelor’s Degree in La Spezia and at Specializing Master in Yacht Design workshops, are here analyzed. Specifically, the Design Courses of the academic year 2019–20, held by Professor Silvia Piardi and Alessandro Villa, have explored innovative developments in the fitting of the cruising ship MSC Meraviglia. On the nautical side, the future yacht projects analyzed are coming from the NautICS Materials workshop [4] managed by Prof. Arianna Bionda, Andrea Ratti and Stefano Parisi in the Master in Yacht Design 2018–19.

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The case studies have been analyzed looking through the Navío-Marco et al. [5] lenses on how tourism has developed in the last ten years under the influence of technological innovations. The key concepts are identified in: “everything connected (Inter-net of Things, ‘smart phenomenon’, wearables), convergence between the physical and digital worlds, big data & analytics, ontology and semantics, AI, robots, gamification” [5]. Then, they were grouped in three clusters, according to the categories identified by Milgram and Kishino [10]: vessel interior spaces affected by VR, vessel interior spaces affected by AR, vessel interior spaces affected by merged reality (MR). The analysis results in a reflection on the state of the art of mixed reality environments in the cruising and yachting sectors focused to the following parameters: convergence vs divergence between the physical and digital worlds, information vs entrainment purpose.

3 Case Studies Analysis and Discussion Case studies from both industry and didactic activities were collected within November 2019 to March 2020. Specifically, twelve case studies from cruise ships and four cases from yachting sector were selected, while four cases were picked from didactic experiences: three future ship from MSC Meraviglia Smart Ship workshop, and one future yacht concept from Nautics Material workshop. In the ship industry case-studies have been selected among different companies, detecting the digital technologies which can have the ability to expand or shift the physical boundaries of vessels creating an ‘immersive experience’, an experience capable of creating a sense of absorption and sensorial immersion in the threedimensional environment [6].

Fig. 1. Selection of case studies: MSC Meraviglia students ws, (a) Promenade Log-in, (b) Promenade Redesign, (c) Digital Stadium; (d) Disney Dream’s Magical Skyline; (e) EB1LABS-driRun; (f) NautICS Materials ws Glowrious; (g) Nemo room of 150 m superyacht concept by Ken Freivokh

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Design of Vessel and Yacht Interior Spaces Affected by Virtual Reality

Since 2014 the Cruise industry has shown a great interest on the development of virtual experience onboard, starting from monitor based devices to get to fully immersive ones, as the headsets and the virtual rooms: the Quantum of the Seas’s ‘virtual balconies’ and the Disney Dream’s Magical Porthole and Skyline (Fig. 1d) are HD screens that simulate views and sounds from outside; the MSC’s ‘Galleria Meraviglia’ and ‘Emotions immersive gallery’, which employ ledwall and videowall technologies, and the Celebrity Cruises’ ‘Le petit chef’ and the Royal Carribean’s Two70 Vistarama, which employ 3D projections on surfaces, are partially immersive spaces; finally the MSC’s ‘Interactive XD cinema’ and ‘flight simulator’ and the Cruiseabout’s Panedia, which is a VR headset that reproduces 360° video of the interior of some cruise ships, as Carnival Spirit, are fully immersive based devices. In the yachting sector, virtual sailing simulators, as the EB1LABS-driRun (Fig. 1e) here analyzed, and VR Oculus and installation for commercial and shipping service purpose, such as the Dominator Ilumen VR Installation, are emerging. In the case study from didactic activities ‘MSC Meraviglia, Promenade Log-in’ (Fig. 1a), students have explored the concept of virtual reality, proposing two systems of it: a virtual treadmill [7], and a vehicle simulator [8]. In this case the physical space is expanded in a series of virtual spaces, which extension depends on the capacity of the computer system and on the number of workstations. The interior space is set as an open space in which the technologic devises are not integrated in the interior fitting. 3.2

Design of Vessel and Yacht Interior Spaces Affected by Augmented Reality

Vessel and yachting companies have demonstrated a scarce interest in AR [9]. Two case studies in cruising have been found in the last years, only, both in a form of a smartphone app: the Royal Carribean’s ‘Expedition Two70’ allows customers to have a gaming experience onboard and the Celebrity Cruises’ ‘Celebrity Edge Access Tour’ provides customers further information about the ship and the travel journey. In the yachting sector, the most interesting cases are the ‘Raymarine-nautix’, an application for smart sunglasses that place key real-time sailing data directly in front of one eye, and the nemo room (Fig. 1g) of some yachts, that allow customer to see the marine environment in an immersive space. In the second case study from didactic activities ‘MSC Meraviglia, Promenade Redesign’, students have started from an existing case of an innovative technologic project, that is the MSC’s ‘Galleria Meraviglia’ (Fig. 1b), to propose a possible future development through AR technologies based on holographic display. Even in this case the physical space is expanded keeping joint the real world from the virtual one. The interior spaces start integrating the technological devises with the furniture in order to have a better overlapping between the physical and the virtual world.

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Design of Vessel and Yacht Interior Space Affected by Merged Reality

There are no existing case studies in vessel and yacht industry about MR, a set of “technologies that involve the merging of real and virtual” [10]. Both didactics case studies from cruising ship and yacht design aimed at fill this gap. In the project ‘MSC Meraviglia, Digital Stadium’ (Fig. 1c) and ‘Glowrious’ (Fig. 1f) students have explored the MR respectively in a cruise ship and in a yacht dinette. Here, cruisers can interact with both the physical and the virtual space, reaching the highest level of active participation in the experience of the space. Moreover, the interior spaces have the best convergence between the physical and digital worlds, so that technological devices fit the best with the interior fitting. These concept projects represent a possible further technologic development in the next ships and yachts.

4 Research Evidence The existing case studies in ship industry show a focused interest in the development of the interior spaces affected by VR, a little interest in AR, while there is not yet trace of MR applications. The academic case studies show that teachers motivate students to analyze fields that have not yet been explored or to develop certain technologies to the most updated uses. In particular, didactic activities can further stimulate the research on future scenarios and on the change of the customer experiences onboard. Virtual, augmented and merged reality can prove a concrete way to expand or shift the physical boundaries of vessels. The analysis highlights as VR technologies lead project in which the distance between physical and virtual is higher. In the cases affected by AR the physical space is expanded keeping joint the real and the virtual worlds to create an immersive ecosystem. At last, MR drives the reflection on a convergence between physical and virtual spaces with the higher level of iractition between the two spaces. Vessel companies express still today a greater interest in developing technologies linked to the field of entertainment rather than information, keeping on a tradition born with the ‘fun-ships’; in which the spaces of vessel ships remain tied to the consumption of tangible and intangible goods, to the ‘consumption’ of free time from work [11]. In particular, information is today used for the promotion of a trip on board a cruise or a yacht, excluding or neglecting other fields, which are typical of tourism: the study of itineraries, of cultural aspects, such as the study of the artistic, gastronomic and ethnological heritage of the destinations of the trip, and finally a deeper mutual knowledge of the people communities on board the ship (Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2. Diagram of the case-studies collection from cruising and yachting sector

5 Conclusions The paper drafted the state of the art of VR, AR and MR for on-board immersive space environments through case studies analysis, highlighting the key concept of convergence vs divergence between the physical and digital worlds, and the purposes in technology enhancing. As discussed in the research result, VR, AR and MR technologies are breaking down the barriers made up of a simple physical fitting, expanding the boundaries of the interior spaces of ships through the use of immersive experiences. However, the question about future scenarios in this field is still open and needs further researches and reflections. In particular, VR, AR and MR are changing the relation of the customer with the spaces, introducing new concepts such as inclusive systems for all, didactic and informative experience, or gamification, as a new opportunity of user interaction. Considering entertainment and information not as distant and opposite concepts, but rather as both contributing to the effectiveness of tourism marketing strategy, filling the gaps within the diagram, is encouraged for both didactic activities and applied research. Moreover, the digital technologies and smart materials, could be better implemented in a sustainable process of both vessel design concept and fitting processes.

References 1. CLIA: 2019 Cruise trends & industry outlook (2019). https://cruising.org/-/media/researchupdates/research/clia-2019-state-of-the-industry-presentation-(1).pdf 2. Papathanassis, A.: Cruise tourism management: State of the art. Tourism Rev. 72(1), 104–119 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-01-2017-0003 3. Zaccagnino, V.: Storia delle crociere. Mursia, Milan (2014)

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4. Parisi, S., Bionda, A., Ratti, A., Rognoli, V.: Design for ICS materials: a tentative methodology for interactive, connected, and smart materials applied to yacht design. In: International Conference IHSI. Springer, Cham (2019) 5. Navío-Marco, J., Ruiz-Gómez, L.M., Sevilla-Sevilla, C.: Progress in information technology and tourism management: 30 years on and 20 years after the internet. Tour. Manag. 69, 460– 470 (2018) 6. Scicchitano, M.: Immersività e virtualità: Emozioni in Rete e in gioco (2016). Accessed from: http://www.itci.it 7. Slater, M., Steed, A., Usoh, M.: The virtual treadmill: a naturalistic metaphor for navigation in immersive virtual environments. In: First Eurographics Workshop on Virtual Reality Eurographics Association (1993) 8. Guo, T., Zhou, X.: VR-based virtual test technology and its application in instrument development. In: Shumaker, R. (ed.) ICVR 2007. LNCS, vol. 4563, pp. 468–477. Springer, Heidelberg (2007) 9. Clarens, A.R., Navarro, I.: Real-time dynamic lighting control of an AR model based on a data-glove with accelerometers and NI-DAQ. In: Shumaker, R. (ed.) VAMR 2013. LNCS, vol. 8021, pp. 86–93. Springer, Heidelberg (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-64239405-8_11 10. Milgram, P., Kishino, F.: A taxonomy of mixed reality visual displays. In: IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems (12) (1994) 11. Piardi, S.: Funny ships, fun design. In: Guerrini, L.: Design degli interni. Contributi al progetto per l’abitare contemporaneo, Franco Angeli (2007) 12. Piardi S. E., Pasina, I., Tieghi S.: Reflections on the sidelines of a shipwreck. In: NAV2012, 17th International Conference on Ship and Shipping Research (2012)

Sound Perception in 3D Virtual Environments: Application to a Roman Theatre of Hispania Javier Alayón, José A. Romero-Odero(&), Miguel Galindo, Francisco J. Nieves, and Sara Girón Instituto Universitario de Arquitectura y Ciencias de la Construcción (IUACC), Departamento de Física Aplicada II, Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura, Universidad de Sevilla, Avenida Reina Mercedes 2, 41012 Seville, Spain {jap01,jrodero,mgalindo,nieves,sgiron}@us.es

Abstract. The aim of this work is to present the methodology implemented for the assessment of the human perception of sound and of the degree of acoustic comfort of occupants in an ancient Roman theatre. The evaluation is carried out through a visual and acoustic experience in a virtual environment. The textured 3D visual model of the space, and the binaural auralisations based on either onsite empirical measurements or on acoustic simulations, are displayed in a listening room designed with a very short reverberation time and low background noise. By means of sophisticated equipment for 3D virtual environment reproduction to groups of people, this listening room enables the physical ambience to be recreated of the Roman theatre of Cartagena, which is located in the southeast of Hispania (Spain). Groups of people can therefore subjectively assess the intelligibility of speech and the clarity for music of this open-air performance venue. The results accentuate the strong correlation between audio and visual perceptual aspects and contribute towards a more comprehensive understanding of the architectural aural experience. Keywords: Human acoustic perception
3D visual texturized model Auralisation
Acoustics of Roman theatres




1 Introduction The psychology of perception has empirically shown that the human being, from a very early age, has a preference for stimuli that have concordant and equivalent temporal patterns when these stimuli are multimodal, that is to say simultaneously perceived by different sensory channels [1]. Research in the field of neuroscience suggests that this similarity of temporary factors of experiences from different sensory channels that occur at the same time allows us to conceive the combination of these perceptual experiences as a whole. Likewise, these correspondences usually provide us with redundant perceptual information [2], thereby making it easier at the cognitive level to highlight properties of the stimuli, such as their duration, proportion, and intensity. This experience is called transmodal perception. Several authors in the field of cinematographic language have studied the perceptual unit that causes the coincidence of optical and acoustic information of any event [3]. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 216–222, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_33

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According to Vorländer [4], auralisation is the technique of creating audible sound files from numerical (simulated, measured, or synthesized) data. Auralisations are used in a variety of applications from virtual concert reproduction and archaeological acoustics to architectural design [5–7]. With regard to multimodal representations, numerous studies on the perception of a sonic environment have revealed the interaction between visual and auditory modalities [8]. For instance, the effect of vision on the perception of some spatial acoustic parameters, such as localization or distance, can be found in Calcagno et al. [9], while Postma and Katz [10] study the impact of the presence of visual feedback on the subjective assessment of auralisations. Digital tools provide visualization and auralisation with unique opportunities in Architecture to support the reconstruction of damaged, non-existent, or destroyed spaces in order to optimize both the materials used in its construction and the configuration of the environment to obtain the best possible acoustic response. This visualization and auralisation is also of major interest for the objective and sensory evaluation of monuments of great heritage in which a strong compromise between preservation, social satisfaction, and tourist requirements arises. This work combines auralisation from measured room impulse responses and anechoic materials and visualization of a textured 3D digital environment in order to appreciate the sound quality for speech and music of a theatre of the Roman Hispania (Spain): The Roman theatre of Cartagena. Listening tests are conducted with the subjects immersed in a room visualizing the texturized 3D model of the theatre and binaural reproduction through loudspeakers with crosstalk cancellation to evaluate the admissibility of the model and acoustic attributes of the environment such as distance, loudness, reverberation, clarity, and speech intelligibility.

2 Case Study In Spain, there are 22 structures documented of classical outdoor theatres from Roman Hispania. The city of Cartagena, located in the southeast territory of the Iberian Peninsula, was founded as Qart Hadasht by the Carthaginian Asdrubal the Beautiful, in the year 227 BC atop a previous Iberian or Tartessian settlement. Following Carthaginian domination, it was taken by the Roman general Scipio the African in the year 209 BC who renamed it Carthago Nova. This territory had great strategic military and commercial value. The Roman theatre, built in the time of Emperor Augustus, between the years 5–1 BC, remained in use until the third century. With an original capacity of 7,000 spectators, it remains one of the largest theatres in Roman Hispania. The theatre typology confirms the model proposed by Marco Vitruvius, as in most of the Hispanic theatres, and consists of: Scaenae frons (stage front) with double columns; Orchestra, formed by a semicircle in front of the stage in which the authorities sat; Cavea, in which the spectators stood according to their social rank of ima, media, or summa; Proscaenium, which consists of space in front of the stage; and Porticus post scaenam, made up of a porticoed courtyard behind the stage. The stands are projected by taking advantage of the natural slope of one of the highest hills in the city. The central part of the cavea is excavated into the rock of the

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hillside itself, while the lateral flanks include vaulted galleries. The theatre is incorporated within the historical centre of the city near emblematic buildings and port facilities. The partial overlapping of the Old Cathedral on top of the Roman theatre, is valued as one of the historical singularities of this archaeological site (Fig. 1a).

Fig. 1. (a) Aerial view of the Roman theatre of Cartagena. (b) Interior view of the listening room (Credits: (a) J. L. Sarralde, June 2019. (b) J. A. Romero-Odero, November 2019).

In order to register the binaural room impulse responses (BRIR), the theatre was excited via sine-swept signals in which the scanning frequency increases exponentially with time, produced by means of the EASERA v1.2 programme, through an AUBION x8 multichannel sound card. The generated signal was emitted through an AVM DO12 dodecahedral sound source with a B&K 2734 power amplifier. At the reception point, the binaural RIRs were captured with a Head Acoustics HMS III torso simulator (Code 1323) and the B&K-2829 microphone polarization source [11, 12].

3 Listening Room The acoustic perception tests were carried out in the listening room of the Acoustics Laboratory of the Applied Physics II Department of the School of Architecture of the University of Seville (Fig. 1b). The room, rectangular in shape (and of dimensions 5.1  7.5  3.0 m) in accordance with the ITU [13] requirements, is semi-anechoic, has a low background noise (LAeq = 24.6 dB), with an average mid-reverberation time of 0.2 s. The walls of the room have been treated with a foam pyramidal absorbent material and with bass traps in the corners. The ceramic floor is covered with a heavy carpet. Impulse response measurements were carried out by using three source positions and ten receivers (Fig. 1b). Table 1 shows the averaged values of the reverberation time for all source-receiver combinations at the six octave-band frequencies. Table 1. Reverberation time (T30) spatially averaged in octave band frequencies. Frequency (Hz) 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 T30 0.34 0.24 0.22 0.18 0.10 0.07

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The 3D visualization equipment of the room consists of the EH320UST OPTOMA projector, the ActivHub RF50 VOLFONI glass emitter (up to 10 glasses), and Contour Space static screen (2.6  1.46 m); the audio equipment consists of 2 ADAM A7X monitors on stands, and an ADAM UB8 Subwoofer. In order to improve the acoustic perception of listeners in the room, a crosstalk filter in Python has been applied to the reproduced audios. This filter enables the sound played by the right-hand speaker to only reach the listener’s right-hand ear and vice versa. From the existing methods, a recursive crosstalk filter has been chosen in this work, which is easily implementable and reliable, since it takes into account the distance between sources, between ears, between source and listener, the shadow of the head, and the echo produced by the shoulders.

4 Visual Model of the Roman Theatre of Cartagena In order to achieve a real closeness between the room user and the architectural space that makes up the case study, a 3D model of the theatre has been carried out by using the 2D digital planimetry provided by the Foundation of the Roman theatre of Cartagena and the geometrical measurements carried out during the on-site session. The 3D geometrical model is created by means of AutoCAD and Google SketchUp drawing tools based on 57,549 simple polygons, and by carrying out a material characterization of the model with the same or similar textures to those existing in the real building. In addition to the theatre, the model includes its immediate surroundings since it is incorporated inside the city (Fig. 2a). The model is then imported into the Vizard 5-WorldViz programme for 3D visualization on the screen via the glass emitters. In this programme, the filtered audio and the various lights employed are introduced in order to attain good visibility after immersion into the model. With the system mounted and executed, the immersion of the user in the case study emulates the real experience without being physically in situ.

5 Auralisations and Survey Auralisations have been performed by convolving with Matlab the measured BRIRs corresponding to three source-receiver combinations (the source in the centre of the scaena, and three receivers at the scaena, the ima, and media cavea, respectively) with excerpts of 25 s from anechoic recordings of female and male speech and from a Baroque music piece from Joan Baptista and Josep Pla [14], played by the Baroque Orchestra of Seville. The perception questionnaire consists of an introductory section on personal data (gender, age, profession, and whether he/she has a musical and an acoustic background), and another two sections of nine questions each. In each question, the respondent hears a pair of stimuli of the same type in two different positions of the theatre, and has to decide whether he/she hears clearer (or more intelligibly) stimulus 1, stimulus 2, the two stimuli equally, or whether he/she does not know or fails to answer (DK/FA).

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The last section of the survey is carried out in the same way as the second except that it incorporates the visualization of the 3D model in the various listening positions. Due to the characteristics of the listening room and the equipment used, the survey could be successfully carried out on groups of three people (Fig. 2b). The total sample was made up of 18 students (9 women and 9 men), between 19 and 38 years old (14 without music studies, 3 with music studies, and 1 with acoustic studies). The approximate duration of the survey is 30 min.

Fig. 2. (a) Texturized model of the Roman Theatre of Cartagena. (b) Participants during the survey (Credits: (a), (b) J. A. Romero-Odero, March 2019).

6 Results and Conclusions Comparison tests of two signals belonging to various theatre locations have been established. These locations correspond to three points whose distances from the source are 9.88, 20.29, and 37.08 m respectively. In the first part of the survey, the participants receive only the pairs of musical or oral sound signals without the support of the location visualization in the theatre. When the pairs of musical signals are heard, most respondents perceive the clarity for music as better for the closest signal than the farthest; however, when listening to the two closest positions or the two farthest positions for comparison, the number of people who choose one option or the other is almost equivalent (Fig. 3a). When the same signals are supported by 3D visualization, there is a greater preference for positions closest to the source (see Fig. 3b). For sound perception, it is therefore crucial to visualize the space and the location within this space. Signal 1 Signal 2 Equal DK/FA

5%6% 17%

17% 28% 16%

72 %

39%

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3. Answers of the respondents when pairs of musical signals are compared for the two positions furthest from the source. (a) Only audio signals; (b) Audio signals and visualization. Signal 2 is that from the receiver closest to the source.

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In order to determine the subjective limit, which is the just noticeable difference (JND) related to the speech intelligibility that a listener distinguishes in this type of venue, the same test is carried out with signals corresponding to a man and a woman individually delivering the same speech. In these cases, regardless of whether the same speech is spoken either by a man or a woman, and whether or not the theatre localization is viewed in 3D, most respondents prefer the locations closest to the source to the most distant. This is a preliminary study in order to determine the JND values corresponding to the main acoustic parameters in these semi-open venues. To this end, it will be necessary to expand the number of respondents, to consider their possible differences in terms of gender, age, and musical education, and to increase the various acoustic parameters involved and their ranges of values. In addition, the study will be carried out using virtual reality immersion. Acknowledgments. This work is funded by ERDF funds and the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry, and Competitiveness (MINECO) with ref. BIA2017-85301-P.

References 1. Bahrick, L.E.: Infants’ intermodal perception of two levels of temporal structure in natural events. Infant Behav. Dev. 10, 387–416 (1987) 2. Bahrick, L.E., Lickliter, R.: Intersensory redundance guides attentional selectivity and perceptual learning in infancy. Dev. Psychol. 2(36), 190–201 (2000) 3. McGurk, H., McDonald, J.: Hearing lips and seeing voices: a new illusion. Nature 264, 746– 748 (1976) 4. Vorländer, M.: Auralization. Fundamentals of acoustics, modelling, simulation, algorithms and acoustic virtual reality. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany (2008) 5. Postma, B., Katz, B.: Creation and calibration method of virtual acoustic models for historic auralizations. J. Virtual Real. 19, 161–180 (2015) 6. Sender, M., Planells, A., Perelló, R., Segura, J., Giménez, A.: Virtual acoustic reconstruction of a lost church: application to an order of Saint Jerome monastery in Alzira. Spain. J. Build. Perform. Simul. 11(3), 1–22 (2017) 7. Álvarez-Morales, L., Molina-Rozalem, J.F., Girón, S., Alonso, A., Bustamante, P., ÁlvarezCorbacho, A.: Virtual reality in church acoustics: visual and acoustic experience in the cathedral of Seville, Spain. In: International Congress on Sound and Vibration, pp. 1–8 (2017) 8. Stein, B.E., Meredith, M.A., Honeycutt, W.S., McDade, L.: Behavioral indices of multisensory integration: orientation of visual cues is affected by auditory stimuli. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 1, 12–24 (1989) 9. Calcagno, E.R., Abregú, E.L., Eguía, M.C., Vergara, R.: The role of vision in auditory distance perception. Perception 41(17), 175–192 (2012) 10. Postma, B.N., Katz, B.F.: The influence of visual distance on the room-acoustic experience of auralizations. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 142(5), 3035–3046 (2017) 11. ISO 3382-1:2009, Acoustics - Measurement of room acoustic parameters -I: Performance spaces. ISO Standard: International Standards Organization, (2009)

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12. Álvarez-Corbacho, A., Bustamante, P., Galindo, M., Girón, S., Zamarreño, T.: Measurement and analysis of the acoustics of the Roman theatre of Segobriga (Spain). In: Internoise 2019, paper 1833, 11 p. (2019) 13. ITU-R BS.1116-1. Methods for the subjective assessment of small impairments in audio systems including multichannel sound systems, Geneva, Switzerland (1994) 14. Girón, S., Galindo, M., Gómez-Gómez, T.: Assessment of the subjective perception of reverberation in Spanish cathedrals. Build. Environ. 171, paper 106656 (2020)

Design of an Innovative System of Safety and Health at Work Applied to Construction Julián Casañas1, Daniela Burbano1, Nathalia Cortes1, Valentina Espinosa1, and Estefany Rey-Becerra2(&) 1

Industrial Engineering Student, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Cali, Colombia [email protected] 2 Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Bochum, Germany [email protected]

Abstract. 90% of civil engineering projects had accidents in Colombia in 2018. Therefore, this project developed an innovative evaluation system through Virtual Reality that allows risk prevention. A 360-degree questionnaire about Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) was developed using 3DVista. A traditional lecture about PPE was given to team members. Then, the group was divided into G1 (n = 14), who did a Paper-&-Pencil test, and G2 (n = 15), who did the VR test, both with the same questions. A second test was carried out to evaluate the remembrance five days later with the same procedure. As a result, both tests caused a significant difference in trainees’ remembrance (p < 0.05), and G2 had better results in the second test than G1 (p = 0,002). Besides, in the satisfaction questionnaire, 43% of G2’s participants affirmed that this tool allowed them to obtained better results. It should be noted that the proposal is innovative, different, and didactic. Keywords: Security & risk Construction sector


Occupational safety & health
Virtual reality


1 Introduction In a construction site, it is essential to have an Occupational Health and Safety Management System (OH&S-MS) because it prevents work-related injuries and health deterioration, and it provides a safe and healthy workplace [1]. However, this economic sector has one of the highest accident rates. In 2018, 645,119 occupational accidents were registered in Colombia, of which construction represents the highest percentage with 10.8% [2]. Besides, this sector was the fourth of the economic activities of higher risk [3], such as blows, falls, burns, cuts, among others. Some accidents can be prevented with personal protection equipment (PPE), which are defined by the Colombian Ministry of Health [4] as “any equipment or device specially designed and manufactured to preserve the human body”. The objective of PPE is to protect the physical integrity of workers and reduce the effects once the risk materializes, that is when the accident occurs [5].

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 223–227, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_34

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Consequently, the Ministry of Labor [6] called on employers, contractors, and workers in the sector to take control measures against the hazards. This entity suggests that workers’ training processes allow them to acquire the necessary skills to face the challenges posed by the complex world of modern construction work. According to Awolusi, Hallowell and Marks [7], innovation is currently not often present in OH&S Management Systems in construction. However, Guo, Yu, Skitmore [8] found that visualization technologies can improve training, identification, and monitoring of hazardous areas at construction sites. Besides, Sacks, Perlman, and Barak [9], proposed a safety training through immersive Virtual Reality (VR), which proved to be more effective than traditional training. Therefore, an innovative evaluation system of protection techniques and preventive measures was developed through VR. The system was tested and validated within the construction of the MINGA-house at the Solar Decathlon Latinoamerica and Caribbean (SDLC-2019) in Cali, Colombia. The participating team members were students of the Pontificia Universidad Javeriana Cali campus (PUJC) [10].

2 Methods Before the SDLC Competition began, OH&S risk assessment was done in similar construction sites to the one of the MINGA-house, with the GTC-45 based on the ISO 31000:2009 [11]. Also, biomechanical hazards and risk factors were identified with the checklists created by the applied ergonomics center (CENEA in Spanish), based on the ISO 12295:2014 [12]. Hence, it was possible to match the proper PPE with the recognized hazards to avoid a specific accident. A 360-degree questionnaire about PPE was developed for risk prevention. On the one hand, a poll of questions about the proper use of PPE was created according to the activities that the student must carry out. On the other hand, a virtual environment (VE) of the space under construction of the MINGA-House was designed. The program 3DVista [13] was used, which allows multimedia tours with 3D transition effect and first-person 360-degree video experience. In order to achieve a more realistic environment, panoramic photos were taken in two phases: a house under construction like the MINGA-house; and its surroundings, the exact land where the competition was taken place. Thanks to the social communication students’ support, the expected result was achieved since they had experience in using the software. Before the SDLC competition, this project team took a pilot test to validate the proposed design. Firstly, MINGA’s students had a safety traditional lecture with the OH&S manager from PUJC. Subsequently, the students were divided into two groups: G1 with 14 members and G2 with 15 members. G1 was evaluated with a Paper-&Pencil test and G2 with the VR designed program on a desktop. Both questionnaires had the same questions. Finally, a second test took place after five days to evaluate the remembrance caused by each type of test.

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3 Results Figure 1 shows the results of the two tests. G1 had an average of 19% of correct answers in its first test and 31% in the second test, while G2 had an average of 11% in its first test, and 58% in its second test. Hypothesis tests were performed in Minitab with a significance level of 5% to validate the effectiveness of the solution through H1: “Virtual reality causes greater remembrance in the learning of G2 participants and therefore better results in their second test”; and H2: “G2 obtained better results than G1, due to Virtual Reality test”. Table 1 shows the tests performed and the P-values.

Fig. 1. Comparison of the score obtained between the 1st test (T1) and the 2nd test (T2) for both groups. Table 1. Statistical test for the Hypothesis Hypothesis H1 G1 - comparison between T1 & T2 G2 - comparison between T1 & T2

Test

T test - normal paired samples Wilcoxon Test - no normal paired samples H2 T1 - comparison between G1 & G2 Mann-Whitney - no normal Independent samples T2 - comparison between G1 & G2 T test - normal independent samples Note: *p-value is statistically significant (a = 0.05)

P-value *0.009 *0.001 0.983 *0.002

Finally, the G2 conducted an additional survey about the level of satisfaction they had with the VR experience. The result was that 43% of the students affirmed that thanks to this tool, they obtained better results in the second test.

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4 Discussion and Conclusions This project aimed to create an innovative evaluation system of protection techniques and preventive measures through VR. The authors developed a test about PPE using two techniques: paper-&-pencil (G1) and 360-degree experience (G2). The results showed that both groups improve their results in the second test. However, G2 had better results in the second test than G1. This could be associated with the fact that participant could remember the pictures and the virtual tour inside the house. No significance difference was found for the first test. The main objective of the OH&S-MS is to have zero accidents. Creating a system that complements traditional training regarding the use of PPE is essential to achieve that people worry about hazards that they could be exposed to in construction sites. The implementation of VR training as an evaluation method of training, is a powerful tool due to it easily application in a real scene and remembrance of important aspects. Traditional learning could be enhanced with virtual training before entering a construction site, allowing people to be more careful when knowing what type of PPE to use in a specific activity. However, more evidence is needed. Investing in virtual training could be less expensive than having accident costs. Nonetheless, it is recommended to use less expensive methods for cognitive learning. More cost studies are needed to reinforce this claim. In addition to adequate training, it is essential to have proper safety signs in the construction site; this could be an external factor of remembrance regarding the use of PPE. Moreover, the employer must equip workers with PPE, which must be framed within the quality and legal requirements. The project team will standardize the system designed using a manual that includes the step-by-step for its implementation. This manual will allow modifying the design of the VR tool, adapting to the specific needs of any construction. Also, it is possible to modify the structure of the questionnaire regarding the use of PPE. The program can be used on a desktop or with HeadMounted Displays. It should be noted that the proposal is innovative, different, and didactic.

References 1. ISO Occupational health and safety. Salud y Seguridad en el Trabajo ¿Está preparado para ISO 45001?. https://www.iso.org/isofocus 2. FASECOLDA. Reporte por clase de riesgo y actividad económica. https://sistemas. fasecolda.com/rldatos/Reportes/xClaseGrupoActividad.aspx 3. González, X.: El sector de obras registró 88.102 accidentes de trabajo durante el 2017. La Republica. https://www.larepublica.co/especiales/especial-construccion/el-sector-de-obras-re gistro-88102-accidentes-de-trabajo-durante-el-2017-2743590 4. Programa de Elementos de Proteccion Personal, Uso y Mantenimiento. Ministerio de Salud y Proteccion Social Colombia. https://www.minsalud.gov.co/Ministerio/Institucional/Procesos %20y%20procedimientos/GTHS02.pdf 5. R.Toro, EPP: Equipo de protección personal, Nueva ISO 45001. https://www.nueva-iso-45 001.com/2017/11/epp-equipo-proteccion-personal/

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6. MinTrabajo llama la atención al sector de la construcción para implementar medidas que permitan bajar índices de accidentalidad - Ministerio del trabajo. http://www.mintrabajo.gov. co/web/guest/mintrabajo-llama-la-atencion-al-sectorde-la-construccion-para-implementar-me didas-que-permitan-bajar-indices-de-accidentalidad?inheritRedirect=true 7. Awolusi, I., Marks, E., Hallowell, M.: Wearable technology for personalized construction safety monitoring and trending: review of applicable devices. Automat. Constr. 85, 96–106 (2018) 8. Guo, H., Yu, Y., Skitmore, M.: Visualization technology-based construction safety management: a review. Automat. Constr. 73, 135–144 (2017) 9. Sacks, R., Perlman, A., Barak, R.: Construction safety training using immersive virtual reality. Constr. Manag. Econ. 31(9), 1005–1017 (2013) 10. Osuna I., Ordóñez A., Villamil V.: Minga House, Propuesta para Comunidades Sostenibles en el Clima Futuro. Publicación No. 861. Tomo 156. Revista Javeriana, ISSN 0120-3086 (2020) 11. Guía Tecnica Colombiana 45. Guía para la identificacion de los peligros y la valoracion de los riesgos en seguridad y salud ocupacional. https://idrd.gov.co/sitio/idrd/sites/default/files/ imagenes/gtc450.pdf 12. Waters T.R., Putz-Anderson V., Garg A.: Applications manual for the Revised NIOSH Lifting Equation. Applications Manual for the Revised NIOSH Lifting Equation. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 94–110. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Cincinnati, Ohio, 45226 (1994) 13. Professional Virtual Tour Software Leading in Panoramic & VR Innovation. https://www. 3dvista.com/es/

Wearable Technologies and Affective Computing

Instagram Photo-Sharing and Its Relationships with Social Rewards and Social Connectedness Julie Maclean(&), Yeslam Al-Saggaf, and Rachel Hogg Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia [email protected]

Abstract. Previous research has found conflicting results whether social media photo-sharing actually improves or worsens social connectedness. This work explored relationships among social connectedness, photo-sharing and social rewards on the most used online photo-sharing platform, Instagram. The study focused on photo-sharing rather than the passive viewing of photos. The aim was to investigate photo-sharing relationships with social connectedness considering differences of types of social rewards and sharing photos of oneself, which had not been analyzed before. Results from an online survey of 383 participants found Instagram photo-sharing does not have a direct relationship with social connectedness, however, it does have a relationship with social rewards that stimulate elements of face-to-face communication online. Sharing photos of oneself had a more significant relationship with social rewards. The results found positive relationships between social reward satisfaction regardless of the number of social rewards and satisfaction was only impacted negatively when negative comments were received. Keywords: Instagram
Social media
Social networking sites
Photosharing
Social rewards
Self-disclosure
Social connectedness
Selfies

1 Introduction We live in an age where the online world offers a modern and accessible way of interacting with others. Technology is advancing to become a key enabler for fostering and moderating relationships to facilitate changes in emotions, such those that make us feel more connected with others. The immense rise in online photo-sharing has seen billions of photos shared daily [1] and reflects the importance of understanding how this paradigm of social media technology influences psychological aspects of human emotions. Social connectedness is an outcome of having high levels of satisfaction with social connections [2]. Conversely, being socially disconnected is when there is a shortfall in desired personal contact, companionship and social support [3, 4]. Social Networking Sites (SNSs) may increase social connectedness through photo-sharing [5]. Whilst SNSs may not replace the need for face-to-face connection, it may facilitate a sense of connection through photo-sharing functionality [4, 5]. SNSs use has also been associated with deteriorating social connectedness of users, especially when use is excessive and reduces offline face-to-face time spent with friends and family members [6]. However, the relationships between online photo-sharing, social rewards and social © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 231–237, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_35

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connectedness are not well understood. Photos shared with faces (alone or with friends including faces regardless of age or gender) are the most popular type of photos and were most likely to receive social rewards of ‘likes’ or ‘comments’ than those without [7]. Thus, sharing photos of oneself may increase social rewards and generate increased social connectedness benefits. The types of photos most beneficial for social connectedness requires further investigation to identify the relationship with photos of oneself, given its popularity. The aim of this research was to investigate the relationships among Instagram photo-sharing, social rewards and social connectedness. This research measured the relationships for types of photos shared without considering the effect of passive consumption of photos, to understand the specific relationships for photo-sharing. This study was the first to separate measurement of positive and negative social rewards and consider that social reward satisfaction may have different relationships with photosharing than the number of social rewards.

2 Related Work and Hypotheses Social connectedness is part of the human desire to connect with others to create, develop and maintain satisfying relationships [2]. Conversely, being socially disconnected is the opposite and is experienced when there is a shortfall in desired personal contact, companionship and social support [3, 4]. A study of 253 undergraduate students found users participating in SNSs photo-sharing were happier and more satisfied with life [7]. On the other hand, SNSs may not fulfil the offline interaction needs required to offset feelings of social disconnectedness [4]. These conflicting findings highlight that in the current modern digital society, SNSs photo-sharing functions may have a positive relationship with social connectedness. To understand the relationship between Instagram photo-sharing and social connectedness, the following hypothesis was proposed: Hypothesis 1: The number of photos shared on Instagram will be positively correlated with levels of social connectedness. Self-disclosure through photo-sharing can stimulate positive social rewards, such as likes or comments, and this has been linked to generating positive effects on social connectedness [1, 5]. Social rewards can improve and validate social connectedness through stimulating online interactions of a social nature to restore a sense of belonging [8, 9]. Social reward activities or other interactions provide cues of social success by activating the brain’s reward system to keep users coming back to SNSs [10]. To assess the relationship between social rewards and sharing photos on Instagram, the following hypotheses was proposed: Hypothesis 2: The number of photos shared on Instagram will be positively correlated with the number of social rewards. Posting photos of oneself is one of the most popular activities on SNSs [7]. The photo driven nature of Instagram can encourage presentation of the most positive and

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perfect characterisations of one’s life. Photo-sharing of oneself on SNSs has been shown to result in the highest levels of social rewards when compared to other types of photos [7]. To understand the different relationships types of photos shared have with social rewards, the relationship between Instagram sharing photos of oneself and social rewards was assessed by the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 3: The number of photos shared of oneself on Instagram will be positively correlated with the number of social rewards. Social rewards satisfaction generated by sharing photos may create gratifying feelings of being recognised and looking outstanding compared to others [11]. Relationship maintaining behaviours on SNSs of sympathising and congratulating through likes or comments may increase social rewards satisfaction [12], which may be positive for social connectedness. A study of 129 SNSs users found the strongest motivator for sharing photos of oneself on Instagram was self-presentation [11]. Whether a user perceives their online persona achieved through self-presentation in a positive or negative way may have different relationships with social reward satisfaction. The relationships between social reward satisfaction and social connectedness was assessed by the following hypotheses: Hypothesis 4: The number of likes or comments received from sharing photos on Instagram will be positively correlated with levels of social reward satisfaction. Hypothesis 5: The number of likes and positive comments on Instagram will be positively correlated with levels of satisfaction with social rewards and levels of social connectedness. Hypothesis 6: The number of negative comments on Instagram will be negatively correlated with levels of satisfaction with social rewards and levels of social connectedness.

3 Method Ethical approval from the University’s Human Research Ethics Committee was obtained before data collection under Protocol Number H19047. A total of 531 responses were collected through an online survey. Eligibility criteria was based on respondents being over 18 years of age and having shared photos within the last week on their Instagram account. A total of 158 responses did not meet the eligibility criteria due to not sharing photos over the last week or reporting photo-sharing or social reward totals considered unlikely to be an accurate representation of photo-sharing behavior in such a narrow time period. A total of 373 responses met all validity criteria and were included in the study. Data analysis was performed in IBM SPSS Statistics Version 26 using Pearson’s correlation to test the theoretical model. Social connectedness was measured using the Social Connectedness Scale (1995) derived by Lee and Robbins [13] where higher scores indicated higher levels of social connectedness within a range of one to six. The mean for the Social Connectedness Scale was 2.41 (SD = 1.12). A comparable mean for the scale is 4.82 (SD = 1.33) [13], indicating lower levels of social connectedness reported for the participants in the

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current study than might usually be expected. The scale has a high internal reliability based on Cronbach’s alpha level of a = .94 in keeping with extant data on reliability for this scale, a = .91 [13]. Self-disclosure photo-sharing was measured from participants from self-reported numbers of photos shared and photo shared of oneself. The minimum value for photos shared was one and the maximum was 212 with a mean of 12.28 (SD = 24.49). The minimum value for photos shared of oneself was zero and the maximum was 182, with a mean of 5.99 (SD = 16.37). Social rewards were collected through self-reported numbers of “likes”, “positive comments” and “negative comments” based on the total number of photos shared. For total social rewards, the minimum value was zero and the maximum was 3,040 with a mean of 139.14 (SD = 286.10). To identify the difference between positive and negative social rewards, “likes” and “positive comments” were summed to provide a total number of positive social rewards. The minimum value was zero and the maximum was 3,034 with a mean of 138.81 (SD = 287.71). “Negative comments” provided the total number of negative social rewards. The minimum value was zero and the maximum was 182 with a mean of 5.99 (SD = 16.36). Participants rated levels of social reward satisfaction through the question, “I am satisfied with the reaction to my photos that were shared on Instagram in the last week”. The minimum score was one and the maximum score was six with a mean of 4.81 (SD = 1.00).

4 Results Hypothesis 1 was not supported as there was no significant correlation (r = .077) between sharing photos and social connectedness. Results may have been influenced by the average scores from respondents on the Social Connectedness Scale, which was M = 2.42, reflecting lower levels of social connectedness than found in other research (M = 4.82) [13]. The results provided support for Hypothesis 2 as there was a significant positive correlation at the 0.05 level (r = .142) between sharing photos and social rewards. The results supported Hypothesis 3 through significant positive correlation at the 0.01 level (r = .216) confirming the relationship between sharing photos of oneself and social rewards. Hypothesis 4 was not supported as there was no significant correlation (r = −.027) between sharing photos and social reward satisfaction. The results may be influenced by respondents showing higher levels of social reward satisfaction (M = 4.82) due to 90% of respondents (291) scoring above the mid-level of three on the scale. Hypothesis 5 was not supported as there was no significant correlation with positive social rewards and social reward satisfaction (r = −.026). The results also showed no significant correlation with positive social rewards and social connectedness (r = −.095). The results partly confirmed Hypothesis 6 as there was a significant negative correlation at the 0.01 level (r = −.178) between negative social rewards and social reward satisfaction. However, there was no significant correlation between negative social rewards and social connectedness (r = .048), which was not consistent with part of the hypothesis.

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5 Discussion and Conclusion The results suggest social connectedness does not have a direct relationship with Instagram photo-sharing levels. Previous studies finding correlations may be due to not differentiating between sharing and consuming of photos on SNSs. Instagram photosharing appeared to stimulate elements of offline social interactions online through social rewards in a simple and easy way. Total photos shared of oneself made up 85% of the total photos shared reinforcing the notion that sharing photos of oneself on SNSs constitutes a popular activity [7]. The relationship between social rewards and photos of oneself is more significant than other types of photos, supporting that photos of oneself are highly correlated with social rewards [7]. The correlations found between positive and negative social rewards with social connectedness indicate levels of social connectedness are not influenced by types of social rewards. This may be due to respondents experiencing higher levels of social disconnectedness that may be influenced from other factors when activities on SNSs may not alleviate the extremity of the levels being experienced. Otherwise, social rewards could be more relevant to impression management and less about interacting with each other to gain connectedness. Social media users could be satisfied with responses based on social rewards stimulating levels of satisfaction from simulating offline interactions and activating cues of social success [10]. The number of rewards may not be the determining factor that interrelates to social connectedness, the actual reward may stimulate the brain to keeps users coming back to share more photos [10]; particularly those of oneself, which generate higher levels of rewards. Social rewards satisfaction remained high regardless of the number of social rewards when likes or positive comments were received. Social rewards satisfaction did deteriorate as negative social rewards increased, which does reinforce the concept that negative and positive social rewards do have different relationships with social reward satisfaction. Negative comments may have a relationship with social reward satisfaction potentially due to having a direct reflection on one’s online persona [11]. There were some limitations of the study that provide opportunities for future research. Although participants were asked to log into their Instagram accounts to verify the information provided, the study did not validate if the information provided was correct due to privacy issues with obtaining data from actual accounts. Approximate figures are useful to understand the perceived relationships between variables and the assessment of outliers supported identifying responses that may not be valid. Future studies may further enhance results by confirming information in Instagram accounts. The measures tested social connectedness relationships with Instagram photo-sharing without assessing other potential motivations relevant to changes in social connectedness levels. There is great difficulty in establishing causality between psychological factors, such as perception and emotions. A natural progression would be to understand direct psychological assessments for participants in more detail to understand other influences on levels of social connectedness. The effect of passively consuming information and sharing of videos was specifically excluded from the study so the relationship with photo-sharing could be understood. There may be utility in investigating the effect of consuming photos as discrete from photo sharing as differences may arise when inclusion of the consumption of photos is considered.

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In conclusion, this study was the first to adopt an approach to assess the role of sharing different types of photos on SNSs without the consideration of passive consumption considering relationships with social reward satisfaction separately to the number and types of social rewards. Results found Instagram photo-sharing does not have a direct relationship with social connectedness, however, does have a relationship with social rewards that stimulate elements of face-to-face communication in the online social media environment. Sharing photos of oneself had a more significant relationship with social rewards indicating sharing photos including faces alone or with others may increase gratifications found from generating social rewards online. The analysis revealed positive levels of social reward satisfaction regardless of the number of social rewards, which had not previously been discovered in other research and this highlights the importance of considering social reward satisfaction as a separate measurement. Negative social rewards were found to have a negative relationship with social reward satisfaction potentially due to a direct reflection on one’s online persona. One obvious implication for social media design and policy may lie in providing further facilities for allowing ease of sharing photos, particularly in relation to oneself that maximizes positive social rewards and minimizes negative rewards. Not only does this research help to establish a unique set of learnings in relation to social media photo-sharing functions, it also allows for the targeting of the best use of social media technology to maximize benefits for users that can be leveraged for future social media photo-sharing technology enhancements, policy and education.

References 1. Malik, A., Dhir, A., Nieminen, M.: Uses and Gratifications of digital photo sharing on Facebook. Telematics Inform. 33(1), 129–138 (2015) 2. Dohyun, A., Shin, D.D.: H: Is the social use of media for seeking connectedness or for avoiding social isolation? Mechanisms underlying media use and subjective well-being. Comput. Hum. Behav. 29(6), 2453–2462 (2013) 3. Bevinn, S.J. (ed.): Psychology of emotions, motivations and actions. Nova Science Publishers Inc., New York (2011) 4. Cornwell, E.Y., Waite, L.J.: Social disconnectedness, perceived isolation, and health among older adults. J. Health Soc. Behav. 50(1), 31–48 (2009) 5. Carpenter, C.J., Franklin, B.J., Kotowski, M., Day, J.P.: Evidence for the validity of a social connectedness scale: connectors amass bridging social capital online and offline. Commun. Q. 63(2), 119–134 (2015) 6. Sharma, A., Sharma, R.: Internet addiction and psychological well-being among college students: a cross-sectional study from Central India. J. Family Med. Primary Care 7(1), 147– 151 (2018) 7. Pittman, M., Reich, B.: SNSs and loneliness: why an Instagram picture may be worth more than a thousand Twitter words. Comput. Hum. Behav. 62, 155–167 (2016) 8. Alkis, Y., Kadirhan, K., Sat, M.: Development and validation of social anxiety scale for SNSs users. Comput. Hum. Behav. 72, 296–303 (2017) 9. Schneider, F.M., Zwillich, B., Bindl, M.J., Hopp, F.R., Reich, S., Vorderer, P.: SNSs ostracism: the effects of being excluded online. Comput. Hum. Behav. 73, 385–393 (2017)

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10. Meshi, D.B., Tamir, D.I., Heekeren, H.R.: The emerging neuroscience of SNSs. Trends Cogn. Sci. 19(12), 771–782 (2015) 11. Lee, C.S., Bakar, N.A.B.A., Dahri, R.B.M., Sin, S.J.: Instagram this! Sharing photos on Instagram. In: 17th International Conference on Asia-Pacific Digital Libraries, Korea, pp. 132–141 (2015) 12. Phua, J., Jin, S.V., Kim, J.: Uses and gratifications of social networking sites for bridging and bonding social capital: a comparison of Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat. Comput. Hum. Behav. 72, 115–122 (2017) 13. Lee, R.M., Robbins, S.B.: Measuring belongingness: the social connectedness and the social assurance scales. J. Counseling Psychol. 2(2), 232–241 (1995)

Building a Unique Method to Teach How to “Design” with and for ICS Materials in the Wearable Domain Venere Ferraro and Stefano Parisi(&) Design Department, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy {venere.ferraro,stefano.parisi}@polimi.it

Abstract. In this paper, we discuss the results of the ongoing research project “Datemats” funded by the European Commission - aimed at developing novel teaching methods for both design and engineering students in the field of Emerging Materials & Technologies (EM&Ts). Specifically, we will focus on Interactive, Connected, Smart (ICS) EM&Ts in the field of Wearable technologies. We framed a new innovative syllabus covering theoretical knowledge (materials and design) practical knowledge through a learning by doing approach (coding skills, manufacturing processes) and skills about how to design successful products by involving companies in the design curricula. The methodology for the preparation of the syllabus and identification of learning contents and methods is described. The structure and contents of the syllabus are presented, and finally, the future steps for the implementation of the syllabus are discussed. Keywords: ICS materials


Wearable technologies
Design education

1 Introduction In the last few years, both materials and technologies are becoming one of the leading elements of product design practice as a lever to foster innovation and add value to final products. Despite the importance of materials and the success of creative industries, there is a gap in the research and development of new materials and technologies to be used in these products. In this regard, Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Design fields are starting to reason on the possibility for the designer to create new experiences and innovation for specific Emerging Materials and Technologies (EM&Ts). Materials and Technologies are a vitally important subject in the Design Education curriculum. This area is known for being needed continuously updates [1]. Firstly, because materials are not to consider as a static subject, i.e., their attributed meanings, manufacturing processes, availability change and fluctuate over time. Secondly, new materials are continuously being developed and applied. Most of the time, such EM&Ts expose new and unique characteristics, qualities, behaviours, and processes, requiring new approaches to teaching and learning techniques. Design practitioners and students continuously need to gain updated materials knowledge, skills, and competences, not only to deliver designs that exploit available material possibilities but also to © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 238–243, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_36

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contribute to new materials innovation and development [2]. In this paper, we describe and discuss the results of the ongoing EU-funded project “Datemats”1 aimed at developing new design teaching methods in the field of EM&Ts. Specifically, we focus on Interactive, Connected, Smart (ICS) EM&Ts in the field of Wearable technologies.

2 The Context of Material Education for Design Conventionally, materials education for design has been based on the ‘hard’ profile of materials, i.e., their technical characteristics. New approaches in teaching materials for design have been emerging, since the ‘soft’ profile of materials have been brought to light and embodied in education by a whole body of research [3, 4]. Teaching materials involves multiple sources of learning, e.g., direct experimentation with materials; discussion and confrontation with instructors, experts, and peers; texts, videos, and pictures [2]. In this framework, Active and Experiential Learning [5] are fundamental approaches to teaching and learning materials in a design context, engaging students in a design challenge with companies [6] and learning through making [7, 8]. Schön and Bennet [9] described how the design and creative practice itself can be observed as a conversation with materials, through which the practitioner gets to know materials. Teaching with physical materials and product samples is an efficient method to gain knowledge about materials and stimulate the creative process though direct exploration [2, 7, 10].

3 ICS Materials and Their Potential in the Wearable Domain ICS materials [11] are defined as systems combining inactive materials, stimuliresponsive smart materials, and embedded sensing, computing, and actuating microtechnologies. They mainly perform shape shifting, light-emitting, and colour-changing behaviours. These materials that can be embedded into clothing or worn on the body as implants or accessories (i.e. wearable technologies) are currently used in experimental applications while the commercial exploitation is still sporadic. ICS materials can be been applied in a range of design sectors, up to the wearable technologies [12]. Besides implants and accessories, smart textiles play a significant role in the wearable sector and can be defined as textiles that can sense and respond to changes [13]. The application of such materials into wearables unfolds many opportunities both from an aesthetic and functional perspective. ICS materials enhance the aesthetic enjoyment by triggering the effect of surprise and by creating multi-sensory experiences. Moreover, they have the transformative role of making invisible data tangible and information more accessible, enabling users to behave more awarely and proactively. Smart textiles and wearables may have a huge impact on the sport and 1

DATEMATS is a project co-funded by the European Union under the ERASMUS + Knowledge Alliances programme with Agreement Number: 600777-EPP-1-2018-1-IT-EPPKA2-KA (www. datemats.eu).

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healthcare industries: indeed, they can be used to monitor and support body activities. For example, they can be used for health prevention and rehabilitation. ICS materials allow wearables to constantly adapt to the users’ needs for their wellbeing. By introducing smart materials and interactive technologies into wearable, new tasks and challenges for designers emerge. Designers must ensure that in achieving what is technically feasible the well-being [14] of people is preserved, and the requirements of wearability, human movement, unobtrusivity, comfort, warmth, softness, flexibility, and maintenance – including washability – are respected [15–17]. The design of interactive materials combines traditional methods with advanced technology, creating a new area for designers to explore in which the ability of the designer to alter the characteristics of the material can be made by both physical manipulation and digital technology [18, 19], even supported by digital manufacturing and parametric design. Moreover, a challenge for wearables development is sustainability.

4 Method: Framing a New Design Course Literature review on educational methods and tools to design with this EM&T [20–23] reveals the urgency to develop and apply a unique and systematic approach encompassing competencies on materials, design, and interaction technologies, the hybridization of physical and digital, the inter-play of dynamic and static expressions of materials and technologies, the capability to combine knowledge on technical properties and fabrication processes with the understanding of the sensorial and experiential qualities of materials. Building on this, we framed a new innovative syllabus covering theoretical knowledge (materials and design) practical knowledge through a learning by doing approach (coding skills, manufacturing processes) and skills about how to design successful products by involving companies in the design curricula. The teaching method is based on a Framework emerged as an output of the project Datemats according to which ICS Materials EM&Ts area is characterized by the need for a holistic and hybrid approach considering material qualities & interactive behaviours, the physical & the digital, the system & the individual components, the technicalities & the experience. ICS Materials EM&Ts area is indeed situated in the intersection of Design, Materials & Manufacturing, and Computer Science. Other complementing and supporting disciplines involved in the area are Ergonomics, Psychology & Perception, and Sustainability. The tool used to formalize the training contents is an Academic Syllabus designed and shaped following the format used into Academic teaching environments and by taking into consideration the Descriptors of Learning Outcomes for Higher Education Qualification [24] to have a universal, normed, and comprehensive document as a legacy of the project after its execution2. The course is expected to be divided into three modules based on the cross-disciplinarity identified in the Framework: Materials and Manufacturing; the Specific area per EM&Ts, e.g., computer science; Design. We set 2

A syllabus template to fill in was created consisting of different sections: (I) Rationale; (II) Course Aims and Outcomes; (III) Format; (IV) Course requirements; (V) Grading procedures; (VI) Tentative Course Schedule; (VII) References.

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an original teaching method, where the application context definition and materials identification are the starting point of the process. The teaching and learning process is both cognitive and physical and is based on the identification of three main didactic blocks: Understanding, Shaping/Experimenting, and Applying. Although the description of the process establishes a chronological succession of the three blocks, they are profoundly intertwined, iterating, and often simultaneous and overlapping in their definition. A reduced description of the syllabus is reported below.

5 The Syllabus of the Course: A Brief Version The syllabus outlines the tentative course ‘Designing with ICS Materials – Wearable based’. This course teaches students with mixed background (design and engineering) to design with Interactive Connected Smart (ICS) materials in the wearable system domain (i.e., health, sports, well-being). The course aims to: (a) provide a body of knowledge regarding ICS Materials – including Smart Materials and E-textiles – and their meaning, potentials, and critical issues in relation to the Wearable domain; knowledge on related subjects, e.g. basic knowledge about user-centred approach in HCI and sustainability; (b) Introduce students to new skills: “tinkering” and experimenting in a crossdisciplinary environment, e.g., in a FabLab or in a makerspace with experts from different fields; (c) practice student’ design capabilities in transferring and applying knowledge from material research and exploration in the design concept and prototyping; managing the complexity and designing new interactive systems leveraging ICS Materials properties and qualities, considering the context of application, e.g. wearable. Being the subject in the intersection of different disciplines, as identified in the Framework, the modules can be carried out co-teaching, e.g., with experts in related disciplines. The learning process is supported not only by reading and lectures but must be obtained by actively exploring and experimenting and is based on the crossdisciplinarity between design, materials and manufacturing, and computer science. The course is divided in three modules, as follows. 1) Understanding (3 credits): the module uses theoretical lectures and online interviews with experts covering different subjects, e.g., Materials experience, Dynamism, Smart materials technicalities, to frame materials-related aspects such as historical use, cultural meaning, chemical composition and technical qualities. The module includes the use of physical samples (with materials and technology embedded or separated). In alternative, teachers provide cards or other tools representing the EM&T. Students are assessed by the production of a scholarly paper to be presented to the rest of the class, developed doing desk research, field research and group discussions. The teachers’ profile is based on design and material engineering. 2) Exploring and shaping (3 credits): the module focuses on hands-on experimentation with ICS materials leveraging technical knowledge (i.e., basics of coding, electronics, and Human-Computer Interaction provided through theoretical lectures, tutorials and exercises) and design approach in computational/material tinkering, i.e., creative experimentation with physical and digital. Through this process students will produce samples and process documentation on which they will be given assessment. The module involves teachers from the design area and teachers from computer science.

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3) Applying and Designing (6 credits): the module consists on the execution of a design project with a brief launched by a company. The project work is realized by developing design and prototype(s) based on the output derived and the skills acquired from the previous modules. The design techniques used are drawing, concept development, and prototyping, supported by demonstrations of making techniques and combined with group discussions. The design method is based on the combination of speculative design and a holistic and hybrid approach to design considering different layers of the artefact (e.g., digital and physical, product and experience, static and temporal). The expected deliverables on which students will be assessed are prototypes, samples and demonstrators, videos, presentations, and documentation of the process. The teaching staff involved has expertise in design, manufacturing, and computer science.

6 Conclusions The syllabus here described is part of a set of four syllabuses on design for EM&Ts produced in the frame of the project Datemats, one for each HEI involved. The contents and structure described in the syllabus will be gradually tested and implemented in a different set of actions. First, they will be tested in the production of online resources for in-house and international students (around n. 30 for ICS Materials), including video lessons, tutorials and discussion in virtual classroom. Feedback from students will be collected to make a preliminary assessment of the contents. Then, the teaching method will be tested during an Interdisciplinary Design challenge based on EM&Ts involving the mobility of students from and to the HEIs involved in the project. Each of the HEIs involved will organize one workshop, focusing on one EM&Ts, and involving companies. Each workshop will involve a total number of 45 students. Finally, the syllabus will last as a legacy after the project’s completion and may be applied in future courses to be added in the HEI curricula. In conclusion, other innovative tools and training contents that are going to be integrated into the teaching methods are to mention, i.e., training contents on entrepreneurial skills and EM&Ts transfer toolkits (material box). The latter is a collection of tangible samples of materials and technologies, in the format a material box. The toolkit also includes datasheets to interpret the samples and links to multimedia contents, such descriptive videos and tutorials. Those will be part of our unique design method as an appropriate medium to be used in order to facilitate the knowledge transfer activities with companies and students.

References 1. Rognoli, V., Zhou, Z: Material education in design: from literature review to rethinking. In: Proceedings of DRS Learn X Design 2019: Insider Knowledge (2019) 2. Haug, A.: Acquiring materials knowledge in design education. Int. J. Technol. Des. Educ. 29(2), 405–420 (2018)

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3. Ashby, M.F., Johnson, K.: Materials and design: the art and science of materials selection in product design. Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford (2002) 4. Pedgley, O., Rognoli, V., Karana, E.: Materials experience as a foundation for materials and design education. Int. J. Technol. Des. Educ. 26(4), 613–630 (2015) 5. Kolb, D.A.: Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. Prentice Hall, Engle- wood Cliffs (1984) 6. Piselli, A., Dastoli, C., Santi, R., Del Curto, B.: Design tools in materials teaching: bridging the gap between theoretical knowledge and professional practice. E&PDE (2018) 7. Pedgley, O.: Invigorating industrial design materials and manufacturing education. METU J. Faculty Archit. 27(2), 339–360 (2010) 8. Parisi, S., Rognoli, V., Sonneveld, M.H.: Material Tinkering. An inspirational approach for experiential learning and envisioning in product design education. Design J. 20(sup1), S1167–S1184 (2017) 9. Schön, D., Bennet, J.: Reflective conversation with materials. In: Winograd, T. (Ed.) Bringing Design to Software, pp. 171–184. Addison Wesley, Boston (1996) 10. Rognoli, V.: A broad survey on expressive-sensorial characterization of materials for design education. Metu J. Faculty Archit. 27(2), 287–300 (2010) 11. Parisi S., Spallazzo, D., Ferraro, V., Ferrara, M., Ceconello, M.A., Ayala-Garcia, C., Rognoli, V.: Mapping ICS materials: interactive, connected, and smart materials. In: Intelligent Human Systems Integration (2018) 12. McCann, J., Bryson, D. (edited by): Smart Clothes and Wearable Technology. Woodhead Publishing in Textiles (2009) 13. Wu, J.X., Li, L.: An Introduction to Wearable Technology and Smart Textiles and Apparel. IntechOpen (2019) 14. Ritter, A.: Smart Materials in Architecture, Interior Architecture and Design. Springer, Germany (2006) 15. Gemperle, F., Kasabach, C., Stivoric, J., Bauer, M., Martin, R.R.: Design for wearability, digest of papers. In: Second International Symposium on Wearable Computers (1998) 16. Luprano, J.: Challenges for Electronics used in Smart Textiles. In: 2nd International Plastic Electronics 2006, Conference & Showcase (2006) 17. Ferraro, V.: The designer approach to wearable technologies, a practice based research, Maggioli Editore (2012) 18. Dumitrescu, D., Nilsson, L., Worbin, L., Persson, A.: Smart textiles as raw materials for design. In: Shapeshifting Conference: Auckland University of Technology (2014) 19. Parisi, S., Holzbach, M., Rognoli, V.: The hybrid dimension of material design: two case studies of a Do-It-Yourself approach for the development of interactive, connected, and smart materials. In: Intelligent Human Systems Integration (2020) 20. Parisi, S., Bionda, A., Ratti, A., Rognoli, V.: The NautICS materials workshop: teaching and learning interactive, connected, and smart materials for Yacht design. In: the Proceedings of DRS Learn X Design 2019 (2019) 21. Kretzer, M.: Materiability—an attempt for the education of an information material literacy in respect to emerging materials. In Information Materials, pp. 67–83 (2017) 22. Barati, B., Karana, E., Foole, M.: ‘Experience Prototyping’ Smart Material Composites. EKSIG (2017) 23. Schmid, M., Rümelin, S., Richter, H.: Empowering materiality: inspiring the design of tangible interactions. In: TEI 2013 (2013) 24. Gudeva, L.K., Dimova, V., Daskalovska, N., Trajkova, F.: Designing descriptors of learning outcomes for higher education qualification. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 46, 1306–1311 (2012)

Emotion Detection Based on Smartphone Using User Memory Tasks and Videos Nicolas Simonazzi1(&), Jean-Marc Salotti1, Caroline Dubois2, and Dominique Seminel2 1

IMS, CNRS, Bordeaux INP, Bordeaux University, Talence, France [email protected] 2 Orange Labs Service, Pessac, France

Abstract. In this paper, we present a research study on the classification of emotions, through data gathered on a smartphone. To this end, we have developed a mobile application to elicit emotions in participants using memory tasks with success – failure manipulation and also using video clips. Interactions were recorded with accelerometer and gyroscope sensors records and keystroke on the device. We trained supervised classification models, with the records, to predict the nature of emotion elicited on two dimensions (pleasure and activation) and the success or failure related tasks memory tasks. In order to evaluate the emotion induction we have proposed a self-assessment procedure. We achieved interesting results on the pleasure dimension, by proposing a protocol with natural interactions on smartphone. Keywords: Emotion recognition
Affective computing
Keystroke
Accelerometer
Gyroscope
Success – failure manipulation
Video emotion elicitation
Human-computer-interaction

1 Introduction Affective computing is a field of study that aims to include the emotional dimension in human-machine interactions [1]. Indeed, detecting emotions in the context of humancomputer interaction (HCI) allows a better understanding of how a person adapts to and reacts to his environment. It is, for example, a main issue to improve the user experience in customer relationship, while interacting with client advisor through digital device or interacting with chatbot application. Currently, the most common emotion detection features are based on visual, audio or text. In this study, we explore a complementary approach with the analysis of smartphone user behavior. In fact, the phone’s sensors may turn out to be an effective way to obtain affect data through its sensors. In addition, they are mass market objects leading to daily and continuous interactions for their owners. Therefore, we are addressing the following problems: • How to induce emotions to the users through a smartphone with video clips and memory tasks? • Can the accelerometer sensor, gyroscope sensor and keystroke of a smartphone be used to determine emotional states of the user through its behavior? © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 244–249, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_37

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2 Background 2.1

Emotion Theory

There are numerous definitions of emotions in the scientific literature. A useful definition is provided by Hudlicka [2]: “[..] a number of emotion researchers in psychology do appear to agree on a high-level definition of emotions, and view emotions as states that reflect evaluative judgments of the environment, the self and other social agents, in light of the organism’s goals and beliefs, which motivate and coordinate adaptive behavior.” There are many ways to represent emotions and categorize them. Emotion models can themselves be classified according to several paradigms. Discrete models like the basic emotions model from Eckman [3] is based on a finite number of typical basic emotions. This model is particularly suitable for tasks involving the detection of facial expression. Indeed, the seven emotions composing the model were chosen from facial expressions that are considered universal to humanity and some species of great apes. Moreover, emotion can be represented by dimensional models like Russel’s circumplex of affect [4]. The set of emotions is summarized according to a set of features that can be represented on multiple axis. The circumplex of affect dimensions are pleasure - displeasure and activation - deactivation. Pleasure can be described as the gain (happiness) versus the privation (sadness) caused by an event. Activation is the mobilization of energy induced by an event. In our experiment, we chose the circumplex of affect model, which is widely used in HCI emotion measurement experiments because of its flexibility and simplicity. 2.2

Emotion Detection

According to Poria [5] 90% of research studies in the affective computing domain in 2017 were concerned with one of the three following modalities: visual, audio or text features. The most efficient way would be to combine these modalities to improve the accuracy and relevance of emotion detection systems. In addition, the number of publications on affective computing on mobile device is increasing, especially those related to smartphone interactions [6–8]. In fact, in recent years, smartphones performance continued to improve with progressively accurate and powerful sensors. Therefore, the use of smartphones as noninvasive devices has many advantages to provide interesting behavioral user data in order to infer emotional states. The advantage of smartphones is to integrate many sensors enabling the record of behavioral data. In addition to the touch screen, which allows the user’s finger positions to be retrieved from the surface, phones are now equipped with accelerometers, gyroscopes, magnetometers, light detectors, etc. Accelerometer is one of the most widely used sensors for detecting emotional and psychological states from a smartphone. Accelerometer records the speed changes on the x, y and z dimensions. This sensor provides information about the users’ body movements, which give us insights about their emotion. In their study, Cui and Li [9] attached smartphones to the wrists and ankles of subjects in a controlled laboratory experiment. Participants were induced into emotional states (joy or anger) from videos and had to walk for a given period. The researchers recorded information collected by

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the devices and applied filters to remove the signal noise. Several features were computed from these filtered data and used to train machine-learning models (binary trees, vector machine supports and neural networks). Anger and happiness were detected with a rate of 90.31% on smartphones attached to the ankles. Gyroscope is a sensor that collects the angular velocity of the device on the x, y and z axes. Few studies refer to this sensor in smartphones for the detection of psychological states. However, two studies mentioned its use and being able to combine it with the accelerometer to produce complementary metrics to understand user behaviors [6]. Keystrokes Dynamics: Keyboarding is not only studied for computer security purposes but can also potentially identify an individual’s emotional state on a computer keyboard or smartphone. Epp and all more formally define keystrokes as follows: “Keytrokes dynamics is the study of the unique timing patterns in an individual’s typing, and typically includes extracting keystroke timing features such as the duration of a keypress and the time elapsed between key presses.” [10]. Ghosh [8] conducted a study about four emotional states (happy, sad, stressed, relaxed) classification with keystroke features.

3 Methodology 3.1

Experiment Design

For the purpose of our experiment, we developed an application designed as a chat application. The user interacts with a chatbot. This chatbot displays a video and asks memory questions about what happens in the video. Video samples are one of the most effective ways to induce emotional states according to the literature according to the meta-analysis of Ferrer [11]. We chose Baveye video dataset, each video is annotated on the two dimensions of the circumplex of affect. We divided the circumplex into 4 quadrants and the neutral emotional state and selected 20 videos for each category (Table 1). Table 1. Pleasure and Activation means and standard deviations of selected videos from the Baveye dataset. Pleasure and activation are annotated between 1 and 5 Emotion categorie Neutral Pleasure+/Activation+ Pleasure+/Activation− Pleasure−/Activation+ Pleasure−/Activation−

Pleasure mean 2.484041 3.551838 3.547446 1.400079 1.415477

SD 0.314230 0.030455 0.142406 0.104082 0.102689

Activation mean SD 2.651299 0.328416 3.887676 0.282178 1.406305 0.138699 3.995360 0.158677 1.400878 0.136340

In order to increase the engagement in the experiment, each participant had to find the right answer for each question asked by the chatbot. The participant wrote his/her answer with the device keyboard. A feedback told them if the answer was correct or not

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and the application displayed the score (number of correct answer). To accentuate the pleasure dimension, we increased the difficulty of the question when it was categorized in the list of negative emotions. Reversely, we proposed easier questions in the positive pleasure category. This type of procedure is called a success-failure manipulation. It has proven to be an effective way to induce emotion especially on the pleasure dimension [12]. Each participant had to watch 50 videos from five sets of 10 randomly selected videos from each category. After each set, they had to report their emotional state with a Self-Assessment Manikin [13] directly in the application. Participants could assess their pleasure and activation with a five-point Likert Scale. Two videos and questions were proposed before the experiment for training. Users could redo the trainings as many times as they wanted. Accelerometer, gyroscope and keystroke features were recorded at the same time for each video watched and answer sent by the participant. 3.2

Data Collection and Processing

Forty two individuals from Orange Labs Service participated to the test (50% male, 50% female, 7.1% aged between 18–24, 14.3% aged between 25–34, 38,1% aged between 35–49, 40,5% aged between 50–64, 88,1% right handed). Each participant watched 50 videos and completed five self-assessments. In the end, we kept 2000 records labeled with videos category and 200 self-assessments. We generated features by following a human activity recognition methodology [14] for each set of sensor records. From accelerometer and gyroscope raw signals, we computed new signals: jerk, magnitude on time domain and frequency domain. For each signal, we extracted features: mean, standard deviation, median, signal magnitude area [15]… Keystrokes features were extracted from participant’s answers to tasks. We used features according to Ghosh [8] methodology such as: mean intertap distance, special characters use, number of corrections…

4 Results 4.1

Emotion Induction

Video Samples: For each video emotion category, the pleasure and activation mean self-assessment values were computed (Table 2). As the samples were not normally distributed, we ran the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test. Statistically there was no significant difference between pleasure categories (x2 = 1.5875, p > 0.05). Nor did we find any statistical difference between activation categories (x2 = 0.7457, p > 0.05). Table 2. Mean self-assessment value according to video emotion category. Self-assessment dimension Pleasure Activation

Video emotion negative 3.57 2.86

Video emotion neutral 3.58 2.94

Video emotion positive 3.71 2.94

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Success-Failure Manipulation: We remapped self-assessment from ordinal variables to discrete variables. Pleasure assessments were split into two categories: negative (inferior or equal to 3) positive (superior to 3) and activation assessments into three categories: negative (inferior to 3), neutral (equal to 3) and positive (superior to 3). The mean number of tasks successfully performed by the participant has been computed. The theoretical maximum is ten and the theoretical minimum is zero (Table 3). The objective is to determine if a link exists between the task performance and the selfassessment. The non-parametric Mann-Whitney test has been implemented. The result is a significant difference of mean success tasks for pleasure (x2 = 9327.5, p < 0.01). Therefore, participants performed better when they have a positive self-assessment pleasure. However, there was no significant difference for the activation selfassessment with Kruskal-Wallis test (x2 = 9327.5, p > 0.05). Table 3. Mean success by set of 10 video. Self-assessment categories Negative Neutral Positive Pleasure 2.46 – 3.06 Activation 2.79 2.87 2.76

4.2

Emotion and Success-Failure Classification

Features extracted from the recorded sensors have been used to train machine learning models for supervised classification. We trained three models, on video emotion categories: pleasure and activation and if the record was associated with a correct or incorrect answer. For pleasure and activation, there are three labels: negative, neutral and positive. As a consequence, the random prediction accuracy is 33.3%. For correct/incorrect answer, there are two labels: Success/Failure, the random prediction accuracy is 50% (Table 4). Table 4. Mean accuracy for three models trained. Values between bracket are the difference with random guess. Self-assessment categories Support Vector Machine Logistic Regression Neural Network

Pleasure 48.1% (+14.8%) 47.7% (+14.4%) 40.9% (+7.6%)

Activation 40.7% (+7.4%) 40.5% (+7.2%) 40.0% (+6.7%)

Success/Failure 66% (+16%) 64% (+14%) 62.5% (+12.5%)

5 Discussion The results suggest that there is no significant impact of the video on the participant’s emotion according to self-assessment measurements. However, there is an effect between successful answers in the memory task and pleasure dimension selfassessments. It seems that in this experiment the induction of emotion was more effective from the completion of the tasks than the videos. Indeed, There are a

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significant difference number of correct answer between negative and positive pleasure self-assessment. In addition, accuracy from machine learning show results above random guess, especially for pleasure dimension and success failure classification with respectively 14.8% and 16% over random guess. We can hypothesize that these effects are caused by the reaction to success and failure manipulation. Therefore, participants were more focused on attaining high scores than being focused on the video’s emotional content. Moreover, the video duration could be too short to engage the user. Some participants stated that the quality, format and quantity of the videos were not optimal for assessing the emotion conveyed. However, even if activation dimension classification is less accurate than other classification, the effect could only be from the video. To conclude, results from the classification are encouraging. We are looking forward to conduct two more experiments: one focused on the success-failure procedure and the other focused on video samples.

References 1. Picard, R.: Affective computing. Perceptual Computing Section, Media Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1995) 2. Hudlicka, E.: Guidelines for designing computational models of emotions. Int. J. Synth. Emot. (IJSE) 2, 26–79 (2011) 3. Ekman, P.: An argument for basic emotions. Cogn. Emot. 6, 169–200 (1992) 4. Russell, J.: A circumplex model of affect. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 39, 1161 (1980) 5. Poria, S., Cambria, E., Bajpai, R.: A review of affective computing: from unimodal analysis to multimodal fusion. Inf. Fusion 37, 98–125 (2017) 6. Olsen, A.: Smartphone accelerometer data used for detecting human emotions, pp. 410–415 (2016) 7. Coutrix, C.: Identifying emotions expressed by mobile users through 2D surface and 3D motion gestures, pp. 311–320 (2012) 8. Ghosh, S., Ganguly, N., Mitra, B.: TapSense: combining self-report patterns and typing characteristics for smartphone based emotion detection (2017) 9. Cui, L., Li, S.: Emotion detection from natural walking, pp. 23–33 (2016) 10. Epp, C., Lippold, M.: Identifying emotional states using keystroke dynamics, pp. 715–724 (2011) 11. Ferrer, R.A., Grenen, E.G., Taber, J.M.: Effectiveness of internet-based affect induction procedures: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Emotion 15(6), 752 (2015) 12. Nummenmaa, L., Niemi, P.: Inducing affective states with success-failure manipulations: a meta-analysis. Emotion 4(2), 207 (2004) 13. Bradley, M.M., Lang, P.J.: Measuring emotion: the self-assessment manikin and the semantic differential. J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry 25(1), 49–59 (1994) 14. Anguita, D., Ghio, A., Oneto, L., Parra, X.: A public domain dataset for human activity recognition using smartphones (2013) 15. Khan, A., Lee, Y.-K., Lee, S.-Y.: Human activity recognition via an accelerometer-enabledsmartphone using kernel discriminant analysis, pp. 1–6 (2010)

On Air: Interacting with Podcasts as an Auxiliary Educational Resource Gonçalo Falcão(&) and Sebastião Salgado Faculdade de Arquitectura, CIAUD Pólo Universitário da Ajuda, Universidade de Lisboa, Rua Sá Nogueira, Lisbon, Portugal [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. This paper is about analysing, producing and evaluating podcasts as an additional educational resource in design at the university. Podcasts are now a very popular media for the consumption of information and entertainment about a vast array of subjects. They revival the experience of live conversation, something that was extremely frequent in salons, cafes, radio and television since the XVIII century but has been lost in more recent times, in a generation that lost places and practice for debate as they were entertained by social media. This paper describes an experience done in Faculty of Architecture of the University of Lisbon to understand and build a podcast with professionals and the results obtained. It shows a deep analysis of this (new) media for the establishment of some guiding principles. An analysis of digital data will be used in future studies about the impact, age groups and geographies of the listeners. Keywords: Podcast


Design teaching

1 Introduction This research started with one of the students in the Master Course in Communication Design in Lisbon’s Faculty of Architecture when he realized he used podcasts in a daily basis to learn more about design. This student also acknowledged that some of his colleagues were also regular consumers of podcasts and that his podcast listening had a great impact during his formation because podcasts were a way to select interesting references and better understand all the design environment (from visual to business to social and political issues) [1].

2 Goals Given the research topic, two types of objectives were defined: The first one was to introduce the profession to the students: experience and data reveals that most of the design students proceed to university courses in design aspiring a professional career. Universities are seen as helping get a foot on the door in the professional practice. The second objective was to evaluate the importance and relevance of this specific resource as used in the specific context of the university learning process in design. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 250–256, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_38

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3 Methodology For the construction of this experience different methods were used. The literature review. The survey method was used to understand the type of student consumption and expectations as well as they’re evaluation of the resource created. Specification of the elements and technical execution was done with Case Studies and Literature Review. Case Studies were studied with the Podcreed framework. We’ve used a typical design method (generate ideas, prototype, make and evaluate) to design naming, image and communication of th podcast (social media and website). Producing and releasing the first three episodes was done to be able to evaluate results and consumption with LORI framework (Learning Object Review Instrument) [2].

4 The Education of a Designer Adrian Shaughnessy [2] believes that ideal design teaching would enable the student to develop a broad cultural awareness by becoming interested in areas beyond communication design: “In a perfect world, students would emerge from their schools with a grasp of basic technical skills; they would have a flair for research and creative thinking; they would acquire knowledge of design history and contemporary theory; they would be equipped with an understanding of professional practice; and, most important of all, they would have a broad cultural awareness” [3]. Michael Bierut [4] - like Shuaghnessy - adds the urgency to expose communication design students to various fields, because communication design, as an integrative field, that deals with the most diverse subjects, from medicine to real estate. Reflecting on the same theme, Rafael Cardoso [5] tells us that design education should aim to bring up a “thinking designer”. There thus appears to be an emphasis on the need to deepen problem-solving skills while a few years ago the focus was on learning technical/craft graphical dexterities. The “thinking designer” is not a recent proposal: the seminal model of the Ulm Design School (HfG Ulm), founded in 1953. It’s pedagogical model included the study of subjects such as politics, sociology, psychology, philosophy, economics, among others. Despite its closure in 1968, many of its principles remained. As early as 1972, John Berger [6] stressed the need for visual “luggage” to handle and produce communication because the way we look at a given image is largely influenced by the concepts (preconceptions) we use to decode it. Steven Heller [7] states that the creation of a critical design history program is a solution for forming designers with critical meaning and broad cultural awareness. From the author’s perspective, when studying the history of design, the student will be simultaneously studying the history of the world, as design is always inserted in a certain historical context that must be recognized. Falcão, reinforces this view that design history will develop a set of properly contextualized references. “References are names, texts, works, materials that help define a territory of action shared by professionals who move in the disciplinary field

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and, at the same time, recognized as socially relevant. References are fundamental to situate and contextualize new knowledge, to know how to criticize images and act accordingly” [8].

5 The Podcast According to the International Bureau of Education [9] a learning resource consists of “any resource – including print and non-print materials and online/open-access resources – which supports and enhances, directly or indirectly, learning and teaching”. As the Association of American Publishers [10] indicates, there are several tools that can be considered learning resources, including the podcast. According to Merriam-Webster [11], a podcast is “A program (as of music or talk) made available in digital format for automatic download over the Internet”. Although it started to be a audio format, like everything that is based on the internet and digital, recent changes in format and a major development in recent years require us to reevaluate these designations. Today, the availability of mobile data for consumption and the ability to listen and stream on mobile devices is much bigger and, as a result, many of the podcast producers started filming the session and making both formats available. The podcast has changed to two forms of consumption (audio and audio plus video) that are not necessarily identical. Thus, for the purpose of this investigation the definition of podcast offered by Apple will be used: “Podcasts are episodes of a program available on the Internet. Podcasts are usually original audio or video recordings, but can also be recorded broadcasts of a television or radio program, lecture, performance, or other event” [12]. Podcasts are grouped into “channels,” each with its own visual identity, and channels are organized by themes. Podcast, in a way, resembles what authored radio shows were till the 1990s: a form of information consumption based on a dialogue, that favours authorial dimension and the existence of a point of view. By February 2018, 44% of the US population over 12, or approximately 124 million people, had heard a podcast at least once, which means an increase of 11% over 2015 [13]. According to Reuters Institute Digital News Report 2019 [14] podcast consumption is very high among the age group that goes into university “The most striking aspect of podcast consumption is the appeal to younger people. In Sweden and the United States, two countries that have embraced podcasts, we find that over half of under 35 s have used a podcast monthly”. “The majority of podcast usage is at home (58%), commuting on public transport (24%) or via private transport such as the car or bike (20%) [15]. Another example that reinforces the idea that podcast is a format that has gained notoriety is the fact that Spotify invested £ 350 million in 2019 to position the company in the podcast market. There are currently some podcast channels dedicated to design; good examples are “Design Matters with Debbie Millman”, presented by designer Debbie Millman. This was the first design podcast channel and started in 2005. Its guest list includes names such as Milton Glaser, Massimo Vignelli, Stefan Sagmeister, Paula Scher, Michael Bierut, Neville Brody, among others. Some of the episodes already accumulate in SoundCloud more than 4000 plays. “The Design of Business | The Business of Design”

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(Michael Bierut and Jessica Helfand) recorded at the Yale School of Management. “The Futur” (Chris Do) “The Observatory” (Michael Bierut and Jessica Helfand).

6 University and the Podcast Over the past ten years, some research has been conducted on the implementation of the podcast format in university education. As early as 2009, when podcast was an emerging medium, a research [16] concluded that the use of podcasts in higher education was a useful tool as a complement to traditional educational resources and increased student motivation. In 2015, [16] collecting data from 352 students in a higher education institution highlighted the usefulness and enjoyment as having the highest influence on podcast adoption and that mobility, self-efficacy, ease of use, and image also affect (in)directly podcast adoption. In 2017, the conclusions were more enthusiastic and related to more science oriented students. As the “podcast consumption appeal to younger people” [17]. “short podcasts are useful supplementary tools in medical education” or [18] “students were pleased with podcasts as a complementary tool to traditional educational resources”.

7 Case Studies To proceed with this project we’ve had to seek for the best examples so we could understand the format and how to use it to our goals in the design field. In selecting the case studies, consideration was given to aspects such as prestige, channel recognition, presenter (s) and guests (s), and number of views. Selected podcasts were: “Design Matters with Debbie Millman” for reasons already explained; “The Design of Business | The Business of Design” was selected due to the fact that it is inserted in the academic context of the Yale School of Management and is made by two highly recognized designers and teachers, Michael Bierut and Jessica Helfand. “The Design Notes” was selected for being a Google Design project and allows the observation of the editorial policies in the context of Google. It has a peculiar structure, as it makes available the full version of the audio episode and a video summary. MUDE channel was selected to have a example in Portuguese emanating from Lisbon’s museum of design. For the analysis of these case studies a grid was designed using the Podcred framework [19]. The appropriation carried out of the framework aimed to keep the analysis criteria intact, taking into account what is specified in the text adapting it because we had a single theme (design) and some analysis elements were dispensed since they were not relevant for this study.

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8 “Elevador”, the Podcast “Elevador” in Portuguese, means “lift” or “elevator” and this was the name chosen to the Podcast chanel for this study [1]. The first episodes were done with three of the more relevant designers in Portugal in the peek of their professional activity. Catarina Pestana (Bang Bang), Eduardo Aires (Studio Eduardo Aires) and Jorge Silva (Silva! Designers) were the three first interviewed. Podcasts available in the website www. elevadorpodcast.pt.

9 Conclusions The starting point of this work has always been to contribute to the development and evaluation of the podcast as a complementary pedagogical medium. Although very popular the podcast has not yet been regularly used deliberately as a learning tool for universities and in the field of design. After this study is possible to uphold that podcats can be a pedagogical means complementary to the teaching activity in communication design higher education. Confirmation of thia argument arises through the combination of different research methodologies. Some other important findings of this research are: 1. Although being a predominantly auditory medium, podcast can be used to talk about graphics or communication design. The latest media trends include the video supplement that further enhances the medium. 2. Highly requested professionals participated for free, finding space on their tight agendas to be interviewed and to talk about their work. 3. Podcasting can be done using technology currently available in the university, ensuring high quality standards. 4. Making podcasts available on major international consumer podcasting platforms can be made with existing resources with the means of a student; 5. Students “use” the podcasts if they are available; early data collecting shows that the podcasts were viewed by a significant number of people in campus. 6. Students and teachers rated podcasts positively and found that they contributed to their teaching and learning process. After this study is also possible to list the following advantages and disadvantages: Benefits: 7. The format is very flexible as it can be used at any time or place offering the student the ability to adapt their information consumption to their preferences, listening to the podcast at any time of the day while performing other activities. 8. Podcasting is an affordable format that can be produced and released with afordable technology and it can be played also in easily available equipment such as mobile phones, computer, iPod, among others; 9. There are more and more platforms hosting podcasts; 10. There is the possibility of prior download, which allows the listener to listen the podcast without consuming mobile data or being limited by internet access;

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11. Common apps (ex. itunes) manage podcasts updates automatically, so when a new episode comes out, the user is automatically updated. 12. The availability of these resources helps to bridge the gap between the University and other contexts (professional, social, political). 13. Podcasts can be available for several academic years until the speech loses its relevance. Disadvantages: 14. cognitive overload for students already using multiple study resources. 15. The consumption in conjunction with other everyday life situations can lead to a superficial reading of the information conveyed; 16. Information is given for free and it’s not valued as an important content.

References 1. Salgado, S.: O podcast no ensino de design de comunicação [Master Thesis]. Faculdade de Arquitectura da Universidade de Lisboa (2019) 2. Nesbit, J., Belfer, K., Leacock, T.: Learning Object Review Instrument (LORI). Version 2.0. Academia.ed. (2009). https://www.academia.edu/7927907/Learning_Object_Review_ Instrument_LORI 3. Shaughnessy, A.: How to Be a Graphic Designer Without Losing Your Soul (1a). Princeton University Press (2005) 4. Bierut, M.: Why Designers Can’t Think. Em Seventy-nine short essays on design, 1st edn., pp. 14–18. Princeton Architectural Press (2007) 5. Cardoso, R.: Design Para um Mundo Complexo (2a). Ubu (2011) 6. Berger, J.: Ways of Seeing. Penguin Books (2008). Original work published 1972 7. Heller, S., Vienne, V. (eds.): Citizen Designer. Perspectives on Design Responsability. Allworth Press, New York (2003) 8. Falcão, G.: Criação Livre e Criação dedicada, a encomenda e o projecto em design de comunicação. Universidade de Lisboa (2015) 9. Learning resources. (sem data). Unesco International Bureau of Education 10. Association of American Publishers: What Are Learning Resources [WWW Document] (n. d.). https://publishers.org/our-markets/prek-12-learning/what-are-learning-resources. Accessed 13 Oct 2019 11. Merriam-Webster: Podcast. Merriam-Webster.com dictionary (n.d.). https://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/podcast. Accessed 15 May 2020 12. Apple: What is a podcast? [WWW Document] (n.d.). https://www.apple.com/itunes/ podcasts/fanfaq.html. Accessed 13 Oct 2019 13. The Infinite Dial 2018: On the Rise: Steady Growth for Podcasts, Rapid Growth for Smart Speakers (Consumer Surveys). (2018). Edison Research. https://www.edisonresearch.com/ infinite-dial-2018/ 14. Newman, N., Fletcher, R., Kalogeropoulos, A., Kleis Nielsen, R.: Reuters Institute Digital News Report 2019. Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism (2019). http://media. digitalnewsreport.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/digital-news-report-2018.pdf 15. Fernandez, V., Simo, P., Sallan, J.M.: Podcasting: a new technological tool to facilitate good practice in higher education. Comput. Educ. 53(2), 385–392 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.compedu.2009.02.014

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16. Merhi, M.I.: Factors influencing higher education students to adopt podcast: an empirical study. Comput. Educ. 83, 32–43 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.12.014 17. Prakash, S.S., Muthuraman, N., Anand, R.: Short-duration podcasts as a supplementary learning tool: perceptions of medical students and impact on assessment performance. BMC Med. Educ. 17(1), 167 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-017-1001-5 18. Alarcon, R., Bendayan, R., Blanca, M.J.: The student satisfaction with educational podcasts questionnaire. Escritos de Psicología 10, 126–133 (2017). https://doi.org/10.5231/psy.writ. 2017.14032 19. Tsagkias, M., Larson, M., Weerkamp, W., Rijke, M.: PodCred: a framework for analyzing podcast preference. Inf. Syst. IS, 67–74 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1145/1458527.1458545

Human–Computer Interaction

Design of Digital Mediation Tool for Self-disclosing PTSD Maria Gaci1(&), Caroline Bendahan2, Isabelle Vonèche Cardia1, Marina Fiori2, Delphine Preissmann2, and Denis Gillet1 1

École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland {maria.gaci,isabelle.voneche-cardia, denis.gillet}@epfl.ch 2 Université de Lausanne (UNIL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland [email protected], {marina.fiori,delphine.preissmann}@unil.ch

Abstract. Establishing trust is an important aspect of the design of technological tools for mental health, as individuals are persuaded to disclose personal distressing experiences when privacy is ensured. This work-in-progress paper presents an interdisciplinary research project aiming to compare the behavior of individuals expressing trauma-related thoughts and feelings in response to trauma-evoking video clips, following three different interaction sources: a) a psychologist, b) a technological tool utilizing a human-like agent and c) a technological tool utilizing a machine-like agent. Electro-physiological, subjective and behavioral measures will be collected and triangulated to test the effectiveness of each interaction source. The design of the digital interface is presented in this paper aiming to provide insights for establishing trust in eHealth applications. Keywords: Human computer interaction


eHealth
Privacy
Trust

1 Introduction When individuals encounter extreme emotional distress, their physical and mental health strongly depends on the resilience to overcome the trauma. Exposure to traumatic experiences may result in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), a severe psychiatric disease that, according to the American National Center for PTSD [1], affects about 8 million adults and 5.5 million children in the U.S.A during a given year. PTSD presents a low rate of detection [1]. Stigma of having a mental disorder acts as a barrier to self-disclosing experiences, the primary step into seeking treatment and recovering from the disease. Research [2] has demonstrated that individuals are more willing to report traumatic experiences and symptoms associated to PTSD when anonymity is ensured during mental health screening processes. In recent years, a growing interest in digital interventions for mental health has been observed, yet only a few studies have been conducted on the effects of digital

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 259–265, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_39

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interactions on PTSD and its effective treatment through technological tools [3]. Emphasis has been given to the lack of technological tools that enable rapid intervention, even though digital interventions, such as interference with visual-spatial tasks [4], have demonstrated a reduction of the number of associated symptoms. Currently, no anonymous technological tools for disclosing PTSD exist and translation of face-to-face treatments into digital interventions remains a challenge [3]. As such, this project aims to design privacy-oriented mediation technologies for connecting psychological experts to PTSD patients through an interdisciplinary collaboration between computer scientists and psychologists. To nudge individuals suffering from PTSD into disclosing sensitive information, a suitable trust channel needs to be established between the individual and the digital device. Since trust is a very complex social phenomena, the relation between design and trust in the eHealth domain has rarely been investigated [5]. Thus, this project also aims to identify mechanisms that establish trust-by-design in the PTSD disclosure scenario. This ongoing research project will contribute into the field of psychotechnology by answering two main research questions. Firstly, how anonymous digital interventions affect the emotional expression of trauma-related thoughts and feelings, and hence the disclosure of personal distressing experiences (RQ1). Secondly, whether individuals are more inclined to trust and therefore, disclose distressing experiences when the interaction with the computer technologies is performed by either a human-like or a machine-like agent (RQ2). This paper presents the general framework of the ongoing project and focuses specifically on the design of the technological tool in the PTSD context. Thus, it can be regarded relevant to the HCI and eHealth community.

2 Literature Review Recent studies in human-computer interaction (HCI) [6, 7] have demonstrated that digital devices are perceived to be more confidential and trustworthy, and as such people tend to trust them more when self-disclosing information as compared to faceto-face or paper-and-pencil counterparts. The identified reasons on why humans trust machines more are as follows: performance of tasks with greater precision, objectivity of the machines, lack of verbal and nonverbal judgement, criticism or reaction [6, 8]. Surveys and observations conducted to compare virtual agents and humans reveal that individuals reported lower fears of self-disclosure, lower impression management and higher rates of sadness expression [9] when interacting through a digital device. Moreover, they expressed a relief of personal discomfort and alleviation of negative emotions, such as embarrassment, guilt, or anxiety [8]. Preference to disclose to a digital device has been demonstrated in the case of eliciting sensitive information in health and mental context [8]. Assurance of privacy, protection of personal information and anonymity [7] were the key factors reported by participants for why they prefer to self-disclose sensitive data to a digital device. Individuals can establish trust [10] by developing a relationship with: 1. the entity that provides the service through the digital interfaces, and 2. the people handling the collected information. The trustworthiness conveyed by the interface can be achieved

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through design rules (pastel colors, effective clipart, balanced layout) [10], while trust with people handling the collective information can be enforced through security mechanisms that ensure the privacy of the users [11].

3 Methodology Healthy participants will be recruited for this research study, rather than individuals diagnosed with PTSD, to avoid the risk of reactivating trauma in vulnerable subjects. Participants will be exposed to moderately distressing movie clips following the protocol of the trauma film paradigm [4]. This method is frequently utilized in clinical psychology to conduct clinical trials. It does not induce real trauma, yet it induces intrusive, but ephemeral, memories similar to PTSD during the days following the experimental session. A between-subject experiment [12] will be conducted to test the hypothesis that anonymity and interaction with machine-like agents will affect the establishment of trust and hence the disclosure of traumatic experiences. After being exposed to the distressing movie, participants will be randomly assigned to one of the three treatment groups (presented below) or the control group (no interaction), which will act as a baseline for investigating the benefits of anonymity and machine-like agents as a facilitation: 1. Non-anonymous face-to-face interaction with a human mediator (psychologist) 2. Anonymous digital interaction with a human-like mediator (human-agent) 3. Anonymous digital interaction with a machine-like mediator (machine-agent). The experiment will be conducted in the span of three months with 104 participants in total. The procedure will be initiated by exposing participants to the distressing movie, and then randomly assigning 26 participants in each group. The anonymous vs non-anonymous, and the human- vs machine-agent interactions will be compared, and insights regarding the benefits of each intervention will be provided. Participants assigned to the first treatment group will share their distressing experience through interacting with a psychologist in a structured face-to-face interview. Participants assigned to the second and third treatment group will share their distressing experience through interaction with a technological tool utilizing a human- and a machine-agent respectively. All three conditions will follow a similar protocol, which bears on the effectiveness of the expressive writing method [13], a method that has proven effective in recovering from traumatic experiences.

4 Measurements Throughout the duration of the study, three types of measurements will be performed in order to investigate the rate of self-disclosure following each of the three types of intervention. Firstly, participants will be asked to self-report on their perception of privacy, willingness to share sensitive information to the technological interface and trust level

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on the design of the technological tool (if applicable). A series of Likert-scale questions will be asked to the participants at the end of each experimental trial and quantitative analyses will be performed to compare the effect of the experimental conditions on the recurrence and effect of traumatic memories of the participants. Secondly, the actual reactions of the participants will be measured through qualitative analysis performed by the psychologists of the team on the information disclosed during each intervention session. Thirdly, all subjects will be equipped with sensors measuring electro-physiological data such as: skin conductivity and heart beat rate during the intervention. Skin conductivity will be measured in SCR/min (Skin Conductance Responses per minute) using the Mindfield eSense Skin Response1 sensors and heart beat rate will be measured in BPM (beats per minute) using an Apple Watch2 series 4 device. Psychophysiology will be also utilized to analyze precisely the physical and emotional variations of the participants and investigate how they might affect the self-disclosure process. Data collected through the various types of measurements will be compared and triangulated to identify patterns of emotional disclosure precisely and increase the validity of the results. Finally, to protect the privacy of the participants, data will be stored anonymously in the RedCap3 database, a secure web application that enforces the integrity of clinical data. An instance of RedCap is installed and administered on the local servers of EPFL in Switzerland, an infrastructure design decision that might impact the establishment of trust between the participants and people handling the information.

5 Technological Tool Design As described in the Methodology section, participants of two treatment groups will be subject to anonymous digital intervention after watching the distressing movie clip. The content asked in each experimental condition will follow a standard set of questions defined by the psychologists of the team, however, the source of interaction will differ: 1. In the human-agent scenario, questions regarding the distressing experience will be asked through a video recording of the clinical psychologist of the research team (Fig. 1 - left). 2. In the machine-agent scenario, a text-bot named HealthBot will be introduced to ask the identical questions as in the first scenario (Fig. 1 - right). Participants will disclose their trauma-related thoughts and feelings by anonymously typing in a textbox. Touchscreen and keyboard will be the modalities utilized for the human-computer communication. As emoticons have indicated to be a valuable addition to communication methods [14], the set of eight basic emotions defined by

1 2 3

https://mindfield-esense.com/esense-skin-response/. https://www.apple.com/chde/apple-watch-series-4/. https://projectredcap.org/.

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Plutchik [15] and the corresponding emoticons has been adopted. The panel for selecting emotions is always visible in the screen to aid emotional expression of the participants. Digital interaction will be carried out through a tablet, as they provide increased usability (increased screen size, better readability) compared to smartphones. However, increased usability is considered a drawback to security and privacy [16], because the screen can be easily seen by bystanders from different distances and angles. In the current context, participants will be located alone in the physical space, thus, the drawback is not relevant. At the end of the project however, a mobile app will be additionally implemented to ensure privacy and security of all PTSD patients intending to use the technological tool in their daily life. To assure the anonymity of the participants, users will be prompted at the beginning of the experiment that no meta data will be collected, solely the data voluntary typed by the participant. Participants will not be required to log in and no personal info will be requested by the user interface (UI) at any point during the interaction. The color scheme of the UI is composed of two complementary pastel colors: green and purple. The strong visual contrast of this dichromatic color scheme conveys balance, harmony and color richness, and ensures accessibility for individuals with color vision deficiencies.

Fig. 1. Design of the UI of the mediation tool utilizing a human-agent (left) and a machineagent (right)

The design of the technological tools was developed in collaboration with the psychologists of the team, following guidelines found in the psychological literature

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regarding methods to render self-disclosure effective. After undertaking a pilot test to identify the best suited video clip to use for generating transient traumatic memories, the “Irréversible” movie was selected. The study will be carried out in the following months and, after being validated, it will be adopted to implement the UI of the mobile application that will be distributed to the open public.

6 Conclusions This project focuses on designing technological tools for patients with PTSD that mediate the disclosure of traumatic experiences. The hypothesis is that anonymous digital interventions may encourage the emotional-expression of trauma-related thoughts and feelings, thus, resulting into more effective disclosure of distressing experiences. Furthermore, another key assumption is that the design of the technological tool will affect the trust building process and the interaction between the individuals and the technological tool, with individuals being more inclined to selfdisclose to a digital agent that resembles a machine than to a real human being. The final goal of the project is to deliver an effective technological tool with a user-centric design to PTSD patients to help them overcome trauma. Ultimately the project aims to provide research insights to the HCI and eHealth domains. Acknowledgments. This project has been co-funded from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant agreement No 754354 and the EPFL-UNIL Collaborative Research on Science and Society (CROSS) Program. Ethical clearance for Category A clinical trials was obtained from the Cantonal Commission of Vaud in Switzerland (CER-VD) on July 2019.

References 1. National Center for PTSD. https://www.ptsd.va.gov/understand/common/common_adults. asp 2. Fear, N.T., Seddon, R., Jones, N., Greenberg, N., Wessely, S.: Does anonymity increase the reporting of mental health symptoms? BMC Public Health 12(1), 797 (2012) 3. Price, M., van Stolk-Cooke, K., Brier, Z. M., Legrand, A.C.: mHealth solutions for early interventions after trauma: improvements and considerations for assessment and intervention throughout the acute post-trauma period. mHealth 4, 22 (2018) 4. Holmes, E.A., James, E.L., Coode-Bate, T., Deeprose, C.: Can playing the computer game “Tetris” reduce the build-up of flashbacks for trauma? A proposal from cognitive science. PLoS ONE 4(1), e4153 (2009) 5. Pagliari, C.: Design and evaluation in eHealth: challenges and implications for an interdisciplinary field. J. Med. Internet Res. 9(2), e15 (2007) 6. Sundar, S.S., Kim, J.: Machine heuristic: when we trust computers more than humans with our personal information. In: Proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, p. 538. ACM (2019) 7. Weisband, S., Kiesler, S.: Self-disclosure on computer forms: metaanalysis and implications. In: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 3– 10. ACM (1996)

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8. Pickard, M.D., Roster, C.A., Chen, Y.: Revealing sensitive information in personal interviews: is self-disclosure easier with humans or avatars and under what conditions? Comput. Hum. Behav. 65, 23–30 (2016) 9. Lucas, G.M., Gratch, J., King, A., Morency, L.P.: It’s only a computer: virtual humans increase willingness to disclose. Comput. Hum. Behav. 37, 94–100 (2014) 10. Marsh, S., Meech, J.: Trust in design. In: CHI 2000 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 45–46. ACM (2000) 11. Hoffman, L.J., Lawson-Jenkins, K., Blum, J.: Trust beyond security: an expanded trust model. Commun. ACM 49(7), 94–101 (2006) 12. Charness, G., Gneezy, U., Kuhn, M.A.: Experimental methods: between-subject and withinsubject design. J. Econ. Behav. Organ. 81, 1–8 (2012) 13. Pennebaker, J.W.: Writing about emotional experiences as a therapeutic process. Psychol. Sci. 8(3), 162–166 (1997) 14. Huang, A.H., Yen, D.C., Zhang, X.: Exploring the potential effects of emoticons. Inf. Manag. 45(7), 466–473 (2008) 15. Plutchik, R.: The circumplex as a general model of the structure of emotions and personality. In: American Psychological Association, pp. 17–45 (1997) 16. Jones, J.F., Hook, S.A., Park, S.C., Scott, L.M.: Privacy, security and interoperability of mobile health applications. In: International Conference on Universal Access in HumanComputer Interaction, pp. 46–55. Springer (2011)

Mind-Reading Chatbots: We Are Not There Yet Baptiste Jacquet1,2(&) and Jean Baratgin1,2 1

PARIS Association, 25 Rue Henri Barbusse, Paris, France [email protected] 2 Laboratoire CHArt-UP8, 4-14 Rue Ferrus, Paris, France

Abstract. Chatbots are getting increasingly popular in businesses, and particularly in customer services, but there is also a growing interest in developing artificial conversational agents able to coach people for medical or social purposes. Yet in too many cases, they remain frustrating to use when it comes to actual conversation going beyond simple question-answer interactions. In this paper, we show that this inability to sustain conversations is mostly caused by the lack of consideration of the user’s expectations, intentions, and current knowledge by the chatbot: a lack of a Theory of Mind. We investigated this hypothesis by designing an experiment using 5 chatbots having won the Loebner prize, in two different kinds of interaction: one relying heavily on implicit information, and the other not. As expected, no chatbot was able to keep conversing in the implicit condition. Keywords: Chatbots


Conversations
Theory of Mind
Pragmatics

1 Introduction Many of us have interacted with Chatbots at least once in their life, and if not, the likelihood of it happening is sure to increase month after month as they spread in customer services, especially on the websites of businesses (for example, Booking.com, virtually all French internet providers, Domino’s, and many others). They are often used as a first filter, to answer common questions that do not require an in-depth inquiry of the user’s situation, and in that, they work well enough. Indeed, their ability to speak to many people at the same time, while humans can only take part in a small amount of conversations simultaneously, makes them a fantastically efficient alternative to humans. They do not sleep, nor eat, nor need to take breaks, and they certainly do not complain when they are being paid less. But this ability to handle a great quantity of incoming messages comes at a price: they are like empty shells that do not really take into account the context of a conversation, and more explicitly, do not have a clue of what the user might be thinking, or might be expecting. This cognitive ability is referred to in cognitive sciences as the Theory of Mind [1]. In this paper, we briefly go over the abundant literature in the field of conversational pragmatics and of the Theory of Mind to explain why they are important in order to understand how we interact with each other in the context of conversations, before © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 266–271, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_40

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discussing studies that have shown issues with current chatbots. We will also report studies that have shown the importance of the context in online conversations in order to meet the user’s expectations. Finally, we will explain an experiment designed to investigate how well chatbots react to implicit information in utterances and discuss its results.

2 Literature Review The scientific literature is rich with papers investigating conversations between humans, and the way people communicate. Among the people who researched this topic, Grice [2] was one of the first to offer a theory attempting to explain how people speak in conversations. He suggested that people naturally cooperate in order to communicate, and from this he defined four maxims, which represent four kinds of expectation people have when conversing with others in order to extract what is meant from what is said. The first maxim, the maxim of quality, refers to the truth of the statement uttered, at least for the person expressing it. The second maxim, the maxim of quantity, refers to the quantity of information provided by the utterance: it should be balance, and provide neither too much nor too little information. The third maxim is the maxim of relation, which refers to the relevance of the utterance, given its context. Finally, the fourth, the maxim of manner, refers to how the information is given. A competing theory, the Relevance Theory [3], suggests that the principles underlying conversations are even more general. This theory considers the relevance to be the most important aspect of conversations, and in general of the sharing of information during communication. If an information is given to someone, they expect it to be relevant in one way or another. For this reason, people will often try to find a way to make utterances addressed to them somehow subjectively relevant, even when the utterance was in fact quite generic and could have been given to someone else in a different context. Still, doing this requires some effort for the person trying to interpret the meaning of the utterance in its context. It also becomes more subject to interpretations, which can change the perceived meaning, compared to what the utterer really meant to say. In consequence, such sentences are less inherently relevant than sentences which do not require a lot of effort to infer their meanings, given the context. The Relevance Theory thus postulates that an utterance has an optimal relevance when the effort required to infer its meaning is low, and the effect of this meaning on the other person who hears it is high (in other words, if it changes what the person thinks more for a lesser effort). Both of these theories rely on participants in a conversation attempting to infer the intention of their conversational partner, preparing their utterances in an effort to make the interpretation of it by this partner as easy and effective as possible. In order to do this, all participants in a conversation must use their Theory of Mind [1], described as the ability to infer the mental-states of others, their intentions, their expectations, their beliefs, their knowledge… essentially, to infer someone else’s experience of the world, distinct from our own. Indeed, experiments [4–7] have shown that the lack of relevance in conversations greatly decreases the perceived humanness of a conversation, including in

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conversations with a human. When a conversation partner starts lacking relevance, they are often perceived as bored, machine-like or simply uncooperative if not mentally challenged. In the following experiment, we attempted to measure how relevant some of the most well-known chatbots’ utterances are.

3 Experiment 3.1

Materials and Methods

5 chatbots were used for the purpose of our experiment. They were selected because of how well they are known among other chatbots, particularly for having won the Loebner Prize once or more times. A.L.I.C.E, developed by Richard Wallace, won the Loebner Prize in 2000, 2001 and 2004. George (a version of Jabberwacky), developed by Rollo Carpenter, won the Loebner Prize in 2005, and once again in 2006 with a different version: Joan. Elbot, developed by Fred Roberts, won the Loebner Prize in 2008. Finally, Mitsuku, developed by Stever Worswick, won the prize in 2013, 2016, 2017, 2018 and 2019. All of them are chatbots built around the pattern-matching design. In other words, the sentence sent by the user is compared to a pre-defined pattern, and then sent back a reply according to that pattern1. All chatbots had the opportunity to express themselves in 8 different topics of conversations, for each topic in two conditions: 1) implicit, the conversation made heavy use of ambiguous structures of sentences that could only be disambiguated from the context of the conversation (i.e. the previous messages). The topic was stated once and was not repeated. For example, the use of pronouns like ‘it’ was favored instead of repeating what the pronoun referred to. 2) explicit, the conversation repeated the topic of the conversation multiple times, giving all the information necessary to provide a relevant answer within the utterance itself. Thus, the chatbot did not need to remember the context of the conversation to reply in a relevant way to the user’s message. The main hypotheses were that 1) the chatbots would do worse in the implicit condition than in the explicit condition, 2) the more recent would do better, especially in the explicit condition. 3.2

Measures

The criteria to define how well the chatbots did in the conversations were of two kind: 1) were the two questions of the user answered, and 2) how long (counted as the number of messages) did they manage to keep the conversation going before completely losing their relevance. For each conversation, a chatbot could get up to 2 points, depending on the number of questions they had answered in a relevant way. The two questions asked by the user

1

Other types of chatbots exist using different designs, including deep-learning chatbots or other kinds of machine-learning. Unfortunately, most of them are proprietary and not publicly available to converse with. A follow-up study is considered with such kinds of chatbots.

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were always of the same kind. The first one asked a precise question, setting the topic. The second question was used to request more information about the chatbot’s answer to the first question. These points were recorded in the answers variable and averaged across all the chatbot’s conversations. The length of the conversation before losing relevance was recorded in the length variable. The count started increasing after the answer to the second question. 3.3

Topics

The 8 topics were selected so that a human in a similar situation would have been able to converse about them without any expertise. Each of them contained a first question to set the topic, and a second to elaborate on it. They were the following: 1) What is your favorite dinosaur? What do you like about it? 2) Where would you like to live? Why? 3) What do you think of Michael Jackson? Why do you think that? 4) What do you think comes after death? Elaborate. 5) What is your favorite color? Why? 6) Do you think Artificial Intelligence will take over the world? Why do you think that? 7) What would you like to visit if you could go to France? Why would you go there? 8) What do you think of electric cars? Why do you think that? In each topic, there was no specific answer expected, as many answers could have been acceptable. Instead, the point was granted if the answer was precise enough not to be considered a generic answer that could have been given to just any other question. 3.4

Results

Table 1. Performance of the different chatbots depending on the condition (Implicit or Explicit). The number for Answers is the average across all topics of how many of the two questions were answered (between 0 and 2). The number for Length is the average across all topics of how many messages following a second correct answer the chatbot managed to keep relevant to the topic (the higher the better). Chatbot

Implicit Answers A.L.I.C.E 0.375 George 0.875 Joan 0.5 Elbot 0.25 Mitsuku 0.625

Length 0 0.125 0 0 0.125

Explicit Answers 0.5 0.875 0.625 0.25 0.625

Length 0.125 0.125 0.125 0 0.125

The results are shown in Table 1. Only few chatbots were able to answer more than one question, and only in some specific topics, like telling which color they liked and explaining why. Other than that, replies lost relevance immediately after the first answer, when they could answer the first question at all.

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While chatbots did slightly better in the explicit condition, it was only a very marginal increase in performance.

4 Discussion As we have seen in the results of our experiment, chatbots did not do well at all when they were required to answer questions that required an understanding of the context of the question. Indeed, all the chatbots used in our experiment are programmed through pattern-matching done on the input sentence sent by the user. This type of programming doesn’t do well with keeping track of contextual information. Yet because of how easy it is to program this method remains the most broadly used today. Another thing that was noticeable in our experiment was that recent chatbots did not perform much better than older ones. Indeed, the scores remain below 1 for all of them, with an older chatbot like George being quite similar to a much more recent chatbot like Mitsuku in terms of relevance. Of course, chatbots have improved on other aspects. For example, Mitsuku will often answer with images in addition to her textual replies. Unfortunately, this does not make her answers more relevant. It is worth noting that in some specific topic, like asking the chatbot’s preferred color, some chatbots did much better. Indeed, here is an excerpt from the conversation with Mitsuku in the implicit condition: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

User: What is your favorite color? Mitsuku: My favourite colour is blue. User: Why? Mitsuku: I just find blue a very relaxing colour. User: I’m curious to hear why you think that. Mitsuku: I haven’t thought much about that, so I don’t have a good answer for you.

In 4), Mitsuku can keep talking about the color blue, as if the chatbot remembered the topic of the conversation. Across all topics, this was the only case, which makes it very likely that this behavior was pre-programmed for this specific sequence of questions. In addition, there was very little difference between the implicit and explicit conditions. This was quite surprising, as it turned out that chatbots were unable to answer questions that went a bit more in-depth even while providing a good amount of context to help them. 1) 2) 3) 4)

User: What is your favorite dinosaur? George: Raptor. User: What do you like about the raptors? George: I like everything about the Beatles. Their music, lifestyle, opinion etc.

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5 Conclusion While chatbots have been improving over the year, it is undeniable that they remain quite irrelevant when tasked to answer questions and to elaborate on their own answers. Sequences of messages need to be pre-programmed to allow for the context of the conversation to be used in the generated answer, which makes it a very limiting factor for wide usage. Furthermore, when asking for more details, even while being explicit, most chatbots still fail to provide a relevant answer. In our study, we only focused on chatbots having won the Loebner Prize. Yet these chatbots tend to be of one type in particular: pattern-matching ones. It would be interesting to see how they compare to chatbots using different methods to generate their answers, in particular those using deep-learning, or machine-learning techniques in general. In any case, it is likely that building a chatbot that could be as relevant as a human interlocutor would need a very different architecture than the ones we tested. Specifically, there is a great need for the implementation of a model of the user’s mental states in chatbots [8].

References 1. Premack, D., Woodruff, G.: Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind? Behav. Brain Sci. 1, 515–526 (1978) 2. Grice, H.P.: Logic and conversation. In: Cole, P., Morgan, J.L. (eds.) Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Arts, pp. 41–58 (1975) 3. Sperber, D., Wilson, D.: Relevance: Communication and Cognition, 2nd edn. Blackwell, Oxford (1995) 4. Saygin, A.P., Cicekli, I.: Pragmatics in human-computer conversations. J. Pragmat. 34, 227– 256 (2002) 5. Jacquet, B., Baratgin, J., Jamet, F.: The Gricean maxims of quantity and of relation in the turing test. In: 11th International Conference on Human System Interaction. IEEE Press (2018) 6. Jacquet, B., Baratgin, J., Jamet, F.: Cooperation in online conversations: the response times as a window into the cognition of language processing. Front. Psychol. 10, 727 (2019) 7. Jacquet, B., Hullin, A., Baratgin, J., Jamet, F.: The impact of the Gricean maxims of quality, quantity and manner in chatbots. In: International Conference on Information and Digital Technologies. IEEE Press (2019) 8. Jacquet, B., Baratgin, J.: Towards a pragmatic model of an artificial conversational partner: opening the blackbox. In: International Conference on Information Systems Architecture and Technology, pp. 169–178. Springer, Cham (2019)

Approaching Instant Messaging (IM) by Connecting Usage Scenario and User Interaction for More Meaningful Notification Ole Goethe(&) Kristiania University, Oslo, Norway [email protected]

Abstract. Communication is becoming more open than ever before. Just as the world is faced with a pandemic and people are working more from home, so has our need for instant communication increased exponentially. While instant messaging is actively being researched in a range of domains notification system is a vital element of an effective Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) not just for informing a design and implementation of the interface but also for improved and advanced interfaces. For example, for instant messaging (IM) where a tremendous number of messages through e-mail and mobile instant messaging (MIM) are received often lead to disturbing notifications scenarios to users. The primary goal of this paper is to introduce relevant research questions related to the notification domain and to suggest a new instant messaging (IM) framework to reduce this disturbance, enabling both senders and recipients to be more meaningful. The paper studies notifications from two different perspectives: (i) Usage Scenario: identifying how notification alerts are designed, managed and dealing with effects on people, (ii) User Interaction: discussing meaningfulness of the notification, the value notifications can add to users, and long-term benefits users can get from being notified. The discussion will lead to opportunities for researchers to acquire relevant knowledge, assess the mechanisms of notification and evaluate the current design frameworks. Keywords: Information technology


Messaging
Notifications

1 Introduction Communication can be in one-to-one or one-to-many configurations, meaning that the messaging can be between two individuals or within a group where everyone in the group can see what everyone else is sending. There is no need to maintain any type of floor control since messages are posted to the individual (or group) in the order they are received, and can be read as needed [1]. As stated by Polla et al. [2], in today’s office, instant messaging apps are no longer a nice-to-have solution, but a necessity. However, the high number of notifications we get is often leading to disturbing notifications scenarios [3]. Sergio et al. [4] argues that notification scenarios must be adaptable in terms of control, prioritization, triggers, silent time, and negative effects on people. The considerations involved in designing an effective and meaningful IM UX is based on how the messages and notifications are constructed [5]. Here, users play the key role in © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 272–277, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_41

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determining specific functions within a system. The rules must go beyond the persuasive technologies and include context-awareness using discursive analytical tools to give a unique insight into the world of notifications and the rise of computer mediated communication (CMC) [6]. This article addresses the challenges of notification scenarios by determining key factors that help development of notification systems (usage scenario), novel approaches to user notifications and effective assessment techniques (user interaction).

2 Background and Related Work In 2016, the average mobile phone user received 56 notifications per day according to a study from Telefonica Research in Spain [7]. Notification alerts is a way for an app to notify you or send you a message that you can read without having to open the app [8]. Notifications are distractions by nature; they often bring a user’s attention to a (potentially) significant event they aren’t aware of or might want to be reminded of. As such, they can be very helpful and relevant, aiding, and bringing structure and order to the daily routine [9] as like to connect with users who have abandoned apps and promote engagement [10]. However, they can also prevent users from performing tasks efficiently, leaving them frustrated [11] or by demanding and seizing attention unconditionally, no matter what the user is currently doing [12]. In general, notifications can be either informational (calendar reminders, delay notifications, election night results) or encourage action (approve payment, install an update, confirm a friend request) [13]. They can stream from various sources, and can have various impacts through the use of in-browser, in-app, OS notifications and email, SMS and social messaging apps [14–18]. Previous research [19] has shown that messaging in the workplace has a number of uses and benefits, including opportunistic interactions, broadcasting of information or questions, and negotiation of availability for interaction. An instant message is regarded as a less intrusive way of interrupting than a phone call or a visit. As noted by Nardi et al. [20], it also offers users “plausible deniability”, (that is, the ability to deny presence or receipt of a message, even after having read it). Cui [21] argues that rather than having notifications sent one by one as events occur, users could choose a “summary mode,” with all notifications grouped into a single standalone message delivered at a time each day or every week. In a study by In-geon et al. [22] the most common issue was, by far, their high frequency, even if the messages were relevant or actionable. In an article by Alexandra et al. [23] emphasize the importance of timely notifications. For example, by sending an important notification when it’s no longer relevant, so if they are tracking an important event or announcement, you’ll have to decide if the event is critical enough to disturb them at an uncomfortable time [24]. Bin, Yang and Dan [25] coined the idea to track the change of time zones and local time and adjust the delivery of notifications accordingly.

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3 Approach The primary approach of this paper is to introduce relevant research questions and future research directions related to the notification system domain. To this end, we review notifications from different angles such as by connecting usage scenarios and user interaction. These elements chosen to overlap the above mention topics being applicable to all facets (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Queries on notifications.

3.1

Usage Scenario

The central question that this article asks, then, is: How are notification alerts designed, managed and dealing with effects on people in different scenarios? (i.e. how are notifications initiated, controlled, communicated and experienced?). Therefore, we need to think about identifying key issues that aid in building a pluralistic notification system. Thus, we pose these following queries: • User-Aware: Does this vary depending on who the message is between? (i.e. a colleague, friend, acquaintance, a stranger or a love interest). • Type-Aware: Does this vary depending on the type of notifications? (i.e. Usergenerated, triggered, in-browser, in-app, modals, chatbot). • System-Aware: Does the nature of notifications vary depending on the system? Is it reusable? (i.e. a status, a like, a location, a comment, a private message).

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User Interaction

HCI considers user interaction as to how the user acts on the system and how the systems act on the user. In spite of the common perspective, here we look at notifications from a more holistic consideration of notification systems, where it emphasizes the meaningfulness of the notification, values that notification can add to users, and the longer-term benefits that users can get from being notified. • Interference-Aware: A notification is a meaningful alert. However, it can distract the user. Hence, the main characteristic of a notification is that it should be noninterfering [26]. • Time-Aware: A good notification should be as timely as possible but effective at the same time [27]. • Context-Aware: A location-based push notification is context-aware [28, 29]. They can alert you in case you are in the vicinity of the particular event or place.

4 Summary and Discussion The biggest problem with many application notifications is that the benefit doesn’t outweigh the cost—the information they offer isn’t worth pulling your attention at that moment [30]. Notifications should provide a valuable service to the users, and only in that case the user will perceive them as something deserving their attention [31]. • People seem to care more about new messages from close friends and relatives, notifications from selected colleagues during working hours, bank transactions and important alerts, calendar notifications, scheduled events, alarms, and any actionable and awaited confirmations or releases. • People seem to care less about news updates, social feed updates, announcements, new features, crash reports, web notifications, informational and automated messages in general [32].

5 Conclusion This paper has presented a new perspective on notification design considerations that provides a grounding for the interpretation and measurement of the need of meaningful and distracting-free notification experience. Aside from the suggested notification queries, we would like to evaluate whether and how IM UX changes the behavior of IM users, in particular large group messaging and media switching. By individuating strategies for notification design for more meaningful user experiences, we aim towards identifying opportunities for implementing the concept within modern IM systems in HCI settings.

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References 1. Isaacs, E., Walendowski, A., Whittaker, S., Schiano, D.J., Kamm, C.: The character, functions, and styles of instant messaging in the workplace. In Proceedings of CSCW 2002, pp. 11–20. ACM Press, New York (2014) 2. La Polla, M.N., Martinelli, F., Sgandurra, D.: A survey on security for mobile devices. IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor. 15(1), 446–471 (2013) 3. Rauch, M.: Mobile documentation: usability guidelines, and considerations for providing documentation on Kindle, tablets, and smartphones. In: Proceedings of IEEE International Professional Communication Conference (IPCC), Cincinnati, OH, USA (2011) 4. Caro Alvaro, S., Garcia, E., Garcia Cabot, A., de-Marcos, L., Martinez-Herraiz, J.J.: Identifying usability issues in instant messaging Apps on iOS and android platforms. Mob. Inf. Syst. 2018 (2018) 5. Bastien, J.: Usability testing: a review of some methodological and technical aspects of the method. Int. J. Med. Inform. 79(4) (2010) 6. Salman, M., Ahmad, W.F.W., Sulaiman, S.: Usability evaluation of the smartphone user interface in supporting elderly users from experts’ perspective. IEEE Access 6, 22578– 22591 (2018) 7. Law, C.E.L., Roto, V., Hassenzahl, M., Vermeeren, A.P.O.S., Kort, J.: Understanding, scoping and defining user experience: a survey approach. In: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Boston, MA, USA. ACM (2009) 8. Podlubny, M., Rooksby, J., Rost, M., Chalmers, M.: Synchronous text messaging: a field trial of curtains messenger. Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact. 1(CSCW), Article 86 (2017) 9. Bertini, E., Catarci, T., Dix, A., Gabrielli, S., Kimani, S., Santucci, G.: Appropriating heuristic evaluation for mobile computing. Int. J. Mob. Hum. Comput. Interact. (IJMHCI) 1 (1), 20–41 (2009) 10. Gallud, J.A., esoriero, R.: Smartphone notifications: a study on the sound to soundless tendency. In: Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services Adjunct (MobileHCI 2015), pp. 819–824. ACM, New York (2015) 11. Nardi, B., Whittaker, S., Bradner, E.: Interaction and outeraction: instant messaging in action. In: Proceedings of CSCW 2000, pp. 79–88. ACM Press, New York (2013) 12. Fischer, J.E., Greenhalgh, C., Benford, S.: Investigating episodes of mobile phone activity as indicators of opportune moments to deliver notifications. In: Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Human Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services (MobileHCI 2011), pp. 181–190. ACM, New York (2011) 13. Hong, H., Xu, D.: An empirical study of mobile social app continuance intention: integrating flow experience and switching costs. Int. J. Netw. Virtual Organ. 17(4), 410–424 (2017) 14. Moumane, K., Idri, A., Abran, A.: Usability evaluation of mobile applications using ISO 9241 and ISO 25062 standards. SpringerPlus 5(1), 1–548 (2016) 15. Joyce, G., Lilley, M.: Towards the development of usability heuristics for native smartphone mobile applications. In: Design, User Experience, and Usability. Theories, Methods, and Tools for Designing the User Experience. Springer (2014) 16. Garcia, E., Garcia-Cabot, A., de-Marcos, L.: An experiment with content distribution methods in touchscreen mobile devices. Appl. Ergon. 50, 79–86 (2015) 17. Garcia, E., de-Marcos, L., Garcia-Cabot, A., Martinez-Herraiz, J.-J.: Comparing zooming methods in mobile devices: effectiveness, efficiency, and user satisfaction in touch and nontouch smartphones. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Interact. 31(11), 777–789 (2015)

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18. Martin, C., Flood, D., Harrison, R.: A protocol for evaluating mobile applications. In: Proceedings of the IADIS International Conference on Interfaces and Human Computer Interaction, IADIS, Rome, Italy (2011) 19. Grinter, R., Palen, L.: Instant messaging in teen live. In: Proceedings of CSCW ’02, pp. 21– 30. ACM Press, New York (2016) 20. Nardi, B., Whittaker, S., Bradner, E.: Interaction and outeraction: instant messaging in action. In: Proceedings of CSCW 2000, pp. 79–88. ACM Press, New York (2016) 21. Cui, D.: Beyond connected presence: multimedia mobile instant messaging in close relationship management. Mob. Media Commun. 4(1), 19–36 (2016) 22. Shin, I., Seok, J., Lim, Y.: Too close and crowded: understanding stress on mobile instant messengers based on proxemics. In: Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2018), Article 615, 12 p. ACM, New York (2018) 23. Voit, A., Poppinga, B., Weber, D., Böhmer, M., Henze, N., Gehring, S., Okoshi, T., Pejovic, V.: UbiTtention: smart & ambient notification and attention management. In: Proceedings of the 2016 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing: Adjunct (UbiComp 2016), pp. 1520–1523. ACM, New York (2016) 24. Zhou, R., Hentschel, J., Kumar, N.: Goodbye text, hello emoji: mobile communication on WeChat in China. In: Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 748–759. ACM, New York (2017) 25. Xu, B., Qin, Y., Cosley, D.: De-emphasizing content to study the relationship between meaning, messages, and content in IM systems. In: Proceedings of the 2017 Conference on Designing Interactive Systems (DIS 2017). ACM, New York (2017) 26. Kim, D., Lim, Y.: Dwelling places in KakaoTalk: understanding the roles and meanings of chatrooms in mobile instant messengers. In: Proceedings of the 18th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work & Social Computing (CSCW 2015), pp. 775–784. ACM, New York (2015) 27. Kushlev, K., Proulx, J., Dunn, E.W.: Silence your phones: smartphone notifications increase inattention and hyperactivity symptoms. In: Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2016), pp. 1011–1020. ACM, New York (2016) 28. Lee, U., Lee, J., Ko, M., Lee, C., Kim, Y., Yang, S., Yatani, K., Gweon, G., Chung, K.M., Song, J.: Hooked on smartphones: an exploratory study on smartphone overuse among college students. In: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2014), pp. 2327–2336. ACM, New York (2014) 29. Mehrotra, A., Hendley, R., Musolesi, M.: PrefMiner: mining user’s preferences for intelligent mobile notification management. In: Proceedings of the 2016 ACM International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing (UbiComp 2016), pp. 1223– 1234. ACM, New York (2016) 30. Hsieh, S.H., Tseng, T.H.: Playfulness in mobile instant messaging: examining the influence of emoticons and text messaging on social interaction. Comput. Hum. Behav. 69, 405–414 (2017) 31. Sun, Y., Liu, D., Chen, S., Wu, X., Shen, X.-L., Zhang, X.: Understanding users’ switching behavior of mobile instant messaging applications: an empirical study from the perspective of push-pull-mooring framework. Comput. Hum. Behav. 75, 727–738 (2017) 32. Sauro, J., Zarolia, P.: SUPR-Qm: a questionnaire to measure the mobile app user experience. J. Usability Stud. 13(1), 17–37 (2017)

A Multilayered Contextually Intelligent Activity Recognition Framework for Smart Home Nirmalya Thakur(&) and Chia Y. Han Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0030, USA [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. The future of Internet of Things (IoT)-based living spaces would involve interaction, coordination, collaboration and communication between humans, machines, robots and other technology-laden systems in the context of users performing their daily routine tasks. Through this Contextually Intelligent Activity Recognition framework, this work proposes to develop a long-term, robust, feasible, easily implementable, sustainable and economic solution for Activity Recognition and Activity Monitoring, that would be able to track, monitor, evaluate, analyze and access human behavior in the context of the multimodal aspects of these user interactions including the spatial and temporal features. This Multilayered Contextually Intelligent Activity Recognition Framework envisions to take a holistic approach to improve the quality of life, enhance the user experience, acceptance and trust on technology during Activities of Daily Living (ADLs), in the context of human-computer, humanmachine and human-robot interactions. The results presented uphold the relevance and demonstrate the feasibility for practical implementation of this framework in the future of IoT-based living spaces, for instance Smart Homes and Smart Cities. Keywords: Human-computer interaction
Activities of daily living data
Ubiquitous systems
Smart homes
Smart cities


Big

1 Introduction To meet the increasing needs of the constantly increasing world’s population, advanced urban development policies equipped with sound infrastructures and modern technologies, such as Smart Homes are necessary to create better living experiences in day to day lives of people [1]. In these IoT-based living spaces, human behavior will involve working and collaborating with gadgets, technologies, robots and other smart agents. The essence of development and deployment of these systems in the daily living spaces of people lies on their usability as well as on user-acceptance and trust [2]. Human behavior in the context of users performing daily routine tasks can broadly be summarized as users interacting with a defined set of context parameters specific to that given environment to reach an end goal or need. While the range of activities performed by an individual can be diverse, the sustenance of a user in any given © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 278–283, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_42

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environment lies on their ability to perform ADLs in an independent manner [3]. Recent works [4–26] in this field have investigated using different technologies like machine learning, computer vision, image recognition, data science and their related applications to track and monitor ADLs. However there are a number of challenges which exist in these systems which include – (1) Most of these systems are built specific to lab environments and their implementation in a real-time context is difficult because of the required infrastructures; (2) It is costly to implement these systems in the actual IoT-based living spaces, which are larger as compared to lab environments; (3) Some of these systems require wearables and people are often reluctant towards constantly wearing wearables in their home environments; (4) These tools require large amounts of training data and it is sometimes difficult to generate adequate training data keeping in mind universal diversity; (5) These tools are less accurate in investigating dynamic spatial, temporal and contextual characteristics of ADLs and the relationships between them. Addressing these challenges, in the context of fostering the future of human-technology partnerships serves as the main motivation of this work.

2 Literature Review This section outlines the related works in this field. Azkune et al. [4] developed a multilayered architecture to understand activities using sensor data collected from user interactions. Cheng et al. [5] developed a hierarchical model with three layers to perform activity recognition based on video content analysis using multiple kernel learning methods. Skocir et al. [6] developed a system consisting of infrared sensors based on Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) for activity recognition, specifically to infer enter and exit events in a smart home. Doryab et al. [7] developed a task recommendation model to help enhance practitioner performances in a hospital environment. Abascal et al. [8] developed an indoor navigation system based on wireless sensor network and related technologies to assist users in carrying out their activities. A smart home monitoring system was developed by Chan et al. [9] to monitor the behaviors of elderly people as they carried out different activities. An architecture for an intelligent kitchen environment was proposed by Yared et al. [10] with an aim to reduce accidents in the kitchen area. A physiological signal tracking system in the context of activities was developed by Deen [11]. The work done by Civitarese et al. [12] consisted of a system which could track, monitor and analyze the multimodal aspects of user interactions to infer if the users have successfully completed them or not. In the work done by Iglesias et al. [13], a health information monitoring system was proposed that could monitor the health status of users as they performed ADLs. In a similar work done by Angelini et al. [14], the authors developed a smart bracelet to collect data about the health of its user as well as remind them of their routine medications and daily tasks. A socially interactive assistive robot was developed by Khosla et al. [15] to help elderly people perform ADLs. A similar work was done by Sarkar [16] where an intelligent robot called ‘Nursebot’ comprised of a scheduler to schedule routine medications. The recent works of Thakur et al. [17–26] have also extensively contributed towards proposing various assistive technologies for elderly care in Smart Homes.

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3 Proposed Work This framework is proposed to have multiple layers – each layer is proposed to be equipped with a distinct functionality. The first layer or the definition layer is proposed to study the Big Data associated with multimodal characteristics of user interactions with a specific focus on the spatial and temporal features in the context of ADLs to develop a definition for different ADLs based on these characteristics. This is done by using A Complex Activity Recognition Algorithm (CARALGO) [27]. The second layer or the knowledge layer is proposed to leverage these definitions for different ADLs to create a knowledge base of ADLs along with these associated characteristics. The third layer or the learning layer is proposed to develop a learning model that would study the knowledge base and learn about each of the distinct ADL definitions. The final layer or the implementation layer is proposed to consist of the general architecture that would allow implementation of this model on any data related to ADLs with the necessary parameters for performing activity recognition and analysis. In the context of development of this framework, a dataset was developed based on the dataset developed by Ordóñez et al. [28]. This dataset consists of these complex activities - going to bed, preparing breakfast, taking a shower, leaving the house, storing groceries, getting a drink, preparing dinner and getting a snack. Figure 1 shows multiple instances of these activities analyzed through Layer 1 of this framework which is followed by the CARALGO [27] analysis of one of these complex activities – Preparing Breakfast, presented in Table 1.

Fig. 1. Multiple instances of the complex activities – going to bed, preparing breakfast, taking a shower, leaving the house, storing groceries, getting a drink, preparing dinner and getting a snack analyzed according to their occurrences during the day.

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Table 1. CARALGO Analysis of the Complex Activity - Preparing Breakfast (PB) Complex activity WCAtk (PB Atk) - PB (0.73) Atomic activities At1: Standing (0.10) At2: Walking towards toaster (0.12) At3: Putting WtAti bread into toaster (0.15) At4: Setting the time (0.15) At5: Turning off toaster (0.25) At6: Taking out bread (0.18) At7: Sitting back (0.05) Context attributes Ct1: Lights on (0.10), Ct2: Kitchen area (0.12), Ct3: Bread present WtCti (0.15), Ct4: Time settings working (0.15), Ct5: Toaster present (0.25), Ct6: Bread cool (0.18), Ct7: Sitting area (0.05) Start AtS and CtS At1, At2 and Ct1, Ct2 End AtE and CtE At6, At7 and Ct6, Ct7

Similarly, the other complex activities were studied and analyzed in Layer 1 and as per the proposed architecture and functionality of each layer, the framework was developed in RapidMiner [29] to test its performance on this dataset, as discussed in the next section.

4 Results and Implementation Upon development of these layers, a Random Forest based learning model was developed in RapidMiner [29] for complex activity recognition as shown in Fig. 2. The data was divided into 70% training data and 30% test data and the performance of the system was evaluated. The overall performance accuracy of the system was found to be 89.06%.

Fig. 2. The proposed framework developed in RapidMiner

5 Conclusion and Future Work This work presents a multifunctional framework that aims to leverage the potential that lies at the intersection of Contextual Intelligence, Activity Centered Computing, Internet of Things, Human Computer Interaction, Big Data, Machine Learning,

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Artificial Intelligence and their related applications, to take a holistic approach towards enhancing user experience, user performance and the quality of life, through complex activity recognition. The framework is also able to track and analyze the spatial and temporal components of any activity. To the best knowledge of the authors, no similar approach has been done in this field yet. The results presented uphold the relevance and demonstrate the feasibility for practical implementation of this framework for fostering human-computer, human-machine, human-robot and similar interactions of users with technologies, in the future of Smart Homes. Future work would involve setting up an IoT-based environment through a host of both wireless and wearable sensors to implement this framework in a real-time context.

References 1. United Nations Report, World Population Prospects 2019: Highlights. https://www.un.org/ development/desa/publications/world-population-prospects-2019-highlights.html 2. Kaptelinin, V., Nardi, B.: Activity theory in HCI fundamentals and reflections. Synth. Lect. Hum.-Centered Inform. 5, 1–105 (2012). Morgan and Claypool Publishers. ISBN: 9781608457045, eISBN: 9781608457052 3. Davies, N., Siewiorek, D.P., Sukthankar, R.: Activity-based computing. Pervasive Comput. IEEE 7, 20–21 (2008) 4. Azkune, G., Almeida, A., López-de-Ipiña, D., Chen, L.: Extending knowledge driven activity models through data-driven learning techniques. Expert Syst. Appl. 42 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2014.11.063 5. Cheng, Z., Qin, L., Huang, Q., Jiang, S., Yan, S., Tian, Q.: Human group activity analysis with fusion of motion and appearance information. In: Proceedings of the 19th ACM International Conference on Multimedia, pp. 1401–1404, Scottsdale, Arizona, USA, 28 November–01 December 2011 (2011) 6. Skocir, P., Krivic, P., Tomeljak, M., Kusek, M., Jezic, G.: Activity detection in smart home environment. In: Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Knowledge Based and Intelligent Information and Engineering Systems, 5–7 September 2016 7. Doryab, A., Bardram, J.E.: Designing activity-aware recommender systems for operating rooms. In: Proceedings of the 2011 Workshop on Context-awareness in Retrieval and Recommendation, 13 February 2011 8. Abascal, J., Bonail, B., Marco, A., Sevillano, J.L.: AmbienNet: an intelligent environment to support people with disabilities and elderly people. In: Proceedings of ASSETS 2008, 13–15 October 2008, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada (2008) 9. Chan, M., Campo, E., Bourennane, W., Bettahar, F., Charlon, Y.: Mobility behavior assessment using a smart-monitoring system to care for the elderly in a hospital environment. In: Proceedings of PETRA 2014, 27–30 May 2014, Island of Rhodes, Greece (2014) 10. Yared, R., Abdulrazak, B., Tessier, T., Mabilleau, P.: Cooking risk analysis to enhance safety of elderly people in smart kitchen. In: Proceedings of PETRA 2015, 01–03 July 2015, Corfu, Greece (2015) 11. Jamal Deen, M.: Information and communications technologies for elderly ubiquitous healthcare in a smart home. Pers. Ubiquit. Comput. 19, 573–599 (2015) 12. Civitarese, G., Bettini, C., Belfiore, S.: Let the objects tell what you are doing. In: Proceedings of Ubicomp/ISWC 2016 Adjunct, 12–16 September 2016, Heidelberg, Germany (2016)

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13. Iglesias, R., Gomez de Segura, N., Iturburu, M.: the elderly interacting with a digital agenda through an RFID pen and a touch screen. In: Proceedings of MSIADU 2009, 23 October 2009, Beijing, China (2009) 14. Angelini, L., Nyffeler, N., Caon, M., Jean-Mairet, M., Carrino, S., Mugellini, E., Bergeron, L.: Designing a desirable smart bracelet for older adults. In: Proceedings of UbiComp 2013, 8–12 September 2013, Zurich, Switzerland (2013) 15. Khosla, R., Chu, M.-T., Kachouie, R., Yamada, K., Yoshihiro, F., Yamaguchi, T.: Interactive multimodal social robot for improving quality of care of elderly in Australian nursing homes. In: Proceedings of MM 2012, 29 October–2 November 2012, Nara, Japan (2012) 16. Sarkar, D.P.: A nurse bot for elderly people. In: Proceedings of UbiComp/ISWC 2018 Adjunct, 8–12 October 2018, Singapore (2018) 17. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: An improved approach for complex activity recognition in smart homes. In: Reuse in the Big Data Era. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 11602, pp 220–231. Springer, Cham (2019) 18. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: Framework for a personalized intelligent assistant to elderly people for activities of daily living. Int. J. Recent Trends Hum. Comput. Interact. (IJHCI) 9(1), 1–22 (2019) 19. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: Framework for an intelligent affect aware smart home environment for elderly people. Int. J. Recent Trends Hum. Comput. Interact. (IJHCI) 9(1), 23–43 (2019) 20. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A context-driven complex activity framework for smart home. In: Proceedings of the 9th Annual Information Technology, Electronics and Mobile Communication Conference (IEMCON) 2018, Vancouver, Canada, 1–3 November 2018 (2018) 21. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A hierarchical model for analyzing user experiences in affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of the 9th Annual Information Technology, Electronics and Mobile Communication Conference (IEMCON) 2018, Vancouver, Canada, 1–3 November 2018 (2018) 22. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: An approach to analyze the social acceptance of virtual assistants by elderly people. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on the Internet of Things (IoT) 2018, Santa Barbara, California, 15–18 October 2018 (2018) 23. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: Methodology for forecasting user experience for smart and assisted living in affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on the Internet of Things (IoT) 2018, Santa Barbara, California, 15–18 October 2018 (2018) 24. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: An activity analysis model for enhancing user experiences in affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of the IEEE 5G World Forum Conference (IEEE 5GWF) 2018, Santa Clara, California, 09–11 July 2018 (2018) 25. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A virtual wisdom mining ‘pan’ for connecting retired experts with currently active professionals. In: Proceedings of IT Research Symposium, University of Cincinnati, 10 April 2018 (2018) 26. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A complex activity based emotion recognition algorithm for affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of IEEE 8th Annual Computing and Communication Workshop and Conference (IEEE CCWC) 2018, Las Vegas, 08–10 January 2018 27. Saguna, S., Zaslavsky, A., Chakraborty, D.: Complex activity recognition using contextdriven activity theory and activity signatures. ACM Trans. Comput. Hum. Interact. 20 (6), 1–34 (2013). Article 32 28. Ordóñez, F.J., de Toledo, P., Sanchis, A.: Activity recognition using hybrid generative/discriminative models on home environments using binary sensors. Sensors 13, 5460–5477 (2013) 29. Ritthoff, O., Klinkenberg, R., Fischer, S., Mierswa, I., Felske, S.: YALE: yet another learning environment (2001) https://doi.org/10.17877/de290r-15309

NeuroDesign: Embracing Neuroscience Instruments to Investigate Human Collaboration in Design Jan Auernhammer1, Wei Liu2(&), Takumi Ohashi3, Larry Leifer1, Eric Byler1, and Wenjie Pan2

2

1 Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA {jan.auernhammer,leifer,ebyler}@stanford.edu Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, People’s Republic of China {wei.liu,wenjie.pan}@bnu.edu.cn 3 Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo 152-8550, Japan [email protected]

Abstract. The NeuroDesign Special Interest Group (SIG) introduces an initiative that seeks synergies at the intersection of digital engineering, neurocognitive science, and design research. It focuses on examining designers’ thinking (i.e., creativity and collaboration) in particular in team settings. This SIG aims to advance the understanding of neurocognition associated with design teamwork. This initiative will address a critical gap in the field of the complex and context-dependent effects of design team collaboration. The main legacies will be the establishment and development of a community in the intersection of design, psychology, and neurocognitive science. Keywords: NeuroDesign
Neuroscience interaction
Teamwork
Sociality


Design
Human-computer

1 Introduction Designers’ and researchers’ cognitive biases and world views, such as stereotypes, are amongst grand challenges in seeking to solve complex social challenges. Failure to deal with these challenges is due to a failure to collaborate [8–10]. The impact of human psychology and behavior such as psychological safety in human collaboration and team performance have been revealed at Harvard University and Google research [2–4, 18]. Among fascinating developments in the research of teamwork is the use of functional brain imaging to measure correlated brain activity among two or more members of a team. The advancement of functional neuroimaging techniques such as hyperscanning provides the opportunity to shift the focus from individual cognition to cognition in teamwork. It allows us to understand how two or more brains interact during design teamwork by using brain imaging instruments such as functional nearinfrared brain spectroscopy (fNIRS) during realistic design activities. Several researchers [11, 14, 15] studied team collaboration and creativity by utilizing neuroscience instruments, such as functional magnetic resonance brain imaging (fMRI) and © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 284–289, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_43

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fNIRS. Other design researchers have utilized neuroscience instruments and investigated the cognitive processes in practical design tasks and environments [5–7, 12, 16]. Based on the research by Reiss, Saggar, and others [11, 14, 15] supported by the HPDTR-program, a new research program called the Leifer NeuroDesign Research Program at the Center for Design Research at Stanford University has emerged. Other universities have joined, including the Hasso Plattner Institute at the University of Potsdam, the Faculty of Psychology at Beijing Normal University, and the Engineering Sciences and Design Course at Tokyo Institute of Technology. This program is a new pan-disciplinary initiative between Neuro (e.g., neurocognitive sciences and psychology) and Design (e.g., engineering, architecture, and computer science), and other disciplines. The program aims to investigate thinking in design, design team performance, and design practices through approaches from design research, experimental psychology, and by utilizing neuroscientific instruments. It aims to examine team practices that produce meaningful, innovative, and practical design [9, 13, 17]. The purpose of the SIG is to establish an interdisciplinary community to advance our understanding of design teamwork. It aims to investigate the neurocognitive processes in design tasks to develop team abilities (e.g., creativity, decision-making, empathy, and sociality) and better coach design teams to produce more creative, sustainable, and meaningful solutions for people within today’s complex challenges and wicked problems [17].

2 Importance of the NeuroDesign SIG This new program aims to impact design teamwork at multiple levels, including team, inter-team, and social network levels. Through a deeper understanding of teamwork dynamics, this initiative aims to train designers to think differently and enable creative collaboration [10]. The main impact is the enablement of the ability to innovate in engineering design. This SIG will forge a synthesis between the behavioral-sciences and science-ofdesign through neurocognitive science. These widely disparate disciplines have rarely been considered as linked, synergistic fields, and researchers have never before had the neuroscience instruments to measure and quantify the enigmatic variables of team cognition under naturalistic conditions. Phenomena and develop further team approaches (e.g., design thinking) will be investigated. This is promising as rapid development of ultraportable, multi-channel fNIRS instruments over the past years now makes it possible to perform hyper-scanning experiments in nearly any naturalistic environment.

3 Audience and Community This SIG welcomes HCI researchers from diverse fields including, but not limited to user experience design, computer science, engineering, neuroscience, psychology, cognitive science and behavior science. It aims to bring together and network scholars and practitioners who are broadly working on the intersection of these fields within Design and HCI. With this SIG, the research team aims to create a global community to

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boost this new domain of research. The technological and methodological advancement in brain imaging such as hyperscanning and fNIRS allows to examine design activities in teams and natural environments. This opens new opportunities for research in different design fields. For design researcher it offers the opportunities to investigate and understand the thinking (neurocognitive processes) in design and for cognitive scientist the opportunity to investigate brain behavior in creativity, decision making, empathy within the practices of designing. In accordance with this proposal, the research team expects attendees to bring in previous knowledge, experience, and/or interest in HCI, design psychology, or neuroscience, or both areas. The expected number of attendees is 20–30. Several institutes (i.e., Purdue University, Swinburne University of Technology, University of Southern Denmark, and Beijing Museum of Natural History) and companies (i.e., Hitachi, Boeing, Saint-Gobain, Lego, Dolby, Apple, and Google) have already shown clear interests to join this research community.

4 Discussion Topics Several main design and engineering theories and approaches have foundations in psychology [1, 15, 19, 20]. Similarly, the field of neuroscience is an extension of psychology. Both fields investigate human abilities such as creativity and decision making from different points of view. Design Thinking [11] is an example in which psychological concepts help to advance engineering design and now expand into other fields to develop creative capacities in teams. Experimental psychological allows investigating these phenomena. Today we have technologies such as fNIRS that allow capture and measure neurocognitive activities. Through the integration of neuroscientific instruments and methods, experimental psychology, and design research, the research team aims to develop a better understanding of teamwork in design, develop and educate new approaches to expand team-based practices such as Design Thinking. To further expand the teamwork research, this SIG provides the following discussion agenda with the attendees: • How can we measure necessary cognitive skills (e.g., creativity, decision-making, and empathy) and teamwork in the design process? • How can we improve understanding of the science-of-design by introducing neuroscience instruments? • Where is the intersection between neuroscience and science-of-design?

5 Expected Outcomes Through expert presentations and facilitated discussion, the researchers will forge new ideas of applying neurocognitive approaches to science-of-design. Expected outcomes include:

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• List of measurement methods of each cognitive skill in the design process. • List of future research agenda of science-of-design through neuroscientific approaches. • Developing a diverse interdisciplinary community of NeuroDesign.

6 SIG Activities The research team will begin by presenting organizers, motivation, and existing knowledge domains for the SIG. A guided ice-breaking activity will allow the attendees to form smaller groups for the following brainstorming session. In these smaller groups, they will then brainstorm on key challenges for this field of research based on an initial list as mentioned in the proposal. Each group will be seeded with a separate list of initial ideas to ensure topic coverage. Results will be reported back to the collective. A live mind-map projected on a shared display will be maintained to keep notes in a visual way. Once all groups have presented, attendees will prioritize the top 3–5 key challenges and again split into small groups to discuss solutions. Finally, the team will reconvene to discuss potential solutions, key future research topics, and a submission to newsletters, i.e., SIGCHI. This SIG encourages participation by the following activities: • Explanation of SIG background and motivation. • Experts from science-of-design and neuroscience, cognitive science, and psychology provide information and opinions regarding the NeuroDesign intersection. • The audience is split into smaller groups and discuss with other participants, organizers, and experts for the discussion topics above. • Conclusion of this SIG. • Planning for future conferences and seminars. This SIG will be announced through the research team’s professional network of researchers working on related topics. They will also announce it through dedicated mailing lists for HCI, science-of-design, neuroscience, and cognitive psychology communities. Moreover, they will make use of social media, such as LinkedIn and Facebook. The latter has several groups related to the interested communities such as SIGCHI, SIGBio, SIGGRAPH, and SIGEVO. The team will also set up a website with the purpose of sparking thoughts and discussion prior to the event, as well as to serve for follow-up after IHIET 2020.

7 About the Organizers In putting together this SIG’s organizing panel, the research team attempted to capture topical diversity, expertise across different domains (i.e., neuroscience, design, and psychology), and diversity of organizers in terms of geography and gender. The panel will be comprised of industry professionals and academics.

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Jan Auernhammer is the executive director of the Leifer NeuroDesign Research Program and the Human-centered Business Design Research Group at Stanford University. He is interested in design innovation, business and organizational design practices, neurocognition in design teams and entrepreneurship. Wei Liu is an associate professor and the director of the User eXperience Master Program at Beijing Normal University and a Fulbright research scholar at Stanford University. He is interested in HCI, human factors, and transdisciplinary teaching and learning. Takumi Ohashi is an assistant professor at Tokyo Institute of Technology and a research scholar at Stanford University. He is interested in transdisciplinary engineering sciences and design. Larry Leifer is a professor and the director of the Leifer NeuroDesign Research Program, the Center for Design Research, and the Hasso Plattner Design Thinking Research Program at Stanford University. He is interested in engineering design thinking, design theory and practice, and innovation leadership. Eric Byler is a lecturer and the executive director of the ME310 network at Stanford University. He is interested in engineering design and aerospace. Wenjie Pan is a research associate of the User eXperience Master Program at Beijing Normal University and a research scholar at Stanford University. She is interested in HCI and design thinking. Acknowledgments. This research is supported by the Leifer NeuroDesign Research Program across Stanford University, Beijing Normal University, and Tokyo Institute of Technology. This research is funded by the Center for Design Research at Stanford University, the Faculty of Psychology at Beijing Normal University, the Center of Innovation Program of the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), and the Fulbright Research Scholar Grant (ID: PS00284539).

References 1. Arnold, J., Clancey, W.: Creative Engineering: Promoting Innovation by Thinking Differently. Amazon (2016) 2. Edmondson, A.: Psychological safety and learning behavior in work teams. Adm. Sci. Q. 44(2), 350–383 (1999) 3. Edmondson, A., Harvey, J.: Cross-boundary teaming for innovation: integrating research on teams and knowledge in organizations. Hum. Resour. Manage. Rev. 28(4), 347–360 (2018) 4. Edmondson, A.: The Fearless Organization: Creating Psychological Safety in the Workplace for Learning, Innovation, and Growth. Wiley, Hoboken (2018) 5. Fu, K., Sylcott, B., Das, K.: Using fMRI to deepen our understanding of design fixation. Des. Sci. 5(22), 1–31 (2019) 6. Goucher-Lambert, K., Moss, J., Cagan, J.: A neuroimaging investigation of design ideation with and without inspirational stimuli-understanding the meaning of near and far stimuli. Des. Stud. 6, 1–38 (2019) 7. Hay, L., Duffy, A., Gilbert, S., Lyall, L., Cambell, G., Grealy, M.: The neural correlates of ideation in product design engineering practitioners. Des. Sci. 5(29), 1–23 (2019) 8. Jablokow, K.: Developing problem solving leadership: a cognitive approach. Int. J. Eng. Educ. 24(5), 936–954 (2008)

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9. Jablokow, K., Teerlink, W., Yilmaz, S., Daly, S., Silk, E.: The impact of teaming and cognitive style on student perceptions of design ideation outcomes. In: ASEE Annual Conference and Exposition, Seattle, USA (2015) 10. Leifer, L.: Design-team performance: metrics and the impact of technology. In: Evaluating Corporate Training, pp. 297–319 (1998) 11. Leifer, L., Steinert, M.: Dancing with ambiguity: causality behavior, design thinking, and triple-loop-learning. In: Management of the Fuzzy Front End of Innovation, pp. 141–158 (2014) 12. Liang, C., Lin, C., Yao, S., Chang, W., Liu, Y., Chen, S.: Visual attention and association: an electroencephalography study in expert designers. Des. Stud. 48, 76–95 (2017) 13. Mayseless, N., Saggar, M., Hawthorne, G., Reiss, A.: Creativity in the twenty-first century: the added benefit of training and cooperation. In: Design Thinking Research, pp. 239–249 (2018) 14. Norman, D.: Emotion and design: attractive things work better. Interactions 9(4), 36–42 (2002) 15. Norman, D.: The Design of Everyday Things. Basic Books, New York (2013) 16. Pike, M., Maior, H., Porcheron, M., Scarples, S., Wilson, M.: Measuring the effect of think aloud protocols on workload using fNIRS. In: Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 3807–3816 (2014) 17. Rittel, H., Webber, M.: Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sci. 4(2), 155–169 (1973) 18. Rozovsky, J.: The five keys to a successful Google team (2015) 19. Schön, D.: Educating the Reflective Practitioner: Toward a New Design for Teaching and Learning in the Professions. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco (1987) 20. Simon, H.: The Sciences of the Artificial. MIT Press, Cambridge (1996)

Research on Instructor’s Teaching Styles: Efficiency Factors in Human - Machine Interaction Training with Aircraft Simulators for Chinese Pilots Yancong Zhu, Wei Liu(&), Qiang Li, Xiaohan Wang, Jingshu Zhang, Nan Wang, and Wenxi Li Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, People’s Republic of China {yancong.zhu,wei.liu}@bnu.edu.cn, {qiang.li,xiaohan.wang,jingshu.zhang,nanwang, wenxi.li}@mail.bnu.edu.cn

Abstract. In current training settings, mastering and using English as a language is mandatory for flying aircraft simulators, classroom teaching, and Human-Machine Interaction (HMI) design. Non-native language teaching has a significant influence on the learning efficiency for the Chinese pilot students, especially in HMI. Within this English teaching context, the students tend to be silent and inactive. However, fewer studies focus on teaching. This study focuses on how to improve the English understanding ability from self-efficacy and optimization of HMI. To address this issue, the research team observed six classroom teaching sessions and analyzed data based on LICC paradigm (the Learning, Instruction, Curriculum, and Culture). Furthermore, the study conducted in-depth qualitative interviews with seven instructors and thirty pilot students and conducted a qualitative analysis based on the grounded theory. It found that teaching styles of scenario-based teaching, supportiveness, interactivity, and fairness have a significant impact on learning efficiency. This study helps understand the learning efficiency of Chinese pilot students and has a positive effect on improving flight levels. Keywords: Flying aircraft simulators
Learning efficiency students
LICC model
Teaching styles


Chinese pilot

1 Introduction In the field of civil aviation pilot training worldwide, training of new pilots needs to be performed on flight simulators, which is an essential part of training pilots [1, 2]. Although simulator training has become a widely used flight trainer training and veteran pilot re-training method, for classroom training in a simulator, the evaluation of training efficiency and effectiveness has become one of the difficulties in the field of flight training. This problem is particularly apparent in China’s simulator training. Due to the late start of China’s civil aviation, the development and manufacture of the © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 290–295, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_44

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simulator are slow. Most Chinese civil aviation companies and universities purchase foreign training simulators and hire foreign instructors. Many airlines will also allow pilots to participate in training with professional flight simulators provided by flight manufacturers before the pilots officially fly [3–5], and their training instructors are also foreign instructors. All interaction language is English, contained the human-machine interface. Therefore, the training scenario for Chinese pilots is thoroughly non-native language learning. It takes a significant impact on learning efficiency for Chinese pilot students [6]. In this environment of English teaching, students tend to remain silent and inactive. At present, there are not many studies on the classroom efficiency of Chinese pilot simulator training. Most of the studies focus on the operating frequency, the English ability [7], the autonomous learning ability [8], interaction frequency between teachers and students [9]. The students are not interested in the lectures, which affects the overall teaching effect [10]. In response to these problems, many educational researchers have done much research. Jiang [11] proposed that it is appropriate to take the English manual as the primary basis. Some researchers have proposed to optimize the curriculum system and innovate training and teaching methods. In general, less research has focused on the interaction effect between the teacher and the students. However, in non-native language scenarios, human factors among stakeholders are crucial, and the improvement of learning efficiency will also be affected by these factors. Based on this, we have done in-depth research on artificial factors. The research team observed the classroom of the simulator training and conducted in-depth qualitative interviews with seven lecturers and eight pilot students. After a qualitative analysis based on grounded theory, it found that in the context of cultural differences, the teaching style of teachers has a significant impact on students’ classroom learning efficiency. It proved that contextualized teaching, the supportiveness of teaching, interactive teaching activities, and fairness all could improve the learning efficiency of flight students. The influence of teaching style has not been studied enough in academic research related to pilot training. It is a relatively blank research area. The research on teaching styles further explores learning efficiency factors and improves it. It also provides theoretical guidance and supports airlines with training syllabus and curriculum setting.

2 Class Observation and Analysis LICC is a professional classroom observation paradigm [12, 13]. It contains four dimensions: student learning (Learning), teacher’s instruction (Instruction), classroom nature (Curriculum), and classroom culture (Culture). The LICC paradigm is named after the first letter of these four dimensions [14–16]. Based on the teacher’s teaching dimension, the following observation perspectives, behaviors, and reference observation points were obtained. Before classroom observation, the observers and the observant communicate accordingly to understand further the teaching steps and content, the essential information, and the learning context of the observant, and at the same time, briefly introduce the purpose of the observation to them. Each round of observation in the

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classroom was carried out by 2–3 observers with different observation perspective. Since the company did not allow video or audio recording, the observers need to do the best on record detailed to avoid missing crucial information. The general behaviors and particular behaviors recorded by different observers that were summarized and coded. Then according to the attribute frequency, the attribute size is sorted to find the high-frequency and low-frequency attributes. The research team calculated the average frequency of attributes to recode the individual frequency, for example, attributes are higher than the average frequency recorded as 1, and attributes are less than it recorded as -1. The count of each attribute was accumulated and sorted. Finally, the observation coding table was formed. The study conducted a new round of cluster analysis on the behavior codes to classify more detailed categories, attributes, and methods, and assign positive and negative directions for each behavior. The study also marked the frequency sorting number and sorted the data in the observation table according to frequency order and positive and negative and divided behavior coding into four categories, as shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Frequency distribution table

3 Interview and Analysis Based on the observations, the research team developed a targeted interview outline and conducted semi-structured interviews with seven instructors and thirty pilot students. According to the grounded theory, the study conducted three-level coding of the data: open coding, axial coding, and selective coding, and it summarized three aspects: instructor’s immediate adjustment strategies, teaching methods, and phenomena during the class. First, the research team determined the dimensions, concepts, and categories that affect pilot students’ learning efficiency by defining, classifications and summaries of the data from instructors. After analyzing and clustering, the study concluded twentythree concepts and forty-six dimensions. Then the team selected the categories that best reflect the theme and trace to original data to associate these primary categories with the relevant content to verify the authenticity and reliability of the extraction. Through this process, the team refine the main categories and get six categories: instructor interactivity, instructor experience shared, trainee pressure, trainee interaction with foreign

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instructors, learning arrangements, and learning depth. Finally, the study identified the inter-relationships among the six categories: causal conditions, situational conditions, intervention conditions, phenomena, actions, and results. Moreover, a relationship model is constructed, as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. The mediating variables

The research finds that learning efficiency is negatively related to the impact of the student’s sense of stress and learning depth. The depth is affected by the classroom interaction. Students with more classroom interaction have a more profound learning depth. Interaction is closely related to the teaching style of instructors. The practical teaching style with high interaction and experience sharing has an active classroom. Understanding the positive and negative directions will help us to design the class. The conjunction with observation and interview as the theoretical basis for class design helps improve the learning efficiency of Chinese pilot students.

4 Support, Interaction, and Fairness Instructors’ support, interaction, and fairness during the class have a significant impact. For example, the teachers encourage pilot students to answer questions and less criticize the students’ answers. They interact through multiple methods and ensure that the number of interactions with each student is similar, which is conducive to establishing a rhythmic and dynamic classroom atmosphere. This setting makes students maintain a proper sense of pressure and learn regularly and rhythmically. This status is manifested as usually accumulate in learning arrangements. It also promotes students to give the instructor positive feedback through eyes and body movements. The instructor who gets positive feedback will maintain the teaching style, thereby forming a benign dynamic interaction. Besides, instructors with positive teaching styles interact more

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with pilot students during the class, such as slap pilot students’ shoulders, call pilot students’ names, and ask questions. In this classroom atmosphere, pilot students answer and ask questions more frequently. At the same time, instructors receive feedback from the pilot student and adjust the class progress according to their mastery. In such a dynamic process of mutual influence, the pilot student has a deeper understanding of their level, so they are able to establish a knowledge system based on their own experience and be able to learn more deeply. On the contrary, without a positive interaction, the instructor cannot understand the mastery of the pilot student and only teaches according to the system of teaching materials. In such a class, pilot students’ learning depth is not deep enough and cannot build their knowledge system.

5 Discussion This study analyzed the interactive behaviors of instructors and pilot students during simulator training. It classified these behaviors according to the frequency and positive or negative impact, much support the in-depth exploration and verification of the analysis results of the interviews between instructors and pilot students in the next stage. This study focuses on the impact of instructors’ teaching style on the classroom atmosphere and the learning efficiency of students. It confirms a positive correlation between supportive and interactive teaching style and positive feedback from students. Compared with the interaction in the spare time, the instructors are more inclined to interact during the class to teach and maintain the excellent learning atmosphere. No cultural differences have been found in this study. That is, under different cultural backgrounds, there is no significant difference in the effect of the teaching style of instructors on the learning efficiency of pilot students. This part needs further research. Also, the time of observation in this study is relatively short. Subsequent research controls the time variable to compare and finds the impact of time factors on teaching styles.

6 Conclusions This research focuses on simulator training. By analyzing human-to-human interaction, human-to-simulator interaction, and human-to-environment interaction, it concludes that during the training process, the interaction between instructors and students promote students’ learning efficiency and it depends mostly on the teaching style of instructors. The research shows that when teaching Chinese pilot students, the instructors ask more questions to promote thinking, give more positive feedback, use more body movements, give each student opportunities to answer questions, and make them feel fair, which will have a significant effect on the learning efficiency. At the same time, instructors should pay more attention to the content rather than the language when answering questions to avoid making students feel fear. Acknowledgments. This project is supported by the Boeing Company and the Faculty of Psychology at Beijing Normal University.

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References 1. Hymes, D.: Qualitative/quantitative research methodologies in education: a linguistic perspective. Anthropol. Educ. Q. 8(3), 165–176 (1977) 2. Macchiarella, N., Arban, P., Doherty, S.: Transfer of training from flight training devices to flight for ab-initio pilots. Int. J. Appl. Aviat. Stud. 6(2), 299 (2006) 3. Horwitz, E., Horwitz, B., Cope, J.: Foreign language classroom anxiety. Mod. Lang. J. 70 (1), 125–132 (1986) 4. Guiora, A.: The dialectic of language acquisition. Lang. Learn. 33, 3–12 (1984) 5. Jackson, J.: Reticence in second language case discussions: anxiety and aspirations. System 30, 65–84 (2002) 6. Sit, H.: Characteristics of Chinese students’ learning styles. Int. Proc. Econ. Dev. Res. 62, 36 (2013) 7. Zhou, X.: Discussion on English proficiency requirements of aviation personnel in flight academy. Sci. Technol. 26(29) (2016) 8. Shi, Q.: Research and application of civil aviation cloud training system. J. Civ. Aviat. Flight Univ. China 12(3), 15–18 (2017) 9. Luo, Y., Deng, X.: Exploration and management of flight trainer stress. Sci. Technol. Vis. 260(2), 47–48 (2019) 10. Shang, H.: Study on the phenomenon and countermeasures of silence in middle school English classroom. Shandong Normal Univ. 171 (2014) 11. Feng, W.: Research on the present situation and reform of flight English teaching. Guide Sci. Educ. 21, 99–101 (2016) 12. Jiang, W.: Theoretical teaching reform of pilot aircraft modification. J. Civ. Aviat. Flight Univ. China 12(3), 15–18 (2001) 13. Xu, H., Li, S., Wu, H.: Research on optimization of airline pilot training system. CAAC Inflight Mag. 46 (2017) 14. Moskowitz, G.: Interaction analysis: a new modern language for supervisors. Foreign Lang. Ann. 5(2), 211–221 (2008) 15. Chan, S.: The Chinese learners: a question of style. Educ. Training 41, 294–304 (1999) 16. Warr, P., Downing, J.: Learning strategies, learning anxiety and knowledge acquisition. Br. J. Psychol. 91(3), 311–333 (2011)

An Intelligent Ubiquitous Activity Aware Framework for Smart Home Nirmalya Thakur and Chia Y. Han(&) Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0030, USA [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. The proposed Ubiquitous Activity Aware Framework aims to leverage the immense potential that lies in the application of Activity Centered Computing in an Internet of Things (IoT) environment for the future of technology-based living spaces, for instance, in Smart Homes and Smart Cities. The scientific contribution in this work aims to address both the shortage of caregivers and the global challenges for reducing the burden of healthcare related costs for treating elderly people. Elderly people face problems like motor disabilities, physical limitations, memory issues and so on, which limit their abilities to perform Activities of Daily Living (ADLs) on their own. The challenge in this context is to develop technology-based solutions to sustain active aging and independent living of the aging population. Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) is commonly found in the aging population and there is a looming need for early detection of MCI to address the increasing healthcare related costs associated with the elderly population. To ensure smooth functioning of the world, the proposed framework addresses the aforementioned challenges through development of a long-term, economically viable and feasible assistive solution that takes a holistic approach in terms of analyzing user interactions during ADLs, to track, study, analyze and detect potential symptoms of MCI and other anomalies in elderly behavior, for preventive and timely care, with an aim to reduce these costs incurred to the healthcare industry in the context of contributing towards independent living of the aging population in Smart Homes. Keywords: Human-computer interaction
Activities of daily living
Big data
Ubiquitous systems
Elderly population
Healthcare
Smart homes Smart cities




1 Introduction At present there are around 962 million elderly people [1] in the world and their population is constantly increasing. With increasing age, the various needs in terms of personal, social and healthcare requirements increase which poses an increased burden on the world economy. The number of elderly people across the world with dementia has doubled in recent times [2] and their number is predicted to again double by the year 2030, leading to approximately 82 million people with dementia worldwide. In 2010 alone, approximately $604 billion costs were incurred to the healthcare industry © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 296–302, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_45

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in looking after people with dementia and this number is increasing at an alarming rate. Currently around 50 million people across the world have dementia [2]. Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) is commonly found in the aging population. Around 10% to 15% of individuals suffering from MCI develop dementia every year [3]. Thus, it is essential to detect these symptoms of MCI and other anomalies in the behavior of elderly people to provide preventive care and services to reduce healthcare costs. Shortage of caregivers for the aging population is a global concern. Thus, the proposed work aims to solve these global healthcare and aging related challenges by leveraging the immense potential of application of Activity Centered Computing in Internet of Things (IoT)based living spaces for instance in Smart Homes and Smart Cities.

2 Literature Review This section outlines the related works in this field. Azkune et al. [4] developed a multilayered architecture to understand activities using sensor data collected from user interactions. Cheng et al. [5] developed a hierarchical model with three layers to perform activity recognition based on video content analysis using multiple kernel learning methods. Skocir et al. [6] developed a system consisting of infrared sensors based on Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) for activity recognition, specifically to infer enter and exit events in a smart home. Doryab et al. [7] developed a task recommendation model to help enhance practitioner performances in a hospital environment. Abascal et al. [8] developed an indoor navigation system based on wireless sensor network and related technologies to assist users in carrying out their activities. A smart home monitoring system was developed by Chan et al. [9] to monitor the behaviors of elderly people as they carried out different activities. An architecture for an intelligent kitchen environment was proposed by Yared et al. [10] with an aim to reduce accidents in the kitchen area. A physiological signal tracking system in the context of activities was developed by Deen [11]. The work done by Civitarese et al. [12] consisted of a system which could track, monitor and analyze the multimodal aspects of user interactions to infer if the users have successfully completed them or not. In the work done by Iglesias et al. [13], a health information monitoring system was proposed that could monitor the health status of users as they performed ADLs. In a similar work done by Angelini et al. [14], the authors developed a smart bracelet to collect data about the health of its user as well as remind them of their routine medications and daily tasks. A socially interactive assistive robot was developed by Khosla et al. [15] to help elderly people perform ADLs. A similar work was done by Sarkar [16] where an intelligent robot called ‘Nursebot’ comprised of a scheduler to schedule routine medications. The recent works of Thakur et al. [17–26] have also extensively contributed towards proposing various assistive technologies for elderly care in Smart Homes.

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3 Proposed Work The development and implementation of this proposed framework to track, monitor, evaluate and access the multimodal aspects of user interactions including the spatial and temporal components of their actions in the context of ADLs, for detecting potential symptoms of MCI, consists of the following steps: 1. Create a database of user interactions during ADLs in a Smart Home 2. Identify specific characteristics of these complex activities in terms of atomic activities, context attributes and the associated spatial and temporal information 3. Use CARALGO [27] to study the specific atomic activities and their associated context attributes in the context of these ADLs 4. Study the temporal information associated with every complex activity – for each of its instances 5. For each complex activity develop a learning model that can analyze the temporal information associated with it 6. Filter out multiple occurrences of each type of complex activity into distinct groups or classes 7. For each complex activity group or class a. Separate the samples into training and testing set b. Train the learning model to detect outliers in terms of temporal information c. Test the performance of the learning model on the test data 8. Repeat Step (7) for all the distinct groups to evaluate the overall accuracy of the proposed framework for different ADLs in the dataset Following these steps, a dataset was developed based on the UK DALE dataset [28]. A related work [29] done on this dataset, helped to relate these appliance usage patterns to complex activities. Some of the major complex activities that regularly featured on this dataset are - Watching TV, Using Laptop, Using Subwoofer, Using Washing Machine, Cooking in Kitchen, Using Microwave and Using Toaster. Multiple instances and varying patterns of these complex activities were analyzed to study these complex activities as per this framework. Figure 1 shows different instances of occurrences of these complex activities from this dataset that were analyzed using CARALGO [27]. For studying the temporal characteristics associated with different ADLs, another dataset developed by Sztyler et al. [30] was studied and analyzed. This dataset consists of multiple instances of the complex activities – doing deskwork, eating/drinking, doing housework, preparing a meal, moving from one place to the other, grooming, relaxing, going out for shopping and socializing with others. Multiple instances of these activities with respect to their temporal information and times of occurrence during a 24-h period were studied. Next, each of these different activities were grouped into classes and for each class the time taken to complete the different instances of that given ADL were studied and analyzed for outlier detection.

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Fig. 1. Multiple instances of complex activities - Watching TV, Using Laptop, Using Subwoofer, Using Washing Machine, Cooking in Kitchen, Using Microwave and Using Toaster

4 Results and Implementation Upon development of these classes representing different ADL instances, a Random Forest based learning model was developed in RapidMiner [31] as per the proposed framework. The entire data for each class was divided into 70 percent training data and 30 percent test data. Figure 2 shows the implementation for the ADL class – eating/drinking. Its overall performance accuracy was found to be 83.33%. Similarly, the performance accuracies for all the other ADL classes were found to be in the range of 70.00% to 83.33%.

Fig. 2. Implementation of the proposed framework for the ADL class – eating/drinking

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5 Conclusion and Future Work This work presents a framework that takes a rather comprehensive approach to track, monitor, evaluate and access the multimodal aspects of user interactions including the spatial and temporal components of their actions in the context of ADLs towards detection of abnormal behavioral states, which could be potential symptoms of MCI. To the best knowledge of the authors, no similar approach has been done in this field yet. The results presented uphold the relevance and demonstrate the feasibility for practical implementation of this framework in the future of Smart Homes. This framework is envisioned to lead towards the development of the future of intelligent behavior intervention and assistive technologies in healthcare and social welfare to support active aging and independent living of elderly while providing a means for early detection and diagnosis of their healthcare related needs for preventive and timely care. Future work would involve setting up an IoT-based environment through a host of both wireless and wearable sensors to implement this framework in a real-time context.

References 1. United Nations 2018 Report on Ageing. http://www.un.org/en/sections/issuesdepth/ageing/ 2. Bengtsson, T., Scott, K.: The ageing population. In: 2nd Chapter in Population Ageing - A Threat to the Welfare State? ISBN 978-3-642-12611-6, eISBN 978-3-64212612-3 3. Eshkoor, S.A., Hamid, T.A., Mun, C.Y., Ng, C.K.: Mild cognitive impairment and its management in older people. Clin. Interv. Aging 10, 687–693 (2015). https://doi.org/10. 2147/CIA.S73922 4. Azkune, G., Almeida, A., López-de-Ipiña, D., Chen, L.: Extending knowledge driven activity models through data-driven learning techniques. Expert Syst. Appl. 42 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2014.11.063 5. Cheng, Z., Qin, L., Huang, Q., Jiang, S., Yan, S., Tian, Q.: Human group activity analysis with fusion of motion and appearance information. In: Proceedings of the 19th ACM international conference on Multimedia, Scottsdale, Arizona, USA, 28 November–December 01, pp. 1401–1404 (2011) 6. Skocir, P., Krivic, P., Tomeljak, M., Kusek, M., Jezic, G.: Activity detection in smart home environment. In: Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Knowledge Based and Intelligent Information and Engineering Systems, 5–7 September 2016 (2016) 7. Doryab, A., Bardram, J.E.: Designing activity-aware recommender systems for operating rooms. In: Proceedings of the 2011 Workshop on Context-awareness in Retrieval and Recommendation, 13 February 2011 (2011) 8. Abascal, J., Bonail, B., Marco, A., Sevillano, J.L.: AmbienNet: an intelligent environment to support people with disabilities and elderly people. In: Proceedings of ASSETS 2008, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, 13–15 October 2008 (2008) 9. Chan, M., Campo, E., Bourennane, W., Bettahar, F., Charlon, Y.: Mobility behavior assessment using a smart-monitoring system to care for the elderly in a hospital environment. In: Proceedings of PETRA 2014, Island of Rhodes, Greece, 27–30 May 2014 (2014) 10. Yared, R., Abdulrazak, B., Tessier, T., Mabilleau, P.: Cooking risk analysis to enhance safety of elderly people in smart kitchen. In: Proceedings of PETRA 2015, Corfu, Greece, 01–03 July 2015 (2015)

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11. Deen, M.J.: Information and communications technologies for elderly ubiquitous healthcare in a smart home. Pers. Ubiquitous Comput. 19, 573–599 (2015) 12. Civitarese, G., Bettini, C., Belfiore, S.: Let the objects tell what you are doing. In: Proceedings of Ubicomp/ISWC 2016 Adjunct, Heidelberg, Germany, 12–16 September 2016 (2016) 13. Iglesias, R., de Segura, N.G., Iturburu, M.: The elderly interacting with a digital agenda through an RFID pen and a touch screen. In: Proceedings of MSIADU 2009, Beijing, China, 23 October 2009 (2009) 14. Angelini, L., Nyffeler, N., Caon, M., Jean-Mairet, M., Carrino, S., Mugellini, E., Bergeron, L.: Designing a desirable smart bracelet for older adults. In: Proceedings of UbiComp 2013, Zurich, Switzerland, 8–12 September 2013 (2013) 15. Khosla, R., Chu, M.T., Kachouie, R., Yamada, K., Yoshihiro, F., Yamaguchi, T.: Interactive multimodal social robot for improving quality of care of elderly in australian nursing homes. In: Proceedings of MM 2012, Nara, Japan, 29 October–2 November 2012 (2012) 16. Sarkar, D.P.: A nurse bot for elderly people. In: Proceedings of UbiComp/ISWC 2018 Adjunct, Singapore, 8–12 October 2018 (2018) 17. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: An improved approach for complex activity recognition in smart homes. In: Reuse in the Big Data Era, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pp. 220–231, vol. 11602. Springer, Cham (2019) 18. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: Framework for a personalized intelligent assistant to elderly people for activities of daily living. Int. J. Recent Trends Hum. Comput. Interact. (IJHCI) 9(1), 1–22 (2019) 19. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: Framework for an intelligent affect aware smart home environment for elderly people. Int. J. Recent Trends Hum. Comput. Interact. (IJHCI) 9(1), 23–43 (2019) 20. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A context-driven complex activity framework for smart home. In: Proceedings of the 9th Annual Information Technology, Electronics and Mobile Communication Conference (IEMCON) 2018, Vancouver, Canada, 1–3 November 2018 (2018) 21. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A hierarchical model for analyzing user experiences in affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of the 9th Annual Information Technology, Electronics and Mobile Communication Conference (IEMCON) 2018, Vancouver, Canada, 1–3 November 2018 (2018) 22. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: An approach to analyze the social acceptance of virtual assistants by elderly people. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on the Internet of Things (IoT) 2018, Santa Barbara, California, 15–18 October 2018 (2018) 23. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: Methodology for forecasting user experience for smart and assisted living in affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on the Internet of Things (IoT) 2018, Santa Barbara, California, 15–18 October 2018 (2018) 24. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: An activity analysis model for enhancing user experiences in affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of the IEEE 5G World Forum Conference (IEEE 5GWF) 2018, Santa Clara, California, 09–11 July 2018 (2018) 25. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A virtual wisdom mining ‘pan’ for connecting retired experts with currently active professionals. In: Proceedings of IT Research Symposium, University of Cincinnati, 10 April 2018 (2018) 26. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A complex activity based emotion recognition algorithm for affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of IEEE 8th Annual Computing and Communication Workshop and Conference (IEEE CCWC) 2018, Las Vegas, 08–10 January 2018 (2018)

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27. Saguna, A.Z., Chakraborty, D.: Complex activity recognition using contextdriven activity theory and activity signatures. ACM Trans. Comput.-Hum. Interact. 20(6), Article 32 (2013) 28. Jack, K., William, K.: The UK-DALE dataset, domestic appliance-level electricity demand and whole-house demand from five UK homes. Sci. Data 2, 150007 (2015) 29. Yassine, A., Singh, S., Alamri, A.: Mining human activity patterns from smart home big data for health care applications. In: IEEE Special Section On Advances Of Multisensory Services And Technologies For Healthcare In Smart Cities, June 2017 30. Sztyler, T., Stuckenschmidt, H., Petrich, W.: Position-aware activity recognition with wearable devices. Pervasive Mob. Comput. 38, Part 2, 281–295 (2017) 31. Rittho, O., Klinkenberg, R., Fischer, S., Mierswa, I., Felske, S.: YALE: Yet Another Learning Environment (2001). https://doi.org/10.17877/de290r-15309

Towards a Knowledge Base for Activity Recognition of Diverse Users Nirmalya Thakur(&) and Chia Y. Han Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0030, USA [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. This research work discusses a mathematical foundation based on probability theory and related disciplines for development of a knowledge base that would list the exhaustive ways or approaches, arising from universal diversity, by which any activity can be performed by a given user. The global challenge in this field is to address the needs associated with the constantly increasing population of the world who are diverse in multiple ways, through development of systems and frameworks that can serve as a long-term, robust, feasible, easily implementable, sustainable and economic solution for making the future of technology laden living environments ‘aware’ of the diverse ways by which users could be interacting with the environment and its components, in the context of performing Activities of Daily Living (ADLs), which are essential for their sustenance. Addressing this challenge serves as the main motivation for this work. Several case studies on different ADLs by application of the proposed framework were performed for development of the knowledge base and one study is presented here and discussed. In the context of making IoTenvironments ‘Activity Aware’ for diverse users, such a knowledge base is expected to serve as a foundation to provide necessary information for various critical applications, for instance (1) user-centered activity recommendations by activity recommendation systems, (2) personalized behavior interventions for users with various forms of impairments – physical, cognitive etc. and (3) increasing the performance accuracy of the existing works in this field for adapting and responding to diverse interaction patterns exhibited by different users. Keywords: Human-computer interaction
Activities of Daily Living
Big data
Ubiquitous systems
Universal diversity
Activity recognition
Smart homes
Smart cities

1 Introduction The world’s population is increasing at a very fast pace [1] and people are diverse in multiple ways. User diversity [2] itself is a wide-ranging issue, including a multitude of factors to be considered, for instance, age, gender, background, culture, disabilities, personality, skills, motor abilities, cognitive skills, just to name a few. This leads to a wide varying range of user interactions, human behavior and associated needs in a simple task, specifically pertaining to performing Activities of Daily Living (ADLs), © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 303–308, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_46

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that are essential for sustenance. To ensure that the future of Internet of Things (IoT)based living environments can enhance the quality of life of its users, it is essential for these environments to handle big data and understand the associated interaction patterns and varying needs arising from universal diversity. The future of technologyladen ‘smart’ living environments, like smart homes and smart cities, would have to possess an ‘Activity Aware’ [3] ability, to track, monitor, and recognize the various ways that activities can be performed by different users under varied circumstances or context. Recent works [4–26] in this field have demonstrated the efficacy of various systems and frameworks for performing activity recognition based on modelling an ‘average user’. However, in a real-time scenario, the interactions, behaviors and needs demonstrated by an ‘actual user’ can be a lot different as compared to the modelled ‘average user’ based on one of more these diversity traits or characteristics. Addressing these challenges to make the future of IoT-based environments, intelligent, knowledgeable, ubiquitous, adaptive and personalized to address the needs and requirements of every user serves as the main motivation for development of this approach for creating a knowledge base for activity recognition of diverse users.

2 Literature Review This section outlines the recent works in this field. A hierarchical framework for activity recognition using multiple sensors was developed by Azkune et al. [4]. A system that consisted of multiple layers with distinct functionalities for each to study and analyze video data for activity recognition was proposed by Cheng et al. [5]. An infrared sensor powered system using artificial neural networks for activity recognition was developed by Skocir et al. [6]. The system was able to detect different kinds of enter and exit events in an IoT-based smart home environment. An environment specific task recommendation system was proposed by Doryab et al. [7] to improve performance of medical practitioners in hospital and similar environments. Using wireless sensor technology, Abascal et al. [8] developed an indoor navigation system to assist users to perform different activities. A smart home monitoring system was developed by Chan et al. [9] to monitor the behaviors of elderly people as they carried out different activities. An architecture for an intelligent kitchen environment was proposed by Yared et al. [10] with an aim to reduce accidents in the kitchen area. Deen [11] developed a physiological signal tracking system to monitor users and their performance during different activities. The work done by Civitarese et al. [12] involved a system which would track user interactions to evaluate if the user has successfully been able to complete the given activity. Iglesias et al. [13] developed a health information monitoring system to monitor the health status of users in the context of ADLs. In a similar work done by Angelini et al. [14], the authors developed a smart bracelet to collect data about the health of its user as well as remind them of their routine medications and daily tasks. Khosla et al. [15] developed an assistive robot to help elderly people perform their daily routine tasks. A similar work was done by Sarkar [16] where an intelligent robot called ‘Nursebot’ comprised of a scheduler to schedule routine medications. The works of Thakur et al. [17–26] have also contributed extensively to this field.

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3 Proposed Work This work for development of a Knowledge Base for Activity Recognition of Diverse Users (KBaseAR), to list the exhaustive ways or approaches, arising from universal diversity, by which any activity can be performed by a given user extends one of the previous works – CARALGO [27] developed by Saguna et al. In addition to [27], another work [28] has been used to develop the foundation of this framework. The work presented in [28] allows to mathematically model the number of ways of selecting ‘k’ items from any itemset containing ‘n’ entities, assuming ‘k’ to be less than or equal to ‘n’, without replacement. By applying this on [27], we broadly define complex activity as a tuple CA = (Ati, Cti, AtS, CtS, AtE, CtE, cAt, qCt) and arrive at the following equations which form the foundations of KBaseAR: a ¼ at C0 þ at C1 þ at C2 þ . . .. . .at Cat ¼ 2at

ð1Þ

b ¼ ða  cÞC0 þ ða  cÞC1 þ ða  cÞC2 þ . . . þ ða  cÞCða  cÞ ¼ 2ðacÞ

ð2Þ

c ¼ 2a  2ðacÞ ¼ 2ðacÞ  ð2c  1Þ

ð3Þ

where: a = the exhaustive ways by which any complex activity may be performed. This includes successful completions as well as false starts b = total number of ways by which a user may successfully complete the given complex activity c = total number of ways by which a user may never be able to successfully complete the given complex activity at = the total count of atomic activities bt = the total count of context attributes ct = the total count of core atomic activities dt = the total count of core context attributes Ati = all the atomic activities associated to the complex activity Cti = all the context attributes associated to the complex activity AtS = start atomic activities CtS = start context attributes AtE = end atomic activities CtE = end context attributes cAt = core atomic activities qCt = core context attributes

4 Results and Implementation To evaluate the efficacy of KBaseAR, a dataset was developed based on the UK DALE dataset [29]. A related work [30], helped to relate the appliance usage patterns in [29] to complex activities. Some of the major complex activities that regularly featured on this dataset are - Watching TV, Using Laptop, Using Subwoofer, Using Washing Machine,

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Cooking in Kitchen, Making Food Using Microwave and Using Toaster. Multiple instances and varying patterns of these complex activities were analyzed using KBaseAR. Analysis of one of the activities – ‘Making Food Using Microwave’ is being presented here (Table 1). Table 1. CARALGO analysis of – ‘Making Food Using Microwave’ Complex Activity WCAtk (MFUM Atk) Atomic At1: Standing (0.10), At2: Walking towards Microwave (0.12), At3: Activities, Ati Turning on Microwave (0.14), At4: Loading food in bowl and setting the time (0.15), At5: Turning off microwave (0.25), At6: Taking out bowl (0.18), At7: Sitting back (0.06) Context Ct1: Lights on (0.10), Ct2: Kitchen Area (0.12), Ct3: Microwave Present Attributes, Cti (0.14), Ct4: Food and microwave bowl present (0.15), Ct5: Microwave working (0.25), Ct6: Bowl cool (0.18), Ct7: Sitting area (0.06) Core cAt and At4, At5, At6 and Ct4, Ct5, Ct6 qCt Table 2. KBaseAR analysis of – ‘Making Food Using Microwave’ 7 at, total atomic activities bt, total context attributes 7 ct, total core atomic activities 3 dt, total core context attributes 3 a, total ways the complex activity can be performed 128 b, total ways by which the activity end goal would be met 16 c, total ways by which the activity end goal would never be met 112

As indicated by Table 2, a = 128 indicates that for this complex activity – there can be 128 different ways by which the user can perform it, however the value of c = 112 informs that 112 out of those 128 attempts would comprise of the user not meeting the end goal. This comprises of instances when the user does not perform one or more of the associated core cAt on qCt. The remaining 16 instances, as indicated by b = 16 include the user performing all the core cAt on qCt as well as any number of the other Ati on the associated Cti which could even be 0. Similarly, any other complex activity can be modelled and analyzed using KBaseAR to add to the knowledge base.

5 Conclusion and Future Work This work presents a mathematical foundation based on probability theory and related disciplines for development of a knowledge base that would list the exhaustive ways or approaches, arising from universal diversity, by which any activity can be performed by a given user. Application of KBaseAR on one complex activity – ‘Making Food Using Microwave’ is presented and discussed. To the best knowledge of the authors, no similar

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approach has been done in this field yet. The results presented uphold the immense potential of this approach to contribute towards development of a knowledge base consisting of multiple instances of different complex activities to allow the future of IoTbased living spaces to be intelligent, knowledgeable, ubiquitous, adaptive and personalized to address the needs and requirements of every user with respect to universal diversity. Future work on this project would involve development of this knowledge base and making it opensource so that policy makers and administrators across the world could utilize KBaseAR to improve the quality of life in the future of Smart Homes.

References 1. United Nations Report, World population projected to reach 9.8 billion in 2050, and 11.2 billion in 2100. https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/world-populatio n-prospects-2017.html 2. Irizar-Arrieta, A., Casado-Mansilla, D.: Coping with user diversity: UX informs the design of a digital interface that encourages sustainable behaviour. In: Proceedings of the 11th Multi Conference on Computer Science and Information Systems, 20–23 July 2017, Lisbon, Portugal (2017) 3. Davies, N., Siewiorek, D.P., Sukthankar, R.: Activity-based computing. IEEE Pervasive Comput. 7, 20–21 (2008) 4. Azkune, G., Almeida, A., López-de-Ipiña, D., Chen, L.: Extending knowledge driven activity models through data-driven learning techniques. Expert Syst. Appl. 42 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2014.11.063 5. Cheng, Z., Qin, L., Huang, Q., Jiang, S., Yan, S., Tian, Q.: Human group activity analysis with fusion of motion and appearance information. In: Proceedings of the 19th ACM International Conference on Multimedia, Scottsdale, Arizona, USA — November 28– December 01, 2011, pp. 1401–1404 (2011) 6. Skocir, P., Krivic, P., Tomeljak, M., Kusek, M., Jezic, G.: Activity detection in smart home environment. In: Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Knowledge Based and Intelligent Information and Engineering Systems, September 5–7 (2016) 7. Doryab, A., Bardram, J.E.: Designing activity-aware recommender systems for operating rooms. In: Proceedings of the 2011 Workshop on Context-awareness in Retrieval and Recommendation, February 13 (2011) 8. Abascal, J., Bonail, B., Marco, A., Sevillano, J.L.: AmbienNet: an intelligent environment to support people with disabilities and elderly people. In: Proceedings of ASSETS 2008, 13–15 October 2008, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada (2008) 9. Chan, M., Campo, E., Bourennane, W., Bettahar, F., Charlon, Y.: Mobility behavior assessment using a smart-monitoring system to care for the elderly in a hospital environment. In: Proceedings of PETRA 2014, 27–30 May 2014, Island of Rhodes, Greece (2014) 10. Yared, R., Abdulrazak, B., Tessier, T., Mabilleau, P.: Cooking risk analysis to enhance safety of elderly people in smart kitchen. In: Proceedings of PETRA 2015, 01–03 July 2015, Corfu, Greece (2015) 11. Deen, M.J.: Information and communications technologies for elderly ubiquitous healthcare in a smart home. Pers. Ubiquit. Comput. 19, 573–599 (2015) 12. Civitarese, G., Bettini, C., Belfiore, S.: Let the objects tell what you are doing. In: Proceedings of Ubicomp/ISWC 2016 Adjunct, Heidelberg, Germany, 12–16 September 2016

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13. Iglesias, R., de Segura, N.G., Iturburu, M.: The elderly interacting with a digital agenda through an RFID pen and a touch screen. In: Proceedings of MSIADU 2009, Beijing, China, 23 October 2009 14. Angelini, L., Nyffeler, N., Caon, M., Jean-Mairet, M., Carrino, S., Mugellini, E., Bergeron, L.: Designing a desirable smart bracelet for older adults. In: Proceedings of UbiComp 2013, Zurich, Switzerland, 8–12 September 2013 15. Khosla, R., Chu, M.-T., Kachouie, R., Yamada, K., Yoshihiro, F., Yamaguchi, T.: Interactive multimodal social robot for improving quality of care of elderly in Australian nursing homes. In: Proceedings of MM 2012, October 29–November 2, 2012, Nara, Japan (2012) 16. Sarkar, D.P.: A nurse bot for elderly people. In: Proceedings of UbiComp/ISWC 2018 Adjunct, Singapore, 8–12 October 2018 17. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: An improved approach for complex activity recognition in smart homes. In: Reuse in the Big Data Era, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 11602, pp 220–231. Springer, Cham (2019) 18. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: Framework for a personalized intelligent assistant to elderly people for activities of daily living. Int. J. Recent Trends Hum. Comput. Interaction (IJHCI) 9(1), 1–22 (2019) 19. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: Framework for an intelligent affect aware smart home environment for elderly people. Int. J. Recent Trends Hum. Comput. Interaction (IJHCI) 9(1), 23–43 (2019) 20. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A context-driven complex activity framework for smart home. In: Proceedings of the 9th Annual Information Technology, Electronics and Mobile Communication Conference (IEMCON) 2018, Vancouver, Canada, 1–3 November 2018 21. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A hierarchical model for analyzing user experiences in affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of the 9th Annual Information Technology, Electronics and Mobile Communication Conference (IEMCON) 2018, Vancouver, Canada, 1–3 November 2018 22. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: An approach to analyze the social acceptance of virtual assistants by elderly people. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on the Internet of Things (IoT) 2018, Santa Barbara, California, 15–18 October 2018 23. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: Methodology for forecasting user experience for smart and assisted living in affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on the Internet of Things (IoT) 2018, Santa Barbara, California, 15–18 October 2018 24. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: An activity analysis model for enhancing user experiences in affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of the IEEE 5G World Forum Conference (IEEE 5GWF) 2018, Santa Clara, California, 09–11 July 2018 25. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A virtual wisdom mining ‘pan’ for connecting retired experts with currently active professionals. In: Proceedings of IT Research Symposium, University of Cincinnati, 10 April 2018 26. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A complex activity based emotion recognition algorithm for affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of IEEE 8th Annual Computing and Communication Workshop and Conference (IEEE CCWC) 2018, Las Vegas, 08–10 January 2018 27. Saguna, S., Zaslavsky, A., Chakraborty, D.: Complex activity recognition using context driven activity theory and activity signatures. ACM Trans. Comput. Hum. Interact. 20(6), 1–34 (2013). Article 32 28. Biggs, N.L.: The roots of combinatorics. Historia Math. 6, 109–136 (1979). https://doi.org/ 10.1016/03150860(79)90074-0 29. Jack, K., William, K.: The UK-DALE dataset, domestic appliance-level electricity demand and whole-house demand from five UK homes. Sci. Data 2, 150007 (2015) 30. Yassine, A., Singh, S., Alamri, A.: Mining human activity patterns from smart home big data for health care applications. In: IEEE Special Section on Advances of Multisensory Services and Technologies for Healthcare in Smart Cities, June 2017

Towards a Language for Defining Human Behavior for Complex Activities Nirmalya Thakur(&) and Chia Y. Han Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0030, USA [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. This paper outlines the steps for a specification to create a language for defining human behavior in the context of complex activities, with a specific focus on Activities of Daily Living (ADLs). The proposed specification to create a language for defining human behavior is used to develop a framework for representation of (1) macro-level tasks or actions associated with any complex activity, (2) the context parameters on which these tasks or actions are performed and (3) sequence of movements of various body parts associated with performing these actions on the context parameters in the context of the given complex activity. To evaluate the efficacy of this proposed work, it has been implemented on a dataset of ADLs. The results presented and discussed uphold the relevance for practical implementation of the proposed human behavior definition language in real-time settings for addressing various challenges and utilizing the full potential of activity centric computing for improving the quality of life and user experience during ADLs as well as for various other applications. Keywords: Human-computer interaction
Activities of daily living data
Human behavior
Smart homes
Smart cities


Big

1 Introduction In this era of Industry 4.0 where modernization and advancement of technologies are taking place at a very fast pace, people are surrounded by technology all the time. The essence of these technology-laden pervasive and ubiquitous environments lies in effective communication and coordination between various components for sharing, tracking, monitoring and analyzing user data to facilitate collaborate learning, collaborative knowledge and collaborative discovery [1]. Semantic understanding of human behavior during complex activities [2] has immense potential for addressing this challenge. Recent works [3–25] in the field of activity recognition have several limitations. The primary limitation being discrete approaches – for instance video-based recognition, machine learning, probability theory etc., being used for development of the activity recognition models, which makes integration and communication of these systems with other ‘smart’ environment parameters a challenge. There is a need for development of an approach for activity recognition that can be seamlessly understood and integrated with any other systems or technologies in an Internet of Things © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 309–315, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_47

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(IoT)-based environment, to allow the utilization of the immense potential of activity centric computing for real-time development of various applications, for instance – behavior interventions, task recommendations, rehabilitation systems, training of experts for skilled professions, behavior monitoring etc. This serves as the main motivation for this work.

2 Literature Review This section outlines the recent works in this field. A hierarchical framework for activity recognition using multiple sensors was developed by Azkune et al. [3]. A system that consisted of multiple layers with distinct functionalities for each to study and analyze video data for activity recognition was proposed by Cheng et al. [4]. An infrared sensor powered system using artificial neural networks for activity recognition was developed by Skocir et al. [5]. The system was able to detect different kinds of enter and exit events in an IoT-based smart home environment. An environment specific task recommendation system was proposed by Doryab et al. [6] to improve performance of medical practitioners in hospital and similar environments. Using wireless sensor technology, Abascal et al. [7] developed an indoor navigation system to assist users to perform different activities. A smart home monitoring system was developed by Chan et al. [8] to monitor the behaviors of elderly people as they carried out different activities. An architecture for an intelligent kitchen environment was proposed by Yared et al. [9] with an aim to reduce accidents in the kitchen area. Deen [10] developed a physiological signal tracking system to monitor users and their performance during different activities. The work done by Civitarese et al. [11] involved a system which would track user interactions to evaluate if the user has successfully been able to complete the given activity. Iglesias et al. [12] developed a health information monitoring system to monitor the health status of users in the context of ADLs. In a similar work done by Angelini et al. [13], the authors developed a smart bracelet to collect data about the health of its user as well as remind them of their routine medications and daily tasks. Khosla et al. [14] developed an assistive robot to help elderly people perform their daily routine tasks. A similar work was done by Sarkar [15] where an intelligent robot called ‘Nursebot’ comprised of a scheduler to schedule routine medications. The works of Thakur et al. [16–25] have also contributed extensively to this field.

3 Proposed Work The work presented in this section extends one of the previous works [26] in this field – ‘A Complex Activity Recognition Algorithm’ (CARALGO). The steps to develop this framework comprise the following: 1. Identify the macro and micro level tasks associated with the given complex activity 2. Identify the environment parameters or context attributes on which these tasks need to be performed for successful completion of the activity

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3. Track the user’s behavior to study when the complex activity started and when it ended – this includes tracking (i) when the user successfully reached the goal and (ii) when it was a false start 4. Record the most important context attribute [25] and the action or actions performed by the user on it 5. Study the user’s behavior associated with performing each of the atomic activities while interacting with the context attributes: a. Develop a methodology to represent the skeletal tracking of the user using Microsoft Kinect Sensors b. Identify specific feature points on the skeletal tracking c. Define these feature points according to their locations and functions d. Analyze characteristics of these feature points – which include joint distance, joint movements, joint angle and joint rotation speed e. Record the sequence in which the characteristics of these feature points change or influence one another 6. Compile the sequence of the characteristics of human behavior from (3) in the CARALGO analysis of the complex activity Microsoft Kinect Sensors provide real-time skeletal tracking of any user and upto 20 joint points on the skeletal [27]. For defining these joint points as per the associated movements and functions, we review [28]. This definition is presented below (Fig. 1):

Joint 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Definition Center of Hip Spine Center of Shoulder Head Left Shoulder Left Elbow Left Wrist Left Hand Right Shoulder Right Elbow

Joint 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Definition Right Wrist Right Hand Left Hip Left Knee Left Ankle Left Foot Right Hip Right Knee Right Ankle Right Foot

Fig. 1. Definition and representation of feature points in skeletal tracking [28]

Prior to implementation of this framework for analyzing a complex activity, we present an example to study a specific macro-level task. For instance, if the user has to answer the phone, then in this context the most important context attribute is the phone. The behavior associated with interacting with the phone would involve bringing the phone close to the ear – this involves the distance between joint point pairs (6,4), (7,4), (8,4), (6,3), (7,3), (8,3) or (10,4), (11,4), (12,4), (10,3), (11,3), (12,3) getting less.

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4 Results and Implementation To evaluate the efficacy of this framework, a dataset was developed based on the work done Ordóñez et al. [29]. This work by Ordóñez et al. involved recording different ADLs performed by a user in the premises of a smart home. The work consisted of a smart IoT-based environment which comprised of multiple sensors that were used to perform activity recognition to sense ADLs in a smart home, for 24 h over a period of 22 days. The different ADLs that were a part of this dataset consisted of the complex activities of Sleeping, Showering, Eating Breakfast, Leaving for work, Eating Lunch, Eating Snacks and Watching TV in Spare Time. Multiple complex activities from this dataset were analyzed according to this framework and analysis of one of the complex activities – ‘Eating Lunch’ is being presented here. In this representation, by change we mean change in distance between the joint point pairs: Table 1. Analysis of the complex activity ‘Eating Lunch’ using this framework Complex activity WCAtk (EL Atk) – EL (0.72) Atomic activities WtAti Context attributes WtCti At1: Standing (0.08) Ct1: Lights on (0.08) At2: Walking towards Ct2: Dining Area dining table (0.20) (0.20) At3: Serving food on a Ct3: Food present plate (0.25) (0.25) Ct4: Plate present At4: Washing (0.20) Hand/Using Hand Sanitizer (0.20) At5: Sitting down (0.08) Ct5: Sitting options available (0.08) At6: Starting to eat Ct6: Food quality (0.19) and taste (0.19)

Joint points pairs that experience change No change (13,17), (14,18), (15,19), (16,20) (7, 11), (8,12) (7, 11), (8,12)

No change

(6,3), (7,3), (8,3), (6,4), (7,4), (8,4) or (10,3), (11,3), (12,3), (10,4), (11,4), (12,4)

As can be observed from Table 1, not all atomic activities are associated with joint point pairs experiencing a change. However, for certain atomic activities, for instance At6, several joint points pairs experience a change and it also depends on the user diversity – in terms of the user being left-handed or right-handed. It is important to track and analyze the joint points that undergo a change and also study the sequence in which multiple joint points undergo this change. This is because any atomic activity can be broken down into sub-atomic activities that need to follow a specific sequence as outlined in [23]. This analysis of changes experienced by joint points can be seamlessly communicated to other systems or technology-laden environments in the given IoT space to facilitate collaborative learning and discovery of human behavior.

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5 Conclusion and Future Work The proposed framework for development of a language to define human behavior has several characteristics: (1) It helps to study the macro-level tasks associated with any complex activity, (2) It provides a definition of different feature points for skeletal tracking, (3) It discusses a method to study, track and analyze the changes in characteristic features of these feature points with changing human behavior and (4) It also discusses the relevance of tracking the sequence of these changes for each atomic activity associated with the given complex activity. To the best knowledge of the authors, no similar approach has been done in this field yet. The results presented uphold the relevance and potential of this approach for defining human behavior in the future of IoT-based Smart Home environments for improving the quality of life and user experience during ADLs. Future work would involve implementation of this framework in real-time in an IoT-setting.

References 1. Lampropoulos, G., Siakas, K., Anastasiadis, T.: Internet of Things in the context of Industry 4.0: an overview. Int. J. Entrep. Knowl. 7(1), 4–19 (2019) 2. Davies, N., Siewiorek, D.P., Sukthankar, R.: Activity-based computing. Pervasive Comput. IEEE 7, 20–21 (2008) 3. Azkune, G., Almeida, A., López-de-Ipiña, D., Chen, L.: Extending knowledge driven activity models through data-driven learning techniques. Expert Syst. Appl. 42 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2014.11.063 4. Cheng, Z., Qin, L., Huang, Q., Jiang, S., Yan, S., Tian, Q.: Human group activity analysis with fusion of motion and appearance information. In: Proceedings of the 19th ACM International Conference on Multimedia, Scottsdale, Arizona, USA, pp. 1401–1404, 28 November–01 December 2011 (2011) 5. Skocir, P., Krivic, P., Tomeljak, M., Kusek, M., Jezic, G.: Activity detection in smart home environment. In: Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Knowledge Based and Intelligent Information and Engineering Systems, 5–7 September 2016 (2016) 6. Doryab, A., Bardram, J.E.: Designing activity-aware recommender systems for operating rooms. In: Proceedings of the 2011 Workshop on Context-awareness in Retrieval and Recommendation, 13 February 2011 (2011) 7. Abascal, J., Bonail, B., Marco, A., Sevillano, J.L.: AmbienNet: an intelligent environment to support people with disabilities and elderly people. In: Proceedings of ASSETS 2008, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, 13–15 October 2008 (2008) 8. Chan, M., Campo, E., Bourennane, W.¸ Bettahar, F., Charlon, Y.: Mobility behavior assessment using a smart-monitoring system to care for the elderly in a hospital environment. In: Proceedings of PETRA 2014, Island of Rhodes, Greece, 27–30 May 2014 (2014) 9. Yared, R., Abdulrazak, B., Tessier, T., Mabilleau, P.: Cooking risk analysis to enhance safety of elderly people in smart kitchen. In: Proceedings of PETRA 2015, Corfu, Greece, 01–03 July 2015 (2015) 10. Deen, M.J.: Information and communications technologies for elderly ubiquitous healthcare in a smart home. Pers. Ubiquitous Comput. 19, 573–599 (2015)

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11. Civitarese, G., Bettini, C., Belfiore, S.: Let the objects tell what you are doing. In: Proceedings of Ubicomp/ISWC 2016 Adjunct, Heidelberg, Germany, 12–16 September 2016 (2016) 12. Iglesias, R., de Segura, N.G., Iturburu, M.: The elderly interacting with a digital agenda through an RFID pen and a touch screen. In: Proceedings of MSIADU 2009, Beijing, China, 23 October 2009 (2009) 13. Angelini, L., Nyffeler, N., Caon, M., Jean-Mairet, M., Carrino, S., Mugellini, E., Bergeron, L.: Designing a desirable smart bracelet for older adults. In: Proceedings of UbiComp 2013, Zurich, Switzerland, 8–12 September 2013 (2013) 14. Khosla, R., Chu, M.-T., Kachouie, R., Yamada, K., Yoshihiro, F., Yamaguchi, T.: Interactive multimodal social robot for improving quality of care of elderly in australian nursing homes. In: Proceedings of MM 2012, Nara, Japan, 29 October–2 November 2012 (2012) 15. Sarkar, D.P.: A nurse bot for elderly people. In: Proceedings of UbiComp/ISWC 2018 Adjunct, Singapore, 8–12 October 2018 (2018) 16. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: An improved approach for complex activity recognition in smart homes. In: Reuse in the Big Data Era. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 11602, pp. 220–231. Springer, Cham (2019) 17. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: Framework for a personalized intelligent assistant to elderly people for activities of daily living. Int. J. Recent Trends Hum. Comput. Interact. (IJHCI) 9(1), 1–22 (2019) 18. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: Framework for an intelligent affect aware smart home environment for elderly people. Int. J. Recent Trends Hum. Comput. Interact. (IJHCI) 9(1), 23–43 (2019) 19. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A context-driven complex activity framework for smart home. In: Proceedings of the 9th Annual Information Technology, Electronics and Mobile Communication Conference (IEMCON) 2018, Vancouver, Canada, 1–3 November 2018 (2018) 20. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A hierarchical model for analyzing user experiences in affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of the 9th Annual Information Technology, Electronics and Mobile Communication Conference (IEMCON) 2018, Vancouver, Canada, 1–3 November 2018 (2018) 21. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: An approach to analyze the social acceptance of virtual assistants by elderly people. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on the Internet of Things (IoT) 2018, Santa Barbara, California, 15–18 October 2018 (2018) 22. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: Methodology for forecasting user experience for smart and assisted living in affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on the Internet of Things (IoT) 2018, Santa Barbara, California, 15–18 October 2018 (2018) 23. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: An activity analysis model for enhancing user experiences in affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of the IEEE 5G World Forum Conference (IEEE 5GWF) 2018, Santa Clara, California, 09–11 July 2018 (2018) 24. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A virtual wisdom mining ‘pan’ for connecting retired experts with currently active professionals. In: Proceedings of IT Research Symposium, University of Cincinnati, 10 April 2018 (2018) 25. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A complex activity based emotion recognition algorithm for affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of IEEE 8th Annual Computing and Communication Workshop and Conference (IEEE CCWC) 2018, Las Vegas, 08–10 January 2018 (2018) 26. Saguna, A.Z., Chakraborty, D.: Complex activity recognition using context driven activity theory and activity signatures. ACM Trans. Comput.-Hum. Interact. 20(6), Article 32 (2013) 27. Microsoft, Coordinate Spaces. https://msdn.microsoft.com/enus/library/hh973078.aspx

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28. Chakraborty, S., Han, C.Y., Zhou, X., Wee, W.G.: A context driven human activity recognition framework. In: International Conference on Health Informatics and Medical Systems HIMS 2016 (2016) 29. Ordóñez, F.J., de Toledo, P., Sanchis, A.: Activity recognition using hybrid generative/discriminative models on home environments using binary sensors. Sensors 13, 5460–5477 (2013)

User Interface in Virtual Space Using VR Device with Eye Tracking Kazuki Komoriya1, Taiga Sakurai1, Yusuke Seki1, Munehiro Takimoto2, and Yasushi Kambayashi1(&) 1

2

Department of Computer and Information Engineering, Nippon Institute of Technology, Saitama, Japan {1165229,1165237,1165302}@cstu.nit.ac.jp, [email protected] Department of Information Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Noda, Japan [email protected]

Abstract. It is difficult for people with severe disabilities who cannot control their hands to operate the mouse and keyboard. We have engaged in a threedimensional virtual space user interface based on convergence and divergence using a virtual reality device with a gaze tracking function. In this paper, we propose to add a flick function to the user interface. The flick function is a combination of blinking eye and quick vision shift. By using this flick operation, we have achieved text input to the computer as well as window arrangement. This new feature let the handicapped people operate computers only with eyes as much as healthy people can operate with hands. In order to show the feasibility of our user interface, we have conducted numerical experiments, and obtained favorable results. Keywords: Virtual reality
Character input Vergence dissolution
Blink


User interface
Eye tracking


1 Introduction Computers are indispensable apparatuses for everyone for everyday life. On the other hand, it is difficult for people with severe disabilities who cannot control their hands to operate the mouse and keyboard. Most handicapped people can move their mouths and eyes quite precisely with their own will. Therefore, they can use mouths and eyes in order to operate computers. Mouth-based systems, however, prevent them from talking to other people during their operations, and eye-based systems are limited for a few operations such as moving and clicking the mouse. In the previous paper, we proposed a new manner for pointing to a specific location in a three-dimensional (3D) space with depth [1]. We focused attention on directions of eyes through parallax. We call these eye maneuvers convergence and divergence, which are collectively called vergence. Our pointing manner actively uses the vergence to specify specific depth in a virtual space. For example, the user can pull out a pop-up menu through convergence on an icon or window, and can push a button through divergence on the button. Furthermore, © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 316–321, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_48

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we can arrange windows on a desktop in any directions and depth, and can select overlapped windows through vergence. Such a pointing manner is useful for handicapped people who hardly maneuver their hands. In this paper, we have constructed a new user interface to solve these problems by adding a flick function. The flick function is a combination of blinking eye and quick vision shift, just like the flick operation with finger. By using this flick operation, we have achieved text input to the computer. We employed the software keyboard just the same as the Japanese smartphone has. Even handicapped users should be able to operate a computer with our input system as much as healthy users can do with usual keyboard. Our flick operation improves the human computer interactions for handicapped people. In order to demonstrate the feasibility of our user interface, we have conducted numerical experiments. The results of the experiments showed that our system provides reasonably good operations for desktop selection as well as character inputs. The structure of the balance of this paper is as follows. In the second section, we describe the background. The third section describes the proposed system. In the fourth section, we demonstrate the feasibility of our system by experiment, and in the fifth section, we give a summary and outline prospective future studies.

2 Background Ukai et al. classified the vergence divergence movements [2]. Ohno realized a window operation environment that the users can operate only with their gazes [3]. We have implemented a user interface in a 3D virtual space based on the convergence divergence movement using virtual reality head mount display (VRHMD) “FOVE 0”, a virtual reality (VR) device with built-in eye tracking [1]. We have realized the computer display in the 3D virtual space. The implementation contents are as follows: 1) the user can move the desktop back and forth by eye convergence; 2) the user can open pop-up menus by to eye convergence; 3) the user can push the button by eye divergence; 4) the cursor indicates the degree of vergence of the eye; and 5) the user can maneuver desktop using gaze. Although we have implemented the pointing manner on a VR device with an eyetracker, the operation are limited on windows maneuvers and menu selections. Notably we had two problems: the system provides multiple desktop but the user has to select one of them by rotating them, and the lack of means of text input. Murata et al. evaluated a character input method that uses gaze [4]. In this study, we have implemented a new function using voluntary blinks classified by Hoshino to solve the problems of previous studies and evaluated it [5].

3 Methods Upon calculating the angle of convergence from the gaze vectors of both eyes, when the vergence angle of the user becomes larger than his or her normal vergence angle with certain value, the system judges that the user has performed the eye convergence.

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In the same vein, when the vergence angle of the user becomes smaller than his or her normal vergence angle with certain value, the system judges that the user has performed the eye divergence. During the divergence movement, the desktop gradually moves backward (Fig. 1). When the desktop moves backward deep enough and exceeds a certain depth, it rotates and comes forefront.

Fig. 1. Desktop movement

In order to move the desktops, the user need to select and to hold a particular desktop. In order to do so, the user gazes the selected desktop for three seconds, and then the desktop is “held,” and then the user can move it up, down, left, and right. In order for the user to perform this “hold” operation, we have implemented a “gauge” that indicates how long the user gazes the selected desktop. Figure 2 show the gauge. While holding, the gauge does not accumulate while keeping an eye on a specific area. To release the hold state, the user removes his or her gaze from the currently held desktop for three seconds. After release operation, all the desktop positions are fixed. They do not move by the user’s gaze. The hidden desktops are displayed in another window as shown in the bottom of Fig. 2. The other desktops are behind of the forefront desktop. In order to display the hidden desktop, the user has to “hold” the forefront desktop and perform “rotate” operation.

Fig. 2. Gauge display

We have defined the flick operation as moving the open eye up, down, left, or right with one eye closed and then opening the eye. The user can perform the flick operation for four directions, namely up, down, left, and right. The user can add and delete desktops using the flick operation. We define three colored desktops, namely green, blue and red. An upper flick adds a green desktop, a

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left flick adds a blue desktop, a right flick adds a red desktop, and a lower flick deletes the foreground desktop. The user can create maximum eight desktops at a time. In order to take advantages of the full usage of a computer, the user must be able to input characters. We have implemented this character input through a panel like a smartphone software keyboard. The operations should be intuitive enough for users, because the user interface is based on the smartphone’s software keyboard. The user inputs characters using the flick operation. The user gazes the panel of “A”, and when the user close one eye, “I”, “U”, “E”, and “O” are displayed around the “A” panel. The user then chooses one of the characters using the direction of the flick operation as shown in Fig. 3. When gazing the panel of “A” and opening the eye on the panel of “A” without flicking, the user can input “A.” The user can input Japanese syllabary, voiced voice, semi-voiced voice, long note, “Delete”, and “Clear.” “Delete” deletes one character, and “Clear” deletes all characters.

Fig. 3. Character input

4 Experiment In order to demonstrate the feasibility of our user interface, we conducted numerical experiments and measured the execution time required to move the desktop in the depth direction and the success rate in adding and removing the desktop. We also performed experiments on character inputs. As the first experiment, we set six desktops on the screen. We arranged three of them in the front in the order of blue, green, and red from the front to back, and then arranged one blue on the left, one red on the right, and one green on the top. As the first experiment, we performed the following operations. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Delete all the front desktops by flicking down, Add three desktops by flicking up, left and right, Swap the first and second front desktops, Merge the blue desktop on the front with the blue desktop on the left, Swap the first and second front desktops, Merge the front green desktop with the upper green desktop, and Merge the front red desktop with the right red desktop.

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The left-hand side of Table 1 shows the execution time of swapping the first and second desktops, the success rate of this swapping and deletion and addition. The user must complete a swap operation in twenty seconds. As the second experiment, we measured the execution time and success rate of character input. We performed the following operations. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Input “ ”, Delete all the characters with “Clear”, Input “ ” (“computer”), Delete the character with “Clear”, and Input “ ” (“mouse”).

We employed ten subjects. They are students from the department of computer and information engineering in Nippon Institute of Technology. Some of them took too much execution time with low success rates. Because they wore contact lenses. When the authors performed the same experiments, the success rate was 100%, character input time is short enough for practical use (16 s). Table 1. Experiment results.

Execution time (s)

Avg. Author

4 3 3 ×

7 × 4 ×

× × × × 10 5 3

× × 16 × × 9 4

Experiment 1 BackSuccess rate ward of addition / success deletion rate 100.00% 25.00% 50.00% 85.71% 100.00% 75.00% 0.00% 66.67% 85.71% 0.00% 85.71% 0.00% 100.00% 50.00% 33.33% 0.00% 35.29% 50.00% 60.00% 38.89% 65.24% 100.00% 100.00%

Experiment 2 Character input success rate

Execution time (s)

44.83% 61.90% 65.00% 65.00% 72.22% 61.90% 50.00% 54.17%

95 124 74 48 66 78 150 227

56.52% 59.06% 100.00%

87 105 16

5 Discussion During the experiments, we have observed malfunctions of the system when the users wore contact lenses. We found the contact lenses let the VR device lose track of the gazes of the users. We have to rectify the design and coordinate some special arrangements for contact lenses users. Many subjects complained that they had trouble to confirm character inputs. Because the position of the software keyboard displayed in the virtual space and the positions of the text displayed are far from each other. The user had to shift a large line

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of sight and to perform large eye movements when confirming the input characters. This difficulty produces erroneous operations. Therefore, our layout of software keyboard may not appropriate for VRHMD users. The majority of the subjects complained eye-fatigue. From the authors’ experiences, intensive practices reduce eye-fatigue. In addition, from the authors’ experiences, the users can perform the flick operations in a high speed without making mistakes. Of course, this requires sufficient practices. On the other hand, the authors found moving desktops in the depth direction is difficult, even though practice may improve the execution time.

6 Conclusion In this paper, we report the experiences on the design and implementation of a user interface in a virtual space. For the implementation, we employed a VR device with builtin gaze tracking, and then evaluated the feasibility of the user interface by numerical experiments. We have succeeded to improve the maneuvers of the desktops with the gauge display. The flick operations have improved the success rate and shortened the execution time. We have observed subjects even with little practice could handle various window operations as well as character inputs. On the other hand, we have observed that the subjects had hard time to move the desktop in the depth direction. Based on the authors’ experiment, sufficient practices improve even this kind of operation. Even we have succeeded to implement the character input capability; it is not easy for general users, because they often failed to perform correct and precise operations. We have also found that maneuvering multiple desktops and windows simultaneously in a three-dimension virtual space is not easy. Especially many of the subjects had hard time to input characters. They complained the necessity of a large amount of eye movements. A large amount of eye movements made them tired. As a future research direction, we are planning to improve the software keyboard layout so that the user can input characters with less fatigue. We are also planning to change the methods of windows selections. We are designing L-shape movements of eye tracking in addition to the current four directions of flick operations.

References 1. Hirata, Y., Soma, H., Takimoto, M., Kambayashi, Y.: Virtual space pointing based on vergence. In: 21st International Conference On Human Computer Interaction, LNCS, Orlando, United States, vol. 11567, pp. 259–269 (2019) 2. Ukai, K.: Eye movement: characteristics and method of measurement. Jpn. J. Opt. 23(1), 2–8 (1994). (in Japanese) 3. Ohno, T.: Eye mark window management environment. IEICE technical report HIP99-22, vol. 99, no. 291, pp. 17–24 (1999). (in Japanese) 4. Murata, A., Hayashi, K., Moriwaka, M., Hayami, T.: Study on character input methods using eye-gaze input interface. In: 51st SICE Annual Conference, Akita, Japan, pp. 1402–1407 (2012) 5. Hoshino, K.: Eyeblink as an Index of Interest and Attention. J. Inst. Telev. Eng. Japan 50(4), 436–442 (1996). (in Japanese)

A Framework for Facilitating Human-Human Interactions to Mitigate Loneliness in Elderly Nirmalya Thakur(&) and Chia Y. Han Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0030, USA [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. This paper introduces a multilayered framework in the field of Human-Human interaction and its related disciplines, that envisions to take a holistic approach to provide a long-term, economic and sustainable solution to mitigate feelings of loneliness and social isolation in elderly people, as well as to address housing needs and caregiver needs for children, demonstrated by young families or extended families on a global scale. Each layer of this framework consists of a distinct functionality. The first layer allows studying and analyzing the global population data and the elderly people count to identify the percentage of elderly people in different parts of the world who are currently staying alone - who might need this framework. The second layer helps to identify young families or extended families with demonstrated housing needs or caregiver needs to look after their children. The final layer consists of the methodology to develop mutually beneficial connections between these families and elderly people based on the geographic locations of the two. In the context of these connections, the elderly could act as the source of housing as well as interact and look after the young children from these families, this would provide means of human interactions and mitigate their feelings of loneliness. To add to this, when the family members come to visit the elderly, they could bring medications or address any of their other needs. This is the first of a series of publications towards the development of this framework. Here we primarily focus on developing the first layer of this framework and present the results. Keywords: Human-human interaction


Loneliness
Elderly population

1 Introduction At present there are around 962 million elderly people [1] across the world. Recent studies [2] have predicted that by the year 2050 the population of elderly people will become around 1.6 billion globally and will end up outnumbering the population of younger people worldwide. The rapid increase in the population of global elderly people has been found to be associated with feelings of loneliness and social isolation in them [3]. There are several reasons that contribute towards loneliness in elderly [4]. These include - (1) decreasing contacts and shrinking social circles, (2) reduced mobility due to multiple limitations causing lesser number of meetings with friends and family, (3) feelings of embarrassment and insecurity due to various impairments making them reluctant to leave the house, (4) indifferent treatment by families and © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 322–327, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_49

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(5) overburdened caregivers – who quite often don’t have the time and energy to manage the social, emotional and other needs of every elderly person they look after on account of multiple jobs. The effects of loneliness in elderly people are diverse [4]. These include - (1) affecting their mental and emotional well-being, (2) increased mortality, (3) cause of various impairments or limitations in bodily functions, (4) cause of anxiety and depression, (5) cause of chronic conditions like heart diseases and obesity. In view of these needs and requirements of elderly, it is essential that economies across the world have enough caregivers to look after them. However, the current population of caregivers is highly insufficient for addressing elderly needs through assisted care and services. On the other hand, getting proper housing has been a challenge faced by young families in the recent past. To add to this, young families with everyone working have little or no time to look after their babies or young children, which deprives them from a proper upbringing. Creating a framework for developing mutually beneficial connections between elderly people and such families in the context of taking a holistic approach to solve these global challenges serves as the main motivation of this research.

2 Literature Review There have been several recent works and review papers [3–9] written in this field which discuss the reasons, impact and factors related to loneliness in elderly. Recent researches [10–22] in the interrelated fields of Internet of Things, Artificial Intelligence, Human-Computer Interaction and their related disciplines have focused on development of various assistive and intelligent systems that can help elderly people manage loneliness and reduce feelings of social isolation in them within a Smart Home environment. In the context of technological advancements to address this problem, there exist several challenges which are (1) physical limitations or declining motor skills which come in the way of older adults familiarizing themselves with new technologies, (2) feelings of intimidation, (3) difficulty in understanding how to interface with technology due to declining cognitive abilities, (4) lack of training, (5) reluctance to learn new things, (6) lack of trust, just to name a few. Thus, in this work we aim to explore a new paradigm of Human-Human interaction to address this challenge.

3 Proposed Work and Results Towards development of the first layer of this framework, this section outlines our comprehensive study on the global population in different parts of the world and the percentage of elderly people who stay alone. For conducting this study, we refer to the dataset used in [23] which is the ‘United Nations Database on the Living Arrangements of Older Persons 2017’. We studied the living arrangements of elderly people across the world, irrespective of gender, with a specific focus on loneliness. This included studying elderly people counts in 143 countries or areas present in the dataset. Of the 143 countries or areas contained in the database, 41 are in Africa, 35 in Asia, 35 in Europe, 26 in Latin America and the Caribbean, 3 in Northern America and 3 in Oceania. The results of this study are shown in Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.

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Fig. 1. Percentage of elderly people who stay alone in different countries in Africa

Fig. 2. Percentage of elderly people who stay alone in different countries in Asia

Fig. 3. Percentage of elderly people who stay alone in different countries in Europe

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Fig. 4. Percentage of elderly people who stay alone in different countries in Latin America and Caribbean

Fig. 5. Percentage of elderly people who stay alone in different countries in Northern America

Fig. 6. Percentage of elderly people who stay alone in different countries in Oceania

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After conducting this rather comprehensive study, we were able to observe several characteristics related to elderly people staying alone in different parts of the world. Some of these are - (1) The average percentage of elderly people who stay alone in a country is 13.9%, (2) Afghanistan has the minimum percentage of elderly people with the count being 0.2%, (3) Lithuania has the maximum percentage of elderly people with the count being 34.1% and (4) Europe is the only region with as many as 8 countries having the percentage of elderly people staying lonely being 30% or more.

4 Conclusion and Future Work In this paper we present the idea for development of a multilayered framework based on exploring the paradigms of Human-Human Interaction and its related disciplines to mitigate feelings of loneliness and social isolation in elderly people as well as to address housing needs and caregiver needs for children demonstrated by families or extended families. Here we present and discuss our initial research towards development of the first layer of this framework in the form of a comprehensive study on the global population data, the elderly people count and the percentage of elderly people in different parts of the world who are currently staying alone – who might need this framework. To the best knowledge of the authors, no similar approach has been done in this field yet. Future work on this project would involve developing the other two layers of this framework in the form of (1) identifying families and extended families who are in need of housing and/or caregivers to look after their children and (2) a methodology for developing mutually beneficial connections between these families and the elderly people who are staying alone to address multiple needs associated with the two.

References 1. United Nations 2020 Report on Ageing. http://www.un.org/en/sections/issuesdepth/ageing/ 2. He, W., Goodkind, D., Kowal, P.: An Aging World: 2015. International Population Reports, Issued in March 2016 by United States Census Bureau (2016) 3. Arslantaş, H., Adana, F., Abacigil Ergin, F., Kayar, D., Acar, G.: Loneliness in elderly people, associated factors and its correlation with quality of life: a field study from Western Turkey. Iran J. Public Health 44(1), 43–50 (2015) 4. Cocarla, A.: Social Isolation and Loneliness in Seniors. https://srcarecenter.com/article/ social-isolation-and-loneliness-in-seniors/ 5. Bandari, R., Khankeh, H.R., Shahboulaghi, F.M., Ebadi, A., Keshtkar, A.A., Montazeri, A.: Defining loneliness in older adults: protocol for a systematic review. Syst. Rev. 8, 26 (2019) 6. Ige, J., Gibbons, L., Bray, I., Gray, S.: Methods of identifying and recruiting older people at risk of social isolation and loneliness: a mixed methods review. BMC Med. Res. Methodol. 19, 181 (2019) 7. Fakoya, O.A., McCorry, N.K., Donnelly, M.: Loneliness and social isolation interventions for older adults: a scoping review of reviews. BMC Public Health 20, 129 (2020) 8. Elsayed, E., El Etreby, R.R., Ibrahim, A.A.-W.: Relationship between social support, loneliness, and depression among elderly people. Int. J. Nurs. Didact. 9(01), 39–47 (2019)

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9. O’Súilleabháin, P.S., Gallagher, S., Steptoe, A.: Loneliness, living alone, and all-cause mortality: the role of emotional and social loneliness in the elderly during 19 years of followup. Psychosom. Med. 81(6), 521–526 (2019) 10. Angelini, L., Nyffeler, N., Caon, M., Jean-Mairet, M., Carrino, S., Mugellini, E., Bergeron, L.: Designing a desirable smart bracelet for older adults. In: Proceedings of UbiComp 2013, Zurich, Switzerland, 8–12 September 2013 (2013) 11. Khosla, R., Chu, M.-T., Kachouie, R., Yamada, K., Yoshihiro, F., Yamaguchi, T.: Interactive multimodal social robot for improving quality of care of elderly in australian nursing homes. In: Proceedings of MM 2012, Nara, Japan, 29 October–2 November 2012 (2012) 12. Sarkar, D.P.: A nurse bot for elderly people. In: Proceedings of UbiComp/ISWC 2018 Adjunct, Singapore, 8–12 October 2018 (2018) 13. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: An improved approach for complex activity recognition in smart homes. In: Reuse in the Big Data Era. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 11602, pp 220–231. Springer, Cham (2019) 14. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: Framework for a personalized intelligent assistant to elderly people for activities of daily living. Int. J. Recent Trends Hum. Comput. Interact. (IJHCI) 9(1), 1–22 (2019) 15. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: Framework for an intelligent affect aware smart home environment for elderly people. Int. J. Recent Trends Hum. Comput. Interact. (IJHCI) 9(1), 23–43 (2019) 16. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A context-driven complex activity framework for smart home. In: Proceedings of the 9th Annual Information Technology, Electronics and Mobile Communication Conference (IEMCON) 2018, Vancouver, Canada, 1–3 November 2018 (2018) 17. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A hierarchical model for analyzing user experiences in affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of the 9th Annual Information Technology, Electronics and Mobile Communication Conference (IEMCON) 2018, Vancouver, Canada, 1–3 November 2018 (2018) 18. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: An approach to analyze the social acceptance of virtual assistants by elderly people. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on the Internet of Things (IoT) 2018, Santa Barbara, California, 15–18 October 2018 (2018) 19. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: Methodology for forecasting user experience for smart and assisted living in affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on the Internet of Things (IoT) 2018, Santa Barbara, California, 15–18 October 2018 (2018) 20. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: An activity analysis model for enhancing user experiences in affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of the IEEE 5G World Forum Conference (IEEE 5GWF) 2018, Santa Clara, California, 09–11 July 2018 (2018) 21. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A virtual wisdom mining ‘pan’ for connecting retired experts with currently active professionals. In: Proceedings of IT Research Symposium, University of Cincinnati, 10 April 2018 (2018) 22. Thakur, N., Han, C.Y.: A complex activity based emotion recognition algorithm for affect aware systems. In: Proceedings of IEEE 8th Annual Computing and Communication Workshop and Conference (IEEE CCWC) 2018, Las Vegas, 08–10 January 2018 (2018) 23. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division: Living Arrangements of Older Persons: A Report on an Expanded International Dataset (ST/ESA/SER.A/407) (2017)

Healthcare and Medical Applications

Segmentation of Musculotendinous Structures of the Hip from 3D Imaging for PatientSpecific Individualization of Biomechanical Simulations Christopher Fleischmann1,2(&), David Scherb2, Irina Leher1, Alexander Wolf2, Jörg Miehling2, Sandro Wartzack2, and Stefan Sesselmann1 1

Institute for Biomedical Engineering, Ostbayerische Technische Hochschule Amberg-Weiden, Hetzenrichter Weg 15, 92637 Weiden, Germany {c.fleischmann,i.leher,s.sesselmann}@oth-aw.de 2 Engineering Design, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Martensstraße 9, 91058 Erlangen, Germany {scherb,a.wolf,wartzack}@mfk.fau.de

Abstract. Due to a steady increase of total hip arthroplasty, biomechanical multibody simulations are moving more and more into focus. These simulations allow to calculate forces, moments and muscle activities in the human body and, thus, can help to improve surgery planning and outcomes. However, generic human body models based on anthropometric data are mostly used for these simulations. Since these models are not customized to patients, there is a need to adapt the models to the individual patient. Therefore, 3D models of bones are created by segmentation of CT and MRI scans and assigned different landmarks. This allows to define both, the shape and size of bones, in this case the femur, which leads to patient-specific adjustments of muscle attachment points. Also muscles can be segmented to determine important parameters such as muscle volume, allowing the definition of important simulation parameters, like the maximum isometric force or the tendon slack length of individual patients leading to customized models. Keywords: Total hip arthroplasty
Biomechanics
Muscle segmentation
Multibody simulation
Subject-specific modeling and simulation
Muscle function
Surgery planning
Orthopaedics

1 Introduction The overall amount of total hip arthroplasty (THA) increased over the last decades due to demographic change [1, 2]. Increasing life expectancy leads to rising numbers of cases of osteoarthritis, articular rheumatism or femoral neck fractures [3]. THA guarantees improved mobility and quality of life for patients suffering from these diagnoses and hence has been named as the “operation of the century” [4]. However, there are still a lot of cases in © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 331–337, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_50

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which especially the biomechanical function of hip implants is insufficient (especially in cases of revision or of exceptional anatomic structures like in severe dysplasia). The biomechanical performance of these implants depends on many factors, such as the CCD angle and the offset of the hip shaft or the anteversion and inclination of the acetabular cup. However, sticking to recommended values of these factors for THA planning and implantation does not always guarantee optimal biomechanical functionality of the hip. In order to predict optimized values of implant positioning for improved biomechanical outcome, it is necessary to determine the individual preoperative musculoskeletal status and loads on the joint. These loads are strongly affected by anatomic conditions like the surrounding bone, ligaments and muscles. Since invivo forces and loads of the human body are challenging to measure, in-silico multibody simulations of these factors are gaining increasing attention. Using multibody simulations biomechanical parameters like muscle activities, muscle strains or joint reaction forces can be calculated. Musculoskeletal models, representing the human locomotor apparatus, enable the prediction of loads occurring during activities of daily living and thus can help to plan THA surgery [5]. However, the musculoskeletal models mandatory needed for these calculations are often based on empiric population databases. Even though these models are suitable for most standard cases, they often fail in simulations of exceptional cases. A possibility to adapt these models more patient-specific is to adjust the passive and active musculoskeletal model. On the one hand, bones can be segmented and assigned different landmarks. This allows to define both, the shape and size of the bones, in this case the femur, which leads to patient-specific adjustments of the muscle attachment points. On the other hand, the muscles can be segmented to determine important parameters such as muscle volume. This allows a definition of important simulation parameters, such as the maximum isometric force or the tendon slack length [6]. 1.1

Materials and Methods

Materialise Mimics Research (Materialise NV, Leuven, Belgium) software is used to segment the bony structures and muscles of MRI and CT datasets of the pelvis and the femur. The data are imported via DICOM formats (Fig. 1(a)) leading to three sectional views (sagittal, coronal and axial) as well as a 3D reconstruction. The segmentation basically differs in the procedure between MRI and CT data. Since CT data sets are grey scaled based on Hounsfield Units (HU), they are particularly suitable for the segmentation of bony structures. The HU is defined as  HU ¼

lx  lWater lWater  lAir

  1000

ð1Þ

HU = Hounsfield Unit l = linear attenuation coefficient X = tissue. The contrast of MRI datasets mainly bases on various contents of protons in different types of tissues and the behavior of these protons in special measurement sequences in magnetic fields. It should also be mentioned that the imaging of CT and

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MRI data is not part of everyday clinical practice before joint replacement or revision arthroplasty, but is moving more and more into focus [7]. Often, only x-rays are created for this issue, with which neither muscles nor bones can be segmented. 1.2

Segmentation of Bony Structures

If the data sets consist of CT data, it is possible to reliably segment bony structures, since there is enough HU contrast between bones and the surrounding tissue due to the high density of bones. Hence, a so called HU threshold can be applied (Fig. 1(b)), defining an HU area that should remain while other structures are removed. In a second step, articulating bony structures have to be separated. For this purpose, the femur, pelvis and tibia are marked separately in different slices of the CT dataset (Fig. 1(c)). Third – a 3D model of the femur can be reconstructed out of the segmented layer images (Fig. 1(d)). Thereafter, the surface is smoothed using a smoothing function (Fig. 1(e)). In the last segmentation step, the femur is wrapped to close artificial holes in the surface of the bone that have been arising during the segmentation procedure (see medio-distal femur in Fig. 1(f)).

Fig. 1. Segmentation workflow of the femur (a–f explanation see text)

If the DICOM images consist of MRI data, the procedure is slightly different from that shown in Fig. 1. Since thresholding cannot be used due to the missing HU, the contour of the femur must be marked “manually” in the layers. The post-treatment procedure according to the definition of the femur (Fig. 1(d–f)) remains the same. 1.3

Defining Landmarks of the Femoral Bone

The segmented femur can now be adapted to a patient-specific multibody-model. Therefore, 19 landmarks (see Table 1) are defined on the surface of the femur. These landmarks define the shape and size of the bone. Once these landmarks have been set,

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the femur can be exported to a multibody simulation program. The true shape and size of the femur is applied, instead of a generic scaling (i.e. based on anthropometric data). The muscle and tendon attachment points are then automatically adapted to the individual shape of the femur. Table 1. Anatomical landmarks and their location. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

1.4

Location Medial Head Point Anterior Lateral Condyle Point Anterior Medial Condyle Point Posterior Greater Trochanter Point Anterior Greater Trochanter Point Anterior Shaft Point Posterior Lateral Condyle Point Posterior Medial Condyle Point Posterior Head Point Anterior Head Point Proximal Head Point Proximal Greater Trochanter Point Medial Lesser Trochanter Point Distal Trochanteric Fossa Point Posterior Trochanteric Fossa Point Proximal Posterior Greater Trochanter Point Lateral Distal Trochanteric Fossa Point Lateral Lesser Trochanter Point Femoral Center of Rotation

Segmentation of Muscles

Basing on the source of the datasets (CT or MRI), there are different approaches to segment muscles. The Materialise “muscle segmentation module” is used for MRI datasets allowing semi-automatically segmentation of muscles. At first, a threshold is determined, involving all soft body regions. In the next step, a gradient threshold is performed, detecting strong gray value-differences. This separates different muscles from each other. Then the muscles are automatically detected and segmented layer by layer using a predefined algorithm in combination with databases. Since the differentiation of the muscles in CT imaging is significantly more difficult, the “muscle segmentation module” cannot be applied. Therefore, muscles need to be segmented manually in CT scans, which can be very time consuming.

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2 Results The method presented shows that the segmentation of anatomical structures in CT and MRI scans and the adaptation of these structures to multibody simulation purposes can be carried out successfully. However, algorithms for muscle segmentation are still to be optimized. The described post-treatment (smoothing and wrapping) enables the processing of the femur surface to define landmarks. These landmarks allow the transfer of the segmented bone into a patient-specific multibody simulation model. The exported dataset also redefines the muscle and tendon attachment points, which in turn leads to a more realistic calculation of the joint reaction forces and moments. The illustrated procedure of muscle segmentation allowed a mapping of all essential muscles of the hip (see Table 2). By segmenting these muscles, it is possible to determine muscle volumes in order to adapt muscle parameters patient-specific. This allows to simulate a possible muscle weakening or atrophy in the multibody simulation. Table 2. Segmented femoral muscles and their main functions. Functional group Inner hip muscles External hip muscles

Muscle M. psoas major M. iliacus M. gluteus maximus M. gluteus medius M. gluteus minimus M. tensor fasciae latae M. piriformis M. obturatorius internus

Adductors

M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M.

quadratus femoris gemellus superior gemellus superior obturatorius externus pectineus adductor longus adductor brevis adductor magnus

M. gracilis

Main functions Hip: Flexion and external rotation Hip: Extension external rotation Abduction Hip: Abduction, flexion and internal rotation Hip: External rotation, abduction and extension Hip: External rotation, adduction and extension Hip: External rotation and adduction Hip: External rotation, adduction and extension Hip: Adduction and external rotation Hip: Adduction, external rotation Hip: Adduction and flexion Hip: Adduction, external rotation and extension Hip: Adduction and flexion Knee: Flexion and internal rotation (continued)

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Functional group Extensors

Flexors

Muscle M. sartorius

M. rectus femoris M. vastus medialis M. vastus lateralis M. vastus intermedius M. biceps femoris caput longum M. biceps femoris caput breve M. semimembranosus M. semitendinosus

Main functions Hip: Flexion, abduction and external rotation Knee: Flexion and internal rotation Hip flexion and knee extension Knee extension

Hip: Adduction, extension Knee: Flexion and external rotation Knee: Flexion and external rotation Hip: Adduction and extension

3 Discussion Further studies need be conducted to determine the influence of muscle volumes on muscle strength and hence on multibody simulation. Thus, it is imperative to carry out parameter studies that provide information about the influence of the volume of a certain muscle on joint reaction forces. Since segmentation of the muscles in 3D imaging is time consuming, only relevant muscles or muscle groups should be analysed. The relevance of specific muscles or muscle groups is still to be assessed. The difference between generic scaling and patient-specific bone morphing, i.e. the newly defined muscle attachment points, needs to be quantified. Segmentation of bony and muscular structures is the basis for biomechanical planning of arthroplasty. This step towards patient-specific care promises better surgical outcomes.

References 1. Eingartner, C.: Current trends in total hip arthroplasty. Ortop. Traumatol. Rehabil. 9(1), 8–14 (2007) 2. Pabinger, C., Lothaller, H., Geissler, A.: Utilization rates of knee-arthroplasty in OECD countries. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 23(10), 1664–1673 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joca. 2015.05.008. Epub 2015 May 29 3. Singh, J.A.: Epidemiology of knee and hip arthroplasty: a systematic review. Open Orthop. J. 5, 80 (2011) 4. Learmonth, I.D., Young, C., Rorabeck, C.: The operation of the century: total hip replacement. Lancet 370(9597), 1508–1519 (2007)

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5. Sesselmann, S., Miehling, J., Wartzack, S., Forst, R.: Enhancement of surgical planning through patient-specific biomechanical modeling and simulation. In: SICOT Orthopaedic World Congress – Rome (2016) 6. Scherb, D., Fleischmann, C.: Conceptual approach to estimate the musculoskeletal follow-ups of endoprosthetic hip replacements. In: CAMS-Knee OpenSim Workshop – Zürich (2020) 7. Sesselmann, S., Reinmuth, M., Tiefenböck, S., Strödick, N., Forst, R.: Retrospektiver Vergleich der Ergebnisse präoperativer Planung in der Hüftendoprothetik mittels 2D-bzw. 3D-Software – DKOU – Berlin (2017)

Move Ahead with Mahalanobis Distance - Pattern Approach Shuichi Fukuda(&) Systems Design and Management Research Institute, Keio University, 4-1-1, Hiyoshi, Kohoku-Ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 223-8526, Japan [email protected]

Abstract. Human movement is composed of external motion and internal motor. Motion is controlled rationally with the fixed goal. So, tactics is important. But we, humans, coordinate our body parts instinctively to adapt to the environments and situations. Thus, coordination, i.e., strategy is important. Thus, to achieve our goal, we need to evaluate our performance and improve trial after trial. But quantitative performance indicator which support our instinct is not available. This paper proposes to utilize non-Euclidean Mahalanobis Distance (MD). Then, we do not have to worry about orthonormality and units, which Euclidean distance requires. It enables us to increase dimensionality easily and processes it in a very short time. Mahalanobis Distance-Pattern Approach proposed here combines MD and patterns. So, it enables a holistic and quantitative performance evaluation. Therefore, robots that work with warm consideration to our individual, personal way of movements can be developed beyond those just working for labor. Keywords: Human movement
Coordination
Trial and error
Performance indicator
Non-Euclidean
Mahalanobis distance
Pattern
Holistic and quantitative
Support for instinctive decision making

1 Introduction When we hear the word “move”, we unconsciously recall such movements as we see in robots or machines. These movements are artificial. Or, they are controlled. In robots, they are designed and instructed beforehand how to move. Machines are the same. Machines receive instructions from humans outside of the system and follow them. In the case of robots, intelligent robots perceive the environment and make decisions, But these decision-making is at tactics level. All these tactics are given beforehand. What they decide is how to achieve the task effectively. So, in robots, they only pay attention to the movement of skeletons. In other words, the system and its parameters are identified. But as Nikolai Bernstein made clear [1], using a cyclogram. Human movement trajectories vary widely from time to time, depending on the environment and the situation (Fig. 1).

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 338–343, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_51

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Fig. 1. Cyclogram of hammering

It is made clear by other researchers [2] that we, humans, coordinate our body parts and balance our body and that muscles play important roles for coordination and balancing. In fact, when we walk, we do not walk in the same way. We walk in a very much different way from environment to environment and from situation to situation. And walking style is very much different from person to person. But when we get close to the target object as in hammering, then our muscles harden and we only need to focus our attention only on skeletons, because muscles work together with skeletons. In other words, the degree of freedom is tremendously large at the early stage of our movements, but later when we get close to the target object, it is reduced to the minimum, so that we can apply mathematical approaches. But in our everyday walking, our environments and situations change widely. In short, we are exploring a new route for every step. Thus, there is no other way than by trial and error to make decisions. Figure 2 shows PDSA cycle, a.k.a. Shewhart cycle [3]. Find some hypothesis (Plan) and apply it (Do). Then study if it works (Study). If it does, then act (Act). If it does not satisfy your expectation, then repeat the process until you come across the satisfying result. This is Pragmatism [4]. Learning from failures plays a very important role in Pragmatism.

Fig. 2. PDSA cycle

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However, although the importance of learning from failures is emphasized very much, how we can do it is not given. If there are, they must be very few. At least the author does not know the systematic tool for that. There is no appropriate performance indicator and most of the tools are qualitative. We need a tool which provide a quantitative guideline for moving better. This paper proposes Mahalanobis Distance – Pattern Approach to provide a holistic and quantitative performance indicator. Its uniqueness is non-Euclidean. In Euclidean Space, orthonormality and units are required. Thus, it becomes increasingly difficult if we attempt to increase dimensions. Mahalanobis Distance is non-Euclidean so that it is free from these constraints. It can increase dimensions easily and it processes them in a very short time. This paper proposes Mahalanobis Distance-Pattern Approach and explains how Mahalanobis Distance is useful as our movement performance indicator and if we combine it with patterns, we can evaluate our movement holistically and quantitatively. Its benefits and potential applications are described.

2 Mahalanobis Distance Mahalanobis Distance (MD) is defined as MD = (Standard Deviation)/(Mean) It is proposed by Mahalanobis [5] to find out outliers. MD indicates how far way (distance) a point P is from the dataset (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Mahalanobis Distance (MD)

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3 Patterns MD is very good, because we don’t have to worry about orthonormality and units. This is the advantage of MD. But MD is obtained for each dataset and the relation between these datasets is not available. This is its disadvantage. Then, how can we interrelate these datasets and provide the user with a holistic evaluation? Fukuda and his group used to work on detecting emotion from face. They paid tremendous efforts by using image processing techniques. But they took too much time and did not produce any satisfactory results. Then, Fukuda suddenly realized that we could detect emotion from cartoon characters immediately and without any efforts. So, they developed cartoon face model and by comparing real faces with these cartoon face models, they succeeded to detect emotion at once and without any efforts [6] (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Cartoon face model approach to detect face emotion

4 Mahalanobis-Taguchi System (MTS) Genichi Taguchi realized around the same time as Fukuda’s group realized the usefulness of patterns for face emotion detection, If he combine MD with patterns, then quality evaluation can be done without giving attention to the regular constraints of orthonormality and units, which Euclidean Space requires. So, he proposed Mahalanobis-Taguchi System [7]. In fact, some companies cannot manage their product quality element by element. They can only evaluate the final product holistically. Thus, his MTS was welcomed very much by such companies where there was no other way. The idea of MTS is shown in Fig. 5.

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Fig. 5. Mahalanobis-Taguchi System (MTS)

Unit Space is a typical pattern. Let us take number 2 for example. People write number 2 differently from person to person. So, we average them and obtain the standard pattern of number 2 as shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6. Samples to unit space

Images can be processed in the same way, because images are represented as pixel sequences.

5 Mahalanobis Distance – Pattern (MDP) Approach MDP Approach is fundamentally the same as MTS. Their greatest difference is MDP is dynamic and involves human instinct for decision making, whereas MTS is static pattern matching. Let us compare the octopus and humans. The octopus and humans represent invertebrates and vertebrates. Vertebrates have a large head. It is brain. Although the octopus has a large head, it is for coordinating their eight limbs. In fact, the octopus die immediately after their baby is born. So, there is no transfer of knowledge from the previous generation. Thus, the octopus must live on their own instinct alone.

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But humans rely on their knowledge which is accumulated pieces of experiences. But we should be aware that when we walk or move in our daily life, the environments and situations change from time to time. So, in fact, we are exploring the new horizon. It is just like swimming. Why aren’t there any swimming robots? It is because water changes every minute and we cannot apply System Identification Approach and cannot identify parameters. Today, changes occur frequently, extensively and unpredictably. So, we are now in the flow. We need to swim against the flow to get to our destination. Human movement is divided into two. Motion and motor. Motion is external and motor internal. Robots and machines focus only on motion. But when we coordinate and balance our body, motor plays an important role. Octopus movements are motor. We should learn from the octopus. Although they live on their instinct alone, the octopus is known as the expert of escape. They can escape from any environments and situations. Even when locked up in a screwed container, they can. We would get panicked and most probably cannot get out. MDP Approach is, in a sense, to make the most of our instinct, which has been ignored until recently. It provides a guideline for us to make decisions, based on our instinct, because environments and situation are always changing and new to us. Therefore, we need to explore. It provides a basis for strategic decision making.

6 Applications Let us take wearable robots here. Most wearable robots are developed for just reducing labor. But if they move in response to our movements, we would be very happy and satisfied. Our movements vary widely from person to person, because our body builds are different. If they do the job our way, as we do in everyday life, then our satisfaction will be far greater. In fact, we swim in a different way from person to person. Still, we can learn to swim. We have our own way of doing the job.

References 1. Bernstein, N.: The Co-ordination and Regulation of Movements. Pergamon Press, Oxford (1967) 2. Kumamoto, M., Oshima, T., Yamamoto, T.: Control properties induced by the existence of antagonistic pairs of bi-articular muscles – mechanical engineering model anaysis. Hum. Mov. Sci. 13, 611–634 (1994) 3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_A._Shewhart 4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism 5. Mahalanobis, P.C.: On the generalized distance in statistics. In: Proceedings of the National Institute of Science of India, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 49–55 (1936) 6. Kostov, V., Fukuda, S., Johnsson, M.: Method for simple extraction of paralinguistic features in human face. Image Vis. Comput. J. Image Electron. Eng. Japan 30(2), 111–125 (2001) 7. Taguchi, G., Chowdhury, S., Wu, Y.: The Mahalanobis-Taguchi System. McGraw-Hill Professional, New York (2000)

How Does the COM Position of a Vacuum Cleaner Affect Muscle Activities While Vacuuming? Difu Qin(&), Zhanxun Dong, Yuxuan Liu, Dong Wang, and Shiyao Qin School of Design, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China [email protected]

Abstract. Nowadays, vacuuming cleaners are not only used for floor cleaning, but also for other usages like curtain cleaning, sofa cleaning and ceiling cleaning. And prolonged vacuuming may cause potential health risks. Cordless stick vacuum cleaner whose main mass is near the handle has an advantage when being used to clean high places. This study is to investigate the effect of relative position of its COM (center of mass) and handle on the upper limb muscle activities during vacuuming in different situations. Sixteen participants conducted vacuuming tasks in both floor and high window using three cleaner models with com above handle, in front of handle, and below handle. Electromyography data from six muscles were recorded and analyzed. Compared to the floor task, muscle activities are significantly greater during the window task. When vacuuming floor, no significant data difference is observed among three kinds of cleaner models. When vacuuming window, cleaner with com above handle is more preferable, causing lower muscle activities, than other two kinds of cleaners. Keywords: Ergonomics


Vacuum cleaner
EMG
Center of mass

1 Introduction Vacuum cleaner is an important tool for household cleaning in modern society. A global survey among 28000 consumers suggests that 33% of respondents do vacuuming for 2 to 5 times per week and 46% of them spend 30 min to 1 h each time [1]. It’s also verified by experiment that household vacuuming is a physiological burden. Previous research classifies short-time (6–15 min) household floor vacuuming as medium intensity physical activity for non-occupational women according to energy expenditure [2, 3]. Based on this, vacuuming for 30 min to 1 h could be a more physically exhausting task. Furthermore, in accordance with a recent survey, 33.4% of respondents accomplish vacuuming tasks by multiple sessions or multiple days, either due to its physical demands or time-consuming nature [4]. In addition, it has been reported that repetitive pushing and pulling motions during vacuum cleaning poses a musculoskeletal disorder risk for upper extremity [5, 6].

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 344–350, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_52

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In the market, there are various genres of vacuum cleaner available, including canister, upright, robot and cordless stick cleaners, among which, cordless stick cleaner is recently prevalent for its lightweight, minor size and multifunction. Therefore, the market share of cordless stick vacuum cleaners by retail unit sales reached 12% in U.S. in 2010 [7] and has rapidly soared [8] and is predicted to reach 31%, as the second popular genre among all categories in 2030 worldwide [9]. Especially, the cordless stick cleaner whose main parts including battery and motor are at the top (near its handle), allows users to clean high places like ceiling and curtain more easily. Compared with other vacuum cleaner categories, the easiness for holding is a significant superiority. Although this kind of cleaner is quite common in the market recent years, there is no uniform criterion for the relative position of the com and the handle. In terms of this part of structure, most types of cleaner are generally designed in three ways, as to put the battery and motor above the handle, in front of the handle, and below the handle. The study about how these three kinds of layouts affect muscle activities of upper extremity is not abundant and not sufficient. Therefore, in order to investigate how to reduce user’s physiological burden and the musculoskeletal disorder risks by optimizing the layouts of weight, a cleaner handle model whose weight layout can be changed in three ways was designed and used in an experiment includes both floorvacuuming and window-vacuuming.

2 Methods 2.1

Participants

Eight young males and eight young females, who are all right-handed and enable to use vacuum cleaner normally without any musculoskeletal disease, participate in the experiment. Their age, height and weight were all recorded. And before the experiment, they all provided written informed consent prior for participation (Table 1). Table 1. Participants’ basic information (average value). Age (years) Male (8) 23.7 Female (8) 22.4 All (16) 23.1

2.2

Height (m) Weight (kg) 1.72 59.4 1.60 51.8 1.66 55.6

Experimental Variables

The experimental variables include the com location (above the handle, in front of the handle, and below the handle) and vacuuming situation (floor and window). For the simulation of three kinds of vacuum cleaner, a special handle model was designed and 3d-printed. In the experiment, a sandbag was bundled above the handle, in front of the handle or below the handle, as a substitute of the weight of battery and motor. The weight of handle is 0.3 kg, and the weight of sand bag is 1.5 kg (Figs. 1 and 2).

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Fig. 1. Three kinds of handle model with different COM positions

Fig. 2. Assembled vacuum cleaner

A normal canister cleaner was assembled to the handle model by its hose, pipe, and a plastic t-tube, to generated suction force during the tasks. The weight of hose is 0.3 kg, and is long enough to avoid disturbance when vacuuming. The weight of pipe is 0.4 kg, and its length is 72 cm, both of which are close to the data of common products in the market. Two pieces of tape whose length is 30 cm were glued parallelly on the floor with 30 cm distance in between. During vacuuming, participants were demanded to stand 50 cm away from the closer one tape, hold the handle, and make the brush move from one tape to the other one. On the window, a 30 cm piece of tape was also glued vertically, 200 cm from the ground. Participants stood 70 cm away from the window, and held the handle, making the brush move from one end of the tape to the other end (Figs. 3 and 4).

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Fig. 3. Doing floor vacuuming

2.3

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Fig. 4. Doing window vacuuming

Data Collection

According to the recommendation in literature [10, 11], the activities of six muscles (flexor carpi ulnaris, brachioradialis, biceps, triceps, upper trapezius and lateral deltoid) were recorded to assess the intensity of pulling, pushing, weight holding, and arm swinging motions. Before the experiment, the skins of these six muscles were cleaned with alcohol, and then attached with surface EMG sensors. The EMG signals were recorded at 2048 Hz, then band pass filtered at 10 Hz to 500 Hz, and smoothed by root mean square method, and low pass filtered at 6 Hz, and normalized to the maximum processed EMG value. During the measurement of MVC EMG, participants were asked to conduct several given motions [12] and every motion was repeated twice. And among the single time data, the amplitude of 1 s which is around the peak value were chosen and averaged. Take the larger mean value of two test results as the MVC EMG. Two kinds of vacuuming situation and three different com location make six experimental tasks in total, which are arranged in random order. The experiment contents and flow are well explained to every participant before the start. For every task, participant moved the brush horizontally or vertically once a second, according to the beats of a metronome, and repeated twenty rounds for every task. After a task, they got two minutes for rest before the next task. The sixth to fifteenth push-pull rounds data were extracted. For every task and every muscle, take the 50th percentile as the median activation level and take the 90th percentile as the peak activation level. The effects of different vacuuming situations on muscle activities were evaluated using the three-factor repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). And then considering floor vacuuming and window vacuuming respectively, the effect of three kinds of cleaner model was assessed with the com position as a random variable. A significance criterion of p < 0.05 was used for all statistical analyses.

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3 Results The difference of muscle activities between floor vacuuming and window vacuuming is significant. All six muscles are more active when doing window vacuuming than doing floor vacuuming (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Comparison of muscle activities during floor cleaning and window cleaning

During floor vacuuming, there is rare significant effect between three kinds of handle model. Only the lateral deltoid muscle’s activity is significantly higher when using the handle model with com below, while for the other five muscle, using different handle models did not make significant effect on muscle activity (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Comparison of muscle activities when cleaning floor using three vacuum cleaner models with different COM

While during window vacuuming, the three kinds of cleaner models differed significantly on some of these muscles. The activities of flexor carpi ulnaris, brachioradialis, triceps and biceps are significantly less when using the handle model with com above. The difference between other two kinds of handle model is not significant for all six muscles (Fig. 7).

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Fig. 7. Comparison of muscle activities when cleaning window using three vacuum cleaner models with different COM

4 Discussion and Limitation Muscle fatigue develops faster with greater muscle load in equidistant or periodic dynamic exertions, and it has been reported that dynamic motions of upper limb muscles at contraction levels exceeding 15%–20% MVC can cause rapid declines in muscle endurance [13]. The median NEMG of flexor carpi ulnaris during floor vacuuming as well as flexor carpi ulnaris, brachioradialis, biceps, and upper trapezius during window vacuuming are close to the threshold as 15%. And the peak NEMG of all six muscles during floor vacuuming and window vacuuming are between 6.0% to 42.8%, below the proven high level of exertion as 70%. Therefore, research on vacuuming with cleaner should focus on how to reduce physical fatigue rather than prevent acute muscle damage. By comparing the data of two different vacuuming situations, it was found that the six muscles were significantly more active when vacuuming window, which means although for most families it is not as frequent as floor vacuuming, the task of high position cleaning is worthy of attention and research. Three types of vacuum cleaners with different centroid positions have no significant effect on muscle activities when vacuuming floor. It may be because the overall burden of the upper limb muscles is low and the difference in the position of the center of mass is minor. Generally speaking, in the comparison of three types of vacuum cleaners with different com relative positions, the cleaner with com above the handle can significantly reduce the activity of some muscles when cleaning high places, showing certain advantages in household cleaning. In this study, the included angle between the grip of the handle model and the long rod was 108.6°. Because no experiments were performed using models with other angles, it was not possible to determine whether there was an interaction effect between the center of mass position and the angle. And in this experiment, high places cleaning is defined as the repeated lateral movement of the vacuum cleaner, and floor cleaning is defined as the repeated forward and backward movement of the vacuum cleaner. This is

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based on the common cleaning methods used in daily housework. However, in the actual cleaning process, the operation methods are more complicated and diverse. The single mode of operation in the experiment wakened the versatility of the experimental results.

5 Conclusion The research results show that the use of vacuum cleaners for housework has a certain burden on upper limb muscles, especially for high places cleaning, which is roughly equivalent to painters, carpenters and other moderately tiring professional activities. When designing a vacuum cleaner, the manufacturer should consider reducing the fatigue of cleaning high places. Compared to using the vacuum cleaner with com located in front of and below the handle, using the vacuum cleaner with com above the handle may reduce the activities of the upper limb muscles to a certain extent, thereby reducing vacuuming fatigue. More use cases and different design details should be considered for further research.

References 1. Electrolux: Electrolux Global Vacuuming Survey 2013 Report. Electrolux, Stockholm (2013) 2. Bassett Jr., D.R., Ainsworth, B.E., Swartz, A.M., Strath, S.J., O’Brien, W.L., King, G.A.: Validity of four motion sensors in measuring moderate intensity physical activity. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 32, S471–S480 (2000) 3. Norman, J.F., Kautz, J.A., Wengler, H.D., Lyden, E.R.: Physical demands of vacuuming in women using different models of vacuum cleaners. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 35, 364–369 (2003) 4. Bak, H., D’Souza, C., Shin, G.: Upper extremity muscular load during carpet vacuuming with household upright cleaners. Appl. Ergon. 79, 38–44 (2019) 5. Bell, A.F., Steele, J.R.: Risk of musculoskeletal injury among cleaners during vacuuming. Ergonomics 55, 237–247 (2012) 6. Weigall, F., Simpson, K., Bell, A.F., Kemp, L.: An Assessment of the Repetitive Manual Tasks of Cleaners. WorkCover NSW, Sydney (2005) 7. Energy Star: ENERGY STAR Market & Industry Scoping Report Vacuum Cleaners. Energy Star (2011) 8. Allen, R.: Cordless Products Cleaning up. http://www.gfk.com/en-gb/insights/news/ cordless-products-cleaning-up/ 9. European Commission: Review study on Vacuum cleaners-Final report. https://www. review-vacuumcleaners.eu/ 10. Hermens, H.J., Freriks, B., Disselhorst-Klug, C., Rau, G.: Development of recommendations for SEMG sensors and sensor placement procedures. J. Electromyogr. Kinesiol. 10, 361–374 (2000) 11. Perotto, A.O.: Anatomical Guide for the Electromyographer: The Limbs and Trunk. Charles C Thomas Publisher, Springfield (2011) 12. Kang, H., Shin, G.: Effects of touch target location on performance and physical demands of computer touchscreen use. Appl. Ergon. 61, 159–167 (2017) 13. Hagberg, M.: Muscular endurance and surface electromyogram in isometric and dynamic exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 51(1), 1–7 (1981)

Sitting Posture Assessment Method for Back Pain Prevention System Daiki Joumori(&), Rin Hirakawa, Hideaki Kawano, and Kenichi Nakashi Kyushu Institute of Technology, Electrical and Electronic, 1-1 Sensuicho, Tobata Ward, Kitakyushu, Fukuoka, Japan [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. Back pain is widespread in Japan in recent years. The economic loss from back pain in Japan was 82.1 billion yen in 2011. Therefore, it is necessary to construct a low back pain prevention system that can be easily used. First, system estimate the body part from the image using OPENPOSE. It extract the five coordinates (neck, shoulders, and buttocks) from the output. It calculate the z coordinate of each point. Finally, It estimate the front-back tilt and the leftright tilt. We compare three distances (2 m, 3.5 m, 5 m) and three angles (20°, 0°, −20°) in experiments. Review the results. In the distance, the discrimination rates are 2 m: 83%, 3.5 m: 99%, 5 m: 66%. Next, regarding the angle, the discrimination system was good in the order of 20°, 0°, 20°. Keywords: Low back pain


Image processing
Open pose
Health care

1 Introduction Low back pain now occurs in a wide range of people, from the young to the elderly. 80% of Japanese people have experienced low back pain more one time in life [1]. In addition, low back pain is the first most common symptom among men and the second most common among women according to the Basic Survey of Living Conditions of the Ministry of Health [2]. The second most common reason for visiting the hospital today is low back pain for both men and women [2]. These facts suggest that many Japanese people suffer from low back pain. Low back pain is the NO, 1 occupational disease and accounts for 60% of the total [3]. The annual medical expense of occupational low back pain in Japan is 82.1 billion yen [3]. Therefore, low back pain causes great economic loss. Next, the work attitude is described. According to the policy for the prevention of low back pain in the workplace, the load on the whole body is lighter in the sitting posture than in the standing posture, but the mechanical load on the lumbar spine is larger [4]. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a system to prevent low back pain. Also it is necessary to correctly determine the sitting posture. Therefore, a sitting posture discrimination method using the image processing is examined.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 351–355, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_53

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2 Discrimination Method of Sitting Posture This chapter describes the proposed method. 2.1

Differences in Previous Studies

In previous research, pressure sensors and distance sensors were attached to the seat surface of a chair to identify a person’s sitting posture [5–7]. Since sensors are used, it is possible to determine the posture with very high accuracy, but since many sensors are used, anyone cannot easily use. Therefore, in this study, we make systems anyone can easily use to determine human posture by using a general camera. Previous studies have identified nine postures. 2.2

Method

We describe a method of determinating the sitting posture. The attitude discrimination is carried out using OPENPOSE [8, 9] which guessed the human attitude from the image. The coordinates of the human joints in the images of the neck, shoulders, and buttocks are used to determine the posture. We extract these coordinates from the OPENPOSE output array. Next, we convert to a coordinate system centered on the midpoints of both buttocks in order to make it easier to perform posture determination and coordinate calculation. Then we calculate the z coordinate of each coordinate point. The z-coordinate calculation is performed geometrically using the physical information (the length of the back, distance between the hips) determined in the preliminary experiment Z ¼ ðphysical informationÞ2  X2  Y2

ð1Þ

If z is an imaginary number, we substituted zero for z. We determine the inclination of left and right. We used two parameters for discrimination. The first is the distance between the shoulder and the hip, and the second is the horizontal rotation angle. 

right hip x coordinate hr ¼ arctan right shoulder z coordinate



Distance between right shoulder and hip Distance between left shoulder and hip

ð2Þ ð3Þ

The reason for using two parameters is that the distance between the shoulder and the hip may vary depending on the horizontal rotation angle. Therefore, it is necessary to change the threshold value of the attitude determination in accordance with the rotation angle in the horizontal direction. Next, we determine the forward and backward tilt of the body. Anteroposterior tilt is determined by calculating the angle of tilt

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of the upper body. We transform into a coordinate system viewed from the side to calculate the tilt. We rotate the coordinates using the rotation angle in the horizontal direction. cos h r 0 sin h r

0 1 0

sin h r 0 cos h r

ð4Þ

We multiply the coordinates of each body to (4). When this calculation is performed, the x coordinate of both buttocks becomes 0. Finally, the front and rear inclination angles are shown in Eq. (5). 

neck x coordinate H ¼ arctan neck y coordinate

 ð5Þ

The threshold used for attitude discrimination was determined by preliminary experiments.

3 Experiment We will explain the experiment. The determined posture is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Discriminated posture Posture Normal posture Tend front Tend back Tend right Tend left

Next, we explain the changed items. The distance between the camera and the subject and the angle of the subject with respect to the camera were changed. The reason for changing the distance will be described. It is to determine the distance between the camera and the subject in constructing the low back pain prevention system. Next, the reason why the angle is changed will be described. In actual desk work, there is a possibility of horizontal rotation when we open drawers. Therefore, even if the angle of the subject with respect to the camera changes, it is necessary to be able to determine the posture. One subject participated in this study. Also, we take 10 photographs for each conditions. Therefore, 1 person  3 distances  3 angles  5 postures  10 photographs = 450 photographs were taken.

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4 Results and Discussion 4.1

Results

The results are shown below. The present discrimination rate was set to (6) Number of a posture determined by the system Number of a postures entered

ð6Þ

In the distance, the discrimination rates are 2 m: 83%, 3.5 m: 99%, 5 m: 66%. Next, in the angle, the discrimination rates are 20°: 89%, 0°: 67%, −20°: 77%.The discrimination rate for the change in distance was better at 3.5 m than at 2 m. The possible reason is that the distance between the camera and the subject is close at 1.5 m. Therefore, a slight deviation of the angle increases the error of the numerical value in the image. Next, the discrimination rate of the angle change was the worst when the angle was 0° (Table 2). Table 2. Discrimination rate for each condition Changed item Distances 2 m 3.5 m 5m Angles 20° 0° −20°

Discrimination rate 83% 99% 66% 89% 67% 77%

The possible reason is that the left and right tilt at 0° is the depth information of the photograph. Therefore, it is considered that information necessary for discrimination could not be extracted.

5 Conclusion In the study, we were able to use images to determine a person’s posture. Depending on the conditions, the discrimination accuracy varied greatly. Therefore, the system must be improved. However, the discrimination was high, especially in 3.5 m, at 99%. Future issue Future issues include the following. (1) Increase in experimental data. (2) Automatic setting of body information determined by preliminary experiments. (3) Optimization of attitude determination method.

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Acknowledgments. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Professor Yoshihisa Nakatoh for his guidance and encouragement in conducting this research.

References 1. Japan Physical Therapists Association: Physical therapy handbook, Season 3back pain, Preventing Low Back Pain and Keeping a Smiling Face (2018) 2. The Japan Labor Health and Welfare Organization: Actual conditions of low back pain among workers 3. Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare: Guidelines for Prevention of Low Back Pain in the Workplace, Attachment (1994) 4. Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd.: Modern low back pain situation 5. Fujimura, A., et al.: Effect of Sitting Surface Tilting on the Lower Back during Sitting Work (2001) 6. Kamitani, K., Kudo, M., et al.: Study on attitude identification of seated person using pressure sensor. In: Information Processing Society of Japan Research Report, pp. 41–46 (2007) 7. Naito, T., Kurosu, S., et al.: Proposal of evaluation method of sitting posture during desk work (2014) 8. Ogawa, Y.: While Making It! Development Deep Learning by Pytorch. Mynavi, p. 503 (2019) 9. Cao, Z., Hidalgo, G., Simon, T., Wei, S.-E., Sheikh, Y.: OpenPose: Realtime Multi-Person 2D Pose Estimation using Part Affinity Fields (2018) 10. Saitou, K.: Build from Scratch, Deep Learning, The Theory and Implementation of Deep Learning in Python. O’Reilly, Tokyo (2016)

Effective Speech Features for Distinguishing Mild Dementia Patients from Healthy Person Kazu Nishikawa(&), Rin Hirakawa, Hideki Kawano, Kenichi Nakashi, and Yoshihisa Nakatoh Kyushu Institute of Technology, 1-1, Sensui-cho, Tobata-ku, Kitakyushu-shi, Fukuoka 804-0015, Japan [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. The questionnaire method is generally used for present dementia screening. However, this method requires time for 10 to 15 min with a doctor and a clinical psychologist, which puts a burden on hospitals and test subjects. The purpose of this study is to reduce the burden of users by constructing a system to distinguish patients with mild dementia and healthy persons from speech data. Before that this paper examines the effectiveness of speech features. MFCC has been confirmed to be effective in previous research, this paper extracted six kinds of other speech features that are likely to be correlated with symptoms of dementia. This paper got about 90% accuracy rate for a sentence of conversational speech in SVM and Random Forest. Moreover, this paper has calculated the importance of the features by using the SVM-RFE method. As a result, this showed that log-mel spectrum was more important than MFCC. Keywords: Alzheimer
Dementia
MCI
SVM
Random Forest
Dementia screening

1 Introduction Dementia patients (AD) have increased year by year in many developed countries. Especially in Japan, about 1 in 5 elderly people will suffer from dementia in 2025 [1]. In addition, the current medical technology has not established a treatment method for dementia, so it is important to detect early symptoms of mild dementia patients (MCI). The questionnaire method is generally used for present dementia screening [2]. However, this method requires time for 10 to 15 min with a doctor and a clinical psychologist, which puts a burden on hospitals and test subjects. The purpose of this study is to reduce the burden of users by constructing a system to distinguish patients with MCI and healthy persons (NC) from speech data. Before that we examine the effectiveness of speech features.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 356–361, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_54

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2 Speech Features The speech features that distinguish MCI from NC analyze in this study. Specifically, MFCC has been confirmed to be effective in previous research [3], and we extracted other six kinds of speech features such as MFCC, DMFCC, log-mel spectrum, Fo, DFo, Jitter, and Shimmer that are likely to be correlated with symptoms of dementia. In this section, we describe these features.

3 openSMILE [4] openSMILE is mainly used in the field of emotion recognition and extract many speech features in real time. We extracted speech features and their statistics with this tool. We used confing of IS09 [5] and IS10 [6] to get these. As a result, we obtained feature vectors of 192. In addition, the audio sampling frequency is 16 kHz, the analysis frame length is 25 ms, and the shift width is 10 ms. Table 1. Feature vectors of 192 Speech features Statistics MFCC 1–12 max, min, amean, stddev, skewness, kurtosis DMFCC 1–12 max, min, amean, stddev, skewness, kurtosis logMelFreqband 0–7 amean, stddev, skewness, kurtosis F0 max, min, amean, stddev DF0 max, min, amean, stddev JitterLocal amean, stddev, skewness, kurtosis ShimmerLocal amean, stddev, skewness, kurtosis

3.1

Overview of Speech Features

MFCC is an acoustic analysis method based on auditory filters, and mainly used in the field of speech recognition. This uses the logarithmic power of the fractionated filter bank to efficiently represent the power spectrum with a small order. That is to say, the filter of the trigonometric function arranged at equal interval along the Mel scale is applied in order to examine the low frequency part finely and the high frequency part roughly in accordance with the characteristics of human hearing. The number of trigonometric functions indicates the number of channels in the filter bank. Dynamic features are important parameters for speech recognition field. Thing that is modeled by a regression model is called the regression coefficient, and widely used. In previous research, it has been confirmed that patients with dementia tend to be poor at tongue articulation [7]. Therefore, it is considered that the voice of dementia patients changes less with time than that of NC. We extracted DMFCC, which is a typical dynamic feature. The dynamic features are obtained by applying the following equation to MFCC [8]. xt represents the linear regression coefficient of the feature quantity at time t, and i represents the window width.

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P2 dt ¼

i¼1

i
ðxt þ i  xti Þ P 2 2i¼1 i2

ð1Þ

As with the MFCC, log-mel spectrum represents only the outline of the frequency spectrum. Log-mel spectrum omits the discrete cosine transform the last calculation step of the MFCC. Humans use vocal organs such as the mouth and nose from the throat to the lips to produce sounds. Particularly with regard to the vocal cords, when the tension of the vocal cords is high and the air pressure from the lungs is high, the opening and closing cycle, or vibration cycle of the vocal cords becomes shorter, and the pitch of the sound source becomes higher, and vice versa. This oscillation period is called the fundamental period, and its reciprocal is called the fundamental frequency (Fo). This corresponds to the pitch of the voice [9]. In previous research, it has reported the flattening of emotions as a symptom of dementia [10]. In this study, we hypothesized that the voice height of patients with dementia is less likely to change than that of normal subjects, and extracted Fo by the cepstrum method. Jitter is a numerical representation of pitch fluctuations and Shimmer is a numerical representation of loudness fluctuations. Jitter is specifically the difference between the cycles of adjacent cycles and can be expressed by the following equation N represents the total number of cycles and pk represents the cycle of the k cycle. Shimmer uses an amplitude instead of a period of the following expression. In previous research, it has reported the flattening of emotions as a symptom of dementia [11], so we focused on speech distortion and extracted Jitter and Shimmer. Jitter ¼

1 N1

PN1

jpk  pk þ 1 j P1N

k¼1 N

k¼1

ð2Þ

pk

4 Identification by Machine Learning We extracted the feature vectors described in the Sect. 2 and calculated the identification rate by machine learning. 4.1

Identification Method

We identified these data by SVM (Support Vector Machine) [12] and RF (Random Forest) [13] by using Weka [15]. We describe these. In this study, we used for identification by using SVM which is superior in binary classification. This is a pattern technique to separate multiple classes by learning data. We used the polynomial kernel function in the following expression, and setting of SVM is the Table 2. K ðx; x0 Þ is a kernel function and the others are constants.

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K ðx; x0 Þ ¼ ðgamma  x  x0 þ coef 0Þ

degree

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ð3Þ

Next, in this study, we used for identification by using RF which is widely used in decision trees. A predetermined number of features are randomly selected from all the features in the decision tree and select the feature with the highest classification performance. We didn’t perform parameter tuning. We used the fusion matrix to evaluate the experiment. Precision, F-measure, and AUC was obtained by this. Precision is the percentage of correct answers in the total data. F-measure is the harmonic mean of the reproducibility and the fitness. AUC is the ratio of the area under the relationship between the false-positive rate and the recall rate when classification is performed. Table 2. Setting of SVM SVM type Kernel Cost Gamma Coef Degree C-SVM Polynomial 1.0 0.1 0.0 3

4.2

Identification Experiments

The speech data was a corpus of elderly people with a control group, which recorded the speech at the first dementia screening in Japan [14]. This contained speech data about MCI and NC. However the data is so few. So we use by age. In order to distinguish short conversation sounds, we used things to separate each sentence by using Audacity [16]. We obtained 4535 voices (58 speakers  about 78 voices) of MCI’s and 4535 voices (19 speakers  about 238 voices) of NC’s. We extracted feature vectors of 192 with openSMILE from this speech data. We identified these data by SVM and RF. We evaluated by 10-fold cross validation, so the number of data is small. As a result, we obtained overall precision of 0.90, F-measure of 0.91, and AUC of 0.90 by SVM, and overall precision of 0.88, F-measure of 0.88, and AUC of 0.95 by RF (Table 4). In this study, it’s better to diagnose people who don’t have dementia as dementia, so it is appropriate to use SVM with a high F-measure (Table 3). Table 3. Overview of identification experiments Speech data

MCI (50 s to 70 s): 4535 voices NC (20 s to 40 s): 4535 voices Feature vectors 192 dimensions (Table 1) Discriminator SVM Random Forest Evaluation 10-fold cross validation

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K. Nishikawa et al. Table 4. Identification result Discriminator Precision F-measure AUC SVM 0.90 0.91 0.90 RF 0.88 0.88 0.95

5 Calculation of Important Feature Vectors From the result in the Table 4, we analyzed the importance of feature vectors in SVM. We have calculated the importance of the features by using the SVM-RFE method [17]. 5.1

Experiment Method

In order to select effective features for identification in SVM, we used SVM-RFE to evaluate the value of each attribute by SVM classifiers and arrange in order of importance. This is a one-vs-all approach where each attribute is ranked by the square of weight. 5.2

Experiment Overview

We used the data of the previous section. We used SVM-RFE to evaluate the top 5 ranking results are shown in the Table 5. Many of the effective feature in SVM are related to spectrum envelope. In statistics, many of the stddev in the log-mel spectrum and the amean in MFCC were chosen to be high. In previous research [18], it has been suggested that the use of log-mel spectrum is preferable because the necessary information is lost when the discrete cosine transform is performed by machine learning. Therefore, we think this showed that log-mel spectrum was more important than MFCC. Table 5. Top 5 feature vectors valid for identification in SVM Speech features logMelFreqBand5 logMelFreqBand6 logMelFreqBand7 MFCC2 MFCC9

Statistics kurtosis stddev stddev amean amean

6 Conclusion In this study, the purpose of this study is to reduce the burden of users by constructing a system to distinguish MCI and NC from speech data. Before that we examine the effectiveness of speech features. As a result, we got overall precision of about 90% for a sentence of conversational speech in SVM and Random Forest. Moreover, the present

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result suggested that log-mel spectrum was more important than MFCC. However, the speech data was not the same age, so it was impossible to make a precise evaluation. In the future, we will investigate key features at Random Forest and examine language features. In addition, it is necessary to consider the case where the age of NC and the age of MCI are dated because the age of data set is not consistent.

References 1. Toshiharu, N., Mio, O.: Japanese Perspective on Dietary Patterns and Risk of Dementia. Ministry of Health, Japanese Perspective on Dietary Patterns and Risk of Dementia. Academic Press, Oxford, pp. 285–294 (2014) 2. Tsukasa, K.: Preparation of the revised hasegawa’s simplified intelligence scale (HDS-R). Jpn J. Geriatric Psychiatry 1339–1347 (1991) 3. König, A., Satt, A., Sorin, A., et al.: Automatic speech analysis for the assessment of patients with predementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s Dement. Diagn. Assess. Dis. Monit. 1, 112–124 (2015) 4. openSMILE. https://www.audeering.com/opensmile/ 5. Bjorn, S., Stefan, S., Anton, B.: The INTERSPEECH 2009 emotion challenge. In: ISCA, 6– 10 September, Brighton UK, pp. 312–314 (2009) 6. Bjorn, S., Stefan, S., Anton, B., Felix, B., Laurence, D., Christian, M., Shrikanth, N.: The INTERSPEECH 2010 paralinguistic challenge. In: ISCA, 26–30 September, Makuhari, Chiba, Japan, pp. 2794–2797 (2010) 7. Yuki, K.: Analysis of dementia tendency of the elderly using acoustic features. Summary of graduation thesis from Department of Information Science, Aichi Prefectural University (2018) 8. Florian, E., Felix, W., Martin, W., Bj¨orn, S.: openSMILE the Munich open Speech and Music Interpretation by Large Space Extraction toolkit, p. 78 (2018) 9. Sadaoki, F.: Sound and Speech Engineering, pp. 181–184. Kindai Kagaku Sha Co. Ltd., Tokyo (1992) 10. Tokyo Medical Association: Caregiver and Community Care Guidebook, pp. 171–172 (2011) 11. Toshiya, F., Eiyai, L., Soutaro, H.: Frontotemporal dementia presenting initially with foreign accent syndrome. A novel clinical sign? pp. 397–407 (2006) 12. Vladimir, N.: V: Statistical Learning Theory. Wiley, New York (1998) 13. Leo, B.: Random Forests. Mach. Learn. 45, 5–32 (2001) 14. Daisaku, K., Kaoru, I., Shoko, W.: Detecting early stage dementia based on natural language processing. Jpn. Soc. Artif. Intell. 34(4), 1–7 (2019) 15. Weka. https://www.cs.waikato.ac.nz/ml/weka/ 16. Audacity. https://www.audacityteam.org/ 17. Guyon, I., Weston, J., Barnhill, S., Vapnik, V.: Gene selection for cancer classification using support vector machines. Mach. Learn. 46(1–3), 389–422 (2002) 18. Hendrik, P., Bo, L., Tuomas, V.: Deep learning for audio signal processing. J. Sel. Top. Sig. Process. 13(2), 206–219 (2019)

Blink Detection Using Image Processing to Predict Eye Fatigue Akihiro Kuwahara(&), Rin Hirakawa, Hideki Kawano, Kenichi Nakashi, and Yoshihisa Nakatoh Kyushu Institute of Technology, 1-1, Sensui-cho, Tobata-ku, Kitakyushu-shi, Fukuoka 804-0015, Japan [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract. With the use of information terminals represented by smartphones, our eyes get tired. One index indicating eye fatigue is a change in the number of blinks. In this study, we set the ultimate goal that is to develop eye fatigue prevention system with less time and less physical burden for patient. By doing this, the information terminal performs a flickering of the eyes using a detection camera and a validity check. Previous EAR study with blink detection is confirmed to be effective, and this paper proposes a new formula EARM used EAR. As an evaluation method of blink detection, we used the total time average of the square of the residual value. The results showed that EARM was more accurate than the EAR. Further, it was suggested that the number of blinks during VDT work can be classified into several patterns. Keywords: Eye fatigue


Image processing
Dlib
EAR

1 Introduction In recent years, information devices such as smartphones and tablets have spread rapidly, and eye health has been threatened accordingly [1, 2]. In Japan, the penetration rate of smartphone households has increased about eight times in the decade from 2008 to 2018 [3]. In addition, the dependence of smartphones on the young generation has become an issue, and it is urgently necessary to detect and protect eye conditions. Currently, measures to protect eye health include self-management of information terminal usage time and eye rest time, and an ophthalmological examination [4, 5]. However, this method has two disadvantages. They are that people should have right to decide the usage of devices, and inspection of the eye fatigue is not easy. Therefore, we noticed that one of the indicators of tired eyes due to VDT work is the transition of the number of blinks [6]. In this study, we set the ultimate goal of developing an eye fatigue prevention system with a less time and less physical burden for patients. By doing this, the information terminal performs the inspection of the validity of blinking eyes using the detection camera.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 362–368, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_55

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2 Outline of Blink Detection Method In this research, blink detection is performed with using image processing. Specifically, face detection and face organ point detection are performed with using Dlib and OpenCV, which are considered to have relatively high accuracy, and we obtain the coordinates of six points around the eyes. And, by using those coordinates, we calculated the EAR, which is an indicator of blinking. This section describes these features. 2.1

Facial Organ Point Detection

Dlib, one of the libraries with machine learning algorithms and tools, is used for facial organ point detection [7]. Dlib uses HOG (Histograms Of Gradient) features and SVM (Support Vector Machine) to perform highly accurate face detection and facial organ point detection. In addition, we used OpenCV, which is a library that emphasized computational efficiency, in order to read and use many videos pre-pared by us [8]. These two libraries are very important for facial organ point detection in this study. In addition, a data set is required to use Dlib’s face organ point detection technology. However, in this experiment, we solved this problem by using the learned data set “shape_predictor_68_face_landmarks.dat” published by iBUG 300-W [9–12]. This can be obtained as 68 points of parts including facial contours, eyebrows and eyes. In this experiment, the coordinates of 12 points related to the eye contour were extracted and used. 2.2

Blink Detection Method

EAR (The Conventional Method). EAR (Eye Aspect Ratio) is a scalar value calculated from the Euclidean distance of the coordinates of six points around the eyes [13]. Hereinafter, the coordinates are calculated with using the Eq. (1) at the coordinates shown in Fig. 1. This represents the eye closure rate, and has a property that the value approaches 0 as the eyelids are closed. The main drawbacks of blink detection of other approaches with using image processing are that they implicitly impose too strong restrictions, image resolution, lighting, etc. In particular, it is likely to be very sensitive to image performance. However, since the EAR has a simple calculation formula and is insensitive to the direction and distance of the face, it expresses blinks efficiently and accurately. In previous studies, the number of blinks was counted by comparing this EAR value with a threshold. EAR ¼

kp2  p6 k þ kp3  p5 k 2kp 1  p4 k

ð1Þ

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Fig. 1. Plot coordinates around eyes [13]

EARM (The Proposed Method). The EAR has a problem in that irregular movements involving eye closure other than blinking, such as sneezing and yawning, are falsely detected as blinking. Therefore, in this experiment, we proposed the following Eq. (2) using the fact that the EAR value at the time of blink draws a characteristic waveform.


 EARMðtÞ ¼ EAR t  X2þ 1 þ EAR t  X21 þ EAR t þ X21
 þ EAR t þ X2þ 1  4  EARðtÞ

ð2Þ

In addition, we used the camera whose FPS starts from 30, and 1 time per frame is about 33 ms. Further, since the blink time is 100 to 150 ms, in this experiment, X (Eye blink time frame Range) is defined as 11. Because of the nature of the equation, EARM responds when the slope is large, so the EAR value must be smoothed for noise removal. Therefore, in this study, the Simple Moving Average filter shown in the following Eq. (3) is applied. SMAn ¼

k 1 X Pt n t¼kn þ 1

ð3Þ

Incidentally, from the results of the preliminary experiment, k = 6 was used in this experiment.

3 Experimental Method We compared blink detection accuracy of the conventional method “EAR” with that of the proposed method “EARM”. Then, the eye fatigue point was estimated from the transition of the blink for one minute and the time when the subject was aware of eye fatigue. 3.1

Subjects

We carried out the experiment with 5 subjects who are twenties and who handling information equipment on a daily basis. Also, in order to make the experimental conditions same, the test was performed within 3 h after getting up with little

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accumulation of eye fatigue. In addition, a visual acuity test was performed on all subjects to confirm that there was no obstacle to the experiment. 3.2

Experimental Conditions

As a VDT task, we impose sudoku puzzle for an hour constantly on subjects. This task is adequate for a task which induce eye fatigue because this can be quickly mastered with simple contents and include frequent eye movements. In the experiment, we recorded the face of the subjects who doing VDT task using the attached camera of surface pro 5. And in order to make the conditions of the experiment same, we maximized brightness of the screen. More over we made the subjects try not to put eye drops in their eyes. After the experiment, we divide the video into one minute and manually measure the number of blinks. We also measured the time the subject is aware of eye fatigue.

4 Experiment Binding Results 4.1

Blink Detection Accuracy Evaluation

In the experiment, we divide the video recording the subjects doing the VDT tasks into one minute. From the video, we calculated the actual measured value of the number of blinks and the predicted values of the conventional method and the proposed method. We used the total time average of the square of the measured value of the number of blinks and the residual value of the predicted value for objective evaluation of blink detection accuracy. Table shows the results. Table 1. The average value of the squares of the residuals of the measured and predicted number of blinks per minute Subjects A B C D E

Existing law (EAR) Proposed method (EARM) 149 79.1 3423.7 214.5 1991.1 0.93 53.3 206.2 181.5 135.8

From Table 1, it can be seen that in many subjects, the total time average of the square of the residual value of the proposed method is smaller than that of the conventional method. The magnitude of the total time average of the square of the residual value indicates the difference between the actually measured value and the predicted value. Therefore, it was suggested that the blink detection accuracy was higher in the proposed method than in the conventional method. However, weak-nesses of the

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proposed method were found. It is that the blink detection accuracy to a subject that wearing glasses is low. We think the problem is that the coordinates of the six detected eyes are not stable due to the glasses. Since the proposed method (EARM) is dependent on the rate of change, it increases the possibility of increased false positives. 4.2

Estimation of Eye Fatigue Point

The estimation of the eye fatigue point was performed using the transition of the number of blinks in one minute and the time from the start of the experiment until the patient became aware of eye fatigue. As a result, it was suggested that there was a pattern in the change of the number of blinks. Figures 2 and 3 below show typical examples of blinking transitions in this experiment. According to previous studies, the number of blinks decreases significantly when performing VDT work, and increase with fatigue [6]. The transition of the number of blinks of the subject E shown in Fig. 2 is consistent with the previous research. Furthermore, he is aware of eye fatigue after the number of blinks increases. Therefore, we believe that the eye fatigue point can be estimated 21 min after the start of the VDT work. In contrast, the subject A is shown in Fig. 3, it is characterized by small changes in the blink number of transitions. He may not be tired because he had no awareness of eye fatigue within one hour of starting the experiment. However, it is known that the subject A chronically uses the information terminal. This suggests that chronic eye fatigue may have caused an abnormal blink transition. If this is the case, the point at which the number of blinks increases is not known, so that the eye fatigue point cannot be predicted. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct an experiment again and carefully examine the result. 30 20 10 0 0

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Actual measured number of blinks Five-minute average of the measured number of blinks Fig. 2. Transition of blink of subject E

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40 30 20 10 0 0

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Actual measured number of blinks Five-minute average of the measured number of blinks Fig. 3. Transition of blink of subject A

5 Conclusion In this research, we proposed a method to detect the number of blinks by detecting facial organ points from images using an information terminal with camera. Compared the measured values of the number of blinks per minute during the VDT work and the predicted values of the number of blinks using the conventional method and the proposed method, proposed method were performed better. As a result, it was shown that the blink detection of the proposed method (EARM) has higher accuracy than the conventional method. On the other hand, the change in the number of blinks per minute was compared with the time when the subject was aware of eye fatigue, and the eye fatigue point was examined. As a result, it was suggested that the number of blinks might be classified into several patterns. However, it is conceivable that the change in the number of blinks of the subject also changes due to the physical condition and other various factors. In the future, we plan to increase individual measurement time. We also plan to experiment with more subjects due to the small number of subjects.

References 1. Lee, H.S., Park, S.W., Heo, H.: Acute acquired comitant esotropia related to excessive Smartphone use (2016) 2. Ratnayake, K., Payton, J.L., Harshana Lakmal, O., Karunarathne, A.: Blue light excited retinal intercepts cellular signaling (2018) 3. Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications: Heisei 30 years communication Usage Trend Survey results (2019) 4. Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare: Guidelines for Occupational Health Management in Information Equipment Operations (2019) 5. Bandou, T., Moriyama, J.: Influence of personal characteristics on health maintenance awareness and internet dependence when using information devices. In: 30th Japan Society for Educational and Information Science, pp. 100–101 (2014) 6. Fukuda, T.: Biological Information Systems. Industrial Books, pp. 213–214 (1995) 7. Dlib C++ Library. http://dlib.net/

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8. Bradski, G., Kaehler, A.: detailed explanation OpenCV - image processing and recognition that uses a computer vision library, pp. 171–172 (2018) 9. Intelligent Behaviour Understanding Group (IBUG): 300 faces in-the-wild challenge (300W). In: ICCV (2013). https://Ibug.Doc.Ic.Ac.Uk/resources/300-W/ 10. Sagonas, C., Antonakos, E., Tzimiropoulos, G., Zafeiriou, S., Pantic, M.: 300 faces in-thewild challenge: database and results. Image Vis. Comput. (IMAVIS) 47, 3–18 (2016). Special Issue on Facial Landmark Localisation “In-The-Wild” 11. Sagonas, C., Tzimiropoulos, G., Zafeiriou, S., Pantic, M.: 300 faces in-the-wild challenge: the first facial landmark localization challenge. In: Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV-W), 300 Faces in-the-Wild Challenge (300-W), Sydney, Australia, December 2013 (2013) 12. Sagonas, C., Tzimiropoulos, G., Zafeiriou, S., Pantic, M.: A semi-automatic methodology for facial landmark annotation. In: Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR-W), 5th Workshop on Analysis and Modeling of Faces and Gestures (AMFG 2013), Oregon, USA, June 2013 (2013) 13. Soukupova, T., Cech, J.: Real-Time Eye Blink Detection Using Facial Landmarks (2016)

Human-Technology and Future of Work

New Investment of Innovative Design of the Future Workstation: Advancing Sedentary Work Behavior Dosun Shin(&), Matthew Buman, Pavan Turaga, Assegid Kidane, and Todd Ingalls The Design School, College of Heath Solutions, Art Media and Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe 85287, USA {Dosun.shin,mbuman,pturaga,Assegid.kidane,todd. ingalls}@asu.edu Abstract. This collaborative transdisciplinary research across the university was initiated with a seed grant from two different colleges to solve one of the major public health problems specifically focusing on humans’ sedentary behavior at the workplace. Sedentary behavior has emerged as a potential risk factor for numerous chronic diseases and all-cause mortality during the last decade. The aim of this study was to develop a new product and system to reduce the time spent sitting at the workplace. A series of physical working prototypes with electronic design and signal processing software application were designed and developed to demonstrate the usability, functionality, and human-interaction through scientifically valid measurements. This paper illustrates the process of system engineering and product design, methodology, and testing results. Keywords: Sensory feedback
Human-systems interaction
Product design and prototyping
Health and solution
Sedentary behavior intervention

1 Introduction A recent review [1] suggests the workplace as a prime target for behavioral interventions. Motivated by these findings, this study aims to develop new designs for instrumented sit-stand workstations, to reduce time spent sitting at the workplace, which are functional, ergonomic, enlivened via media for long-term use, with accurate electronic design and signal processing to enable scientifically valid measurements of efficacy. This project calls for expertise in design, media-synthesis, signal processing, electronics design, and mobility interventions. The team includes faculty and students from The Design School, College of Health Solutions and the School of Arts, Media and Engineering at Arizona State University.

2 Scope of the Project and Aims This is a new transdisciplinary collaboration between the PIs, who have past collaborative track-record on smaller scale projects, which informs our research vision. Our initial prototype for workstation design is restricted to a chair, focus on sitting, and © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 371–376, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_56

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sit-to-stand transitions, provide feedback on time spent sitting and smoothness of standing, and evaluate the intervention on a small scale. The long-term aim is the development of a comprehensive solution to encourage healthier physical behaviors at the workplace – encompassing a) new workstation design with inexpensive embedded electronics for sensing of human movement, pressures, and other related attributes, b) new signal processing methods to convert low-fidelity sensed data to clinically relevant surrogates, c) media-feedback over attributes such as time spent sedentary, quality of sit-to-stand activity, and other posture indices, d) evaluation and long-term intervention studies in deployed conditions.

3 System Design and Workflow The current system consists of an add-on cushion with four embedded sensors, a controller to process and route sensor data and a mobile Android application that processes data and communicates with the user. The system also logs user activity data to a cloud service for archiving as well as for future advanced analysis using Matlab’s extensive tool kits. In the current embodiment, only one of the FSR sensors is used to sense the presence and movement of the subject. The additional sensors are included as a bonus for future improvements where the system can be used in sitting posture related research. This innovative sit-stand workstation design that will use embedded sensors for real-time feedback technology will provide necessary break-throughs and an engaging user experience in promoting standing and reducing sitting time in the workplace. The real-time auditory feedback technology allows the users to improve their sit-to-stand efficiency enhancing users’ health and wellbeing, as well as productivity of their work. We will advance new techniques for time-series analysis and machine learning using techniques from dynamical modeling, geometric, and topological computing toward this end (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1. System architecture

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Fig. 2. System process work flow

Cushion electronics consist of 4 FSR (Force Sensing Resistor) pressure sensors embedded within the fabric layers. Two on the seat are placed at subject size, weight and shape indiscriminate locations to sense thigh pressure distribution. Another two are on the back section using a similar placement configuration to sense back pressure and therefore provide seating posture data. The current working prototype which sends data to the controller via an Ethernet type cable and connector, uses the data from the left thigh sensor to control the mobile application on an Android device. The main controller is the Sparkfun’s ESP32 Thing Plus device. A custom interface auxiliary board using a resistor network is used to condition the FSR sensor data for sensitivity and noise immunity of the ESP32 Thing analog to digital converters. The processed sensor data is then sent to an Android mobile device to produce the behavior modification notifications. The data is also archived at Thingspeak for visualization and future analysis. The ESP32 Thing is programmed to accomplish this using the Arduino IDE. The controller is powered by a Lithium battery that is good for about 17 h (about two 8 h workdays). The provided micro USB port is available for battery charging and wired data connectivity with a PC. It can also be used as an external power port. On system turn-on, the device first runs the sensor stabilizing routine. It then automatically connects to the local wireless network and immediately establishes connectivity with Thingspeak cloud server to archive sensor data. The ‘Futureworkstation’ Android mobile application can then connect to the controller to receive sensor data on a Bluetooth LE channel. The ‘Futureworkstation’ android application developed for the system receives sensor data from the left thigh sensor in the SmartMat. Using data received through

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Bluetooth connectivity, the application determines the state of occupancy of the chair and initializes several timers to monitor the person’s movement. The application’s default configuration plays a sound notification whenever the user remains sitting for longer than 30 min. Both the sitting and movement periods are configurable in the application to adapt to clinically recommended values or for testing new experimental sit/stand period scenarios that may be more in tune to different workplace environments, age groups or special conditions.

4 Prototyping and Design The engineering development, hardware and software, began as concurrent processes. On the hardware side, pressure sensors installed on acrylic frames for protection and robustness (Fig. 3) were distributed inside the seat cushion (Fig. 4). These pressure sensors are activated when the person seats down on the cushion. The controller mounted outside receives the data from the pressure sensors and distributes it to a mobile device and the cloud wirelessly. The mobile device software will start a timer and will keep it going as long as the sensor registers pressure. In this implementation, messages to the user consist of activity encouragement sound notifications (Figs. 5 and 6).

Fig. 3. Pressure sensor

Fig. 4. Seat cushion with sensors

Fig. 5. Working cushion

Fig. 6. Thingspeak data showing transitions from sit-to-stand & Android application

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The human-centered design started with the consideration of how the cushion was going to be used in the office environment for two kinds of stake-holders: healthconscious office workers and cushion technicians. The primary user is the office worker for whom a simple clam-shell form was explored during sketching sessions (Fig. 7). Several office chairs were investigated for dimensional analysis and used them to obtain the overall size and shape of cushion that can install the sensors inside the cushion and fit on to the office chairs. Keeping low cost in mind, a flat and two-part cushions was explored through computer drawings (Fig. 8). Material considerations included softness, ease of cleaning, breathable fabric, tech forward visual designs, and bright accent colors on a black background. The core of the cushion is made up of a thin, soft foam for user comfort, and in order to stabilize the electronic pressure sensors, a rigid and light cardboard panel was added underneath the foam. These two are wrapped with an easy-to-clean polypropylene fabric. Removable, cushioned pads were placed on top of the main cushions, both seat and back, so that technicians can service the sensors sandwiched in between. These top pads also indicate to the user which is the seat and which is the back. Two straps, one on the neck and one on the back of the cushion, were added to secure it to the user’s office chair (Fig. 9).

Fig. 7. Concept sketch

Fig. 8. Explored view of cushion Fig. 9. Design prototype

5 Usability Test In December 2019, five office workers were recruited to participate in a usability study, and the enrollment process took place in January 2020. Participants used the app and system for an 8-h workday and then interviewed at the end of the workday regarding their experiences. The open-ended interview included topics such as work environment, general overview of the ‘Futureworkstation’, product application and its utility, and general thoughts. Interviews were recorded and later transcribed for meaning and summarized. Informed consent was received from each participant prior to participation. Workers viewed the general concept of the ‘Futureworkstation’ as positive and promising. Participants were asked about their work environment in general before the use of the ‘Futureworkstation’. Half of the participants who indicated that their work environment supported standing had and used a sit-stand workstation. Participants

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indicated that they think about how much they sit throughout their workday, and were open to incorporating different postures (i.e., standing) and movement throughout the work day. All participants indicated that the padding in the chair was comfortable, but 40% of the participants indicated that for the sensors to work they had to adopt a reclining position. Only 60% of participants stated that they were able to maintain focus while using the ‘Futureworkstation’, while the other 40% indicated that they were not able to maintain focus because they were trying to listen for the voice prompt. 80% of participants believe that the product had the potential to get other individuals active in the workplace, although their reasons for this differed: 40% felt the visual prompts would be effective, 40% felt the voice prompts would be effective, and 20% indicated both would be effective. All participants who had a sit-stand workstation indicated that this product would be a useful tool. All participants indicated that the ‘Futureworkstation’ would be more useful if the voices had worked. When asked about what participants would change about the chair design, 20% stated to have a rubber back so the chair would not slip, 40% would like to see the padding more form fitting to the chair, and 60% would like to see lumbar support for the chair. 80% stated that there was no negative effect on their productivity throughout the workday. The participants were also asked to rate their total experience on the product from 1 being poor to five being excellent, 60% rated their experience as a 4, 20% rated their experience as a 3, and 20% rated their experience as a two. 80% of participants would recommend the ‘Futureworkstation’ to other co-workers or friends.

6 Conclusion The idea of a ‘Future Workstation’ was found to be of interest by our participants. Many of the participants saw this product as something to complement additional sitto-stand tools or another great option for those who do not have additional sit-to-stand tools at their disposal. While we chose to build the system in the form of an add-on cushion for the sake of flexibility and lowering costs, the system can be integrated in a typical ergonomic office chair just as easily in collaboration with any office chair manufacturer. There was little to no indication from the participants about disruptions of productivity due to the Future Workstation. Negative reactions to the Future Workstation were largely due to technical glitches in the app rather than the overall product. There was generally high interest in the product, and its integration into their work environment was overall positive. This integration was particularly highly rated among those who already had a sit-stand workstations.

Reference 1. Shrestha, N., Kukkonen-Harjula, K.T., Verbeek, J.H., et al.: Workplace interventions for reducing sitting at work. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 3, CD010912 (2016)

Industry 4.0 in Logistics and Associated Employee Competencies – A Technology Providers’ Perspective Markus Kohl(&), Sophia Knauer, and Johannes Fottner Chair of Materials Handling, Material Flow, Logistics, Technical University of Munich, Boltzmannstr. 15, 85748 Garching, Germany {Markus.Kohl,Sophia.Knauer,J.Fottner}@tum.de

Abstract. Digital transformation is a key driver for Industry 4.0 and converts production and logistics into a digitalized, interconnected, intelligent factory and supply chain. Associated technical developments are resulting in an enormous change in the requirements for employee competencies. Despite increasing automation, workforces and their skills are still of great importance for the successful utilization of innovative technologies. Until now, current research has scarcely focused on upcoming changes in technology-specific competencies due to digitalization and automation in logistics. The aim of this paper is to identify the competency requirements by means of semi-structured interviews with technology providers. The analysis indicates that demands for competencies change based on the use of hardware and software products. The paper identifies future relevant competencies and requirements for logistics employees so that Industry 4.0 technologies can be exploited. By analyzing changes in competencies, demands for qualifications and appropriate development and training for employees can be derived. Keywords: Competencies
Competency management logistics
Technology provider


Industry 4.0
Future

1 Introduction Industry 4.0 is intended to promote digitalization and automation in production and logistics. It is primarily driven by large amounts of data, higher computing power and connectivity [1]. The implementation of the data-centric industrial revolution requires an intelligent integration of different technological developments. The increasing use of automation and information technologies in industry indicates that fewer people will work in these areas in the future. However, the full-scale replacement of humans with advanced technologies will not be possible in the foreseeable future [2]. Moreover, the introduction of new technologies increases complexity, which is why highly qualified, well-trained people are important for making systems long-lasting and resilient [3]. Based on various definitions [4, 5] the core of Industry 4.0 is the interconnection and communication of products and services with each other. Through decentralized control, the system elements act autonomously, and the processing of the generated information and data occurs in real-time. Industry 4.0 is associated with various © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 377–383, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_57

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technologies [1]: Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS), Internet of Things (IoT), Big Data (BD), Artificial Intelligence (AI), Human-Robot Collaboration (HRC), and Augmented Reality (AR). CPS are physical objects containing embedded, communication-enabled systems [6], such as RFID-equipped containers that enable automatic stock control [5]. IoT allows wireless communication via integrated sensors and computers so that clearly identifiable objects can send their data [7], enabling track and trace solutions to monitor and control material flows. BD describes the handling of large amounts of data generated by increasing digitalization. By analyzing the data, relevant information can be identified and used to support process optimization [8]. AI aims to imitate human learning ability by creating intelligent algorithms [9]. It is mostly used in connection with BD, since the intelligent algorithms require a large database. HRC describes the collaborative work of humans and robots with each other. Possible applications in logistics are the transport of goods, and picking and palletizing [10]. AR is the immediate, interactive and real-time expansion of the perception of the real environment with virtual content that is based on reality [11]. Relevant information can be displayed in the employee’s field of vision to support tasks such as the picking of parts [11]. With increasing digitalization and automation, the demands on competencies will change. Competencies are defined as the entirety of skills, abilities, knowledge, attitudes and motivation that an individual needs to effectively perform work-related tasks and challenges. A distinction is made between professional, methodological, personal, and social competency [12]. There is a trend towards constantly growing competency requirements in the field of logistics. New regulations, new fields of activity, and the enhanced use of technologies are causing existing fields of activity to be more demanding. Looking at different technologies, most studies focus on the implementation and benefits of innovations. However, almost no attention is paid to the competencies that are becoming important for the employee, or, in just a few cases, specific technologies are examined [13]. Until now, current research has barely focused on the required future competencies of human workforce [14], while technology-specific evaluations have not been considered. Moreover, research focuses on the perspective of the users while neglecting the viewpoint of the technology providers, even though this is necessary for obtaining a complete overview of the competencies required.

2 Research Methodology This paper aims to identify the technologies and related use cases relevant for digitalization and automation in logistics, so that subsequently the necessary competency requirements from the perspective of the technology providers can be determined. To identify the technologies, both their significance for Industry 4.0 and their relevance for application in logistics have been considered. The basis for this was a systematic literature review, which was also used to identify suitable use cases for the technologies in logistics, and the corresponding companies and technology providers.

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Semi-structured expert interviews were conducted to determine competency requirements. The chosen interview method ranged between the explorative and substantiated form, as aspects of both types were included. The substantiated questionnaire was used for initial orientation and structuring of the interview. In addition, the open character of an explorative expert interview was used to collect a wide range of information. The questionnaire used as a structural basis for the expert interviews is divided into three thematic blocks: technology, process and role of the employee. The interviews provided information about the function of the products used in the processes, the role of the employees in the processes when handling the technologies as well as the requirements for necessary, technology-specific competencies. The expert interviews were conducted between December 2019 and January 2020 and on average lasted 38 min. A total of 27 companies was contacted, of which 19 experts could be interviewed. The respondents were from different companies, ranging from start-ups with 40 employees through to corporations with 385,000 employees. The results of 17 interviews are used to determine the competency requirements. Two results could not be considered for further analysis as they were not extensive and differentiated enough. At least two interviews were conducted for each technology.

3 Technology Providers’ Competency Requirements for Industry 4.0 in Logistics 3.1

Technology-Specific Competency Requirements

For each technology, the required competencies were analyzed based on the previously selected use cases and the corresponding assessments of the technology providers. 16 competencies have been identified and are displayed in Table 1. Table 1. Competency requirements for technologies Category Methodological competencies

Personal competencies

Competency Analytical thinking Dealing with complexity Decision-making ability Problem-solving ability Abstract thinking Dealing with rules Flexibility Willingness to learn

CPS X X

IoT X X

BD X

AI X

AR X

HRC X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X X (continued)

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Category Professional competencies

Competency Handling digital devices Handling HMI Handling software IT affinity Logistics-specific knowledge Maintenance skills Programming skills Understanding data processing

CPS X

X

IoT X

X

X X X

X

X X

BD

AI

X X X

X X X

X

X X

AR X

HRC X

X

X X X X

X

X

X

For CPS, methodological and some professional competencies were identified as being necessary to operate the hardware of the RFID system. For software aspects, skills in the use of digital devices and in the use of software are needed. IoT demands competencies in all categories. The technology has an impact on operational and planning levels. Furthermore, both hardware and software components are involved in the application of IoT. The methodological skills are necessary for dealing with hardware, while the software components primarily require professional skills. For BD, a multitude of competencies is required. BD evaluates data and provides insights which can be used operationally and by planners, and therefore affects various employee levels demanding professional skills related to the use of software. AI primarily requires professional skills because it is a digital, software-based technology that is mainly used by specialists. AI is the only technology that causes the use of programming skills to handle the complex algorithms. For AR, all methodological and professional skills listed here are required. In the selected use case AR supports the hardware-based picking process, simplifying the work of the logistics employee and thus resulting in a lower workload. Overall, this results in a reduction of competency requirements because hardware-based technologies primarily support and facilitate the activities of employees. HRC requires the broadest range of expertise of all the technologies as it comprises both hardware and software components. This requires the involvement of employees at the operational and planning levels, with each role requiring different skills for its area of activity. In addition, it is the only technology that requires competency in dealing with regulations and guidelines. This is due to the strict safety guidelines that apply to the coexistence of robots and humans. 3.2

Effects on the Job Profiles in Logistics

The competency requirements are discussed based on the different job profiles: logistics employee, foreman, and logistics planner. Table 2 shows a summary for the different profiles including changes in activities and competency requirements.

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Table 2. Competency requirements for job profiles and technologies Technology

Profile

Cyber-Physical Systems, Internet of Things

Logistics employee

Foreman

Logistics planner

Human Robot Collaboration, Augmented Reality

Logistics employee

Foreman

Logistics planner

Big Data, Artificial Intelligence

Logistics planner

Competency changes − Logistics-specific + Dealing with knowledge complexity − Resilience + Dealing with digital devices + Maintenance skills + Analytical + Problem-solving ability thinking + Decisionmaking ability − Dealing with complexity + Handling of − Resilience software + Logisticsspecific knowledge − Logistics-specific + Dealing with knowledge complexity − Resilience + Dealing with digital devices + Dealing with HMI + Analytical + Maintenance skills thinking + Problem-solving ability + Decisionmaking ability + IT affinity + Dealing with + Logistics-specific knowledge HRI + Handling of software + Logistics-specific + Abstract knowledge + Problemthinking solving ability + Analytical + Programming skills thinking + Data processing + Decision− Resilience making ability + Handling of software + IT affinity

The logistics employee acts in the operational area. Prerequisites are vocational training and experience in the field of activity, which is achieved based on longer periods of practical work. For the logistics employee, competencies in dealing with complexity as well as dealing with digital devices are essential. Furthermore, a decrease in requirements for resilience and logistics-specific knowledge is evident, which results from the increasing provision of information by use of new technologies. Flexibility and willingness to learn can be helpful for utilizing these technologies.

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The role of the foreman is an extension from the logistics employee. In addition to the basic qualifications, the foreman has cross-activity experience and assumes a certain degree of responsibility in the area. The foreman needs methodological skills such as problem-solving, decision-making and analytical thinking. Furthermore, professional competency in maintenance is required. This competency profile results from a new field of activity, in which new technologies facilitate operational work, but require provision of monitoring and problem-solving solutions. Since operational activities are not directly carried out, the foreman only benefits to a limited extent from the relief provided by the technologies. The logistics planner is responsible for material flows, logistics structures and their changes. Perquisite is a university degree and experience in this field of activity. The tasks relate to the operational process, although the planner is not directly involved in it. In addition, the activities include handling common logistics-specific software such as ERP systems. The competency profile of the logistics planner is characterized by methodical skills. Software and IT competency is also important because many of the technologies are used to digitalize logistics. For the technologies BD and AI, competency requirements exist only for the role of the logistics planner, since logistics employees and foremen are working operationally and therefore are not directly affected by software technologies. 3.3

General Findings from the Survey of Technology Providers

By analyzing the assessments of the technology providers, the following three most important competency requirements for the use of technologies in logistics could be identified: logistics-specific knowledge, handling software, and decision-making ability. These findings arise from expanding automation, in which humans increasingly act in a position of judgement and decision-making, as well as having to support and understand the various automation solutions based on software. Logistics-specific knowledge is necessary for all technologies, which shows that even with increasing use of technology, specialist knowledge is essential. The analysis indicates that the requirement for competencies changes dependent on the hardware and software products used. Hardware technologies support the logistics employees in their activities and help them by providing information, which leads to a reduction in some competency requirements. On the other hand, software technologies take over many activities, so that the logistics employees need only act in exceptional cases. In general, there is a tendency that for currently low qualification levels, fewer competencies are needed overall while for intermediate qualification levels, further methodological skills, such as a problem-solving ability, are required. Higher qualification levels require more professional knowledge, especially programming skills and extensive knowledge of the logistics process.

4 Conclusion The paper identifies future relevant competencies and requirements for logistics employees in order to operate Industry 4.0 technologies. By analyzing changes in competencies, requirements for qualifications and appropriate development and

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training for different employee profiles can be derived. The source of primary data are technology providers, who are experts in their product and service fields, and make it possible to derive extensive and meaningful statements about essential competency requirements. The paper aims to contribute to the development of competency management in a digitalized working environment. Further investigations into process changes resulting from new technologies can also facilitate targeted personnel development and strategic planning. In addition, the competency requirements should be evaluated by technology users and compared with the perspective of the technology providers presented here.

References 1. Sharma, A., Jain, D.K.: Development of Industry 4.0. In: Nayyar, A., Kumar, A. (eds.) A Roadmap to Industry 4.0: Smart Production, Sharp Business and Sustainable Development, pp. 23–38. Springer, Cham (2020) 2. Pfeiffer, S.: Robots, Industry 4.0 and humans, or why assembly work is more than routine work. Societies 2, 16 (2016) 3. Tan, Q., Tong, Y., Wu, S., Li, D.: Anthropocentric approach for smart assembly: integration and collaboration. J. Robot. 1, 1–8 (2019) 4. Dalmarco, G., Ramalho, F.R., Barros, A.C., Soares, A.L.: Providing industry 4.0 technologies: the case of a production technology cluster. J. High Technol. Manage. Res. 30, 100355 (2019) 5. Hofmann, E., Rüsch, M.: Industry 4.0 and the current status as well as future prospects on logistics. Comput. Ind. 89, 23–34 (2017) 6. Oztemel, E., Gursev, S.: Literature review of Industry 4.0 and related technologies. J. Intell. Manuf. 4, 3 (2018) 7. Wang, L., Törngren, M., Onori, M.: Current status and advancement of cyber-physical systems in manufacturing. J. Manuf. Syst. 37, 517–527 (2015) 8. Bihani, P., Patil, S.T.: A comparative study of data analysis techniques. Int. J. Emerg. Trends Technol. Comput. Sci. 3, 95–101 (2014) 9. Rahmanifard, H., Plaksina, T.: Application of artificial intelligence techniques in the petroleum industry: a review. Artif. Intell. Rev. 52(4), 2295–2318 (2018) 10. Krug, R., Stoyanov, T., Tincani, V., Andreasson, H., Mosberger, R., Fantoni, G., Lilienthal, A.J.: The next step in robot commissioning: autonomous picking and palletizing. IEEE Robot. Autom. Lett. 1, 546–553 (2016) 11. Kumari, S., Polke, N.: Implementation issues of augmented reality and virtual reality. In: Hemanth, J., et al. (eds.) International Conference on Intelligent Data Communication Technologies and IoT, pp. 853–861. Springer, Cham (2019) 12. Hecklau, F., Galeitzke, M., Flachs, S., Kohl, H.: Holistic approach for human resource management in Industry 40. Procedia CIRP 54, 1–6 (2016) 13. Dworschak, B., Zaiser, H., Martinetz, S., Windelband, L.: The future skills needed for the Internet of Things in the field of logistics: summary of study findings, pp. 1–11 (2013) 14. Zijm, H., Klumpp, M.: Future logistics: what to expect, how to adapt. In: Freitag, M., Kotzab, H., Pannek, J. (eds.) Dynamics in Logistics, pp. 365–379. Springer, Cham (2017)

Digital Twin Modeling of Smart Cities Dessislava Petrova-Antonova(&) and Sylvia Ilieva GATE Institute, Sofia University, “St. Kl. Ohridski”, 125 Tsarigradsko shose Blvd., 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria {d.petrova,sylvia}@fmi.uni-sofia.bg

Abstract. Smart cities utilize the Big Data and IoT to provide better life for citizens. Since, they are the most complicated human artifact, the adoption of such technologies become a complex task, requiring continuous data collection, aggregation and analysis. In order to transform city problems into concrete actions a systematic approach aimed at digital transition needs to be followed. There are huge efforts to build city information models for encoding city objects, their relations and supporting the decision-making. This requires a common knowledge base, supported by rich vocabularies and ontologies that are capable to handle the information diversity and overload. In this paper a methodological framework and an upper-level ontology for building digital city models are presented. The process of digital city modelling follows the concept of digital twin by providing a data-driven decision making. The proposed upper-level ontology aims to overcome city modeling problems due to data silos and lack of semantic interoperability. Keywords: Data-driven decision making
Digital twin framework
Smart city
Upper-level city ontology


Methodological

1 Introduction Smart city concept attracts the attention and interest of many cities, authorities, industrial and research organizations at national, European and international level. Big Data is undoubtfully considered as one of the main enablers of the smart cities. By adopting Big Data and IoT technologies, the city stakeholders can push a data-driven processes using a shred data instead only their own data. Unfortunately, the data is spread across different organizations and systems in isolation without common semantics and technology base. The interoperability of data is missing, and it is a target goal of use case scenarios that depend on linking and analysis of heterogeneous data. Therefore, the building of share urban data platform for a deeper insight requires establishment of common data semantics agreed with all city stakeholders. Nowadays, the smart city’s performance is evaluated by different key performance indicators (KPIs) and platforms as well as the effects of smart city initiatives is measured by several assessment procedures. Unfortunately, the current approaches and tools for smart city assessment do not perform continuous monitoring of city processes to collect city data and guide decisions on it. In addition, the smart city interventions are often focused on a single direction such as urban planning, air pollution, mobility, etc. In order to support city monitoring and analysis, to identify problem issues before © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 384–390, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_58

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they arise, to suspend idleness, to find new opportunities and to decide through experimentation, a physical city needs to be paired to a virtual one trough digital twinning. The concept of digital twin is not new, but now it has different view and is listed by Gartner as one of the top 10 strategic technology trends, since it provides robustness models using the Artificial Intelligence and Big Data potential to find new opportunities and to interact with virtual model to simulate “what-if” scenarios. The City Information Model (CIM) is a core of a digital twin, providing a foundation for semantically integration of data from heterogeneous sources. The primary contributions of the paper are as follows: • A methodological framework for building intelligent city models that adopts the digital twin paradigm; • An upper-level ontology for city information modeling that aligns the ontologies applied in different sectors and facilitate building of city digital twins. The proposed methodological framework aims to support city authorities to get valuable insight from city processes and to evaluate outcomes from application of novelty solutions. The upper-level ontology provides a description of concepts in a city model in a formal and explicit way and helps to overcome problems such as data silos and lack of semantic interoperability. The framework and ontology are a starting point for development of open data platform for performance assessment of smart cities in transparent and flexible way. The architecture of the platform together with a classification schema of KPIs are presented in our previous work [1]. The remainder of this paper is structured as follows. Section 2 outlines the proposed methodological framework. Section 3 presents an upper-level city ontology for digital twin modelling. Section 4 provides a brief review of the currently available ontologies and standards for information description of cities. Finally, Sect. 5 concludes the contribution of this paper and suggests considerations for future research.

2 Methodological Framework The proposed methodological framework adopts the digital twin concept. It proposes building of a virtual city model that supports testing of new solutions prior their deployment to the physical city and to evaluate the results to discover new directions to accelerate the performance. The physical and virtual city are twinned by integration of edge computing to perform data processing close to its source, communication interfaces for data transmission and security mechanisms to ensure confidentially and integrity of data. The interaction with the real world is performed through sensors, which capture data from physical processes and transmit it to the virtual world. The sensor data is enriched with data from different system, operating in the city, like municipality data, base urban plan, social media data, data from utility companies, businesses and citizens. Using the power of machine learning algorithms and other

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Artificial Intelligence methods and technologies, new evidence about the city is likely to be obtained, which is able to drive concrete decisions. The decisions force processes and actions in the physical world. The methodological framework prescribes six stages for implementation of digital twin, which can be summarized as follows: • Create – CIM is created by gathering data from databases in organizations, sensors, cameras, social media, etc. The data form sensor and physical devices falls into two classes: (1) data related to environment in which the city operates and (2) data coming from city operations. The operational and environmental data may be enriched with additional data collected from ERP systems, geographic information systems, and other systems that serve the needs of city authorities, enterprises, utility companies, etc. • Interact – At this stage, a bidirectional connectivity between the physical city and its digital footprint is established. The collected information is transmitted to the analytical platform by the communication infrastructure. Depending on the type of the communication network (LPWAN, Wi-Fi etc.) and the location and specific characteristics of the sensors, the interfaces for data transmission can vary. • Aggregate – At this stage, the collected information is structured in a data store and pre-processed using techniques like cleaning, filtering, linking, anonymization and semantic annotation. • Analyze – The analyze stage relies on variety models of virtual city, which are created on top of CIM. This stage aims to produce insights, driving the decisionmaking process through application of artificial intelligent methods. • Insight – The insights from analytics are visualized in multidimensional views during the insight stage. The full potential of 3D and 4D models is exploited to provide better understanding of city processes and patterns. • Decision – The insights are applied to the physical city to gain an effect from the twining model during the decision stage. The decisions push new processes and actions to accelerate the performance of physical city.

3 Upper-Level City Ontology Computer science defines the ontology as a formal explicit description of concepts in a domain, properties of concepts that describe attributes and features and restrictions on properties. This section proposes an upper-level ontology for digital twin modelling of smart cities. The concepts of the ontology are presented in Table 1.

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Table 1. Concepts of ontology. # 1 2

Concept ENTITY RECORD

3

PROCESS

4

GROUP

5 6

ACTION PROCEDURE

7 8 9

GOAL SCHEDULE ACTOR

10 11 12 13 14 15 16

OBJECT EVENT LOCATION INDICATOR HYPOTHESIS SERVICE FUNCTION

17 18

ASSET REGULATION

19 20 21

PERSON ORGANISATION SYSTEM

22 23 24

STATE TIME ROLE

Description A particular thing A container of information held by an ACTOR who record data coming from PROCESS that relate to an ENTITY in a role An ENTITY consisting of EVENTs related to a particular FUNCTION execution A collection of ENITIEs with similar attributed that is defined by an ACTOR An act influenced by a GOAL, taken by an ACTOR A preliminary defined method or series of steps, defined to achieve a GOAL An objective set by an ACTOR A sequence of steps An ENTITY that could be a PERSON, ORGANISATION or SYSTEM, taking a role in an EVENT or performing a FUNCTION A physical ENTITY A case that has happened or might happen A geographic position A thing that indicates the STATE of ENTITY An assumption for a particular STATE A collection of FUNCTIONs An operation performed by an ACTOR using an ASSET and typically targeted at a GROUP An ENTITY used by an ACTOR to achieve a GOAL A rule or policy governing a PROCEDURE or constraining a SERVICE A human bein A group of PERSONs with common objective A set of connected ENTITIEs that operate together to achieve a GOAL A condition of an ENTITY at a TIME A measure to describe observed changes of a STATE A specific behavior of an ACTOR in a PROCESS

The city consists of ENTITIEs that are described with data coming from different sources. ENTITY has a common unique identifier, which might be referenced by different organizations delivering data. ENTITY could be an OBJECT (e.g. car) or an ACTOR (e.g. driver). The ACTOR could be a PERSON, an ORGANSATION or a SYSTEM. ENTITY might be associated with a LOCATION, describing where an ENTITY is. LOCATION could be geographic position (defined with latitude and longitude) or area (defined with boundaries). ENTITIEs have STATEs over TIME. TIME might be presented with a time value or time interval. The STATE describes

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characteristics of the ENTITY (e.g. carbon emissions in the air). The smart city decisions are based on the STATES of ENTITIEs. ACTOR can perform ACTIONs to change a STATE of an ENTITY. ENTITIES could form GROUPS. GROUP contains ENTITIEs from a single class with similar attributes (e.g. family is a GROUP, which consists of PERSONS, namely family members). GROUP is defined by an ACTOR in order to manage a set of ENTITIEs. ACTORs have GOALs to change the STATE of the ENTITIES (e.g. reducing traffic congestions, providing e-services, optimizing energy using, reducing waste). A GOAL can be achieved through series of ACTIONS performed by an ACTOR. GOAL can be quantified using INDICATORs, which asses the STATE of impacted ENTITY after series of ACTIONS (e.g. greenhouse gas emissions per capita). GOAL is identified based on a HYPOTHESES, which represent the future STATE of ENTITIES participated in a PROCESS. The city performs different FUNCTIONs (e.g. water and energy supply, waste collection, traffic control), which follows different PRODUREs. FUNCTIONs are provided by ACTORS (PERSON, ORGANISATION or SYSTEM). FUNCTION could be used by a GROUP of ACTORS. The FUNCTION is a sub-concept of ENTITY. FUNCTIONs can be grouped into SERVICEs. SERVICE is a sub-concept of GROUP. Each SERVICE provides several FUNCTIONs to a GROUP of ACTORs (e.g. water management SERVICE consists of FUNCTIONs for water supply, wastewater recycling, billing, sewerage maintenance). SCHEDULE consists of steps and decisions taken to achieve a specific GOAL measured by an INDICATOR defined for it. ASSET is an ENTITY that can be used by ACTORS to take ACTIONS in order to achieve a specific GOAL. ASSET could be applied to a SCHEDULE or FUNCION. ACTOR participates in a PROCESS (e.g. a driver participates in transportation process). PROCESS covers specific city dimension such as transportation, healthcare, education. All ENTITIEs can take a role in a PROCESS (e.g. a PERSON could be a driver or passenger in the transportation process). PROCESS consists of EVENTs that are related to a particular execution of a FUNCTION. For some PROCESSEs, a SCHEDULE could be elaborated to estimate the required ASSETs. ACTOR creates RECORDs when an EVENT happens.

4 Related Work The main goal of city ontologies is to provide data interoperability through data linking and semantic annotation. Several ontologies with a general purpose are available such as the Suggested Upper Merged Ontology, owned by IEEE [2], the Descriptive Ontology for Linguistic and Cognitive Engineering [3], the community initiative Schema.org and the Knowledge Model for City and Mobility ontology [4]. In addition to them, there are ontologies related to specific sectors. For example, the General Transit Feed Specification of Google defines a common format for description of information about the schedule and transit system of public transport [5]. The eGovernment Core Vocabularies provides a semantic interoperability among European public administrations though reusable and extensible data models [6]. The Event Recording and Incident Sharing (VERIS) is a vocabulary for security event recording

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and incident sharing. The Public Procurement Ontology defines concepts appropriate for semantic description of public procurement processes and contracts [8]. The Energy Model, proposed within the SEMANCO project is a formal ontology, specified with the Web Ontology Language 2 [9]. It consists of concepts that are taken from different sources like standards, use cases, urban planning and energy management. The Smart Appliances Reference ontology defines a common data model in the field of smart appliances [10]. It is based on the concept of device as an object that performs tasks through one or more functions in the households and public buildings. CityGML is a widely adopted international standard for 3D city modeling, data storage and transfer [11]. It provides an extra dimension to traditional 2D models based on spatial and registry data through support of semantics in description of city objects.

5 Conclusions The digital twin modeling allows city stakeholders to better understand, learn and reason city processes using real-time data. This paper proposes a methodological framework and an upper-level city ontology for digital twin modelling. The methodological framework supports decision making along digital transition of cities by providing a virtual environment for what-if scenario analysis. Different actions and processes could be evaluated to predict their effect on the city performance before their application in the real world. The upper-level ontology is a first step towards implementation of city digital twin, overcoming the problems related to semantic interoperability and data consistency, complexity, volume and quality. In such context, the ontologies and standards for information description of cities appropriate for 3D modeling are discussed and a new upper-level city ontology is proposed. The future work includes application of the proposed methodological framework and upper-level city ontology to a real case using data for Sofia city. The collected data will be organized in information objects following the ontology and a mapping with the objects in the core module of CityGML standard will be elaborated. The goal is to identify the missing objects in the core module and to define new application domain extensions needed to be added to the information model of Sofia city. The application of ontology-based approach will simplify information retrieval and provide a solid base for further development of the digital twin. Acknowledgments. This research work has been supported by GATE project, funded by the Horizon 2020 WIDESPREAD-2018-2020 TEAMING Phase 2 programme under grant agreement no. 857155 and Big4Smart project, funded by the Bulgarian National Science fund, under agreement no. DN12/9.

References 1. Petrova-Antonova, D. et al.: Towards a technological platform for transparent and flexible assessment of smart cities. In: 10th International Joint Conference on Knowledge Discovery, Knowledge Engineering and Knowledge Management, KDIR, vol. 1, pp. 374–381 (2018)

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2. Pease, A.: Ontology: A Practical Guide. Articulate Software Press, Angwin (2011). ASIN 1889455105 3. Masalo, C., et al.: Ontology Library. WonderWeb Deliverable D18, IST Project 2001-33052 WonderWeb (2001). http://www.loa.istc.cnr.it/old/Papers/D18.pdf 4. Bellini, P., Nesi, P., Soderi, T.: km4city, the DISIT Knowledge Model for City and Mobility. DISIT Lab, University of Florence, Italy. http://www.disit.org/km4city/schema 5. Google. General Transit Feed Specification. https://gtfs.org/ 6. European Union, e-Government Core Vocabularies handbook (2015). https://doi.org/10. 2799/97439, https://ec.europa.eu/isa2/sites/isa/files/e-government_core_vocabularies_handb ook_0.pdf 7. VERIS. http://veriscommunity.net/incident-track.html 8. Muñoz, J.F., Esteban, G., Corcho, O., Serón, F.: PPROC, an ontology for transparency in public procurement. Semantic Web (Preprint), pp. 1–15 (2016) 9. Corrado, V., et al.: Data structuring for the ontological modelling of urban energy systems: the experience of the SEMANCO project. Sustain. Cities Soc. 14, 223–235 (2015) 10. Daniele, L., den Hartog, F., Roes, J.: Created in close interaction with the industry: the Smart Appliances REFerence (SAREF) Ontology. In: Cuel, R., Young, R. (eds.) FOMI 2015. LNBIP, vol. 225, pp. 100–112. Springer, Cham (2015) 11. CityGML, OGC. http://www.citygml.org/

Upper Limbs Motion Tracking for Collaborative Robotic Applications Elisa Digo(&), Mattia Antonelli, Stefano Pastorelli, and Laura Gastaldi Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi 24, 10129 Turin, Italy {elisa.digo,stefano.pastorelli}@polito.it, [email protected]

Abstract. In the perspective of Industry 4.0, the contemporary presence of workers and robots in the same workspace requires the development of human motion prediction algorithms for a safe and efficient interaction. In this context, the purpose of the present study was to perform an operation of sensor fusion, by creating a collection of spatial and inertial variables of human upper limbs kinematics of typical industrial movements. Spatial and inertial data of ten healthy young subjects performing three pick and place gestures at different heights were measured with a stereophotogrammetric system and Inertial Measurement Units, respectively. Elbow and shoulder angles estimated from both instruments according to a multibody approach showed very similar trends. Moreover, two variables of the database were identified as distinctive features able to differentiate among the three gestures of pick and place. Keywords: Sensor fusion


IMU
Prediction
Industry 4.0
Pick and place

1 Introduction Technological developments of Industry 4.0 are strongly leading to automate workers’ gestures with the support of robots. Consequently, the concept of interaction between human and robot is gaining an increasingly central role in manufacturing. The team of human and robot cooperating in the same environment with a common plan guarantees, security ensured, a more successful and efficient execution of tasks [1–3]. However, this collaboration cannot be considered optimal unless it occurs on the basis of a prediction operation. In fact, by predicting human activity, the robot can identify actions, paths and timing that will result in a safer and more efficient interaction [4, 5]. Several literature works based on human motion tracking have already addressed the concept of human activity prediction. Some studies have structured their prediction methods on data collected with different motion capture instruments such as stereophotogrammetric systems [6, 7] and RGB-D cameras [8, 9]. Other works used existing databases of human motions to define and train their prediction algorithms [10, 11]. Most of the adopted databases are composed of 3D joints coordinates acquired with optical and stereophotogrammetric systems during movements of the total body [12–15]. Other databases contain both spatial and inertial data, but they do not track upper limbs in a complete way [16] or they do not analyse typical manufacturing © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 391–397, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_59

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gestures [17, 18]. Consequently, the aim of the present work was to perform an operation of sensor fusion, by creating a collection of spatial and inertial variables of typical industrial gestures, like pick and place, performed by ten healthy young subjects.

2 Materials and Methods For the experimental test of this study, ten subjects performed a sequence of pick and place of three boxes positioned at different heights. Motion tracking of participants’ upper body was made with both a stereophotogrammetric system and Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs). 2.1

Participants

Ten healthy young subjects (6 males, 4 females) with no musculoskeletal or neurological disease gave their written informed consent to participate in the study. Subjects anthropometric data were estimated (mean ± standard deviation): age 24.7 ± 2.1 years; BMI 22.3 ± 3.0 kg/m2; upper arm length 27.8 ± 3.2 cm; arm length 27.9 ± 1.5 cm; trunk length 49.1 ± 5.2 cm; acromions distance 35.9 ± 3.6 cm. 2.2

Instrumentation

The instrumentation involved an inertial system and a stereophotogrammetric system. Inertial System. A chain of 7 MTx IMUs (Xsens, The Netherlands) was connected to a PC via Bluetooth. Data were acquired through the Xsens proprietary software MT Manager at 50 Hz. A first IMU (TAB) was fixed on a table (Fig. 1A), the other six IMUs were fixed on participants’ upper body (Fig. 1B): right forearm (RFA); right upper arm (RUA); shoulders (RSH, LSH); sternum (THX) and pelvis (PLV). Stereophotogrammetric System. It was composed of a self-contained and precalibrated V120: Trio bar (OptiTrack, USA) and 17 markers (14 mm of diameter). Data acquisition was made through the software Motive at 120 Hz. A global coordinate reference system was constructed from markers A, B and C on the same table (Fig. 1A). Fourteen markers were positioned on participants’ upper body (Fig. 1B): styloid processes (WMR, WLR, WML, WLL); elbow condyles (EMR, ELR, EML, ELL); acromions (ACR, ACL); between suprasternal notches (IJ); spinal process of the 8th thoracic vertebra (T8); on inertial sensors RFA (SFA) and RUA (SUA). 2.3

Protocol

Subjects were asked to sit at a table on which the silhouettes of right and left hands were drawn, with thumbs 32 cm apart. For the calibration and temporal synchronization of inertial and stereophotogrammetric systems, participants were asked to hit the table with their right wrist and to stand still for 10 s with hands on silhouettes (neutral position). Subsequently, participants performed pick and place tasks composed of 7

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operations: 1) stay in neutral position; 2) pick a box; 3) place the box between hands silhouettes; 4) return to neutral position; 5) pick the same box again; 6) place the box on initial position; 7) return to neutral position. The task was repeated with three boxes of the same size placed on the table at different heights (Fig. 1A): on the table (white), at a height of 18 cm (black) and at a height of 28 cm (red). Each subject performed 15 gestures, 5 for each box, in a random order.

Fig. 1. A) Top view of table with hands silhouettes, boxes, IMU and markers global reference systems. B) IMUs and markers placement on participants’ upper body.

2.4

Data Analysis

Data analysis was conducted with Matlab® routines. The right wrist hit on the table was used for the temporal synchronization of data from both acquisition systems [19]. Then, markers coordinates were resampled at 50 Hz and data were expressed with respect to the global reference frame. Anatomical reference systems of right forearm (Fig. 2A) and right upper arm (Fig. 2B) were defined from markers: x-axis was longitudinal to the segment; z-axis was perpendicular to the plane defined by x-axis and support s-axis; y-axis was obtained as the cross product between z-axis and x-axis. Trunk anatomical reference system was composed of a vertical x-axis, a horizontal y-axis and a z-axis obtained as their cross product (Fig. 2C). IMUs data were referred to these anatomical axes by considering a constant transformation between IMUs and markers reference frames identified during the initial calibration in neutral position. The consistency of sensor fusion operation was verified by estimating elbow and shoulder angles from both IMUs and markers systems [20, 21] and calculating Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) values. Finally, signals of x-acceleration of RUA-IMU and y-coordinate of WMR marker have been analysed to identify the presence of features characterizing the pick and place gesture performed by subjects and to discriminate which box was managed. In both signals, a double peak identifies “pick and place” gesture of the box. Signals

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trends then showed 15 couples of peaks related to the 15 pick gestures. For both signals of all subjects, the amplitude of each couple of consecutive peaks was averaged. Then, mean (m) and standard deviation (r) of the obtained 15 mean values were used to define a band (m ± r/2). Each gesture was identified as the “pick and place” of a box which was in low, medium or high position, depending if the peaks fell below, inside or above the band, respectively. The accuracy of gesture recognition was estimated for all participants for both signals. A)

ACR

B)

C)

17%

ELR

ACR

EMR

SUA SFA WLR

ELR

ACL IJ

EMR

T8

WMR

Fig. 2. Anatomical reference systems of A) forearm; B) upper arm; C) trunk.

3 Results and Discussion Figure 3 shows joints angular trends estimated for one subject with both systems. The left panel contains elbow flexion-extension (FE) and pronation-supination (PS); the right panel shows shoulder FE, abduction-adduction (AA) and intra-extra rotation (IE). Angular trends are very similar, testifying the accuracy of the performed sensor fusion operation.

Fig. 3. Joints angular trends estimated with both markers and IMUs.

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Table 1 contains RMSE values quantifying the correspondence of angular trends calculated using markers and IMUs data. Except in some cases, (elbow FE of subject 6, elbow AA and PS of subject 8, shoulder IE of subject 1), RMSE values lower than 9.8° reflect this correspondence in line with literature [22]. Errors can be due to skin artefacts and IMUs magnetic disturbances. Figure 4 shows the distinction between pick and place of a low, a medium and a high box (grey, black and red dots, respectively), considering both x-acceleration of RUA-IMU and y-coordinate of WMR marker. The inertial feature had an accuracy of 98.7%, by mismatching medium and high gestures in only 2 cases out of 150.

Table 1. RMSE values of elbow FE and PS and shoulder FE, AA and IE angles (°). Sub Elbow FE Elbow PS Shoulder FE Shoulder AA Shoulder IE 1 3.5 5.3 3.9 6.3 11.9 2 3.0 2.9 8.2 3.8 4.6 3 3.9 5.8 3.0 2.8 9.8 4 4.0 4.0 2.4 2.3 7.3 5 3.7 6.3 3.3 4.1 4.4 6 13.3 5.5 2.7 1.6 5.9 7 3.8 5.9 2.2 1.9 9.0 8 4.2 12.8 6.4 8.4 7.5 9 3.4 3.8 3.1 1.9 3.8 10 4.7 6.4 2.6 2.3 8.1

This could be justified by the smaller height difference between black and red boxes. Instead, as expected, the accuracy of the spatial feature was of 100%. Overall, both signals were suitable for distinguishing among the three gestures for all subjects.

Fig. 4. The algorithm adopted to distinguish among low, medium and high gestures. Two signals: x-acceleration of RUA-IMU (left); y-coordinate of WMR marker (right).

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In conclusion, the present database appears to be congruent, complementary and suitable for features identification. Hence, future plans are first to identify other motion features able to distinguish among gestures. Then, these features could be used for development and training of a prediction algorithm of human upper limbs kinematics in an industrial context.

References 1. Bauer, A., Wollherr, D., Buss, M.: Human-robot collaboration: a survey. Int. J. Humanoid Robot. 5, 47–66 (2008) 2. Ajoudani, A., Zanchettin, A.M., Ivaldi, S., Albu-Schäffer, A., Kosuge, K., Khatib, O.: Progress and prospects of the human–robot collaboration. Auton. Robots 42(5), 957–975 (2018) 3. Mauro, S., Pastorelli, S., Scimmi, L.S.: Collision avoidance algorithm for collaborative robotics. Int. J. Autom. Technol. 11, 481–489 (2017) 4. Lasota, P.A., Fong, T., Shah, J.A.: A survey of methods for safe human-robot interaction. Found. Trends Robot. 5, 261–349 (2017) 5. Melchiorre, M., Scimmi, L.S., Mauro, S., Pastorelli, S.: Influence of human limb motion speed in a collaborative hand-over task. In: ICINCO 2018 – Proceedings of 15th International Conference on Informatics in Control, Automation and Robotics, vol. 2, pp. 349–356 (2018) 6. Perez-D’Arpino, C., Shah, J.A.: Fast target prediction of human reaching motion for cooperative human-robot manipulation tasks using time series classification. In: Proceedings - IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, June 2015, pp. 6175– 6182 (2015) 7. Pereira, A., Althoff, M.: Overapproximative arm occupancy prediction for human-robot coexistence built from archetypal movements. In: IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, November 2016, pp. 1394–1401 (2016) 8. Wang, Y., Ye, X., Yang, Y., Zhang, W.: Collision-free trajectory planning in human-robot interaction through hand movement prediction from vision. In: IEEE-RAS International Conference on Humanoid Robots, pp. 305–310 (2017) 9. Mainprice, J., Berenson, D.: Human-robot collaborative manipulation planning using early prediction of human motion. In: IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, pp. 299–306 (2013) 10. Ghosh, P., Song, J., Aksan, E., Hilliges, O.: Learning human motion models for long-term predictions. In: Proceedings - 2017 International Conference on 3D Vision, 3DV 2017, pp. 458–466 (2018) 11. Butepage, J., Kjellstrom, H., Kragic, D.: Anticipating many futures: online human motion prediction and generation for human-robot interaction. In: Proceedings - IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, pp. 4563–4570 (2018) 12. Ionescu, C., Papava, D., Olaru, V., Sminchisescu, C.: Human3.6M: large scale datasets and predictive methods for 3D human sensing in natural environments. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 36, 1325–1339 (2014) 13. Xia, S., Wang, C., Chai, J., Hodgins, J.: Realtime style transfer for unlabeled heterogeneous human motion. ACM Trans. Graph. 34, 1–10 (2015) 14. Müller, M., Röder, T., Clausen, M., Eberhardt, B., Krüger, B., Weber, A.: Documentation Mocap database HDM05. Technical report (2007)

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15. Holden, D., Saito, J., Komura, T.: A deep learning framework for character motion synthesis and editing. ACM Trans. Graph. 35, 1–11 (2016) 16. Ofli, F., Chaudhry, R., et al.: Berkeley MHAD: a comprehensive multimodal human action database. In: Proceedings of IEEE Workshop on Applications of Computer Vision, pp. 53– 60 (2013) 17. De La Torre, F., Hodgins, J., Bargteil, A.W., Martin, X., Macey, J.C., Collado, A., Beltran, P.: Guide to the Carnegie Mellon University Multimodal Activity (CMU-MMAC) Database. Robotics, 19 (2008) 18. De Leonardis, G., Rosati, S., Balestra, G., Agostini, V., Panero, E., Gastaldi, L., Knaflitz, M.: Human Activity Recognition by Wearable Sensors: comparison of different classifiers for real-time applications. In: MeMeA 2018 - 2018 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurement and Applications, Proceedings, pp. 1–6 (2018) 19. Digo, E., Pierro, G., Pastorelli, S., Gastaldi, L.: Tilt-twist method using inertial sensors to assess spinal posture during gait. In: International Conference on Robotics in Alpe-Adria Danube Region, pp. 384–392. Spinger, Cham (2019) 20. Rab, G., Petuskey, K., Bagley, A.: A method for determination of upper extremity kinematics. Gait Posture. 15, 113–119 (2002) 21. Wu, G., Van Der Helm, F.C.T., Veeger, H.E.J., Makhsous, M., Van Roy, P., Anglin, C., Nagels, J., Karduna, A.R., McQuade, K., Wang, X., Werner, F.W., Buchholz, B.: ISB recommendation on definitions of joint coordinate systems of various joints for the reporting of human joint motion - Part II: shoulder, elbow, wrist and hand. J. Biomech. 38, 981–992 (2005) 22. Peppoloni, L., Filippeschi, A., Ruffaldi, E., Avizzano, C.A.: A novel 7 degrees of freedom model for upper limb kinematic reconstruction based on wearable sensors. In: SISY 2013 IEEE 11th International Symposium on Intelligent Systems and Informatics, Proceedings, pp. 105–110 (2013)

Relationship Between Frugal and Inclusive Innovation and Digital Employment Solutions (DES): A Review Marja Ahola1(&) and Afnan Zafar2 1

LAB University of Applied Sciences, Mukkulankatu 19, 15210 Lahti, Finland [email protected] 2 University of Gävle, Kungsbäcksvägen 47, 80176 Gävle, Sweden [email protected]

Abstract. Inclusive and frugal innovations are the key to managing workforce potential of the underdeveloped regions of South Asia (SA). Digital employment solutions (DES) can help to improve the targeted mobility of labour between developed and underdeveloped regions and countries. This research explores the relationship between frugal and inclusive innovations and DES. This review study analyses 16 articles to investigate this relationship. The study found direct and indirect relationships among frugal and inclusive innovations, DES and the employment situation in developed and underdeveloped regions and countries. Frugal innovations and DES may be an appropriate solution to tackle the employment problems in SA but cultural, social and economic barriers can affect the success of the overall process. Researchers and policymakers should, however, carefully evaluate the nature of target regions, the degree of cooperation and evaluation of various related barriers. Keywords: Frugal innovation
Inclusive innovation
Underprivileged regions
South Asia
Digital employment solutions
DES

1 Introduction The elemental population of the underdeveloped regions of South Asia (SA) does not have sufficient ownership to supply innovative products and services to their lower income regions [1–3]. The reasons are not that straightforward but rather complex, such as the inactive participation of the local population [4]. The population of an underdeveloped area must be involved in the development of innovation [1, 5]. When operating in underdeveloped areas, innovations must be produced with very limited resources alongside elemental actors [6]. Such resource-efficient innovations produced also are suitable to be used by all types of population groups [6]. At an equivalent time, ownership and expertise will increase and the socio-cultural structures of the region are going to be influenced positively [2, 4, 7]. Underdeveloped regions have mainly consisted of the families and households with income levels below the poverty line [3]. One of the solutions for such families to improve their standard of living is better education and related work opportunities which can ease financial problems [3]. Contrary thereto, at the same time, the number of © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 398–403, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_60

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jobseekers in Europe has fallen sharply and European countries are working to fill the skills gap [8]. Many developed countries are recruiting skilled workers from around the world and therefore the SA countries are prominent because there is huge competition for skilled employees within underdeveloped regions [9]. It has been suggested that if the recruitment is carried out through frugal and inclusive innovation, there is an opportunity to reach a successful outcome that simultaneously addresses poverty in underdeveloped regions [7] and the shortage of skilled workforces in the countries that are suffering from labour shortages in an economically and socially sustainable way [9]. There can be many ways to connect developed countries and underdeveloped countries to improve the employment needs on both sides [9]. Digital Employment Solutions (DES) can act as a bridge between the underdeveloped regions of South Asia and countries struggling with employment shortages [9]. All types of workers are recruited frequently outside developed countries, and one way to solve the problem of poverty in underdeveloped regions is to focus on recruitment from such areas by the use of DES [9]. This review article addresses this issue through the following two research objectives: the first objective of this review is to explore the aspects of inclusive and frugal innovation within the underprivileged regions of SA. In particular, the innovations related to digital employment solutions will be examined comprehensively. The second objective is to identify the economic, socio-cultural and technical barriers associated with the use of DES. This paper is structured in the following way. Section 2 describes the background research on frugal, inclusive innovations in SA, DES, and their associated barriers and interlinkages. Section 3 presents the methods used. Section 4 and 5 provide the analysis and findings respectively. Section 6 explains the conclusion, limitations and future aspects of the study.

2 Background The OECD Science, Technology and Industry Working Paper presented a list of services that are in short supply in OECD countries and focused areas where labour is needed, other than OECD countries [10]. In OECD member countries, on average, almost 30% of total employment is sustained by foreign final demand [10]. It is notable that in the effective filling of a developed country’s labour gap and utilization of the regions with high population density as a labour force, cost-effective and efficient solutions are needed [8]. However, regarding the usage of DES for skill recognition [11] and labour recruitment, the problem can be resolved on both sides, i.e., Europe will have the workforce it needs, and workers in underdeveloped regions of SA will have a far better opportunity to seek work without significant costs [7]. DES has become widespread throughout developed countries, but developing viable e-recruitment systems is expensive and complex [12]. In low-income areas, socio-economic constraints affect how services can be best-utilized [2, 5]. To minimize the use of material and financial resources, frugal innovations aim to reduce ownership costs while meeting or even exceeding certain predefined criteria of acceptable quality standards [2]. It is therefore interesting to analyse the relationship between frugal innovation and development of digital employment solutions (DES).

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It is also a fact that when products and services are developed together with the local population based on needs, socially sustainable solutions are produced [2, 5, 6]. The use of DES requires an understanding of local cultural, economic and political conditions and responsibility in the use of services [7]. Inclusive innovation refers to the active participation in innovation by the people who are excluded from the mainstream of professional development [2]. In underdeveloped regions, different limitations hinder the process of inclusive innovations at various levels [7]. Economical barriers, a lack of quality education for the masses [1, 7], and the social and cultural restrictions on women for their active participation in economic activities [13] are considered important constraints. Additionally, another huge barrier in SA is unequal internet access and cybersecurity issues [14]. The weak rules of cybersecurity, identity theft, leakage of personal information have placed SA in a compromised position in the world [14] which has resulted in the loss of reputation, and physical and sexual violence [14].

3 Method The method of this review is a descriptive literature review, which provides new researchable phenomena for a systematic literature review [15] with a multidisciplinary viewpoint. Potentially relevant articles in Scopus and Google Scholar were searched for. The two authors performed several iterations of the electronic search, and used the following keyword combinations: “innovation”, “inclusive”, “frugal”, “digital employment solutions”, “technical solutions”, “digital recruitment”, “underprivileged regions”, “cultural barriers” and “South Asia”. 102 articles containing these keywords were included in our database of potentially relevant articles, but for this review study, 16 relevant articles were selected. The authors aimed to select the most significant and cited studies from 2000 to 2020. The articles related to inclusive, frugal innovations, DES, and cultural, social and technical barriers associated with DES in SA were prioritised. The selection of articles is a reflection of the two objectives of this research.

Fig. 1. Comparison of possible references and reviewed references

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Figure 1 summarizes the distribution of articles selected for review based on keywords after the first round of searches (possible references) and the relevance of the articles to the topic after a more in-depth study (review).

4 Analysis The reviewed articles identified six aspects of inclusive and frugal innovations in underprivileged regions of SA. The first column of Table 1 shows a list of references, the second column presents inclusive and frugal innovation aspects in South Asian underprivileged areas and the third column highlights their relationships with DES in SA. Table 1. Relationship of inclusive and frugal innovations with DES Reference

Inclusive and frugal innovation aspects in SA’s underpri. areas

Co-operate and co-innovation with elemental population, innovative actors and policymakers of society Increasing the participation of individuals, communities and ownership of innovations Chattaway [5], Boosting economic growth by Dutz [1] developing new products and services with the help of individuals and societies Dutz [1] Development of education and professional skills as an integral part of the production of inclusive and frugal production Basu [6], Khan [2] Reducing inequality Chataway [5], Jimenez [16], Basu [6], Khan [2] Chataway [5], Dutz [1]

Jimenez [16]

Inclusive and frugal innovation aspects to enhance DES in SA underpri. areas Co-innovation with local cultural, economic and service environment Usage of full innovation potential

Unavailability of comprehensive participation of the elemental population in DES Increased demand for the workforce from SA

Job constructing and DES can be developed successfully Cost-effective, high quality, accessible Technically accessible userproducts and services development oriented services should be developed

The literature analysis has also explored many cultural, economic, technical and social barriers related to inclusive and frugal innovation later affecting DES. Several authors agree on the barriers to overall inclusive and frugal technology-related innovations such as cybersecurity and gender risks [14], gender bias [13], institutional problems [4] and resource limitations [4, 7]. Similarly, many barriers have an impact on DES in SA regions. These include women’s safety online [14], restriction on women due to sociocultural issues [13] and exclusion of lower-income groups in DES [4, 7]. Additionally, institutional policies were unable to address the needs of SMEs,

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providing cost-effective solutions, unregulated markets and a lack of adaptation of technology, which ultimately never leads to effective DES [4].

5 Findings The findings are based on the reviewed articles, which have examined innovations from the DES perspective. It has been found that frugal and inclusive innovation has a key role to play in four stages: Firstly, in increasing and enabling knowledge, competence and labour mobility; secondly, in increasing cooperation between elemental, innovation actors and policymakers; thirdly in reducing inequalities; and finally in providing high quality, accessible and regional products. Nevertheless, the role of frugal and inclusive innovations in SA is complex as these always require familiarity with local conditions and social processes. When innovations are produced sparingly, they may violate economic and cultural norms and the impact cannot be predicted [4]. Four important barriers were found which limit the use of DES. These include cybersecurity risks (women are more vulnerable), overall cultural issues especially for women, regulatory and institutional hurdles and a lack financial and educational opportunities.

6 Conclusions, Limitations and Future Research The innovation potential of the underdeveloped regions of SA can be best utilized for employment in Europe if in-depth research is carried out on such people and regions. This will help to generate more frugal and inclusive innovations. The development, identification and recognition of skills in underdeveloped countries are key factors in opening up employment flows from underdeveloped regions in SA to Europe. It was also observed that there is a relationship between frugal and inclusive DES and different social, economic and technical barriers of the SA population. The main limitation of the research is the lack of comprehensive statistical data and analysis in such underdeveloped and underprivileged areas. It is also possible that the research literature in English does not give a good overview of the phenomenon being described. It appears that there is still scant research data on international labour recruitment and DES in South Asia. It is a good starting point for further research and DES should be considered more systematically in the future.

References 1. Dutz, M.A.: Unleashing India’s Innovation: Toward Sustainable and Inclusive Growth. World Bank, Washington, D.C. (2007) 2. Khan, R.: How frugal innovation promotes social sustainability. Sustainability Open Access J. 8(10), 1034 (2016)

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3. George, G., McGahan, A.M., Prabhu, J.: Innovation for inclusive growth: towards a theoretical framework and a research agenda. J. Manage. Stud. 49(4), 661–683 (2012) 4. Sazzad, P., Chandra Shekar, K.: Understanding of grassroots innovations in India: evidence from the countryside. Soc. Bus. Rev. 14(4), 273–299 (2019) 5. Chataway, J., Hanlin, R., Kaplinsky, R.: Inclusive innovation: an architecture for policy development. Innov. Dev. 4(1), 33–54 (2014) 6. Basu, R.R., Banerjee, P.M., Sweeny, E.G.: Frugal innovation. J. Manage. Glob. Sustain. 1(2), 63–82 (2013) 7. Paunov, C.: Innovation and Inclusive Development: A Discussion of the Main Policy Issues. OECD Publishing, Paris (2013) 8. European Commission: Commission Work Programm. European Commission, (2020) 9. Martinez-Fernandez, C., Powell, M.: Employment and Skills Strategies in Southeast Asia: Setting the Scene (No. 2010/1). OECD Publishing (2010) 10. Horvát, P., Webb, C., Yamano, N.: Measuring Employment in Global Value Chains. OECD Science, Technology and Industry Working Papers, No. 2020(01). OECD Publishing, Paris (2020) 11. Kalolo, John Fungulupembe: Digital revolution and its impact on education systems in developing countries. Educ. Inf. Technol. 24(1), 345–358 (2018) 12. Lee, I.: An architecture for a next-generation holistic e-recruiting system (2010) 13. Bagchi, D., Raju, S. (eds.): Women and Work in South Asia: Regional Patterns and Perspectives. Routledge, Abingdon (2013) 14. Sambasivan, N., Batool, A., Ahmed, N., Matthews, T., Thomas, K., Gaytán-Lugo, L.S., Nemer, D., Bursztein, E., Churchill, E., Consolvo, S.: They Don’t leave us alone anywhere we go. Gender and digital abuse in South Asia. In: proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pp. 1–14 (2019) 15. Green, B.N., Johnson, C.D., Adams, A.: Writing narrative literature reviews for peer reviewed journals: secrets of the trade. J. Chiropractic Med. 5(3), 101–117 (2006) 16. Jiménez, A.: Inclusive innovation from the lenses of situated agency: insights from innovation hubs in the UK and Zambia. Innov. Dev. 9(1), 41–64 (2019)

Are Charts Going Digital? The Case of Data Visualization on Portuguese Media Salomé Esteves(&) and Marco Neves CIAUD – Research Center for Architecture, Urbanism and Design, Lisbon School of Architecture, University of Lisbon Rua Sá Nogueira, Pólo Universitário, Alto da Ajuda, 1349-063 Lisbon, Portugal {salomeesteves.ciaud,mneves}@fa.ulisboa.pt

Abstract. Sales and circulation of print publications, either newspapers or magazines, are dropping. In Portugal alone, from 2014 to 2018, there was a drop in printed periodic publications in circulation (INE, 2019a) and a fall of millions of units in the sales of newspapers and magazines (INE, 2019b). At the same time, digital media remains on the rise as the main source of information for the Portuguese population, since 81% of people between the ages of 16 to 74 use the internet to read or download news (INE, 2018). In the process of duplication or migration of content from print to digital, with the rise of multimedia stories, interactivity and mobility, it would be natural that Data Visualization would follow the tendency. Taking the changes in the media landscape into account, a question arose: how are Portuguese media outlets publishing charts, diagrams and infographics? Is Data Visualization rising on digital as other forms of news, like video and audio, or is it maintaining a foot in each platform? Are there any visible differences between the publication of infographics in digital and print editions? The main objective of the present research was to trace patterns of frequency, authorship, design, composition, relevance and themes in order to create a detailed overview of contemporary Data Visualization in Portuguese news outlets. To do this, the research team chose to analyze publications made in 2017, since this was a fruitful year for news in Portugal and the world. The analysis focused on March, August and October, which were the months with the biggest prevalence of newsworthy events of the year. During this period, the team collected, categorized and analyzed all charts, diagrams and infographics published by the 12 media outlets with the biggest readership in Portugal, both in print and digital editions, in March, August and October 2017. These were: Público, Jornal de Notícias, Diário de Notícias, Expresso, Observador, Correio da Manhã, Jornal Económico, Jornal de Negócios, I, Sol, Visão e Sábado, which were divided in daily newspapers, weekly newspapers, economic newspapers, news magazines and one news website. The first step was the design of an analysis sheet, based on a large base of literary influences and previous similar analysis, which included information such as title, date, author, editorial section, theme, type and size of graphics, importance, format, graphical elements, interactivity and appearance on the cover. The results were unexpected, and the differences were outstanding. While some variances were to be anticipated, only one of the 12 news outlets published a similar quantity of infographics or the same infographic on both platforms. All the rest published almost ten times more charts, diagrams and infographics in the print editions than on the © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 404–409, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_61

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websites. This research will enable the team to evaluate how the production of charts, diagrams and infographics in news outlets depends on the daily routines and workflows of data visualization professionals. Keywords: Data visualization
Infographics Information design
Visual journalism


Journalism
Digital media


1 Introduction Data visualization represents, as of right now, a huge part of how news are published and read, not only as a discipline of visual journalism, but as of information design, as well. Infographics, charts and diagrams are well-known components of magazines and newspapers, either in their print or online editions. Although “humans have always felt the need to explain things through images” [1] “visualizations are increasingly used in news media for storytelling […] to help convey narratives and engage an audience” [2]. Because “data visualization is a process of mapping information to visuals” [3], it provides a visual narrative so the user can be able to proper contextualize, understand a story and draw their own conclusions [4]. In terms of news environment, data visualization represents the work of qualified and multidisciplinary human resources as well as specific tools and workflows. Which naturally means that news outlets might have different approaches to the production, the need and the importance of artifacts of information design on their spreads and websites. In this particular research, the team was eager to study how infographics, charts and diagrams were published by Portuguese news outlets, in terms of frequency, authorship, design, composition, relevance and themes. To do this, the research team decided to make a detailed survey of every single infographics, chart and diagram published in the 12 generalist and economic news outlets with the biggest readership in Portugal: Público, Jornal de Notícias, Diário de Notícias, Expresso, Observador, Correio da Manhã, Jornal Económico, Jornal de Negócios, I, Sol, Visão e Sábado, during March, August and October 2017. These were very eventful months in Portugal – municipal elections, enormous wildfires and the consequential demission of the Civil Protection President, the unveil of a corruption case featuring a former prime minister – and the world – first accusations of sexual harassment against Harvey Weinstein, football matches for the 2018 World Cup, the anniversary of Panama Papers, a mass shooting in Las Vegas, protests for the independence of Cataluña and a terrorist attack on Barcelona, among others. Besides that, 2017 was a “a uniquely miserable year in the media business, in which venerable publications and fledging sites, divided by audience age and editorial style, have been united in misery” [5].

2 Methodology This research was based on a quantitative non-interventionist methodology, which was derived from a previous research by the authors [6], from a similar study on the publication of infographics by The New York Times [7] and from the denominations of

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Crooks, Ritchie and Lankow [8]. The team designed and individual analysis sheet, which contained all the points necessary to thoroughly study each content, either in print or in digital (static, interactive or motion). The analysis took place between November 2018 and January 2020. In order for this analysis to be focused on the content produced by information designers in news outlets, the team excluded all supplements, weather forecasts, television and film rankings, advertisements or contents by readers. In the three months, all 12 news outlets published a total of 94 information design artifacts in their websites and a total of 1402 of these contents on the print editions (Fig. 1). On the websites, the gathering of the contents was done by searching the archives for keywords (in Portuguese), such as infographics, graphic, chart, diagram and data visualization. In the newspapers and magazines, all such contents were automatically visible and analyzed straight away.

Fig. 1. Number of infographics, charts and diagrams per media outlet on digital and print editions

3 Discussion of Results After the analysis of all 12 media outlets, it was easy, as stated above, to verify that the publication of infographics, charts and diagrams was far superior in the print editions than on their digital counterparts (almost 15 times). This trend is only contradicted by Jornal Económico (an economic weekly newspaper), in which the majority of contents (21 out of 46) were published in both the print and the digital editions. Almost all news

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outlets - except for Público - tended to make contents for either the newspaper or magazine or to the website, as the team didn’t find many contents that were adapted for each platform and published on both of them as unique artifacts. Shovel-ware will be discussed farther down this chapter. When it comes to the daily newspapers, it was predictable that the number of infographics, charts and diagrams would be higher in the printed publications, just because of the sheer number of physical copies of newspapers in circulation. This was, in fact, proven almost completely true. The four news outlets who publish more information design artifacts in their printed editions were Diário de Notícias, Correio da Manhã, Jornal de Notícias and Público – the daily generalist newspapers with the biggest readership and demand in Portugal. The exception to this rule is I, which had a total of less than 50 contents on their print edition and none on the website. Of the four newspapers mentioned above, the first three presented very similar traits: all tend to invest in smaller and simpler graphics in higher quantity in the print edition and less and static contents on the websites. On the other hand, Público seemed to prefer larger and visually more complex infographics in the print edition – matched only by Jornal Económico - and sizable, interactive and multilayered infographics on the website. However, the higher number of graphics in daily newspapers is due to the repetitive usage of small graphics such as football field diagrams (which represented up to 24,9% of all contents in the printed Jornal de Notícias). As for the weekly generalist newspapers, Expresso e Sol, there were not any similarities at all. While Expresso maintained a regular publication of infographics, charts and diagrams, both in print and digital platforms, Sol was, by far, the news outlet that published the least amount of such contents in both editions. The weekly news magazines, Visão and Sábado, were largely similar, both in quantity, graphical and visual composition and editorial options. Other group that presents a noticeable contrast in the economic newspapers – Jornal de Negócios and Jornal Económico -, partly because their periodicity is not the same: Negócios is a daily newspaper and Económico comes out weekly. Negócios was the non-generalist news outlet to publish the most graphics, as it follows the trend of the three generalists mention above, to publish a higher quantity of smaller simpler charts. Regarding the themes of infographics, charts and diagrams in news outlets, the results were as predicted: there was a predominance of wildfires and municipal elections, which were the dominant social matters of the period of analysis, particularly in October 2017. This was noticeable by the slight general increasing on the publication of these contents in this month (Fig. 2), with the exception of Diário de Notícias, that had a pronounced rise in August. However, charts done under these subjects often derived from an initial template, which was edited and replicated, to ensure visual coherence and swiftness of publication. On the other hand, the largest and most complex infographics tended to be, across the board, related to non-current themes such as ephemeris, investigative reports, detailed and descriptive pieces regarding health, science or environmental issues.

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Fig. 2. Total of infographics, charts and diagrams per media outlet per month

Authorship was another of the main focus of this study. After the analysis, it was very clear that, aside from Público, Jornal Económico and, partly, Expresso and Jornal de Notícias, news outlets tend to omit the identity of the designer or team of designers responsible for the infographics, charts or diagrams. When it comes to simpler and highly reproduced charts, it is plausible that the author is not specified, because the content is most certainly originated from a template. However, in bigger, more complex or more illustrative contents that demand a more intricate creative process, it is unjustifiable that all the piece is only credited to the writer and, in some cases, the photographer. This trend made it almost impossible to identify the information design professionals in these media outlets, which would be crucial for the next methodological steps in the doctoral research. One of the most surprising aspects of this study, was the presence and, in some cases, predominance, of shovel-ware – which means the replication of a certain content “from one communication medium to another with little or no alteration or adaptation for style, appearance or usability purposes” [9] and goes back to the late 1990s, when the Internet was booming and journalists were adapting to this new form of online journalism. When it comes to infographics, charts and diagrams, this phenomenon is very obvious, because of the proportion of the images that not only don’t adapt easily to the screen but also come in different shapes, as they were conceived for a specific part of the newspaper or magazine spread. Besides that, shovel-ware in this type of graphics is also visible in the usage of text inside the image or poor image quality. This editorial behavior is present in all news outlets, but it is prevalent in Correio da Manhã, because all graphics on the website come directly from the newspaper, without any text, title or author.

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A positive result of this analysis was the respect designers visibly have to the graphic guidelines of the brands. Across all news outlets in almost all infographics, charts and diagrams, there is a visual coherence in the application of colors, typefaces, illustrations, photography and composition style.

4 Conclusion Although the sales and circulation of printed newspapers have been declining for years now and that digital media is on the rise as the main source of information for people of all generations, especially in mobile devices, when it comes to Data Visualization and Information Design artifacts, Portuguese news outlets still dedicate most of their content and resources to their printed publications. This study makes it safe to say that charts aren’t going digital for Portuguese newspapers and magazines, which contradicts the research team’s original predicament that the majority of infographics, charts and diagrams would be on the websites. Although Data Visualization remains as a small part of the news environment and it might be an independent agent in newsrooms, it cannot disconnect from relevant and current concerns of news outlets, such as speed of publications, multimedia platforms, themes, language and writing styles, users and readers, the professionals’ knowledge and abilities and capital. Acknowledgments. The authors would like to thank the funding support by the Foundation for Science and Technology of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education of Portugal under the project UID/EAT/04008/2013.

References 1. Errea, J.: Visual Journalism: Infographics from the World’s Best Newsrooms and Designers. Gestalten, Germany (2017) 2. Diakopoulos, N.: Automating the News: How Algorithms Are Rewriting the Media. Harvard University Press, Cambridge (2019) 3. Murray, S.: Interactive Data Visualization for the Web, 1st edn. O’Reilly Media, Sebastopol (2013) 4. Hullman, J.: What is visualization research? What should it be?, Medium, 13-Nov-2018 [Em linha]. https://medium.com/multiple-views-visualization-research-explained/what-is-visualiza tion-research-what-should-it-be-8840a9ba658. Acedido 09 Jun 2019 5. Thompson, D.: Why So Many Media Companies Are on the Brink of Disaster. The Atlantic, London (2017) 6. Esteves, R.S.O.: Design de informação e meios digitais. Master thesis, Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Arquitetura (2016) 7. Cairo, A.: Infografia 2.0: Visualização Interativa de Información en Prensa. Alamut, Madrid (2008) 8. Crooks, R., Ritchie, J., Jason, L.: Infographics: The Power of Visual Storytelling. Wiley, Hoboken (2012) 9. Franklin, B., Hamer, M., Hanna, M., Kinsey, M.: Shovelware, em Key Concepts in Journalism Studies, pp. 244–244. SAGE Publications Ltd., London (2005)

Following Up on the Digitalization Initiatives in the Norwegian Petroleum Activity: Regulatory Perspective Linn Iren Vestly Bergh(&) and Elisabeth Lootz Safety Petroleum Authority Norway, Professor Olav Hanssens vei 10, Postboks 599, 4003 Stavanger, Norway [email protected]

Abstract. The petroleum industry is becoming increasingly dependent on digital systems, and the companies have ambitious plans for increased use of digital technology – along the entire value chain. The introduction of digital technology involves increased use of data collection, automatization, machine learning and access to computer resources in order to analyse large volumes of data. Digitalisation initiatives in the industry will change work processes and will increase automatization and provide decision support in daily operations. Despite greater automation, the industry will depend to a large extent on people to monitor systems and intervene if the technology breaks down. The Petroleum Safety Authority Norway (PSA) has tightened its follow-up of digitalisation initiatives in the industry. Over the last years we have performed a number of activities in order to build knowledge about HSE risk and follow up the digitalisation initiatives in the industry. In this paper we will describe the main areas that we emphasise in our follow-up of the petroleum industry on the Norwegian Continental Shelf. Keywords: Digitalisation engineering


Human factors
Automatisation
Human factors

1 Introduction Digitisation deals with the interaction between technology, human and organisational factors. Examples of technology in this context are robotization, artificial intelligence, machine learning, big data processing, real-time sharing and closer system integration. Digitalisation does not only change work processes in an organisation. It also means implementing new forms of collaboration and business models [1] and [2]. Norway’s petroleum industry must give a high priority to safety and the working environment when developing and implementing digital technology. This means every company must take ownership of the risk, ensure an integrated assessment of the effect of new solutions, and facilitate collaboration and genuine worker participation. The Petroleum Safety Authority Norway´s (PSA) goal is to follow-up that the petroleum activity gives high priority to safety, health and working environment when digital technology is developed, assessed and implemented in the companies. As such, © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 410–414, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_62

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the PSA has tightened its follow-up of digitalisation initiatives in the industry by operator companies, shipowners and suppliers. Particular attention has been paid to the development and implementation of digital technology for drilling and maintenance management, as well as the introduction of wearable solutions. Three key points sum up the PSA’s expectations of the industry’s work on digitalisation; 1) The companies must assess vulnerability and risk from an integrated perspective which includes human, technological and organisational (HTO) aspects; 2) Each company must take ownership of and manage the risk related to the implementation of new systems and technological solutions; 3) Involving and training employees are crucial for promoting expertise and risk understanding. In the description below, we discuss the status, results and HSE challenges and risks related to different digitalisation initiatives based on different PSA activities.

2 Integrated Approach to HTO Aspects Digitalisation is not only about technology. The companies must assess vulnerability and risk from an integrated perspective, which includes an HTO perspective. There is no reason to dispute that reducing human error can increase safety through increased use of digital technology. Nevertheless, one should not take for granted that the introduction of new technology is necessarily related to the reduction of human error. Digital technology and autonomous systems must also be designed to reduce technical faults, minimize human errors, support the ability of people to take the right decisions, and be in line with the regulations and good practice. Increased use of digital technology is a major area of commitment, and the PSA observe that the industry is making itself ever more dependent on digital and automated systems. This may create new opportunities for enhancing efficiency and safety but could also lead to changes in roles and responsibilities for both technical systems and people. It is important to be aware of this – and to take it into account.

3 Dependent on People Autonomy involves systems ability to take its own decisions (without involving external systems or operators) and actions related to a given task. The literature often refers to different “Levels Of Autonomy” (LOA) [3]. The degree of such independence can vary from solutions where personnel have overall control of most operations to ones which work entirely without human intervention. For example, in drilling and well services the use of digital well planning and automated drilling is increasing. In drilling and wells, there is a strong desire to implement Automatic Drilling Control (ADC) to improve operational efficiency. With the implementation of ADC systems the driller will increasingly monitor operations. The feedback from users of for example ADC systems show that the operations become more consistent and efficient. Despite greater automation, the industry will depend to a large extent on people to monitor systems and intervene if the technology breaks down. People will increasingly

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need to monitor the systems and perform critical tasks if the system fails. We observe that the companies do not always ensure that digital and automated solutions/ technology (software solutions) have a human-centered design. The starting point and the competencies within projects seem to be primarily technology driven. Research on human factors engineering also argue that it is essential to incorporate a strong focus on human factors perspective and use of human factors methods early on in any projects. This will not only strengthen safety but also make the operation more reliable and efficient [4]. This view is also reflected in expectations from regulatory requirements and standards in the industry. A human-centered automated design mitigates important factors such as workload, trust, situational awareness/understanding, alienation, knowledge degradation, fatigue that may negatively affect people’s ability to monitor and intervene when needed. The companies must therefore ensure that the systems and technology they develop have a human-centred design and take account of the human perspective and preconditions throughout the process.

4 Ownership and Management Whoever owns a risk is responsible for managing it. This also applies to the implementation new technology. Each company must accept ownership and management of the risk associated with the implementation of new systems and technological solutions. They must monitor and understand the risk and ensure that uncertainties are dealt with. In this context, we observe that companies set clear goals for cost-reduction, but there is often a lack of specific HSE goals related to project deliverables. This is of concern, because without clear HSE goals the companies might lose the opportunity to identify, mitigate and continuously improve HSE as part of the digitalisation projects. Even though the projects often have clear risk reduction potential, there is lack of clear HSE goals. Risk reduction assumes that goals are revisited throughout the different phases of the projects to find possible risk reducing solutions. Development and implementation of digital solutions must contribute to improving the working environment and safety. Regulatory requirements demand that the players set specific goals for how new technology and solutions will help to increase safety. Risk management processes for developing and implementing new technology and digital solutions in the companies will continue to be followed up by the PSA. The companies have an independent responsibility for ensuring that processes related to qualifying and adopting such innovations are prudent and that associated uncertainty is evaluated and dealt with.

5 More Changes Introducing new technology and digital solutions will often lead to changes in work assignments and processes. The division of responsibility, apportioning jobs between humans and machines, organisational structures, forms of collaboration and business

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models may be affected. Such changes can also have consequences for the employee expertise required. An example is provided by autonomous systems and wearable technology, which could influence day-to-day work for operational personnel and cause changes to communication and collaboration between offshore and onshore. These initiatives may help to simplify and improve decision support for the personnel involved but could also lead to changes in roles and responsibilities and the introduction of new requirements for employee expertise. Use of new technology and remote operation will also call for greater attention to be paid to ICT security. Once again, it is important that the industry ensures the solutions adopted do not introduce risks and vulnerabilities.

6 Expertise and Training Digital expertise is important not only for developing, understanding and dealing with technology, but also for protecting the systems sufficiently against undesirable incidents. Changes to work content and execution will entail a need and a requirement for both specialists and management to update their knowledge and expertise. This will apply, for example, to learning about the safe and correct use of new systems and technology in doing work. Companies must provide training to users to ensure adequate understanding and appropriate levels of trust. Digitalisation initiatives should be introduced with training to allow personnel to develop accurate mental models of how it works, an understanding of its limitations and reliability in different situations, and information on how to detect and recover from abnormal events, and failures, hazard and accident situations. The PSA expects the companies to ensure that employees have the necessary expertise tailored to changed assignments and new technology, that sufficient time is allocated for training, and that such learning is provided at the right time.

7 Involvement Involvement of employees – both end users and the safety delegate responsible – is crucial for promoting expertise and risk understanding. The PSA observe that many new systems are developed and implemented in a short time frame. If the risk associated with these changes is not prudently management, the result could be increased uncertainty, a lack of trust in the technology and a reduced understanding of the position. Experience acquired by the PSA though investigations, studies of causes of major incidents and audits show that the underlying causes of undesirable incidents may reflect inadequate understanding of the technology and/or operating the system inaccurately and with insufficient understanding of human factors and important performance influencing factors.

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It must be possible to rely on the technology being secure and on possible new risks being mitigated within the regulatory framework. That makes it important for employers, employees and the government to collaborate, make a commitment and contribute in this area.

8 Conclusion Knowledge and technology development are fundamental prerequisites for the continuous improvement work in the petroleum industry, emphasizing the potential for new technology to contribute to increased efficiency and safety. However, going forward companies are responsible for ensuring soundness in processes relating to qualification and implementation of new technology so that the associated uncertainty is evaluated and mitigated.

References 1. Petroleum Safety Authority Norway: Klare krav om mål (2019). https://www.ptil.no/fagstoff/ utforsk-fagstoff/reportasjer/2019/krav-om-konkrete-mal/ 2. Gressgård, L.J., Melberg, K., Risdal, M., Selvik, J.T., Skotnes, R.Ø.: Digitalisering i petroleumsnæringen: Utviklingstrender, kunnskap og forslag til tiltak. NORCE rapport, 2018/001 (2018) 3. Bakken, T., Holmstrøm, S., Johnsen, S. O., Merz, M., Grøtli, E.I., Transeth, A., Risholm, P, Storvold, R.: Bruk av droner i nordområdene: HMS forhold knyttet til bruk av droner i petroleumsaktivitetene i nord. SINTEF rapport, 2019:01284 (2019) 4. Endsley, M. R.: Human Factors & Aviation Safety: Testimony to the United States House of Representatives. Hearing on Boeing 737-Max8 Crashes—December 11, 2019. Human Factors an Ergonomic Society (2019)

Approaches to Improve Shop Floor Management Sven Hinrichsen(&), Benjamin Adrian, and Andreas Schulz Industrial Engineering Laboratory, Ostwestfalen-Lippe University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Campusallee 12, 32657 Lemgo, Germany {Sven.Hinrichsen,Benjamin.Adrian, Andreas.Schulz}@th-owl.de

Abstract. The task of shop floor management is to ensure high effectiveness and efficiency of a production system. The objective of this paper is to identify potentials for improvement of shop floor management in the context of digitalization and to identify fields of action. As a result, the paper shows four categories of deficits in shop floor management, respectively information management. First, insufficiently designed business processes lead to additional administrative work for shop floor managers. Second, shop floor management can be strengthened by improving e-mail communication. Third, the meeting organization and fourth, the reporting offer potential for improvement. The creation of reports and the preparation of key figures, for example, involve routine activities that do not add value and can be partially automated. Therefore, as part of the project, a shop floor board was prototypically developed using a low-code development platform in order to demonstrate the potential of this approach. Keywords: Shop floor management
Low-code development platform
Shop floor board

1 Introduction Shop floor management is an integral part of a production system [1]. The task of shop floor management is to ensure high effectiveness and efficiency of a production system. Managers must actively lead as mentors and problem solving coaches [2]. Therefore, they have to be present at the place of value creation – and not primarily in the office [3]. Analyzing problems by practicing daily meetings and routines at the place of value creation lead to a more intensive exchange of information [2]. In addition, numerous further rules for Lean Leadership can be found in literature [4]. Increasing complexity in production – in particular due to shortened cycles of innovation and growing diversity in product variants – results in increasing demands for information management in production [5]. This creates new challenges for managers. They must coordinate a large number of different tasks [6]. Managers have to react flexibly to the changing framework conditions surrounding leadership and the use of new software systems in the company.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 415–421, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_63

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One goal of the project Arbeit4.0 - AWARE is to improve the work of managers on the shop floor. To do so, it aims to identify routine administrative tasks that can be reduced or eliminated through digital support, leaving more time for real management tasks. In addition, it works to pinpoint deficits in information delivery, in order to derive recommendations for action to improve information management. To achieve the project’s goal, semi-standardized, problem-focused interviews were held with managers from production at an international company in the capital goods industry. Section 2 describes the method, Sect. 3 the results of data collection and evaluation in summary. Details can be found in a previous publication [7]. For one identified field of action, a solution approach was prototypically implemented in a case study. The presentation of the developed prototype is subject of Sect. 4. Finally, the paper provides a brief discussion (Sect. 5).

2 Method of Data Collection and Evaluation A process consisting of five steps has been selected to identify fields of action for improving shop floor management. These steps are the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Determination of the interview objectives Creation of the interview guideline Execution and transcription of the interviews Evaluation through a qualitative content analysis Appraisal of the results of the qualitative content analysis

One interview objective was the identification of administrative tasks that can be reduced or eliminated through digital support, leaving more time for real management tasks. Another was the identification of deficits in information delivery and deriving recommended actions for these. Using the critical incident technique, a questionnaire was developed to implement a problem-centered interview as a survey instrument. Ten interviews were conducted with managers at an international company in the capital goods industry. The interviews were carried out in a partially standardized manner, in order to ask follow-up questions tailored to the respondents’ answers and react flexibly to their responses. Two persons wrote down answers to the questions, which were then transcribed digitally. Evaluation of the interviews was carried out using qualitative content analysis according to Mayring [8]. During a workshop, the results of the qualitative content analysis from the interviews were presented to selected managers, in order to identify potential errors in interpreting interview results and to analyze the identified fields of action.

3 Results The selected method and procedure of data collection and evaluation (Sect. 2) provided that there is no uniform understanding of real management tasks, since the question on what real management tasks are resulted in very different answers. For example, only four respondents named developing the skills of employees as a real management task.

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In contrast, the ability to teach is considered one of the most important requirements for managers in literature [9]. There is a discrepancy between management tasks perceived to be time-consuming and tasks perceived to be important by respondents. In the opinion of the respondents, the greatest amount of time is not spent on the most important tasks. For example, five respondents viewed preparing key figures as the most time-consuming task, while seven respondents felt interacting with employees was the most important task [7]. In addition, qualitative content analysis was used to identify deficits in shop floor management, respectively information management. Four categories of deficits were identified [7] (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Categories of deficits in shop floor management

Deficits in preparing key figures include manually entering data and manually linking information from various IT systems, which can often result in errors. Concerning e-mail correspondence, one negative aspect described was that too much information is distributed in e-mails to too many recipients, without prioritizing the topics included. This results in long searches through e-mails for useful information. Causes of failing to design meetings in a targeted way were described in not selecting suitable participants for meetings and a lack of documentation of important meeting results. Several internal corporate processes were outlined as inadequate, resulting in managers having to handle administrative tasks and a failure to tap into potential areas of optimization. One example is the lack of a Manufacturing Execution System (MES).

4 Case Study – Designing an App for Preparing Key Figures The results described in Sect. 3 were presented to stakeholders at a workshop. As a result, it was determined to prioritize field of action 1 (preparing key figures for the shop floor board and for reporting) in the further course of the project. In this context, the following requirements for a digital shop floor board should be included:

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Simplicity of configuration Information output via mobile devices High usability and provision of information according to demands Integration of a push function for automatic event information Consideration of interfaces to other relevant software systems Use of up-to-date key figures Avoidance of administrative routine activities and errors due to manual data input (see Sects. 1 and 3).

With the aim of meeting these requirements as completely as possible, a prototypical solution was developed in the Industrial Engineering Laboratory of the Ostwestfalen-Lippe University of Applied Sciences and Arts. As a result, the shop floor board was implemented using low-code programming. Low-code means that only a marginal amount of programming code is required to develop software [10]. The design of an application (app) is done via so-called low-code development platforms. Such platforms use visual, declarative techniques instead of classical programming via codes [11]. Low-code programming is a model-driven software development approach with visual programming and automatic code generation. The advantage of this type of software development is that the qualification effort for using a low-code development platform is comparatively low. Ideally, the future user can develop his software by himself. An assembly assistance system software was chosen as the application scenario for the development of the shop floor board. In the assembly process, the software records various status data (actual values) and stores them in spreadsheet files. Together with predefined target values, which are also stored in spreadsheet files, these form the database for the prototype of the digital shop floor board. In this, important key figures for the shop floor are prepared by comparing the target and actual values. The software prototype was created with PowerApps, a low-code development platform (requirement 1) from Microsoft. PowerApps supports information output via mobile devices such as smartphones or tablets (requirement 2). The software is displayed as an app on the respective device via an icon and can be activated and controlled with multi-touch gestures. In addition, the utilized low-code development platform enables the use of a cloud service. All data relevant to the software can be stored in the corresponding cloud. This makes it possible to use the software wherever there is an internet connection. The shop floor board (named as assembly KPI cockpit) developed for the described use case contains three main key figures: quantity produced, first pass yield and assembly time. The three key figures are presented graphically in a main view (see Fig. 2).

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Fig. 2. Shop floor board developed via low-code programming

The key figure “quantity produced” is displayed in a bar chart by comparing the target quantity with the actual quantity of produced assembly groups. The fulfillment rate is the quotient of actual and target quantity. These figures allow deviations and their extent to be recognized at a glance. The key figure “first pass yield” is visualized in a circular chart in which produced assembly groups are divided into “correct” and “incorrect”. With a view to this key figure, the respective proportion of correctly and incorrectly assembled orders for an assembly group can first be identified. By touching the circular chart, the incorrectly assembled orders are listed in a detailed view with indication of the error code. The information on the errors derives from the assembly assistance system software described, which stores the errors in a spreadsheet file after they have been entered by the user. For the representation of the key figure “assembly time”, the actual times for the assembly of orders are shown in a bar chart. The target time for an assembly is visualized via a line through the bars, so that deviations (also in the course of time) can be identified. In addition, the target order times are set in relation to the actual order times to display the utilization rate. If individual action limits are exceeded or undercut, this can be easily detected (requirement 3). In addition, the principles of dialogue design [12] are taken into account in the software displaying all essential information to the user (task adequacy). Controllability and customizability are considered by using buttons to output detailed information or filter functions if required. Consequently, for an output of the key figures the time period and the assemblies must always be selected. If required, a push function (e.g. sending an e-mail) can also be implemented using PowerApps (requirement 4). Interfaces to other software systems can be implemented indirectly via exchange formats (e.g. via Microsoft Excel) (requirement 5). A data exchange via xml-files could not be realized as this format is apparently not yet supported. Interfaces to other software systems and the central administration of all data in the cloud ensure that the display of key figures is always up-to-date (requirement 6).

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In summary, it can be assumed that the development of a digital shop floor board using a low-code development platform can sustainably improve the effectiveness and efficiency of the information preparation process (requirement 7), since recurring processes of manual data input and preparation are avoided. Ideally, the key figures are available in the way the users need them. Experience with the chosen low-code development platform has shown that it is suitable for meeting all essential requirements with little effort compared to classical programming.

5 Discussion The interview results show that there is no uniform understanding of real management tasks among the respondents. In addition, differences can be observed between the tasks described in literature and the tasks performed by managers in operational practice. For example, managers in production carry out administrative tasks because individual business processes are not designed to meet requirements or the creation of reports is not automated. Moreover, it became clear in the interviews with the managers surveyed that there is a discrepancy between the tasks perceived as time-consuming and those perceived as important. For example, five respondents regarded the preparation of key figures as the most time-consuming activity, while seven perceived interaction with employees as the most important activity. The share of administrative activities must be significantly reduced in order to lay the foundations for shop floor managers being able to take care of their core tasks as described in literature. The reduction of administrative activities can be achieved through (partial) automation of individual processes. A low-code development platform can be used for this purpose. With the help of a case study, it could be shown that the low-code programming of an application can be carried out in line with requirements and with comparatively little effort. In a further step, this solution will be transferred to operational practice and be tested. In case this application proves itself in practice, further administrative activities should be eliminated by corresponding software solutions. At the same time, managers should be trained to use the time they no longer spend on administrative activities for real management activities. Acknowledgment. The research and development project AWARE is funded by the Ministry of Economic Affairs, Innovation, Digitalization and Energy of the State of North Rhine-Westphalia (MWIDE) in the context of the Leading-Edge Cluster “Intelligent Technical Systems OstWestfalenLippe (it’s OWL)”.

References 1. Suzaki, K.: The New Shop Floor Management: Empowering People for Continuous Improvement. Free Press, New York (1993) 2. Hertle, C., Siedelhofer, C., Metternich, J., Abele, E.: The next generation shop floor management - how to continuously develop competencies in manufacturing environments. In: The Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on Production Research, Manila (2015)

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3. Bertagnolli, F.: Lean Management – Einführung und Vertiefung in die japanische Management-Philosophie. Springer, Wiesbaden (2018) 4. Dombrowski, U., Mielke, T.: Lean leadership – 15 rules for a sustainable lean implementation. Procedia CIRP 17, 565–570 (2014). Variety Management in Manufacturing 5. Bornewasser, M., Bläsing, D., Hinrichsen, S.: Informatorische Assistenzsysteme in der manuellen Montage: Ein nützliches Werkzeug zur Reduktion mentaler Beanspruchung? Zeitschrift für Arbeitswissenschaft 72(4), 264–275 (2018) 6. Frost, M., Sandrock, S., Schüth, N.: Potenziale der digitalen Arbeitswelt für Führung und Qualifizierung. Erfahrungsberichte und Empfehlungen von 4.0 Experten. Zeitschrift für wirtschaftlichen Fabrikbetrieb 111(10), 639–644 (2016) 7. Materna, L., Hinrichsen, S., Adrian, B., Schulz, A.: How to improve shop floor management. In: Padoano, E., Villmer, F.-J. (eds.) Production Engineering and Management, Proceedings 9th International Conference, Publication Series in Direct Digital Manufacturing, pp. 179– 188. Ostwestfalen-Lippe University of Applied Sciences and Arts, Lemgo (2019) 8. Mayring, P.: Qualitative Inhaltsanalyse – Grundlagen und Techniken. Beltz, Weinheim (2010) 9. Liker, J.K., Meier, D.: The Toyota Way Fieldbook. A Practical Guide for Implementing Toyota’s 4Ps. McGraw-Hill, New York (2006) 10. Kahanwal, B.: Abstraction level taxonomy of programming language frameworks. Int. J. Program. Lang. Appl. 3(4), 1–12 (2013) 11. Waszkowski, R.: Low-code platform for automating business processes in manufacturing. IFAC PapersOnLine 52(10), 376–381 (2019) 12. ISO 9241-110:2006. Ergonomics of human-system interaction - Part 110: Dialogue principles. ISO, Switzerland (2006)

Deliver Insights, Not Information: The Power of Data Visualization to Improve Care Delivery and Patient Experience Viraj Patwardhan(&), Neil Gomes, and Tiffany D’souza The DICE Group, Thomas Jefferson University and Jefferson Health, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA {viraj.patwardhan,Tiffany.D’Souza}@jefferson.edu, [email protected]

Abstract. Would you prefer a 20-page report with columns and rows, or would you rather see that information in a simple pie or bar chart? Data presented in a visually simple format is easy to comprehend. From the giant screens that display your favorite coffee to the information on your phone screens, we all interact with visual information. Our lives today are filled with technology and data, and visualized data is an integrated component of the technologies we interact with. Although most industries have adopted data visualization for several decades, it was only the past decade that saw healthcare starting to use it to communicate information to patients. Leveraging data visualization helps us to deliver clinical insights and help with critical decision making in a quicker and more accurate manner. Healthcare undoubtedly benefits from leveraging these tools to identify trends and opportunities to optimize systems thereby improving the quality of care. Keywords: Data visualization Data-Driven insights


Healthcare big data
Clinical dashboards


1 Introduction Today most of our decisions in various industries are driven by data. However, data is only as powerful as its interpretation. With the federal push for Electronic Health Record (EHR) adoption, healthcare has seen a massive increase in the amount of data stored in the form of labs, clinical notes, insurance information and even social determinants of health [4]. Leveraging these copious quantities of data and displaying them in a fashion that is easy to comprehend and draw inferences from is of the utmost importance, so one can find patterns in the information hidden within these numerous rows and columns [8]. To fully understand the power of data, one can look at industries that have successfully adopted data visualization methods and strategies, and are now seeing the benefits, by either a higher level of consumer interactions or superior engagement with their digital platforms. Take for example social media sites like Facebook, Instagram, or even LinkedIn. These companies have heavily leveraged real-time dashboards and insight-driven analytics making it accessible to each of their consumers, allowing them © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 422–427, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_64

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to better understand interactions, engagement, and preferences, which then helps them better cater to their consumers’ needs. Although technology makes it easier to visualize data, the principle of data visualization is not new to us. As early as the 2nd century, Egyptians created a data table cataloging astrological information [2]. In the 17th century, Rene Descartes invented the cartesian coordinate system - the X and Y graph. Fast forward to 1913, Iowa State University introduced academic courses in graphing data, which officially elevated data visualization to a science. Until the 1970s, data visualization was still very basic and somewhat limited, but it was Edward Tufte’s book published in 1983 and titled “The Visual Display of Quantitative Information” that introduced the world to innovative new ways of visualizing information [9]. Since then, most industries have invested in data visualization methods and techniques to make their data easily understandable and seamless to interact with. The airlines created simple arrival/departure screens at the airports and the stock exchanges across the world made it easier for investors to understand rapidly changing stock prices for better investment decisions. The retail industry took advantage of data visualization by creating direct-to-consumer advertisements that made shopping decisions easy. The advances in technology in the 1990s and the advent of the smartphone in the 2000s made it even easier for companies to disseminate information in a compelling visual format. Visualization of data was not just used to reach potential consumers, but also used internally within organizations to improve production and manufacturing, optimize workflows, improve staff productivity, etc. Healthcare is already benefiting from adopting these principles and applying them to the large datasets stored within EHRs. These visual data solutions help catalyze new behaviors among patients and clinicians, remove barriers to interaction and enhance patient experience, and improve health and organizational outcomes. Healthcare must leverage data visualization as a foundational innovation principle in its framework for rapid innovation [6].

2 Data Visualization in Healthcare As with any industry, the design and implementation of data visualization solutions for healthcare have specific requirements and principles of design that need to be considered when developing these solutions [5, 10]. When developing solutions, one must focus on certain design principles that will ensure the success of the solutions in a clinical setting. 2.1

Look to Insights and Needs from Research to Decide the Narrative

When designing data visualization tools for healthcare, defining the right problem is of utmost importance to increasing usage and compliance. Secondary research involving the input of users (clinicians, administrative teams, leadership, other clinical staff and many-a-time the patients) helps in defining the problem and identifying the required metrics and visualizations to be measured and displayed. The aim of these dashboards is to filter unnecessary information and display only insights to the end-user. This

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ensures highlighting key insights that need to be gleaned thereby preventing information overload. 2.2

Keep Core Findings Visually Simple, Yet Ensure that the Backend System Is Robust

Identify a few key metrics to be displayed and then allow for a more in-depth granular view of the data if necessary, as it allows for flexibility in usage. Large clinical teams are made of various professionals with different data requirements. Allowing for varying levels of information gives the opportunity for all team members to view what is necessary and important to their roles and responsibilities. Moreover, designing the visuals in a way that is easy to interpret and understand within seconds is important in healthcare settings, as these vital seconds could make a difference between life and death. By using familiar icons and symbol keys, one can reduce the learning curve. 2.3

Allow for Flexibility and Continuous Updating Where Necessary

With the nature of healthcare data continuously changing (and updating almost instantaneously in some cases), real-time visualizations allow more accurate decisionmaking resulting in a higher quality of care. It is also important to understand where dynamic data vs. static data is required [3]. Being able to prepare for a sudden influx of patients indicated by a dynamically changing dashboard can make all the difference between a well-organized Clinical Department and one which is filled with patient backflow waiting for a bed. 2.4

Ensure that Data Sources Are Reliable and Allow for Integration

To ensure credible and consistent data visualization it is very important that the data sources are verified and reliable. Most hospitals use some form of Electronic Health Record (EHR) and these EHR’s contain the bulk of all the important and most updated information. To create good healthcare data visualization, one should try and tap into the hospital EHR. This will allow for high-quality and credible data visualization that will help the clinical staff make better and quicker decisions.

3 Use Cases in Healthcare In the past few years, many healthcare organizations have made significant investments in visualizing their data and making it easier for their staff and patients to interact with these visualizations. In addition to these efforts, there are several external companies and startups that have created simple, intuitive WYSIWYG visualization software solutions that allow for quick data integration. These solutions allow users to quickly visualize complex data into simple visuals that are easy to understand. Thomas Jefferson University and Jefferson Health (Jefferson) have embraced data visualizations for a few years now. Understanding the importance of visualized data, Jefferson has deployed many data dashboards across its health system. From simple

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software-based data visualizations to complex custom dashboards that integrate several disparate data sources, Jefferson has managed to build a data-driven culture. The Digital Innovation and Consumer Experience (DICE) Group was founded at Jefferson in 2014 to create innovative products, services, and business models for Jefferson. Since then The DICE Group has delivered on this goal by positioning Jefferson as a consumer-focused, digital-ready and innovative organization, improving the lives of millions of patients and thousands of students each year. Based on the principles listed above The DICE Group worked with like-minded stakeholders from Jefferson’s Emergency Departments (ED) to build fully-customized and data-driven dashboards for different ED’s across the health system. As emphasized earlier for any successful project, it is important that user needs are well defined and researched. By interviewing clinical stakeholders and observing hundreds of different interactions within the ED, the team was able to design dashboards that have a common data backend, but different visual interpretations to cater to individual ED needs. During this process DICE identified three main Performance Metrics (PMs) and Key performance indicators (KPIs). 3.1

Reducing Patient Waiting Time

Patients who visit the ED are in need of urgent, and in some cases, immediate care. It is very important that the ED moves patients quickly through the registration system so that care teams can start working with patients. By simply creating a display on the dashboard that shows the total number of patients waiting in the waiting area, clinical staff can now attend to patients faster. In a busy ED, where clinical staff are working with patients, a quick glance at a 60-in. large TV monitor enables them to quickly identify and understand bottlenecks and address them in real-time. 3.2

Reducing the Left Without Being Seen (LWBS) Rate

With the anticipation of being treated immediately, a seemingly long or sometimes even a slight wait can compel patients to leave without receiving treatment or contribute to a poor experience. By allowing the clinical staff to quickly view the total number of waiting patients, ED leadership is now able to quickly attend to the patients thereby reducing the LWBS rates significantly. 3.3

Improving Hospital Ratings

Hospital ratings are very significant to healthcare systems. In addition to changing how patients perceive the hospital, these ratings also contribute to reimbursement by payers or insurance companies. By installing dashboards with specific widgets that cater to each ED, The DICE Group helped not only the clinical staff but also improved how patients perceived the hospital. The dashboards contributed to improved hospital ratings for Jefferson Health. The results listed below show how simple and intuitive data visualizations can make positive changes to clinical workflows and patient satisfaction.

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• The average wait time was reduced by 24 min. • The LWBS rate was lowered from 4.6% to 1.2%. • Patient Satisfaction Scores improved. In addition to the large-screen ED dashboards, The DICE Group also developed several smaller-form-factor data visualizations for Human Resources, Seamless Access, and other corporate functions to help them optimize their decision making.

4 Insights from Our Work in Data Visualization in Healthcare Humans are capable of perceiving visuals and differences in color, shapes, and lines without much mental strain allowing for quicker mental processing. These are referred to as “pre-attentive attributes” [7]. Effective images and graphs that take advantage of this quick mental processing ability allow for faster information ingestion and comprehension. Historically, the lack of proper data organization and presentation in the healthcare sector has resulted in inconsistent, non-standardized, time-consuming, and static performance reporting [1]. Clinical data visualization has improved patient satisfaction and experience and optimized internal clinical workflows at Jefferson Health. As the amount of data collected through EHRs increases, the ability to leverage insights and improve healthcare systems increases with it. In addition, data visualization with multidimensional datasets allows us to find trends that have previously gone unnoticed. Through our experience with data visualization for such a fast-paced industry like healthcare, we have learned that it is not always necessary to show the “full picture” of available data, but rather quick takeaways that help clinicians and leaders make efficient decisions. We also learned that allowing customization also helps with implementation and compliance within departments, hospitals and major healthcare institutions. We foresee usage of dashboards increasing exponentially over the next few years and stress upon the need for adoption and development of effective and intuitive solutions that address the problem at its core and follow the principles outlined in this paper.

5 Conclusion Data visualization of complex healthcare data can help clinical staff make quick decisions and in return improve the perception and experience of patients. As more health systems weave data visualization into their work and decision-making fabric, we will see a decrease in operational and administrative costs, an increase in the accuracy of responses, reduction in mental overload due to data-interpretation, and increased ability to identify trends and patterns for future scenarios. Most importantly though, it will move the healthcare industry from a data-driven approach to an insight-driven approach to clinical decision-making.

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References 1. Bourne, M.: Researching performance measurement system implementation: the dynamics of success and failure. Prod. Plan. Control. 16(2), 101–113 (2005) 2. Funkhouser, H.G.: A note on a tenth century graph. Osiris 1, 260–262 (1936) 3. Ghazisaeidi, M., Safdari, R., Torabi, M., Mirzaee, M., Farzi, J., Goodini, A.: Development of performance dashboards in healthcare sector: key practical issues. Acta Inform. Med. 23(5), 317–321 (2015). https://doi.org/10.5455/aim.2015.23.317-321 4. Stadler, J.G., Donlon, K., Siewert, J.D., Franken, T., Lewis, N.E.: Big Data 129–135 (2016). http://doi.org/10.1089/big.2015.0059 5. Lucy, L.: Design Principles for Data Visualisation in a Healthcare Setting Towards Data Science: A Medium Publication, 28 February 2020 6. Einhorn, L.J.: Abraham Lincoln, the Orator: Penetrating the Lincoln Legend. Greenwood Press, Westport, vol. 25 (1992). http://www.questia.com/read/27419298 7. Tory, M., Moller, T.: Human factors in visualization research. IEEE Trans. Visual. Comput. Graph. 10(1), 72–84 (2004) 8. Murdoch, T.B., Detsky, A.S.: The inevitable application of big data to health care. JAMA 309(13), 1351–1352 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.393 9. Tufte, E.R.: The Visual Display of Quantitative Information. Graphics Press, Cheshire (1983) 10. Yigitbasioglu, O.M., Velcu, O.: A review of dashboards in performance management: implications for design and research. Int. J. Account. Inform. Syst. 13(1), 41–59 (2012)

Enabling New Forms of Work Organization on the Shop Floor Through Technology-Driven Innovation Stefanie Findeisen1(&), Carmen Constantinescu2, and Bastian Pokorni2 1 Institute of Human Factors and Technology Management IAT, University of Stuttgart, Allmandring 35, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany [email protected] 2 Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Engineering IAO, Nobelstr. 12, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany {Carmen.Constantinescu, Bastian.Pokorni}@iao.fraunhofer.de

Abstract. The Digital Transformation and Industry 4.0 change production work in a holistic and disruptive nature. Most industrial challenges highlight technological aspects since Industry 4.0 is emphasizing on beyond the frontier technology. They revealed the need for organizational changes as well as influences on the human factor. For instance, the employment of assistance systems to support workers on the shop floor allow new information flows by overcoming existing barriers such as hierarchy or distances. Thus, there are not only technological but also more comprehensive implications on work induced by identified use cases. This paper presents few implemented use cases in which technologies optimize or enable new organizational facets to pave the way for new forms of work organization. Building on these use cases, superordinate work organization design principles are discussed. Keywords: Human factors Shop floor
Industry 4.0


Organization
Production work
Technology


1 Introduction and Problem Statement New technologies and technical enhancements have changed production work since the upcoming of Industry 4.0 [1]. Many application examples for technology-driven innovation in manufacturing work-related context are published in print media or on public information websites (e.g. Plattform Industry 4.0 https://www.plattform-i40.de/ PI40/Navigation/DE/Home/home.html) and are known under the term use case(s) [2]. When analyzing the published use cases from the primarily DACH countries it becomes apparent, that the discussion surrounding Industry 4.0 is highly dominated by technological characteristics. One possible reason is the fact that technology tends to be more tangible than more abstract implications on humans and organizations. Beside the advances in technology, alternative work organization concepts have resulted from research since the rise of humanization of work in the 1970s [2] such as © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 428–434, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_65

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Fraktale Fabrik [3] and Agile Organisation [4]. New forms of work organization refer to multiple aspects e.g. organization structure, operational structures, and processes, social organization, work conditions such as flexible workforce, and remote work. Traditional organization forms in comparison are characterized by rigid organizational structures, strict division of planning and execution tasks, and strong silo mentality. Although the majority of concepts have evolved in white-collar workplaces, there are examples of innovative work organization concepts in the manufacturing industry. The Volvo plant in Uddevalla was organized in three hierarchical levels, 8 employees took responsibility for the manufacturing of the total car as an autonomous team [5]. The review of white-collar workplace examples indicate, that many advances regarding new forms of collaboration, teamwork, and flexible work conditions have been achieved due to the elaborated usage of new technologies [1]. Following the rapid development in information and telecommunication systems, virtual meetings, cloud services and collaboration platforms are now state-of-the-art for knowledge workplaces. In manufacturing work, the application of devices and technology for the usage of real-time data just starts to gain relevance, although it is the base for fast adaptation and agility on the shop floor.

2 Research Aim and Approach Consequently, technology will influence new forms of organization and work on the shop floor on a wider scale, although manufacturing work research considers technology and organization often separately. Innovative technologies, which enable new forms of work organization, need to be identified. From an organizational point of view, new forms of organization and work are facilitated by key characteristics such as self-organization and autonomous teamwork. In the first step, the key characteristics have to be matched with the enabling technologies. Figure 1 presents the research approach holistically.

Fig. 1. Approach overview for design principles and development of evaluation and validation use case

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Following the guiding argumentation, the paper presents four Industry 4.0 use cases implemented in the Future Work Lab FWL2.01 and analyzes them from a work organizational perspective. This means, that the use case is linked to the work organization characteristics, which they enable through overcoming existing organizational challenges such as slow and insufficient information and communication flows. Further research activities include the definition of work organization design principles related to Industry 4.0 technologies. Besides, relevant drivers for innovative work organization forms (such as lead-time reduction and attractiveness of workplaces) are deduced from literature research. Based on this, a validation use case is a developed base on the identified technology characteristics. For the use case development, the research team will consider the relevance of an integrated human-technologyorganization (HTO) concept, which is acknowledged by researchers and practitioners to help understand complex systems and foster human-centered design discussions [6]. 2.1

Overview of Use Cases

The FWL2.0 is an interdisciplinary research project funded by the German Federal Ministry for Science and Education and consists of three main work organization areas, each addressing specific interest groups: demonstration, learning, and idea world [7]. The demonstration world presents over fifty use cases focused on manufacturing work in the FWL2.0 in Stuttgart. The use cases address different challenges in current production work or workplace design such as insufficient information supply or improper assistance during the manufacturing process. Suitable technologies and technical enhancements are employed to meet the initial challenges [7]. The use cases originate from 3½ years of research experience from the project team as well as the practical identification of over 150 use cases in five cross-industry projects applying the Production Assessment Method [8]. Hereafter, four use cases are outlined that represent the foundation of the performed analysis. 2.2

Description/Presentation of Use Cases

(I) Mobile Operation of Multiple Machines. Production environments are often characterized by worker-machine-ratio of 1:2 and more. This mode of operation leads to downtime if two machines are running out of material or have a technical issue since the worker in charge can only get one machinery up at the time or has to contact a colleague for back-up. Usually, multiple workers are suitable to perform a specific task; but since there is no transparency regarding availability, fitting competencies, etc., the coordination process is complex and time-consuming. In addition, it causes the machinery to stay down even more. The use case Mobile Operation of Multiple Machines offers flexible communication and allocation of production tasks. Via sensors, which detect machinery

1

See: https://futureworklab.de/en.html.

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conditions, a sophisticated communication hub sends standardized push notifications to the responsible worker based on a defined communication cascade automatically. The notifications vary from information to tasks; the latter has to be accepted by at least one worker. When accepted or denied, a notification goes back to the hub, and thus, the initially contacted recipients are notified. Upcoming tasks during the manufacturing process can be allocated self-organized and autonomous. This allows a lean and effective communication flow and optimizes worker resources. (II) Shift planning via App. This use case offers a digitally assisted planning of additional shifts via an application (app). With this app, the shift planner uses a mask to determine the characteristics of the shift such as morning/day/evening/ night shift, workplace, and required qualifications. Based on the input, the app recommends employees, which fit the required conditions. Also, the employees are ranked based on their strategic fit of the shift taking into consideration their current overtime account. The employees receive the shift invitations via their account and can accept or deny the request, which is communicated back to the planner. (III) Order Track and Trace. The use case is based on a scenario issued by a wheelchair manufacturer. Because of the high variance and the manual and paper-based process, the status of all suborders (and therefore the orders themselves) was not feasible during the manufacturing process, which led to an information black box from manufacturing. Steering and taking action in realtime when process turbulences occur was almost impossible since different communication paths had to be initiated. The Order Track and Trace system offers transparency on the orders including all suborders. Via barcodes, the orders are registered in every step of the manufacturing process including warehouse and external processes. By making the order process transparent, the workers pick the next (sub-)order self-organized from the pool of orders. The comprehensive transparency assures that only ready-to-manufacture orders are selectable. Managing roles such as the production manager or springer know in real-time if the manufacturing plant is on track and where support is needed. The assistance system offers the workers step-by-step instructions and verifies the compliance of medical technology production standards. This enables flexible deployment of workers regardless of their qualification status. (IV) Molecular Workplace. The Molecular Workplace offers a holistic vision of future manufacturing workplaces, addressing elements to foster attractiveness and well-being at the workplace. One central aspect of this use case is the production and layout planning. Based on the market demands, available resources and the workers’ selection of orders, the worker configures the layout of the workplace (single workplace, U-line, etc.) adequately and is assisted by tools such as an AGV. The workplace itself consists of different modules, also called physical apps, which are flexible and adaptable to different manufacturing workplace configurations [9].

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2.3

Use Case Analysis

This section focuses on work organization characteristics, which are enabled by the technology-driven innovation of the presented Industry 4.0 use cases. Since this paper focuses on opening the discussion on this new perspective on the organization and work forms, the collected characteristics, as well as the assessments, are not complete and fully consistent, which the research group will address in the future. The presented analysis is based on a first set of relevant characteristics that enable new organization and work forms on the shop-floor. The characteristics merge from theories and best practices, which are partly adapted from knowledge work such as agile methods to traditional theories such as fractal organization, autonomous teamwork and agile organization. Table 1 shows the identified key characteristics, the use cases as well as the degree of impact on the key characteristics by the use cases.

Table 1. Analysis of use cases Key characteristics Self-organization

Use cases Degree of impact by use case I ++ III ++ IV +++ Self-optimization III ++ IV +++ Efficient communication I +++ II ++ III + IV ++ Autonomy of task execution I + II + III ++ IV ++ Completeness of task III ++ IV +++ Autonomy of planning IV +++ Transparency of work progress III +++ IV ++ Learning in process/CIP – – (+ low impact, ++ medium impact, +++ high impact)

There was no use case identified which enables the key characteristic learning in progress.

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3 Conclusion and Future Work New forms of organization and work can be enabled by introducing innovative technologies in manufacturing environments. The paper has outlined how Industry 4.0 use cases offer optimization opportunities in terms of aspects like self-organization and efficient communication on the shop floor. The need for a holistic catalog of design principles and a corresponding HTO planning approach for use cases was emphasized. An initial set of aspects was presented as well. Further research will focus on an in-depth analysis of the outlined use cases regarding relevant aspects from an organizational perspective. Combined with a literature research relevant design criteria for workplace design are deduced and combined in a consistent set of aspects considering findings from both theory and practice. These aspects are coupled with corresponding technological innovations. Besides the organization and workplace design state-of-the-art literature, other research fields such as emerging agile methods and new work are promising and relevant in this context and thus, will be considered. Additionally, a quantitative analysis of Industry 4.0 use cases as a complementary part will be performed. Acknowledgments. The Future Work Lab Project is funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) within the Program “Innovations for Tomorrow’s Production, Services, and Work” and controlled by the Project Management Agency Karlsruhe (PTKA).

References 1. Spath, D., Ganschar, O., Gerlach, S.: Produktionsarbeit der Zukunft - Industrie 4.0: [Studie]. Fraunhofer-Verl., Stuttgart (2013) 2. Bauer, W., Schlund, S., Hornung, T., Schuler, S.: Digitalization of industrial value chains: a review and evaluation of existing use cases of industry 4.0 in Germany. LogForum 14(3), 331–340 (2015). https://doi.org/10.17270/j.log.2018.288 3. Warnecke, H.-J.: Die Fraktale Fabrik: Revolution der Unternehmenskultur. Springer, Heidelberg (1992) 4. Goldman, S.L., Nagel, R.N., Preiss, K.: Agile Competitors and Virtual Organizations: Strategies for Enriching the Customer. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York (1995) 5. Berggren, C.: Alternatives to Lean Production: Work Organization in the Swedish Auto Industry. ILR Press, Ithaca (1992). Cornell international industrial and labor relations reports, no. 22 6. Karltun, A., Karltun, J., Berglund, M., Eklund, J.: HTO - a complementary ergonomics approach. Appl. Ergon. 59(Pt A), 182–190 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2016.08. 024 7. Findeisen, S., Körting, L., Schumacher, S., Hämmerle, M., Pokorni, B.: Classification approach for use cases within a demonstration factory environment. Procedia Manuf. 39, 106– 116 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2020.01.249

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8. Bauer, W., Pokorni, B., Findeisen, S.: Production assessment 4.0: methods for the development and evaluation of industry 4.0 use cases. In: Karwowski, W., Trzcieliński, S., Mrugalska, B., et al. (eds.) Advances in Manufacturing, Production Management and Process Control, pp. 501–510. Springer, Cham (2019) 9. Pokorni, B., Zwerina, J.: Molecular production system: flexible and attractive manufacturing systems of the future. Manuscript in preparation. In: 11th International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics (edn.), San Diego (2020)

Comparison of Muscular Activity Analysis for Electrical Technicians in High Voltage Lines Using Exoskeleton in the Colombian Industry, Enel-Codensa Study Case Sebastián Peláez1(&), Christian Zea1, Iván Mondragón1, Rodolfo García2, and Giovanni Hernández2 1

Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia [email protected] 2 Enel-Codensa, Bogotá, Colombia

Abstract. The aim of this case study was to analyze and evaluate the force risks associated with building metal towers structures using exoskeleton and without it in electrical technicians in high voltage lines. The data recollection was made using three different methods, a self-discomfort report, observational data (RULA and REBA) and muscular activity using electromyography (EMG). The results of the self-discomfort report showed a greater discomfort in wrist, hands, lower back and thighs. The outcomes of RULA analysis suggested that 51,6% of the activity postures were in high risk and the remaining in medium risk. REBA’s outcomes showed that 32% of the activity postures are classified as high risk and 65% in medium risk. About the EMG analysis, the mean difference analysis showed that there is no difference between using the exoskeleton and without. Finally, it is necessary to improve the working conditions instead of considering the usage of the exoskeleton. Keywords: Electromyography


Task analysis
Electric industry

1 Introduction Musculoskeletal disorders (MSD) are caused by fatigue work involving prolonged, maintained and forced postures, (outside the comfortable or neutral angles) unstable or vibratory support bases. All of it caused by activities like lifting or handling loads and repetitive movements [1, 2]. In 2018 in Colombia, 9.9 million of people were employees according to the health minister. The labor accidents rate was 5.29. The report presented in September 2019 showed that the electric, gas and water industry has rate of 0.0028 accidents per 100.000 workers and 5 illness reported during 2019 [3]. Enel-Codensa, a large electric company in Colombia, was concerned about his workers. In this project, exoskeletons were used as support for industrial workers. It reduced the weight and tension load borne by the worker on medium and high voltage power lines. It is assumed that the usage of this type of elements contribute to the worker, from an ergonomic point of view. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 435–440, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_66

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The use of passive exoskeletons, to support workers in the manufacturing industry and as support for the reduction of the risk of developing DME, has been recently studied in the literature. According to the research by Michiel, they analyzed various studies and from measurements with surface electromyography signals (EMG), they found reductions of up to 40% in the muscular activity of the back during dynamic lifting and static retention [4]. Likewise, it was found that passive industrial exoskeletons are intended to support or discharge the lumbar region and appear to be quite successful for dynamic lifting activities such as static retention. Another study showed, on assembly tasks, reductions in muscle activity of between 35% and 38% and less discomfort in the back when the exoskeleton is carried, compared to the same task without using this equipment [5]. Finally, in another study, the usage of different exoskeleton designs that support the shoulder and the weight of working tools for drilling tasks above the operator’s head were analyzed. This report showed that exoskeletons that support the shoulder reduce the maximum muscular load of the shoulder but did not significantly affect the quality of work performed by the operator.

2 Methodology 2.1

Participants

This research involved 12 volunteers from Enel-Codensa Enterprise, Colombia. Only high voltage lines technicians participated. The demographic characteristics of the study sample are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Demographic data Mean Standard deviation Volunteers 12 Age 42,25 Right handed 11 Left handed 1

2.2

Experimental Design and Procedure

The experimental design included three different methods. The first one was a selfdiscomfort report administered to eight technicians. The questionnaire consisted of a human figure, on which 16 parts of the human body were shown. The volunteer had to indicate the level of discomfort for each part of the body using a scale from 0 to 10 (Borg’s Scale); the second was observational data using Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA) and Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA). Data was recollected in real situations and then the videos were analyzed. Finally, the third one was a direct measurement with twelve volunteer technicians; the assessment were evaluated in a controlled experiment where muscular activity was

Comparison of Muscular Activity

437

measured using electromyography (EMG) in seven selected muscles. The activity consisted in building a scaffold in a studio to simulate an electric tower construction. To analyze the muscular activity, it was necessary to measure each person at the beginning of the workday to avoid accumulative muscular stress. The muscular activity was evaluated using sensor Myon 320 Wireless EMG sensors (Vicon, USA) on the skin surface; they had a 10-mm diameter and were separated by a distance of 20 mm to preamplify the signal. Before the sensors were attached, the skin was cleaned following European standardized norms. The correct positions of the sensors was determined by touch and following the SENIAM indications and the instructions of anatomical guide, according to the length of each muscle [6, 7]. The sensors were placed on the extensor carpi radialis (ECR), extensor carpi ulnaris (ECU), flexor carpi radialis (FCR), flexor carpi ulnaris (FCU), biceps (B), deltoid (D), trapezius (T). The signal was filtered with a bandwidth of 20–460 Hz, and a band reject filter at 60 Hz was used to reduce the interference induced by the electric network (i.e., interference below 5 lV and input impedance higher than 1000 Ω).

3 Analysis of the Results The self-report result was evaluated according to the quantity of technicians who reported any discomfort greater than four (4). Red scale was assigned to identify the parts of the body that were reported as the most affected by the participants, as shown in the Discomfort Scale (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Discomfort scale

The results of the self-discomfort report showed a greater discomfort reported by the technicians in wrist, hands, lower back and thighs.

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The RULA and REBA analysis suggested that 51,6% of the activity postures were in high risk and the remaining in medium risk for the RULA analysis. For the REBA analysis outcomes showed that 32% of the activity postures are classified as high risk and 65% in medium risk. RULA and REBA analysis suggest a re-design in 48,9% of the tasks and in REBA analysis (Table 2). Table 2. Risk level per ergonomic assessment Quantity of postures analyzed

12% FCU

ECU

ECR

13%

22%

15%

15% Biceps

20%

16%

FCR

80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%

21 21 10 10

Trapezius

REBA result RULA result 2. Required a re-design of the task REBA result RULA result

Deltoids

Risk level per ergonomic tool 1. May required any changes

scaffolding construc on without exosqueleton 60% 50% 40% 30% 20%

19%

15%

10%

11%

11%

14%

16%

14%

scaffolding construc on with exosqueleton

Trapezius

Deltoids

Biceps

FCU

FCR

ECU

ECR

0%

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Finally, the outcomes of the muscular activity assessment showed that without using exoskeleton, the trapezius was the muscle with highest demand and during the assessment using the exoskeleton was the extensor carpi ulnaris (ECU) in the general activity. In the task analysis, the activity was divided in five-tasks: Screw piece, search a metal structure part, take a metal structure, transport the metal structure and locate the metal piece. In each of the tasks, the muscles with highest muscular activity without using and using the exoskeleton for the first task were the trapezius and the ECU respectively. For the second task, were the ECU and trapezius the muscle with major activity. For the third one, was the extensor carpi radialis (ECR) in both cases. The fourth one was ECR and biceps and for the last one was the trapezius. Finally, the mean difference analysis showed that there is no difference between using the exoskeleton and without using it in the specific task analyzed.

4 Conclusions In summary, this case study showed a high level of discomfort, especially in the lower limbs, wrist and hands, where the workers reported the most discomfort. In fact, the observational evaluation of RULA and REBA analysis showed that it is mandatory to re-design the activity. Likewise, after performing an evaluation of muscular exposure on workers using and without using the exoskeleton, it is found that there is less muscular activity when the worker used the equipment, but there is no a significative difference. Unlike other studies, this study found that the usage of the exoskeleton does not represent an outstanding improvement on the working conditions. In addition, it is necessary to improve the working conditions considering alternatives of the structure design or redesign process instead of considering the usage of the exoskeleton. For example in tasks like screwing pieces it would be improve if the workers use pneumatic or electric tools to help the task.

References 1. Quintero, J.E.G.: Factores De Riesgos Ergonómicos Presentes En Los Trabajadores De Lineas Y Redes De La Empresa Electrificadora Del Huila S.A (2009) 2. Padmanathan, V., Joseph, L., Omar, B., Nawawi, R.: Prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders and related occupational causative factors among electricity linemen: a narrative review. Int. J. Occup. Med. Environ. Health 29, 725–734 (2016) 3. A. d. R. L. y. S. d. R. L. DANE, «Minsalud» 12 febrero 2020. [En línea]. https://www. minsalud.gov.co/proteccionsocial/RiesgosLaborales/Paginas/afiliacion-sistema-generalriesgos-laborales.aspx 4. De Looze, M.P., Bosch, T., Krause, F., Stadler, K.S., O’Sullivan, L.W.: Exoskeletons for industrial application and their potential effects on physical work load. Ergonomics 59, 671– 681 (2016) 5. Bosch, T., van Eck, J., Knitel, K., de Looze, M.: The effects of a passive exoskeleton on muscle activity, discomfort and endurance time in forward bending work. Appl. Ergon. 54, 212–217 (2016)

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6. Perotto, A.: Anatomical Guide for the Electromyographer: The Limbs and Trunk (2011) 7. Freriks, B., Hemens, H., Disselhorst-Klug, C., Rau, G.: The recommendations for sensors and sensor placement procedures for surface electromyography. Eur. Recommendations Surf. Electromyogr. 15–53 (1999) 8. Jonsson, B.: The static load component in muscle work. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 57(3), 305–310 (1988)

Prevention of Occupational Risks Related to the Human-Robot Collaboration Laurie Brun and Liên Wioland(&) French National Research and Safety Institute for the Prevention of Occupational Accidents and Diseases (INRS), 1 rue du Morvan, CS 60027, 54519 Vandoeuvre, France {laurie.brun,lien.wioland}@inrs.fr

Abstract. Industrial robotics called “collaborative” makes operator share his workspace with a robot or even perform tasks simultaneously with it. Humanrobot co-activity situations as all new technologies, modify the operator’s work and raise health and safety issues at work. To prevent occupational accidents and diseases but also to better understand Human-Robot Collaboration in the workplace, a study based on an ergonomics approach was conducted in a food company. Preliminary results show that handling tasks decrease while supervisory tasks increase, Operators have therefore more interest in their activity and feel valued. They think that collaborative robot integration improves their work conditions. However, mechanical moving parts (arms, tools, handled parts) of these cobots have sometimes hit operators. This study tries to work out ways to improve this collaboration in terms of health and safety. Keywords: Human-machine interaction
Human-robot collaboration
Occupational risks prevention
Supervisory activity
Health and safety

1 Introduction Considered a key factor in being competitive, “collaborative” robots (cobots) gain an increasing interest in companies from all sectors. These new machines have appeared due to significant developments in robotics and protective device technologies. In this paper, we agree with the broad definition which states that any robot operating without a fence alongside a human is a collaborative robot [1] This definition is in line with the market definition of a cobot [2]. Considering the distinguishing characteristics of cobots over regular robots, they are designed to decrease required floor space, increase product quality and production efficiency, promote work situations flexibility and reconfiguration and improve working conditions for humans [3, 4]. From this perspective, the aim is to automate repetitive tedious low-added value tasks for the operator and to refocus him on high-added value tasks. This should allow maintaining active expert workers suffering from musculoskeletal disorders (MSD) and facilitating employment on painful professions. As with any new technology, the introduction of collaborative robotics changes the organisation, the collective work and the operators’ activity.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 441–446, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_67

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In this context and in relation to its mission to prevent occupational accidents and diseases, the French National Research and Safety Institute for the Prevention of Occupational Accidents and Diseases (INRS) conducted an ergonomic study to provide a better understanding of Human-Robot Collaboration in the workplace and specify recommendations to prevent related risks.

2 Human-Robot Collaboration Modes Human-Robot Collaboration (HRC) refers to application scenarios where a cobot and a human occupy the same workspace and interact to accomplish collaborative tasks [5]. A human operator and a cobot can collaborate on a variety of industrial tasks, such as pick-and-place, assembly, screwing or inspection. Three collaboration modes are considered depending on how closely the operator works with the cobot [6]: • Space sharing is a work situation where the operator and the robot are working independently on different tasks. The collaborative element is due to the copresence of the operator and robot in the same workspace without a fence or guard. That is, safety is achieved through the robot’s intrinsic safety and/or added hardware/software safety elements. • Indirect collaboration is a work situation where the operator and the robot are working in turn. Both of them perform sequential manufacturing processes on the same work piece. There are time dependencies between the robot and the operator for their processes. In most cases, the robot is arranged to handle tedious processes to improve the operator’s working conditions. • Direct collaboration happens when the operator and the robot are working simultaneously. An operator and a robot operate on the same work piece at the same time. There is dependency between the actions of the cobot and the operator. For instance, the operator fastens screws on a toolbox while the robot holds it in place and rotates it to avoid tedious gestures to the operator. The role of the robot is to physically assist the operator with work pieces that improves ergonomics.

3 Risks Whatever the collaboration mode used to work with a cobot, collaborative situations imply various risks for the operator. Thus, like any machine, cobots have mechanical moving parts (arms, tools, handled parts) which may cause injury to operators (for example following collisions between operator and cobot). Since cobots are built for close-proximity interaction with humans, they must adhere to stringent safety requirements, such as power and speed limitation [7]. From a more global perspective, Standard ISO [8] about industrial robots specifies requirements for the safe integration of cobots into workstations.

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Physical and mental strains may be added to these mechanical risks. For example, operator may have to change his gesture strategies for worse ones to cope with the movements of the cobot. In a Human-Robot Collaboration situation, whether direct or indirect, the operator moves up from a co-operant role to a position of supervising the work situation. This causes a significant cognitive cost because of the allocation and reallocation of attentional resources. And as a consequence this could increase mental workload, decrease expertise and adaptability for example. These points are psycho social risk factors.

4 Purpose and Method The aim of this study is to have a better understanding of the Human-Robot Collaboration in the workplace and in particular, the consequences of this type of collaboration on the operator’s activity and his feelings. To achieve this goal, an ergonomic study was carried out with a food company. Three collaborative robots (cobots) are integrated on two production lines (one cobot on the line 1 and two cobots on the line 2). All three of them are dedicated to a packing task. Therefore, their workstation is almost at the end of production lines, just before the palletization. The methodological approach consisted of three parts: 1. A pre observation stage of the activity of 4 operators working with the cobots; “paper & pencil” observation techniques and video recording observations were used during three days. The operator’ tasks were next formalized under 13 categories (codes). Here are a few examples: • the “packaging operation” code has been defined as all packaging management operations (supplying cobots or automated machine with packaging, stick the labels on the cartons …), • the “regulation of the production” and “regulation of the cobot” codes concern all operations of the operator which compensate for losses of production or limitations of cobot (pack goods in cartons when the production goes faster than the speed of the cobot, handling tasks to recover the consequences of an incident of production …), • The “checking production or cobot” code corresponds to all operations of information collecting to assess whether everything is going according to plan. In other words, these operations are related to a supervisory activity. 2. Observation stage: activity of 2 operators was coded (according to the formalization) by experimenters in real time during three days. Video recording and activity coding were synchronised to the same timescale using CAPTIV© software 3. Interviews were conducted with all the operators of the company who work with cobots (n = 8)

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5 Results The observed HRC was indirect, on both production lines. Operators work with the cobots sequentially in the same workspace. They deal with supply and disposal tasks, as well as supervisory tasks. 5.1

Observations

The presented results are only related to the production Line 2 (Fig. 1) where one operator works with two cobots. The pause periods have been removed from the results, therefore, they concern 10 h of activity recording. Results point out that most of the manual handling tasks related to packing have disappeared; they were taken over by the cobot. Other manual tasks persist as “packaging preparation” (6%), “packaging evacuation” (9%) and regulation of the “cobot production” (6%). These 3 tasks concern about 30% of the working time recorded. The most frequently operations done by the operator are not manual tasks but the checking of the cobot (21%) and the checking of the production (14%). These two operations were short (in total, 34 min for production and 53 min for the cobot out of the 10 h recorded). We notice also that the operator spent 25% of his working time to manage incidents of the production (“production incident” added to “production regulation”) and about 10% to manage incidents of cobots (“cobot incident” added to “cobot regulation”). These both types of incidents are explained by the unreliability of the workstations (particularly some automated machines). “Quality test” operations (prescribed task) represent 8% of the activity (about 1 h). All these results make clear that the operator has an important role of supervising the work situation.

Fig. 1. Activity operations of the operator working with a cobot (observations during 10 h)

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5.2

445

Interviews

Figure 2 shows the distribution of expressed elements relating to the work with cobots, collected through interviews (n = 8). Operators mostly feel positive. All operators say that the introduction of cobots changed the work organisation. The workstation has been modified to integrate cobots. Roles are more flexible with the removal of one operator. There is a better anticipation on upstream operations because of a time saving and more fluidity. Operators have also more time to help each other, on their own production line and on the other one, especially relating to incidents regulation. They have gained autonomy in their activity. The majority of operators (87.5%) also report an impact on the task itself. The work activity is less physical with less repetitive gestures. Operators have to manage new tasks such as cobots monitoring and supervision. The majority of operators (75%) think that cobots’ integration improved their position and work conditions. They have more interest in their activity and feel valued. Three quarters of operators are self-confident to work with cobots: they think they have a good understanding of cobots’ skills and moves, and of distances to keep with them. They are not afraid of contact or shock with the cobots and feel comfortable with the work situation. A majority of operators (62.5%) report an ease of self-appropriation and a fast learning about how to work with cobots. It was easy and simple to understand how to handle cobots (start, stop, reboot). The reported incidents with cobots are mostly bugs. However, two operators relate a shock with cobot. The cobot touched them at the head and the arm. In addition, most of operators (75%) say they feel less stressed and nervous since the cobots’ arrival and less tired at the end of the day. They consider cobots as a support and a relief. A quarter of them mention they almost feel no pain at all since the cobots’ installation (in their back, legs and arms).

Distribution of expressed elements in percentage (n=8) Pain reduction

25

75

Stress and fatigue reduction

75

Types of incidents

25

50

Ease of learning

50 62,5

Confidence

37,5 75

Impact on the task

25 87,5

Impact on the organisation

Expressed 12,5

100

Improvement of work

75

Support / relief

25

75 0

10

20

30

Non expressed 0

25

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Percentage

Fig. 2. Distribution of expressed elements by 8 operators about working with cobots.

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6 Conclusion It is worth noting that interacting with cobots modifies the mental and physical activity of the operators. Obviously they mostly feel positive about working with cobots. They feel less physical pain and fatigue, and have more time to manage their work (better anticipation and incident regulation). The content of their work has improved with high-added-value tasks. However, it is important to remain vigilant because physical risks of contact and shock were also observed. It could lead to increase injuries and accidents risks. Moreover, an important mental workload in a stretched out organisation could also appear constituting a psycho social risk factor. Therefore, an upstream risk analysis should be conducted to identify these two types of risks to prevent them. Solutions of prevention could concern all aspects of the workstation : its organisation, operator training, operating procedures to use the tools. In addition, this study should also be completed by others, in order to investigate other collaboration modes, especially direct collaboration.

References 1. Cesta, A., Orlandini, A., Bernardi, G., Umbrico, A.: Towards a planning based framework for symbiotic human–robot collaboration. In: 2016 IEEE 21st International Conference on Emerging Technologies and Factory Automation (ETFA), pp. 1–8 (2016) 2. El Zaatari, S., Marei, M., Weidong, L., Usman, Z.: Cobot programming for collaborative industrial tasks: an overview. Robot. Auton. Syst. 116, 162–180 (2019) 3. Muller, R., Vette, M., Mailahn, O.: Process-oriented task assignment for assembly processes with human–robot interaction. Proc. CIRP 44, 210–215 (2016) 4. Peternel, L., Kim, W., Babic, J., Ajoudani, A.: Towards ergonomic control of human–robot co-manipulation and handover. In: 2017 IEEE-RAS 17th International Conference on Humanoid Robotics (Humanoids), IEEE (2017) 5. Bicchi, A., Peshkin, M.A., Colgate, J.E.: Safety for physical human–robot interaction. In: Siciliano, B., Khatib, O. (eds.) Springer Handbook of Robotics, pp. 1335–1348. Springer, Heidelberg (2008) 6. Tihay, D, Perrin, N.: Human-robot co-activity: needs analysis. In: Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Safety of Industrial Automated Systems SIAS 2018, Nancy, France, 10–12 October 2018, pp. 40–47 (2018) 7. ISO 10218:2011 Robots et dispositifs robotiques—Exigences de sécurité pour les robots industriels—Partie 1: Robots (2011) 8. ISO Standard ISO/TS 15066 - Robots and robotic devices – Collaborative robots (2016)

Emerging Technologies and Applications

Voice Commerce - Studying the Acceptance of Smart Speakers Silvia Zaharia(&) and Matthias Würfel University of Applied Sciences Niederrhein, Krefeld, Germany [email protected]

Abstract. To explain customers’ willingness to use smart speakers for online shopping (voice-commerce) an integrated explanatory model was developed. The model is based on the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology 2 (UTAUT 2), which was expanded from the original model to include the construct of “perceived risk.” The postulated associations were studied using a structural equation model. The most significant and substantial factors influencing the willingness of German online shoppers to use smart speakers throughout different phases of the customer journey proved to be hedonic motivation and performance expectancy. Meanwhile, perceived effort expectancy had an indirect influence on intention to use. Perceived risk has a negative effect on intention to use. Prior experience with and perceived price value of smart speakers has less influence on the intention to use smart speakers in voice commerce. Keywords: Voice commerce
Smart speaker
Hedonic motivation
Performance expectancy
Perceived risk
Intention to use smart speakers

1 Introduction Voice commerce is a special sub-set of e-commerce using terminal devices equipped with conversational user interfaces (CUI) and intelligent software programs that users operate through regular voice commands [17]. The terminal devices can be so-called smart speakers (such as Amazon Echo, Google Home or HomePod by Apple), as well as smartphone or computers with a built-in voice assistant software such as Alexa (Amazon), Google Assistant, Siri (Apple) or Bixby (Samsung). If online retailers wish to utilize voice commerce, then they must program an application for the respective voice assistant (for Alexa, these are called “skills” and for Google Assistant “actions”). Smart Speakers are quickly becoming more ubiquitous. Between 2018 and 2022, the global number of smart speakers is estimated to increase from 100 million to 230.5 million units [6]. Smart speakers can be used in different phases of the customer’s journey. In the pre-purchase phase (preparation), such devices serve to research information such as product details, alternatives and prices. During the purchasing phase, users can complete orders using smart speakers (transaction) and in the afterpurchase phase rely on smart speakers to update them on delivery status and other information. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 449–454, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_68

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Against this backdrop, the purpose of this paper is to answer the following questions: 1. How willing are German online shoppers to utilize smart speakers at different phases of the customer journey? 2. Which factors influence the acceptance of smart speakers along the customer journey and to what degree?

2 Conceptual Framework and Hypotheses 2.1

Acceptance of Voice Commerce

Research on the acceptance of individual technologies, including those used in voice commerce such as smart speakers or voice assistants [3, 5, 7], is based on the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) by Davis et al. (1989) as well as the UTAUT and UTAUT 2 Models by Venkatesh et al. [18]. That said, none of the known studies explore the use-case voice commerce in particular. The few studies that do examine voice commerce are exclusively of a qualitative nature [8, 15, 17]. To find out which factors influence the acceptance of smart speakers in voice commerce, an integrated explanatory model based on the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology 2 (UTAUT 2) was developed for this study. The UTAUT 2 Model was expanded to include the construct of “perceived risk“ [14]. Ideally, one would research the acceptance of smart speakers during the customer journey based on real information and purchasing behavior (e.g. information gathering and transactions assisted by Amazon Echo). Yet the number of Germans who have made online purchases using voice assistants is still low (11% of consumers). For this reason, this research measures the acceptance of smart speakers during the shopping process not by the actual behavior, but the intention to use smart speakers during the shopping process. The acceptance of smart speakers in voice commerce can manifest itself through different phases of the customer journey. In this study, the intention to use smart speakers for (1) information gathering and (2) purchasing were examined separately. 2.2

Determinants of the Acceptance of Smart Speakers in Voice Commerce

In the model developed for this study the key factors positively influencing the acceptance of smart speakers to obtain information as well as make a purchase are: performance expectancy, hedonic motivation, perceived price value and previous experience with smart speakers. Perceived risk is assumed to have a negative effect on intended usage. Effort expectancy of smart speakers does not affect their acceptance directly but via the constructs of hedonic motivation and performance expectancy. Performance Expectancy: The main reasons customers mention for using smart speakers in e-commerce are: convenience, to save time, and their “hands free” operation. The option to use verbal commands over a traditional keypad appears to be easier

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and quicker for some consumers [8, 17]. This aspect of utility in rating smart speakers is factored into the model through the construct of performance expectancy. Hedonic Motivation: In addition, hedonistic aspects also play a role in the acceptance of a technology [18]. In a voice commerce context, hedonic motivation is defined as the extent to which a consumer perceives the use of smart speakers during the customer journey as fun, entertaining, exciting and pleasant. Interacting and conversing with the device or artificially intelligent voice assistant while shopping with smart speakers can be fun for the user. Consumers are fascinated by the ability of smart speakers to learn (contingent on the presence of artificial intelligence in the voice assistant software). They have the impression the “intelligent” devices are “thinking ahead” of the user to inspire them with new product suggestions or interactions [8]. Effort Expectancy: The effort expectancy in the voice commerce context is defined as the extent to which consumers consider a smart speaker to be easy to learn about and operate. Smart speakers are still in the early stages of adoption and many consumers have never used such technology before. As such, many consider the idea of using voice commands in online shopping without a visual display completely novel. This can be a major initial barrier to use. Especially more complex online shopping tasks, such as product comparisons, could be a cognitive (over) strain on consumers. When a technology is considered user-friendly, it lowers the effort needed in order to operate it thereby having a positive effect on the performance expectancy [18]. Effort expectancy also influences hedonic motivation [13], because if a technology is seen as complex and challenging, then it is likely to generate frustration for the user and counteract the fun of its use. Perceived Price Value: Most German households do not yet own an intelligent speaker. Accordingly, most consumers will only be able to use a smart speaker once they are prepared to pay the cost of the device. Current prices for the most affordable smart speaker models are around 50 - 60 €. Perceived price value expresses the cognitive trade-off between performance expectancy and the costs necessary to acquire a smart speaker. The more positive the perceived value, the likelier consumers will accept the technology in question [18] and demonstrate a willingness to use smart speakers to gather information and make purchases online. When rating components of performance, users are most likely to consider aspects of utility already captured through the construct of performance expectancy. For this reason, it is presumed that performance expectancy positively impacts perceived price value. Experience: If consumers have past experience with using a voice assistant or smart speaker device, then it can be assumed that such consumers will demonstrate stronger intentions to use smart speakers to purchase a product or collect information as part of their customer journey. Perceived Risk: In technology acceptance research, perceived risk is defined as the extent to which a user believes the use of a technology will bear negative consequences [14]. According to KPMG nearly 50% of German consumers are not open to using

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voice commands in order to shop in the future. Different studies name low trust in technology as a possible explanation. Such mistrust might extend to: interpretation of voice commands (functional risk), payment (financial risk) or data privacy and security (personal risk). Based on the aforementioned considerations, this study presents the following hypotheses: • H1: The acceptance of smart speakers in the information gathering phase is higher than in the purchasing phase. • H2: Performance expectancy positively affects the intention to use. • H3: Hedonic motivation positively affects the intention to use. • H4: Effort expectancy positively affects performance expectancy • H5: Effort expectancy positively affects hedonic motivation. • H6: Perceived price value positively affects the intention to use. • H7: Performance expectancy positively affects the perceived price value. • H8: Prior experience with smart speakers positively affects the intention to use. • H9: Perceived risk negatively affects the intention to use.

3 Research Design and Results The study is based on an online survey of online shoppers (n = 684) conducted in Germany in 2018. The survey is representative in terms of age and gender. The willingness of online shoppers to use smart speakers for (1) information gathering and (2) purchasing was measured based on a 5-level Likert Scale (1 = highly unlikely/5 = highly likely). The mean value comparisons were checked for significance using the Mann-Whitney-U-Test. The willingness to use smart speakers during the information gathering phase (2.84) is significantly higher (p = 0.000) than in the purchasing phase (2.75). Hypothesis H1 is therefore supported. The remaining constructs were measured using multi-item scales (1 = strongly disagree/5 = strongly agree). The proposed conceptualization and operationalization of the constructs were analyzed by means of explorative (SPSS) and confirmatory (AMOS) factor analysis. For all constructs the quality criteria ITC  0.4; Cronbach’s alpha  0.7; factor loadings  0.7; indicator reliability  0.5; factor reliability  0.6, average variance extracted  0.5 and the Fornell-Larcker criterion were met. The goodness of fit of the overall model was found to be “very good” (RMSEA: 0.036; v2/d.f.: 1.4; SRMR: 0.036; NFI: 0.953; TLI: 0.981; CFI: 0.985). The hypotheses H2 to H9 were assessed by means of a covariance-based structural equation model using AMOS software. The path coefficient and the associated significance levels are listed in Fig. 1. The goodness of fit of the measurement model is rated “good” (RMSEA: 0,055; v2/d.f.: 2,0; SRMR: 0,093; NFI: 0,918; TLI: 0,947; CFI: 0,956).

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Fig. 1. Structural equation model

The constructs of performance expectancy and hedonic motivation have a strong, positive and significant effect on both intentions to use. That means that consumers who consider smart speakers useful and perceive operating them as enjoyable and entertaining are more likely to use them – whether to gather information about a product or to place an order. Hypotheses H2 and H3 are therefore supported. The construct perceived price value has, as hypothesized, a positive effect on both intentions to use, however at a weak significance lever of 5%. Hypothesis H6 is therefore supported. Furthermore, it was postulated that smart speakers perceived to be simple to use are in turn seen as useful and fun or enjoyable to use. It was moreover assumed that performance expectancy exercises a positive influence on perceived price value. As seen in the figures, the relevant path coefficients prove to be significant. Hypotheses H4, H5 and H7 are therefore also supported. Finally, previous purchasing experience was assumed to have a positive effect on the intention to use. As the figures demonstrate, experience only has an effect on the intention to purchase. Hypothesis H8 can therefore only be partially supported. The construct of perceived risk had, as hypothesized, a negative, significant effect on both intentions to use, even if the effect was rather small. Hypothesis H9 is thereby also supported.

4 Limitations Our examination also has limitations. The main limitation is that the investigation examined the acceptance of smart speakers in voice commerce in Germany. It seems that Germans generally perceive a higher risk of using new technologies than others. Further studies from other countries could shed more light on this country-specific particularity.

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References 1. BVDW: Conversational Commerce – Time to talk (2019) 2. Capgemini Digital Transformation Institute: Time to talk (2018) 3. Coskun-Setirek, A., Mardikyan, S.: Understanding the adoption of voice activated personal assistants. Int. J. E-Serv. Mob. Appl. 9(3), 1–21 (2017) 4. Davis, F.D., Bagozzi, R.P., Warshaw, P.R.: User acceptance of computer technology: a comparison of two theoretical models. Manage. Sci. 35(8), 982–1003 (1989) 5. Han, S., Yang, H.: Understanding adoption of intelligent personal assistants. Ind. Manage. Data Syst. 118(3), 618–636 (2018) 6. IDC: All Categories of Smart Home Devices Forecast to Deliver Double-Digit Growth Through 2022 (2018). https://www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS44361618. Accessed 5 Jan 2019 7. Kääriä, A.: Technology acceptance of voice assistants: anthropomorphism as a factor – Masterarbeit. University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä (2017) 8. Kessler, S.K., Martin, M.: How do potential users perceive the adoption of new technologies within the field of Artificial Intelligence and Internet-of-Things? - a revision of the UTAUT 2 model using voice assistants. Lund University - School of Economics and Management, Lund (2017) 9. Koelwel, D.: Voice Commerce und die Chancen. Internet World Bus. 11(19), 16 (2019) 10. Kornmeier, K.: Determinanten der Endkundenakzeptanz mobilkommunikationsbasierter Zahlungssysteme: eine theoretische und empirische Analyse – Dissertation; Universität Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg (2009) 11. KPMG: Consumer Barometer 2/2018 – Voice Commerce (2018). https://hub.kpmg.de/ consumer-barometer-2-2018. 1 Apr 2019 12. Foscht, T., Swoboda, B., Schramm-Klein, H.: Käuferverhalten – Grundlagen, Perspektiven, Anwendungen, 6th edn. Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden (2017) 13. Lu, H.P., Yu-Jen Su, P.: Factors affecting purchase intention on mobile shopping web sites. Internet Res. 19(4), 442–458 (2009) 14. Martins, C., Oliveira, T., Popovic, A.: Understanding the internet banking adoption: a unified theory of acceptance and use of technology and perceived risk application. Int. J. Inf. Manage. 34, 1–13 (2013) 15. Moorthy, A.E., Vu, K.-P.L.: Privacy concerns for use of voice activated personal assistant in the public space. Int. J. Hum.-Comput. Interact. 31(4), 307–335 (2015) 16. Neumann, R., Kramer, J.W., Neumann-Szyszka, P.D.J.: Die Involvementtheorie und ihre Bedeutung für das Lebensmittelmarketing. Europäischer Hochschulverlag, Bremen (2009) 17. Tuzovic, S., Paluch, S.: Conversational commerce – a new era for service business development? Bruhn, M., Hadwich, K. (eds.) Service Business Development – Strategien Innovationen - Geschäftsmodelle: Band 1, pp. 81–100. Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden (2018) 18. Venkatesh, V., Thong, J.Y.L., Xu, X.: Consumer acceptance and use of information technology: extending the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology. MIS Q. 36(1), 157–178 (2012) 19. Zinnbauer, M., Eberl, M.: Die Überprüfung von Spezifikation und Güte von Strukturgleichungsmodellen: Verfahren und Anwendung. Schriften zur Empirischen Forschung und Quantitativen Unternehmensplanung, 21, 1–27 (2004)

Creating a New Self-sustaining Society Shuichi Fukuda(&) Systems Design and Management Research Institute, Keio University, 4-1-1, Hiyoshi, Kohoku-Ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 223-8526, Japan [email protected]

Abstract. With the current industry approaching its ceiling, many issues are emerging. This paper points out that to cope with these issues, we need to shift from working for others to working for ourselves. Its basic idea is to make the most of our current resources and to provide people with mental satisfaction to enjoy their life. The current industrial framework is technology-focused. But this paper points out the importance of psychological happiness and satisfaction, by making the most of our current resources. Thus, we can not only reduce cost and energy, but we can provide everybody with the desire to actualize themselves more. So, everybody can work for tomorrow. He or she challenges his or her own task to achieve his or her own goal. In short, we should explore a new horizon of mental world. Keywords: Self-sustaining society
New industry
Self-actualization Exploration
Leveraging current resources
Growth
Evolution




1 Emerging Issues As we enter the 21st century, many issues emerged, because the development of industry since the Industrial Revolution quickly approached its ceiling and in developed countries reducing birthrate and aging population comes up. So, it becomes increasingly difficult to secure enough workforce to sustain our traditional industrial framework.

2 How Can We Sustain Development? Then, how we could sustain development? It is proposed here that we should change our industrial framework from working for others to working for ourselves. This may sound the same as DIY (Do It Yourself). But the basic idea is different. DIY is you can do it yourself if you would like to in the current framework of working for others. In other words, you are supposed to do the task yourself, if you would like to in the producer-centric industrial framework. This paper proposes to change the industrial framework from the current producercentric to the user-centric. VoC (Voice of Customers) is often emphasized as important. But this is only the voice or feedback from the customers about the product the current producers are developing. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 455–460, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_69

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The proposal here is to consider what customers are really expecting. And why. The Industrial Revolution contributed tremendously to the progress of technology. When we said, “We would like to fly like a bird”, airplanes were invented. But when we said, “We would like to fly like a bird”, it is from the motivation that we would like to move freely as a bird, no matter whether it is on land, in air or in water. Transportation industries developed so much, but in their own field. A car just runs on land. Airplanes fly just in air. Ships navigate in water. But we must change vehicles, if the environments change. This is just one example. All products since the Industrial Revolution are highly developed, but they are designed and produced each in its own individual sector. And although environments and situations became diversified and products were expected to work as a team, the outside world did not change much until recently. 2.1

Changes of Yesterday and Today

Changes were smooth yesterday, so that we could differentiate them mathematically, i.e., we could predict the future. We could foresee the operating conditions of products. Thus, the functions of products were most important. And we made every effort to HOW we can achieve better functions. But today changes are sharp. We can no more differentiate them. We can no more predict the future (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Changes of yesterday and today

Thus, ADAPTABILITY emerged as an important keyword. But in fact, we need something beyond ADAPTABILITY. Even if we can secure adaptability, we will be just carried away by the flow. Then, how can we swim against the flow and reach to our destination?

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Soccer as an Illustrative Example

Let us take soccer for explanation. Soccer is a team game. So, formation is essential. But yesterday, game did not change much so the formation did not change appreciably. Each player was expected to do his best at his own position. But today, games change every minute. So, to cope with such situations, the formation must be changed frequently and extensively. Yesterday, the manager can be off the pitch and could give instructions from outside. But today, to cope with the situations which change from moment to moment, he needs to be on the pitch. He needs to play together to understand how the game will change (Fig. 2). In most cases, midfielders play the role of playing-manager, because they understand best how the game is changing.

Fig. 2. Manager from outside to inside

So, the formation can be changed every minute. But if the other players just wait for the instruction of the playing manager, the team cannot win. To win, they need to be proactive. They need to be prepared in advance to form the formation the playing manager has on his mind. So, each player needs to have diverse and multiple capabilities to cope with any formation that might come up. And they need the capability of communication. In communication, you need to understand what the other party is trying to say before he speaks. Knute Rockne, famous American football player and coach, left the word “11 Best, Best 11”. He pointed out even if we collect 11 best players, we cannot make up the best team. The best team is composed of best 11 team members who work together to win the game. In fact, he demonstrated his word by bringing University of Notre Dame from the bottom to the ever-winning team. Nobody knows the names of the players who contributed to this, but their teamworking brought such a remarkable achievement. This is nothing other than IoT (Internet of Things). Internet means communication and things represent living and nonliving things. Humans gave instructions from outside and machines responded. But to cope with the frequently and extensively changing environments and situations which change unpredictably, humans need to be inside and work together with machines on the same team. This is exactly what is happening in the game of soccer. Soccer is another example of IoT.

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What Motives Us to Work?

Work for yourself sounds good. But why do we want to work for ourselves instead of working for others. We need to find out why. Abraham Maslow proposed the hierarchy of human needs [1] (Fig. 3) and made clear that at the lower level, we look for material satisfaction to survive, but as we go up, our needs shift to mental satisfaction and at the top, we want to actualize ourselves. We would like to demonstrate how capable we are.

Fig. 3. Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs

Let us take mountain climbers for example. They select difficult routes to get to the top of the mountain. If they would like to get to the top and that is what they want, they can ask a helicopter to take them there or take a much easier route. But they take the difficult route and when they do reach to the top, they feel most satisfied. They demonstrated they overcame the challenge. In fact, challenge is the core and mainspring of all human activities. That is why we love games. This can be interpreted another way. We need to evolve. And such selfactualization is our efforts to adapt to the changing environments and situations to evolve. Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, American psychologist proposed “SelfDetermination Theory” [2]. They made clear that even if the task is the same, if we do it based on our intrinsic motivation and make a decision on our own, we get the maximum satisfaction and happiness. No matter how much we offer as an external reward, we cannot provide such amount of satisfaction and happiness. Interestingly, they also pointed out the importance of human need to grow. And in fact, learning and growing are deeply associated with expanding the world of human species. They are basic in evolution. These researches made it clear that if we are motivated intrinsically and we can make decisions by ourselves, then we will be most satisfied and happy. Then, how can shift our industrial framework toward such a direction?

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Increasing Importance of Decision Making

Economists point out the importance of decision making, and they proposed the quinary sector of the economy (Table 1). Table 1. Five sectors of the economy Sector 5 Quinary Sector 4 Quaternary Sector 3 Tertiary Sector 2 Secondary Sector 1 Primary Sector

Activities Decision Making Knowledge and ICT Industry Service Industry Transforms raw materials into Products - Manufacturing, etc. Extracts raw materials from nature - Agriculture, fishing, etc.

We should keep this in our mind, too. We should be aware that process is rapidly increasing its importance, although we have been focusing our attention only to products.

3 Creating a Self-sustaining Society Now we understand that in order to realize Self-Sustaining Society, we need to motive people to make decisions themselves and to design and produce themselves. If we can, they will be happy to do the task themselves and get the maximum satisfaction and happiness. Table 2 shows how we should move from traditional engineering to strategic engineering. Table 2. Traditional Engineering and Strategic Engineering Base Perspective Focus Approach Performance indicator Value

Traditional engineering Tactics problem solving Deeper and deeper Time Model-based Available Function reproducibility robustness

Strategic engineering Strategy problem definition goal finding Wider and wider Time and space Trial and error Need to find Adaptability (evolution)

4 Summary: Core Ideas Finally, let me summarize the core ideas of this paper. AI, especially Deep Learning, is getting wide attention these days. But it is nothing other than SEO (Search Engine Optimization). It searches big data to find out what

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humans may overlook. But essentially it is a tool to support tactics. We should remember that it costs 100 times more than human in terms of cost and energy consumption. If we can let humans work and let them enjoy their tasks, that will not only reduce cost and energy consumption, but it also provides stimulus and motivate us to actualize ourselves. Thus, it will contribute not only to enhancing our satisfaction and happiness and increasing our joy in life, but also to evolution of human species. As the changes become unpredictable, decision making becomes crucially important. In other words, Coordination and Strategy becomes more and more important than Control and Tactics. Let us take a simple example. The current industry framework is preparing a restaurant chef. Excellent materials and tools are prepared for them. But are we happy if we are served restaurant dishes every day? I don’t think so. How we deal with the leftovers in the refrigerator is our daily problem. And when we came up with a very good dish with these leftovers, we feel most happy, because we explored the new world. In fact, current industries are paying their efforts to advance technology. But are there so many cases where such high technologies are needed? No. In fact, they are very few. In most cases, low technologies are more needed and useful. And they can explore much wider and diverse market. 3D Printing is a good example. In the current industrial framework, how it can be applied to advance technology is earnestly investigated. But if everybody can use it in their daily life, that will satisfy them most and will produce elation. We should industrialize human needs by paying attention to psychological satisfaction. We should shift from external rewards perspective to our psychological benefits.

References 1. Maslow, A.H.: A theory of human motivation. Psychol. Rev. 50(4), 370–396 (1943) 2. Deci, E.L., Ryan, R.M.: Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. Plenum, New York (1985)

A Cyber-Physical System for Low Cost Monitoring and Sensing of Rural Areas Using Sensors, Microcontrollers and LoRa Network: Agriculture 4.0 João Victor Bonella Lopes1, Ana Cecilia Villa-Parra2, and Teodiano Bastos-Filho1(&) 1

Electrical Engineering, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Av. Fernando Ferrari, 514 - Goiabeiras, Vitoria 29075-910, Brazil [email protected], [email protected] 2 Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, Cuenca, Ecuador [email protected]

Abstract. This work presents a study case of Agriculture Cyber-Physical Systems (ACPS), which uses temperature and humidity sensor in an automatic irrigation system for precision agriculture. The work consists of a low-cost, long-range monitoring, using sensors, solar cells, microcontroller and LoRa technology. Farms, when equipped with this ACPS, will be able to improve predictability and reduce its high degree of uncertainty in the supply chain. Keywords: IoT


Agriculture 4.0
Cyber-Physical Systems
LoRa network

1 Introduction The fourth wave of technological advancement, marked by the rise of new digital industrial technologies, also known as Industry 4.0, is already a reality [1]. In this wave, sensors, machines and IT systems will be increasingly connected along the value chain. These connected systems, also called Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS), provide a bridge between the physical and the virtual environment, at the same time that they promote the obtainment and analysis of data in real time in order to predict failures and increase the overall system adaptability. The ability to collect and analyze data between machines in large scale will allow for faster, more flexible and more efficient processes at reduced costs. This, in turn, will increase manufacturing productivity and promote industrial growth. However, these benefits are not restricted only to the industrial environment; when these technologies are applied in agriculture, we have the so-called Agriculture 4.0, which has precision agriculture as one of its pillars. Alongside to the typical lack of predictability in rural activities, due to soil dynamics or climate change, stochastic events contribute to a high degree of uncertainty in agriculture’s supply chain. For this reason, precision agriculture seeks the reduction of this uncertainty by providing the farmer the needed data, which are © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 461–467, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_70

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collected by sensors implemented in the field, in order for him to make more assertive decisions. However, the adoption of these new technologies has a high cost of implementation, a cost that becomes an obstacle for small and medium farms, since they do not have the same investment capital as large companies. In this perspective, this work presents a study case of ACPSs (Agriculture CyberPhysical Systems), which uses temperature and humidity sensor deployment in an ACPS-enabled automatic irrigation system for precision agriculture. The work consists of a low-cost, long-range monitoring and sensing system, using the ESP32 microcontroller in conjunction with LoRa technology. Each device in the system is powered by two 2800 mAh batteries and an 1 W solar cell capable of keeping them running for years without any intervention. With our system, the captured data can feed Big Data tools, which process this data and transform it into information and strategic inputs for intelligent actions.

2 Industry 4.0 With the advent of more advanced and low-cost technologies, it was possible to provide an increasing automation of industrial processes, which draws a growing scenario around the world. The so-called Industry 4.0 (related to the fourth industrial revolution) is a recently proposed concept in which there is an interoperability of systems, devices and people, where an immense amount of information is digitized and new innovation strategies on these industrial processes are present [1]. Beyond being a natural consequence of digitization and new technologies, the introduction of Industry 4.0 is also related to the fact that many of the possibilities of increasing profit in industrial production are almost exhausted and, therefore, new alternatives must be found. According to [2], Industry 4.0 can result in reduced production costs (10–30%), logistics costs (10–30%) and quality management costs (10–20%). There are also a number of other advantages and reasons for adopting this concept, such as: shorter time to market, better customer response (allowing for customized mass production without increasing global production costs), a more flexible and friendlier working environment and more efficient use of natural resources and energy [3]. 2.1

Agriculture and Industry 4.0

Despite the advantages of Industry 4.0, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) often face complications in innovative processes for the continuous development of innovations and technologies [4]. Such a condition makes it difficult to monitor these companies, also increasing the complexity with which these processes can be implemented. Because SMEs mostly have short-term strategies, they end up being hampered in investment capacity and work performance compared to large companies [5].

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These complications for innovations also affect small and medium-sized farms, which must invest in cutting-edge technology to keep up with developments. Starting from the differences between traditional industry and agriculture, there are some critical and divergent aspects. Agricultural supply chains differ in several aspects of the industrial sector [6]. This is because the industry strongly manages supply networks based on quantitative methods compared to agriculture. In this, heuristic methods based on experience play a fundamental role, where environmental exposure and stochastic events contribute to a high degree of uncertainty in the supply chain and a lack of predictability in rural activities (for example, soil and nutrient dynamics, photosynthesis activity, pest infestation, or climate change) [6]. 2.2

Cyber-Physical Systems

A CPS can be interpreted as the “integration of computing with physical processes” [7] using, for example, sensors and actuators to link computer systems to the physical world. In CPSs, the joint behavior of the “cyber” and “physical” elements of the system is critical – computing, control, sensing and the network can be deeply integrated into each component – and the actions of the components and systems must be secure and interoperable. Thus, the CPS can be considered a new frontier of systems characterized by autonomous behavior. Similarly, ACPSs are considered a key technology for achieving precision agriculture, as they can collect fundamental and opportune information on climate, soil and crops, with high granularity, in order to obtain more accurate systems of agricultural management. ACPSs can also monitor different resources, such as irrigation, absorption, plant health and others, through sensors and, thus, maintain the ideal values of the environment through operators and instructions. 2.3

LoRa Network

LoRa, short for Long Range, is one of the most promising IoT technologies proposed by Semtech and promoted by the LoRa Alliance [9]. The success of this network is explained by the usage of chirp modulation technology with an adaptive data rate, allowing flexible long-range communication with low power consumption and lowcost design. This is achieved through spread spectrum multiple access techniques, accommodating multiple users on one channel. LoRa is a low power wide area network (LPWAN), that is, its great range and very low power consumption are achieved at the cost of a limited data band (about 0.3 kbit/s 50 kbit/s per channel) [10]. Due to these characteristics, it plays a fundamental role in the implementation of this work. Figure 1 illustrates the performance of the LoRa network compared to other known networks.

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Fig. 1. Comparison between the most used networks.

3 System Details The main goal of this work was to develop and implement a system that has, at the same time, low implementation cost and large coverage area. Commercial solutions use LoRa technology with topologies that are based on a star-type arrangement, similar to a Wi-Fi or cell phone network, to promote this large coverage area. However, this solution comes up against a specific problem in rural areas: many of these areas do not have 3G/4G coverage or other ways of accessing the internet. To sort this issue, it is possible to work with signal repeaters to a point where there is coverage so that the data collected by the system can then be made available online. However, this repeater approach turns out to be very expensive and unviable, since a lowperformance generic gateway costs around USD$ 60 and is not optimized for low power consumption. Due these difficulties, we opted to use the WiFi LoRa 32 (V2) development board from Heltec Automation, which is based on the ESP32 microprocessor that has the integrated LoRa SX1276 chip, low power consumption and low cost. In order to further reduce equipment expenditure, we opted to create a mixed network, operating with both LoRa and Wi-Fi technology. With this approach, enddevices will communicate via the short distance network (Wi-Fi), with the closest LoRa node, which allows using a cheaper development board compared to the previous one. The board used for the end-devices is the ESP32-DevKitC, manufactured by Espressif, which also has low energy consumption. Figure 2 illustrates the topology of the implemented network, how information is exchanged between devices, and the enclosure used to protect the devices and avoid humidity.

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Fig. 2. On the left: topology of the developed network. On the right: the end devices (without antenna) and LoRa receivers and transmitters (with antenna). The boxes were filled with epoxy resin to prevent moisture.

4 Performance Tests The first test performed was regarding the maximum reach. As the LoRa chip was programmed to operate at 915 MHz, an unlicensed frequency band in Brazil, there is no need to register the radio station with the responsible government agency. The result of the test, carried out in the open field, with very few buildings obstruction, is illustrated in Fig. 3. It was possible to reach around 6.7 km with a RSSI, receiving signal strength indication of −135 dBm. As the system has a sensitivity of up to −148 dBm [11], it would be possible to reach distances greater than 10 km if the landform is favorable. With this result, each LoRa node is able to cover an area over 141 km2.

Fig. 3. Range tests. The points marked on the graph represent the locations on the map.

The second test aimed to check the system’s battery consumption and ensure that it may operate for long periods without the need for intervention, since it is expected to

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operate in remote locations. The operating cycle of the devices was chosen focused on saving battery. As the captured data (temperature and humidity) have a slow dynamic, they are obtained in intervals of 60 min. While there is no data capture, the devices enters hibernation mode, which reduces battery consumption by almost 50%. After measurements, it was observed that the current consumed by the devices in hibernation mode is approximately 17 mA, in operational mode 34 mA, and when transmitting the LoRa message is 119 mA (Fig. 4). In one day of operation, this system consumes around 2.1 Wh, draining the batteries in 10 days. To address this issue, an 1 W photovoltaic cell was installed on each board. According to the region’s solar incidence [12], this solar cell is able to generate approximately 5 Wh per day. As the balance of energy consumed x energy generated is positive, this system will be able to keep running indefinitely, disregarding the battery life, which will certainly reduce due to the daily charge and discharge cycles.

Fig. 4. Current consumption of the system. The first step represents the board waking up from hibernation mode; peak represents the moment when LoRa message is sent.

5 Conclusion The system developed in this work was able to reach long distances while at the same time having an excellent energy consumption. Using solar cells made it possible to dispense recharging and changing batteries for long periods. In addition, with a coverage of over 141 km2 per LoRa node, and at a very low cost (around USD$20), it proves to be a great option for SMEs focused on agriculture. Farms, when equipped with this ACPS, will be able to improve predictability and reduce the high degree of uncertainty in the supply chain of rural activities, since the data collected is an important input for smart decisions. Thus, with the development of systems like this, we have made it increasingly possible to democratize technology and the benefits from Industry 4.0.

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References 1. Bloem, J.: The Fourth Industrial Revolution: Things to Tighten the Link Between IT and OT. Sogeti VINT, Groningen (2014) 2. Bauernhansl, T.: WGP-Standpunkt Industrie 4.0. WGP, Frankfurt (2016) 3. Rojko, A.: Industry 4.0 concept: background and overview. Int. J. Interact. Mob. Technol. 11(5), 77–90 (2017) 4. Bakkari, M., Khatory, A.: Industry 4.0: strategy for more sustainable industrial development in SMEs. In: IEOM 7th International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management, Rabat, Marrocos, pp. 11–13 (2017) 5. Dassisti, M., Giovannini, A., Merla, P., Chimienti, M., Panetto, H.: An approach to support Industry 4.0 adoption in SMEs using a core-metamodel. Annu. Rev. Control 47, 266–274 (2018) 6. Ge, H., Gray, R., Nolan, J.: Agricultural supply chain optimization and complexity: a comparison of analytic vs simulated solutions and policies. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 159, 208–220 (2006) 7. Shi, J., Wan, J., Van, H., Suo, H.: A survey of cyber-physical systems. In: International Conference on Wireless Communications and Signal Processing (WCSP), IEEE Computer Society, pp. 1–6 (2011) 8. Gomes, B.: Indústria 4.0: Panorama da Inovação. Publicações Firjan: Cadernos SENAI de inovação, São Paulo, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1–20 (2016) 9. Sornin, N., Luis, M., Eirich, T., Kramp, T., Hersent, O.: LoRaWAN Specifications, San Ramon, CA, USA (2015) 10. Adelantado, F., Vilajosana, X., Tuset-Peiro, P., Martinez, B.: Understanding the limits of LoRaWAN. IEEE Commun. Mag. 55, 34–40 (2015) 11. SX1276 Specifications by Semtech. https://www.semtech.com/products/wireless-rf/loratransceivers/sx1276 12. Bueno, E., Ramos, F.: Atlas Brasileiro de Energia Solar, INPE, São José dos Campos, 1st edn. (2006)

The Efficiency of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in High and Low Turbulence Environment Krystian Pawłowski(&) Faculty of Engineering Management, Poznan University of Technology, Pl. M. Sklodowkiej-Curie 5, 60 – 965 Poznań, Poland [email protected]

Abstract. The analysis of the literature indicates a relationship between the increase in the dynamics of the environment (from stable, through variable to turbulent and turbulent environments) and the desired increase in the enterprise’s flexibility. Flexibility is to enable the use of a greater variety of perceived market opportunities. Information and communication technologies (ICT) are understood as a family of technologies that process, collect and transmit information in electronic form. The research problem addressed in this paper is to identify the impact of environmental turbulence levels (low, high) on the characteristics and types of ICT software used. Keywords: Environmental turbulence
The efficiency of information and communication technologies (ICT)

1 Introduction The modern business environment is characterized by a high degree of variability and complexity of economic phenomena, including reallocation of wealth and industrial production from Europe and the USA to Asia [1], cost-cutting and profit pressure, market risk and, in the macroeconomic perspective, weaker and more volatile growth of the global market [2], or the disintegration of traditional economic chains and the emergence of networks of enterprises [3]. Porter distinguishes the shortened product life cycle as one of the features of contemporary competition [4]. Bruce Daly, on the other hand, points out the increase in the turbulence of the environment and a decrease in profitability of the sectors [5]. In the literature, we can find four main perspectives of thinking about the relationship between the environment and enterprise [3]: adaptation perspective, resource perspective, cognitive perspective, ecological perspective. The adaptation perspective adopted in this paper assumes that an enterprise actively adapts to changes taking place in its environment, and the borders of the environment are defined by the strength and direction of relations between the enterprise and the existing phenomena, processes and entities [3]. Organisations operating in an uncertain and turbulent environment must achieve a higher degree of internal differentiation, and individual organisational units may use different management styles and methods © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 468–473, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_71

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[6, 7]. Małkowska-Borowczyk, as the basic measures of dynamics (turbulence) of the environment, indicates the variability and predictability of the environment defined by the two components. Variability is the complexity of changes and the degree of their novelty, and predictability is the rate of change and the ease with which these upcoming changes can be predicted. The analysis of the literature indicates a relationship between the increase in the dynamics of the environment (from stable, through variable to turbulent and turbulent environments) and the desired increase in the enterprise’s flexibility. Flexibility is to enable the use of a greater variety of perceived market opportunities. Information and communication technologies (ICT) are understood as a family of technologies that process, collect and transmit information in electronic form [7]. The research problem addressed in this paper is to identify the impact of environmental turbulence levels (low, high) on the characteristics and types of ICT software used. The study examined a group of 150 medium and large industrial enterprises in Poland, in terms of the software used and its features. Within the framework of empirical research, four groups of enterprises were separated: enterprises achieving market success in conditions of high environmental turbulence, other enterprises operating in conditions of high turbulence, enterprises achieving market success in conditions of low environmental turbulence, other enterprises operating in conditions of low turbulence. The result of the research was the identification of features and types of software used by companies that are successful in the high and low turbulence environment.

2 Analysis and Synthesis of the Literature 2.1

The Volatility of the Environment

The company’s surroundings are: “all phenomena, processes, entities that are not part of the enterprise but are connected to it by a process of interaction” [8]. Małkowska-Borowczyk, as the basic measures of dynamics (turbulence) of the environment, indicates the variability and predictability of the environment defined by the two components. Variability is the complexity of changes and the degree of their novelty, and predictability is the rate of change and the ease with which these upcoming changes can be predicted [3]. In the literature related to strategic analysis and strategic choices, we find a very broad discussion on the interaction between the enterprise and its environment, situational selection of the enterprise’s strategy depending on the conditions of the enterprise environment [3]. The need for companies to adapt to the environment is also indicated, Stonenhouse [9], Najda [10], Bórawski [11], Wach [6], Skalik [12], Bieńkowska and Zgrzywa-Ziemak [13]. The operational expressions of the adopted strategies are methods and techniques and tools of business management, including tools within ICT. 2.2

Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)

Information and communication technologies (ICT) are generally defined as a family of technologies that process, collect and transmit information in electronic form [7].

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ICT is also defined as knowledge and skills related to the operation of all kinds of IT applications, computer and telecommunications equipment [14], as well as technical solutions in the area of infrastructure, software and communication network architecture [15].

3 Empirical Research Test Sample. The research sample included one hundred and fifty industrial enterprises in Poland. The respondents were people directly managing enterprises. The research was conducted in the form of an interview. The collected answers contain information about the turbulence of the environment, applied tools (ICT) and financial results of enterprises. Scope of ICT Tools Covered Test. The range of ICT tools covered by the empirical study: work-flow software, dedicated software, authorial software (developed by company employees), recording and transaction systems, integrated systems, business intelligence systems, artificial intelligence systems. 3.1

Data Processing Methodology

Identification of Companies Operating in Conditions of High and Low Environmental Turbulence The assignment of companies to segments operating under conditions of high and low environmental turbulence was based on the answer to the following question: Please evaluate the following statements using a five-point scale, where 1 definitely no and 5 definitely yes: 1. Often one-time changes in the environment lead to a fundamental change in the way of doing business. 2. The resulting innovations in technique and technology are causing the technical devices and technology that are used to age. 3. There is a high risk of substitutes from other industries. 4. The demand for products is characterized by the high level of spontaneity (there are sudden large fluctuations in demand under the influence of single events in the company’s environment, industry, e.g. fashion changes under the influence of a film). The group of companies operating in a highly turbulent environment included those that had allocated points 3, 4 and 5 to questions 1, 3 and 4 and allocated points 4 and 5 to question 2. By way of exclusion, the remaining companies were included in the segment of undertakings operating in low turbulence.

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Economic Performance of Companies. In order to divide companies into groups: companies with good economic performance - the group I, and companies with bad economic performance - the group II - the rest, the respondents were asked questions related to the implementation of financial plans and objectives. The group I included those companies that answered all four questions in the affirmative. All other companies were allocated to the group II of companies with weaker economic performance on an exclusionary basis. Determining the Level of Implementation of Tools (ICT) Respondents indicated in the questionnaire the implementation or non-implementation of individual ICT tools described in Table 1. The number of implementations was divided by the size of a given sample, obtaining the percentage of implementation of a given tool. Identification of ICT Tools for High Economic Performance in Enterprise Groups Operating in High and Low Turbulence Environments The analysis identified tools implemented to a higher degree in the group of enterprises with high financial results than in the group of enterprises with low economic results among enterprises operating in conditions of high and low environmental turbulence.

4 Results and Discussion 4.1

Companies Operating Under Conditions of High and Low Environmental Turbulence

The segment of enterprises operating in conditions of high environmental turbulence includes 70 enterprises, which constitutes 46.7% of the research sample. The segment of companies operating in the conditions of low environmental turbulence includes 79 companies, which constitutes 52.7% of the research sample. 4.2

Identification of ICT Tools for High Economic Performance in Enterprise Groups Operating in High and Low Turbulence Environments

Table 1 shows the levels of implementation of ICT tools among enterprises operating in highly turbulent environments. Table 2 presents the levels of implementation of ICT tools among enterprises operating in the low turbulence environment. Tables 1 and 2 are presented from the left: the name of the ICT tool, the level of implementation of the tool in the group of enterprises with high economic performance, the level of implementation of the tool in the group of enterprises with low economic performance. Moreover, the tools implemented in Group I with high economic results are marked in yellow, more than in Group II with low economic results.

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Gr I

Gr II

Work-flow software

10,53%

35,29%

Dedicated software

36,84%

33,33%

Authorial software (developed by company employees)

36,84%

35,29%

Recording and transaction systems

63,16%

29,41%

Integrated systems

31,58%

27,45%

Business Intelligence systems

31,58%

15,69%

Artificial intelligence systems

5,26%

7,84%

Source: Own study. Table 2. ICT tools implemented in the segment with high environmental turbulence ICT tools Work-flow software

Gr. I

Gr II

24,00%

35,19%

Dedicated software

24,00%

24,07%

Authorial software (developed by company employees)

16,00%

20,37%

Recording and transaction systems

40,00%

37,04%

Integrated systems

16,00%

25,93%

Business Intelligence systems

16,00%

12,96%

Artificial intelligence systems

4,00%

0,00%

Source: Own study.

Among the enterprises operating in the conditions of high turbulence of the environment and achieving the best financial results, the recording and transactional systems have been implemented to the highest degree of 63.16% of enterprises, and what is important, this value is twice as high as among enterprises with low financial results. The second distinguishing tool in this group of companies is Business Intelligence class tools. The result was in accordance with the expectations and was adequate to the rapidly changing market conditions. Among the enterprises operating in the conditions of low turbulence of the environment and achieving the best financial results, also the recording and transaction systems have been implemented to the highest degree of 40%, but this result is similar to the group of enterprises with low economic results. Business Intelligence tools are also implemented to a higher degree in the group of companies with high economic performance. The lack of clearly distinguishable ICT tools among successful companies in highly stable segments is probably due to the adopted market penetration strategies and even use of available ICT tools, as well as the lack of necessity to quickly acquire and process information as it is the case in highly turbulent segments. In conclusion, it should be taken into account that the financial results of the surveyed enterprises are influenced by more factors than the analysed use of individual ICT tools, however, the presented results can be interpreted

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as co-existing with good financial results of the enterprise. A quantitative survey of a sample of 150 enterprises gives a general view, whereas in order to examine thoroughly the impact of the use of individual ICT tools on the financial results, it would be appropriate to deepen the survey with case studies of selected cases.

References 1. European Commission.: The World in 2025. Rising Asia and Socio - Ecological Transition, 2009, EUR 23921 EN (2009) 2. Business Pulse.: Exploring dual perspectives on the top 10 risks and opportunities in 2013 and beyond. Int. J. Oper. Prod. Manage. 2002(3), 4 (2013). EY 3. Małkowska-Borowczyk, M.: Surroundings as a source of problems and pressure on strategic choices of enterprises. In: Urbanowska-Sojkin, E. (ed.) Podstawy wyborów strate-gicznych w przedsiębiorstwach. PWE, Warszawa (2011) 4. Grudzewski, W.M., Koźmiński, A.K.: Teoria i praktyka zarządzania w początkach XXI wieku, Organizacja i Kierowanie (1996) 5. Bruce, M., Daly, L., Towers, N.: Lean or agile: a solution for supply-chain management in the textile and clothing industry. Int. J. Oper. Prod. Manage. 24(2), 151–170 (2004) 6. Wach, K.: Analysis of the business environment in schools and management concepts. Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego w Krakowie, Nr 812 (2010) 7. Trzcieliński, S., Kałkowska, J., Pawlowski, E., Włodarkiewicz-Klimek, H.: Dostosowanie systemów zarządzania przedsiębiorstw do warunków gospodarki opartej na wiedzy. Wydawnictwo Politechniki Poznańskiej, Poznań (2016) 8. Urbanowska-Sojkin, E., Banaszyk, P., Witczak, H.: Strategic management of an enterprise. PWE, Warsaw (2004) 9. Stonehouse G., et al.: Globalization. Strategy and management. Wydawnictwo Felberg SJA (2001) 10. Najda, M.: Modern concepts of managing a company in conditions of generalised uncertainty. Zeszyty Naukowe Uniwersytetu Ekonomicznego w Krakowie 2009(799), 71– 85 (2009) 11. Bórawski, P.: Management methods in small and medium-sized enterprises. In: Scientific Works of the Academy of Economics in Katowice - of research in business management, vol. 2009, pp. 377–386 (2009) 12. Skalik, J.: The use of modern concepts and management methods as a success factor for a medical organization. In: Works and Materials of the Faculty of Management, University of Gdańsk, vol. 2001, no. 4/2, pp. 273–281 (2011) 13. Bieńkowska, A., Zgrzywa-Ziemak, A.: Modern management methods in enterprises in Poland - identification of the existing state. In: Hopej, M., Kral, Z. (ed.) Contemporary Methods of Management in Theory and Practice. Oficyna Wydawnicza Politechniki Wrocławskiej, Wrocław, vol. 2011, pp. 212–252 (2011) 14. Arendt, Ł.: Digital exclusion in the sector of small and medium enterprises. Institute of Labour and Social Affairs, Warsaw (2009) 15. Brzozowski, M., Kopczyński, T.: Methods of Management. Publishing House of the University of Economics in Poznań, Poznań (2009)

A Model Utilizing Green Lean in Rice Crop Supply Chain: An Investigation in Piura, Perú Astrid Baca-Nomberto, Maria Urquizo-Cabala, Edgar Ramos(&), and Fernando Sotelo-Raffo Ingeniería Industrial, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima, Peru {U201311267,U201324436,pcineram, fernando.sotelo}@upc.edu.pe

Abstract. This article analyzes the rice sector and the challenges related to the impact generated by production systems, such as greenhouse gas emissions in the natural environment. Previous studies show the application of Green Lean to achieve greater competitiveness and reducing the negative environmental impact. To achieve these objectives, Lean tools are used that improve quality, increase productivity, reduce inventories and costs like the Kaizen method. Therefore, this methodology is proposed through a management model in the sector analyzed to achieve the expected sustainability of the production process. Keywords: Environmental strategies Supply chain


Green
Lean
Rice
Agri-food


1 Introduction The optimal and strategic management of the supply chain corresponding to a product or service allows obtaining a competitive advantage in the market; above all, in the presence of changes for which the rapid response of organizations is necessary [1]. In this case, the agricultural sector and the strategic objectives established for optimal management are analyzed [2]. These should focus on improving profitability through the best product, obtaining high competitiveness and, besides, the environmental approach has been prioritized to obtain sustainability and balance with the ecological environment. The use of new techniques aligned with the objectives leads to greater productivity and lower production costs, directly benefiting the farmer and improving the quality of life [3]. In this regard, the implementation of the planning and production control management model is proposed, within the parameters established by the Green Lean (GL) methodology, for one of the main products of the agricultural sector: rice crops [4, 5].

2 Literary Review 2.1

Challenges in the Agribusiness Supply Chain

Agriculture generates very unstable production processes from planting to harvest [6]. Farmers must acquire and maintain the trust of their customers by timely delivery of products that meet quality standards, animal welfare and the environment. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 474–480, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_72

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The performance measures used to evaluate the results can be classified into: (a) operation, such as stock levels, quality, productivity and production time. (b) financial; as costs, purposes and income; (c) Being humans, such as stress, employee commitment and safety in the workplace; (d) market and (e) environmental pollution; resource efficiency and the use of non-polluting products [7–9]. 2.2

Lean Focus

The Lean approach is based on principles such as value flow and continuous improvement, which allow the reduction of waste generated in a production process. Therefore, the use of tools and methodologies of the Lean approach in organizations helps to achieve operational excellence and fulfillment of the established strategic objectives, such as the improvement in aspects of profitability, efficiency, productivity, quality and satisfaction of the customer [10–12]. 2.3

Lean Green Model

The Lean and Green approaches contribute positively to the sustainability of organizations. Research results indicate that its integration has allowed reducing the consumption of its resources from 20% to 40% on average. It is claimed that an efficient and ecological supply chain that uses Lean Green acts directly on the company’s relationship with suppliers and customers to make the production process more competitive [6, 13, 14]. Maintaining a rigorous evaluation of the processes allows monitoring efficient management requirements so that the operational management perspective is not lost, and the methodology fulfills its function [9, 15, 16]. Lean Green allows us to achieve operational excellence and, therefore, meet the objectives of the organization, such as profitability, efficiency, responsiveness, quality and customer satisfaction [1, 17] (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Methodology Lean Green

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After defining the objectives in the situation presented, a Green-Lean model is proposed divided into the following phases (Fig. 2):

Fig. 2. Proposed Lean Green model

3 Validation Proposal 3.1

Data Collection and Initial Diagnosis

49 farmers were interviewed to identify causes and consequences focused on productivity problems and waste generation. As a result, it is claimed that 90% of farmers do not plan or control their production. In addition, there is no knowledge of the environmental impact generated. This is caused by the lack of methodology regarding production management and the study of non-existent soils. 3.2

Identification of Environmental Aspects and Impacts

After collecting and analyzing the information collected, the aspects and impacts generated by each stage of the rice production process are described below, in Table 1. 3.3

Selection and Implementation of a Lean Tool

After the elaboration of the matrix of aspects and impacts, it is determined that organic waste is the aspect that occurs in almost the entire production process. The organic residues that are mainly presented are broken grains, grains with pests, straw and. The following graph indicates the priority of these wastes according to their volume of presentation during the process: Considering that the broken rice grains represent 25% of production and that 9100 kg/Ha. are produced on average, this waste can be used as an agricultural fertilizer by reducing the expenses for this input through recycling, also reducing the environmental impact. The following Table 2, presents the amounts and costs of the common application of agricultural fertilizer for rice production.

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Table 1. Matrix of aspects and impacts Process Rice production

Activity Site preparation

Aspects • Organic waste • Electric power

Seedling sowing Irrigation

• Organic waste • Residual waste • Organic waste

Seeding treatment

• Organic waste • Emissions from fertilizers • Organic waste • Emissions from herbicides and pesticides

Transplant Fertilization and pesticide treatment Rice harvest

• Electric power • Organic waste

Cleaning plots (burning)

• Organic waste • Methane and CO2 emissions

Impacts • Soil de gradation • Depletion of nonrenewable resources • Soil de gradation • Water infestation diseases • Soil degradation • Degradation of atmosphere and soil • Respiratory diseases • Soil de gradation • Atmosphere degradation • Respiratory diseases • Soil degradation • Depletion of • nonrenewable resources • Degradation of atmosphere and soil • Respiratory diseases

Table 2. Application of agricultural fertilizers Fertilizers Agricultural urea Diammonium phosphate Potassium sulfate

Unity Quantity Total (Kg) Unit cost ($) 50 kg. bags 12 600 18.95 50 kg. bags 2 100 26.24 50 kg. bags 8 400 30.61 Total ($)

Total cost ($) 227.41 52.48 244.90 526.79

The application of natural agricultural fertilizers is proposed as substitutes for chemical inputs. This makes it possible to reduce costs by reusing waste and eliminating the use of chemical agricultural urea. According to the literary review, it is determined that there is a direct relationship between the application of fertilizers and inputs and the generation of defective products or wastes. Therefore, the use of natural agricultural organic fertilizers will allow the reduction in the percentage of rupture per hectare, improving rice yield. Also, combustion activity to eliminate waste will be avoided. After this analysis that involves ecological practices, the process is analyzed by applying the Kaizen methodology [9] through the following stages:

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• Plan: To start the planning, the objective of improving productivity was defined through the reduction of costs of the resources of greater investment such as fertilizers. • Produce (Do): Use of organic matter waste instead of using chemical fertilizers in production processes, from planting and at each stage of fertilization. • Clean: Perform the cleaning of agricultural land by applying the recycling technique of the waste obtained. • Check: The control of all the production processes is carried out for the proposal of improvement plans according to the established objectives. • Action: At this stage, standardization and the search for other optimization proposals within the processes are defined, such as the treatment of organic matter to convert it into fertilizer, organic pesticides or fungicides. 3.4

Analysis, Monitoring, and Control

For the respective monitoring and control, the indicators that allowed obtaining the following results, see the Table 3: Table 3. Metrics Stage Plan

Metrics Formula Scope of the objectives ð # Objectives met  100Þ% # Total objectives

Expected Results 95–100% 88%

Produce Ground performance

Total production ðKgÞ 100% ðCultivated land area ðHaÞ  100Þ%

90%

Clean

Rice waste

ðKgÞ ðTotalDecrease production ðKgÞ  100Þ%

2%

1.6%

Recycled waste

waste ðKgÞ ðRecycled Total waste ðKgÞ  100Þ%

100%

95%

Productivity

 Investment ðIncome Investment

95–100% 95%

Check

 100Þ%

These indicators allow achieving the main objective: the control and monitoring of the rice production process, so that the use of this tool positively helps the farmer and his productive activity, as shown in the results.

4 Conclusions In conclusion, the Methodology Lean Green sets to use efficiently the resources in production by increasing their profitability and generating value to the supply chain, giving her time an approach to the environment that will optimize the environmental impact that occurs in cropland to be actively involved in the productivity of the planting. It also helps to reduce the loss of nutrients into the air and water from the crops and reduce the harmful effects of pesticides and greenhouse gas emissions. The methodology Kaizen within Lean Green is a continuous improvement tool that allows you to reduce waste in rice production by optimizing the resources used,

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reducing the bottlenecks in processes and giving some options to use the organic matter and to make it organic pesticides or fungicides. Also, they have the power to make monitoring and control of production through indicators.

References 1. Cherrafi, A., Garza-Reyes, J.A., Kumar, V., Mishra, N., Ghobadian, A., Elfezazi, S.: Lean, green practices and process innovation: a model for green supply chain performance. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 206, 79–92 (2018) 2. Bhattacharya, A., Nand, A., Castka, P.: Lean-green integration and its impact on triple bottom line: a critical review. J. Clean. Prod. 236, 1–16 (2019). Article No. 117697 3. Fu, X., Guo, M., Zhanwen, N.: Applying the green Embedded lean production model in developing countries: a case study of China. Environ. Dev. 24, 22–35 (2017) 4. Khodeir, L.M., Othman, R.: Examining the interaction between lean and sustainability principles in the management process of AEC industry. Ain Shams Eng. J. 9, 1627–1634 (2018) 5. Marqués, L., Costa, L., Gohr, C.F., Carvalho, L., Da Silva, M.H.: Criteria and practices for lean and green performance assessment: a systematic review and conceptual framework. J. Clean. Prod. 218, 746–762 (2019) 6. Sehnem, S., Pachecho de Oliveira, G.: Green Supply Chain Management: an analysis of the supplier-agro industry relationship of a Southern Brazilian company. Braz. Bus. Rev. 13(6), 158–190 (2016) 7. Abreu, M.F., Alves, A.C., Moreira, F.: Lean-Green models for eco-efficient and sustainable production. Energy 137, 846–853 (2017) 8. Chaman-Cortez, C., Palomino-Encarnación, A., Perez-Paredes, M., Alvarez, J.M., Raymundo-Ibañez, C.: Precision farming model to increase the production of exportable blueberries by implementing an adapting-to-change approach and risk assessment in agribusinesses in Peru’s coastal regions. In: ACM International Conference Proceeding Series, pp. 251–255 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1145/3364335.3364377 9. Vargas, N., Villaverde, D., Viacava, G., Raymundo, C., Dominguez, F.: Knowledge management model to support a supply chain for timely order delivery in a telecommunications equipment marketing company. In: Advances in Human Factors, Business Management and Leadership, pp.197–207 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-201548_19 10. Martínez, A., Cruz-Machado, V.: Are all lean principles equally eco-friendly? A panel data study. J. Clean. Prod. 177, 362–370 (2018) 11. Melin, M., Barth, H.: Lean in Swedish agriculture: strategic and operational perspectives. Prod. Plan. Control Manage. Oper. 29, 845–855 (2018) 12. Sagnak, M., Kazancogle, Y.: Integration of green lean approach with six sigma an application for flue gas emissions. J. Clean. Prod. 127, 112–118 (2016) 13. Cherrafi, A., Elfezazi, S., Govindan, K., Garza-Reyes, J.A., Benhida, K., Mokhlis, A.: A framework for the integration of Green and Lean Six Sigma for superior sustainability performance. Int. J. Prod. Res. 55, 4481–4515 (2016) 14. Dieste, M., Panizzolo, R., Garza-Reyes, J.A., Anosike, A.: The relationship between lean and environmental performance: practices and measures. J. Clean. Prod. 224, 120–131 (2019)

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15. Duarte, S., Cabrita, M., Cruz-Machado, V.: Business model, lean and green management and industry 4.0: a conceptual relationship. In: Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol. 1001, pp. 359–372 (2020) 16. Almeida, G., Abreu, T.: Implementing lean production systems: research areas and opportunities for future studies. Int. J. Prod. Res. 51, 6663–6680 (2013) 17. Leong, W.D., Teng, S.Y., How, B.S., Ngan, S.L., Lam, H.L., Tan, C.P., Ponnambalam, S. G.: Adaptive analytical approach to lean and green operations. J. Clean. Prod. 235, 190–209 (2019)

Application of Lean Manufacturing in a Peruvian Clothing Company to Reduce the Amount of Non-conforming Products Stephanie Cuellar-Valer1, Angie Gongora-Vilca1, Ernesto Altamirano-Flores1, and Daniel Aderhold2(&) 1

Ingeniería Industrial, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima, Peru {u201517113,u201517131,ernesto.altamirano}@upc.edu.pe 2 Dirección de Investigación, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima 15023, Peru [email protected]

Abstract. This article describes how Lean Manufacturing tools were applied in a Peruvian textile company. A production management model is proposed whose goal is to reduce the number of non-conforming products in the pants manufacturing line. For this, all information was gathered from the production area of the company under study. With the use of quality tools, the diagnosis of the current situation of the pants line was made, identifying the most significant defects, which were 19.43% of produced units in 2018. It was determined that the main causes of the observed defects refer to non-standardized sewing processes, quality control errors, non-standardized cutting processes, and poor production planning. The application of VSM and SMED allowed the correct standardization of denim pants production, TQM allowed proper control and quality management of the production process, and JIT for optimal production planning. Keywords: Lean Manufacturing
Sewing process
Quality management Production process standardization
Production planning




1 Introduction The competition generated by globalization has forced organizations to look for ways to reduce costs, improve product quality, diversify products and provide reliable deliveries [1]. For this, multinational companies get supplies from places in the world that offer the best possible combination of value and cost. Thus, companies manufacture their products in countries with cheap labor and then sell them in markets where prices are higher [2]. In Peru, textile SMEs generate 10.1% of all manufacturing exports with a volume of approximately 1.4 billion dollars in 2018 [3], and with a growing number of companies in this sector. However, production continues to be informal, without

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 481–487, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_73

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standardized processes or a strategic development plan for the sector. A consequence of this situation is the high number of non-compliant produced units, which generate returns, cost overruns and penalties. Lean Manufacturing tools are a novel alternative to improve the productivity of small businesses. This research applies Lean Manufacturing tools in a Peruvian textile company, focusing on cutting and sewing processes. The goal is to lower the number of nonconforming products on the pants manufacturing line. The specific techniques to be used are VSM (Value Stream Mapping), SMED (Single-Minute Exchange of Die), TQM (Total Quality Management) and JIT (Just in Time).

2 State of the Art The Macedonian author Goran Demboski [4] was able to improve the performance time for a package of 50 cloth pieces from 1617 to 1456 min (10% reduction), after implementing Lean Manufacturing tools, based on standardization of procedures. A study carried out by a group of Turkish authors [5] used line balancing within the implementation of Lean Manufacturing tools, specifically VSM at the process flow, achieving a 43% improvement in the supply period; the implementation of the line balance allowed to reduce delays by 500%. Quality management seeks to guarantee the conformity of products. Therefore, the end-to-end process is managed, relying on various resources so that the system achieves the quality established in the written procedures and the control of the implementation [6]. The VSM identifies bottlenecks within a process; The main reasons for lower productivity were identified as lack of an adequate supply chain, adequate planning and lack of administrative support [7]. The Malaysian authors Ahmad and Faiz Soberi [8] presented the use of SMED in four stages: current mapping of the process, classification of internal and external activities, transfer of internal to external activities, and rationalization of all activities; the goal was to standardize the processes and reduce the number of unnecessary operations; finally, they managed to improve the overall processing time by 44%. Finally, a group of Indian researchers designed a framework that puts together several Lean Manufacturing tools, showing positive results for three years [9].

3 Proposed Model The proposed model is based on the Lean Manufacturing tools shown in Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1. Proposed model

3.1

Time Analysis (VSM)/Time Standardization (SMED)

The development of VSM and SMED are applied simultaneously since VSM includes SMED. The phases to carry out this stage are shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. VSM/SMED implementation phases

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TQM - SPC

Phase 1: Quality policies: Improvement criteria or quality policies are established. Phase 2: Production forecast: It allows projecting the final indicators, and thus validate whether the implementation of the tools is possible or not. Therefore, quality control will be installed with the TQM SPC tool in real-time. 3.3

JIT

Just-In-Time is an element of the total quality management system. The phases of the JIT will be used: Presentation, implementation and cultural change. 3.4

Indicators

Table 1 shows the indicators that will be used to validate the proposal. Table 1. Model indicators Indicators Service level

Formula Goal Deliveries on time 95% Total deliveries Quality Conforming products 95% Total production Non-conforming products Non-conforming products 5% Total production

4 Validation 4.1

Current Situation

In 2018, 95.47% of the units produced in the Denim pants line were non-conforming (30,196 units), which is equal to 19.43% of annual production, above the range of 13% to 14% established for the textile industry [8], with an associated loss of PEN 335,895.00 (approx. US$ 100,270). Since this product line generates the highest revenue for the company, it was selected for analysis. Table 2 shows the cumulative absolute frequency (fi) of non-conforming products, where 80% of it (F) is concentrated in 4 root causes: Non-standardized processes in the sewing area, Non-standardized processes in the cutting area, Quality control errors, and poor production planning.

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Table 2. Number of non-conforming products in 2018 Root cause Non-standardized sewing Quality control errors Non-standardized cutting process Poor production planning Incorrect use of equipment Poor quality of raw material Equipment malfunction Staff with no cutting experience Equipment in poor condition Total

4.2

f 8,513 4,686 3,806 2,846 1,677 1,179 655 330 275 23,967

fi F 35.52% 35.52% 19.55% 55.07% 15.88% 70.95% 11.87% 82.83% 7.00% 89.82% 4.92% 94.74% 2.73% 97.48% 1.38% 98.85% 1.15% 100.00% 100%

Implementation of Tools

The tools selected to address the root causes are: VSM and SMED for the standardization of cutting and sewing processes; TQM-SPC, to control the process quality in time. Likewise, Just-in-Time (JIT) was applied to plan the work of the stations efficiently. These tools were implemented according to the proposed model. 4.3

Simulation

The Arena software was used to simulate the improved processes. In the simulation, the times of the cutting and sewing improvement process analyzed in Phase 5 (VSM, improvement) of the first step in the proposed model were recorded. Likewise, an inspection and compliance decision table was calculated, simulating daily processing of 7.24 working hours. Table 3 summarizes the improvements obtained for each indicator. Table 3. Simulation results Indicator Service level Quality Non-compliant products

4.4

Actual Goal Simulation results 51.97% 95% 78.34% 80.57% 95% 82.69% 19.43% 5% 11.09%

Analysis

The improvements indicated in Table 3 were achieved thanks to the implementation of the four mentioned Lean Manufacturing tools, through a new proposal for the production process. It is observed that the three indicators improved their performance, but without reaching the established goals. For this reason, additional simulations were performed with the data from the earlier three years (2017, 2016, and 2015), showing the results in Table 4. Scenario 0 is the one proposed in this research, and the other

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three are for the previous years. In all cases, it is verified that the newly designed processes have a favorable performance, although without reaching the objectives indicated in Table 1.

Table 4. Indicators after simulation in additional scenarios Indicator

Scenario 0 (2018)

Scenario 1 (2017)

Scenario 2 (2016)

Scenario 3 (2015)

Mean

Median Std. dev. Max

Service level Quality Noncompliant products

88.21%

83.56%

78.34%

73.85%

80.63% 80.95% 0.0623

88.21%

92.01% 7.99%

87.74% 10.31%

82.69% 11.09%

77.27% 11.94%

84.57% 85.22% 0.0637 10.10% 10.70% 0.0169

92.01% 11.94%

5 Conclusions The joint implementation of SMED, VSM, TQM and JIT improved significantly the established indicators service level, quality and non-compliant products, although without reaching the target values, but reaching an acceptable range for the industrial sector. The mentioned Lean Manufacturing tools should be applied in an orderly manner to get the expected results. In the present study, the VSM and SMED diagnostic tools were first used to standardize the analyzed process (cut and seam); then quality control was implemented using TQM supported by SPC to have a daily record; and finally, JIT was applied, so that product planning had an adequate order and quantity according to demand. Future studies are required to refine the proposed model in order to bring the values of the indicators closer to the levels required in the sector, allowing the competitiveness of textile SMEs to increase.

References 1. Marmolejo, N., Mejía, A.M., Pérez-Vergara, I.G., Rojas, J.A., Caro, M.: Mejoramiento mediante herramientas de la manufactura esbelta, en una Empresa de Confecciones. Ing. Ind. 37, 24–35 (2016) 2. Kaur, P., Marriya, K., Kashyap, R.: Assessment of lean in apparel export industry of national capital region (India). J. Text. Appar. Technol. Manag. 10, 17 (2016) 3. Produce: Anuario estadístico industrial, mipyme y comercio interno 2018 (2019). http:// ogeiee.produce.gob.pe/index.php/shortcode/oee-documentos-publicaciones/publicaciones-an uales/item/874-anuario-estadistico-industrial-mipyme-y-comercio-interno-2018 4. Demboski, G., Jankoska, M.: Throughput time analysis in apparel manufacturing. Ind. Textila 69, 140–145 (2018). https://doi.org/10.35530/IT.069.02.1450 5. Utku, İ., Ayvaz, B., Öztürk, F., Kuşakcı, A.O.: Value stream mapping in lean production and an application in the textile sector. J. Int. Trade Logist. Law. 4, 111–125 (2018)

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6. Andrade, Y., Cardenas, L., Viacava, G., Raymundo, C., Dominguez, F.: Lean manufacturing model for the reduction of production times and reduction of the returns of defective items in textile industry. In: Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol. 954, pp. 387–398 (2019) 7. Hamja, A., Maalouf, M.M., Hasle, P.: Assessment of productivity and ergonomic conditions at the production floor: an investigation into the bangladesh readymade garments industry. In: Bagnara, S., Tartaglia, R., Albolino, S., Alexander, T., Fujita, Y. (eds.) Proceedings of the 20th Congress of the International Ergonomics Association (IEA 2018). Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96068-5 8. Ahmad, R., Soberi, M.S.F.: Changeover process improvement based on modified SMED method and other process improvement tools application: an improvement project of 5-axis CNC machine operation in advanced composite manufacturing industry. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-0827-7 9. Balachandar, G.B., Sivakumar, A., Navaneethekrishnan, P., Saravanan, K.: Productivity and production analysis in fabric manufacturing industry – a robust design frame work for improvement. Glob. Sci. Technol. Forum. 1 (2012). https://doi.org/10.5176/2251-1857_ M374

Mega Science Projects for Business Marina V. Nurbina(&), Nurzhan N. Nurakhov, Artem A. Balyakin, and Natalya Yu. Tsvetus National Research Centre Kurchatov Institute, 1, ac. Kurchatov sq., Moscow 123182, Russia {Nurbina_MV,Nurakhov_NN,Balyakin_AA, Tsvetus_NY}@nrcki.ru

Abstract. Nowadays the most challenging scientific problems are solved by joint ventures within international consortia operating on site of Mega Science facilities. Outcomes of these projects are not pure scientific ones, but possess many practical applications. In our study, we investigate the PIK facility in an aspect of its business-like application. It has been constructed in the outskirts of St. Petersburg, Russia, and will perform as high-flux research nuclear reactor. We propose several practical aspects of PIK to be of interest for business community. We stress that in future Mega Science facility would play crucial role in scientific development, and their activity is to conjugate with interests of the society. To our viewpoint, unique scientific facilities can be treated as future business tool, and now the aim of experts is to optimize their usage as a part of global scientific infrastructure. Keywords: Mega Science
Unique scientific facility Fundamental science
For intellectual property


Practical application


1 Introduction Currently science plays constantly increasing role in the World, its impact to be found in any aspect of human life. One of the promising area of modern science is performed by nanotechnology. It is expected that progress in this field can lead to a significant changes in the world, the last ones to be comparable with the discovery of electricity and the development of the Internet. The development of new artificial materials (metamaterials) and their applications would become the universal tool for transformation of the environment. The pace of nanoscience and nanotechnology requires improvement of the physical foundations of the experimental base and the creation of new facilities for corresponding research. To meet these requirements the use of neutron scattering methods is essential. It would allow to obtain detailed information about the properties of nanosystems and materials at the microscopic level. The main idea is to establish the relationship between the structure of objects at the atomic level and their physical and technological properties including biological functions and structural changes in living organisms [1]. This reflects that modern research is increasingly associated with biological objects, which are characterized by long-period and disordered structure. Correspondingly, the © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 488–492, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_74

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need for the use of cold neutrons and techniques such as small-angle scattering and reflectometry in order to observe such structures is increasing. Advanced research is carried out on unique scientific facilities (Mega Science facilities). These installations operate on multilateral basis, as their creation goes beyond the capabilities of individual states. The most challenging problems are solved by joint ventures within international consortia, the main to be mentioned are CERN, EuXFEL, and others [2]. Those projects involve a number of participants from worldwide institutions, and are funded by special governmental support. One of the examples of international scientific cooperation is the high flux research reactor complex (RRC) PIK being constructed in the outskirts of St. Petersburg, Russia. It is a continuous flow type reactor and is intended for research in the field of condensed matter physics, nuclear physics and the physics of weak interactions, structural and radiation biology and biophysics, radiation physics and chemistry, as well as solutions for many applications and engineering problems. By its parameters PIK reactor will be one of the best research reactors in the world. PIK reactor differs from the majority of similar projects (including the only analog in the world - the HFR reactor at the European Center for Neutron Research – International Institut LaueLangevin (ILL, Grenoble, France) by increased neutron fluxes in the reflector, the presence of a neutron trap with a very high flux and the possibility of irradiation of materials in the core. The maximum density of the unperturbed thermal neutron flux is close to 5 • 1015 cm2 • s−1 and corresponds to the record values obtained in a continuous flow reactors. The thermal neutron flux density in the reflector is supposed to be 1,3 • 1015 cm2 • s−1. The facility will have 50 experimental stations fed by 10 horizontal, 6 inclined and 6 vertical experimental channels. It will possess 3 cold and 1 hot neutron sources. The volumetric energy release in the core will count up to 6,6 MW/l. Despite of belonging to high tech area, very often Mega Science projects outcomes are not pure scientific ones, but possess many practical applications. Material science, communications, medicine (distance medicine, life extension technologies), pharmacology, agriculture, animal husbandry, culture, mining, transport, additive technologies, emergency services, civil defense, prevention of terrorist threats, – they all benefit from intellectual results of such enterprises. However, this issue requires additional consideration and thorough discussion. There is the need of understanding of socioeconomic results of high-tech implementation; there should be the comprehensive list of pros and cons of Mega Science infrastructures for business. In our study, we focus of the business-like application of the PIK facility. Our research reveals following peculiarities of unique scientific facilities (RRC PIK being a good example, but not the only one to which it can be referred).

2 Main Results Firstly, projects of the Mega Science class need to be considered as a complex system, which requires both a specific managerial apparatus and appropriate legal and information support. In particular, in the EU the Reisenhuber Criteria are in demand to characterize unique scientific facilities [3]. The Russian Federation has a list of criteria

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for classifying Russian research facilities as international scientific megaprojects [4]. We emphasize that each of the stages of the project life cycle is an independent project having its own life cycle consisting of the following stages: initiation, planning, implementation, monitoring and control, completion [5]. Each of the stages needs competent planning and business management. Secondly, Mega Science facilities should be considered as a business project, focused, however, on obtaining material results. In this case, following the logic of the OECD [6], one can identify the following key issues that are valid at all stages of the life cycle of the research infrastructure: the functions and participation of the state, human resources, financing of work, intellectual property, risks. We found out that all of the stages of the project to create a Mega Science class facility are generally consistent with the methodology of the Project Management Institute [7]. We note as a solution to emerging problems, a detailed study is proposed not only of the scientific program of the project, but also a description of the basic business processes, the development of a detailed business plan of the project and the preparation of legal solutions at each stage of the project life cycle. Thirdly, the implementation of the project to create a Mega Science facility is accompanied by risks inherent in business projects (legal, economic, etc.). They are usually well studied and there is a methodology for overcoming them, which can be transferred from commercial projects to the scientific field. In addition to the risks of the project, there are other types of threats associated with the further implementation of the results of work at Mega Science facilities. So, the current structural adjustment of world industry and the change in the economic structure, caused by the total introduction of fundamentally new production methods and new technologies, leads to the alienation of people from routine production processes. The main tool for such alienation is the large-scale use of machine learning and artificial intelligence systems, as well as the development of virtual and augmented reality systems [5]. In this work, we do not focus on these threats in details, however, we note that in the EU this issue is gradually becoming widely discussed primarily in the field of medicine. Fourth, with the development of Mega Science installations, the question arises of their possible payback and/or profitability. Commercialization of the results of scientific activity is possible only if they are properly taken into account and codified. The basis of the information support system for intellectual property turnover (INPRO) can be the INPRO cadastre, which is presented as a systematized, officially compiled on the basis of periodic or continuous observations, set of basic information (register) on the economic and intellectual resources of the project (internal and external) [8, 9]. Data on INPRO facilities provided to users of the INPRO cadastre can be drawn up as an INPRO cadastral map provided at the request of users of the INPRO cadastre. The INPRO cadastre will make it possible to quantify the transformation of innovations into a leading factor in economic growth in all sectors of the economy and can become the basis for comparative studies. The implementation of the INPRO cadastre will contribute to the formation of leading innovative projects, programs and policies, technologies, management systems and products, as well as the creation of a system of incentives for the creation of INSO facilities that are effective in terms of innovation.

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It should be noted that the main prerequisite for the successful creation of the cadastre is the presence of specialists of all necessary profiles among the project participants with experience in the development and practical implementation of integrated automated systems, legal support for the circulation of rights to INPRO objects, INPRO estimates and statistics, and information systems. Fifth, the features of scientific installations include the possibility of organizing operations with minimal human involvement. This is primarily due to the requirements to comply with the safety requirements of operations and the complexity of the manipulations when most of the actions are carried out by operators remotely. Accordingly, the most important thing is not the implementation of measurements by themselves, but their processing and comprehension. These actions can be geographically dispersed, which is already practiced in collaborations such as CERN and GNN, which transferred a significant part of scientific activities to cloud services. Note that in this case the question arises of how to store, transmit and process large amounts of information. In our work, we do not touch on this issue: Big Data and associated problems should be treated separately [10–13]).

3 Conclusion Thus, in this paper we discuss several practical aspects of PIK to be of interest for business community. We stress that innovative solutions from the scientific field pass into the economic and social life of society. This process has not yet been studied in detail, and is accompanied by a number of institutional features related to both the specifics of ongoing research and the organization of usage of Mega Science facilities. In this paper we present some features revealed while studying the case of RRC PIK. It was shown that the most important approach is that when studying objects of the Mega Science class (the features of their work and organization of functioning), it is necessary to consider them not only as a tool for the implementation of scientific research, but it is necessary to take into account the economic, social, legal and political effects that arise as a result of its creation and subsequent functioning. Possible legal, economic and environmental risks should also be considered. Any unique scientific facility must be considered as a single, integral and complex system, with its outcomes to impact the society in any aspect [14]. To our viewpoint, Mega Science facilities can be treated as future business tool, and now the aim of experts is to optimize their usage as a part of global infrastructure Mega Science Project (results) for Business. Acknowledgments. The reported study was funded by RFBR grant № 18-29-15015.

References 1. Wiedorn, M.O., Oberthür, D., Bean, R., et al.: Megahertz serial crystallography. Nat. Commun. 9, 1–11 (2018). Article No. 4025

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2. Lebrun, P., Taylor, T.: Chapter 11: Managing the laboratory and large projects. In: Advanced Series on Directions in High Energy Physics. Technology Meets Research, pp. 393–422. World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., Singapore (2017) 3. Andréeю, D.: Priority-setting in the European Research Framework Programmes. Swedish Ministry for Education and Research. VINNOVA. Swedish Governmental Agency for Innovation Systems: Vinnova Analysis VA: 17 July 2009, № 2009–01925 (2009) 4. Protocol of the meeting of the Government Commission on High Technologies and Innovations of July 05, 2011. No. 3, List of criteria for classifying research facilities as international scientific mega-projects (2011) 5. Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide). Sixth Edition. Agile: a practical guide, p. 1170. Olympus Business, Moscow (2018) 6. Strengthening the effectiveness and sustainability of international research infrastructures. OECD Global Science Forum. OECD Science, Technology and Industry Policy Papers, 21 December 2017, No. 48 (2017) 7. Zhulego, V.G., Balyakin, A.A., Nurbina, M.V., Taranenko, S.B.: Digitalization of society: new challenges in the social sphere. Bull. Altai Acad. Econ. Law 9–2, 36–43 (2019) 8. Nurakhov, N.N.: Integrity of innovation management and INSO inventory, p. 156, MST, Moscow (2010) 9. Nurakhov, N.N., Kozlov, Y.V., Petrov, A.A., Kravchuk, V.L.: Life cycle of the project of creation and operation of the mega science facility. In: Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 1406, pp. 012018. IOP Publishing Ltd., Moscow (2019) 10. Andreasyan, A., Balyakin, A., Nurbina, M., Mukhamedzhanova A.: Security issues of scientific based big data circulation analysis. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Data Science, Technology and Applications, Prague, Czech Republic, vol. 1, pp. 168–173 (2019) 11. Balyakin, A.A., Malyshev, A.S., Nurbina, M.V., Titov M.A.: Big data: nil novo sub luna. In: ICIS 2019: Integrated Science in Digital Age, pp 364–373. Springer (2019) 12. Yuchinson, K.: Big data and legislation on competition law. J. High. Sch. Econ. 1, 216–245 (2017). Moscow 13. Engin, Z., Treleaven, P.: Algorithmic government: automating public services and supporting civil servants in using data science technologies. Comput. J. 62(3), 448–460 (2019). The British Computer Society (2018) 14. Sadowski, J.: When data is capital: datafication, accumulation, and extraction. Big Data Soc. 6(1), 1–12 (2019). Original Research Article. January–June 2019, SAGA

Production Process Optimization Model to Increase Productivity of Microenterprises in the Industrial Chemical Sector Using 5S and TPM Leonardo Chancahuana-Palomino1(&), Alondra Ortiz-Licas1, Ernesto Altamirano-Flores1, and Daniel Aderhold2 1

Ingeniería Industrial, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima 15023, Peru {u201410943,u201413268,ernesto.altamirano}@upc.edu.pe 2 Dirección de Investigación, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima 15023, Peru [email protected]

Abstract. The industrial chemical sector has grown during the last years in the Peruvian market, becoming highly competitive since it represents the second main activity in the manufacturing industry. However, companies belonging to the sector have experienced a decrease in productivity, since it has a lower production rate than other economic sectors. This paper presents a model for increasing the productivity of companies in the sector. For this, the 5S and TPM techniques will be used sequentially. First, 5S techniques are applied to reorder the working area and to create a clean and safe environment for operating personnel. Then, the TPM technique is used to focus on reducing the deficiencies that machines present through preventive maintenance and raise awareness and involve operational personnel in the daily activities of autonomous maintenance. For validation of the model, a simulation with the software Arena is performed. Results show an increase of about 15% in productivity, the cycle time reduces by 14%, the OEE will increase by 24% and daily production by 15% in the paint line. Keywords: TPM


5S
Productivity
Industrial chemical sector

1 Introduction The Peruvian manufacturing industry represents 10.8% of its GDP, being the second most important activity in the national economy. The growth of this sector of 1% per year was below the average of the industrial sector. Among the industries that increased their production levels are [1]: Basic metal industries (6.3%), textile and leather industry (5.4%), other manufacturing industries (5.1%), metal products manufacturing (1.4%), food industry (1.3%) and manufacture of non-metallic mineral products (0.7%), wood and furniture industry (−6.6%), chemical industry (−3.9%), and the

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paper and printing industry (−1.8%). Thus, sectors such as wood and furniture and chemical have had serious contractions. Diagnoses made in manufacturing microenterprises in Lima show that they have had declines in productivity [2, 3], a critical factor that should be monitored in every type of industry. In the present research, a diagnosis was made in a representative microenterprise of the Peruvian industrial chemical sector, determining that it loses approximately 110,000 Peruvian soles (approx. US$ 32,500) per year due to its poor productivity. It is intended, based on a previous review of the existing literature, to build an optimization model for the production process for microenterprises in the chemical industry, which will be validated through a simulation procedure.

2 Literature Review The problem faced by the studies of Choomlucksana in Thailand [4] and Nallusamy in India [5], applying Lean Manufacturing tools in metalworking and automotive companies, was low productivity; after an analysis they determined that problems are generated mainly by activities that do not add value, as well as various wastes that increase the cycle time and the delivery of the finished products. Another study in the leather industry in Bangladesh [6] established the importance of Lean Manufacturing tools to increase the productivity of companies in the industrial sector; they focused on identifying and minimizing losses generated throughout the production process and, at the same time, to use fewer resources and create more value for final customers. Due to the competitive environment, increasing productivity is a major factor for manufacturing industries, as well as delivery times and quality of products [7]. Regarding 5S practices, a study carried out in Finland [8] carried out an improvement project using Lean tools in a manufacturing SME. First, the problem areas were identified, and proposals were implemented to increase productivity and efficiency. The plan was based on removing unnecessary time-consuming activities, through a new design and adopting the 5S principles, being carried out in 5 sequential steps, from the renewal of the client portfolio to continuous improvement. Other Indian authors [9] conducted a thorough investigation to obtain data from a production plant using Kaizen sheets, examining each section of the production process and identifying the main problems. Then causes facing each work area were identified and, following up on suggestions of collaborators, they developed a methodology to implement the 5S principles in various steps that include the signing of a commitment certificate between senior management and team members, as well as a training program for workers in Lean techniques to solve daily problems. Thus, they used 5S techniques to organize the work area and keep it clean in order to minimize waste, improving productivity by around 20%. Another study focused on an automotive company [10] was aimed at improving maintenance. To do this, two pillars of the Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) were combined, which complement each other to obtain higher benefits. In this way, the

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machine efficiency reached 94% of its capacity, and the Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) increased to 92%. Other research, also developed in India [11], introduced the practice of autonomous maintenance in an industrial SME to improve the performance of production equipment. For this, the researchers carried out a measurement of the equipment, intending to reduce the time of failures and breakdowns, as well as the cost of maintenance, improving the productivity of the company. Finally, the OEE index increased by 20%. In another analyzed study [12], it was possible to appreciate the combined use of 5S and TPM tools in an industrial company, addressing problems of disorder, worthless activities and lack of procedural manuals. Likewise, the company under study had outdated machines that frequently presented operating problems. It was possible to increase the available work area by 68% and decrease the cycle time by 2%; the OEE increased by 6% and machine availability improved to 53%.

3 Proposed Model With support from the analyzed literature, a management model was built in order to improve productivity in chemical-industrial companies. The model integrates change and knowledge management with 5S and TPM techniques. For the management of change and knowledge, the training of team members regarding the mentioned techniques is essential. Figure 1 shows the process chart of the proposed model, starting with the team creation for process standardization, along with six phases that are described below.

Fig. 1. Process diagram of the proposed model

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Phase I: Creation of the Work Team It is essential to commit and raise awareness among the members of the process about the project to be carried out in the company. It must be carried out comprehensively from top management to the operators, who must know and understand the improvements to be implemented and the expected results. Phase II: Change and Knowledge Management There will be training directed to all the members of the project team, provided by specialists in Lean Manufacturing since it will focus on 5 s and TPM. Likewise, the decision makers will be the facilitators of providing the knowledge and benefits of these techniques to future collaborators. Phase III: 5S Implementation 5S is implemented in five steps: (1) Remove objects that are not a priority for the production process through a “red card”. (2) Objects are ordered so that they can be easily reached. (3) The cleaning of the workstations is carried out, and schedules are established for it, which will be monitored by checklists. (4) Periodic reviews to determine if the previous steps have been completed; questionnaires are implemented to audit compliance. (5) Posters are made regarding the 5S implementation project, visible to all company employees; likewise, self-discipline will be encouraged so that the established norms are enforced. Phase IV: TPM Implementation It focuses on the two pillars of the TPM (autonomous and preventive maintenance), through the following steps: (1) Senior management signs an act of commitment to implement the TPM and communicates through information leaflets, which detail the technique in general, as well as the maintenance policies and objectives of the maintenance plan. (2) A work team is created to prepare the Maintenance Plan; the members will receive training in this tool. (3) The maintenance plan is developed in detail and monitoring and evaluation measures are created. Regarding Autonomous Maintenance: instructions are created for the periodic activities that will be carried out by the production operators, who will receive training on the subject and the equipment they operate. Regarding Preventive Maintenance: A new organization chart of the maintenance area is proposed to give it greater autonomy. The positions in the area are described, which are maintenance manager, maintenance supervisor, and maintenance operator. Also, an inventory is made to obtain the technical data sheets of each machine and maintenance activities of each equipment are designed; periodic maintenance is established that will be registered in forms. Finally, as a measure to monitor and control the progress of the maintenance plan, indicators will be used for the area. Phase V: Improvements Verification After the implementation of the techniques, the established objectives are monitored and verified if they are being met.

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Phase VI: Standardization It allows the model to be successfully implemented in other production lines or other company departments, making only a few modifications.

4 Validation 4.1

Simulation

The Arena software was used to simulate the production flow of the tempera paint line. For this, time measurements were made for each of the involved operations, and several variables were considered to design the model. The simulation considers the production of tempera and the manufacturing processes. The variables and distributions were entered in the input analyzer module. The simulation was carried out for the product 25 kg Gold tempera, in which 12 units of this type of product were obtained in each operation. Likewise, a workday of 8 h was considered. The simulation was carried out both for the current situation and for the situation with the improvements of the proposed model. 4.2

Economic Validation

A cash flow was carried out with the savings that would be obtained with the proposed improvement model. For this cash flow, a projection of 18 months was considered, and with an opportunity cost (COK) of 12%. An NPV of 43,985.59 Peruvian soles (approx. US$ 13,000), IRR of 26% and a cost-benefit ratio of 1.88 were finally obtained. It is concluded that the improvement proposal is economically viable. 4.3

Results

Based on the validation performed through the Arena software, the results shown in Table 1 were obtained. The obtained indicator values show positive variations for the current situation.

Table 1. Results of simulation Indicator Productivity Cycle time OEE Daily production

Current 73.17% 14.5 60.02% 396

Improved 93.60 12.5 78.76% 468

Variation % 20% 14% 24% 15%

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5 Conclusions The present research has shown that the combined application of 5S and TPM techniques have positive effects on the production process. The following results were obtained: (1) productivity increased by 20%; (2) the cycle time reduced by 14%; (3) the OEE increased by 24%; and (4) the daily productivity by 15%. The project implementation has an approximated cost of 50,000 Peruvian soles (approx. US$ 14,800). According to the economic validation, it is evident that the execution of the project is viable since indicators presented positive results.

References 1. INEI: Comportamiento de la Economía Peruana en el Primer Trimestre de 2018 (2018). https://www.inei.gob.pe/media/MenuRecursivo/boletines/02-informe-tecnico-n02_pbi-trime stral_-itrim2018.PDF 2. Castillo, N.: BID: Por qué la productividad se ha estancado en el Perú (2018). https:// elcomercio.pe/economia/peru/bid-productividad-estancado-peru-noticia-534584-noticia/ 3. Mau, M., Ramos, R., Llontop, J., et al.: Lean manufacturing production management model to increase the efficiency of the production process of a MSME company in the chemical sector. In: Proceedings of the LACCEI International Multi-Conference for Engineering, Education and Technology (2019) 4. Choomlucksana, J., Ongsaranakorn, M., Suksabai, P.: Improving the productivity of sheet metal stamping subassembly area using the application of lean manufacturing principles. Procedia Manuf. 2, 102–107 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2015.07.090 5. Nallusamy, S., Adil Ahamed, M.A.: Implementation of lean tools in an automotive industry for productivity enhancement - a case study. Int. J. Eng. Res. Africa. 29, 175–185 (2017). https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/JERA.29.175 6. Ma, S.M., Na, S.: Productivity improvement of leather products industry in Bangladesh using lean tools: a case study. J. Entrep. Organ. Manag. 07 (2018). https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2169-026x.1000234 7. Abu Sayid, M.M., Nur-E-Alam, M., Murad, A.B.M.W., Ahmad, F., Uddin, M.K.: Waste management & quality assessment of footwear manufacturing industry in Bangladesh: an innovative approach. Int. J. Eng. Manag. Res. 7, 402–407 (2017) 8. Majava, J., Ojanperä, T.: Lean production development in SMEs: a case study. Manag. Prod. Eng. Rev. 8, 41–48 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1515/mper-2017-0016 9. Randhawa, J.S., Ahuja, I.S.: Evaluating impact of 5S implementation on business performance. Int. J. Product. Perform. Manag. 66, 948–978 (2017). https://doi.org/10. 1108/IJPPM-08-2016-0154 10. Pascu, C.I., Dumitru, I., Gheorghe, S., Nisipasu, M.: Implementation of total productive maintenance principles for quality improvement in an automotive company. Appl. Mech. Mater. 880, 171–176 (2018). https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.880.171 11. Jain, A., Bhatti, R.S., Singh, H.: OEE enhancement in SMEs through mobile maintenance: a TPM concept. Int. J. Qual. Reliab. Manag. 32, 503–516 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1108/ IJQRM-05-2013-0088 12. Badi, T.H., Altumi, A.A.: A local industry application of lean manufacturing principals in Benghazi. Int. J. Comput. Eng. Inf. Technol. 9, 157–165 (2017)

Improvement of the Manufacturing of Aluminum Pots Using Lean Manufacturing Tools Ximena Cusihuallpa-Vera, Evelyn Suarez-Montes(&), Juan Quiroz-Flores, and Jose Alvarez Ingeniería Industrial, Unversidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima, Peru {u201416312,u201414813, juan.quiroz,pciijqui}@upc.edu.pe

Abstract. The research is based on the problems encountered in the production process of companies in the metalworking sector. The problem arises from the low availability of machines in the production process due to working conditions (39.5%), poor maintenance management (40.3%) and poor-quality control (20.2%) that generate low profitability for business. As a solution, Lean Manufacturing tools are implemented to improve the process and increase profitability. The improvement proposal consists of a series of stages: first, the definition of indicators for the measurement of the variables; then, the design and implementation of a pilot in the production process and, in parallel, a simulation system will be designed to evaluate the long-term results. The document concludes that the implementation of the proposed tools will increase the availability of machines and an OEE to 55%, avoiding defective products and reducing reprocessed products by 4%. Keywords: Maintenance
Lean Productivity
Metalworking


Availability
Efficiency
Quality


1 Introduction Within the manufacturing sector, there is the metalworking industry which is an important component in the productive structure of the economy, due to its technological content and added value. In Peru, this industry represents 12% of the Gross Value Added (GVA) in the manufacturing industry and contributes 1.6% in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In addition, the metalworking industry is articulated with different industrial branches, to the point that all countries with advanced industrial development have a consolidated metalworking sector [1, 2]. However, the Ministry of Production, reported that the VAB of the metalworking industry in the last three years (2014–2016) had a 2.5% decrease in annual average due to the contraction of the construction sector - the main demand of products of the metalworking industry (metal doors and windows, and metal structures) with a participation of 21% [3, 4]. The company under study, M1Pr2 is a Peruvian small firm oriented to the production and marketing of aluminum pots, and it is a representative sample of the © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 499–505, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_76

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manufacturing sector and the metalworking subsector. As a fact, the company does not have an area dedicated to the maintenance of its machines; so, any breakdown in the machines will paralyzed the production until the repairmen. Because the firm develops in a tight market, unforeseen failures generate issues regarding the time schedule of deliveries and fail to fully supply the demand. Therefore, the main problem that has been identified is the low availability of the machines in the production process. Due to this situation, the companies reduce its sales and lose competitiveness in the metalworking market. This research study proposes an improvement in the production process in companies of the metalworking sector by implementing Lean Manufacturing tools to increasing profitability. The article will be distributed in 5 parts: first a brief introduction of the metalworking sector and the company under study; then, the theoretical framework will describe the tools to be implemented and the current situation of the company; later, the methodology section; then, the results; finally, the conclusion and recommendations.

2 Problem For the present investigation, the studied company was M1Pr2, a Peruvian small company focused in the production and marketing of aluminum pots. The main problem found was the low availability of the machines. Therefore, the following study analyses the monthly global efficiency (OEE) – based on calculations of availability, efficiency and quality - of each of their machines working on the pot production process.

3 State of the Art Gujar and Moroliya [3] have worked on increasing productivity by studying work in a manufacturing industry. The problem was low productivity in the manufacturing industry due to the fatigue of the workers since they made additional time and effort to supply the demand. For this, they implemented talent management, obtaining greater morale from workers with increased safety and efficiency, high levels of production and optimization of the use of resources and lower production costs. Moscoso [5] worked on product quality problems due to failures in the production process machines. For their solution, they created a preventive maintenance plan under a maintenance method focused on reliability, improving performance in the production process which improved the quality of their products, increased their competitiveness in the market and reduced their production costs.

4 Innovative Proposal The innovative proposal for the solution of the problem is presented in Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1. Design of the innovative proposal

For the design of the proposed solution model, the implementation of three tools is proposed: Maintenance Management, Jidoka and Supplier Approval, which contribute to the improvement of the production process as well as the issues of machine availability, quality management and an adequate selection of suppliers.

5 Results 5.1

Talent Management

The implementation of this tool was carried out for the evaluation of working conditions. In order to identify the current situation, the performance was evaluated by labor competencies to measure the work of the operators which resulted in them having a score that varies between 10 and 12 points (poor). This was one of the main causes of defective products. After the operators were trained, the evaluation was carried out again and the quantity of defective products was analyzed within 5 weeks of implementation. 5.2

Security and Health at Work

The implementation of this tool was carried out for 4 weeks aiming to guarantee better working conditions. Through the IPER matrix, it was possible to identify the hazards and risks in M1Pr2. Accidents and work incidents and inappropriate use of PPEs were recorded, which resulted in staff absenteeism and economic losses for the company. Once the training was carried out, these causes were analyzed, and the following results were obtained as shown in Table 1. Table 1. Work permits before and after implementation Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Permissions (Before) 3 2 4 4 Permissions (After) 2 1 2 2

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Supplier Approval

This tool was implemented because spare parts and parts used in the machinery had poor quality, last a short time and cause more damage to it. That is why it is validated and results are obtained through a quality questionnaire, taking into account its quality standards. Then, reports is made of each supplier and thus see the most summarized situation. 5.4

Jidoka

The implementation of this tool was 5 weeks, which was based on the AMEF to detect the main fault and on which machine it frequents most. Workers were trained to allow them to intervene in some manufacturing process to avoid defective products. The results of the pilot development are shown in Table 2. Table 2. Products reprocessed before and after implementation Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 % Before 9.37% 9.05% 9.06% 8.81% 9.31% % After 7.73% 7.63% 7.75% 7.36% 7.28%

5.5

Maintenance Management

For the implementation of the preventive and autonomous maintenance, the programmed trainings were carried out, obtaining the assistance of 100% of the operators. To verify that the implementation was favorable for the company under study, the OEE was calculated in each of the machines of the production process. The results of the OEE of the lathe, sanding and riveting machine before and after implementation are exhibited in Tables 3, 4, and 5. Table 3. OEE lathe before and after implementation Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 OEE Before 41.46% 38.64% 46.99% 48.14% 49.55% OEE After 44.73% 41.71% 50.74% 51.90% 53.03%

Table 4. OEE sanding before and after implementation Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 OEE Before 40.73% 36.01% 47.17% 47.64% 50.97% OEE After 41.55% 39.59% 51.45% 52.59% 53.93%

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Table 5. OEE riveted before and after implementation Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 OEE Before 40.37% 37.71% 48.15% 50.26% 50.63% OEE After 43.77% 40.67% 51.08% 55.18% 55.86%

As you can see, the OEE of the machines has increased. However, this pilot implementation was carried out for only five weeks. Therefore, the OEE is expected to increase the target in the coming weeks. 5.6

Simulation

The simulation of the processes of the company M1Pr2 will be executed, with the aim of reducing the process time and defects in each process as shown in Table 6. Table 6. Improved situation of the company M1Pr2 Improvement situation 1 Improvement situation 2 220.25 214.99 7.42 7.42 10.36 3.25 0.47 2.42 0.73 3.53 44.87 43.85 53% 53% 54% 31% 15% 18% 34% 37% 49% 49% 8 9 990.93 1,025.21

The time of the products in processes has been reduced from 51.43 to 43.85 pots, which is considerable because they were expected to be reduced with the improvements implemented. Likewise, the time of the tail of the Lathe has been reduced from 22.45 to 7.42 min, which is what was expected since this is also a critical machine for the company.

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6 Analysis of Results The results obtained from the measurement of the indicators before and after the implementation of the improvement tools that were proposed for the problem under study are shown in Table 7. As can be seen in Fig. 18, for the TPM tool the OEE was used as a measurement indicator where it can be seen that a percentage of 44.3% on average was obtained before implementation and after the implementation of the improvement reached 48% on average. Likewise, for the measurement of the pilot implementation of the occupational health and safety tool, the number of absent operators was evaluated before the implementation with a result of 13 absent operators and after the implementation it was reduced to 7 absent operators. Finally, for the Jidoka improvement tool, the percentage of reprocessed products was calculated before implementation obtaining 9.14% and after implementation, 7.55% not achieving the target value, but it is no longer a critical value. It should be noted that an improvement was achieved after the implementations, but the optimal value was not achieved because only the implementation of each tool was made between 4 and 5 weeks. Table 7. Scenario summary Variables OEE % Products with defects Number of absent operators Number of parts with defects

Actual 44.96% 10.30% 13 9.14%

Pessimist 46.67% 9.90% 10 8.76%

Normal 48.42% 8.38% 7 7.75%

Optimist 55.45% 6.30% 4 5.20%

7 Conclusions After the analysis, the study showed that the main problem of the company was the low machine availability. Likewise, this paper shows the success on the application of talent management tools, Jidoka, TPM, supplier approval and occupational health and safety, to fight the issue of the production process.

References 1. Kishimoto, K., Medina, G., Sotelo, F., Raymundo, C.: Application of lean manufacturing techniques to increase on-time deliveries: case study of a metalworking company with a make-to-order environment in Peru (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25629-6_148 2. Lavado, K., Ramos, W., Carvallo, E., Raymundo, C., Dominguez, F.: Telecommunications tower kits manufacturing model based on Ikea’s approach to minimize the return due to missing parts in a metalworking enterprise kit (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-03027928-8_146

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3. Gujar, S., Moroliya, M.R.: Increasing the productivity by using work-study in a manufacturing industry-literature review. Int. J. Mech. Prod. Eng. Res. Dev. (2018). https://doi.org/10. 24247/ijmperdapr201841, https://www.scopus.com 4. Huamán, J., Llontop, J., Raymundo, C., Dominguez, F.: Production management model based on lean manufacturing focused on the human factor to improve productivity of small businesses in the metalworking sector (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27928-8_ 128 5. Moscoso, C., Fernandez, A., Viacava, G., Raymundo, C.: Integral model of maintenance management based on TPM and RCM principles to increase machine availability in a manufacturing company (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25629-6_137

Production Model to Improve the Efficiency of a Peruvian Cotton Knitwear Export Company Using 5S, Standardization of Operations and Autonomous Maintenance Thania Baldeon-Lazaro1(&), Pedro Malasquez-Salas1, Gino Viacava-Campos1, and Daniel Aderhold2 1

2

Ingeniería Industrial, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima 15023, Peru {u201517087,u201519255,gino.viacava}@upc.edu.pe Dirección de Investigación, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima 15023, Peru [email protected]

Abstract. Nowadays, organizations in the cotton knitwear industry have had to adapt to a client who is not willing to pay an additional cost for activities that do not add value to the product. In Peru, many companies that export cotton knitwear closes every year since they cannot compete with countries such as China and Hong Kong due to their high production costs. This paper introduces a production management model based on Lean Manufacturing techniques and standardization of operations to reduce waste in the production flow, thus improving quality, and reducing production time and costs. So, a Production and Continuous improvement model (PDCA) were implemented. The validation was performed in a representative Peruvian company that exports cotton knitwear, resulting in an efficiency improvement of 10%, reduction of defective products of 20%, and generating savings of almost 5,000 soles monthly. Keywords: Lean manufacturing
Cotton knitwear industry standardization
5S
TPM
Autonomous maintenance


Operations

1 Introduction For the last years, the cotton knitwear industry has had to adapt to new rules, where the customer is increasingly demanding higher quality and is not willing to pay extra costs for activities that do not generate value to the product. Therefore, different industries have implemented continuous improvement methodologies such as Lean manufacturing, to maintain their operations and meet the demands of its customers. In this regard, the textile and clothing industry in Peru has suffered serious falling because of the high competition of strong global players like China. In 2016 its exports decreased by 50% compared to four years ago. However, since 2017, different Peruvian sectors have achieved stability in exports, gaining a 5% increase in exports compared to the previous year [1]. This represented a significant impact on the country since this sector © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 506–512, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_77

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represents 31% of the number of industrial companies, 7.4% of the GDP and generates 463 thousand job positions [2]. These problems are fueled by product loss due to improper machine operation, so defective products must be reprocessed [3] and loss of production time due to machine failures [4]. Lean Manufacturing tools were applied by companies with similar problems showing satisfactory results. These tools include: Value Stream Mapping for displaying value-added as well as worthless activities at the production cycle [3, 5, 6]; methodologies based on 5S to improve business productivity at low cost [7–9]; and Autonomous Maintenance that allows an operator to be more proactive foreseeing a machine fault machine [4]. Likewise, the standardization of critical activities will be developed, which is a technique that consists of developing methods that reflect a better way of carrying out an operation [10, 11].

2 State of the Art Implementation of Lean Manufacturing (LM) tools has been showing positive results for companies who implement them. Following, the use of such tools is reviewed and its importance for the current research is outlined. First, regarding the application of the PDCA performed in a plastic processing industry reduced nonconformity up to 60% after the first implementation [12]. Together with 5S, it helped to minimize sewing defects in apparel industries [13]. In another study a manufacturing company where PDCA, Pareto charts and flow charts were applied, defects reduction were 65%, 79% and 77% in three analyzed product models [14]. Secondly, the implementation of 5S in Indian companies reduced the time of unproductive handling by 50% and increased storage space 73% [15]. Another Indian apparel company that implemented 5S together with Value Stream Mapping was able to reduce the cycle time from 30 to 10 min and the lead time from 322 to 252 min, significantly reducing the number of rejected products [7]. Company managers could also use tools like Value Stream Mapping and TPM to analyze waste and activities that do not create value and for future continuous improvement [16]. The mentioned tools could improve working conditions, communication, structure, motivation, cooperation, labor relations, and leadership by up to 53% and eliminate up to 85% of activities with risk in the company [17]. Thirdly, through Autonomous Maintenance, operators were able to detect and prevent 75% or more machine breakdowns [18]. A malt factory in Ethiopia was able to increase its production by almost 9%, man-hours decreased by 23%, obtaining a wellordered workplace and more satisfied employees [4]. Regarding standardization activities, Nahid Hasan [19] proposed the use of this technique, considering the development of skills, workstations and a focus on QQT, which refers to quality and amount in time, thus achieving improved efficiency by 18%.

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3 Contribution Figure 1 depicts the proposed model based on a continuous improvement cycle (PDCA), aimed to reduce production time in the textile industry, integrating the with Lean Manufacturing tools, such as 5S, Autonomous Maintenance (AM) and standardization of operations.

Fig. 1. Proposed model

3.1

Implementation of 5S on the PDCA Cycle

The model takes advantage of the simplicity of 5S concepts and their high impact on a short time, which improves significantly the quality of products as well as delivery time. Table 1 shows the 5S activities aligned with each stage of the PDCA cycle. Table 1. 5S Implementation method adapted to the PDCA cycle Stage PLAN

Activities a) Define objectives, indicators, and scope of the 5S project b) Establishment of regular meetings for management commitment c) Establishment of committee 5S d) Determine the budget set for implementation DO a) Conduct training programs b) Select pilot area c) Distribution of promotional materials d) 5S baseline audit e) Implementation of the first 3 S’s (Seiri, Seiton, Seiso) CHECK a) Periodic evaluation of 5S ACT a) Implementation of the last 2 S’s (Seiketsu and Shitsuke) b) Final results meetings c) 5S Awards

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Standardization of Operations

The model also considers the standardization of critical operations to improve efficiency within the sewing area, because operators often ignore a clear method of how to do their activities wasting time, unnecessary movement and reprocesses. Table 2 aligns standardization activities with the PDCA cycle. Table 2. Standardization of operations adapted to PDCA cycle Stage PLAN

DO

CHECK

ACT

3.3

Activities a) Standard time for each sewing operation has to be determined. For this, a study of times and movements is performed b) Based on result, critical activities were identified a) The bimanual diagram format was used to study the movements that represented a greater difficulty to dressmakers b) Based on it, better methods of realization are proposed c) Operators are trained, where they are taught how to apply the new procedures a) Indicators were established for following up on the improvement b) Skills, conditions, and knowledge of operators are developed, using instructional videos, exercises, design of workstations, etc. a) Result of new implementation are determined and identified b) New proposals are used as feedback for a new improvement cycle

Autonomous Maintenance (Jishu Hozen)

To complete the model Autonomous Maintenance techniques are adapted to the PDCA cycle as shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Autonomous Maintenance implementation method adapted to PDCA and 5S Methodology Nº PDCA step

5S tool

1 2

C A

SEISO

3

P!D

4 5

C!A!D!P C!A!D!P

6

C!A!D!P

7

C!A!D!P

Activities

a) Sewers are responsible for cleaning their own area b) Abnormalities are registered on special cards c) Elimination of sources of contamination and inaccessible areas SEISO a) Creating standards of cleaning and lubrication SEIKETSU b) Operators are trained to develop standards on their own SEIKETSU a) Operators are trained to perform general equipment inspections and to correct minor defects b) Autonomous Inspection Equipment Process SEIRI SEITON a) Review of staff functions. b) Visual controls are applied to ensure the care of the areas around the equipment SEIKETSU Total autonomous maintenance: SHITSUKE Operators are allowed to apply maintenance independently

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4 Validation The activities of the proposed model were carried out within the sewing area of a Peruvian textile company that exports cotton knitwear. Implementing 5S Principles After implementing the first three S principles in the sewing area significantly improves in Classification, Order and Cleaning were achieved, which allowed a better performance of operators and to continue with the model implementation. Standardization of Critical Operations The company under study had a production time efficiency of 72%, lower than expected one of 90%. So, activities that exceed the required time were identified, and each activity carried out by the operators was recorded using a bimanual diagram and new processes were designed. Finally, it was possible to improve the efficiency of critical operations by an average of 10%, which is equivalent to a reduction in critical times of 20%. Table 4 shows the improvements in production times per unit. Table 4. Critical operations improvements Piece Assembly Neck foot Leading Assembly Assembly

Operation

Min/Unit Before After Final inspection 3.29 2.54 Bagging neck + neck foot 3.08 2.66 Stitching/pocket box 2.72 2.22 Set neck foot 2.41 1.94 Close side + place label + border 2.40 1.73

5 Conclusions This article introduced a production model based on the PDCA cycle that could significantly improve the efficiency in the sewing area. Likewise, having a clean and tidy workspace allowed to improve the working environment of the operators and increase the results of the 5S audit from 18 to 85 points after the pilot. On the other hand, the pilot test of autonomous maintenance allowed to improve the repair times of the machines and to empower the operators to make minor repairs on their work machines. This caused a reduction of MTTR by 40% and an increase of MTBF by 50% on average. In general, the application of lean manufacturing tools helped increase the level of knowledge of employees in the company under study, as well as the level of commitment to their daily activities. Finally, the improvement proposal is profitable for the company, since the investment is recoverable after 3 months and 5 days of being applied and provides an NPV of S/. 22,990 and an IRR of 53.96%.

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References 1. ADEX: Estadísticas por descripción comercial (2019). http://www.adexdatatrade.com 2. Sociedad Nacional de Industrias: Industria peruana en cifras. https://www.sni.org.pe/ industria-peruana-cifras/ 3. Rojas, C., Quispe, G., Raymundo, C.: Lean optimization model for managing the yield of pima cotton (Gossypium Barbadense) in small-and medium-sized farms in the peruvian coast. In: 2018 Congreso Internacional de Innovacion y Tendencias en Ingenieria, CONIITI 2018 - Proceedings 8587062 (2018) 4. Workineh, M.W., Iyengar, A.S.: Autonomous maintenance: a case study on Assela Malt Factory. Bonfring Int. J. Ind. Eng. Manag. Sci. 4, 170–178 (2014). https://doi.org/10.9756/ BIJIEMS.10364 5. Dharun Lingam, K., Sakthi Ganesh, K., Ganesh Kumar, N.: Cycle time reduction for T-shirt manufacturing in a textile industry using lean tools. In: 2015 International Conference on Innovations in Information, Embedded and Communication Systems (ICIIECS), pp. 1–6. IEEE (2015). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICIIECS.2015.7193062 6. Mia, S., Nur-E-Alam, A., Uddin, M.K.: Court shoe production line: improvement of process cycle efficiency by using lean tools. Leather Footwear J. 17, 135–146 (2017). https://doi.org/ 10.24264/lfj.17.3.3 7. Becerra, K., Carbajal, X., Carvallo, E., et al.: 5S implementation and standardization model in the product development process in exporting SMEs of the textile sector in Peru. In: CISCI 2019 - Decima Octava Conferencia Iberoamericana en Sistemas, Cibernetica e Informatica, Decimo Sexto Simposium Iberoamericano en Educacion, Cibernetica e Informatica - Memorias (2019) 8. Gupta, S., Jain, S.K.: An application of 5S concept to organize the workplace at a scientific instruments manufacturing company. Int. J. Lean Six Sigma. 6, 73–88 (2015). https://doi. org/10.1108/IJLSS-08-2013-0047 9. Gapp, R., Fisher, R., Kobayashi, K.: Implementing 5S within a Japanese context: an integrated management system. Manag. Decis. 46, 565–579 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1108/ 00251740810865067 10. Hernández Matías, J.C., Vizán Idoipe, A.: Lean Manufacturing: Conceptos, técnicas e implantación. Escuela de Organización Industrial, Madrid (2017) 11. Atan, A.S., Yaakub, R.R., Foong, T.G.: Cycle time reduction of a garment manufacturing company using simulation technique. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Technology Management Business Entrepreneurship, pp. 124–131 (2012) 12. Jagusiak-Kocik, M.: PDCA cycle as a part of continuous improvement in the production company - a case study. Prod. Eng. Arch. 14, 19–22 (2017). https://doi.org/10.30657/pea. 2017.14.05 13. Rahman, M., Dey, K., Kapuria, T.K., Tahiduzzaman, M.: Minimization of sewing defects of an apparel industry in Bangladesh with 5S & PDCA. Am. J. Ind. Eng. 5, 17–24 (2018). https://doi.org/10.12691/ajie-5-1-3 14. Realyvásquez-Vargas, A., Arredondo-Soto, K.C., Carrillo-Gutiérrez, T., Ravelo, G.: Applying the Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) cycle to reduce the defects in the manufacturing industry. A case study. Appl. Sci. 8 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3390/app8112181 15. Mane, A.M., Jayadeva, C.T.: 5S implementation in Indian SME: a case study. Int. J. Process Manag. Benchmarking 5, 483 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1504/IJPMB.2015.072327 16. Paranitharan, K.P., Vidhu Balan, V., Ramesh Babu, T., Pal Pandi, A., Chella Ganesh, D.: Application of value stream mapping in an Indian brass lamp manufacturing organisation. Int. J. Appl. Eng. Res. 10, 28203–28218 (2015)

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17. Hernández Lamprea, E.J., Camargo Carreño, Z.M., Martínez Sánchez, P.M.T.: Impact of 5S on productivity, quality, organizational climate and industrial safety in Caucho Metal Ltda. Ingeniare. Rev. Chil. Ing. 23, 107–117 (2015). https://doi.org/10.4067/S071833052015000100013 18. Cudney, E.: Total Productive Maintenance: Strategies and Implementation Guide (2015) 19. Nishad, N.H.: Impact of process standardisation on performance & potential output of fresh operators. Int. J. Text. Sci. 7, 27–34 (2018). https://doi.org/10.5923/j.textile.20180701.03

Supply Chain Management Based on House of Risk: A Case Study in a Peruvian Banana Company Carla Avila-Arteaga, Gianfranco Arauco-Galarza(&), Edgar Ramos, and Miguel Shinno-Huamani Ingeniería Industrial, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima, Peru {u201415917,u201414399,pcineram, miguel.shinno}@upc.edu.pe

Abstract. A risk can be described as a situation that can negatively affect the development of an activity and the people involved that. In this sense, risk management is used to achieve a reduction or elimination of risk. The objective of the investigation was to determine factors that caused the low value of crop yield in a Peruvian banana supply chain. The research applied House of Risk (HOR) model to determine risk event and associated causes. As a result, strategies were proposed to mitigate the occurrence of risks in the company. Keywords: Agribusiness Supply Chain
Supply Chain Risk Management House of risk
HOR
Risk management




1 Introduction In 2018, agricultural fruit Peruvian production was led by banana crops with 2.194 million TM. However, according to FAO data, it is known that Peru, despite having a harvested area of banana crops greater than other countries, has a very low crop yield with respect to these. This result reflects an important problem in crop yield that must be solved to secure a constant growth. Recent researches [1–3] indicate that agricultural supply chains are affected by many factors such as globalization, natural disasters, maturity level of companies and complex relationships between the participating entities of the supply chain. These aspects have caused that supply chains are prone to multiple risks that generate high probabilities of negative results for related companies. To solve this problem, the House of Risk Model (HOR) will be used in this case study to identify the most relevant risk event that affect crop yields in the Peruvian banana supply chain, and with this substantial information will be elaborating a plan of mitigation to reduce the incidence of risks. The investigation is divided in a review of the literature related to the subject of research, the design of the study methodology used for the application of the model, the application of the model in a Peruvian banana company and the discussion of main results, finally, the study includes conclusions and recommendations for further researches. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 513–519, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_78

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2 Literature Review 2.1

Agribusiness Supply Chain (ASC)

The supply chain can be defined as a set of related entities that allow delivering a product or service from the raw material to the final customer [4]. In this sense, an ASC includes all parts of a “farm-to-fork” process for a food product [5], such as production, storage, processing, distribution and consumption [6]. Likewise, the efficient coordination of an ASC requires management activities from the operational level to the strategic level [6] because some characteristics of agricultural products such as seasonality, supply spikes (sometimes referred to as “bulkiness”) and perishability can make it relatively more complex than a manufacturing supply chain [5]. 2.2

Supply Chain Risk Management (SCRM)

Risk can be defined as the existence of uncertain and unreliable resources that interrupt the development of the supply chain with normally [7]. In this sense, risks can generate multiple negative results that affect different areas that integrate the supply chain such as sales, operations, customer service, etc. [2]. In the same way, the researchers express that risks in supply chain are divided into three groups [8, 9]: • Internal risk: Refers to risks presents in the productive and control processes. • External risk: Focused on risks of market supply and demand. • Other external risk: Includes risks in the environmental field. Therefore, the authors mention that SCRM has become a crucial tool in companies to prevent them in the supply chain because it focuses on making decisions that align operations and decisions to take advantages of opportunities and reduce risks [2, 10, 11]. SCRM is composed of four basics approaches (supply management, demand management, product management and information management) [12]. 2.3

House of Risk (HOR)

HOR Model is a framework that it focusses on the preventive actions to reduce the probability of risk agents to occur. This is based on the thought of prioritizing the most relevant causes of supply chain risk and the most effective strategies to mitigate them [1, 2, 13–15].

3 Methodology In this investigation, risk management in a Peruvian banana supply chain was evaluated, in this sense, the methodology applied is based on the HOR model [1, 2, 13–15], which consists of three steps, which will be explained below: Step 1. Each supply chain processes were mapped according to the SCOR model guidelines with the objective of evaluating the performance of the supply chain and analyzing risks related.

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Step 2. Associated risks with banana supply chain were determined through surveys of farmers in a Peruvian banana company. This information was used to assess the severity (values from 1 to 10, where 10 is very serious), the probability of occurrence and the relationship between the risk event and the risk agent. At the end of this step, the HOR-1 matrix was obtained, which includes the aggregate risk potential (ARP), this value is used to classify the risk agents in a priority diagram and identify which ones will be given priority for Preventive actions. Formula (1) is used to calculate the Aggregate Risk Potential (ARP): ARPj ¼ Oj

X i

Sj Rij :

ð1Þ

Where: – Oj is the probability of occurrence of risk agent j. – Si is the severity of impact if risk event i occurred. – Rij is the correlation between risk agent j and risk event i (which is interpreted as how likely risk agent j would induce risk event i). Step 3. Based on the results of the previous step, risk mitigation actions were planned, the correlation between mitigation strategies and risk agents was determined, and the difficulty of each mitigation action was assessed. Finally, the total effectiveness of each mitigation action (TEk), the effectiveness to difficulty ratio (EDTk) were calculated, and the mitigation actions were classified according to the order of priority. Formulas for calculating Total Effectiveness (TEk) and Effectiveness to Difficulty (ETDk) are (2) and (3) respectively. TEk ¼

X

ARPj Ejk :

ETDk ¼ TEk =Dk :

ð2Þ ð3Þ

Where: – TEk = Total Effectiveness of mitigation action – ETDk = Effectiveness to Difficulty of mitigation action – Dk = Difficult of Mitigation Action

4 Case Study Table 1 shows the identified risk events according to SCOR model and their severity values respectively: 2 risk events in plan process, 2 in source, 4 in make, 2 in delivery and 1 in return. Also, Table 2 details the existing of risk agents in supply chain and their occurrence values. First, each risk event was compared with each risk agent to grant a value (it can be 1, 3, 6 or 9; where 9 is the highest score) that represents the correlation between them. Then, formula (1) was used to the ARP value for each risk agent.

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Risk event (Ei) Forecasting errors Distortion of demand information Supplier cannot afford material needs Supplier with high prices Unfavorable weather Scarce labor Inexperienced workforce Crop pest attack Incorrect handling Improper packaging and transport Products are not up to standard Occurrence of agent j ARP j Priority rank of agent j

Risk agent (Aj) A1 A2 A3 A4 9 3 6 6 1

A5

3

9

3

6

A6

A7

A8

Severity A10 (Si) 2 5

A9

5

6 3

6 3

6 6

6 9 7 6 4 8 6 5 7

6

6

9

9 2

9 1 9

9 1

6

1 6

5 3 6 2 5 7 8 6 4 8 240 123 450 162 445 742 536 378 456 576 8 10 5 9 6 1 3 7 4 2

Table 2. Risk agents Aj A1 A2 A3 A4 A5

Risk agent Aj Poor forecasting A6 Market variations A7 Transportation lead time A8 Supplier disruption A9 Weather variations A10

Risk agent Inadequate planting and harvesting techniques Minimum wage Lack of worker commitment Unknown of best practices in agriculture Uncompleted processes and activities

Next, to determinate the Priority Rank of Agent was used a diagram (Fig. 1), based on the 80:20 law. According to this tool, the main conclusion is risk agents A3, A5, A6, A7, A9 and A10 are the most priority.

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800 600

517

120%

ARPj Cum. ARPj

80%

400 40%

200 0

A6 A10 A7

A9

A3

A5

A8

A1

A4

A2

0%

Risk Agent

Fig. 1. Aggregate risk potentials priority diagram

In the following step, was defined the mitigation design for selected risk agents, according to HOR-2 model (Table 4). In order to this, Table 3 presents five mitigation strategies that were considerate in this evaluation. Table 3. Strategies to risk mitigation Risk management PA1 PA2 PA3 PA4 PA5

Design risk mitigation Standardize planting and harvesting activities based on best practices in agriculture and training to the company’s employees about them Design a management system to document the development of agricultural activities and improve production control Coordinate with suppliers and develop delivery programs Promote associativity and cooperation among farmers to improve their negotiation capacity and agricultural techniques Raising employees’ wages

Table 4. HOR-2 model Risk agent

Risk management design ARPj PA2 PA3 PA4 PA5 PA1 A6 9 3 742 A10 9 3 6 3 576 A7 3 536 A9 9 3 6 3 456 A3 9 3 450 A5 1 1 445 Total effectiveness (TEk) 17574 3096 4050 6192 6672 Degree of difficulty (Dk) 2 5 5 4 3 Effectiveness to difficulty ratio (ETDk) 8787 619.2 810 1548 2224 Rank of priority 1 5 4 3 2

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5 Conclusions As a contribution, this research proposes a risk evaluation based on House of Risk Model to determinate risks inherent in an Agribusiness Supply Chain, which, for its features relate to agriculture, makes that this type of supply chain requires more attention to improve and ensure the efficiency of its operations [5]. Results of this study were obtained by the evaluation of risk agents and the risk mitigation planning. The evaluation of risk agents was based on an analysis with the HOR-1 model that showed the most critical risk agents were inadequate planting and harvesting techniques, uncompleted processes and activities, minimum wage, unknown of best practices in agriculture, transportation lead time, and weather variation. The risk mitigation planning focused on the rank of priority of mitigation strategies which were training to the company’s employees about the best practices in agriculture and standardize planting and harvesting activities based on these practices, raising employees’ wages, encourage farmers to develop associativity and cooperation in order to improve their negotiation capacity and agricultural techniques, coordinate with suppliers and develop delivery programs, and design a management system to document the development of agricultural activities and improve production control.

References 1. Pujawan, I.N., Geraldin, L.H.: House of risk: a model for proactive supply chain risk management. Bus. Process Manage. J. 15(6), 953–967 (2009) 2. Ma, H.-L., Wong, W.-H.C.: A fuzzy-based House of Risk assessment method for manufacturers in global supply chains. Ind. Manage. Data Syst. 118, 1463–1476 (2018) 3. Prakash, S., Soni, G., Rathore, A.P.S., Singh, S.: Risk analysis and mitigation for perishable food supply chain: a case of dairy industry. Benchmarking Int. J. 24(1), 2–23 (2017) 4. Damand, D., Derrouiche, R., Barth, M., Gamoura, S.: Supply chain planning: potential generalization of parameterization rules based on a literature review. Supply Chain Forum Int. J. 20(3), 1–18 (2019) 5. Behzadi, G., O’Sullivan, M.J., Olsen, T.L., Zhang, A.: Agribusiness supply chain risk management: a review of quantitative decision models. Omega 79, 21–42 (2018) 6. Borodin, V., Bourtembourg, J., Hnaien, F., Labadie, N.: Handling uncertainty in agricultural supply chain management: a state of the art. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 254, 348–359 (2016) 7. Tang, O., Nurmaya Musa, S.: Identifying risk issues and research advancements in supply chain risk management. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 133(1), 25–34 (2011) 8. Sun, X.T., Chung, S.H., Chan, F.T.S.: Integrated scheduling of a multi-product multi-factory manufacturing system with maritime transport limits. Transp. Res. Part E Log. Transp. Rev. 79, 110–127 (2015) 9. Chung, S.H., Chan, F.T.S., Ip, W.H.: Minimization of order tardiness through collaboration strategy in multifactory production system. IEEE Syst. J. 5(1), 40–49 (2011) 10. Trkman, P., De Oliveira, M.P.V., McCormack, K.: Value-oriented supply chain risk management: you get what you expect. Ind. Manage. Data Syst. 116(5), 1061–1083 (2016) 11. Narasimhan, R., Talluri, S.: Perspectives on risk management in supply chains. Journal of Operations Management. 27(2), 114–118 (2009) 12. Tang, C.: Perspectives in supply chain risk management. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 103(2), 451–488 (2006)

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13. Parinduri, S.K., Sinulingga, S., Sembiring, M.T.: Design the supply chain risk mitigation with supply chain risk management approach in spring bed factory. In: IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, vol. 505, no. 1, p. 012008 (2019) 14. Isfianadewi, D., Pambudi, A., Siswanti, Y., Surjanti, J., Muafi, M.: Risk mitigation in design & production new product development process (case study: Hijab company in Yogyakarta). Int. J. Mech. Eng. Technol. 9(6), 57–66 (2018) 15. Anggrahini, D., Karningsih, P.D., Sulistiyono, M.: Managing quality risk in a frozen shrimp supply chain: a case study. Procedia Manuf. 4, 252–260 (2015)

Fraud Detection in a Financial Payment System Dushani Perera(&), Manisha Rajaratne, Damitha Sandaruwan, and Nihal Kodikara University of Colombo School of Computing, Colombo, Sri Lanka {2015cs102.stu,2015cs107.stu,dsr,ndk}@ucsc.cmb.ac.lk

Abstract. Many businesses enhance on-line user experience using various recommender systems which have a growing innovation and research interest. Recommender systems in music streaming applications proactively suggest new selections to users by attempting to predict user preferences. While current music recommendation systems help users to efficiently discover fascinating music, challenges remain in this research area. This paper presents a critical analysis of current music recommender systems and proposes a new hybrid recommender system with efficient and enhanced prediction capabilities. Keywords: Human computer interaction
Music recommender system
Usercentered design
User experience
Suggestion customization

1 Introduction Fraud means maltreatment of a framework of a profit making organisation without fundamentally prompting direct lawful outcomes. In an aggressive domain, fraud detection can turn into a business basic issue in the event that it is pervasive and if the anticipation methodologies are not safeguard. Fraud detection is a part of the overall fraud control mechanism. It mechanizes and decreases the manual pieces of a screening/checking process [2]. With the rising ascent of innovation today, the reliance on web-based business has developed exponentially. As the credit card gives accommodation to the clients yet frauds caused because of these exercises causes bother. The credit card data is private, the bank and the other budgetary undertakings wouldn’t like to reveal the data about their clients. The temporary misfortune emerges due to bank loans the cash to clients who in the long run don’t have the ability to pay back [3].

2 Data Set Description The chosen dataset for the task is ‘Synthetic data from a financial payment system’. This dataset is generated using BankSim which is an agent-based simulator of bank payments based on a transactional data provided by a bank in Spain. This synthetically generated dataset consists of payments from various customers made in different time periods and with different amounts. The source of this dataset is Kaggle [1]. In this © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 520–526, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_79

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dataset, the target variable consists of two labels; 1 for fraudulent transactions and 0 for normal transactions. Thus, the methodology used is Supervised learning. In this dataset the target variable is Fraud. By exploring the dataset we can find out which variables have an effect on the target variable and the correlation between those variables. Category vs Transaction Class; the attribute category has 15 categories. As visible in Fig. 1, most of the fraudulent payments are done in the health category. None of the fraud payments is done in transportation, food or contents categories. So we can say that there is a relation between the categories and fraudulent transactions. As shown in Fig. 2, most of the purchases done for transportation when it comes to normal transactions. There is a significant difference between the purchases done in fraudulent transactions and normal transactions.

Fig. 1. Categories of fraudulent transactions.

Fig. 2. Categories of normal transactions.

Amount vs Transaction Class; experimented on the amount attribute, to check whether it has a correlation between transaction class. As shown in Fig. 3, the minimum transacted amount when fraud is set is $0.03. The maximum transacted amount when fraud is set is $8329.96. When it comes to the non fraud transactions minimum is $0 and the maximum is $2144.86. Thus, the fraud amounts are higher compared to normal transaction amounts.

Fig. 3. Amount per transaction by class

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Gender vs Transaction Class; only three gender types are involved in fraudulent transactions: [“‘M’”, “‘F’”, “‘E’”] From them Males are more likely to involve in fraudulent transactions than other genders (Fig. 4 and Fig. 5).

Fig. 4. Genders in fraud transactions

Fig. 5. Genders in non-fraud transactions

Age vs Transaction Class; as shown in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7, category 3 of age seemed more involved in fraudulent transactions. Category 3 means the people who are in 35– 45 ages.

Fig. 6. Age in fraudulent transactions

Fig. 7. Age in non-fraudulent transactions

Gender vs Amount; since the category, amount, age and gender have a correlation with the transaction class, then whether these variables have a correlation with each other was checked. As shown in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9, there are a considerable number of outliers in gender ‘M’ and ‘F’ categories and age. Fraud transactions are done with a large amount in gender Male and Female categories.

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Fig. 8. Gender vs amount

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Fig. 9. Age vs amount

3 Planned Preprocess First and foremost the dataset is checked for missing values. Then checked for unique entries in the input variables. If there is only one unique entry, those attributes are dropped. Then checked for categorical variables. These variables are transformed into numerical values. Oversampling the dataset with SMOTE (Synthetic Minority Oversampling Technique). Fraud datasets are highly imbalanced datasets. Because of this it is difficult to get a better result using the original dataset. By using SMOTE, make copies of minority class and balance the dataset before splitting the dataset.

4 Candidate Machine Learning Models There are several machine learning models that could be used: a. Autoencoders - this is a data compression algorithm which takes the input and going through a compressed representation and gives the reconstructed output. It is a neural network that helps to identify anomalous data points in the dataset. Four layers were used for the neural network. First two for the encoder and last two for the decoder. The activation function used is ‘Tanh’ and as for the metric, Mean Squared Error (MSE) was used. Model Evaluation; By using cross-validation for autoencoders, the model couldn’t perform well. The loss it gave shown in the Fig. 10 and Fig. 11.

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Fig. 10. The loss of the model

Fig. 11. Reconstruction error

Evaluation was done without using cross validation as well. First the data was split the dataset into two sets, 80% for the training set and 20% for the testing set. From the training set, only the normal transactions were sent to the model. The reason is because, by letting the model train for the nonfraud transaction, it will be able to learn the pattern of such transactions. The model was evaluated using the testing set. The testing set has both normal and fraudulent transactions in it. From this training method, The model will learn to identify the pattern of the input data. If an anomalous test point does not match the learned pattern, the autoencoder will likely have a high error rate in reconstructing this data, indicating anomalous data. So that we can identify the anomalies of the data. As shown in Fig. 12 and Fig. 13, reconstruction error is high in fraudulent data. As shown in Fig. 14, the ROC curve gave a 70% accuracy.

Fig. 12. Reconstruction error for normal transactions

Fraud Detection in a Financial Payment System

Fig. 13. Reconstruction Error; fraud transactions

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Fig. 14. ROC curve for autoencoders

b. K-Nearest Neighbors - a supervised learning technique which assumes that similar things exist in close proximity. In other words, similar things are near to each other. It is a very good classifier. Model Evaluation; 85% of accuracy for the model was obtained by using K-Fold Cross-validation. Generated the classification report and the confusion matrix to get a more detailed report of the model training. The model without cross validation gave a 99% accuracy for the model as shown in Fig. 15.

Fig. 15. ROC curve for KNN model

c. XGBoost - a decision-tree-based ensemble Machine Learning algorithm that uses a gradient boosting framework. In prediction problems involving unstructured data (images, text, etc.) artificial neural networks tend to outperform all other algorithms or frameworks. Model Evaluation; 91% of accuracy for the model was obtained by using K-Fold Cross-validation. Without using cross-validation, the model gave a 97% of accuracy as shown in Fig. 16.

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Fig. 16. ROC Curve for XGBoost

5 Conclusion From the model evaluation results, it shows that the best performing model is XGBoost. A precise result wasn’t received from autoencoders with the cross-validation technique. But without using cross-validation it gave a 70% accuracy. As for the KNN, it gave a 85% accuracy with cross-validation and 99% without using cross-validation. As for the XGBoost, it gave a 91% accuracy with cross-validation and 97% without using cross-validation. Even though KNN performed well without using crossvalidation, XGBoost performed well with both of the techniques. This can be confirmed by looking at the confusion matrix (Table 1) of both techniques. Table 1. Value Comparison Autoencoders K-Nearest Neighbors Using cross-validation 0.8562 Without cross-validation 0.7049 0.99

References 1. https://www.kaggle.com/ntnu-testimon/banksim1 2. Jeong, S.H., Kim, H., Shin, Y., Lee, T., Kim, H.K.: A survey of fraud detection research based on transaction analysis and data mining technique. J. Korea Inst. Inf. Secur. Cryptol. 25, 1525–1540 (2015). https://doi.org/10.13089/JKIISC.2015.25.6.1525 3. Patidar, R., Sharma, L.: Credit card fraud detection using neural network. Int. J. Soft Comput. Eng. (IJSCE) 1, 32–38 (2011)

Mobile Phone Usage Habits of Chinese Graduate Students and the Training of MTI Interpreters Weihua Du(&) German Department, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, Beiyundadao Bei 2, 510420 Guangzhou, China [email protected]

Abstract. Starting from the mobile phone usage habits of Chinese graduate students, this paper explores the problems of mobile phone usage habits and the training of MTI interpreters in China, find out that most of Chinese MTIstudents use mobile phone more than three hours every day and reveals how to give full play to the positive role of mobile phones and other mobile media to promote the training of talents and the development of professional interpreters. Keywords: Mobile phone


Usage habits
Interpreter training
Translation

1 Introduction The popularity of smartphones, PDAs, notebooks and other portable communication devices has made mobile learning to be a new way of learning. Mobile learning is not limited in time and space, and the learning method is more autonomous and flexible. Linguists believe that the combination of this method of mobile learning and language learning is of great help for language learning. Practice has shown that mobile learning has a strong potential for learning interpretations, especially when interpreting specific scenarios, storytelling and micro-speech recognition, word formation in vocabulary lessons, tracking of word usage, video dictation, summaries and comments in listening lessons. Currently, related research in China is roughly divided into two categories: on the one hand, mobile learning terminals are to be the latest technology for learning foreign languages, and on the other hand, the specific functioning of mobile learning terminals is to be examined, such as messaging, WeChat, QQ conversation, and APP use, Surfing in the internet etc. This study is helpful to analyze the functions when using mobile learning terminals such as smartphones, PDAs, notebooks and other portable communication devices and to achieve a high quality, all day interpreter training in the current new technology environment, thereby it can help optimizing the interpreter training.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 527–531, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_80

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2 Research Design In order to examine the relationship between “mobile phone usage habits and interpreter training for MTI interpreter talents”, one should get to know the mobile phone usage habits of Chinese MTI (Master of Translation and Interpreting) graduate students and find out how to improve the quality of interpreter training and listening - and promote student interpreting skills. This is how a special questionnaire is developed. The questionnaire contained 13 questions, in particular the use of the mobile phone, the reading and learning time of Chinese students, the most used important mobile phone Apps, the used type of mobile phone, the field of study and the gender of the respondent. The questionnaire is an online questionnaire that mainly uses the We-Chat software, creates 13 online questions, 59 people are interviewed and all respondents answered the necessary questions. All 59 were MTI students from Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, 36 were non-English speaking interpreters (Russian, German, French) and 23 were English speaking interpreters (Question 1). Most of the respondents were female and only 10 were male (Q 13).

3 Survey Results Regarding “Do you like this master’s degree?” (Q 2) only 3 people answered with dislike, 9 people answered “a little”, others were “rather or very satisfied”. 39 people said, “I have no feeling of security when my mobile phone is not nearby”, and the other 20 people did not think that the mobile phone affects personal psychological security (Q 3). People are very concerned about the lifespan of mobile phones. Only one person used the mobile phone less than one hour a day, 20 (one third) used the mobile phone more than 6 h a day, 28 people between 3 and 6 h (Q 4). To the question “length of time, the mobile phone not for shopping and communicative time” (Q 5), only 3 people answered “less than 30 min a day”, 46 people used it for more than an hour, of which 29 people more than 2 h are (half of the respondents). Regarding “Q 6: I use my mobile phone to see foreign language messages every day”, 36 people answered yes, 23 people do not see foreign language messages every day with a mobile phone. 44 people learn foreign languages every day with mobile Apps, and 15 people have no such habit (Q 7). Such Apps can be found under “Your mobile phone Apps for learning foreign languages”: The series called “Daily English” (Daily German, Daily French, Daily Russian), and 31 people use this APP (Q 8). Regarding to listening, speaking, reading and writing training, 42 people used the APP for listening exercises, 20 for reading training and 10 for speaking training. Ten people were not satisfied with APP hearing training and 36 people were satisfied (Q 10). Regarding the translation exercise question, “Did you use a mobile oral translation App?” (Q 11), half answered “yes”. Likewise, half often use “mobile phones to practice foreign languages at different speeds” (Q 12). This question mainly serves to test whether the respondent carries out interpreting exercises.

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When it came to the question of satisfaction with the current App for learning foreign languages (Q 13), only 15% of people expressed their dissatisfaction, and the average was 3.59, which is far above the average of 2.5. The “Excellent Apps for foreign language interpreting exercises to recommend” are as follows: Podcast (7 people); Coco English (6); Daily French (5); Himalaya App (3); Daily English (2). The currently known APP Tik Tok is not on the list. The “Recommended Excellent APP for Foreign Language Interpretation Exercises” by graduate students are mainly as follows (Fig. 1):

App Name

persontime

Podcast

7

Coco English

6

Daily French

5

Himalaya

3

Daily English

2

CGTN

1

ChinaDaily

1

Daka

1

Channel One News(Russian)

1

Russian dictionary

1

Hujiang English

1

Easy FM

1

Chinese and Russian headlines

1

Fig. 1. Recommended Excellent APPs by the Chinese Students

4 Analysis The survey found that mobile phones were the primary mobile device used by students. There are 36 operating systems with Android, 21 with Iphone, 1 with the Windows web version of WeChat and 1 with iPad. Of the 36 people using the Android system, 12 used the phone for more than 6 h, and of the 21 people whose operating system is the iPhone, 8 used more than 6 h. Of the 59 respondents, only one student had used no more than one hour of mobile phone per day. There are only 4 boys in the 23 English interpreters, 2 of whom use the mobile phone for more than 6 h each day, all boys read and learn foreign language messages

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on the mobile phone for more than 2 h. Six of the 19 English interpreters used phones for more than six hours and 13 people used phones to read news for more than an hour a day. Of the 36 non-English interpreters, only 6 were boys and 4 were using mobile phones to read foreign language messages for over an hour. Of the 30 non-English interpreters, 23 used mobile phones to read and listen to foreign language messages for more than an hour. Of all 59 students, 46 answered the question “Speaking training at different speeds”. Of the 37 girls who answered this question, 17 practiced frequently and accounted for 46%. 8 students use the Android system, 9 students use the Iphone system. Nine boys answered this question, six frequently and three not. Of these boys, 4 use the Android system, 1 the iPhone system and 1 the iPad.

5 Conclusion The majority of students (48/59) used their mobile phones for more than 3 h a day and 33% even for more than 6 h. Mobile phones have become an indispensable tool for student life. Most MTI students like their subject. The 3 people (1 man and 2 women) who did not like MTI-Subject did no interpreting exercises with APPs at all. 4 people out of 9 students who liked MTI subject “a little” often did interpreting exercises with APPs, while 11 people out of 16 people who liked MTI subject “very” often did interpreting exercises with APPs. The more you like your subject, the more often you use mobile phone Apps for interpreting training. Girls using Android systems are less likely to use their mobile phones to practice interpreting. It is not known whether this is the only gender difference between men and women. Because the sample of boys in the test is very small (10 people). But it is currently known that 60% of all boys frequently do interpreting with APPs, compared to less than 50% of all girls.

References 1. García Botero, G., Questier, F., Cincinnato, S., He, T., Zhu, C.: Acceptance and usage of mobile assisted language learning by higher education students. J. Comput. High. Educ. 30 (3), 426–451 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-018-9177-1 2. Hassan, T.I., Sulan, N., Sipra, M., et al.: Impact of mobile assisted language learning (MALL) on EFL: a meta-analysis. Adv. Lang. Lit. Stud. 7(2), 2203–4714 (2016) 3. Grimshaw, J., Cardoso, W., Collins, L.: Teacher perspectives on the integration of mobileassisted language learning. In: CALL in a Climate of Change: Adapting to Turbulent Global Conditions, pp. 135–139. Research-publishing. net (2017) 4. Loewen, S., Crowther, D., Isbell, D.R., et al.: Mobile-assisted language learning: a Duolingo case study. ReCALL 31(3), 293–311 (2019) 5. Lu, M.: Effectiveness of vocabulary learning via mobile phone. J. Comput. Assist. Learn. 24 (6), 515–525 (2008)

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6. Miangah, T.M., Nezarat, A.: Mobile-assisted language learning. Int. J. Distrib. Parallel Syst. 3 (1), 309 (2012) 7. Thornton, P., Houser, C.: Using mobile phones in English education in Japan. J. Comput. Assist. Learn. 21(3), 217–228 (2005) 8. Wu, W.H., Wu, Y.C.J., Chen, C.Y., et al.: Review of trends from mobile learning studies: a meta-analysis. Comput. Educ. 59(2), 817–827 (2012)

Collaborative Model to Reduce Stock Breaks in the Peruvian Retail Sector by Applying the S&OP Methodology Franco Paredes-Torres1(&), Genesis Almeyda-Crisostomo1, Gino Viacava-Campos1, and Daniel Aderhold2 1

2

Ingeniería Industrial, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima 15023, Peru {u201514704,u201517075,gino.viacava}@upc.edu.pe Dirección de Investigación, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima 15023, Peru [email protected]

Abstract. The retail sector is a growing industry, however with serious problems associated with inventories such as stock breakage. This article proposes a collaborative model applying the S&OP methodology to reduce stock breakages in a Peruvian company in the retail sector through a purchasing plan designed by the interaction and participation of different actors in charge of the process. The results of the model are measured by the percentage of stock breaks, the demand forecast error and the increase in sales. In the diagnosis of the problem two factors were identified that cause the stock breaks. The first is caused by the delay that exists in the replenishment of inventories, due to the bad programming of delivery of products between the distribution center and the stores. The second is related to the insufficient amount of purchases caused by not properly categorizing the products, poor forecast and not having safety inventory policies. A simulation resulted in a 17% stock breakage reduction, a 17% forecast error decrease, and a 15% sales increase. Keywords: Retail


Forecast
Inventories
S&OP
Processes

1 Introduction Nowadays, the retail sector is constantly growing and opening to new markets. In the current global situation, India appears as a leader in retail investment, followed by countries such as China and Malaysia, with Peru in the top 10 of the same ranking, being the country with the best development in that sector in Latin America [1]. In 2018, the Peruvian retail sector grew 2.81%, like the 5 previous years [2]. One of the most frequent problems within the sector is related to the inventory level [3]. Stock breaks cause a great impact on the company and are reflected in costs associated with the satisfaction of demand, being difficult to calculate [4]. There are related parameters that are easy to identify, such as forecast accuracy [5] and increased sales, associated with an increase in the stock of a given product. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 532–538, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_81

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Collaborative models are decisive to improve inventory levels, allowing to improve forecast accuracy through communication and collaboration with different actors within the supply chain [6]. Although the S&OP model proposes a process to integrate shared functions and coordination meetings to progressively improve the calculation of demand and supply, its implementation is usually of high risk, due to factors such as the interruption of functions, the creation of new tasks and resistance to change [7]. Methodologies such as process management allow ordering and systematizing specific activities before implementing changes, both structurally and strategically [8]. On the other hand, some tools within the demand and inventory management allow delivering valuable information to the S&OP process to generate an efficient purchasing plane [9].

2 Literature Review The S&OP process is a tool that allows to integrate different actors into an organization, to obtain a single integrated plan [10]. Designing an S&OP process may vary according to the type of industry since supply chains vary in complexity [11]. The CPFR (Collaborative Planning, Forecasting, and Replenishment) is a collaborative model that improves S&OP and also integrates suppliers, and through a joint plan seeks to improve the accuracy of the demand forecast [6]. The S&OP process was designed to serve the manufacturing industry and reduce inventory excess. Its application in other sectors is not widespread, although there are favorable studies and results [11]. The S&OP methodology is based on a five-step main process: data collection, demand planning, supply planning, the S&OP pre-meeting, and the S&OP executive meeting [7]. This process aims to integrate the main actors in the elaboration of a sales and operations plan, and determine when, how much and how to produce or buy the necessary resources to meet the demand. On the other hand, the implementation of a process such as S&OP requires internal supports that make its use viable and efficient. Process management is a methodology that seeks to standardize and systematize the processes of a company to facilitate decision making, improve resource management, increase product quality and thereby satisfy internal and external customers [8]. To graphically represent a process we will use the Business Process Management (BPM) notation, in order to analyze, design, implement, control and constantly improve the processes of an organization [9]. One of the main motivations of process management is the elimination of activities that do not add value [8], which allows improving the internal flow and definition of roles. The redesign of a process allows the implementation of more sophisticated models. To perform a redesign of a process there are heuristics, either heuristics of activity that consists of relocating the various activities, as well as elimination heuristics referring to discarding any activity that does not add value to the process [12]. To refine the process management, there is a tool called Balanced Scorecard (BSC) that allows defining objectives in 4 perspectives: financial, client, internal processes and learning and innovation [13]. The BSC can align with S&OP, delivering realistic indicators to the process, and S&OP takes them as part of its measurement and control [14]. Regarding demand management methodologies, an American study [15] estimated with high precision the number of buyers over a period of time in order to produce and

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buy properly. In turn, inventory management deals with the variables related to stock and products in storage status [16], also using ABC analysis to identify products that generate higher revenues and that represent a lower volume, or those that are purchased in large quantities without generating greater utility for the company [17].

3 Proposed Model The model develops various aspects within the supply chain. As shown in Fig. 1, the basis of the model is the process management that allows order and clarity in the activities to be carried out collaboratively. Likewise, strategic planning provides an overview and the organizational objectives to be achieved. These two components, together with the management of demand and supplies, serve as input to carry out a continuous cycle of the S&OP process (central component) in order to permanently improve the accuracy of the demand forecast and avoid stock breaks.

Fig. 1. Proposed collaborative model

The components of the model are explained below: Component 1: Process Management An analysis of the purchase planning process is performed using BPM. With the current flowcharts, the process redesign begins, eliminating activities that do not add value, creating new activities and relocating those that could be better performed with other managers. The objective is to prepare the interaction among participating collaborators in this process, both in functions and in deliverables to align them with the S&OP. For this reason, work standards are established, and the hierarchy of

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communication is minimized so that it becomes transversal. Finally, a SIPOC Diagram is prepared to clearly identify suppliers, customers, resources and components. Component 2: Balanced Scorecard Allows defining objectives and indicators in four perspectives: Financial, Customer, Internal processes and Innovation, which allows quantifying the efficiency of the designed processes. Those responsible for each area involved in the process must meet initially to define these objectives and indicators and establish a review period. Component 3: S&OP Process It starts with the collection of the necessary data to perform the demand analysis. With the selected data, an ABC analysis is carried out for each product line to determine those that generate the highest contribution to income. Group A represents approximately 5% of the volume of units and 80% of the sales volume. Group B usually has 40% of total units and a 15% sales contribution. Group C products represent 55% of existing units and a contribution of 5% to sales volume. The demand forecast is first applied to group A, based on historical sales, testing different forecast models, and selecting the one that progressively generates less error. Once the projection is made, the variables that provide data for the estimation of inventories are calculated. First, the necessary safety stock and the reorder point are calculated. The process ends with two executive meetings to validate the purchasing plan, with the participation of the heads of the areas involved in the process, as well as the general manager and finance manager. The first meeting is to incorporate additional requirements to those initially planned. They may be last-minute requests or requirements that were not communicated to the channel responsible for the process. The first meeting ends with agreements to update the plan, and in the second, these modifications are validated, finishing the process with the definition of the Purchase Plan.

4 Validation The proposed model was validated in a Peruvian company of the retail sector of household appliances with more than 60 stores throughout the country. It distributes six product lines: kitchen, audio, video, computing, small appliances, and entertainment. A simulation was developed in the audio line using the Arena software. 4.1

Design of Process

A store sale two components process was designed to simulate the movement of inventories for each purchase made by customers. The first component begins with the arrival of customers at the store. If there is enough inventory, the customer is serviced, and the inventory reduced. Otherwise, the availability of safety stock is checked; if the verification is positive, the order is processed. If there is no stock, the customer is registered as unattended and the process terminated. Likewise, each time a customer is served and the inventory decreases, the safety stock must be examined, and a purchase order generated if necessary.

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The second component is related to the purchase and supply of products to the store. When the previous component sends a signal to generate a purchase order, the corresponding area is in charge, until delivery and updating the inventory. 4.2

Simulation of the Designed Process

Currently, the company does not have a defined purchase planning process, causing the stock break in the audio line to approximately 17% with an error in its demand forecast of 52.06%. Likewise, the company does not have security stock or methods to stock up when demand grows, and inventories are insufficient. It was observed that the stock break was reduced to zero, that is, a 17% improvement, while the forecast error improved by decreasing to 35%. Finally, its distribution was calculated using the Input Analyzer module included in the Arena software. 4.3

Analysis of Results

The simulation presents a reduction to zero in the inventory turnover for the simulated period, as well as a reduction of the margin of forecast error from 52.06% to 35.01%. The proposed model incorporates a safety inventory in the purchasing plan, as well as an amount from which it must manage new supplies. The main inventory was zero at the end of the simulation and the safety inventory was reduced from 40 to 32 units. Table 1 presents a comparative summary of the simulation results. Table 1. Comparison of simulation results Variables Total customers Served customers Customers not served Final inventory Initial safety stock Final safety stock Stock break Margin of demand forecast error

Current 451 373 78 0 0 0 17% 52.06%

Resulting 472 472 0 0 40 32 0% 35.01%

5 Conclusions At present, consumers are very demanding, since they have many options to purchase a product. Companies in the retail sector must be prepared to meet customer requirements and make available the demanded products. In the analyzed company, the inventory levels were very low, presenting a stock break of 17% (the local market handles approximately 5%). With the purchase plan obtained through the proposed model and a simulated period of 3 months (Christmas time), a reduction to 0 of the stock breaks was obtained, since the plan incorporated a

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safety inventory and a reorder point to supply periodically the stores. Likewise, the interaction and collaboration between the different areas allowed to improve the accuracy of the forecast, reducing the margin of error from 52.06% to 35.01%. The study only developed the audio line, because it turned out to be more critical in the company. However, it is necessary to perform other tests in different scenarios, including other product lines, as well as for different periods of the year.

References 1. Velapatiño, V., Crispin, Y., Grippa, F.: Perú: Situación Retail Moderno 2018. Lima, Peru (2018) 2. Perú-Retail: Perú: Comercio minorista crece 2.81% por mejor desempeño de supermercados en el (2018). https://www.peru-retail.com/peru-comercio-minorista-2018/. Last Accessed 10 Aug 2019 3. Chen, Z., Sarker, B.R.: Integrated production-inventory and pricing decisions for a singlemanufacturer multi-retailer system of deteriorating items under JIT delivery policy. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 89, 2099–2117 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-016-9169-0 4. Fletcher, G., Greenhill, A., Griffiths, M., McLean, R.: The social supply chain and the future high street. Supply Chain Manag. 21, 78–91 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1108/SCM-05-20140154 5. Vizinger, T., Zerovnik, J.: Coordination of a retail supply chain distribution flow. Teh. Vjesn. - Tech. Gaz. 25, 1298–1305 (2018). https://doi.org/10.17559/TV-20161219120040 6. Nagashima, M., Wehrle, F.T., Kerbache, L., Lassagne, M.: Impacts of adaptive collaboration on demand forecasting accuracy of different product categories throughout the product life cycle. Supply Chain Manag. Int. J. 20, 415–433 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1108/SCM-032014-0088 7. Hulthén, H., Näslund, D., Norrman, A.: Framework for measuring performance of the sales and operations planning process. Int. J. Phys. Distrib. Logist. Manag. 46, 809–835 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPDLM-05-2016-0139 8. Haddad, C.R., Ayala, D.H.F., Uriona Maldonado, M., Forcellini, F.A., Lezana, Á.G.R.: Process improvement for professionalizing non-profit organizations: BPM approach. Bus. Process Manag. J. 22, 634–658 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1108/BPMJ-08-2015-0114 9. von Rosing, M., Scheer, A.-W., von Scheel, H.: The Complete Business Process Handbook. Body of Knowledge from Process Modeling to BPM. Morgan Kaufmann, Burlington (2015) 10. Nabil, L., El Barkany, A., El Khalfi, A.: Sales and Operations Planning (S&OP) concepts and models under constraints: literature review. Int. J. Eng. Res. Africa 34, 171–188 (2018). https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/JERA.34.171 11. Arias, R., Alvarez, M., Quispe, G., Dominguez, F., Moguerza, J.M.: Interrelation model based on S&OP for small and medium-sized companies in the food sector. In: CISCI 2018 Decima Septima Conferencia Iberoamericana en Sistemas, Cibernetica e Informatica, Decimo Quinto Simposium Iberoamericano en Educacion, Cibernetica e Informatica, SIECI 2018 - Memorias, vol. 1, pp. 37–39 (2018) 12. Khakbaz, S.B., Hajiheydari, N.: Proposing a basic methodology for developing balanced scorecard by system dynamics approach. Kybernetes 44, 1049–1066 (2015). https://doi.org/ 10.1108/K-12-2014-0287 13. Bataineh, A., Shwiyat, Z.A., Alrjoub, A.: The effect of using balanced scorecard (BSC) on reducing production costs in the Jordanian industrial companies. J. Bus. Retail Manag. Res. 13, 190–202 (2019). https://doi.org/10.24052/JBRMR/V13IS03/ART-17

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14. Forslund, H.: Performance management process integration in retail supply chains. Int. J. Retail Distrib. Manag. 43, 652–670 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1108/IJRDM-09-2013-0174 15. Hançerlioğulları, G., Şen, A., Aktunç, E.A.: Demand uncertainty and inventory turnover performance. Int. J. Phys. Distrib. Logist. Manag. 46, 681–708 (2016). https://doi.org/10. 1108/IJPDLM-12-2014-0303 16. Wee, H.: Inventory Systems: Modeling and Research Methods. Nova Science Publishers, New York (2011) 17. Nigah, R., Devnani, M., Gupta, A.K.: ABC and VED analysis of the pharmacy store of a tertiary care teaching, research and referral healthcare institute of India. J. Young Pharm. 2, 201–205 (2010). https://doi.org/10.4103/0975-1483.63170

Applying Lean Agriculture in Organic Apple Production: Case Study in Peru Francisco Gonzales-Gutierrez(&), Vanessa Huaman-Sanchez, Fernando Sotelo-Raffo, and Edgar Ramos Ingeniería Industrial, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima, Peru {u201516397,u201412459,fernando.sotelo, pcineram}@upc.edu.pe

Abstract. In this document it was proposed to apply Lean Agriculture, using the five Lean principles focused on the production of organic apples, which would allow to achieve a differentiated product, through the reduction of waste, improvements in the quality of activities and the commitment of the farmers. For this, a review of the literature that corroborated the impact of the methodology was carried out. In addition, surveys were conducted, taking a sample of farmers, which evidenced the gap. Finally it was obtained as a conclusion that after the implementation of the Lean Agriculture methodology in the processes, an increase in production suitable for sale in traditional and organic markets is achieved. In addition, the increase in quality achieved a percent of production suitable for exporting. Keywords: Lean principles


Lean Agriculture
Organic apple
Peru

1 Introduction Agriculture is the main sector of a country that contributes to the growth of GDP and that are best used by SMEs [1]. Therefore, in this study, a model based on the Lean methodology is proposed to standardize the processes of this sector through tools that boost its development and growth. In addition, it is essential to adopt a smart and wellplanned procedure to achieve it [2], so in this investigation a series of steps will be proposed for the correct implementation. The research method used to demonstrate the improvement in the agricultural sector follows three steps. Step 1 refers to the review of the Lean implementation literature. Step 2 refers to the definition of the methodology with its principles and then to Lean Agriculture as a tool that aims to improve processes within the agricultural sector. Finally, the results and conclusions.

2 Literature Review Lean is an effective and tested method of reducing operating costs and removing waste from manufacturing operations. Lean principles are defined for the growth and survival of the industries related into production and to the service sector [3]. This method is the © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 539–544, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_82

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most effective for changing thinking and practice and thereby improving the efficiency of the process, since it has been widely accepted and applied among multinationals. The Lean methodology uses particular criteria that strengthen its ability to select suppliers [4]. It also reduces operating costs by eliminating waste during the production process [5]. These improvements in end-to-end processes are key to the successful delivery of services. The elimination of waste increases the value for the client in all processes since with the Lean methodology there is a guide that improves the efficiency, effectiveness and skills of the organization in product development [6, 7]. Therefore, it is confirmed that waste is still integrated in the processes involved in the delivery of value [8]. However, it is a challenge for some sectors to adopt Lean principles due to factors such as organizational culture [9]. This methodology has achieved that various sectors achieve better results. In an oil and gas industry that applied lean, they identified the waste and then proposed recommendations to improve the process. These main recommendations are the standardization of the results, the elimination of unnecessary revisions. In the banking sector in India, they identified and analyzed the set of controllers that are fundamental to achieve lean practices because they consider their concepts to be a set of practices to achieve continuous process improvement through waste minimization [2]. On the other hand, the possibility of using the Lean concept to improve the company’s product development system was analyzed, based on the framework of the 13 Lean product development principles of Morgan and Liker [10]. In the same year, it was demonstrated through a quick approach that Lean implementation could be achieved [9]. For this, the commitment of senior management, time available to the lean project team and creation of the lean committee were key lessons. By applying the lessons learned, the lean implementation in a company will be easy confirming that the approach is effective and efficient. In another case study three plants have successfully carried out an efficient transformation with significant improvements in performance when applying lean [11]. With this, it can be said that the application of Lean in agriculture is viable, so in this document the hypothesis that the Lean implementation improves the production process will be demonstrated.

3 Lean Methodology 3.1

Definition of the Methodology

Lean is an operational practice that considers the expenditure of resources for any objective other than the creation of value for the end customer as waste and, therefore, an objective for its elimination [12]. Its focus is the fight against the waste of resources in activities that do not add value for the client and the greater use of the experience and intelligence of the farmer through continuous improvement [13]. These lean principles and tools have different approaches, which are applied in companies of different environments, of greater or smaller size, linked to different sectors. In each case where it has been implemented, a result has been obtained by mixing the fundamentals of lean with the national culture and the specific environment of the company [14].

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These fundamentals are established in the lean philosophy at Toyota, following the principles shown below in Table 1: Table 1. Principles of Lean methodology explain by Toyota [15] Principles Specify product value

Identify the value chain

Let production and value flow Allow the client to get what they want Pursuing perfection

Description It is about satisfying the customer’s needs with a specific price and time. This value is created by the producer and involves a redefinition of the supply chain It consists of determining which steps are required for the creation of value. It is decided which stages to contemplate and a chain is followed There must be no interruptions. Each stage of the process must be capable, available and adequate It’s about letting the customer get it when they want it, how they want it and, in the amount, they want it. This also entails not producing without demand We must be clear about what perfection is and seek continuous improvement. It is based on the constant creation of value and the elimination of losses

Lean Agriculture. The lean methodology can be applied in different sectors and agriculture is no exception [14]. Different studies have established the possibility of implementation in a similar sector: the porcine sector [17] and in another study the same relationship was demonstrated in the development of the meat industry in Sweden. The Swedish program, entitled Lean Agriculture, was introduced in 2010 with the objective of supporting farmers in the use of Lean over a period of 18 months. The expectation was that the program would help farmers increase their profitability, improve the efficiency of their resources, be more competitive and improve their growth possibilities [18]. Lean Agriculture promotes the idea that the methodology can be adapted in the manufacturing sector to the agricultural sector through continuous training for a period. Farmers will learn the Lean principles and tools through the monthly visit of Lean consultants who will offer coaching sessions on the methodology [19]. Therefore, it is concluded the Lean methodology attempt to use changes to the situation of production as their leverage point [16].

4 Proposed Implementation Lean Agriculture will enable the development of a model that encompasses all the processes involved in product management [15]. The proposal will evaluate a case study of apple production in Peru, specifically in Mala - Cañete region. This region produces 80% of the national production of apples, according to MINAGRI (Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation of Peru), making it the ideal place for the evaluation of the implementation of the Lean Agriculture methodology.

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Analysis

Design

Development

Implementation

Evaluation

Fig. 1. ADDIE Model stage flow used as the basis for the implementation of Lean Methodology

This implementation is based on the ADDIE method, as shown in Fig. 1. This is a theoretical scheme that serves to contemplate in detail the phases of any type of training activity or material design. The phases of the ADDIE Model are 5: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation, but each phase can be adapted to the needs of the case [20]. The most important phases will be taken for the proposal, which will be evidenced in the stages of the proposal, as is depicted in Table 2. Table 2. Activities to be carried out during each phase of the ADDIE Model. Phase Diagnostic: Replacement of the analysis Design

Training: Replacement of the development stage

Implementation

Evaluation

Description Surveys will be carried out on agricultural units in the Mala, Cañete region. This will allow information to be collected to determine the main needs and the gap to be shortened through the implementation of the model The design stage will identify which of the 5 Lean Agriculture principles the sector is in and will allow the development of the appropriate process for each characteristic according to the gap determined in the diagnostic phase 3. In the case, it is established that the design tool to be used will be the SIPOC diagram, since this is considered the most complete tool for process design A specialized training schedule will be used, taking into account the priority established in previous stages. Experts in the field that ensure a complete understanding of the processes required for the methodology will carry out the training. The development and implementation of this stage will ensure the knowledge and tools necessary for the correct execution of the methodology [21] The control of all the processes designed and trained in the previous stages will be carried out by means of completed documents that will validate the final result. This stage must be continually elaborated to generate a change in the habitual behavior of the members of the sector. The execution of the processes must be carried out exactly as indicated to ensure that the result corresponds to the methodology implemented [22]. The control to be carried out at this stage must be aligned with the indicators required and established in the design part in order to make a gradual measurement The results will be evaluated through a comparison matrix in which the results of both periods will be obtained and the percentage of improvement in the established indicators will be determined. In addition, the new comparison of indicators will begin a new diagnosis in order to carry out a continuous improvement process

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5 Expected Results The implementation of the methodology in the case study will result in a percentage increase in the quality of production in the sector. This result will be estimated through the result found from the pilot implementation of the representative section of the region (Table 3). Table 3. Case study results. KPI Products suitable for sale in traditional market Products suitable for sale in organic market Product with exportable quality Percent of standardized processes

Before the project 88.9%

Pilot section 98.4%

Control section 86.2%

35.7%

49.8%

37.2%

5.3% 0%

15.5% 95.8%

5.9% –

6 Conclusions and Recommendations It is concluded that the application of lean in the agricultural sector is viable and provides several benefits to the sector. This is made possible by a series of documents and processes that allow the correct development of the activities, which will result in a quality organic apple. It is recommended to use this methodology in other sectors, as it is an effective method in both the production and service sectors, reducing defects and improving end-to-end processes for a successful delivery of the product or service.

References 1. Binswanger, H.P., Singh, S.K.: Wages, prices and agriculture: how can Indian agriculture cope with rising wages? J. Agric. Econ. 69(2), 281–305 (2017) 2. Thakur, A.: A review on lean manufacturing implementation techniques: a conceptual model of lean manufacturing dimensions. REST J. Emerg. Trends Model. Manuf. 2, 62–72 (2016) 3. Zhang, K., Qu, T., Zhou, D., Thürer, M., Liu, Y., Nie, D., Li, C., Huang, G.Q.: IoT-enabled dynamic lean control mechanism for typical production systems. J. Ambient Intell. Humanized Comput. (2018) 4. El Mokadem, M.: The classification of supplier selection criteria with respect to lean or agile manufacturing strategies. J. Manuf. Technol. Manage. 28(2), 232–249 (2017) 5. Chávez, J., Osorio, F., Altamirano, E., Raymundo, C., Dominguez, F.: Lean production management model for SME waste reduction in the processed food sector in Peru. Adv. Intell. Syst. Comput. 971, 53–62 (2019)

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6. Paredes, M., Villa, J., Quispe, G., et al.: Lean manufacturing model for the improvement of manufacturing processes in small and medium-sized companies in the furniture industrial sector. In: CISCI 2018 - Decima Septima Conferencia Iberoamericana en Sistemas, Cibernetica e Informatica, Decimo Quinto Simposium Iberoamericano en Educacion, Cibernetica e Informatica, SIECI 2018 - Memorias (2018) 7. Cárdenas, M., Rodriguez, M., Ramos, E., Carvallo, E., Raymundo, C.: Quality management model focusing on good agricultural practices to increase productivity of pomegranate producing SMEs in Peru. In: Ahram, T., Karwowski, W., Pickl, S., Taiar, R. (eds.) IHSED 2019. AISC, vol. 1026, pp. 1023–1029. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/9783-030-27928-8_152 8. Rachman, A., Chandima Ratnayake, R.M.: Implementation of lean knowledge work in oil and gas industry - a case study from a Risk-Based Inspection project. In: 2016 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management (IEEM), pp. 675–680 (2016) 9. Xu, L.X.X., Wang, F.Y.: Applying lessons learned from lean implementation for SMEs — Singapore context. In: 2017 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management (IEEM), pp. 654–658 (2017) 10. Synnes, E.L., Welo, T.: Applicability of lean product development to a company in the marine sector. In: 2017 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management (IEEM), pp. 2281–2285 (2017) 11. Olivella, J., Gregorio, R.: Organizational practices lean enterprises adopt to focus on value streams. J. Enterp. Transform. 4, 309–328 (2014) 12. Holweg, M.: The genealogy of lean production. J. Oper. Manage. 25(2), 420–437 (2007) 13. Adhau, R.A., Khan, J., Trikal, S.P.: A review on applications of lean manufacturing in the agricultural equipment’s industry. Int. J. Adv. Res. Ideas Innovations Tech. (2018) 14. Zhou, B.: Lean principles, practices, and impacts: a study on small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Ann. Oper. Res. 241(1–2), 457–474 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10479-012-1177-3 15. Womack, J.P., Jones, D.T.: Lean thinking—Banish waste and create wealth in your corporation. J. Oper. Res. Soc. 48(11), 1148 (1997) 16. Johnston, R.: Making manufacturing practices tacit: a case study of computer-aided production management and lean production. J. Oper. Res. Soc. 46(10), 1174–1183 (1995) 17. Perez, C., de Castro, R., Simons, D., Gimenez, G.: Development of lean supply chains: a case study of the Catalan pork sector. Supply Chain Manage. Int. J. 15(1), 55–68 (2010) 18. Andersson, K., Eklund, J.: Work environment, lean and agriculture. In: 11th International Symposium on Human Factors in Organisational Design and Management, pp. 661–666 (2014) 19. Melin, M., Barth, H.: Lean in Swedish agriculture: strategic and operational perspectives. Prod. Plann. Control 29(10), 845–855 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/09537287.2018. 1479784 20. Mayfield, M.: Creating training and development programs: using the ADDIE method. Dev. Learn. Organ. 25(3), 19–22 (2011) 21. Hemanta, G.: Importance of information literacy in agricultural productivity: a case study of farmers of Jorhat district of Assam. Trans. Asian J. Mark. Manage. Res. 6(8), 71–82 (2017) 22. Forrester, P., Shimizu, U.K., Soriano-Meier, H., Garza-Reyes, J.A., Basso, L.F.C.: Lean production, market share and value creation in the agricultural machinery sector in Brazil. J. Manufact. Tech. Manage. 21(7), 853–871 (2010)

Model to Improve the Efficiency in the Extrusion Area in a Manufacturing SME of the Industrial Plastic Sector Based on SMED, Autonomous Maintenance and 5S Carlos Arroyo-Huayta1(&), Sebastian Cruces-Raimudis1, Gino Viacava-Campos1, Claudia Leon-Chávarri1, and Daniel Aderhold2 1

2

Ingeniería Industrial, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima 15023, Peru {u201517085,u201512754,gino.viacava, pcincleo}@upc.edu.pe Dirección de Investigación, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima 15023, Peru [email protected]

Abstract. At present, companies in the Peruvian plastic sector have an average capacity utilization indicator of 71.45%. However, in Peru many SMEs are with 50% well below this indicator. After a study performed in a representative company of the Peruvian plastic sector, the causes of low efficiency in resource utilization were determined through a problems tree and a Pareto analysis. These causes are failures, reprocesses and Setup times in the extrusion machines, taking around 1008 h a year to solve these problems. This article proposes a model to improve efficiency, integrating Lean Manufacturing tools such as 5s, SMED, and autonomous maintenance. The first one was used as a support tool, while SMED was used to reduce the configuration time and autonomous maintenance to reduce the failures number and the reprocesses number. The model was validated through a case study, obtaining as results the reduction of the setup time by 50%, breakdowns by 50% and reprocesses by 60%. Keywords: Lean Manufacturing
SMED Efficiency
Plastics industry
Extrusion


Autonomous maintenance
5s


1 Introduction In Peru, companies in the plastics sector have inefficient processes, which impacts their income. This sector contributes 13% of industry taxes and grows at a rate of 3.2% [1]. To determine the causes of this inefficiency, a study was carried out in a representative SME of the sector dedicated to the production of pipes using the extrusion process. Figure 1 graphically shows the process to produce plastic pipes, being the extrusion a key activity because it was identified that it contains many causes of productive inefficiency, causing unsatisfied demand. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 545–551, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_83

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Likewise, it was found that the usage of the company’s installed capacity in 2017 and 2018 is well below the sector average. Failure to comply with the production orders in the extrusion area caused that they did not receive an amount of 107,320 Peruvian soles (approx. 32,000 US$), which represents 12% of total revenues in 2018.

Fig. 1. Plastic pipe production process.

The efficiency of the extrusion process was established as the main indicator, considering quality and availability, as shown in Fig. 2, aiming to increase it by 7%.

Fig. 2. Initial scenario and proposed goal for efficiency

As a cause of this problem, the number of lost hours per year was identified due to reprocesses, breakdowns and setup times, with 1008 h of production stops. Table 1 shows the expected reductions for each identified cause based on the results of similar studies. To achieve the expected goals the proposed solution integrates autonomous maintenance tools, SMED and 5S as a support tool.

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Table 1. Expected reduction of problem causes with final indicator Cause Breakdowns Reprocesses Setup

Expected reduction Related indicator Final indicator 50% Availability Efficiency 30% Quality 20% Availability

2 State of the Art A Peruvian study [2] used the SMED tool to reduce the preparation time of the extruder improving the whole process; this methodology considers identifying the details of the configuration, defines internal and external activities, and determines the activities that can be performed simultaneously. Other studies from Poland [3] and Peru [4] use the same technique, reducing the preparation time by 60% through new design solutions, including the autonomous maintenance into the solution. Another Polish researcher, Dorota Stadnicka [5], managed to reduce the preparation time of the machines by approximately 50% by analyzing activities related to the change of the machines as well as performing a training schedule for the employees. On the other hand, a study carried out in India [6] combined SMED with 5S and TPM to achieve improvements in other areas of a company. Concerning autonomous maintenance, for the reduction of reprocesses caused by failures and mechanical breakdowns, the same Indian team [7] also demonstrated that it is possible to improve the OEE (Overall Equipment Effectiveness) indicator from 55.45% to 68.04% by implementing the TPM tool in combination with others such as Kaizen. Regarding the 5S principles, according to the authors Gupta and Jain [9], also from India, its successful implementation allows improving safety, quality, and productivity in an organization. Likewise, according to Gamarra-Antonio from Peru [10], a solution using TPM should develop 5S as a baseline. In line with the above, a group of Romanian authors [11] achieved a reduction of 70% of processing time, using SMED and 5S tools, proposing a new methodology. Other Polish authors [12] used the same tools, providing training to workers with theoretical foundations, as well as practical workshops related to the standardization of workstations. Finally, Antosz [3] and Sivaselvam [13] propose the interaction of SMED with autonomous maintenance, developing a turtle diagram using SIPOC to map the activities that add value and used OEE to establish the total efficiency.

3 Proposed Model The model focuses on three main causes that affect the extrusion area: reprocesses, breakdowns and setup times. The used tools are autonomous maintenance to address reprocesses and breakdowns and SMED for setup times; both supported by 5S. Figure 3 shows the methodology on which the proposed model is based on, following the work of Sivaselman [13] and complemented with the proposals of Posteucă

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[11] and Alvarado [4]. Its main aspects are the order of application of the techniques, the indicators and the interaction of the 5S, SMED and Autonomous Maintenance. The steps of the methodology are as follows: 3.1

Selection of Equipment, Goals, and Indicators

The criticality matrix is used to choose the machine to be investigated, and performed settings are recorded through control sheets and time studies. Likewise, the reduction goals for availability and quality are established. 5S Implementation. The current situation of the company is analyzed through an initial audit, and the 5S principles are implemented: Seiri (remove), Seiton (order), Seiso (cleaning), Seiketsu (standardize) and Shitsuke (improving).

Fig. 3. Proposed model methodology

SMED. Activities are standardized and those that do not add value are removed, internal and external activities are identified and separated, internal activities are converted to external, and tasks are improved. Autonomous Maintenance. Operators are prepared to service the equipment: a) b) c) d) e)

Clean and inspect of equipment Eliminate sources of contamination and improve access to equipment Establish experimental cleaning and inspection procedures Perform regular general inspections of the equipment and procedures Practice self-management

Results Measurement. It is checked whether the improvements had a positive impact on reducing the losses of other equipment.

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4 Case Study The proposed model was implemented in a company of the plastic sector in Lima, Peru and was executed for 4 months following the established stages. Selection of Equipment, Goals, and Indicators. The extruder machines were selected through an equipment criticality analysis matrix, where the extruders showed the highest criticality scores. The measured indicators were availability (affected by breakdowns and setup time) and quality (affected by reprocesses). The goals (based on the reviewed case studies) are elevating availability from 90% to 94%, quality from 87% to 90%, and efficiency from 78% to 85%. So, breakdowns, installation time and reprocesses must be lowered. 5S Development. The initial scenario was analyzed through a 5S audit. The analysis showed that the state of the company concerning 5S is critical. The application of the 5S pilot in the extrusion area allowed the company to plan, order and maintain better conditions in the work environments. SMED Implementation. The internal and external activities of the area were identified, determining that there are 23, with a total duration of 3 h, 15 min and 7 s. Those activities were classified, and then internal activities were converted into external. To do this, a meeting with the team was held and improvements were adopted. Finally, the activities were reduced to 21, with a reduction to 2 h, 56 min and 1 s. Autonomous Maintenance Development. Procedures were designed to lubricate, adjust and clean extruder machines, and physical space, which was included in the training of operators. These activities allow better access and development of activities. Documentary evidence of these activities was left.

5 Results Figure 4 shows a comparative graph of the initial, proposed and resulting states of the indicators. It is noted that the availability indicator, although elevating its value from 90% to 93%, does not achieve the target of 94%. In turn, the quality indicator managed to reach the goal of rising from 87% to 90%. In this sense, the resulting efficiency indicator also does not reach the goal of rising from 78% to 85%, reaching 83%.

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Fig. 4. Initial, proposed and final values for main indicators

6 Conclusion The inefficiency of the SMEs processes in the Peruvian plastic sector affects their income, being necessary to conduct studies to reduce these losses and improve efficiency. The present research identified the causes of losses and addressed them with the integration into a new model of the autonomous maintenance tools, SMED and 5S. Through a pilot in a Peruvian company, it was able to increase efficiency, reduce reprocesses, breakdowns and setup time. The time used in reprocesses was reduced by 14%, impacting directly the quality indicator which achieved the proposed goal of 90%. Losses due to breakdowns were reduced by 39%, not reaching the proposed objective of 50%. An interesting result was achieved with the SMED tool, previously applying the 5S principles, reducing the configuration time by 32.92%, exceeding the objective of 30%, more than other studies that used only SMED. Future studies should propose new models to continue improving the results of the present proposal.

References 1. Produce: Boletín de Producción Manufacturera (2019). http://ogeiee.produce.gob.pe/index. php/shortcode/oee-documentos-publicaciones/boletines-industria-manufacturera/item/870-20 19-noviembre-reporte-de-produccion-manufacturera 2. Ames, V., Vásquez, W., Macassi, I., et al.: Maintenance management model based on Lean Manufacturing to increase the productivity of a company in the Plastic sector. In: Proceedings of the LACCEI international Multi-conference for Engineering, Education and Technology (2019) 3. Antosz, K., Pacana, A.: Comparative Analysis of the Implementation of the SMED method on selected production stands. Teh. Vjesn. Tech. Gaz. 25, 276–282 (2018). https://doi.org/ 10.17559/TV-20160411095705 4. Alvarado, L., Quispe, G., Raymundo, C.: Method for optimizing the production process of domestic water tank manufacturing companies. Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol. 11, 1735–1757 (2018)

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5. Stadnicka, D.: Setup analysis: Combining SMED with other tools. Manag. Prod. Eng. Rev. 6, 36–50 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1515/mper-2015-0006 6. Nallusamy, S., Saravanan, V.: Lean tools execution in a small scale manufacturing industry for productivity improvement- A case study. Indian J. Sci. Technol. 9, 1–7 (2016). https:// doi.org/10.17485/ijst/2016/v9i35/100162 7. Nallusamy, D., Kumar, V., Yadav, V., Prasad, U., Suman, S.K.: Implementation of total productive maintenance to enhance the overall equipment effectiveness in medium scale industries. Int. J. Mech. Prod. Eng. Res. Dev. 8, 1027–1038 (2018) 8. Singh, J., Singh, H., Sharma, V.: Success of TPM concept in a manufacturing unit – A case study. Int. J. Product. Perform. Manag. 67, 536–549 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPPM01-2017-0003 9. Nigah, R., Devnani, M., Gupta, A.K.: ABC and VED analysis of the pharmacy store of a tertiary care teaching, research and referral healthcare institute of India. J. Young Pharm. 2, 201–205 (2010). https://doi.org/10.4103/0975-1483.63170 10. Gamarra Antonio, J.L.: Propuesta de mejora en la gestión de mantenimiento del área de hilandería en las etapas de prehilado para una empresa textil basado en la implementación de TPM (2018). http://hdl.handle.net/10757/625101, https://doi.org/10.19083/tesis/625101 11. Posteucǎ, A., Zapciu, M.: Setup time and cost reduction in conditions of low volume and overcapacity. UPB Sci. Bull. Ser. D Mech. Eng. 77, 325–336 (2015) 12. Karwasz, A., Chabowski, P.: Productivity increase through reduced changeover time. J. Mach. Eng. 16, 61–70 (2016) 13. Sivaselvam, E., Gajendran, S.: Improvement of overall equipment effectiveness in a plastic injection moulding industry. J. Mech. Civ. Eng. 12–16 (2014)

Leagile Model in the Avocado Supply Chain: Case Study in Huaral, Peru Angelo Guzman-Marco(&), Sebastian Paredes-Robalino, Edgar Ramos, and Fernando Sotelo-Raffo Ingeniería Industrial, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima, Peru {u201221126,u201412669,pcineram, fernando.sotelo}@upc.edu.pe

Abstract. Avocado exports have increased considerably between 2016 and 2019 in Peru. For this reason, it is important that farmers develop strategies in their supply chain that will generate dwell value for their final product. In response to the above, Supply Chain Management Leagile (SCM Leagile) surface. This supply chain strategy Reduce processes that do not generate value to the product and have to rapid response to the constant change in demand for avocado to the international market. The objective of this paper is present a model of SCM Leagile which can be used by the farmers in various agrifood supply chains. Keywords: Supply chain Agility


Leagile
Supply Chain Management
Avocado


1 Introduction At present, achieving the operational efficiency of logistics strategies has become the priority of all companies [1, 2]. In addition, supply chain channels have become more vulnerable and their administrative problems remain a problem for business performance [3, 4]. To combat the problem mentioned in companies, the idea of using a hybrid supply chain between Lean and Agile, called SC Leagile, arises. The implementation of this strategy allows organizations to reduce costs, improve the quality of their processes, have a better response to customer demand while maintaining sustainability [5, 6]. For these reasons, the article aims to create a model of SM Leagile for Avocado producers, which will add value to the final product [7]. The data of their current processes was obtained by the Avocado farmers themselves in the area of Capac, Huaral.

2 Theoretical Background Leagile’s definition, based on a system in which Lean’s advantages and agility are combined, was originally developed to describe manufacturing supply chains [8–10]. A supply chain consists of a chain of producers linked to each other with the end user at one end of the chain. Negligence in a supply chain depends on the fact that Lean manufacturers are separated from agile manufacturers in the chain by means of a separation © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 552–559, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_84

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point to which various research articles are referred to as the “decoupling point”. [11] discusses Leagile manufacturing using postponement as one of the central principles. Deferral is the delay of operational activities in a system until customer orders are received instead of completing activities in advance and then waiting for orders. This principle distinguishes between the Lean and Agile parts of the supply chain because Lean manufacturers will have a fixed level of inventory produced in advance, while agile manufacturers could produce for orders that vary in demand and product mix. The next section focuses on two flexibility models, one for supply chains and one for individual production plants. Additional research on the application of Leagile concepts to supply chains can be found in [9, 12–14] propose a Leagile model in which the Lean and Agile systems operate at different points in a supply chain of manufacturing. A key element of this model is a “decoupling point”, which separates Lean processes from agile processes in the supply chain. The processes Lean are in the side of “waters up” of the point of decoupling, and the agile processes are in the side of “waters down”. The point of decoupling also acts like a strategic point for the stock of reservation, and his position changes according to the variability of the demand and the combination of products [16]. An increase in the mix of products and the volume fluctuate would force the point of decoupling to move upwards, doing that the system of the chain of supply was more agile. Some business surroundings more stable with a variability reduced in the demand or the combination of products would move the point of decoupling downwards, doing that the system of the chain of supply was more agile. [17, 18] they develop a similar model that is applicable to an alone plant of manufacture. They suggest the application of concepts Lean and Agile in different stages of the same process of manufacture. [19] The justification proposed uses an analysis of flow of production improved to identify virtual groups (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Differences of Lean – Agile - Leagile

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The virtual groups are groups of machines and processes inside a system of production to the that apply concepts Lean and agile. A point of decoupling, that keeps a level expected of stock of intermediate storage, exists between two virtual groups. A chain of supply can consider like Leagile when has two portions, a portion of the agile chain and another Lean of similar way, [17, 20] defines a point inside an alone company manufacturing where the groups of production Agile separate of the groups Lean.

3 Methodology In this section will explain in detail the steps that take to apply this methodology to facilitate his understanding, as shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Methodology of study

3.1

Identification of the Problem

In order to recognize the problem, in-depth interviews were conducted with the farmers, which will allow them to analyze the problems and the causes that generate them. For this, a census was carried out on the thirteen (13) farmers of Huaral and Carac. According to the census, farmers in the area do not export, and the only sales channels they have are selling to brokers or locals. Farmers know that the broker buys the product at a higher price, that is, the profitability of selling the national avocado is less than selling through the brokers; However, they are not aware of how much this product is sold in the international market. In addition, the volume requested by an export is higher than its productive capacity which prevents it from being able to meet the orders demanded on its own. On the other hand, it can be detected that the farmers interviewed respond that they do not evaluate the level of fat that silver has, which is a special requirement for buyers since they need a percentage of fat and the closer the price is to this index of the product will vary since there is a risk that this product cannot be exported and must be sold by local channel which its price is lower. The farmers work individually, this involves how they are provisioned, so it is understood according to their responses that everyone is provisioned on their own given the fear of sharing the form of cultivation with the neighboring farmer. However, the purchase decision is mostly based on the current price of the product, so it is consulted in various places. 3.2

Analysis of the Logistical Chain

For this analysis define the current activities with which explains each agriculturalist and like this can understand which opportunities identified (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3. Activities Macro of agriculturalists

The avocado farmers that exist in Carac, Huaral do not have the total management of the supply chain since there are operations where the process must be outsourced with a broker and this profitability from the acquisition of the product. In addition, farmers do not have an optimal comprehensive logistics policy where the entire supply chain is involved, from raw material supply, manufacturing, quality and inbound and outbound logistics. This generates, as a consequence, failures with the customer, given that the product does not meet all the requested standards, lead-times and also an increase in the price of the product due to poor cost management [21, 22]. 3.3

Proposal of Solution

The main objective of the article is to find that farmers have greater participation in export processes, which will allow them to generate greater value to Avocado by the new processes that they will incorporate into their functions with the objective of applying and adopting the new ones. procedures to be able to execute its operations and processes efficiently. For this, a unification of key areas is needed to achieve the proposed proposal and use the model specified above as is SC Leagile. At the time of the sale, there are different types of quality specifications such as avocado fat indexes that customers require depending on the origin. [23] In addition to the fact that this is a unification of crops from different farmers which have a small production capacity, this has to be adapted to the constant changes of requirements and unify the products of each one in such a way that it can cover different needs reducing the greatest amount of waste. The following table shows how the Leagile system responds to the need for demand (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Sight Macro of System Leagile

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In this, it is observed how the production of each farmer is unified in a collection center where it is classified according to the requirements that the international client requires and this is logistically distributed to each one meeting their standards. In this case, internally a staff will evaluate the quality indices that each one counts by sampling and will define to which request each harvest responds [24]. This proposal will allow farmers to take greater responsibility within the production chain. As the graph of the activities carried out by the farmer shown in the analysis, currently the level of functions of each farmer is up to the harvest. However, in this model it allows them to generate the export processes to the point of leaving the FOB product for sale so that the broker culminates the sale internationally. So that having more productive processes the finished product will increase its price [24].

4 Model of SC Leagile 4.1

Inputs of the Process of Logistical Management

One of the most relevant inputs within these are the specifications required by each client to import Avocado. In addition, the list of suppliers to evaluate to be able to classify according to the quality of their inputs and to coordinate with the logistics area the homologation of them. 4.2

Outputs of the Process of Management of Logistics

All activities carried out by logistics managers will be evidenced by results, delivery reports and/or manuals. The main objective of these outputs for quality is to find a suitable supplier for the purchase of inputs; such as medicines, land, fertilizer, etc.; In addition, it is in charge of being able to have knowledge of what was moved from the farmers’ lands (already done the proper ordering of avocados according to their weight and fat percentage) towards the collection center. 4.3

Sub Processes of Logistical Management

Purchase Management Sub Process. This sub process aims to make purchases of raw material; such as, medicines for cultivation, land, fertilizer, among others. The person in charge of making purchases of the materials for production receives an order request from Quality. Then, the Logistics area searches for suppliers, after price analysis, a report of suppliers is delivered to Quality. In this part, Quality selects the suppliers that meet the requirements that must be managed for optimum production. Subsequently, the products will be requested from the suppliers through a purchase order, which will indicate the requested products and also the delivery date of these. Transportation Management and Classification Sub Process. The main objective of this thread is to distribute Hass avocados efficiently and quickly; that is, to have an adequate ordering in the collection center that allows farmers to distribute the HASS avocados to the port. This sub process begins with the stowage, which is responsible

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for carrying out each farmer of the farm, but with the previous classification of Quality, after the Logistic harvest is responsible for designing transfer dates and appropriate routes to reduce time and effort. Subsequently, the logistics managers will make the appropriate classification of avocados in the collection center, based on the Agile methodology. This methodology will help meet the requirements of international customers. Fruits will be classified depending on their weight and fat percentage. Sub Export Process. This starts from the order sent by the Broker, in order to accept the order, the stock is validated. Reservations are obtained in the spaces of the shipping lines. After obtaining the reservation, the collection of the container assigned by the line is managed with the distribution department and can be filled with the Avocado to be exported. In addition to requesting the quality analysis report of the batch to be sent to quality. On the other hand, the Chamber of Commerce of Peru or the Association of Exporters is requested to issue the certificate of origin in case the client requires it. With all these steps performed, the line will issue a Bill of Landing and these proceed to dispatch the container along with the issuance of the invoice and the packing list of the product with the distribution team. Finally, the export area must send all these documents to the customer so that he can start his import processes at destination (Fig. 5).

Supplier

Sowing

Farming

Harvest

Consolidation

Distribution

Intern. Logistic

R* R*

R*

C*

R*

R*

RE*

-

Sup : Supplier

- Distri : Distribution

-

Sow : Sowing

- Intern. Logistic: International Logistica

-

Far : Farming

- Consolida: Consolidation

-

Har: Harvest

- R* : Request

-

Re* : Reprocess

- C* : Coordination

Fig. 5. Logistics Management Model Flowchart

5 Conclusions The growth of the Avocado will allow the sustainability of this group of farmers. Adequate Risk Management must be implemented in this investigation, because it must ensure the proper functioning of all parties involved in the management established

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above. There is a need to implement USD 3,790 this includes the rental value of the collection center and also the allocation of two human resources responsible for the export process. Due to the scope of the investigation, it is not feasible to eliminate the broker in the first stage, but to remove functions that will enrich the farmer’s finished product, increasing its marge. The opportunity was opened for the association to have the possibility of seeking its own clients in a future investigation.

References 1. Gligor, D.M., Holcomb, M.C., Stank, T.P.: A multidisciplinary approach to supply chain agility: Conceptualization and scale development. J. Bus. Logistics 34(2), 94–108 (2013) 2. Xiaomin, X., Yi, L.: Customer satisfaction of the third-party logistics enterprise based on AHP: a case study. Int. J. Inf. Syst. Supply Chain Manage. (IJISSCM) 10(1), 68–81 (2017) 3. Altay, N., Ramirez, A.: Impact of disasters on firms in different sectors: implications for supply chains. J. Supply Chain Manage. 46(4), 59–80 (2010) 4. Hendricks, K.B., Singhal, V.R.: An empirical analysis of the effect of supply chain disruptions on long-run stock price performance and equity risk of the firm. Prod. Oper. Manage. 14(1), 35–52 (2005) 5. Ambe, I.M.: Agile supply chain: strategy for competitive advantage. J. Global Strateg. Manage. 4(1), 5–17 (2010) 6. Christopher, M., Lee, H.: Mitigating supply chain risk through improved confidence. Int. J. Phys. Distrib. Logistics Manage. 34(5), 388–396 (2004) 7. Ahmed, W., Huma, S.: Impact of lean and agile strategies on supply chain risk management (2018) 8. Katayama, H., Bennett, D.: Agility, adaptability, leanness: a comparison of concepts and a study of practice. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 60, 43–51 (1999) 9. Gomez, J., Alburqueque, G., Ramos, E., Raymundo, C.: An order fulfillment model based on lean supply chain: Coffee’s case study in Cusco, Peru. In: Ahram, T., Karwowski, W., Pickl, S., Taiar, R. (eds.) IHSED 2019. AISC, vol. 1026, pp. 922–928. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27928-8_138 10. Carbajal, E., Rivera, J., Ramos, E., Raymundo, C.: Strategic sourcing toward a sustainable organic coffee supply chain: a research applied in Cuzco. In: Ahram, T., Karwowski, W., Pickl, S., Taiar, R. (eds.) IHSED 2019. AISC, vol. 1026, pp. 929–935. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27928-8_139 11. Van Hoek, R.I.: The thesis of leagility revisited. Int. J. Agil. Manag. Syst. 2(3), 196–201 (2000) 12. Zare, R., Chavez, P., Raymundo, C., Rojas, J.: Collaborative culture management model to improve the performence in the inventory management of a supply chain. In: 2018 Congreso Internacional de Innovacion y Tendencias en Ingenieria, CONIITI 2018 – Proceedings (2018). 8587073 13. Gomez, J., Alburqueque, G., Ramos, E., Raymundo, C.: An order fulfillment model based on lean supply chain: Coffee’s case study in Cusco, Peru. In: Ahram, T., Karwowski, W., Pickl, S., Taiar, R. (eds.) IHSED 2019. AISC, vol. 1026, pp. 922–928. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27928-8_138 14. McCullen, P., Towill, D.R.: Achieving lean supply through agile manufacturing. Integr. Manuf. Syst. 12(7), 524–533 (2001) 15. Mason-Jones, R., Naylor, B., Towill, D.R.: Engineering the leagile supply chain. Inter. J. Agile Manage. Syst. 2(1), 54–61 (2000)

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16. Krishnamurthy, R., Yauch, C.: Leagile manufacturing: a proposed corporate infrastructure (2007) 17. Prince, J., Kay, J.M.: Combining lean and agile characteristics: creation of virtual groups by enhanced production flow analysis. J. Prod. Econ. 85, 305–318 (2003) 18. Iyengar, V., Bharathi, S.V.: Bibliometric analysis of lean, agile, and leagile supply chains in automobile industry (1990–2017). Int. J. Inf. Syst. Supply Chain Manage. (IJISSCM) 11(3), 22–45 (2018) 19. Ramesh, S., Sekar, G., Awwad, M.: Evaluation of Effectiveness of Lean (2018) 20. Naveen, V., Rajeev, S.: Leagile manufacturing: a review paper. Int. J. Prod. Qual. Manage. 23(3), 385–421 (2018) 21. Nakandala, D., Lau, H.C.W.: Innovative adoption of hybrid supply chain strategies in urban local fresh food supply chain (2019) 22. Huma, S., Siddiqui, D.A.: Impact of lean and agile strategies on supply chain risk management. Total Qual. Manage. Bus. Excellence (2018) 23. Yang, Y., Chi, H., Tang, O., Zhou, W., Fan, T.: Cross perishable effect on optimal inventory preservation control. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 276, 998–1012 (2019) 24. Fadaki, M., Rahman, S., Chan, C.: Quantifying the degree of supply chain leagility and assessing its impact on firm performance. Asia Pacific J. Mark. Logistics 31, 246–264 (2019)

Improvement for Production Management and Control Using Lean Manufacturing Tools in the Manufacturing of Posts and Accessories Mariella Ortiz-Bailon(&), Ruben Vera-Espino, Juan Quiroz-Flores, and Jose Alvarez Ingeniería Industrial, Unversidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima, Peru {u201413806,u201412737,juan.quiroz, pciijalv}@upc.edu.pe

Abstract. The problem identified is the poor management and control of production, which includes direct consequences with regard to quality, planning of operations and work method; generating mainly penalties for non-fulfillment of orders, increased operating costs and lost opportunity cost that negatively affect the efficiency of the production process of concrete posts and accessories in a SME company. The implementation of an improvement model is proposed applying the Lean Manufacturing philosophy; whose application is focused on improving 3 main waste in the production system: defects, inventory and waiting time. The proposals of the study generated a reduction in the percentage of defects in the company by 6.46%, 9.50% in the case of penalties for noncompliance with orders, 34.67% in the cycle time and a 21% increase in the OEE of the machines. Keywords: Lean manufacturing
PYME's production
Management control


Concrete companies
Posts

1 Introduction The main problem of SMEs dedicated to production in the country is the low competitiveness in the market. This is mainly because they do not have adequate supply and production management throughout the organization and do not present an approach towards improving their processes, generating customer dissatisfaction with the product delivered. The aspects that generate loss in the profitability of the companies are mainly the penalties for not delivered orders on scheduled date and the operational overruns originated to satisfy the demand. These aspects are caused by the 7 wastes that exist in every company, which according to Lean Manufacturing are: overproduction, waiting time, transport, reprocessing, inventory, movements, defects and wasting of people’s capacity [1, 2]. With respect to the company where the present investigation is performed, three production wastes were identified, defects, inventories and waiting time, which generates penalties for non-compliance, operating costs and lost opportunity cost. In order © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 560–565, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_85

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to reduce the negative impacts, each one of them will be analyzed in order to detect the root causes and propose improvement tools to eliminate or mitigate the negative impact on profitability. In 2018, a SME which produces posts and accessories of reinforced concrete located in Lima – Peru, presented as a main problem a poor management and production control. This problem had three severe consequences, such as penalties for non-compliance, excessive operating costs and loss of sales and customers. For non-compliance approximately a total penalty of 12.51% of the total turnover of the company (USD 202,625.00) was generated, then, the operating cost overruns caused a 2.5% loss (USD 41,732.00), and finally the lost opportunity cost was causing a 5.95% decrease in income (USD 96,407.00). The total impact of poor production management and control of posts and accessories is USD 340,764.00, which represents a total negative impact of 17.4% of total sales, which is USD 1,619,750.00. Three immediate causes of the problem were identified, which are: poor working method, poor management of operations planning and poor management and quality control.

2 Literature Review Antosz [3] proposed to implement LM thinking in a manufacturing company. The problem that required solution was the low efficiency of the organization, caused by waste in the value chain. These wastes refer to waiting times, unnecessary movements, overproduction, and lack of inventories and poor quality. These mainly affected the cost overruns, the low quality of products and materials and labor overload of staff. One way to eliminate wastes is to improve the processes of the organization. The problem that Polácek [4] identifies in his study is the poor planning and management of supply of materials and production. Production planning and control are generally considered crucial for the success of manufacturing companies; because, it involves the management of all aspects of production, including materials. In addition, it is responsible for the management, planning and programming of machines, human resources and coordination of suppliers and key customers. The aforementioned was solved by an MRP I material requirement programming system, accompanied by an analysis and study of capacity for a correct assignment of this, through the CRP or MRP II. Megahed [5] and Valmohammadi [6] studied different ways to improve forecast accuracy in companies with ATO production system. Special interest was given to new products, which often suffered depletion or overproduction and excess inventories in the early stages of their life cycle. The authors were focused since their research resources could be directed to help more companies in the monitoring and analysis of data, jointly develop the process and observe the discussions on decision making, help plan and manage their demands (whether or not a non-standard behavior) and control its production.

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3 Innovative Proposal After preparing the diagnosis of the current situation of the company methodologies and tools were proposed in a preliminary way that would solve the root causes that have a negative impact on the organization. The development of the proposed tools was analysed, where the root causes identified in the previous chapter will be taken as a basis. The tools that were used are related to the Lean Manufacturing methodology, these being the following, Standardization of the work method, Aggregate Planning, Inventory Management, MRP I programming, Autonomous Maintenance and Maintenance Management. The immediate causes are related to their respective root causes. 3.1

Standardization of Works Methods

In the first place, after being clear about the work policies that are going to be established, the team of operators must be gathered for a detailed presentation of the new method to be followed and to answer all the doubts that these may cause. Second, as mentioned earlier, the organization does not use measuring machines in the material dosing process prior to the mixing process for the production of the concrete batch. Therefore, the implementation of industrial scales for the correct distribution of raw material at the time of mixing is proposed. This action will have a direct impact on 2 important points of the finished product: a better surface finish will be obtained, that is, the post that will be delivered to the client will not present cracks, crevices or resonates, so the rejection rate will be decreased, and also, the resistance of the product will be within the permissible limit. Third, outdoor drying of the posts will be accelerated by 40%. Therefore, it is proposed to add to the mixture an additive called Sikament TM100. In this way, the total cycle times of the finished products will be reduced by decreasing the drying process times thanks to the super plasticizer. 3.2

Inventory Management, Supply Through MRP and Aggregate Plan

The implementation of Inventory management implies that the study company has the appropriate inventory policies, which optimize the logistic costs incurred that the merchandise and raw materials reach the production plant (Table 1). Table 1. Inventory policies of the raw material of the standard product Concept Optimal lot Total cost N Cycle time Lead time Security stock

Cement 1,685.00 5,222.00 47.48 1.10 2.00 536.00

Iron 13,135.00 9,868.00 123.35 0.42 2.00 4,179.00

Sand 162.00 1,253.00 14.75 3.53 3.00 63.00

Wire 2,212.00 1,265.00 18.08 2.88 1.00 49.00

Stone 5,855.00 50,590.00 595.18 0.09 3.00 2,2882.00

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In addition, there is currently no adequate program to supply materials for the manufacture of the posts. Therefore, it is proposed to schedule the supply of construction materials for the manufacture of concrete posts and accessories. For this, the MRP I is proposed as a programming method, this tool will allow the organization to know in a weekly or daily period, when the purchase order must be issued, how much it should be purchased, when said order will arrive at warehouse, the time it will take to produce the posts, and finally when the order will be ready. For this, previously an economic purchase lot should have been defined for each material used. After that, it is proposed to develop a method of demand planning and production capacity, therefore, the aggregate plan is proposed as a tool to be implemented to achieve said objective. With a cost analysis after implementation, direct costs, total unit costs and planning of the standard product were obtained. With these data obtained and maintaining the sale price of the posts, the new unit contribution margin can be calculated, which will be increased after the decrease in operating costs and administrative expenses. With all the above mentioned, the following can be visualized (Table 2): Table 2. Current situation vs. improved situation with the aggregate plan Concept Actual Improvement Increase in profit/unit

3.3

Direct costs (USD) 65.15 54.22

Total cost (USD) 81.44 55.39

Margin (USD) 34.90 60.95 26.05

Sale price (USD) 116.34 116.34

Maintenance Management and Autonomous Maintenance

On the one hand, the procedures and documentation necessary for each type of maintenance were established. Each of the preventive maintenance activities was then coded in order to perform adequate control. These activities are categorized in mechanical, electrical, lubricants and others. Finally, the preventive maintenance program was established, which would be applied in order to detect the failures of the machines of the plant, so that in this way the number of eventualities of machine shutdown are diminished. On the other hand, the objective of the implementation of the autonomous maintenance is to prevent the failures and the deterioration of the machines by means of a maintenance carried out by the operators; that is, it is mainly sought to maintain the basic conditions of the operation of the machines by supervising the workers who operate them. That is why it is important that they receive training on the importance of maintenance and the technical aspects of the machines; since it is sought that the operator can detect in advance some failures that the machine may present.

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4 Validation In this section, the implementation of the improvement proposals will be validated. The validation of the proposal tools will be developed with the aim of improving the current situation. We will proceed to carry out pilot plans of the tools together with a simulation of the production of posts and accessories through the Arena program to take the theory to a practical case. 4.1

Standardization of Working Methods

It was implemented in a pilot, and focused on solving the three problems in the flow of the concrete post production process, therefore it was proposed: a standardized filling of concrete in the mold without performing activities that do not generate value, the correct dosing of materials for mixing and reducing the excessive drying time of each product with the application of a super plasticizer called Sikament TM 100. 4.2

Maintenance Management and Autonomous Maintenance

The previously analyzed percentage of defective products represented 11.25%, which meant a total cost of $41,732. After the investigation and the implementation of the engineering tools, the value of non-conforming products was reduced by 6.46%. In this way, only a defective percentage of 4,791% was achieved, which represents $17,783, a significant reduction in operating cost overruns. 4.3

Analysis of Results

The current situation is compared with the results obtained after having implemented the proposed tools through pilot plans and after having executed the corresponding simulation in the Arena software (Table 3). Table 3. Result before and after implementation/simulation Concept Defects cost Percentage of defects OEE Penalties for default Default rate Cycle time

Current USD 41,732.00 11.50% 64.00% USD 202,625.00 12.50% 342.00 min.

Improvement USD 14,059.00 4.80% 85% USD 48,630.00 3.00% 221.00 min.

Variation 6.46% 21% 9.50% 121.00 min.

5 Conclusion A 6.7% reduction of defective products is concluded; due to the standardization of work, the reduction in staff turnover and the proposal to improve plant distribution; thanks to the SLP tool that was used for the analysis.

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The overall efficiency of the machines was increased to 85%, with the implementation of autonomous maintenance and maintenance management; since thanks to the preventive maintenance program you can evaluate the state of the machines beforehand to avoid possible failures during the working day. With the proposed improvements, a reduction in operating costs of 6.46% is obtained; estimating a value of $27,673.00.

References 1. Bellido, Y., Rosa, A.L., Torres, C., Quispe, G., Raymundo, C.: Waste optimization model based on Lean Manufacturing to increase productivity in micro- and small-medium enterprises of the textile sector. In: CICIC 2018 - Octava Conferencia Iberoamericana de Complejidad, Informatica y Cibernetica, Memorias, vol. 1, pp. 148–153 (2018) 2. Kishimoto, K., Medina, G., Sotelo, F., Raymundo, C.: Application of lean manufacturing techniques to increase on-time deliveries: case study of a metalworking company with a make-to-order environment in Peru. In: Ahram, T., Taiar, R., Colson, S., Choplin, A. (eds.) IHIET 2019. AISC, vol. 1018, pp. 952–958. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-030-25629-6_148 3. Antosz, K., Stadnicka, D.: Lean philosophy implementation in SME’s-study results. Procedia Engg. 182, 25–32 (2017) 4. Polácek, T.: Decision in implementation of production capacity planning determinated by usage of sensitive analysis. Trends Econ. Manage. 31, 57–69 (2018) 5. Megahed, A.: Tactical supply chain planning under uncertainty with an application in the wind turbines industry. Comput. Oper. Res. 100, 287–300 (2017) 6. Dadashnejad, A.A., Valmohammadi, C.: Investigating the effect of value stream mapping on overall equipment effectiveness: a case study. Total Qual. Manage. Bus. Excellence 30, 466– 482 (2017)

Application of Human Factors Engineering Principles to the Design and Development of Medical Wearable Sensor for Cardiac Monitoring Natalia Glazkova(&), Clement Fortin, and Tatiana Podladchikova Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Space Center, Bolshoy Boulevard 30, bld. 1, 121205 Moscow, Russia [email protected], {c.fortin,t.podladchikova}@skoltech.ru

Abstract. The paper discusses the principles of human-centered design applied to the development of a medical wearable electrocardiogram (ECG) patch-like system. The following design issues are taken under consideration. Firstly, how to design wearable suitable for people of different size, gender and age. Secondly, how to ensure proper signal detection, both tactile and visual. Thirdly, how to provide reliable physical connections between the element of the hardware piece (electronics, adhesive base, housing). Fourthly, how to reach intuitiveness of the user-system interface. Fifthly, how to achieve appearance more of a consumer product rather than a medical device, as many people prefer such systems to be small, convenient, comfortable and give no indications about its actual function. Design decisions throughout the development cycle are based on analysis of several available sensors with analogous purpose. Keywords: Medical wearable sensor
ECG monitoring
Electrocardiogram patch
Human-centered design
Human factors engineering
Design process
Ergonomics
Complex system design

1 Introduction The market of medical wearables is growing fast and a number of world’s largest technology companies (Amazon, Google, Apple for instance) are investing heavily into research and development of such systems. The quality of user interaction with medical wearable devices is essential for successful market adoption of the product. Besides, many such products require approval from regulatory authorities (US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States, CE in Europe, etc.), which requires significant time and resources. Authorities advice manufacturers to apply human factors engineering (HFE) through the product development cycle and ensure safety, reliability and effectiveness of designed systems [1]. Many device producers reported that the application of HFE reduces number of design modifications and high-cost updates after market introduction, therefore opening opportunities for competitive advantage [1].

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 566–572, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_86

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In this paper we discuss the development process of medical wearable sensors for electrocardiogram monitoring. HFE is best to be considered starting early in the product development cycle [2]. 1.1

Wearable System for Electrocardiogram Monitoring

The market provides devices for ECG monitoring in a variety of form-factors: wristworn, hand-held, body-worn, patch-like. The paper focuses on patch-like wearable ECG devices with direct attachment to the skin surface. Usually these sensors are paired with a specialized application on smartphone. Figure 1 illustrates examples of commercially available patch-like wearable sensors.

Fig. 1. Examples of commercially available patch-like wearable devices for ECG monitoring: a) Zio Patch by iRhythm Technologies, b) Peerbridge by Peerbridge Health, c) BDx by Bardy Diagnostics, d) Magicmed, e) Elephant Medical

The purpose of such systems is to provide preliminary diagnostics of heart-related abnormalities, and for some cases to evaluate the effectiveness of prescribed treatment of cardiac disease. Mobile devices enable more convenient and faster diagnostic tools for the user.

2 HFE for Medical Wearable Sensor for Cardiac Monitoring HFE principles are applied throughout the design cycle to minimize product-related safety risks and to rationalize design decisions. HFE considerations of user environment, user profile and user interface as early as possible are essential for correct design use. User Profile. A wearable medical device might be targeted toward children or adults, males or females, and lighter- and heavier-built individuals. The experience level may vary from novice to advanced. Users in an elderly age group tend to have difficulties

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adopting the system due to the limited experience with mobile technology. Some of the users may face functional disabilities (sensory/perceptual, physical, visual) and have specific emotional condition [3]. User Environment. Medical ECG wearable patches are used in home environments. However, most of the systems are intended to be used under supervision of healthcare professional. The ECG wearable system usually provides advisory information, the results interpretation and diagnosis are done by healthcare provider. In some cases, initial placement of a device on a patient is also led by a physician in a clinic. Then, the patient uses the device at home by himself during the regular life activities. User Interface. The user interface comprises the points of interaction between the user and the product, including the input (connections, knobs/dials, switches, buttons, touch screens, etc.) and output (visual: component status, displays, LED; auditory: clicks, alerts/alarms, beeps, voice; tactile: resistance, vibration). Proper documentation of HFE activities into the Quality Management System throughout the design process could ease the submission procedure for regulatory clearance [2]. 2.1

Risk Assessment

The risk management process aims to reduce design-related issues that contribute or cause ineffective or unsafe use. In the scope of this paper, we assess risks associated with user interaction with a device; and omit risks associated with the electronic circuit, signal processing quality and personal medical records transfer management. We evaluated the design of five ECG patch-like devices with analogous purpose by providing field research (sensors in Fig. 1a, b, c), individual interviews and surveys, observations of potential users interacting with comparable devices (sensors in Fig. 1d, e). Table 1 summarizes the results of the evaluation.

Table 1. Device failure hazards. Description Device failure hazards Sharp edges of the rigid housing and/or connector Device is too wide and does not fit when positioned vertically on the chest (usually female body) Detachment of a connector Damaged adhesive base Allergens Loss of signal due to the loose connection to the skin

Mitigation strategy Rounded edges Biomimicking form factors Reduced size of a rigid housing Variety of configurations of an adhesive base Single unit with adhesive base Replaceable single-used adhesive base Use of certified adhesive materials Minimize weight of the device Improved adhesive qualities of a tape Notification/alert to the smartphone requesting to check the connection (continued)

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Table 1. (continued) Description Loss of data due failed wireless connection User-related hazards Connection to the wrong component

Inadequate location on the body Mistakenly turn off the device

Failure to recharge/replace the battery, damage the circuit Increase anxiety level of a patient Overlook an alert about critical health condition Overlook an alert about hazardous device condition (low battery, BLE disconnection, electrode detachment) when an unexpected interruption of the device operation could cause data loss

2.2

Mitigation strategy SD-card or additional flash memory circuit Notification/alert to the smartphone Connector and its associated port are shapecoded and connect with a distinctive “click” sound Use labeling, specific shape, provide instructions in user manual Remove features that can be mistakenly selected or eliminate an interaction when it could lead to use error Use technologies with less or no maintenance, avoiding interference with inner components Use recommendation wording in messages Automatically sending message to the relative/caregiver Duplicate alerts for hazardous conditions: use vibration signal, and/or LED detection on the device, and notification to the smartphone

Form Factor

In most ECG patch configurations, the device includes rigid housing and adhesive base with electrodes. The device might come as a single unit (Fig. 1a, b, c), or it might consist of multiple components (Fig. 1d, e). In the second case, the rigid housing and the adhesive base are connected via snap closure buttons located above each electrode, or via a special connector. Design as a single unit and design with snap closure buttons limits flexibility in size and shape, as the device has distance constraints between electrodes. The flexibility of the design can optimize production adjustments. 2.3

Signal Detection

Safety-related warnings should draw attention reliably to avoid false positives and assure good sensitivity. Visual signs should be in the line of sight and be distinguished from the background. Audible signals should be loud and stand out against ambient noise. Tactile signals should be notable and distinct. The best solution is to reveal critical information (e.g., electrode detachment, connection loss, low battery) by multiple channels of communication.

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User-System Interface

Excessive functional complexity obstructs the intuitional operation of the device. It is worthwhile to keep the hardware piece simple with a minimum number of features and visual, audial and tactile interfaces. The major purpose of the sensor is to provide highquality data collection in the most comfortable way to the user and to reliably transfer the data to the gateway or a smartphone. Since the sensor is located on the chest, the audible and tactile feedback are more perceptible. The visual component (LED light) could duplicate the information about the device state. Simple turn on/turn off switches and pushbuttons are preferable to use as user interface inputs. Mobile application compensates the simplicity of the wearable sensor and gives comprehensive information about the device operation and the user health condition. 2.5

Appearance

With the advances in wearable technology, modern society has become used to high quality user-oriented design of products. Besides, many users prefer to not indicate their health state. Therefore, it is beneficial to achieve the appearance more of a consumer product rather than a medical device. Miniaturized forms, user-focused design, pleasant to the touch materials and modern production techniques help to achieve that goal.

3 Results As a case study, the paper describes the development of the SENSE2BEAT ECG wearable prototype. We investigate both physical and digital elements of the system. The SENSE2BEAT ECG wearable sensor is designed to assist with preliminary screening and early detection of heart rhythm abnormalities. The design decisions for the SENSE2BEAT wearable sensor are based on intention to keep flexibility of the form factor and potentially reduce production costs. To meet the needs of various user groups, we minimized the rigid housing and included a configurable adhesive base that is attachable through a separate connector (Fig. 2c). The rigid housing is a one-size piece that contains electronic components, LED indicators, functional buttons [4]. The adhesive base comes in different sizes (small, medium, large) and configurations to suit people with various body size and shape.

Fig. 2. SENSE2BEAT ECG sensor: a) front view, b) back view, c) configuration: rigid housing, adhesive base with electrodes, connector.

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Despite the trend to use displays in wearable devices, the decision was made to keep the design of an ECG patch simple. The device has the following user interfaces: – A small button on a side of a rigid housing. Its purpose is to turn on the device or reset it (very rare cases); – A large illuminated button in the center of a rigid housing. It is used to trigger symptoms (pain, short-breath, tremor, etc.) upon occurrence; – The LED illumination behind the large button. It has two regimes: white for normal device state and red for alert. By providing only the basic functionality, we reduce the risk of missuses of the device, as well as potentially cut the costs for manufacturing. Data analysis, key features and detailed notifications are accessible through the smartphone. Figure 3 illustrates several screens of the SENSE2BEAT mobile application: the health state summary; the analytics of arrhythmic episodes and the symptoms diary.

Fig. 3. Screens of the SENSE2BEAT mobile application: a) summary, b) arrhythmic episodes analytics, c) symptoms diary entry.

4 Discussion and Conclusions The design decisions of the SENSE2BEAT ECG sensor are based on human factors analysis of several available wearable devices with the same purpose; and preliminary hands-on studies of the solution. Starting from the early stages of product development cycle, we identified the user profile, the use environment and the user interfaces; we explored potential device and user related hazards and their mitigation strategies; evaluated different design alternatives. The outcome of this work is an industrial prototype of the SENSE2BEAT ECG system. As further steps, we plan to conduct function and task analysis, failure mode and effects analysis; heuristic analysis and expert reviews. Knowledge of human factors engineering principles helps developers to choose wisely among various design alternatives. The implementation of HFE processes

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throughout the product development phases reduces user error, improves product usability and efficiency, increases the level of patient compliance and ultimately user satisfaction. As a result, we are able to produce safe and usable medical devices and systems that meet the needs for today’s clinical environment and home healthcare.

References 1. FDA: Applying Human Factors and Usability Engineering to Medical Devices. Guidance for Industry and Food and Drug Administration Staff (2016) 2. Glazkova, N., Fortin C., Podladchikova T.: Application of lean-agile approach for medical wearable device development. In: 14th Annual Conference System of Systems Engineering (SoSE), pp. 75–80. Anchorage, AK, USA (2019) 3. Harte, R., Quinlan, L., Glynn, L.: Human-centered design study: enhancing the usability of a mobile phone app in an integrated falls risk detection system for use by older adult users. JMIR mHealth and uHealth 5(5), e71 (2017) 4. Glazkova, N., Podladchikova, T., Gerzer, R., Stepanova, D.: Non-invasive wearable ECGpatch system for astronauts and patients on Earth. J. Acta Astronaut. 166, 613–618 (2020)

Improvement of the Polymer Insulation Production Process Using Lean Manufacturing Tools and Plant Layout Design Flavio Arroyo-Andrade, Pebelyh Coral-Rodriguez, Jhonatan Cabel-Pozo, and Jose Alvarez(&) Ingeniería Industrial, Unversidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima, Peru {u201513931,u201416625,pcafjcab,pciijalv}@upc.edu.pe

Abstract. This study focuses on problems of inadequate production capacity management. The factors that generate this scenario are related to the incorrect distribution of work areas, the absence of standardization of the production process and unorganized workstations in the production line. The application of 5S’s tool, Value Stream Mapping (VSM) and a proposal for plant design are presented to solve the problem. After the application of the design solution, it was identified that 1 h and 23 min can be saved in transfer times, which can be invested in the manufacture of more products, improving the use of the plant’s capacity. Keywords: Value Stream Mapping
5S’s
Lean Manufacturing Layout
Polymeric insulator
Production capacity


Lean


1 Introduction The application of various engineering tools related to resource optimization has served as a support in the different existing industries worldwide. Among those tools, the most used are related to the Lean philosophy because it focuses on the elimination of the waste existing in the application area, which impacts in the reduction of the time used for the operation carried out [1, 2]. In 2018, Randhawa and Ahuja [3] applied 5S’s in a manufacturing organization in India, reducing 25% of waste in the company and reducing the standard production time by 5.02%, thus improving the productivity of the plant’s production process. The optimization of resources used in the production processes needs pillars that reinforce them at the micro level (within the workstations) and macro level (involving the structure of the company). To complement the lean tools, it is necessary the intervention of a tool visualize the general layout of the plant, in this way the redistribution of the company is formulated [1, 4]. In 2018, Cusma [5] analyzed the plant layout of the processed food production area in a supermarket in Lima, Perú; this study resulted in a layout proposal that managed to reduce the standard production time by approximately 10%. The case study analyzes a company that produces polymeric insulators (a component of the medium and high voltage electricity diffusion chain), which often incurs © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 573–578, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_87

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extra manufacturing costs to meet the existing demand in the market. In view of such a scenario, an improvement model is proposed focused on the optimization of the standard production time that eliminates the extra costs of the company and serves as a model for companies of similar items to improve their profits by reducing the time spent in the production line with the use of lean tools and a plant layout design.

2 Problem The company’s problem lies in the inadequate management of polymer insulation production capacity. The main causes of this problem are the low production capacity, which is caused by the deficient planning of production, the absence of standardized production process and the inadequate distribution of work areas in the company, whose origin is generated in the lack of order in each of the work areas and the existence of distant production areas. It was possible to identify that the company’s deficient production planning generates cost overruns in the use of piecework labor to meet market demand (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Organization’s monthly manufacturing costs

Additionally, due to the absence of a standardized production process, the disorder of each work area and the existence of distant production areas generate high standard production times due to the presence of long transport within the production line and the absence of standardized procedures during production. The problems that appear most frequently in workstations related to the human factor (due to lack of uniformity in manufacturing procedures) were analyzed, and it was determined that about 40 min of work are lost in each shift, which represents approximately 6 h per week lost. It was determined that, under normal production conditions, 5 h and 40 min are required to produce 50 insulators. From the above analysis, it can be inferred that the company stops producing approximately 2,700 polymer insulators annually, which impacts the company’s

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unrealized sales revenue (opportunity cost) in the amount of approximately PEN 270,000.00. With the previous figures, it was identified that the problems related to the low production capacity represent 15.25% of the total of problems, while those of inadequate distribution of work areas are 84.75% as exhibited in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Problems tree presented in the company’s production process

3 Innovative Proposal The development of 3 lean methodologies is proposed in order to complement and optimize the production flow of polymer insulators. For this purpose, diagram in Fig. 3 indicates the stages to be used for the improvement of the process:

Fig. 3. Design of the solution proposal

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First, with plant distribution, it was possible to carry out a macro analysis of the current situation of the company. To do this, the times and the production flow are analyzed, then a table of the relationship between each area is used and the need to change the distances between certain areas are identified. Before applying the methodology, the VSM is used to identify the company’s value chain, the time between trips and the stages involved in the production process. Considering the critical areas of the company and the time wasted in the movement of products in process, the necessary distance between each work area is analyzed. Finally, the standardization and reduction of the times of the productive flow is ensured with the 5S’s tool to organize, clean, develop and maintain the best conditions in the work environment. All the workstations are analyzed separately, considering the personnel responsible, the activities carried out and the tools needed in each work area. For this purpose, order forms are applied to be placed on each worktable, as well as daily reviews by those in charge of each worktable and the production reps. For the validation of the case study, initial recorded times were compared with the current situation of the company after 5S’s implementation, the formats introduced in each work area and the comparative study of distance time with the current layout along with the proposed layout. For the plant redistribution, analysis started by developing a VSM, which detailed the “critical” activities and time lost due to the misplacement of products in process. After the modifications made between the production areas, we have a comparative chart shown in Table 1 of the reduced distances between them, which reflect an improvement in the routes of the products in process in the production flow. Table 1. Current vs. proposes distance traveled Related areas Initial walkthrough (min.) Final walkthrough (min.) Difference (min.) In – H 1.6 1.6 0 Ln – I 48 37 −18.8 I–L 1 1.3 0.3 L–P 2 2 0 P–A 12.2 3.2 −9.0 A2 – A 22.5 1.0 −21.5 A3 – A 20.6 2.3 −18.3 A – CC 1.2 1.5 0.3 CC – E 2.0 2.0 0 E – APT 25.1 15.0 −10.1 Total 130.2 35.7

After the development of the analysis of the plant redistribution, the study of the results of the application of the 5s methodology is executed, the new times of the operations diagram of each work area are taken to verify if the application of the order and the proposed standardization is reflected in the production time, resulting in the decrease of 2.3 min (12% approx. of the total time of production of a lot).

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4 Analysis of Results From the analysis carried out, production time was reduced by 7.56 min, generated by the plant redistribution (reduction of distances traveled) and by the 5S’s methodology (analysis of each sub-area of work, identifying improvements and activities that do not generate value), which favors the production of an extra daily lot, thus generating the increase of the company’s production (Table 2). Table 2. Actual time vs. times per innovative proposal Process

Vulcanized sleeve Fitted sleeves Assembly of electric polymeric insulators Packaging of electric polymeric insulators

Current production time (min.) 6.83 5.42 4.97

Current travelling time (min.) 0.25 5.82 3.78

Improved production time (min.) 6.75 3.8 3.92

Improved travelling time (min.) 0.25 2.38 2.60

1.33

0.32

0.93

0.32

A period of 1 year was evaluated, in which the expenses issued by the trainings and the further savings after the implementation of the proposal were considered. It is worth noting that the development of the proposal consists of five months, which are included in the economic analysis carried out. In conclusion, it is true that the VANE is positive and RBC greater than 1, so it is stated that the project is viable. It was possible to reduce the production time used in transfers between production areas, after reducing the distances traveled by 94.5 m, which represents about one hour and twenty-three minutes (1 h 23 min). We identified the indicators that allow us to measure the evolution of “Producer ABC”, which are: time, NPV, KOC and RBC. These indicators allowed the evaluation of the viability of the implementation of the proposal developed in the present investigation. The plant distribution design allows in a graphic way the changes made to improve the production flow of polymeric insulators. It shows the reduction of distances, which is reflected in the reduction of transfer times and the improvement in the company’s production times. The standardization of the process based on the application of the 5’S improves the distribution of the work space, allowing the operators to become familiar with the dispositions of the tools and the procedures to be carried out, thus enabling the workers to increase the speed of work with constant and established activities. The economic viability of the project was demonstrated with the use of economic indicators such as the VANE, whose value of eight thousand six hundred and two with

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one hundred and eight (8,602,108) allows for the acceptance of the project, which is supported by the value obtained for the RBC, forty-four (44). This concludes that the project is economically viable. In the present investigation it is not relevant to obtain the IRR as a factor of economic viability, because they are irregular monthly flows.

5 Conclusions Regarding the conclusions of the investigation work, it can be stated that the application of Lean Manufacturing tools with the support of a plant redistribution, significantly improves the production time of polymeric insulators, as well as travel times. Furthermore, analysing the cash flow and investment of the proposal, it is determined that the project is viable, given that the profitability indicators show positive results. Finally, the creation of a management system for the continuous improvement of the process is recommended. In this system the methodology of continuous improvement for tool 5’s should be used, with the objective of maintaining the implemented measures, as well as the suggested formats in the work areas.

References 1. Huallpa, J., Vera, T., Altamirano, E., Raymundo, C., Moguerza, J.M.: Production management model for increasing productivity in bakery SMEs in Peru. In: Karwowski, W., Trzcielinski, S., Mrugalska, B. (eds.) AHFE 2019. AISC, vol. 971, pp. 477–485. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20494-5_45 2. Henríquez-Alvarado, F., Luque-Ojeda, V., Macassi-Jauregui, I., Alvarez, J.M., RaymundoIbañez, C.: Process optimization using lean manufacturing to reduce downtime: case study of a manufacturing SME in Peru. In: Paper presented at the ACM International Conference Proceeding Series, pp. 261–265 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1145/3364335.3364383 3. Randhawa, J.S., Ahuja, I.S.: An investigation into manufacturing performance achievements accrued by Indian manufacturing organization through strategic 5S practices. Int. J. Prod. Perform. Manage. 67, 754–787 (2018) 4. Gutierrez, N., Jaimes, W., Sotelo, F., Raymundo, C., Dominguez, F.: Plant layout model for improving footwear process times in micro and small enterprises. In: Ahram, T., Karwowski, W., Pickl, S., Taiar, R. (eds.) IHSED 2019. AISC, vol. 1026, pp. 860–866. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27928-8_130 5. Cusma, N.: Propuesta de mejora en la distribución de planta y los métodos de trabajo para reducir el costo de producción de alimentos procesados en un supermercado. In: Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas (UPC). UPC, Lima (2018)

Productivity Model Focused on Six Sigma and Lean Manufacturing to Improve the Quality of Service in SMEs in Peru Luis Cardenas and Gianpierre Zapata(&) Dirección de Investigaciones, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplciadas, Lima, Peru {pcsilcar,u201214895}@upc.edu.pe

Abstract. In the Peruvian market there is a great demand for the improvement of the service and quality of the products, that is why many SMEs look for lowcost alternatives that allow them to optimize their activities and thus be able to assure the quality of the service. The problem is that there are many difficulties when implementing tools or techniques due to high costs or lack of knowledge, therefore a productivity model is proposed focused on six sigma and lean manufacturing methodologies in order to adapt the needs of SMEs with 4 phases can analyze, design, implement and monitor requirements in order to reduce mismanagement of service quality, cost savings and decrease product returns. Keywords: SMEs


Six sigma
Lean manufacturing

1 Introduction One of the main problems that SMEs face today is the quality of its processes and products, which are often represented in product delivery, order returns, production time, among others, seeking to meet the specifications that have been defined by customer standards or by company standards. In addition, considering that a company that does not control the quality of its products may have large losses of money that can create obstacles to the growth of the company if they are not detected in time, this is because many times they are not evidence in inventories for inadequate management of resources. Faced with these problems, six sigmas is presented because it has proven to be a tool that increases the quality of services or products, reducing the variability of the processes and increasing the level of quality of the products produced by said methodology. Considering that with this methodology defects are minimized, and adequate control of the products is maintained. For this reason, the objective of the research is to evaluate the sigma quality levels of the production processes of a wooden furniture company for which the DMAIC methodology is applied, which allows analyzing the causes that generate the decrease in quality of a product and allows to propose improvements.

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 579–584, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_88

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2 State of Art Lean Manufacturing is an applied methodology of scientific and objective techniques that ensure that, in a process, activities that do not add value are minimal, generating a reduction in waiting time [1, 2]. In [3] they focus on the application of some Lean Manufacturing tools to increase the efficiency of the cutting process through the elimination of waste, the results obtained were positive, which produced significant cost savings. Likewise, in [4] they show how applying Lean Manufacturing tools improves process times and reduces costs. A 2016 study [5] shows how the DMAICSIX SIGMA methodology was implemented in a fishing company to improve its productivity, resulting in an increase in the sigma level from 1.8 to 3.7 sigma, generating economic savings of 9108.75 PEN and In a more efficient production process, in the same way, said methodology was implemented in [6] concluding that it is totally effective in improving a country’s response capacity to a natural disaster. In [7] it was possible to go from an OEE of 47% to 80% at the end of the improvements implemented, achieved by means of the DMAIC-SIX SIGMA methodology in the pet liquor packaging line. As a proposal [8], it proposes a lean production system, aimed at reducing the main waste factors of the conventional system, as a result, the proposed model manages to reduce lead time, cycle time, inventory in process and unnecessary movements.

3 Methodological Approach A reference framework on the critical factors to implement lean six sigma in SMEs is presented, in addition to identifying the strategies and tools that will be applied in SMEs. The methodological approach is made up of 4 stages: Preparation, design, execution and control, all supported by the Kaizen culture, which is a continuous improvement approach, whose structure allows defining a better vision and mission of the company, without ceasing to customer needs and organizational strategies. In addition, the model considers an important factor that every SME must consider in order to identify the scope of the implementation, therefore, strategic goals and objectives are defined within the stages of the methodology, in this way improvements and strengthening can be defined accordingly to the requirements of the products and services. For this reason, it is important for the company to be clear about the unemployment indicators that are key to defining the goals and objectives to be met. See Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1. Proposed production model with the six sigma approach

Phase 1. Preparation This phase considers everything related to ensuring compliance with the essential characteristics in order to implement the methodology. From proposing the initial guidelines to the final scope of the project. Phase 2. Design In this phase it is defined which lean six sigma approach will be applied taking into account 2 important questions: What do you want to achieve? And what project must be carried out to achieve the objective? Therefore, the processes must first be defined and where the focus for improvement will be carried out, in addition to having a portfolio of projects based on the information collected. Phase 3. Execution The execution phase begins when one of the projects in the portfolio is selected, where the six sigma DMAIC and lean manufacturing methodology is executed. This methodology is divided into 5 stages: Define, measure, analyze, improve and control that allow the company in an organized way to define the general aspects of the project and define the improvements that are to be achieved in its implementation. See Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. DMAIC methodology for the implementation of six sigma SMEs

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Phase 4. Control The control phase is related to the expected results of the project, in this way it is possible to identify which are the opportunities for improvement, the lessons learned and evaluate where a better scope of the objectives or goals of the project can be strengthened or defined final project.

4 Implementation Results The implementation is carried out in a furniture factory, which did not have a strategic plan, goals and objectives in the long or medium term. This did not allow the company to see the extent of economic losses and the positioning of its products among market sales, so the company seeks to improve its performance and services by implementing six sigma and reducing returns on services generated by customers, thereby having an impact on production costs, poor quality costs, reprocessing, cycle time and total production capacity. Phase 1. Preparation The first phase is developed in collaboration with the company to delimit important factors to the implementation of Six Sigma. Among which the following stand out: 1:2:3:4:-

Six sigma strategic alignment. Focus on the client. Standardization of processes. Measurement culture.

Phase 2. Design Improvements within the company are identified as related to defects in the final product delivered to the customer. First, it was defined that the majority of customers had complaints regarding the conformity of product deliveries, and second, that there were many returns or warranty claims, and based on the analyzes, it was found that 80% of the defects were related to the assembly and assembly of the product. Given this result, it was decided to concentrate all the effort on reducing returns and improving the quality of the products. See Table 1. Table 1. Identification of improvements and project portfolio Improvements Paint defect Wood drying problems Assembly problems

Project portfolio 1. Decreased return of products with paint finish problems 2. Decrease in the return of wood products with openings 3. Decreased reprocessing 4. Decrease in the return of defective products Problems in product packaging 5. Decrease of striped products in packaging

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Phase 3. Execution From the 5 projects detected in the portfolio, the decrease in returns of defective products was selected and we then applied the DMAIC stages. • Define: At the beginning of the project, it had been identified that there is a 22% return that is an indicator of risk, representing approximately $ 4,000 in monthly losses. Analyzing this, it is due to poor management of the production of the products. • Measure: Considering that the risk points are identified, it is measured which are the actors and which are the stages where it generates greater risk to proceed to analysis and improvements. • Analyze: Having identified what the critical points are, it was detected that the main problem was bad practices when it came to making the assemblies, divided into different categories, labor, materials, methods, machines, seeing that the improvement starts from the composition of the processes. • Improve: Once all the problems have been detected, improvements and a follow-up plan have been designed for all the reprocesses, in this way being able to reduce losses and reprocesses. Among these, the most important are represented: – Design and standardize the assembly process. – Design and implement cutting and assembly guides. – Constantly train and train workers. – Design a quality control plan to avoid rework. • Control: Various control methods are proposed: – Use control chart P to evaluate the percentage of returns. – Conduct monthly audits. – Implement quality control management and constant monitoring of production managers. Phase 4. Control Results were evaluated at a before and after where the following improvements were made. – – – – –

Better level of final product quality. Increase in the cutting process capacity, with accuracy in the cut pieces. Increased product assembly capacity and decreased reprocessing of products. Increased production capacity and decreased% of customer non-compliance. End customer satisfaction.

5 Conclusions It was demonstrated that the Six Sigma methodology in the company allowed to design and implement sufficient organizational changes to be able to identify the focuses of improvement within the activities of each process. In addition to ordering the different areas that generated production problems, the key projects are identified as a result of

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these detected problems and with the methodology it is possible to measure each of them according to their importance and impact. Although the implementation had an impact on profitability because they found which were the breaking points where there were greater losses, I also allow the creation of a portfolio of projects that in the long run would generate cultural and organizational change in each of the production stages. In general, with the methodology it can be brought together, which provides a solid basis to be able to identify, define, prioritize and execute projects according to the need of the company.

References 1. Luis, S., Garcia, L., Villarreal, F.: Six sigma: factores y conceptos claves. Investigacion Operativa XXII(36), 100–113 (2014) 2. Rojas, K., Aramburú, V., Ramos, E., Raymundo, C., Moguerza, JM.: Six sigma-based optimization model in hauling cut and fill exploitation activities to reduce downtime in underground mines in Peru. In: Karwowski, W., Trzcielinski, S., Mrugalska, B. (eds.) AHFE 2019. AISC, vol. 971, pp. 365–375. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3030-20494-5_34 3. Espinoza-Sandoval, J.M., Cuamea-Cruz, G.: Aplicación de manufactura esbelta para reducir costos por desperdicio en un proceso de corte de partes automotrices. Avances de Investigación en Ingeniería en el Estado de Sonora, 69–79 (2016) 4. Oceguera, J.O., Estrada, K.M., Lopez, M.N., et al.: Número Especial de la Revista Aristas: Investigación Básica y Aplicada 6(12) (2018). ISSN 2007-9478 5. Zapata, C.B.R., Paredes, L.E., Rojo, C.M.: Metodología DMAIC - SIX SIGMA para aumentar la productividad del área de producto terminado de la empresa Pesquera Artesanal de Chimbote, 2016. INGnosis 3(1), 114–129 (2017) 6. Gordillo, L.D.C., Villalba, N.M.M.: Lean Six Sigma applied to the reduction of seismic risks. Case study in Ecuador. In: 17th LACCEI International Multi-conference for Engineering, Education, and Technology: “Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure for Sustainable Cities and Communities”, Jamaica, 24–26 July 2019 (2019). http://dx.doi.org/10.18687/ LACCEI2019.1.1.281 7. Pérez-López, E., García-Cerdas, M.: Implementación de la metodología DMAIC-Seis Sigma en el envasado de licores en Fanal. Tecnología en Marcha 27(3), 88–106 (2014) 8. Carvallo Munar, E.G.: Propuesta de aplicación de conceptos de manufactura esbelta a una línea de producción de costura de una empresa de confecciones de tejido de punto para exportación. Sinergia e Innovación 2(1), 52–90 (2014)

Process Improvement Proposal for the Reduction of Machine Setup Time in a Copper Transformation Company Using Lean Manufacturing Tools Anthony Lora-Soto, Cristhoffer Morales-Silva, Jose Llontop-Jesus, and Nestor Mamani(&) Ingeniería Industrial, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima 15023, Peru {u201511195,u201516979,jose.llontop, pcsinmam}@upc.edu.pe

Abstract. This study aimed to identify the causes of significant problems existing in the metallurgical sector, and a solution is proposed for the setup process. We detail the theoretical background of the processes in the lean manufacturing methodology, which will be applied to a rolling machine. Further, we provide a brief description of the company and the sector’s problems. We describe success stories of companies that implemented various lean manufacturing tools. We also present some of the results achieved across sectors to gain an in-depth understanding of the technique and a practical support of the implemented model. Our proposal is based on the lean manufacturing methodology; tools such as Single Minute Exchanges of Dies, Kaizen, 5S, and value stream mapping (VSM) will be used to reduce setup times and to impact machine layout and productivity positively. We also show the implementation results of a pilot plan conducted in the company over a period of more than 3 months. Keywords: Lean manufacturing Metallurgy


Setup
5S
SMED
Availability


1 Introduction This study presents the case study of a company dedicated to the transformation of nonferrous metals. This company faces problems related to low productivity, an environment with poor order and cleanliness, and the lack of standardization in the setup process. These factors directly affect the process flow effectiveness, causing unnecessary motion, excessive worker downtime, and high setup times. Our proposal for a solution is based on lean manufacturing tools. In the case study, we identified the process flow of the representative “busbar” product by means of a current state value stream mapping (VSM). Thus, we managed to identify the main area that experiences the lowest efficiency. Then, we mapped the process flow and started the implementation of specific tools such as SMED to standardize activities and reduce © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 585–591, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_89

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setup times and the 5S method to improve the area order and reduce unnecessary motion during setup. The scope of this project addresses only the area found to have the lowest efficiency in the VSM. Furthermore, this study will focus on improvement to develop the production line’s most representative products, known as busbar.

2 Literature Review Lean manufacturing has significantly improved the performance of various industry processes [1]. For example, the 5S tool was used to improve order and cleanliness based on Japanese philosophies [2]. Chiarini presented a case where a Lean Six Sigma methodology, namely 5S, was implemented, and a reduction by 21% was achieved in the setup time variability [3]. Rosa, Silva, Ferreira, and Campilho show that the combination of visual management and 5S reduced setup times by 58% because of the order and discipline attained in the area after 5S implementation [4]. Likewise, in the pharmaceutical sector, the use of the 5S tool resulted in a reduction in batch setup times by 50% and an increase in productivity by 25% [5]. SMED was developed in the 1950s and focused mainly on minimizing setup time [6]. Rosmaini & Mohd, both implemented SMED in a manufacturing plant for computer numerical control machines, and they managed to reduce setup times by 44% [7]. Furthermore, in a textile company, where only the SMED tool was implemented, the setup time of critical processes was reduced by 34.7% [8]. SMED was also implemented in a plastic manufacturing company dealing with 4% production noncompliance, while the company policy did not allow for a value greater than 2%. Therefore, after SMED implementation, the setup times were reduced by 29%, and in turn, the production non-compliance indicator was reduced to 1.82% [9]. It is worth mentioning that SMED tool can be used along with other lean manufacturing tools. In the case study by Johnson and Prasad, they intended to reduce setup times using SMED in conjunction with 5S, Kanban, and VSM tools; they managed to reduce the setup times of the most critical production process by 77% [10]. Hamid and Yoong also successfully implemented SMED in conjunction with various tools such as standard work combination table, time measurement sheet, standard work chart, and standard operating procedure, achieving a 12% reduction in setup times [11].

3 Methodology The study focuses on reducing the setup time in the metallurgical sector. Companies in this sector use several equipment items such as extrusion machines, rolling machines, or furnaces. Thus, the preparation time of these machines exceeds the standard time that should be achieved. To solve this problem, we used lean manufacturing tools such as SMED and 5S. The first one focused on reducing the machine preparation or setup time, while the second one sought to maintain an order in the operators’ tasks, to achieve optimal movement flow. The following table shows the methodology used (Table 1).

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Table 1. Innovative technique steps Proposal Preliminary phase SMED 5S Knowing the study process and areas Identifying the current state Identifying setup activities and name of areas, tools, etc. First phase SMED 5S Separating internal and external activities First S: Sort Second S: Set in Order Second phase SMED 5S Converting internal activities into external activities Third S: Shine Standardizing the new process Fourth S: Standardize Kaizen event Third phase SMED 5S Control and monitoring of the new process Fifth S: Sustain Result verification

The innovation of the technique is a result of joining the 5S and SMED steps because the two tools have the same guidelines and can yield very good results. This is also reinforced by the Kaizen tool, which promotes teamwork and leadership in the production lines. Thus, the implementation time of both tools is reduced, being performed simultaneously and not sequentially, which positively impacts the organization. First, the preliminary phase shows the study process and areas and identifies the current state and the machine setup activities, the tools used, and other components. Further, we held a meeting with the operators and line supervisors to present the project and identify the company’s current state. Based on the information survey carried out in the process, we created a current state VSM and identified the rolling machine as a critical area of study. Second, the project’s first phase is used to analyze setup activities, classify internal and external activities, and implement sorting and setting in order. Figure 1 shows the operators’ movement flow. Consider from 1 to 7 the start and end zones of the machine. As can be seen, there is no standardized process, and there are unnecessary repetitive movements. Third, the second phase involves the Kaizen tool, focusing on the new setup process standardization and the implementation of shining and standardizing. Figure 2 shows in detail the process improvement by maintaining standardized activities and optimal movement flows.

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Fig. 1. Current setup process

Fig. 2. Standardized setup process

The third phase consists of new process control and monitoring and result verification for both SMED and 5S. Then, the second Kaizen stage begins, which promotes teamwork. Figure 3 shows the proposed VSM to assess the improvements made compared to the current state.

Fig. 3. Proposed VSM

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4 Results First, setup times were reduced from 48.96 min to 28.44 min, that is, a 42% reduction. Likewise, daily production increased from 20 tons to 29.8 tons per day (i.e., almost 50% of production). In addition, the machine availability indicator was improved from 45% to 62%, generating a higher use of machine resources. Finally, the unnecessary motion in the setup process was entirely reduced, achieving an improvement of 68%. In terms of 5S, the initial area score was low (38.92%). After implementing the 5S, we achieved an order and cleanliness score of almost 94%, which consolidates the 5S role in the improvement proposal. Furthermore, during the implementation, we discovered the solvent use factor with an amount of approximately 135 gallons per day. After establishing an order of activities, this was reduced to 70 gallons per month. A productivity increase of 50%, a motion reduction of 68%, and a setup time reduction of 42% are the organization’s expected values after the tool implementation. Thus, the improvement in productivity, equipment performance, and manpower efficiency show the importance of lean manufacturing tools in the industry. The summary of the results is shown in Table 2. Table 2. SMED & 5S results Elements

Before implementation SMED & 5S Setup time 48.96 min Production 20 tons/day Availability 45% Overtime (month) 416 h/month Downtime (month) 98.5 h/month Chemical solvent use (gal) 135 gallons/month Area cleaning (according to 5S) 38.92% (Poor) Motion reduction 170.2 m/setup

After implementation SMED & 5S 28.44 min 29.8 tons/Day 62% 0 h/month 6.4 h/month 70 gallons/month 93.94% (Excellent) 52.8 m/setup

In summary, the positive impact generated by the improvement proposal can be quantified in terms of the following four aspects: • Social: Improved work environment and motivation to perform daily activities • Economic: Savings in overtime and increase in productivity both in indicator and monetary terms • Environmental: Reduction of solvent use by 44% • Organizational: Effective communication, teamwork, leadership, and positive performance level

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5 Conclusions The SMED implementation was focused on solving all the problems related to work standardization in the setup process, motion improvement, and setup time reduction. The 5S method was used to solve the problems associated with area order and cleanliness. Both tools used in conjunction with Kaizen and Kanban were key to initiate continuous improvement and to organize the setup components. After an in-depth investigation in the company, we found problems related to productivity and efficiency that were mainly associated with low production because of excessive stoppages, such that more than 60% was attributed to setup, generating 45% of machine availability and incurring costs to fulfill orders. Thus, we conclude that by improving the setup process, not only machine availability but also productivity can be increased, and the number of stoppages due to setup can be reduced. Because the setup time was reduced by 42%, we achieved a 100% decrease in cost reduction overtime and a 50% increase in production. In addition, motion was reduced by almost 70%. Finally, the machine availability was increased from 45% to 62%, thus allowing a better use of machine resources. The daily production rate after implementation reached 29.8 tons per day, that is, an increase of 50%. With respect to area order and cleanliness, at first, we found disorder and a poor distribution of the setup process components. In addition, there was excessive use of certain components because there was not a specific order to use them. After the implementation of the methodology, the use of some components was improved, a reduction of 44% was achieved, and the area order and cleanliness was improved. Thus, we conclude that the problem identified in the company generated setup difficulties, which were solved through 5S implementation.

References 1. Belhadi, A., Touriki, F.E., El Fezazi, S.: Benefits of adopting lean production on green performance of SMEs: a case study. Prod. Plan. Control 29, 873–894 (2018). https://doi.org/ 10.1080/09537287.2018.1490971 2. Kishimoto, K., Medina, G., Sotelo, F., Raymundo, C.: Application of lean manufacturing techniques to increase on-time deliveries: case study of a metalworking company with a make-to-order environment in Peru. In: Ahram, T., Taiar, R., Colson, S., Choplin, A. (eds.) IHIET 2019. AISC, vol. 1018, pp. 952–958. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-030-25629-6_148 3. Chiaini, A.: Improvement of OEE performance using a Lean Six Sigma approach: an Italian manufacturing case study. Int. J. Prod. Qual. Manage. 16, 416–433 (2015) 4. Rosa, C., Silva, F.J.G., Ferreira, L.P., Campilho, R.: SMED methodology: the reduction of setup times for Steel Wire-Rope assembly lines in the automotive industry. Procedia Manuf. 13, 1034–1042 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2017.09.110 5. Bevilacqua, M., Ciarapica, F., De Sanctis, I., et al.: A Changeover Time Reduction through an integration of lean practices: a case study from pharmaceutical sector. Assembly Autom. 35(1), 22–34 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1108/AA-05-2014-035 6. Shingo, S.: A Revolution in Manufacturing: The SMED System. CRC Press, Boca Raton (1985)

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7. Ahmad, R., Soberi, M.S.F.: Changeover process improvement based on modified SMED method and other process improvement tools application: an improvement project of 5-axis CNC machine operation in advanced composite manufacturing industry. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 94(1), 433–450 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-017-0827-7 8. Díaz-Reza, J., García-Alcaraz, J., Martínez-Loya, V., Blanco, J., Jiménez, E., Avelar-Sosa, L.: The effect of SMED on benefits gained in maquiladora industry. Sustainability 8, 1237 (2016) 9. Reyes, S., Jeampiere, A., Castro, S., Fernanda, R.: Application of lean techniques to reduce preparation times: case study of a Peruvian plastic company. Int. J. Appl. Eng. Res. 12(23), 12 (2017) 10. Johnson, A., Prasad, S., Sharma, A.K.: Manufacturing lead time reduction in a scaffold making industry using lean manufacturing techniques–a case study. Int. J. Mech. Eng. Technol. 8(2), 12 (2017) 11. Puvanasvaran, A.P., Ab. Hamid, M.N.H., Yoong, S.S.: Cycle time reduction for coil setup process through standard work case study in ceramic industry. ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 13 (1), 210–220 (2018)

Combined Method Redesign for the Packing Area in a Peruvian Bakery SME Provider of National Food Programs Mario Quintanilla-Anicama1, Johana Congona-Garcia1, Edgardo Carvallo-Munar1, Iliana Macassi-Jauregui1, and Luis Cardenas2(&) 1

Ingeniería Industrial, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima 15023, Peru {u201214031,u201214031,pcinecar,pcadlma}@upc.edu.pe 2 Dirección de Investigación, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima 15023, Peru [email protected]

Abstract. In the bakery industry, it is sought to have zero defective products. It is in the packing; where it is evident, as the last area of the production chain, all the defects generated. Therefore, a combined redesign method is proposed, which consists in the use of Economy of Movement, Ergonomics, Poka Yoke and Method Engineering to reduce defective products in SMEs in the bakery industry. The losses of these generate a reduction of 29.50% for crushed bread and 19.67% of bread on the floor, reducing with the use of this method to 16.20% and 8.38% respectively. Keywords: Economy of movements Method engineering


Ergonomics
Poka Yoke
Redesign


1 Introduction In Peru there is evidence of a 45% growth in baking industries whose main objective is to become the main providers of social programs. They usually consider only two aspects; satisfy demand and enter other markets. However, due to the demands of consumers and the competitiveness of the market, these companies must comply with the technical specifications of the products and ensure their quality. The baking industry has had negative performances as a result of the economic slowdown [1] and, above all, the lack of interest in this sector [2]. In addition, this sector suffers from a series of problems that have impeded its growth. Among the main ones are: the lack of training of entrepreneurs, in methods and tools to improve their processes, exploitation of personnel, ergonomically uneducated jobs, products that are harmful to consumption and inefficient quality control. The motivation to carry out this research work is to provide a design improvement by applying industrial engineering tools to a bakery SME that has high growth potential. Applying Lean Manufacturing and its performance in SMEs. In this sense, the main © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 592–598, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_90

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objective of this document is to eliminate unnecessary processes, raise productivity levels, reduce waste and comply with the technical specifications of the products.

2 State of the Art 2.1

Lean Manufacturing Techniques in the Food Industries

Lean tools have been a research focus for more than five years and it has been concluded that they improve the quality of production processes [3]. However, it is important to emphasize that if they are not properly implemented, they could fail in organizations. These tools aim to outline the value chain, eliminating waste, guaranteeing fluidity and seeking perfection in products. It is in this aspect that it contributes to eliminating non-conformities in the production process of the food industry. In addition, lean manufacturing techniques have been used very little in the food industry and based on previous studies, the tools that have been most widely implemented have been those of Kaizen, TPM and Poka Yoke [4]. According to the Yadav study [5] it demonstrated an improvement in operational performance with the use of a Lean Sigma framework to implement 5S, Kanban, working study, error proofing technique and TPM [6]. 2.2

Poka Yoke System

With the simple thought that there is no mistake to be made, with Poka-Yoke what you do is create a system in the process to prevent us from making mistakes. It can basically perform 2 functions: alert or correct. Within these functions there are 3 methods that are used to detect or correct errors. They work as follows: alerting that the error exists, separating the product with the error or preventing the error from being generated [7]. It is because the Poka Yoke System has the true capacity to reduce and eventually eliminate defects, that companies choose to use it [8]. 2.3

Ergonomics

Innovation and technological advances in the world make companies see the need to make changes and improvements in all their production processes for their workers. Ergonomics improves quality, productivity, and safe work by matching the system, equipment, product, jobs, and environment [9]. That is, an optimal study of the job. 2.4

Study of Work

Today’s companies use the study of work as a tool that allows them to avoid unnecessary movements that make the operating time high, through the standardization and optimization of the movements of an operator when performing a specific task [10]. The study of work is divided into two aspects: the study of methods and the study of time. The main techniques used in the study of methods are associated with direct observation, interrogation and the economy of movement shown through a diagram that varies according to the object of study. The main technique used in the study of

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time is that carried out with a stopwatch in a traditional way in 88% and the highest incidence of cases studied is in the health sector in 46% [11]. The food industry is little studied in these aspects despite producing critical products for society.

3 Contribution A combined redesign method is proposed that uses techniques associated with improving the production process of a specific company or area. The selected techniques are the following: Poka Yoke, Movement Economics and Ergonomics under the focus of Method Engineering. These techniques are related. In Fig. 1, the combined method of redesign is presented.

Fig. 1. The combined method of redesign

The proposal is based on the combination of all these techniques with the aim of reducing non-conformities in a baking company. Ergonomics, mainly complies with the design of the workstation and goes together with the Poka yoke technique, with this it is intended to make a combination of these methodologies and apply it to the packaging area. It is shown that these techniques are related in the manipulation process and manual processes for the result of products. It is worth mentioning that for its development it begins with the principles of movement economy. 3.1

Implementation Method

It is made up of 4 phases that are described below: Phase 1: Identification of the Improvement. In this phase the identification of the problems will be carried out, the causes will be analyzed, an anthropometric analysis of

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the personnel of the packing area, the economic impact and the economic loss that will affect the case study will be calculated. Phase 2: Design of the Improvement. Anthropometric analysis, distribution of the work area and insufficiency in the anti-error method are performed; The poka yoke method and method engineering are implemented to improve the packaging area. Phase 3: Verification of Improvement. Verification is based on a pilot plan with these proposals that has been made to reduce non-conformities. Phase 4: Correct the Improvement. Based on the analysis of the results, the aim is to make the improvement sustainable, the management and support of the personnel in deficiencies that may appear in the future are evaluated. To carry out personnel change management, it is important to have quality circles, with the head of production, quality and the workers involved in the packing area. 3.2

Indicators

Floor Bread Indicator (% FBI). The objective of this indicator is to measure the amount of bread that falls on the floor as a result of the new method and in combination with the new workstation. This indicator is measured in percentage (%) and the following equation is used: %FBI ¼ ðamount of bread on the floor/amount of bread packedÞ  100

ð1Þ

Crushed Bread Indicator (% CBI). The crushed bread indicator is created to show the new working method and the new station. This indicator is measured in percentage (%) and the following equation is used: %CBI ¼ ðamount of crushed bread/amount of bread packedÞ  100

ð2Þ

Rejected Final Product Indicator (% RFPI). This indicator measures the total number of products that are rejected (on the floor plus the crushed ones). This indicator is measured in percentage (%) and the following equation is used: %RFPI ¼ %FBI þ %CBI

ð3Þ

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Fig. 2. The combined method of redesign

4 Validation For validation, a pilot plan has been carried out in a Peruvian SME that is dedicated to the production and processing of bakery products. It was founded in 1992 with the aim of making bread and distributing it, both for the local market and for National Food Programs in the form of rations and products. This being its main client. This pilot plan was carried out during the months of August and September 2019. The total monthly production is 12,000 loaves. Analysis of the workplace in these food SMEs shows that the workplace does not have an established area for packaging. This means that the finished products do not meet the established quality requirements. Workstation modifications (Fig. 2) and a new method were required so that they could easily work and meet the technical specifications of the product. The results obtained are presented below:

Table 1. Indicators result. Indicators Application of the combined method Before After % FBI 19.67% 8.38% % CBI 29.50% 16.20% % RFPI 49.17% 25.03%

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Table 1 shows an average decrease of 12.30% for non-conformities associated with loaves that fall to the ground and those that are crushed when packing. Which leads to a decrease of 24.14% rejected products. Although it is true that the present study covers the main non-conformities, it would be important to study those other causes of non-conformities not contemplated. Another aspect to consider is everything related to resistance to change of personnel, since considering this aspect would contribute to consolidating the improvements implemented.

5 Conclusions The combined use of Poka Yoke, Economics of Motion, Ergonomics, Method Engineering and continuous improvement through a method is feasible. The proposed combined method allows to significantly solve the productivity problem in the packing area. With the implementation of the combined method, a decrease in non-conformities for breads that fall on the floor is obtained from 19.67% to 8.38%, that is, 11.29%. And in the case of non-conformities in crushed breads, a decrease of 29.50% to 16.20%, that is to say 13.30%. All this contributes significantly to improvements in the fulfillment of contracts with the National Food Programs.

References 1. Sociedad Nacional de Industrias: Industria peruana 3. Lima (2019) 2. Valenzuela, I.: Focalizacion de los programas sociales en el PERÚ: 2007–2011 (2015). http://www.bcrp.gob.pe/docs/Publicaciones/Revista-Moneda/moneda-155/moneda-155–03. pdf 3. Borges Lopes, R., Freitas, F., Sousa, I.: Application of Lean manufacturing tools in the food and beverage industries. J. Technol. Manage. Innov. 10(9), 120–130 (2015) 4. Shigeo, S.: Mistake-Proofing for Operators: The ZQC. Productivity Press, USA (1997) 5. Yadav, V., Jain, R., Mittal, M.L., Panwar, A., Lyons, A.: The impact of lean practices on the operational performance of SMEs in India. Ind. Manag. Data Syst. 119, 317–330 (2018) 6. De La Fuente, M., Ros-McDonnell, L.: Implementing a lean production system on a food company: a case study. Int. J. Eng. Manage. Econ. 5(1–2), 129–142 (2015) 7. Shigeo, S.: Zero Quality Control: Source Inspection and the Poka Yoke System, 1st edn. CRC Press, Cambridge, MA (1986). Productivity Press 8. Sermeño, L., Orellana, J., Eyzaguirre, J., Raymundo, C.: Improvement of attention times and efficiency of container movements in a port terminal using a truck appointment system, LIFO management and Poka Yoke. In: Ahram, T., Taiar, R., Colson, S., Choplin, A. (eds.) IHIET 2019. AISC, vol. 1018, pp. 967–974. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3030-25629-6_150

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9. Apud, E., Meyer, F.: La importancia de la ergonomía para los profesionales de la salud. Ciencia y enfermería 9(1), 15–20 (2003) 10. Lopes, B., Rui, F.F., Sousa, I.: Application of lean manufacturing tools in the food and beverage industries. J. Technol. Manage. Innov. 10(3), 120–130 (2015) 11. Bejamin, W.N., Freivalds, A.: Ingeniería Industrial Métodos, estánderes y diseño del trabajo, vol. 12 (2015)

Production Model to Increase Productivity and Delivery Compliance in the Peruvian Textile Sector by Applying Value Stream Mapping, 5S and Flexible Production Systems Víctor Barzola-Cisneros1, Jose Calderon-Tirado1(&), Gino Viacava-Campos1, and Daniel Aderhold2 1

2

Ingeniería Industrial, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima 15023, Peru {u201517089,u201517098,gino.viacava}@upc.edu.pe Dirección de Investigación, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima 15023, Peru [email protected]

Abstract. The Peruvian textile industry is a highly competitive market and is one of the main economic engines of the country. The sector provides more than 463 thousand jobs and represents 7.4% of the GDP. Most of the companies, mostly family businesses, do not have enough knowledge to implement a management model according to productivity standards and expected level of service. This article proposes a production model for the clothing industry based on Lean management, combining SIPOC, VSM, 5S techniques and a production system to increase profitability in the short term and make it sustainable in time. The model is validated by a case study in a representative company of the sector. The proposed activities were monitored through the study of work indicators, in which the results indicate an increase in productivity by 59% and the fulfillment by 48%. Keywords: MSMEs
Product delivery time
Supplier management
Slender manufacturing
Production planning

1 Introduction The textile industry is one of the most important economic sectors for developing countries such as Brazil [1], Ethiopia [2] and Zimbabwe [3]. In Peru, the SME exit rate is around 2.2%, with more than 39,000 companies extinct in 2017. Even so, 97% of companies in 2018 were SMEs, without achieving economic growth for years [4]. Its main problems are operational, such as breaches of delivery times, inadequate quality and market fluctuations, which are mainly generated by low productivity. In the present research, a diagnosis was made in a representative company of the Peruvian textile industry, which manufactures polo shirts, shirts, sportswear, among others; these are distributed by batches of orders and in stock in the store. The production process is based on an empirical model that does not allow growth, and the © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 599–605, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_91

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continuous breaches generate significant penalties. This has a negative economic impact, generating losses of around 19%. Likewise, the company’s productivity has dropped 5% in recent years, compared to the sector’s average that has risen by 4% [5]. The Peruvian textile sector represents almost 20% of the GDP, being largely made up of microenterprises. For this reason, the present research carries out an analysis that allows generating a solution to increase productivity, and adequately fulfill the orders delivery for the company under study. To do this, Lean Manufacturing tools will be used, in order to standardize production planning for textile microenterprises, and generate short-term profitability and improve productivity in the medium term.

2 Literature Review Lean manufacturing practices were first developed by Toyota in the 1950s; they allow improving operational processes of any industrial company [6]. More than just a diagram or a flow chart, Lean Manufacturing tools aim to solve specific problems that affect the industrial process as a whole [7]. One of the most developed techniques in Lean Manufacturing is the so-called Kaizen, which allows reducing machine setup times and product delivery times by 60%, as shown in the work of Kumar and Arbi in India [8]. In turn, 5S practices allow labor productivity to improve by up to 30% and the level of reprocesses to decrease up to 5% [9]. Álvarez and his colleagues [10] demonstrated that VSM and SIPOC together make it possible to determine activities that add value in process mapping; they also carried out a future mapping for after the improvements have been implemented. Assessing the result comparing it with the expected condition and determining the level of deviation is essential to achieve organizational learning. Therefore, Mane and Jayadeva [11] determined that within micro enterprises the implementation of 5S practices is necessary to improve the level of productivity by up to 30%. Additionally, the implementation of a flexible production system allowed to reach expected levels of success in textile SMEs in Mexico, where it was possible to reduce up to 90% the levels of inventories generated by rejected orders [12]. The study of Kumar and Arbi [8] also applies VSM to reduce inefficiencies, allowing production time to be reduced by 69.47%. Villa and Taurino [13] establish a proposal for production planning, achieving a 15% improvement in production time. Lean Manufacturing techniques are beneficial if combined with other methodologies, as seen in the work of Godinho [1] with Quick Response Manufacturing, reducing delivery time by 20% and 35% in two Brazilian textile companies.

3 Contribution In order to improve productivity and delivery times of textile microenterprises, the model outlined in Fig. 1 is proposed. The central axis of the proposal is the Lean Manufacturing philosophy. It is made up of four components (A, B, C, D) that act as

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solution managers to many causes of low productivity in a microenterprise. Various Lean Manufacturing techniques are deployed such as SIPOC, Value Stream Mapping (VSM) and 5S. In a final phase (Component E), the information obtained through indicators is evaluated, allowing a continuous improvement cycle to be restarted.

Fig. 1. Process diagram of the proposed model

3.1

Main Components

Component C (4): Production Planning System Responsible for planning the amount of materials to buy as well as how much to produce and when to distribute it. It is based on the following techniques: • • • • •

ABC classification of products Forecast of the demand Aggregate production plan Production master plan Material requirements plan

Each of them has tools and lead times for the precise calculation of the lots to produce. The standardization of production planning is primarily aimed at meeting delivery deadlines, reducing penalties, delays, discredit, etc. For data collection, forms and process time reports will be used, which will be consolidated in spreadsheets. Component C (5): Supplier Management System It focuses on the times of suppliers to include them in production planning. Ignoring times of outsourced products represents up to 30% of the causes of the main problem, so it is necessary to address it to achieve improvements. The system will work according to a flowchart which includes the supplier’s times.

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Complementary Components

The model is complemented with components A, B and D, since it is necessary to obtain qualitative and quantitative information from the case study (A.1 and A.2), improve workflows by establishing order and rules within the work environments (B.3) and consolidate the implementations finding future failures to promote the continuous improvement of the solution model (D.5 and D.6). 3.3

Model Indicators

The model is based on process (for each component) and results indicators. The target is based on an increase objective in global productivity of 3% per year [4], according to the expectations of the national sector.

4 Case Study The model was implemented as a pilot in a Peruvian textile company. To complete some processes, out-sourcing is used as an alternative. However, the poor processes and a bad management are generating economic losses. According to the study, the company presents delays in delivery times for which it had to pay penalties, resulting in losses of 19% on its income. This percentage is highly damaging to a small company, since the annual global productivity increase is expected to be 4%. Also, the microenterprise under study had a 5% decrease in the last 4 years. It was determined that the main cause of these losses is the inadequate planning of production, followed by the incorrect management of suppliers. The built model was developed for an SME, aligning appropriate techniques with each cause of the problem (penalties for delays, low productivity). The implementation was carried out as follows: Stage A: SIPOC and Initial VSM An analysis of the current situation was performed, regarding quantitative and qualitative aspects, determining the initial indicator values, as well as the levels of association with customers and suppliers. SIPOC facilitated the consolidation of qualitative information regarding customers, suppliers, resources, indicator goals, and criticality of processes. The data were obtained through forms and reports. Simultaneously, VSM was applied to obtain information such as production time, delivery time and dead times. A process analysis diagram was used, as well as formats and reports. Stage B: Organization of the Productive System - 5S Implementation This stage is oriented to the ordering of the production plant and to improve the flows within it. An audit was conducted in the operational areas, evidencing a disorganized production plant. From the audit, the 5S principles were adapted to the company. This process consists of involving the owner at each stage, training the staff and implementing the 5S practices. Tools such as red cards are used. The obtained information will allow establishing alternatives to improve the production system.

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Stage C: Flexible Production System Composed of two systems: production planning system and supplier management system. The first determines what, how much and when to produce in an optimal way to deliver orders in time. The second includes the suppliers time to manage in an integrated way the outsourcing of the production, which the company is not able to carry out. This stage provides information to carry out the production complying with the established indicators, being the most important component of the model. It determines the basis for establishing a cycle of continuous improvement in the company. Stage D: Final VSM and Continuous Improvement Cycle Establishes the steps to find failures in the deployed model, analyze them and prepare action plans, entering a continuous improvement cycle.

5 Validation For the implementation, a pilot was carried out, in which the process and outcome indicators would determine the functional viability. Component A had a duration of two months (April and May); component B two months (July and August); component C four months (June–September); and component D one month (October). Results of Pilot Plan The implementation of the pilot plan (2 months) allowed reducing the delivery time of the main product (t-shirts), to an acceptable range. The indicators improved considerably as shown in Table 1: compliance with delivery times increased from 52% to 87%, satisfaction of final customer from −5% to 4%, and productivity from 0.63 to 0.79 man-hours per produced unit; the penalties decreased from 53% to 17%, and the reprocessing and outsourcing from 7% to 4% and 8% to 5% respectively. Finally, the delay of suppliers decreased from 2 to 1.3 days on average.

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SUMMARY TABLE OF INDICATORS

Enterprise's Parameters

INDICATORS

CURRENT LEVEL

TARGET LEVEL

MONTH 1

MONTH 2

Improve provement

1.13

1.27

1.76

1.80

59%

52%

80%

100%

84%

62%

-5%

10%

1%

4%

9%

0.63

0.80

0.74

0.77

22%

7%

3%

5%

5%

-29%

53%

25%

0%

20%

-62%

Supplier A: 1.9 days Supplier B: 2 days

1 days

1.35

1.40

-28%

8%

6%

5%

6%

-25%

Global Productivity Delivery time fullfillment Customer satisfaction Productivity manhours per produced unit Percentage of reprocessing Percentage of penalties per month

Delay of suppliers

Reprocessing by outsourcing

Reference Level Greater than 1 Between 0.8 y 1 Less than 0.8 Greater than 80% Between 70-80% Less than 70% Greater than 30% Between 5-30% Less than 5% Greater than 0.9 Between 0.7 y 0.9 Less than 0.7 Less than 7% Between 7-10% Greater than 10% Less than 15% Between 15-25% Greater than 25% Less than 1 day Between 1-3 days Greater than 3 days Less than 7% Between 7-10% Greater than 10%

Results

6 Conclusions The globalization in textile trade make it necessary for companies in developing countries to adopt techniques that allow them to adapt to this environment. The proposed model combines various Lean Manufacturing techniques and adapts them to the reality of a company, improving productivity by 5% in the first 2 months. The other main indicator is the level of compliance, in which there was an improvement of 35%. The difference with the projected value is because the orders arrived with more time between orders. This facilitated timely compliance. The level of implementation had a time horizon in the two-month pilot plan. However, this time could be extended to deepen and specify the results generated.

References 1. Godinho Filho, M., Ganga, G.M.D., Gunasekaran, A.: Lean manufacturing in Brazilian small and medium enterprises: implementation and effect on performance. Int. J. Prod. Res. 54, 7523–7545 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1080/00207543.2016.1201606

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2. Birhanu, D., Krishnanand, L., Rao, A.N.: Supply chain strategies of manufacturers in Ethiopia. Int. J. Product. Perform. Manag. 67, 318–340 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1108/ IJPPM-04-2015-0058 3. Chisosa, D.F., Chipambwa, W.: An exploration of how work study techniques can optimize production in Zimbabwe’s clothing industry. J. Text. Apparel Technol. Manage. 10, 1–11 (2018) 4. Produce: Libro Mipyme 2017 (2017). http://ogeiee.produce.gob.pe/index.php/shortcode/oeedocumentos-publicaciones/publicaciones-anuales/item/829-las-mipyme-en-cifras-2017 5. Produce: Anuario estadístico pesquero y acuícola 2015 (2015). www.produce.gob.pe 6. Liker, D.J.K.: Toyota Way: 14 Management Principles from the World’s Greatest Manufacturer. McGraw-Hill Education, New York (2004) 7. Neyra, J., Muñoz, J., Eyzaguirre, J., Raymundo, C.: 5S hybrid management model for increasing productivity in a textile company in Lima. In: Ahram, T., Taiar, R., Colson, S., Choplin, A. (eds.) IHIET 2019. AISC, vol. 1018, pp. 975–981. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25629-6_151 8. Kumar, S., Samad Arbi, A.: Outsourcing strategies for apparel manufacture: a case study. J. Manuf. Technol. Manag. 19, 73–91 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1108/17410380810843462 9. Hernández Lamprea, E.J., Camargo Carreño, Z.M., Martínez Sánchez, P.M.T.: Impact of 5S on productivity, quality, organizational climate and industrial safety in Caucho Metal Ltda. Ingeniare. Rev. Chil. Ing. 23, 107–117 (2015). https://doi.org/10.4067/S071833052015000100013 10. Alvarez, K., Darwin Aldas, J.R.: Towards lean manufacturing from theory of constraints: a case study in footwear industry. In: 2017 International Conference on Industrial Engineering, Management Science and Application (ICIMSA), pp. 1–8. IEEE (2017). https://doi.org/10. 1109/ICIMSA.2017.7985615 11. Mane, A.M., Jayadeva, C.T.: 5S implementation in Indian SME: a case study. Int. J. Process Manag. Benchmarking 5, 483 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1504/IJPMB.2015.072327 12. Baeza Serrato, R.: REDUTEX: a hybrid push–pull production system approach for reliable delivery time in knitting SMEs. Prod. Plan. Control. 27, 263–279 (2016). https://doi.org/10. 1080/09537287.2015.1120362 13. Villa, A., Taurino, T.: Event-driven production scheduling in SME. Prod. Plan. Control. 29, 271–279 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1080/09537287.2017.1401143

Production Model for the Reduction of Order Delivery Time in a Peruvian Metalworking Company Based on the Six Sigma DMAIC Methodology Anelit Espinoza-Cuadros, Miriam Criollo Marcavillaca, Pablo Mendoza-Vargas, and Jose Alvarez(&) Ingeniería Industrial, Unversidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas, Lima, Peru {u201517962,u201514821,pcinpmen,pciijalv}@upc.edu.pe

Abstract. The present research work has as objective the application of Six Sigma DMAIC methodology in the production’s processes, the results will be manifested in increasing the efficiency of the production system and in reducing the delay in order delivery. In a metal mechanic company dedicated to the manufacture of electrical boards which focus is the terraced boards there was presented a fulfillment rate failure to deliver on time 46%. On the other hand, the delivery delay is generated because the current productivity does not supply what is required by the customer, therefore a minimum 394 units per month is needed to meet the requirements but currently only produce 226 units per month. For solve this problem it was proposed that Production model that merges the painting and baking areas and that generates an impact on the entire painting operation. Keywords: Six Sigma
DMAIC
Delay products Sigma level
Performance Six Sigma


High production times


1 Introduction To improve the quality of a manufacturing or service system, it is necessary to use a formal approach to the analysis of system performance and the search for ways to improve that performance. The DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve and Control) is the process improvement methodology used by Six Sigma [1, 2]. The simulation of discrete events is a tool for the improvement of the performance of systems since the models used are characterized by considering not only the interactions that the different entities present among themselves, but also the variability and uncertainty of the processes [3, 4]. This approach has a series of phases based on the DMAIC methodology, which focus on: making a diagnosis of the problem detected, carrying out the measurement, analysis and improvement processes and formulating control plans that guarantee the stability of the improvements implemented, reaching the continuous improvement of the process at a global level and a critical area [5–9]. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 606–611, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_92

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2 Problem The company has observed that during its production of the year 2018, that produce electrical boards presented a 46% percentage of default due to delay in delivery time, being the maximum percentage value of all types of products that are manufactured. In order to determine the most critical cause generated by the delay in the delivery of orders, a valuation of the impact of the economic losses generated was made as shown in Table 1. Table 1. Summary of causes of delay – economic impact 2018 Cause Bottle neck in productive times Inefficient order planning process Insufficient production planning

Loss impact 95% 2% 3%

Based on the previous table, the percentage of total loss represents around 37.65% of the net income achieved by manufacturing of attached boards in 2018 (Table 2). Table 2. Production bottle neck – economic impact 2018 Bottleneck High processing production times High machine failure occurrence Stop of activities during maintenance

Loss impact 77.14% 22.61% 0.25%

3 Innovative Proposal In the define phase, it was determined that the total cycle time is 130.06 min per board of a total of thirteen productive stations. Also, a SIPOC was developed, which allowed to know more about the process inputs, such as 3 types of plates that are base, side and door; as well as the exit that is the finished attached electrical panel packed to avoid damages in the surface; as well as the key resources of materials and labor, thus achieving the definition of Six Sigma roles. Subsequently, a Value Flow Mapping (VSM) of the process was carried out to know each time and number of operators of the thirteen stations, visually understanding the production process. Finally, the value added matrix (AVA) was carried out, which allowed defining and knowing the current situation of the process through indicators on the activities that generate value to the consumer and those that do not add value, as they are waste of time type, over processing and you wait. In the measure phase, the analysis of the capacity of the entire production process was carried out, considering the thirteen (13) stations of the manufacturing line of attached boards. A Cp value of 0.71 and Cpk of 0.21 were obtained. A sigma level of 1.72 was obtained, which means that the production process needs to improve, since this value is very low because the Sigma Level specifications are not met. In the analyze phase, meetings with DMAIC personnel were called to determine the possible causes of high processing times in the paint area.

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With respect to the application of this tool, the implementation of a paint oven booth would be accepted to reduce the problem of delayed delivery of orders due to high processing times in the paint area since the high time is affected by the operability of the equipment at the indicated station. In summary, for the analysis phase, KPI’s exhibited in Table 3 will allow the selection of the best improvement proposal. Table 3. Current value vs. expected indicators KPI

Formula

Breach of delivery of attached boards Time reflected by waste in production Critical time

Late delivery of townhouse electrical tables % Breach: Annual demand for electric boards townhouses

Defective boards

Current value 45.9%

Cycle time % Time reflected waste: Net production time

55.7%

+ baked time % Critical time: Painted Production cycle time Defective boards % Defective boards: Annual demand for defective boards

59.2% 9%

In the improve phase, two proposals were analyzed considering productivity, evaluation, calculation of the Sigma Level and economic benefits of Implement an Oven-Paint booth. A new Cabin Oven-Paint machine will be implemented, which will fulfill the function of painting and baking the boards in one. This process will have a constant time of 25 min. 3.1

Evaluation

Table 4

Table 4. KPI’s of proposal B Indicators of the proposal Bottleneck reduction (min.) Breach of delivery attached boards Breach of delivery of attached boards Critical + automated station time with respect to the manufacturing cycle time of the attached board Defective boards Defective boards

Objective value 87.78% 4% 29% 47% 3.6% 88%

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609

Sigma Level Calculation

In the Global Process, to find the Sigma Level of the Global process, 1000 data from the entire production process was used with the implementation of the new Cabin Oven-Paint machine. Sigma level is shown in Table 5. Table 5. Sigma level of proposal SIGMA level PPM 41.5% DPMO 41.5% Nivel d 5.48

In the control phase, verification sheets, indicator control and process control with procedures and Dashboards - Visual Management will be used. The process control will be carried out through the implementation of procedure sheets from the paint zone, which includes three processes, which are bathed, sanded and painted (critical station). In this template, the times to be fulfilled by each operator of the indicated station will be detailed following the steps and using visual tools to monitor and control not only the critical process, but the entire area of Painting. The dashboard was placed as a template for the control of the processes of the painting area, marking what is the maximum limit that will allow monitoring of easy understanding of the processes. The data of Mejo “Improvement Phase - Future’’, will be updated by the production supervisor with average values of the month of the daily times observed purely operational processes that belong to this area. To do this, the supervisor will write down the detail of daily operating time, so that he can average it monthly and control the processes by applying Visual Management.

4 Results For the validation of this research, a simulation will be carried out with the support of the Arena program using the information collected from the production macroprocess stations. The simulation will be simulated and compared with the current situation of the company. 4.1

System Description

For the validation, the critical area of the painting will be studied, which consists of Bath - Sanding - Painting – Baking. 1000 data were used to obtain the operational distribution of the stations, with a 95% confidence level and a z value of 1.96 for better reliability.

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Data Analysis

To simulate the process, the data collected at the production stations will be used. Next, the entities and attributes of the System are evidenced. 1. The attribute of the entity in the raw material in transit is the time between arrivals of the plates. Therefore, there are three types of attributes (TELLLi). 2. The attribute of the total production time of attached boards (reproduction). 3. The attribute for permanen entity of the production station i where j represents the secuence of the board manufacturing operation i: {1, 2, 3, 4} - TSMi After performing the operation in Arena Input Analyzer, the following was obtained as exhibited in Fig. 1. TELL plates and follow a constant distribution, since every 10 min they arrive in the area to start production.

Fig. 1. Production stations of electrical boards

4.3

Evaluation of Improvement Proposals

When implementing the oven paint booth, the painting and baking stations will merge; in addition to reducing the time of the bathing station from a minimum of 3.17 to 2.4 min; and to the sanding process of 2.77 to 2.1 min and to the critical process of more baking paint, a time that follows a constant distribution of 25 min for being an automated station. The simulation gave the following results (Table 6). Table 6. Current viability indicators vs. proposal Simulator indicators TProduction Metal plates WIP (average) Employees line townhouses Cost of the day

Current 256.73 123.81 12 PEN 3,271.00

Proposal 210.25 108.36 11 PEN 2,892.00

5 Conclusions Through the application of the Six Sigma DMAIC methodology, 96% delivery will be improved on time. Also, the impact of losses generated by the three causes with the greatest impact of representing 37.65% on sales revenue; It was reduced to 3.32%. In

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addition, with the implementation of the new machine, productivity will be increased to 85%, since the machine is more efficient and automated. The minimum requirement condition of 75% is achieved and the bottleneck will be reduced by 47% with respect to the current cycle time situation.

References 1. Gargate, J., Fung, S.A., Jara, J., Raymundo, C.: Six sigma model optimized for reducing downtime in an open-pit mine. In: Iano, Y., Arthur, R., Saotome, O., Vieira Estrela, V., Loschi, H.J. (eds.) BTSym 2018. SIST, vol. 140, pp. 523–531. Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16053-1_51 2. Navarro, E.: Methodology and implementation of Six Sigma. 3C Empresa 9, 73–80 (2015). ISSN 2254-3376 3. Arratia, S.: Origen Seis Sigma, Capítulo II. In: Modelo de Dirección para la Aplicación de Six Sigma (2017) 4. Costa, T., Silva, F.J.G., Pinto Ferreira, L.: Improve the extrusion process in tire production using Six Sigma methodology. Procedia Manuf. 13(1), 1104–1111 (2017). https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.promfg.2017.09.171 5. Ocampo, J., Pavón, A.: Integrando la Metodologia DMAIC de 6 Sigma con la Simulación de Sistemas. J. Efficient Effective Integr. Innovative Plan. 4(7), 23–27 (2015). https://doi.org/10. 15446/ing.investig.v37n1.62270 6. Anup Kumar, R., Nilesh, K., Yogesh Kumar, N., Rajagopal, Peesapati V.V.: An empirical study of performance improvement in product delivery system through six sigma DMAIC approach. In: Shanker, K., Shankar, R., Sindhwani, R. (eds.) Advances in Industrial and Production Engineering. LNME, pp. 697–705. Springer, Singapore (2019). https://doi.org/10. 1007/978-981-13-6412-9_65 7. Alagić, I.: Application of MSA as a Lean Six Sigma tool in working conditions automotive firm from B&H. In: Avdaković, S. (ed.) IAT 2018. LNNS, vol. 60, pp. 511–524. Springer, Cham (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02577-9_50 8. Garza Ríos, R.C., González Sánchez, C.N., Rodríguez González, E.L., Hernández Asco, C. M.: Aplicación de la metodología DMAIC de Seis Sigma con simulación discreta y técnicas multicriterio. Revista de Métodos Cuantitativos para la Economía y la Empresa 22, 19–35 (2016). https://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=233148815002 9. Girmanová, L., Šolc, M., Kliment, J., Divoková, A., Mikloš, V.: Application of six sigma using DMAIC methodology in the process of product quality control in metallurgical operation. Acta Technol. Agric. 20(4), 104–109 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1515/ata-20170020

Governance of Ambient Assisted Living for Age Friendly Inclusive Cities Somesh Sharma1(&), Alberto Gianoli1, and Harry Geerlings2 1

Institute for Housing and Urban Development Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, T-14 Campus Woudestein, 3062PA Rotterdam, The Netherlands [email protected] 2 Erasmus School of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Erasmus University Rotterdam, T-17 Campus Woudestein, 3062PA Rotterdam, The Netherlands

Abstract. All over the world cities are ageing and elderly populations living in the cities is increasing in proportion. Ironically, the existing cities are more favorable for younger age groups than that for the elderly. With the recent developments in Artificially Intelligent (AI) technologies, numerous gadgets and applications have been invented that may support independent living for the elderly. It is one of the emerging sectors within the big shift to smart cities and is popularly termed as Ambient Assisted Living (AAL). Based on a thorough literature review this paper critically analyzes the current positioning of AAL in the shifting paradigm of existing societies into technology driven societies. In this paper state-of-the-art applications of AAL were analyzed from the governance perspective. Evidence from literature indicates that the development and dissemination of AAL gadgets and applications has been largely ad-hoc. Keywords: Ambient Assisted Living
Artificial Intelligence Inclusive cities
Governance
Big shift


Smart cities


1 Introduction Ambient Assisted Living (AAL) is defined as: “the use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in a person’s daily living and working environment” [1, 2]. Industry and production sector perceive Ambient Assisted Living (AAL) as: “a concept that includes digital technology solutions designed to help older people to live better independently” [3]. Gadgets such as sensor equipped wrist bands or a mobile device for fall detection, home security systems, automatically maintained heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems are some of the most widely used examples of AAL systems. From social as well as from industry viewpoints AAL is commonly perceived as the use of modern technology for improving the quality of life for senior citizens. Ambient Assisted Living is sometimes also associated with users other than elderly citizens, such as assistance provided by mobile and home robots for tedious tasks such as moving heavy objects or helping with serving food, cleaning the floors etc. [4, 5]. This paper specifically discusses need and opportunities for AAL and promising developments in this field, specifically for improving the quality of life for senior © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 612–617, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_93

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citizens. The main question addressed in this paper was to know if there is a coordination between the need for AAL, its development and dissemination. The findings presented in this paper have been accumulated through a systematic review of recent literature regarding AAL.

2 Ageing Cities and State-of-the-Art Ambient Assisted Living According to the UN projections, by 2050 the first time ever global elderly population (64 years plus) will exceed the global working age population (15 years to 64 years) [2]. The higher density of cities ensures a closer proximity to public services, which influences the quality of life of older people. In general, senior citizens prefer to live in or close to city centers. However, the existing condition of the cities does not offer equitable living conditions for the senior citizens. The needs and the necessity to make things function more conveniently for the elderly, have often been neglected. Mobility, social exclusion and safety are some of the biggest living challenges of old age. These are the three most critical living factors from which senior citizens are often excluded. The situation is more serious in transition economies where cities are still struggling with building basic infrastructure, special needs of elderly citizens remain completely unnoticed. The idea of AAL is to use the technology for delivering services that can improve the quality of life, and is able to support independent healthy living, whilst reducing the ever-growing pressures of the health care systems [3]. The various applications of AAL have unique advantages, especially for elderly citizens. Elderly citizens not only benefit from protection against life threatening events but AAL also provides them with opportunities for social integration. In literature, there have been several approaches that have been discussed for making cities inclusive and age friendly, while overcoming some of the challenges that elderly citizens face within the cities. “Active Ageing”, and “Ambient Assisted Living” are the most recognized approaches. Active Ageing aims to keep elderly citizens engaged in occupational activities. Ambient Assisted Living aims to provide the support of artificial intelligence to the elderly. From the literature, it is evident that Ambient Assisted Living (AAL) based solutions are effective in supporting the life of the elderly as well as AAL that also facilitate strategies for Active Ageing. For example, ‘Smart Homes’ that are able to sense the environment and act upon events. Smart and automated homes are mostly characterized by sensors and timers. Smart homes can take decisions and act according to the surroundings. There are examples of further advanced AAL home systems, which include Smart homes promoting social interaction as seen in the DALIA project 2013–2016 [6]; the WeCare project which enabled older people and their families and friends to coordinate activities using easy-to-use online calendars and activity planners [7]; the GIRAFF++ project, which consisted of a network of home sensors that monitors the home users and their activities such as blood pressure, temperature, someone sitting on a chair etc. and there is also a Giraff telepresence robot which is a mobile communication device helping its user to maintain his/her social contacts [8]. There are several other

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innovative AAL systems that are in the process of being invented, installed and are in use. Table 1 (below) shows a list of some of the interesting AAL projects (and initiatives). Table 1. Ambient Assisted Living (AAL) Projects and Initiatives Project name STIMULATE AGNES

Companionable MobiServ

Smart city services for senior citizens in the city of Oulu

Key components Helping senior citizens to plan trips optimally, security advice, local shopping recommendations and assistance Timely information regarding activities and the subjective state of the elderly person/people in which the information can be shared with friends and family members A companion robot for the elderly Intelligent personal platform consisting of a social companion robot that is able to support the elderly specifically focusing on health, nutrition and well-being Collaborative elderly city council (collecting information from elderly about living in the city; and linking organizations that are relevant for the elderly); OMA Oulu platform (a collective health services platform mapping the needs of the care recipients); Services at a citizens’ house; Oulu open data service; Cartias; Arina; Oldwellactive (and more projects benefitting elderly)

Source: [9].

However, the use of AAL is still limited to a few experimental initiatives that todate does not ensure a systematic introduction of AAL within any public services mechanism.

3 Position of Ambient Assisted Living in the Paradigm Shift: Evidence from Literature Over the past few decades, mankind has realized the seriousness of global sustainability threats, primarily arising from anthropogenic activities. As a response, governments, professionals and societies have been experimenting with adopting new developmental paradigms in order to find a balance between the environment and the economic growth. The most recent paradigm shift of urban development is the paradigm of smart cities. The concept of smart cities aims to create sustainable cities while significantly using the information and communication technology [10]. The concept of Ambient Assisted Living (AAL) for age friendly cities has been embedded within the concept of smart cities. Both approaches have similarities in terms of using modern technologies for improving the quality of life in the cities, and making cities more inclusive. Government policies, plans and projects are encouraging the development

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and use of smart technologies within different sectors. However, it is not known if the AAL is also considered as a one of the necessities in able to make a smart city. In order to explain the current positioning of AAL in the shifting paradigm to smart cities three indicators were adopted namely: (a) Institution level action, (b) Market regulation, demand and supply, and (c) Research and development. At an institutional level, the AAL has supported with only a ‘limited action’. Only a few influential organizations are promoting the concept of age friendly cities. Among them, a major initiative has been the “Global Network on Age Friendly Cities and Communities” which was launched by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2007. The WHO has released a “Global Age-friendly Cities Guide” that provides a checklist of essential features in an age-friendly city. The WHO also promotes the concept of “Active Ageing”. Such a city provides opportunities to older people for participation. A research conducted by the WHO recommends a framework of eight parameters for making cities age-friendly. These include: (1) outdoor spaces and buildings, (2) transportation, (3) housing, (4) social participation, (5) respect and social inclusion, (6) civic participation and employment, (7) communication and information, and (8) community support and health services. The United Nations (UN) is another prominent global organization that has initiated a concrete action towards creating age-friendly cities and communities. Looking into state-of-the-art availability of AAL technology, it can be seen that some level of AAL solutions are available for all of the above mentioned eight age-friendly cities parameters. However, the AAL solutions have today only been able to reach a very few members within the population that require this sort of support. The need to make cities age-friendly, still needs wider acceptance by the governments at a national as well as local levels. Regarding the aspects of demand and supply, AAL is experiencing the challenge of a ‘supply gap’ in order to initially meet the pent-up demand. With an increasing ageing population, the need for AAL is rising, and the societal need for AAL solutions is significantly high. Thus, an effective demand for AAL solutions could be rapidly rising. However, actual growth in this segment of service provision is relatively slow. Developments AAL’s are lacking direction as there is no clear attention to AAL at policy level. Unclear governance and difficulties in managing the process have been identified as some of the major barriers in the implementation of AAL solutions [3, 11]. Moreover, ambient Assisted Living systems have been seen only in private residences but not throughout the regular public infrastructure. This reflects a lack of policy attention towards AAL’s. It is currently still considered a commodity and not a service. Inevitably, technological solutions face inherent dependence on the latest developments in the technology itself. The costs of research, development and the deployment of new technologies are high. Major research on the subject of AAL has been mainly focused on motion detection and interpretation, and on advancement of sensor technologies [2] while it has ignored the need for research on social acceptance of the new technology. Nonetheless, the concept of Ambient Assisted Living has its roots in “Artificial Intelligence” (AI). In the near future, it is expected that AAL shall witness a dramatic advancement and social penetration with rapidly developing artificially intelligent technologies and robotics. The phenomenon may also catalyze penetration

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and a wider use of AAL to not only the elderly but other members of society including the infirmed. Although it also means that developments of AAL will additionally face similar challenges as that of the development and use of artificial intelligence in daily life. Some of these challenges include uncertainty and accuracy of Artificially Intelligence (AI) systems. Additional challenges may arise from the integration with sensor networks, privacy, security, human–machine interaction, and cognition impairment [5]. Another set of challenges for AI and AAL technology-based solutions remains the acceptability concerns of the users. Users’ concerns have been found to mostly relate to the costs, privacy, safety, and the ability to control the automated and artificially intelligent systems.

4 Conclusions The positioning of AAL in the shifting paradigm to smart cities can be explained by a nexus between three distinctive actors in the demand and supply of public services, namely: the producer, the regulator and the consumer. In a generalized explanation of public service delivery, government acts as the regulator and is responsible for making adequate provisions for the delivery of society’s common needs. Many services are provided by the governments themselves, such as roads, water supply, sanitation etc. Other services are jointly provided by the public and private sectors for example housing, markets, communication, entertainment etc. However, governance mechanisms have not yet embraced Ambient Assisted Living (AAL) as a public need. There is not enough evidence to show whether the cause of inadequate policy focus on Ambient Assisted Living (AAL) is due to a lack of recognition (or attention) or due to lack of resources. Nevertheless, in the near future the penetration of artificial intelligence within the society at large is inevitable. The dependence of service delivery on digital technology is already a rising concern for governments. The concern does not only relate to efficiency and competition with the private sector, but the bigger concern relates to the safety and control over public services and privacy of information. The concept of AAL is inclined towards increasing the use of automation and artificial intelligence within the daily life of common people. Broadly speaking, the concept of AAL relates to supporting daily activities of anyone and not only senior citizens. However, to date the AAL services are largely market led. So, the distribution and coverage of AAL solutions is unequitable. Consequently, only those who can avail the benefits of AAL are currently those who can afford it. AAL is currently regarded as a commodity and not a service. If there is an increased use of artificial intelligence use by the general public in routine activities and it is promoted, it may potentially redefine traditional mechanisms of service delivery, in both the public as well as the private sectors. The AAL approach introduces the concept of machines living within human societies. For governance, this is also a relatively new concept to deal with. In the current scenario, technologies constituting AAL are developing at a fast pace, and the demand for such technological solutions is high. However, regulatory mechanisms have not yet been able to adequately introduce artificial intelligence within public service delivery.

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It can be concluded that demand and supply of AAL does not exhibit a consistent coordination. The demand for AAL is rapidly rising, and the supply is largely lacking specific and clear regulatory guideline. Setting up right regulatory conditions for AAL requires more knowledge that explains underlying aspects associated with the development, risks, level of acceptance and use of the AAL. It is urgent to fill in these knowledge gaps for establishing a better control on development and equitable dissemination of ambient assisted living (AAL). Specifically, for countries in transition where populations are high, the age co-hot is changing with increasing life expectancy, but the concept of AAL is yet to be introduced.

References 1. AAL Programme: Ageing well in the digital world (2020). http://www.aal-europe.eu/ 2. Monekosso, D., Florez-Revuelta, F., Remagnino, P.: Ambient assisted living [guest editors’ introduction]. IEEE Intel. Syst. 30(4), 2–6 (2015) 3. Varnai, P., Farla, K., Glasgow, D., Grange, S., Romeo, S., Simmonds, P.: AAL Market and Investment Report. A Study Prepared for the Active and Assisted Living (AAL) Programme. Technopolis Group, Brussels (2019). http://www.aal-europe.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/ 02/Technopolis-AAL-Market-report-SUMMARY-181224.pdf 4. Urdiales, C., Annicchiarico, R., Cortés, U.: The good assistive robot for elder care. In: Tchon, K., Gasparski, W.W. (eds.) A Treatise on Good Robots, pp. 47–66. Routledge, London (2017) 5. Al-Shaqi, R., Mourshed, M., Rezgui, Y.: Progress in ambient assisted systems for independent living by the elderly. SpringerPlus 5(1), 624 (2016) 6. Klapf, C.: DALIA Final Meeting. Daily Life Activities at Home, Graz (2016). http://www. dalia-aal.eu/2016/04/18/dalia-final-meeting/#more-578 7. ALL Programme: We Care. AAL Europe, Brussels (2010). http://www.aal-europe.eu/ projects/we-care/ 8. Vincze, M., Bajones, M.: What a year of trials with a mobile robot in user homes reveals about the actual user needs. In: Workshop on the Barriers of Social Robotics Take-Up by Society, held at the 26th IEEE International Symposium on Robot and Human Interactive Communication. IEEE, Leicester (2017) 9. Skouby, K.E., Kivimäki, A., Haukiputo, L., Lynggaard, P., Windekilde, I.M.: Smart cities and the ageing population. In: OUTLOOK Visions and Research Directions for the Wireless World, vol. 12, pp. 1–12 (2014) 10. Lea, R.J.: Smart Cities: An Overview of the Technology Trends Driving Smart Cities. IEEE, Lancaster (2017) 11. Vimarlund, V., Lindenfalk, B.: Ambient assisted living e-services: challenges to their implementation. SM J. Health Med. Inf. 1(1), 1001–1005 (2017). https://pdfs.semanticsch olar.org/4bcb/e6d6645dd3fc7a1761c0252de0188c6ff938.pdf?_ga=2.176531942.254211161. 1586339258-976473147.1578560382

Proposal for an Early Warning System Against Flood Risks in the Urban Area of Milagro Canton, Ecuador Andrés Murillo(&), Rosa Pin, Gabriela Vega, and Jesús Hechavarría Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo, Universidad Estatal de Guayaquil, Cdla. Salvador Allende Av. Delta y Av. Kennedy, Guayaqui, Ecuador {andres.murillosu,rosa.ping,gabriela.vegag,jesus. hechavarriah}@ug.edu.ec

Abstract. Annually in Ecuador, flood risks are observed due to hydroclimatological factors, influenced by variability and climate change, the vulnerability of populations due to land occupation and poor urban planning in risk management issues. This research proposes an early warning system focused on citizen participation, analyzes the sectors most at risk of flooding in the urban area of the city of Milagro, and plans a methodology to previously alert the community to the occurrence of these events, concluding that it is a sustainable strategy to strengthen the capacities of the study population in order to build resilient communities and reduce their vulnerability. Keywords: Early warning system
Resilience participation
Flood risk management


Vulnerability
Citizen

1 Introduction Batica and Gourbesville [1] indicate that natural hazards, especially flooding, are now more frequent and have enormous damage to the environment and communities, in this context, success stories around the world about prevention strategies such as the development and implementation of early warning systems, state that it is a useful tool to save lives, prevent damage and enhance the resilience of a population during a flood [2]. Rosales-Rueda [3] mentions that in Ecuador sectors of agriculture, infrastructure and transport were damaged during the phenomenon of climate variability called El Niño developed in 1997 and 1998. Roads, bridges, housing, health centres, schools, sanitation, drinking water, and sewerage infrastructure were affected by floods and landslides. In addition, it was a high risk of infectious diseases from water contamination. The city of Milagro is home to approximately 156041 inhabitants, according to a 2020 projection of the last population census conducted by the National Institute of Statistics and Census of Ecuador, the land of the territory has a relatively low slope and unclear undulations that lead to flooding, which represents the greatest vulnerability in the area [4]. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 618–623, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_94

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2 Theorical Framework UNDP [5] states that the starting point for disaster risk reduction and resilience promotion lies in understanding threats and vulnerabilities, to effectively prevent calamities. At the same time Zevenbergen et al. [2], indicate that conventional flood management strategies aimed at defending by levees and walls are not an adequate response, as their implementation is costly and limited. Which is consistent with what Pappenberger et al. investigated [6], those in their results show clear evidence that there is an economic benefit in the implementation of early flood warning systems versus a disaster that has not been prevented. Sottele et al. [7] They define that the function of an early warning system for natural hazards is to detect risk events in a timely manner, transfer the warning to affected persons, and lead to measures that prevent human damage and loss. The Milagro canton, has an extension of 405.64 km2; the area under study represents 6.73% of its area, it is in an altitude range of 15 m above sea level. It is divided into 4 urban parishes and comprises 198 neighborhoods. Much of the new settlements are located in geographical areas considered to be highly vulnerable to flood threat [4].

3 Methodology A qualitative documentary investigation was carried out, through a collection of data and information, in order to propose the design of a participatory early warning system against flood risks in the urban area of Milagro canton. It begins by studying the territory for the elaboration of cartography, we analyze what is published by Montecelos et al. [8], who show a methodology that uses information applied to GIS software, to design maps of flood hazard, from this we download base information from local sources, this will analyze different parameters of the study area as a: slope, altitude, land use, soil type, precipitation and satellite images; that will allow a map of flood-sensitive areas. Subsequently, Mazzoleni et al. [9] methodology was considered, those studying the approach of traditional sensors complemented by social sensor data, claim that monitoring through citizenship can be low-cost and better spatially distributed. In addition, it will be related to the study of Azam et al. [10] those who developed a cellular app capable of transmitting information to a central database and issuing alert states that can help cities to act in a timely manner in the face of flooding. Finally, the publication of Valero and Hechaverría [11] and Zambrano et al. [12], will allow to lay the foundations for the execution of a sustainability analysis of the proposal.

4 Analysis and Results Research such as Florent and D’ercole [13] and CAF publications [14], show that much of the jurisdiction of the Milagro canton is in an area of greatest danger of flooding. Data from the National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology of Ecuador, in its annual bulletins show that in the Milagro weather station can occur events almost three

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times greater magnitude than the average annual average rainfall ranges, these events of climate variability produce floods as published by the local government [5]. Knowing this problem, a flood resilience strategy is proposed, supported by the available base information, as seen in Fig. 1, was developed in a GIS software, a map that identifies the sectors most vulnerable to floods. 40 neighborhoods found with approximately 6000 families living in flood-prone areas.

Fig. 1. Map of flood-sensitive areas in Milagro.

The early warning system proposal will be formed under the outline in Fig. 2, which shows the flowchart to inform people about events, raises the use of available resources and the use of technology for data collection and issuance of alert messages. The core information of the proposal would enter daily from the weather station that would report the amount of precipitation and limnometers on bridges for monitoring by citizens of the variation in water level, which will be transmitted by an application, would be stored in a hydrometeorological database for risk identification and real-time visualization of the flood condition to finally issue early warning messages. The data from this study is expected to be used as basic information needed for the design of flood mitigation measures in the study area.

Proposal for an Early Warning System Against Flood Risks

Fig. 2. Diagram of the flood early warning system.

Fig. 3. Sustainability analysis of the EWS model.

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Finally, an analysis of environmental, social, economic and institutional factors is carried out to assess the sustainability of the proposal. Six criteria are taken into account for each sustainability factor shown in Fig. 3, weighed in application ranges from zero to five and radial graphs are applied, so we can show that the proposal for an Early Warning System for flood risks in Milagro urban area, contemplates strong factors of environmental, economic and social character, requiring further work on the institutional factor for the realization of the proposed model.

5 Conclusions In the area of study, climate variability is year-on-year and is expressed in large precipitation differences between years. The results show an effective way to map the most flood-sensitive neighborhoods, which will be useful to local residents and disaster & emergency management authorities, to find flood-risk reduction measures. The proposal raises the rapprochement from the first instance of the population so that they understand how flooding affects them, although consideration should be given to the accuracy of their observations that will play an important role in flood predictions, and proposes the optimization of resources and the use of information and communication technologies for data collection and warnings to the inhabitants, managing to define a model for an early warning system. In addition, it analyses how the proposal influences the guidelines of sustainable projects that combine social, environmental, economic and institutional factors. It is concluded that the proposal aligns with sustainability factors, however the institutional component must be strengthened through joint work of government and civil society in order to reduce vulnerability and increase resilience in the urban area of Milagro canton in Ecuador. Acknowledgments. To the Program of Master in Architecture with mention in Territorial Planning and Environmental Management. Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism of the University of Guayaquil.

References 1. Batica, J., Gourbesville, P.: Resilience in flood risk management – a new communication tool. Procedia Eng. 154, 811–817 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.07.411 2. Zevenbergen, C., et al.: Urban Flood Management. CRC Press, Boca Raton (2010) 3. Rosales-Rueda, M.: The impact of early life shocks on human capital formation: evidence from El Niño floods in Ecuador. J. Health Econ. 62, 13–44 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jhealeco.2018.07.003 4. GAD-Milagro: Actualización del Plan de Desarrollo y Ordenamiento Territorial (2014). http://www.milagro.gob.ec/ 5. UNDP - United Nations Development Program: Evaluación del Riesgo de Desastres (2010). www.gripweb.org

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6. Pappenberger, F., Cloke, H.L., Parker, D.J., Wetterhall, F., Richardson, D.S., Thielen, J.: The monetary benefit of early flood warnings in Europe. Environ. Sci. Policy 51, 278–291 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVSCI.2015.04.016 7. Sättele, M., Bründl, M., Straub, D.: Reliability and effectiveness of early warning systems for natural hazards: concept and application to debris flow warning. Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 142, 192–202 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2015.05.003 8. Montecelos, Y., Batista, D., Ramon, A., Zaldívar, N., Batista, C.: Diseño metodológico para la elaboración de mapas de peligrosidad por inundaciones. Aplicación a la cuenca del río Cauto, Sector Provincia Granma, Cuba. GeografíaySistemasdeInformaciónGeográfica., vol. Año 3, N°, no. Sección II, pp. 32–42 (2011) 9. Mazzoleni, M., et al.: Exploring the influence of citizen involvement on the assimilation of crowdsourced observations: a modelling study based on the 2013 flood event in the Bacchiglione catchment (Italy). Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 22(1), 391–416 (2018). https://doi. org/10.5194/hess-22-391-2018 10. Azam, M., Kim, H.S., Maeng, S.J.: Development of flood alert application in Mushim stream watershed Korea. Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 21, 11–26 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/J. IJDRR.2016.11.008 11. Valero Fajardo, C.L., Hechavarría Hernández, J.R.: PEST analysis based on fuzzy decision maps for the ordering of risk factors in territorial planning of the Vinces Canton, Ecuador. In: Ahram, T., Karwowski, W., Vergnano, A., Leali, F., Taiar, R. (eds.) IHSI 2020. AISC, vol. 1131, pp. 1190–1194. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39512-4_181 12. Murillo, C.Z., Hechavarría Hernández, J.R., Vázquez, M.L.: Multicriteria analysis in the proposed environmental management regulations for construction in Aurora, Guayas, Ecuador. In: Ahram, T. (ed.) AHFE 2019. AISC, vol. 965, pp. 101–113. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-20454-9_10 13. Demoraes, F., D’ercole, R.: Cartografía de las amenazas de origen natural por cantón en Ecuador. (2001). https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01292338 14. CAF: Las lecciones de El Niño, Ecuador. (2000)

Process Management Model Aligned to the Civil Service Law in Public Entities of Peru Luis Cardenas and Gianpierre Zapata(&) Dirección de Investigaciones, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplciadas, Lima, Peru {pcsilcar,u201214895}@upc.edu.pe

Abstract. In Peru, under the framework of the National Policy for the Modernization of public management by 2021, it is intended that state institutions enter the Civil Service Regime that seeks to continuously improve the public administration in order to avoid disorder in hiring, remuneration excessive, breaches of the rights of the servers, among others, which are currently causing delays and poor service to citizens. For this reason, a management model is proposed that allows integrating the guidelines set forth by the Law of Civil Service and the process improvement techniques that will allow the current situation to be identified, prioritizing which are the critical processes and thus being able to define an improvement plan integrating the different areas within the institution. Keywords: Process management


Law of Civil Service
Critical processes

1 Introduction In the framework of the provisions of Law No. 27658 - Framework Law for the Modernization of State Management [1], which establishes the principles and legal basis for the start of the modernization process of State Management, as well as the provisions by Law No. 30057 - Civil Service Law [2], which establishes the only and exclusive regime for people who provide services in public entities of the State. The present investigation constitutes the Process Mapping Report of a national institution called Miniperu, in accordance with the guidelines established in Annex N° 2 “Guide for the development of the Process Mapping and Improvement Plan in public entities” contained in Executive Presidency Resolution No. 316-2017-SERVIR/PE [3], framed in the process of Transit to the Civil Service Regime. The methodology used consisted of 02 stages differentiated from each other. In the first stage, the ROF and POI were reviewed, with which processes of N0 and N1 were proposed, to be subsequently verified with the release of information in the 14 organs that make up the Entity; thus defining the Process Map N0 and N1, Inventory of Processes N0, N1 and N2, Technical Sheets of processes N0 and N1 as well as Block Diagrams N0 and N1. In the second stage, the Process Inventory with 43 identified N1

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 624–629, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4_95

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processes was taken as a starting point and, among these, 06 critical processes were selected, corresponding mostly to all national entities. Finally, 4 sections are presented where the methodology to work with these entities is defined and a practical case where the results of the implementation are evidenced.

2 State of Art Currently there are different process improvement methodologies that can be applied in business; however, the leadership of the organizations seems to favor the adoption of a methodology with which they are familiar [4, 5]. The results in [6–9] indicate that the causes of the differences in the application of the processes and models are due to the diversity of strategic attitudes in the organizations. In [10] they developed a framework that allows the continuous improvement of the reliability of the production process and the performance of the product through the definition, measurement and analysis of failures of the production processes, achieving that the company reduces production time and increase product performance KPI with less expense. In [11] they present a new approach to modeling electronic business processes, based on two modeling techniques: Business Process Mapping (BPMapping) and UN/CEFACT Modeling Methodology (UMM). The BPMapping technique provides a general graphic representation of an organization showing the different types of business processes, their inputs, outputs, and the environment in which the organization operates. The UMM methodology shows details about collaborations and interactions of business processes.

3 Methodology The transit process is the route that will allow public entities to implement the Civil Service Regime, in accordance with the “Guidelines for the transit of a public entity to the civil service regime”, approved by Executive Presidency Resolution No. 034-2017SERVIR/PE and its amendment approved by Executive Presidency Resolution No. 307-2017-SERVIR/PE [12]. The route of the transit process to the new civil service regime involves 4 stages and 9 phases that require the joint effort of public entities and the servers that comprise it. Throughout these stages, the entities will know their current situation and, based on this, they will identify and implement measures with the aim of improving their performance vis-à-vis citizens. This document is framed in Annex No. 2 “Guide for the development of Process Mapping and Improvement Plan in public entities” contained in Executive Presidency Resolution No. 316-2017-SERVIR/PE [3]; the same one that proposes the following steps for the development of Process Mapping of a Public entity. See Fig. 1.

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Fig. 1. Transit to the civil service regime

4 Methodological Application The following steps emerge from the presented methodological framework; that explain the methodological application in the field, indicated in the process management model aligned to the civil service law. See Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Process management model aligned to the civil service law

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1. Formulation of processes. - The preliminary inventory of processes was formulated from the review and analysis of Miniperu’s management documents, which are listed below: • ROF. (Organization and Functions Regulation) • Strategic guidelines. • POI (Institutional Operational Plan) 2. Survey meetings. - Each body responsible for the different processes has a coordinator; who knows the internal processes of the same. In this sense, two meetings have been held with said coordinators, to identify processes, inputs, outputs, goods/services, etc. 3. Information analysis. - The information obtained from the previous steps will allow defining the final processes, which are structured and presented in the final inventory of Miniperu processes. 4. Characterization of Processes. - The information was structured to prepare the documents that respond to the methodological framework: • • • •

Process Map N0, N1. Block diagrams N1 and N2. Process sheets N0 and N1. Beneficiary or user/good or service matrix.

5. Validation meetings. - In order to ensure the consistency of the information, the characterization of processes is validated with the designated coordinators for each body. 6. Selection of critical processes. - Using the matrix of selection of critical processes, the identified processes are weighted according to the criteria described in the methodological framework. 7. Preparation of the Technical Report of Process Mapping. - As a last step, the Technical Report is prepared, which is structured according to Annex N° 2 “Guide for the development of Process Mapping and Improvement Plan in public entities” contained in Executive Presidency Resolution No. 316-2017-SERVIR/PE.

5 Conclusion In the investigation, 13 level 0 processes were identified, which are distributed as follows; 03 strategic macro processes, 04 mission macro processes and 06 support macro processes. 43 level 1 processes; 09 strategic, 11 missionary and 23 support. Finally, in accordance with the provisions of Annex No. 2 “Guide for the development of Process Mapping and Improvement Plan in public entities” contained in Executive Presidency Resolution No. 316-2017-SERVIR/PE. See Table 1.

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L. Cardenas and G. Zapata Table 1. Summary table of number of processes Process type Amount Level 0 Missionaries 4 Strategic 3 Support 6 Total 13

of processes Level 1 Level 2 11 35 9 25 23 68 43 128

The distribution of processes by type and level of disaggregation is as follows: • At a first level of disaggregation, it is observed that 46% of level 0 processes correspond to support processes, 31% missionary and 23% strategic processes. • At a second level of disaggregation, it is observed that 53% of level 1 processes correspond to support processes, 26% missionary and 21% strategic processes. • At a third level of disaggregation, it is observed that 53% of level 2 processes correspond to support processes, 27% missionary and 20% strategic processes. The variation of the percentage distribution as one advances towards a more detailed level of disaggregation; shows its highest level: 7% increase in support processes from N0 to N1 and 5% decrease in missionary processes from N0 to N1. We can gather from the graph that in the three (03) types of processes it has been possible to reach a third level of disaggregation while maintaining the proportion at each level. See Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Evolution of process distribution according to disaggregation level and type of process

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References 1. Minagri: Ley Marco de Modernización de la Gestión del Estado. LEY Nº 27658 (2002). https://www.minagri.gob.pe/portal/download/pdf/cetsar/ley-modernizacion.pdf 2. Servir: Ley del Servicio Civil. LEY N° 30057 (2017). http://files.servir.gob.pe/WWW/files/ normas%20legales/Ley%2030057.pdf 3. Servir: Resolución de presidencia ejecutiva N° 316-2017-SERVIR/PE (2017). https:// storage.servir.gob.pe/normatividad/Resoluciones/PE-2017/Res316-2017-SERVIR-PE.pdf 4. Ramdass, K., Pretorius, L.: Comparative assessment of process improvement methodologies: a case study in the South African clothing industry. In: 2008 IEEE International Engineering Management Conference (2008). https://doi.org/10.1109/iemce.2008.4617985 5. Alharithy, M.: Knowledge management process in several organizations: analytical study of modeling and several processes. In: International Conference on Communication, Management and Information Technology, ICCMIT 2015 (2015); Procedia Comput. Sci. 65, 726– 733 (2015) 6. Formento, H.R., Chiodi, F.J., et al.: Key factors for a continuous improvement process. Indep. J. Manage. Prod. (IJM&P) 4, 391–415 (2013). https://doi.org/10.14807/ijmp.v4i2.76 7. Jevgeni, S., Eduard, S., Roman, Z.: Framework for continuous improvement of production processes and product throughput. In: 25th DAAAM International Symposium on Intelligent Manufacturing and Automation, DAAAM 2014 (2015); Procedia Eng. 100, 511–519 (2015) 8. Chourabi, H., Mellouli, S., Bouslama, F.: Modeling e-government business processes: new approaches to transparent and efficient performance. Inf. Polit. 14(2009), 91–109 (2009). https://doi.org/10.3233/IP-2009-0168 9. Alvarado, L., Díaz, J., Quiroz, J., Raymundo, C.: Basic production planning and control model based on process management to increase the productivity of mango MSEs in Casma. In: Ahram, T., Taiar, R., Colson, S., Choplin, A. (eds.) IHIET 2019. AISC, vol. 1018, pp. 871–877. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-25629-6_136 10. Muñante, A., Reyes, F., Sotelo, F., Raymundo, C.: Management model for pecan production using process tools in an MSE in Peru. In: Ahram, T., Taiar, R., Colson, S., Choplin, A. (eds.) IHIET 2019. AISC, vol. 1018, pp. 903–909. Springer, Cham (2020). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-3-030-25629-6_141 11. Henríquez-Alvarado, F., Luque-Ojeda, V., Macassi-Jauregui, I., Alvarez, J.M., RaymundoIbañez, C.: Process optimization using lean manufacturing to reduce downtime: case study of a manufacturing SME in Peru. ACM Int. Conf. Proc. Ser., 261–265 (2019). https://doi.org/ 10.1145/3364335.3364383 12. Servir: Resolución de presidencia ejecutiva N° 307-2017-SERVIR-PE (2018). https:// storage.servir.gob.pe/normatividad/Resoluciones/PE-2017/Res307-2017-SERVIR-PE.pdf

Author Index

A Aderhold, Daniel, 481, 493, 506, 532, 545, 599 Adrian, Benjamin, 415 Ahmady, Youmna, 103 Ahola, Marja, 398 Alayón, Javier, 216 Alcivar, Carlos Jose Espinoza, 173 Almeyda-Crisostomo, Genesis, 532 Al-Saggaf, Yeslam, 231 Alston-Stepnitz, Eli, 10 Altamirano-Flores, Ernesto, 481, 493 Alvarez, Jose, 499, 560, 573, 606 Antonelli, Mattia, 391 Arauco-Galarza, Gianfranco, 513 Arroyo-Andrade, Flavio, 573 Arroyo-Huayta, Carlos, 545 Arunathilake, Shiromi, 115 Auernhammer, Jan, 284 Avila-Arteaga, Carla, 513 B Baca-Nomberto, Astrid, 474 Bachmann, Arne, 17 Baldeon-Lazaro, Thania, 506 Balyakin, Artem A., 488 Baratgin, Jean, 266 Barzola-Cisneros, Víctor, 599 Bastos-Filho, Teodiano, 461 Bendahan, Caroline, 259 Bergh, Linn Iren Vestly, 410 Bionda, Arianna, 209 Bonfante, Simone, 155 Bozzi, Carolina, 49 Brun, Laurie, 441

Buchholz, Stefanie, 17 Buman, Matthew, 371 Burbano, Daniela, 223 Byler, Eric, 284 C Cabel-Pozo, Jhonatan, 573 Calderon-Tirado, Jose, 599 Cañas, Jose, 97 Cardenas, Luis, 579, 592, 624 Cardia, Isabelle Vonèche, 259 Carmosino, Giuseppe, 209 Carvallo-Munar, Edgardo, 592 Casañas, Julián, 223 Casini, Luca, 155 Castañeda, Edson, 202 Chancahuana-Palomino, Leonardo, 493 Chen, Hao, 128 Congona-Garcia, Johana, 592 Constantinescu, Carmen, 428 Coral-Rodriguez, Pebelyh, 573 Cortes, Nathalia, 223 Criollo Marcavillaca, Miriam, 606 Cruces-Raimudis, Sebastian, 545 Cuellar-Valer, Stephanie, 481 Cusihuallpa-Vera, Ximena, 499 D D’souza, Tiffany, 422 da Rocha Vianna, Alexandro Magno, 77 Delnevo, Giovanni, 155 Deml, Barbara, 29 Digo, Elisa, 391 Dong, Zhanxun, 344

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 T. Ahram et al. (Eds.): IHIET 2020, AISC 1253, pp. 631–634, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55307-4

632 Dörr, Matthias, 56 Du, Weihua, 527 Dubois, Caroline, 244 E Emond, Bruno, 195 Espinosa, Valentina, 223 Espinoza-Cuadros, Anelit, 606 Esteves, Salomé, 404 F Falcão, Gonçalo, 250 Fan, Ruijie, 166 Fang, Yufeng, 128 Ferguson, Beth, 10 Ferraro, Venere, 238 Findeisen, Stefanie, 428 Fiori, Marina, 259 Fleischmann, Christopher, 331 Fortin, Clement, 566 Fottner, Johannes, 377 Fujinami, Tsutomu, 109 Fukuda, Shuichi, 338, 455 G Gaci, Maria, 259 Galindo, Miguel, 216 Ganser, Kathrin, 17 García, Rodolfo, 435 Gastaldi, Laura, 391 Geerlings, Harry, 612 Germann, René, 84 Gianoli, Alberto, 612 Gillet, Denis, 259 Girón, Sara, 216 Glänzer, Daniel, 17 Glazkova, Natalia, 566 Goethe, Ole, 272 Gomes, Neil, 422 Gongora-Vilca, Angie, 481 Gonzales-Gutierrez, Francisco, 539 Goudarzi, Visda, 140 Guo, Li, 183 Guzman-Marco, Angelo, 552 H Hammouni, Zakia, 36 Han, Chia Y., 278, 296, 303, 309, 322 Hartwich, Franziska, 3 Hechavarría Hernández, Jesús Rafael, 134 Hechavarría, Jesús, 618 Heimgärtner, Rüdiger, 22 Helmstetter, Sebastian, 84 Hernández, Giovanni, 435

Author Index Hernández, Jesús Rafael Hechavarría, 69 Hervieux, Emilie, 36 Hinrichsen, Sven, 415 Hirakawa, Rin, 160, 351, 356, 362 Hogg, Rachel, 231 Huaman-Sanchez, Vanessa, 539 Huang, Jinge, 122 Huang, Xinyue, 91 I Ilieva, Sylvia, 384 Ingalls, Todd, 371 Isabelle, Jérôme, 189 Ivašić-Kos, Marina, 42 J Jacquet, Baptiste, 266 Joumori, Daiki, 351 K Kaluarachchi, Yamuna, 103 Kambayashi, Yasushi, 316 Käppler, Marco, 29 Karvonen, Antero, 97 Kawano, Hideaki, 351 Kawano, Hideki, 160, 356, 362 Kehayia, Eva, 36 Kidane, Assegid, 371 Knauer, Sophia, 377 Kodikara, Nihal, 520 Kohl, Markus, 377 Komoriya, Kazuki, 316 Korn, Oliver, 183 Krems, Josef F., 3 Kurani, Kenneth, 10 Kuwahara, Akihiro, 362 L Lapointe, Jean-François, 195 Laurendeau, Denis, 189 Leher, Irina, 331 Leifer, Larry, 284 Leon-Chávarri, Claudia, 545 Leyva Vázquez, Maikel, 134 Li, Mengfan, 122 Li, Qiang, 290 Li, Wenxi, 290 Lindell, Eva, 183 Liu, Nan, 91 Liu, Shuang, 128 Liu, Wei, 63, 91, 122, 284, 290 Liu, Yao, 63 Liu, Yuxuan, 344 Llontop-Jesus, Jose, 585

Author Index Lootz, Elisabeth, 410 Lopes, João Victor Bonella, 461 Lopez, Andrea Perez, 69 Lora-Soto, Anthony, 585 Ludwig, Rico, 17 M Ma, Xianchao, 166 Macassi-Jauregui, Iliana, 592 Maclean, Julie, 231 Malasquez-Salas, Pedro, 506 Mamani, Nestor, 585 Martinez, Miguel Angel Quiroz, 173 Martiniello, Natalina, 36 Matarage, Audrey, 17 Matthiesen, Sven, 56, 84 Mendoza-Vargas, Pablo, 606 Miehling, Jörg, 331 Mondragón, Iván, 435 Mont’Alvão, Claudia, 49 Morales-Silva, Cristhoffer, 585 Murillo, Andrés, 618 N Nagl, Johannes, 29 Nakashi, Kenichi, 160, 351, 356, 362 Nakatoh, Yoshihisa, 160, 356, 362 Neira, Leticia, 202 Neves, Marco, 49, 404 Nieves, Francisco J., 216 Nishikawa, Kazu, 356 Nurakhov, Nurzhan N., 488 Nurbina, Marina V., 488 O Ohashi, Takumi, 284 Oka, Jamie, 10 Olsson, Nasrine, 183 Orehovački, Tihomir, 42 Ortiz-Bailon, Mariella, 560 Ortiz-Licas, Alondra, 493 Ouankhamchan, Phetnidda, 109 P Pan, Wenjie, 122, 284 Pang, Liping, 128 Paredes-Robalino, Sebastian, 552 Paredes-Torres, Franco, 532 Parisi, Stefano, 238 Pastorelli, Stefano, 391 Patwardhan, Viraj, 422 Pawłowski, Krystian, 468 Peláez, Sebastián, 435 Perera, Dushani, 115, 520

633 Persson, Nils-Krister, 183 Peters, Julian, 56 Peters, Nia, 149 Petrova-Antonova, Dessislava, 384 Piardi, Silvia, 209 Pin, Rosa, 618 Pin Guerrero, Rosa María, 134 Podladchikova, Tatiana, 566 Pokorni, Bastian, 428 Poldma, Tiiu, 36 Preissmann, Delphine, 259 Q Qin, Difu, 344 Qin, Shiyao, 344 Quintanilla-Anicama, Mario, 592 Quiroz-Flores, Juan, 499, 560 R Rajaratne, Maneesha, 115 Rajaratne, Manisha, 520 Ramos, Edgar, 474, 513, 539, 552 Ratti, Andrea, 209 Rey-Becerra, Estefany, 223 Roccetti, Marco, 155 Romero-Odero, José A., 216 Rugel, Deivid Temistocles Leon, 173 S Saariluoma, Pertti, 97 Sakaguchi, Yuki, 160 Sakurai, Taiga, 316 Salgado, Sebastião, 250 Salotti, Jean-Marc, 244 Salvador Minuche, Andrea, 134 Sandaruwan, Damitha, 520 Sanguinetti, Angela, 10 Saurbier, Simon, 84 Scherb, David, 331 Schmidt, Cornelia, 3 Schulz, Andreas, 415 Seki, Yusuke, 316 Seminel, Dominique, 244 Sesselmann, Stefan, 331 Sharma, Somesh, 612 Sheng, Jueyi, 63 Shin, Dosun, 371 Shinno-Huamani, Miguel, 513 Simonazzi, Nicolas, 244 Škorić, Igor, 42 Sotelo-Raffo, Fernando, 474, 539, 552 Stein, Thorsten, 29 Steingrebe, Hannah, 29 Suarez-Montes, Evelyn, 499

634

Author Index

T Takimoto, Munehiro, 316 Tang, Sheng, 63 Thakur, Nirmalya, 278, 296, 303, 309, 322 Theil, Arthur, 183 Torres, Cesar, 202 Tsvetus, Natalya Yu., 488 Turaga, Pavan, 371 U Urquizo-Cabala, Maria, 474 V Vazquez, Maikel Leyva, 69 Vazquez, Maikel Yelandi Leyva, 173 Vega, Gabriela, 618 Vera-Espino, Ruben, 560 Verduyckt, Ingrid, 36 Viacava-Campos, Gino, 506, 532, 545, 599 Villa-Parra, Ana Cecilia, 461 Vinson, Norman G., 195 W Wang, Wang, Wang, Wang,

Dong, 344 Minjing, 63 Nan, 290 Xiaohan, 290

Wanyan, Xiaoru, 128 Wartzack, Sandro, 331 Wioland, Liên, 441 Wittich, Walter, 36 Wolf, Alexander, 331 Würfel, Matthias, 449 X Xin, Xin, 91 Xu, Han, 122 Y Yan, Yumei, 91 Z Zafar, Afnan, 398 Zaharia, Silvia, 449 Zapata, Gianpierre, 579, 624 Zea, Christian, 435 Zhang, Fang, 166 Zhang, Jingshu, 290 Zhang, Yinbo, 166 Zhao, Xin, 91 Zhou, Junyi, 91 Zhu, Di, 63 Zhu, Yancong, 122, 290 Zimprich, Sebastian, 84