How Workers Find Jobs: A Study of Four Thousand Hosiery Workers in Philadelphia [Reprint 2016 ed.] 9781512815481

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INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

DEPARTMENT

W H A R T O N S C H O O L OF F I N A N C E A N D

COMMERCE

U N I V E R S I T Y OF P E N N S Y L V A N I A PHILADELPHIA

RESEARCH STUDIES XVI

HOW WORKERS FIND JOBS

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS OF T H E INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH DEPARTMENT I. Earnings and Working Opportunity in the Upholstery Weavers' T r a d e in 25 Plants in Philadelphia, by Anne Bezanson, $ 2 . 5 0 . I I . Collective Bargaining among Photo-Engravers in Philadelphia, by Charles Leese, $ 2 . 5 0 . I I I . T r e n d s in Foundry Production in the Philadelphia Area, by Anne Bezanson and Robert G r a y , $ 1 . 5 0 . I V . Significant Post-War Changes in the Full-Fashioned Hosiery Industry by George W . T a y l o r , $ 2 . 0 0 . V . Earnings in Certain Standard M a c h i n e - T o o l Occupations in Philadelphia, by H . L . Frain, $ 1 . 5 0 . V I . An Analysis of the Significance and Use of H e l p - W a n t e d Advertising in Philadelphia, by A n n e Bezanson, $ 2 . 0 0 . V I I . An Analysis of Production of Worsted Sales Y a r n , by A l f r e d H . Williams, Martin A . Brumbaugh, and H i r a m S. Davis, $ 2 . 5 0 . V I I I . T h e Future Movement of Iron Ore and Coal in Relation to the St. Lawrence Waterway, by Fayette S. Warner, $ 3 . 0 0 . I X . G r o u p Incentives—Some Variations in the Use of Group and G a n g Piece Work, by C . C . Balderston, $ 2 . 5 0 .

Bonus

X . Wage Methods and Selling Costs, by Anne Bezanson and Miriam Hussey, $ 4 . 5 0 . X I . Wages-—A Means of T e s t i n g T h e i r Adequacy, by Morris E . Leeds and C . C . Balderston, $ 1 . 5 0 . X I I . Case Studies of Unemployment, by H e l e n H a l l , Paul U . Kellogg, and Marion Elderton, $ 3 . 0 0 . X I I I . T h e Full-Fashioned Hosiery W o r k e r — H i s Status, by George W . T a y l o r , $ 3 . 0 0 . X I V . Seasonal Variations in E m p l o y m e n t by J . Parker Bursk, $ 2 . 5 0 .

Changing

Economic

in M a n u f a c t u r i n g

Industries,

X V . T h e Stabilization of Employment in Philadelphia through LongRange Planning of Municipal Improvement Projects by W m . N . Loucks, $ 3 . 5 0 .

HOW WORKERS FIND JOBS A STUDY

OF

FOUR THOUSAND HOSIERY IN

WORKERS

PHILADELPHIA

BY

DOROTHEA DE SCHWEINITZ Research Associate Industrial Research Department Wharton School of Finance and Commerce University of Pennsylvania

PHILADELPHIA UNIVBRSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA PRESS

1932

Copyright, 1931, by the U N I V E R S I T Y OF P E N N S Y L V A N I A

PKESI

Printed in the UNITED STATU o r

AUSEICA

PREFACE This report is addressed to employment bureau officials, vocational counselors, personnel officers, and others who are concerned with a better organization of the means whereby the worker is put in touch with his job. It is written also for the full-fashioned hosiery workers and for the fullfashioned hosiery manufacturers because of their interest in their industry and because of the hearty cooperation which they gave to the inquiry. No undertaking is the product of one person's enerjgy and ingenuity. It was Dr. Joseph H . Willits, Director of the Industrial Research Department, who suggested that a study be made of the methods by which full-fashioned hosiery workers secure their positions. T h e study was made under his supervision. During the intermediate stages of the survey, valuable suggestions were received from Dr. Gladys Palmer. In the preparation of the report Miss Mabel Lewis and Miss Elizabeth Healy gave practical assistance. Dr. Ewan Clague and Dr. Anne Bezanson were particularly helpful in problems of organization of the material. Because of his special knowledge of the full-fashioned hosiery industry, Dr. George Taylor aided through constant discussions of the current problems of the industry. A word of appreciation should be expressed to a number of manufacturers and workers in addition to the firms and the employes contributing the chief information for the study. In interpretation of the findings, helpful conversations were had with Dr. Paul Abelson, Dr. Bryce Stewart, Dr. Meredith Givens, and Dr. Leo Wolman. It is not possible to mention all by name, nor is it possible to thank adequately the representatives of the American Federation of Full-Fashioned Hosiery Workers, the Philadelphia Textile Manufacturers' Association, the Philadelphia V

vi

PREFACE

Metal Manufacturers' Association, the Junior Employment Service of the Board of Public Education, and the Research Department of the Federal Reserve Bank, District Number Three. For the sustained interest of three clerical assistants, Miss Elizabeth Geary, Miss Dorothea Whitaker and Mrs. Leona Sharpe, the writer is especially grateful, as well as for the infinite care with the problems of publication given by Miss Miriam Hussey, Secretary of the Industrial Research Department. DOROTHEA

December 1 9 3 1 .

DE

SCHWEINITZ

CONTENTS CHAPTER I

PACE

T H E P U R P O S E A N D M E T H O D OR T H I S I N Q U I R Y

Ι

II

T H E F U L L - F A S H I O N E D H O S I E R Y W O R K E R S OF P H I L A D E L P H I A

Π

III

T H E F U L L - F A S H I O N E D H O S I E R Y I N D U S T R Y IN P H I L A D E L P H I A

34

IV

T H E O C C U P A T I O N S OF F U L L - F A S H I O N E D H O S I E R Y W O R K E R S

62

M E T H O D S OF S E C U R I N G E M P L O Y M E N T

8J

V VI

E M P L O Y M E N T B U R E A U S A V A I L A B L E TO THE FULL-FASHIONED

HOSIERY

INDUSTRY VII

115

T H E R E - O R G A N I Z A T I O N OF T H E F U L L - F A S H I O N E D H O S I E R Y L A B O R K E T OF P H I L A D E L P H I A

MAR144

APPENDIX A

QUESTIONNAIRES

161

Β

DESCRIPTION OF OCCUPATIONS

165

C

TABLES

170

BIBLIOGRAPHY

193

INDEX

195

vii

TABLES TABLE

PAGE

ι

Proportions of Philadelphia Full-fashioned Hosiery W o r k e r s A n s w e r i n g

ι

Proportions of M e n and W o m e n in the Full-fashioned H o s i e r y I n d u s t r y

the Questionnaire

4

of Philadelphia C o m p a r e d with P e r c e n t a g e s of T h o s e A n s w e r i n g Questionnaire 3

4

Proportions of Full-fashioned Hosiery W o r k e r s E m p l o y e d in Union and Non-union Mills in T h i s S t u d y and in A l l Philadelphia, N o v e m b e r , 1930

4

·

S

O c c u p a t i o n a l Distribution of Full-fashioned H o s i e r y W o r k e r s R e p o r t i n g for T h i s S t u d y as C o m p a r e d w i t h T h a t of T o t a l N u m b e r of E m ployes in Selected Firms

8

5

O c c u p a t i o n and Sex of Full-fashioned Hosiery W o r k e r s A n s w e r i n g Ques-

6

L e n g t h of Service in Present Position

tionnaires in Philadelphia, 1930

14 28

A . L e n g t h o f Service in T w o - Y e a r Periods B . L e n g t h of Service in S i x - M o n t h s Periods for T h o s e E m p l o y e d in Present Position Less T h a n T w o Y e a r s 7

Industries and Occupation from W h i c h Hosiery W o r k e r s H a v e

Been

Recruited

31

8

T y p e o f W o r k from W h i c h Hosiery W o r k e r s H a v e Been Recruited

. .

9

Full-fashioned Hosiery K n i t t i n g M a c h i n e s in O p e r a t i o n , M a r c h 1, 1929

31

(Classified by G a u g e ) : A Comparison between Philadelphia and the R e s t o f the United States

39

10

E s t i m a t e d Distribution of Full-fashioned Hosiery K n i t t i n g

Machines,

11

Full-fashioned Hosiery K n i t t i n g M a c h i n e s in Operation, M a r c h 1, 1929

M a r c h , 1931

40

(Classified by N u m b e r of Sections per M a c h i n e ) : A

Comparison

between Philadelphia and the R e s t of the U n i t e d S t a t e s

42

11

E s t i m a t e d Distribution of Full-fashioned H o s i e r y K n i t t i n g M a c h i n e s ,

13

Size o f Philadelphia Full-fashioned H o s i e r y M i l l s A c c o r d i n g to N u m -

14

M e d i a n W e e k l y Earnings by O c c u p a t i o n s

77

15

M e t h o d s of Securing E m p l o y m e n t

89

16

M e t h o d s of Securing E m p l o y m e n t (A C o m p a r i s o n between Philadelphia

M a r c h , 1931 (Classified by Section) bers of E m p l o y e s , 1929

43 54

Hosiery W o r k e r s Under Eighteen and O t h e r B o y s and Girls in Philadelphia and N e w Y o r k C i t y ) 17

M e t h o d s of Securing E m p l o y m e n t in R e l a t i o n to N u m b e r o f D a y s L o s t

18

M e t h o d s of Securing E m p l o y e s as R e p o r t e d by 61 Full-fashioned H o s i e r y

B e t w e e n Positions

91 99

Mills, Philadelphia, 1930

108 ix

χ

TABLES

TABLE

19 20 αϊ

Methods of Securing Employes for Certain Occupations in Full-fashioned Hosiery Mills, Philadelphia Activities of Non-Profit-Making Employment Bureaus, Philadelphia, 1929 Employment Bureau Statistics, Philadelphia Textiles Manufacturers' Association and Metal Manufacturers' Association 1 9 2 8 - 1 9 3 0 . .

PACE

109 "7 124

CHARTS CHART

I II III IV V VI VII VIII

IX

X XI

XII XIII

XIV XV XVI XVII

XVIII

XIX XX XXI

PACE

Ages of Full-fashioned Hosiery Workers Who Answered Questionnaire Age Classified by Sex Ages of Full-fashioned Hosiery Workers and of All Employes in Mechanical and Manufacturing Industries in Philadelphia . . Age Classified by Occupation Marital Status by Sex Marital Status of Men in Full-fashioned Hosiery and of All Men in Philadelphia Country of Birth N a t i v i t y and Race of Full-fashioned Hosiery Workers and of All Employes in Mechanical and Manufacturing Industries in Philadelphia Length of Service in Present Position (a) by Age (b) by Length of Time in Trade Production of Full-fashioned and Seamless Hosiery in the United States, 1 9 1 9 - 1 9 2 9 Indexes of Monthly Production of Women's Hosiery in Pennsylvania and in the United States, 1 9 2 4 - 1 9 3 1 . (January 1924 — 100) Measures of Changes in the Production of Women's Full-fashioned Hosiery, Pennsylvania Indexes of Employment and Wage Payments in the Full-fashioned Hosiery Industry in Philadelphia and in Pennsylvania Outside of Philadelphia, 1929 and 1930. (Average of 1929 and 1930 = 100) Leading Industries of Philadelphia, 1927 Full-fashioned Hosiery and Other Textiles, Philadelphia, 1927 . . The Length of the Learning Period as Reported by Knitters . . . The Length of the Learning Period in Union and Non-union Mills . (a) Learning period for men (primarily knitters) (b) Learning period for women The Length of the Learning Period, as Reported by Certain Occupations (a) Toppers, Loopers, Seamers (b) Menders, Examiners, Wareroom Workers Methods of Securing Employment Methods of Securing Employment According to Age at Time of Obtaining Position Methods of Securing Employment According to Occupation . . . xi

16 16 17 20 22 23 25

26 29

35

45 47

49 51 52 64 66

68

88 93 94

xii

CHARTS

CHART

XXII XXIII XXIV

PAGE

Methods of Securing Employment in Relation to Length of Time in the Industry at Time Position was Secured Methods of Securing Employment in Relation to Year in which Position was Obtained Applications, Requisitions, and Placements, Free Employment Service, Philadelphia Textile Manufacturers' Association, 19281930

95 96

121

MAPS MAP

I II

PAGE

L o c a t i o n o f Full-fashioned Hosiery Mills, Philadelphia, 1930

. . . .

Residences o f 3368 Full-fashioned Hosiery W o r k e r s , Philadelphia, 1930

III

Residences of 389 E m p l o y e s of O n e Full-fashioned Hosiery M i l l ,

IV

delphia, 1930 Offices o f the Junior E m p l o y m e n t Service, B o a r d of P u b l i c E d u c a t i o n .

xiii

56 57

Phila59 133

APPENDIX C TABLES TABLE

PAGE

ι

A g e o f Full-fashioned Hosiery W o r k e r s W h o Answered Questionnaire

2

A g e o f Full-fashioned Hosiery W o r k e r s W h o Answered

.

170

Questionnaire

and of A l l E m p l o y e s in M e c h a n i c a l and M a n u f a c t u r i n g Industries in Philadelphia 3

170

A g e of Full-fashioned Hosiery W o r k e r s W h o Answered Questionnaire and A l l E m p l o y e s in M e c h a n i c a l and M a n u f a c t u r i n g Industries in Philadelphia

171

4

A g e on E n t e r i n g Hosiery I n d u s t r y

171

Í

Age by Occupation

172

A. The Knitting Department B . All O t h e r D e p a r t m e n t s 6

M a r i t a l S t a t u s b y Sex

173

7

M a r i t a l S t a t u s of M e n Hosiery W o r k e r s and of All M e n in Philadelphia .

173

8

M a r i t a l S t a t u s by M a j o r O c c u p a t i o n s

174

9

N a t i o n a l i t y by Sex

175

10

N a t i o n a l i t y of Hosiery W o r k e r s and of All Persons E m p l o y e d in M a n u -

11

L e n g t h of Service by A g e

12

L e n g t h of Service in Present Position in Relation to L e n g t h of T i m e in

13

L e n g t h of Service in Present Position by O c c u p a t i o n

14

Full-fashioned and Seamless Hosiery P r o d u c t i o n , United States, 1 9 1 9 -

facturing and M e c h a n i c a l Industries in Philadelphia

17$ 176

the T r a d e

177 178

I929

"79

A . V a l u e of P r o d u c t B. Quantity of Product ij

Indexes of P r o d u c t i o n , Federal R e s e r v e District N o . 3, J a n u a r y 1924 — 100

15 ( C o n t ' d )

180 Indexes of P r o d u c t i o n o f Hosiery in the U n i t e d S t a t e s . . . .

16

Measures o f Seasonal C h a n g e s in Full-fashioned Hosiery

17

Indexes of E m p l o y m e n t

P e n n s y l v a n i a , 1925-1930 Hosiery

Industry

181

Production, 182

and W a g e P a y m e n t s in the

in Philadelphia

Full-fashioned

and in P e n n s y l v a n i a

Outside

Philadelphia, A v e r a g e for 1929 and 1930 = 100

182

18

L e a d i n g Industries o f Philadelphia A r r a n g e d in Order o f N u m b e r of

19

T e x t i l e Industries, Philadelphia, 1927

184

20

T h e L e a r n i n g Period b y O c c u p a t i o n

185

21

T h e L e a r n i n g Period in Union and N o n - u n i o n M i l l s

186

22

M e t h o d s of Securing E m p l o y m e n t in R e l a t i o n to A g e at T i m e o f O b -

23

M e t h o d s of Securing E m p l o y m e n t in R e l a t i o n to C o u n t r y of B i r t h

Wage Earners—1927

183

taining Position

187 XV

188

APPENDIX

ivi

C

TABLES

TABLE

14

15 î6 27

Methods of Securing Employment According to Occupation A. T h e Knitting Department B . All Other Departments Methods of Securing Employment in Relation to Length of Time in the T r a d e at Time Position Was Secured Methods of Securing Employment According to Y e a r in Which Position W a s Obtained Employment Statistics, Free Employment Service, Philadelphia Textile Manufacturers'Association

PACAGE

if 189

1$ 190 15'9' 19191

CHAPTER

I

THE PURPOSE AND METHOD OF THIS INQUIRY A m o n g the human problems which affect industrial efficiency, one which has received little practical attention in the United States is that of connecting the worker and his j o b . T h i s inquiry was undertaken to learn the methods by which men and women obtain e m p l o y m e n t in the f u l l - f a s h ioned hosiery industry in Philadelphia. In order that the findings might be more readily understood, information was gathered on the types of workers in the industry and the conditions which attracted them there. Something was learned of the development of the industry and its present status locally and nationally. It was likewise necessary to consider the types of occupations which f u l l - f a s h i o n e d hosiery has to offer and the wages, hours, and w o r k i n g conditions which affected those who sought and obtained e m ployment in the trade. T h i s information not only throws light on w h y workers get their jobs in certain ways but it is the sort of thing which every person wants to k n o w , or ought to k n o w , before he selects a given type of e m p l o y m e n t . A s it is difficult f o r one individual to know as much as this about one field of work, or about several trades f r o m which he w o u l d choose, it has been suggested with increasing urgency that an adequate system of public e m p l o y m e n t offices 1 be established for the purpose not only of connecting the worker and the j o b but also of furnishing him with information as to his prospects 1 T w e n t y - t h r e e countries have u n d e r t a k e n some f o r m o f national e m p l o y ment service in a c c o r d w i t h the standards suggested at the First I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a b o r C o n f e r e n c e attended by representatives o f 40 g o v e r n m e n t s at W a s h ington in 1 9 1 9 . In the U n i t e d States, 24 states, n o t a b l y N e w Y o r k , W i s c o n s i n , and O h i o , have established p u b l i c e m p l o y m e n t e x c h a n g e s . E v e r since 1 9 1 4 , there have been l e g i s l a t i v e proposals b e f o r e C o n g r e s s f a v o r i n g the d e v e l o p ment o f an adequate n a t i o n a l e m p l o y m e n t service.

1

2

HOW

WORKERS

FIND

JOBS

in various lines of work. It is clear that such an employment office, in order to be of service also to particular industries, must know something of their conditions and requirements. It was the purpose of this study to learn to know one industry well, not only as to the methods of connecting workers and jobs but also with regard to the facts needed by a bureau if it were to perform this service. In this connection the inquiry included a brief survey of the employment bureaus available to the full-fashioned hosiery industry of Philadelphia and a consideration of the requirements of an adequate employment service for this industry. As far as can be ascertained, no such study had been made previously. T h e surveys of occupations made by vocational guidance workers for the benefit of young people about to choose an occupation provide job descriptions and specifications, an account of working conditions, and a limited amount of information on the condition of the industry or profession. T h e y should be supplemented, however, with information as indicated above, for the direction of those concerned with the development of employment exchanges. A series of studies revealing the dominant characteristics and the changing conditions in each important industry in a community should assist in the constant adjustment and re-distribution of workers and jobs. T h e full-fashioned hosiery industry in Philadelphia is the first business to be chosen for study. It is interesting not only because it is one of the largest businesses in an outstanding manufacturing center, but also because the size of the factory units vary from mills employing less than 50 workers to one which has nearly 2,000 employes. T h e work within these factories ranges from unskilled, through semi-skilled to highly skilled labor. It is done by both men and women. T h e workers are not drawn from any one nationality group, but can be said to be predominantly American. T h e fact that there is an active labor union in this industry, while this is not true of most factory work in Philadelphia, makes f u l l fashioned hosiery an important field to study because of the

PURPOSE

AND

METHOD

OF

INQUIRY

3

part such a labor organization plays in the employment situation. F u r t h e r m o r e , because both the unionized section and other groups in the full-fashioned hosiery industry have evinced an interest in employment bureau work, it is considered a practical plan to choose this as one of the first industrial groups to be analyzed. T h e principal handicap in the selection of the hosiery industry for this study lies in the fact that it is not typical of other Philadelphia industries in the matter of growth and change. Full-fashioned hosiery has increased its production at a continuously accelerating rate from 1 9 1 9 to 1929 and has given a large number of workers relatively steady employment. Rapid changes in the opposite direction took place during 1930. T h e hosiery market was over-stocked locally and nationally. E m p l o y m e n t was irregular, or on a parttime basis. Some mills operated busily all year. A few were closed during the entire period. T h e situation was due partly to the widespread business depression and partly to the recent, rapid expansion of the industry. T h e s e conditions must be considered in the analysis of the facts secured for this study. T h e bulk of the information for this report was secured through questionnaires answered by the hosiery workers themselves. T h e simplest w a y of reaching the people engaged in the industry was through their places of e m p l o y ment. E i g h t e e n firms agreed to distribute a printed sheet of questions 2 to all of their employes. A t each m i l l it was requested that there be no spirit of compulsion about filling in the blanks but that, if possible, every type of occupation be represented, including the supervisory force and those on plant maintenance. N o names were requested. E n v e l o p e s were supplied for each questionnaire so that the information could be returned under seal. In many cases the mill superintendent felt that this plan for privacy was unnecessary and did not include the envelopes in the distribution. Such action m a y have reduced the num* For example of questionnaire see Appendix A .

HOW

4

WORKERS

FIND

JOBS

ber of cases in which suggestions might have been added under the item, " R e m a r k s . " O v e r 4,000 full-fashioned hosiery workers answered questionnaires. T a b l e 1 shows that they are about 20 per cent of the total number of workers in the industry. Eight TABLE

Ι

PROPORTIONS o r PHILADELPHIA F U L L - F A S H I O N E D H O S I E R Y W O R K E R S A N S W E R I N G THE Q U E S T I O N N A I R E Number of Workers

Estimated number of hosiery workers in Philadelphia* Number answering questionnaire Number answering every question Lowest number answering any one question

Per Cent of Total

19.73» IO.4 8.0

4.03» I.Í83

2,626

133

• Sc« Chapter I I I , page S3, for method of arriving at this estimate.

per cent of the industry is represented by answers to all questions j no one question was answered by less than 13 per cent of those connected with the industry. These proportions should give a fair picture of the experiences of a group of wage earners, the largest belonging to any one manufacturing industry in the community. T o make sure that the picture is truly representative it is necessary to scrutinize Tables 2, 3, and 4. Between 56 and TABLE

2

PROPORTIONS o r M E N AND W O M E N IN THE F U L L - F A S H I O N E D H O S I E R Y I N D U S T R Y OF P H I L A D E L P H I A C O M P A R E D WITH P E R C E N T A G E S OF THOSE ANSWERING QUESTIONNAIRE Percentages Hosiery Workers in

mills in 1930* 13 mills in 1924t This study 61

Women

Total

Men

IOO.O 100.0 100.0

44·*

55

4»·7

57-3 59 3

4°·

7

8

• Firms which reported for this study. t Payroll figures appearing in The Hosiery Industry, Ruth J. Woodruff, T h e Junior Employment Service, Board of Public Education and White-Williams Foundation, Philadelphia, 1925

PURPOSE

AND METHOD

OF

S

INQUIRY

57 per cent of the employes in full-fashioned hosiery mills are women, according to payroll figures reported by 61 mills for this study and according to a previous study of the records of 1 3 mills. T h e questionnaires secured for this report show women workers as amounting to 59 per cent, possibly because the girls were more ready to comply with the request to fill in the forms than were the men. The study was made during a period of stress in the industry. During the spring and summer of 1 9 3 0 a new agreement was pending in the unionized branch of the industry. Wage reductions were rumored and finally came. T h e men, more than the women, were conscious of these events in their early stages and were suspicious of novel requests. While this study has little to do with wages, hours, or union and nonunion conditions, the men may have been loath to give personal information, the ultimate use of which they could not foresee. Table 3 represents an effort to estimate the proportions of union and non-union mills and the percentage of union members in the sample of workers who took part in this study. There have been changes in the situation during the TABLE

3

PROPORTIONS o r FULI^FASHIONED HOSIERY WORKERS EMPLOYED IK UNION AND NON-UNION M I L L S IN THIS STUDY AND IN A L L PHILADELPHIA, NOVEMBER, 1 9 3 0 Full-Fashioned Hosiery Mills, Philadelphia Mills

Total U n i o n mills* Open s h o p s t N o n - u n i o n mills

Employes

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

102

IOO.O

19.732

32 21

31-4 20.6 48.0

Number

49

The Sample for This Study

8.453 2.344Î 8,935

Mills

Employee

Number

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

IOO.O

18

IOO.O

4.032

IOO.O

42.8 12.0

II

61.1

>.5°3

37-2

45-2

7

38.9

2,529

62.8

* Included eight milis which had not signed union contract, but had approximately union conditions. t No discrimination against union members. J Total number of employes, not all union members.

6

HOW

WORKERS

FIND

JOBS

past year. T h e table indicates the conditions as they were in N o v e m b e r , 1930, at the time when the last questionnaires were secured. Each establishment is counted separately though it may be one of two or three operated by the same firm. T h e number of employes in each mill was secured f r o m the Pennsylvania Department of Internal Affairs. 3 T h e s e are 1929 figures. It is impossible to know the proportions of non-union and union members in open shops and in non-union mills. T h e r e may have been some nonunion workers in union mills at the time this study was made, as it was during this period that the American Federation of Full-Fashioned Hosiery W o r k e r s was just beginning to draw into its membership all of the women and girls in the auxiliary and wareroom departments of the unionized mills. T h e exact percentage of union workers in the industry is difficult to ascertain. T h e proportion of workers from union mills in this study, 37 per cent, is lower than the estimated proportion for the industry, but conditions were so disturbed by unemployment and wage reductions in the summer and autumn of 1930 that it seemed inadvisable to try to secure additional recruits for answering the questions in union mills. T h e questionnaires had been distributed in the non-union mills earlier in the year, when many people were at work and the industry had not begun to feel the serious effects of the business depression. N o n e of the schedules received from workers in non-union mills was excluded from the tabulations of the report because, except for a few items in the inquiry, union membership did not prove to have much bearing on the problems presented in the study. N o effort was made to have questionnaires answered in open shops. T h e union members have no shop committee in these mills. In a union firm the shop committee or shop chairman endorses the questionnaire and, in conjunction with the employer, secures the cooperation of the workers in filling it in. I n a non-union mill the employer orders the questionnaire to be distributed and the workers respond to "See Chapter III, page 53, f o r method of arriving at these estimates.

PURPOSE

AND

METHOD

OF

INQUIRY

7

his request that it be answered. With both union and nonunion workers in the same mill it appeared that it might take a longer time than in the other firms to obtain full cooperation and, as there was no important advantage in securing part of the sample f r o m these mills, no open shops were included in the study. T h e union situation continues to vary. T h e proportion of union members became greater than is indicated in Table 3 as a result of the organization campaign of the union in the first months of 1 9 3 1 . In M a y , 1 9 3 1 , those mills which had an agreement with the union or had approximately union standards would 4 have carried on their payrolls 50 per cent of the full-fashioned hosiery workers in Philadelphia, according to the figures used for Tables 1 and 3. It would be almost impossible to secure a sample of employes with a correct proportion of union and non-union workers in a period of such constant change. It is perhaps more important that the occupations in f u l l fashioned hosiery work be represented in correct proportions. Table 4 shows the occupational distribution of workers in a representative number of mills and of the full-fashioned hosiery workers who cooperated in this study. There is a further discussion of hosiery occupations in Chapter I V and in Appendix B , but it is interesting to note here that leggers and helpers together constitute 27 per cent of the employes in a mill and that the knitting department employs over 70 per cent of the entire force. Office workers were included in this study so that all employes would be represented, but they do not appear in large enough numbers to affect comparisons with " w a g e earner" figures of the United States Census which do not include office workers. On account of changes in style and methods of operation, it would be difficult to determine what should be the exact percentage of workers in the different occupations in a hosiery mill. T h e sample here presented is large enough and includes groups 1

If

employment

figures

as in 1 9 1 9 .

conditions had been good and

had resulted

in

payroll

8

HOW

WORKERS TABLE

FIND

JOBS

4

OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF FULL-FASHIONED H O S I E R Y W O R K E R S R E P O R T I N G FOR T H I S STUDY AS COMPARED WITH T H A T OF T O T A L N U M B E R OF E M P L O Y E S IN S E L E C T E D F I R M S *

Occupations of Hosiery Workers

Total Winding Department Knitting Department: Legging Footing Helping Topping Looping Seaming Examining^ Mending} Miscellaneous Wareroom: Boarding Turning P a i r i n g , F o l d i n g , B o x i n g , etc, Shipping Department Plant Maintenance Supervisory forceH Office force Miscellaneous! I N o report

Thirteen F i r m s · in 1024

ΙΟΟ.Ο

100.0

5-0

6-7

18.6 6.6 9.1 157 7 4 8.6

16.2 6.1 II . I II . I 7-5 10.0

4-1 6.9 1.8

4-2

3 9 0.4 6.6 0.4

2.4 0.6

2.4 2.4

ss

1-7

7-7 0-7

1.1

1.8 1.8 1.8 0.9

* Payroll figures representing 3,190 employes, appearing in The Hosiery Industty, Ruth J. W o o d ruff, T h e Junior Employment Service, Board of Public Education and White Williams Foundation, Philadelphia, 1925. T h e 4,032 full-fashioned hosiery workers who answered questionnaires for this study.

(

Includes Includes Includes Includes

examiners in the wareroom. menders in the wareroom. machine fixers not in supervisory work. dyers.

of sufficient size to present a fair picture of the full-fashioned hosiery workers in Philadelphia. A few words must be added to describe the firms by which these 4,000 workers are employed. T h e 18 mills which distributed the questionnaires to their employes are located in the various parts of the city which M a p I in Chapter I I I indicates as the locale of the full-fashioned hosiery industry. Three of them are west of Broad Street, seven are east of Broad but west of Front Street and eight are east of Front. Six of these mills are large, six small, and six medium in size. T e n of them are old or well-established firms, some in old buildings and others in a modern type of factory struc-

PURPOSE

AND

METHOD

OF

INQUIRY

9

ture. T h e oldest firms had originally been in the seamless branch of the trade and had developed their full-fashioned work during the expansion of this part of the industry. T h e newer establishments have been organized within the past four or five years in the period of the industry's greatest growth. E v e r y type of equipment and every variety of product are represented in the firms included in this s t u d y — 3 9 gauge machines and high-speed, long-section 48-gauge leggers and footers, producing stockings from the strongest service weight to the sheer two- and three-thread variety. Sales outlets are through direct sales to customers, through hosiery shops selling only one brand, and through sales to jobbers. Some of the firms advertise their brands nationally, others have no trade name, and many dispose of their product under several names, catering to different types of buyers before the product reaches the ultimate consumer. Under these various conditions it seems safe to assume that the mills whose employes are represented in this report are confronted with every type of employment and production problem with which the industry is faced. Information supplementary to the data obtained through the questionnaire was secured by personal interviews with mill superintendents, foremen, forewomen, and with the hosiery workers themselves, men and women, union and non-union. In addition to this, 61 mills 8 filled in questionnaires from the point of view of management on the subject of methods of securing employes. Descriptive and statistical information was secured from material assembled by private agencies, federal and state bureaus, and by the Industrial Research Department of the University of Pennsylvania. Visits were made to the employment bureaus of the Philadelphia Textile Manufacturers' Association, the American Federation of Full-Fashioned Hosiery Workers, the Board of Public Education, the Pennsylvania Department of Labor "Questionnaires were sent to ninety mills. See Chapter V, page 107, for discussion of questionnaire sent to employers. For copy of questionnaire see Appendix A.

10

HOW

WORKERS

FIND

JOBS

and Industry, and other bureaus which might be serving the full-fashioned hosiery industry. Employment methods were observed and reports were studied in order to estimate the extent of the use of employment bureaus by hosiery manufacturers and workers. This report endeavors to bring together the information from these various sources. T o serve one industry and its workers, it is necessary to be familiar with the problems and the opportunities which are peculiar to their situation. And in knowing the methods by which workers obtain their positions in one industry it is considered that there may be greater understanding of the problem of connecting workers and jobs in all industries.

CHAPTER

II

THE FULL-FASHIONED HOSIERY WORKERS OF PHILADELPHIA The full-fashioned hosiery workers of Philadelphia are facing a period of readjustment in their industry. This is not a crisis which can be met by an heroic act in any one day or week. T h e workers and their employers are experiencing unsettling events in an industry which, having expanded for ten years at a phenomenal rate, is now overdeveloped and cannot secure work enough for the equipment and for the numbers of workers that have been attracted to it. Philadelphia, one of the oldest and largest centers 1 of the industry, has experienced especially the extremes of each period of development, with high profits in the years of growth and severe losses in recent years. Of the prosperity of the industry, and of its misfortunes, the workers have had their share. T h e wages have sky-rocketed upward in the years before 1929 and downward since then. During 1 9 3 0 and 1 9 3 1 the very opportunity to work has been withdrawn. Material things which make for good living and satisfying recreation have been relinquished. During the good years, the full-fashioned hosiery workers in Philadelphia lived well and looked prosperous. T h e men, some of them in custom-tailored suits and most of them in white shirts with carefully chosen neckties, were far better off than the "white-collar'' workers. Although they reported for work at seven-thirty in the morning, these were no horny-handed sons of toil. Sensitive fingers handled slender strands of silk and bundled together dozens of pairs of sheer hosiery. T h e girls, especially, working as they did every minute of the day on some part of the delicate, un1 Information on some of the economic factors in the Philadelphia situation will be f o u n d in Chapter I I I . 11

12

HOW

WORKERS

FIND

JOBS

finished stocking, kept a sensitive touch. When they went out in the evening they wore hats and dresses worthy of their stockings which they could choose so well. The fur coat, considered beyond the means of most factory girls, was not necessarily denied to the hosiery worker. The men could have automobiles. Hundreds of them drove to work and many a car in the long line could scarcely be distinguished from that of the factory owner. The younger men and girls in the industry have attended the great, new junior and senior high schools of the city. There they learned of the unbounded opportunities for individual success in American life. In choosing hosiery in preference to other interesting lines of work, they accepted as a matter of course the conditions which led to the purchase of new homes, parlor suites, standing lamps, radios, and electrical appliances for the household. This purchasing power, in addition to the stable qualities of the Anglo-Saxon and German stock from which many of them come, made them respected members of the northern section of the city. Hosiery workers have had a good time. They bowled, played baseball, organized orchestras. In some factories the workers knew each other and counted on certain leaders for jokes in the mill and for planning recreation outside. In others the employe scarcely knew the person working beside him. Despite the early hour when the day's work began, hosiery workers were able to remain at meetings, dances and plays until late at night. The job was routine} recreation was exciting. On Monday mornings in the spring and summer, many a worker appeared with a fresh coat of sunburn. H e had been "to the shore," fishing. In the fall he went hunting. Full-fashioned hosiery workers are proud. They have been known as the aristocracy of the textile industry. They like their work. Even though there are repetitive process jobs, the work is interesting to those who are doing it. Some workers have been connected with one firm for years, hold a real affection for it, and regret the present unemployment

THE HOSIERY

WORKERS

13

which severs a relationship of long standing as well as of mutual profit. T h e union, too, claims the devotion of many and offers a social center to a large group. W h i l e , in some respects, it is a source of irritation to employers, the union serves as a psychological safety valve. Minor grievances are aired at union meetings and argued hour after hour. Misunderstandings are cleared up between worker and worker, or between firm and worker with the result that the employe may return to his job the next morning, content. Management may have been saved thus a time-consuming argument or the impaired production of a brooding workman. W h i l e the period of comfortable living, varied recreation, and interesting work relationships changed rapidly during 1930, it must be remembered that the information in this chapter which was supplied by four thousand hosiery workers, chiefly during the first half of the year, refers to the ten-year period of growth closing with 1929. It offers, therefore, a picture of the kind of workers which an expanding manufacturing industry in a large industrial and residential center is able to attract to itself by one means or another. This material will show briefly the types of work performed, the age of the workers, their marital status, nationality, their degree of stability, and the sources from which they come. OCCUPATIONAL

DISTRIBUTION

OF H O S I E R Y

WORKERS

O f the 19,732 hosiery workers in Philadelphia, over half are women. Table 5 shows the numbers in each occupation 2 who cooperated in this project. Examination of the table shows that men's and women's work is separate. A knitter is a man. A helper is a youth who becomes a knitter. Most of the other tasks in connection with the making of a stocking are performed by women. T h e usual problems, such as "equal pay for equal w o r k " performed by men and women, ' F o r detailed description o f each o f the principal occupations in the f u l l fashioned hosiery industry see Chapter IV and Appendix B.

HOW

14

WORKERS

FIND

T A B L E OCCUPATION

AND

ANSWERING Occupation

SEX

or

5

FULL-FASHIONED

QUESTIONNAIRES

JOBS

HOSIERY

IN P H I L A D E L P H I A ,

WORKERS 1930

Total

Men

Women

Total

4.032

1.644

2,388

Winding Department Knitting Department Legging Footing Helping Topping Looping Seaming Examining* Mendingt Miscellaneous Wareroom Boarding Turning Pairing, folding, e t c Shipping D e p a r t m e n t Plant maintenance Supervisory forcef Office Miscellaneous§ N o report

271 2.953

20

251

1,360

650

650

1.593

* t j §

Includes Includes Includes Includes

246

246

446

446

449

449

302

302

404

404

169

169 220

220

67 433 96 26

311

29

90

74 73 73 36

18

49

67 35 23 9

366 61

3

302

29

87 34 8

3 40

31

65 42

8

28

examiners in the wareroom. menders in the wareroom. 14 m a c h i n e fixers not engaged in supervisory duties. 17 d y e r s .

do not arise. Except with the boarders! With the introduction of new forms for pressing stockings, girls and women have been inducted into the job of boarding stockings. This has caused a lowering of wage rates for the occupation. But it would be more accurate to say that, although the task is still called boarding, it has become a different occupation. T h e metal forms, either stationary or moving automatically, are easier to handle than the wooden boards which must be lifted and placed in racks to be taken to the heating and drying room. W o m e n have been replacing men as firms purchased the new equipment. Few mills employ both men and women boarders unless both wooden and metal forms are in use. T h e r e are, however, mills which employ only men on the metal forms. T h e total number of boarders probably

THE

HOSIERY

WORKERS

13

constitutes between three and four per cent of the workers in the industry. 3 Knitters and their helpers make up 3 4 per cent of the workers. Of the total number of men employed in full-fashioned hosiery about 80 per cent are knitters and helpers. T h e rest are boarders, foremen, shippers, plant electricians, carpenters, "handy men," watchmen, and so forth. As a number of large hosiery mills have dye houses, dyers might be included among the men workers in the industry. Topping, looping, seaming, and mending, the more difficult tasks performed by girls, offer employment to about 60 per cent of the women in hosiery work. Compared with most modern factory operations, f u l l fashioned hosiery requires a high degree of skill and attention. Knitting, the chief work offered to men, calls for a learning period of from two to five years. 4 Topping, looping, and seaming require from one month to a year of training. These occupations may be considered a good opportunity for women because, outside of the needle trades, much of the factory work assigned to girls can be learned in a few days or weeks. Winding, in the few mills which have throwing departments, provides work demanding training. Boarding, also, should be listed among the jobs requiring some skill. A d d the foremen, head shippers, office workers, and skilled workmen on plant maintenance and it will appear that about 75 per cent of the employes in full-fashioned hosiery are a skilled or semi-skilled group. AGE

Youth is the predominant characteristic of full-fashioned hosiery workers in Philadelphia. Chart I indicates that the largest number are 1 8 , 1 9 , and 20 years of age. F o r t y per cent of them are under 2 1 and about 20 per cent are over 30. As would be expected, older men are present in the industry in larger proportions than older women. But when speaking of "older m e n " in full-fashioned hosiery one refers to an individual of 30. According to the material presented in ' See T a b l e 4 on page 8.

1

See Chart X V I , Section A , page 64.

16

HOW

WORKERS

FIND

JOBS

Chart II, 27.7 per cent of the men are over 30 years of age, as against 14.5 per cent of the women. Of the workers over P I I C M T

Ρ T A GLUT

Λ, / / ΛV

/

V ul Ite lisi al lu HT »1 t, y »1 ϋωm ! irl 1. ul uUl w u J d-mra -triκ) t\

AI

CHART

I—AGES

OF

' N A R S

FULL-FASHIONED

HOSIERY

WORKERS

QUESTIONNAIRE

CHART

I I — A G E

CLASSIFIED BY

SEX

WHO

ANSWERED

THE

HOSIERY

17

WORKERS

30 about 57 per cent are men, while in the industry as a whole men constitute about 43 per cent of the workers. Both relatively and actually the women are in the majority in the younger ages, but the men are in absolute excess in the years above 30. (Table 1, Appendix C . ) Is it usual for factory workers to be so young? Chart I I I compares the ages of full-fashioned hosiery workers with

CHART

III—AGES

EMPLOYES

IN

OF

FULL-FASHIONED

MECHANICAL

AND

HOSIERY

WORKERS

MANUFACTURING

AND

OF

INDUSTRIES*

ALL IN

PHILADELPHIA (* United

S t a t e s C e n s u s of

Population,

1920.)

those of other Philadelphia employes in mechanical and manufacturing industries. This latter group includes building trades' mechanics and laborers and a few others not engaged in factory work, but it is the nearest generally comparable class of employed persons. T h e 1930 Census figures for age and occupation are not yet available for cities, but if there is a difference between the 1920 and 1930 figures in the proportions at work at various ages, it is likely that, as the average age of the population in the United States is

18

HOW

WORKERS

FIND

JOBS

rising, the age of workers may have been greater in 1 9 3 0 than in 1 9 2 0 . T h i s would intensify the contrast between hosiery workers and other factory employes. T h e outstanding difference lies in the fact that 62 per cent of the hosiery group is under 2 5 years of age and only 26 per cent of the others are as young as this. Furthermore, nearly all hosiery workers are under 4 5 , while 26 per cent of the other workers are above this age. (Tables 2 and 3 , Appendix C . ) W h y are full-fashioned hosiery workers so young? F i f t y four per cent of the men are under 25 years of age as compared with 2 1 per cent of the men in other mechanical and manufacturing industries. Because of this and because men constitute 4 1 per cent of the group of hosiery workers in this study and perform one of the most important operations in the industry, it cannot be said that here is a scheme of production which uses large numbers of young women who leave the work at time of marriage and, being replaced' by still younger girls, thus establish a low age level. If the ages are correct and if there are many young men as well as young women, the question then arises: Is the full-fashioned hosiery industry one which discards its workers at an early age? Does it require intense speed, great physical strength, or young eyes? Chart I V shows that there is a fair proportion of knitters, both footers and leggers, between 3 0 and 40, but a small percentage above 40. Likewise there are loopers, seamers, and toppers between the ages of 25 and 3 5 , but f e w older. In the important operations of the industry there are almost no workers in the upper age groups which in other industries are not considered old. I n dustries or firms which object to hiring people over 45 years of age are not known to drop precipitously all employes over 40 or 45. N o r are workers apt to drift away voluntarily from a j o b which commands as high a wage as has prevailed in full-fashioned hosiery within recent years. Further questioning on this subject has not revealed the presence of old age problems. It comes up for discussion occasionally at

THE

HOSIERY

WORKERS

19

meetings in the industry, but it is not yet an important consideration. T h e explanation of the presence of many young workers is more apt to lie in the fact that full-fashioned hosiery has experienced its great period of expansion within the last five years and almost its entire growth in ten years. Y o u n g people leaving school and looking about for a good trade would be attracted to this then-thriving industry. Boys and girls quitting school five years ago might be only 20 or 2 1 years old now and yet be established in the industry. People have been attracted from other industries to that of hosiery as is indicated in Table 7 on page 3 1 , but many of them made the change when they were young and could learn this profitable trade. Fifty-two per cent of the group in this study entered the industry 5 when under 18 years of age and over 70 per cent were under 20. ( T a b l e 4, Appendix C . ) T h e fact that nearly 60 per cent of the men as compared with 46 per cent of the women entered under 18 reflects the union regulation and the practical custom of beginning the knitter's apprenticeship between the ages of 1 6 and 2 1 . Scrutiny of the questionnaires indicates that the older men entering the hosiery industry had outlived their usefulness as machinists, carpenters, and so forth, and had to content themselves with the j o b of night watchman, janitor, or handy man in a hosiery mill. T h e older women, few in number, were apt to find jobs in the wareroom. T h e indications are that the fine machine work favors young people as learners. F e w have had the chance to grow old in the trade, but from those who have it is not possible to predict that older workers will be discarded. Thus far, the workers are young because the industry is young. B e f o r e leaving the question of age it is interesting to note * T h i s information was secured f r o m answers to the question : " H o w long have you been in this occupation? years months. ( A d d together the learning period and the total time spent in all firms on this kind of j o b . ) " While entering an industry and entering a given occupation may not be synonymous, it is considered that this was the case with the majority of the workers.

20

HOW WORKERS FIND JOBS

CHART I V — A C E

C L A S S I F I E D B Y OCCUPATIONS

THE

HOSIERY

WORKERS

21

in Chart IV some of the characteristics of those in different occupations. For example, 44 per cent of the footers are over 30 as compared with only 30 per cent of the leggers. While the largest number of women fall into the age group under 20, it will be noticed that there are more seamers, toppers, and menders (skilled workers) between the ages of 20 and 25. Mending, which is hand work requiring both patience and skill, draws consistently on the older women. Looping has a large proportion of young girls, probably because some of them entered the industry as ravelers before they were 16 and shortly after arrival at this age, took their place as skilled workers in the trade. Examiners and wareroom workers (pairers, folders, stampers, labelers, packers) are very young. Of the 65 per cent of the loopers who are under 20, two-thirds are under 18. Half of the wareroom workers are under 20 and a large proportion of these are under 18. It is through the wareroom that some girls enter the industry and later secure an opportunity to learn seaming, looping, or topping. (Table 5, Appendix C.) M A R I T A L STATUS

Because the full-fashioned hosiery workers are young, they are not married. Sixty-four per cent of them are single. There is, however, a distinct difference between the women and the men. Nearly half of the men, but only 19 per cent of the women, are married. (Table 6, Appendix C.) A larger proportion of the women than men are widowed or separated. During 1930 and 1931, as in all times of unemployment, there was much discussion of the married women at work. Similar agitation arose among full-fashioned hosiery workers. Under "remarks" at the end of the questionnaire such comments as this appeared: "Should a married woman or girl whose husband is well able to supply her every day needs hold a position which some single girl or probably some young fellow or man could hold?" It is beyond the scope of this study to analyze or discuss

HOW WORKERS

22

FIND

JOBS

the problem of the purchase of homes or of self-expression for women as reasons for continuing work after marriage. Slightly more of the women hosiery workers are married than are other women factory workers. The 1920 Census reports 17.2 per cent of the women factory workers in PhilaPE.R C e n t

Per.Ge.nt

80

80 MB

60

•

M l n

60

W 0ME.N

40

40

2S

20

0

j ¿INGfLí-

CHART

-

a

I ÎYt AR.R.1E.P I ALL Otmers

V—MARITAL

STATUS

BY

SEX

delphia as married. Of the hosiery workers, 19.3 per cent of the women were married. In view of the fact that such large numbers of young people are in full-fashioned hosiery it is more nearly exact to compare only those groups which are over 20 years of age. In this case the contrast is between 29 and 22 per cent, more women hosiery workers being married than other women in manufacturing.

THE

HOSIERY

23

WORKERS

It is possible that an even larger proportion of women hosiery workers are married than is shown in this report. Some may deem it expedient to pose as single in their places of employment. T h e r e are others, h o w e v e r , w h o may be separated from their husbands, but did not wish to state this on a questionnaire. N o effort could be made to determine what were the financial responsibilities either of single or of PLSCLMT

PEECENT

10

80 70

£0

HOSIE-EY

Hä OTHER MEN Hosiery WORKERS

1

50 40

10

KNITTE-RS

•

ALL

M E.N H

mm

II il

30

1

20

Ρ

10.

I

α

S I N SUL. 20

CHART

VI—MARITAL

STATUS ALL

(* United

25

ANO UNDER. 2 5 YEARS.

States

Census

of

OF

MEN

MEN*

Population,

IN

IN

| MARRIED

AND UNDE-R.

FULL-FASHIONED

| ALL OTHERS 25

YEAR»

HOSIERY

AND

OF

PHILADELPHIA

1920.)

married people, or to learn in how many instances more than one member of a f a m i l y is e m p l o y e d in the industry. T h e r e is simply the fact that there are more married w o m e n in the full-fashioned hosiery industry than in other fields of factory employment. Special age groups have been selected in order to make a careful comparison between hosiery knitters and other men in Philadelphia. Between the ages of 20 and 25, one-third of the knitters, or eight per cent more than other men, are married. O f those between 25 and 35 years of age 7 4 per cent

24

HOW

WORKERS

FIND

JOBS

of the knitters are married as compared with 64 per cent of the other men in Philadelphia. Hosiery knitters marry young and more of them marry than do men in other groups. T h e high wage has had its influence. There is a saying in the industry: " Y o u get a machine, you get a w i f e . " T h e reason for the high proportion of single men hosiery workers, other than knitters, as shown in Section A of Chart V I , is probably the predominance of helpers slightly over twenty years of age who are still receiving the apprentice wage. (Table 7, Appendix C . ) T h e r e is one more relationship between marital status and occupation which is of interest. (Table 8, Appendix C . ) Twenty-seven per cent of the toppers are married, as compared with 19 per cent of the loopers and 20 per cent of the seamers. There appears to be a tendency among the toppers to continue work after marriage. This has been explained variously. Information secured in the course of the study revealed a scarcity® of toppers in the industry except during dull seasons and during the 1930 depression. There is some pressure on toppers to keep their jobs when marrying or to return to the factory when an urgent situation arises. M o r e personal reasons have been suggested. T h e topper who works so closely with the man who operates the footing machine frequently refers to him as " m y knitter." Sometimes she marries " h e r " knitter. T h e thought of her husband working all day with other girls, it is said, sends her back to the factory to continue her job and to superintend personal relationships. This statement has been contradicted by the toppers themselves who say that toppers rarely work with their husbands. Possibly more toppers marry than other girls in hosiery or more of them marry men connected with the industry and thus are close to the needs of the trade. NATIONALITY

Perhaps as interesting as the subject of matrimony is the nationality of the full-fashioned hosiery workers. This is an * For further discussion of the scarcity o f toppers see Chapter IV, page 80.

THE

HOSIERY

WORKERS

25

American group. Eighty per cent of the hosiery workers reported themselves as having been born in the United States. True to the traditions of the textile industry there is a representation from Scotland and England with a greater number from Austria and Germany, where both hosiery machinery and hosiery are manufactured to a considerable extent. Other countries represented are: Albania, Belgium, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, France, Holland, Italy, Jugoslavia, Lithuania, Norway, Roumania, Switzerland, and

C H A R T V I I — C O U N T R Y OF B I R T H

one or two South American countries. (Table 9, Appendix C.) It is possible that a questionnaire method of inquiry would not turn up as many foreign-born as would be typical of an industry. T h e questionnaire in this study required, as far as possible, check marks, figures, and a minimum of writing. If a person could read English, he could respond to most of the questions. In three mills nearly every employe answered the questionnaire. The proportions of workers in these mills born in the United States and in the foreign

HOW

26

WORKERS

FIND

JOBS

countries correspond closely to those found in the total sample. I t is even possible that, owing to the nature of certain

P E R CENT Hosiery Würrem

80

C H OTHER W o r k e r s

60

40

20

WAT¡VE-E>ÜRN [Foreign-BARN | OTHER. Races k WHITE WUITL MOT REPORTED

Í CHART

VIII—NATIVITY

AND OF A L L

EMPLOYES

AND R A C E IN

(* United States

OF

FULL-FASHIONED

IN M E C H A N I C A L

HOSIERY

AND M A N U F A C T U R I N G

WORKERS

INDUSTRIES*

PHILADELPHIA

C e n s u s of P o p u l a t i o n ,

1920.)

mills included in this study, this sample is more heavily weighted with Germans than is typical of the industry.

THE

HOSIERY

WORKERS

27

T h e r e was, however, evidence that full-fashioned hosiery workers were resenting the presence of foreigners and the preference for them, as is indicated in remarks such as the f o l l o w i n g : " S o m e Hosiery M i l l s in this City, one has to be a Foreigner, before they are even considered, but the M i l l I work in treats every one of us on the same equal, so that makes working a pleasure." " F o r e i g n e r " in this case doubtless means "American-born workers of foreign parentage." Hosiery workers constantly speak of Italians who are coming into the industry. M a n y Italian and some Slavic names appear in lists of hosiery workers, but they belong to boys and girls who were born and reared in the U n i t e d States. E v e n if this inquiry has failed to secure an accurate representation of foreigners, the difference between the proportions of native- and foreign-born in the hosiery industry and in other industries would probably be quite noticeable, though not in as marked contrast as given in Chart V I I I . ( T a b l e 10, Appendix C . ) T h e percentages for all P h i l a d e l phia industries are based on numbers which include not only factory hands, but skilled and unskilled workers in the building trades and so forth. T h e gap, however, between the 60 per cent of the workers in all manufacturing and mechanical work, who are foreign-born, and the 18 per cent foreignborn hosiery workers remains significant. T h e full-fashioned hosiery workers are a product of the American public schools and have been affected by the traditions of individualistic opportunity in this country. A s most of them are under 30 years of age they have had at least six grades of schooling, for it was as long ago as 1 9 1 6 that the present Pennsylvania C h i l d L a b o r L a w 7 went into effect. Informal inquiry shows that many hosiery workers have completed eight grades of ' T h e chief requirements o f this l a w a r e : T h e completion o f six grades o f school w o r k . Evidence o f h a v i n g reached the f o u r t e e n t h y e a r o f a g e . Satisfactory physical condition f o r entering e m p l o y m e n t . A t t e n d a n c e at continuation school ( i f e m p l o y e d ) eight hours a w e e k until the sixteenth year.

HOW

28

WORKERS

FIND

JOBS

elementary school and even several years of high school work. L E N G T H OF S E R V I C E

An indication of the stability of hosiery workers may be found in their length of service with a given firm. Of the 3,418 persons who replied to the question: " O n what date did you secure your present job?" over half had been in their present positions for more than two years. T h e first TABLE

6

L E N C T H OF S E R V I C E IN P R E S E N T

A. Length of Service in Tito-year Total

POSITION

Periods

Men

Women

Length of Service in Years Number

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

1,644

Number

Per Cent

Grand total

4.03Î

2,388

N o report T o t a l reporting

614 3.418

IOO.O

284 ι ,360

100.0

330 2.0J8

IOO.O

Under 2 years 2 years and under 4 . . . . 4 years and under 6 . . . . 6 years and under 8 . . . . 8 years and under 1 0 . . . 10 years and under 20. . 20 years and over

1,578 782 589 245 140 77 7

46.. 22.9 17.2 7.2 4-1 2-3 .2

545 277 278 121 86 49 4

40. I 20.4 20.4 8.9 6.3 3.6 •3

1.033 505 3" 124 54 28 3

504 24.6 15.2 5-7 2.6 1-4 .I

B. Length 0/ Service in Six-Months Periods for Those in Present Position Less than Two Years Men

Total

Employed

Women

Length of Service Number

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

T o t a l reporting

3.418

IOO.O

ι ,360

IOO.O

2,058

IOO.O

T o t a l reporting under 2 years

J. 578

46.1

545

40.1

«.033

50.4

Under 6 months 6 months and under 1 2 . 12 months and under 18 18 months and under 24

235 498 445 400

6.9 14-5 130

94 158 132 161

6.9

I4I 340 313 239

6.9 16.6 IÍ-3

II.7

II.6

9-7

I I .0

IL.6

THE

HOSIERY

29

WORKERS

two columns of Table 6 show a gradual decline in the numbers who have held their positions for increasing lengths of time. In order to say whether hosiery workers are more or

A - L E - N Q T H AGE_IKI Y E A R S UNDER 16

UNDLO. 1 YE.AR

OF

ÔE.E.VIGE.

2YtARl 1 AND U N D E R 2 Y E . A R S AND OVER.

I8AND UNDER. 2 0 2 0 A N D UNDER 2 £

2 £ AN» UNDER 3 0 2 0 AND OYER. PER

CENT B-LE.NC(TH

NUMFCER. OF Y E . A C S

OF

S E R V I C E ,

IN T R A D E . UNDLK

I

1 AMD UNDER. 2 2 A W UNDER 4· 4 AND UNDER. 6 6 ANDUNCE.II 8 δ AND U N D E R 10 10 AND OVER. PE.BCE.NT •

U m d »

1 Y l m

f Ü ä 1 &UN.2Yrs.

6&UN. 8YRS.

CHART

IX—LENGTH

OF

m

2*UN.4YRS.

8*UN.10YRS.

SERVICE

LENGTH

IN

EZ3

PRESENT

OF T I M E

IN

Í ®

10 Y a s

POSITION

4 & U N . 6 YRS. fcOvta

Br

AGE

AND

BT

TRADE

less stable than other types of employes it is necessary to make definite comparisons. It would be necessary to secure data on length of service of employes in industries similar to full-fashioned hosiery in rate of growth, amount of employ-

30

HOW

WORKERS

FIND

JOBS

ment opportunity, degree of skill required by the work, and similar matters. Such information is not available. While a certain amount of job-changing has existed in the interests of promotion to a better machine, for a more convenient work place, or for less plausible reasons, there seems to be a close connection between length of service and age. Section A of Chart I X , through a comparison of different age groups, shows that the group under 18 years of age has the largest proportion of persons who have held their jobs less than one year. In each older age class there is a gradual decrease in the percentage of those who have been in their positions for less than a year and a gradual increase in the groups holding their jobs over two years. Nearly 60 per cent of the hosiery workers between 20 and 25 years of age have remained in their present positions more than two years. (Table 1 1 , Appendix C . ) Section Β of Chart I X demonstrates clearly that if a hosiery worker has been in the trade a number of years, he sticks to one firm for a considerable length of time. Seventythree per cent of those who have been in the trade from four to six years have also held one position over four years, and 50 per cent of those in the trade from six to eight years have held their jobs six years and over. ( T a b l e 1 2 , A p pendix C . ) Tabulations by occupational groups show that over 70 per cent of the knitters have had their positions for more than four years and that over half of the toppers, loopers, seamers, and menders have stayed with one firm more than two years. It appears, then, that considerable stability is to be found in workers if an industry can provide them with plenty of work and can offer them skilled and remunerative occupations. (Table 1 3 , Appendix C . ) Furthermore some of the short-service employes can be accounted for by the fact that some of the hosiery mills have been established only two or three years and others had enlarged their capacity within a year of the time this study was made. This probably explains also the fact that a large

THE

HOSIERY

WORKERS

31

proportion of experienced workers who had been in the trade over ten years, changed jobs within the last four years. There might have been a larger number of short-service records if the exact dates of employment had been secured from the firms. It is possible that within a four-year period there have been several lay-offs lasting a month or two at a time, but a hosiery worker considers that he has his position so long as the firm sends for him each time after a temporary lull. T h e figures in this study, therefore, are a better measure of the stability of the workers than of continuous employment. S O U R C E S OF L A B O R

SUPPLY

W h e r e do the full-fashioned hosiery workers come from? Most of them have come from school. Earlier in this chapter it has been stated that 52 per cent of the workers in this study entered the industry when they were less than 18 years of age. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that of those answering the question on previous occupation, 64 per cent had no industrial experience prior to their entry into full-fashioned hosiery work. Over a third reported coming TABLE 7 INDUSTRIES AND OCCUPATION FROM WHICH HOSIERY WORKERS HAVE BEEN RECRUITED Total

Men

Women

Industry or Occupation

Total Clothing Food Metal manufacturing... Textiles All o t h e r m a n u f a c t u r i n g Construction Domestic and personal service Housekeeping T r a d e (wholesale) T r a d e (retail) Miscellaneous

Number

Per Cent

1,318

IOO 0

734

IOO 0

584

IOO.O

36 81 138 112 95 79

4 11 18 15 12 IO

9 0 8 3 9 8

39 M 30 136 !33 2

6-7 4 1 51 233 22.8 0-3

12

I 6

15 65 ΙΟΙ

2 0 8 9 13 8

50 55 15 4* 5«

8.6 9 4 2.6 7-2 9 9

75 105 168 248 228 81

5 8 12 18 17 6

7 0 7 8

62 55 30 107 159

4 4 2 8 12

7 2 3 I I

I

Number

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

HOW

32

WORKERS

FIND

JOBS

from some other industry or occupation, the majority from textiles or metal manufacturing. T h i s would be expected in Philadelphia where these two industries dominate. In some cases young men were becoming skilled workmen at weaving, in the building trades, and other fields of work, but changed to the better opportunity in full-fashioned hosiery. Table 7 indicates the varied occupations from which hosiery workers have been recruited. O f those who reported on the type of work in which they had been engaged previously 20 per cent came from clerical occupations. As is shown in Table 8, this applies to women to a greater extent than it does to men. Some of these T A B L E TYPE

OF W O R K

WORKERS

8

FROM W H I C H

HAVE

BEEN

Total

HOSIERY

RECRUITED

Men

Women

Type of work Number

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

I ,021

IOO.O

539

IOO.O

483

IOO.O

MANUAL WORK. . .

816

86.J

206

79 8 10.2

466

CLERICAL W O R K . . . .

73

135

35° 133

7»·ί »7-5

TOTAL REPORTING..

workers may not have been successful in the vocation first chosen, but the size of the proportion seems to bear out the theory that people would not rush to the overcrowded office positions if factory work, by reason of hours, wages, or working conditions, were made sufficiently attractive. This may have been the case with hosiery until 1930. Full-fashioned hosiery workers, having relinquished opportunities in other fields, may discover now that they have connected themselves with a line of work which is less regular and less remunerative than the occupation originally chosen.

T h e r e are, then, between fifteen and twenty thousand American-born, self-reliant young workers in the full-fash-

THE

HOSIERY

WORKERS

33

ioned hosiery industry of Philadelphia. The men have married young and have known what it means to own their own homes, cars, and other forms of property. Most of these young men and women stick to their jobs, many to the one they secured when they left school. While the majority have entered the industry direct from school, quite a number have come from other occupations, some from skilled trades or clerical work. The hosiery industry must have possessed drawing qualities to attract such a high type of worker. Apparently no field could have offered a better opportunity to the energetic high-school youth who wanted to get to work. There was property value in the job itself. The method of securing these jobs and of transferring from one to another becomes of especial interest. But first it is important to consider what the industry and its occupations had to offer. Chapter I I I will indicate some of the reasons why these young workers have known only prosperity in connection with industrial life and will suggest some of the problems which have come unexpectedly upon them.

C H A P T E R

III

THE FULL-FASHIONED HOSIERY INDUSTRY IN PHILADELPHIA THE

DEVELOPMENT

OF T H E

UNITED

INDUSTRY

IN

THE

STATES

In 1929 a climax was reached in the dramatic production record of the full-fashioned hosiery industry in the United States. Over thirty-three million dozen pairs of stockings were manufactured during the year. 1 T h e value of these goods, $313,714,244, places this business in the ranks of the important industries of the country. Between 1927 and 1929 full-fashioned hosiery jumped from fifty-eighth to thirtyseventh place in the list of about one hundred manufacturing industries which have products valued at over a hundred million dollars. 2 Silk and rayon manufacturing, worsted goods, knit goods (other than full-fashioned hosiery) are the only textiles ranking higher in value of product than fullfashioned hosiery. This claim to prominence could not have been made ten years ago. In 1919 only seven million dozen pairs of fullfashioned hosiery were manufactured, but the growth of the industry within the ten-year period has led to a yearly increase in production which, in 1929, was 439 per cent of the 1919 figure. T h e reasons for the tremendous development are well known to those connected with the business— the short skirt which made the stocking an important item of costume in the daytime and evening, which in turn resulted in the production of machines of increasingly finer gauge, higher speed, and greater capacity. This occurred in 1 United States Census of Manufactures, Revised Tabulation, M a r c h 20, 1931. ' U n i t e d States Census of Manufactures, Summary by Industries, 1927, and preliminary tabulation f o r 1929 (December j i , 19 30).

34

THE HOSIERY

35

INDUSTRY

the years immediately following the war when the importation of full-fashioned hosiery and of full-fashioned hosiery machinery from Germany was at a minimum. It was also at a time when the purchasing power of women was increasing. The demand for a well-fitting stocking during the years of short skirts is reflected in Chart X which shows the changing relationships in the production of full-fashioned and seamless hosiery.8 MILLION QUANTITY

120

DOITN P*IES 120

jllll Ιΐ12ΐ|η2ΐ|ΐ^25|ΐ127||12ΐ| •

FULL-FASHIONED

•

5t.AMLE.55

C H A R T X — P R O D U C T I O N OF F U L L - F A S H I O N E D A N D S E A M L E S S H O S I E R Y - I N UNITED ( · U n i t e d S t a t e s Census of

THE

STATES*

Manufactures.)

In units of production, seamless hosiery for men, women, and children is the larger branch of the industry, but the increase in the use of full-fashioned stockings by women seems to be continuous. In 1 9 1 9 , full-fashioned stockings were about 9 per cent of the total number produced. Ten years later, in 1929, they constituted 30 per cent. And in money values, full-fashioned hosiery jumped from 2 1 per cent to 63 per cent of the total value of hosiery products, thus making full-fashioned the more important division of * Seamless stockings, knitted round on a circular machine, are made f o r men, boys, and girls. Full-fashioned stockings, shaped during the knitting process, are manufactured primarily f o r women. A description of the methods of making full-fashioned and seamless hosiery is given in Appendix B.

36

HOW WORKERS

FIND

JOBS

the trade in terms of dollars. (Table 14, Appendix C.) In women's hosiery alone, the full-fashioned branch is still more prominent. Comparable figures for the early years are not available, but by 1927 full-fashioned stockings constituted 44 per cent of the physical volume of production of women's stockings and 72 per cent of the value of product. In the same year, less than 3 per cent of the production of men's hosiery was full-fashioned. Only a little over a million dozen full-fashioned pairs were made for men in 1 9 2 7 and there appears to be little change from year to year in this amount. As women's stockings are the principal product of the full-fashioned hosiery industry, the figures used in the following pages of this chapter will refer to women's hosiery unless the contrary is stated. The vogue of short skirts during the years from 1 9 2 5 to 1928 accelerated the production of machines which made finer stockings and, through increased operating speed and number of sections, made them in greater numbers. T w o and three shifts were introduced into the mills, especially to increase the use of legging machines. During this period profits were so large and immediate that it was possible for a man to set up in business with a minimum of four knitting machines. These, with auxiliary equipment, represent an investment of about $40,000. Total capital requirements would be about $50,000. Some of the machine companies required cash payment for these first machines and some permitted a time-payment arrangement. In either case, after a man showed that he was established he could purchase additional machines on a time-payment plan over a period of as long as thirty months. This brought into the field manufacturers with a need for constant income rather than a readiness for long-time planning. Production was forced through day and night use of the machinery. When signs of undue extension of production facilities began to appear, early in 1929, the largest machine-producing corporation reduced the financing period from two years and a half to a year and a half. The intense competition of 1929 and the

THE

HOSIERY

INDUSTRY

37

recent economic depression have slowed up the turnover of goods and have reduced profits to such an extent that it has been estimated that no one should start in business with less than ten or twelve machines and a total capital of $ 150,000 to $200,000.* In fact, machine companies report the industry overequipped and recommend the purchase of new machines only to replace, with the finer gauges, the slow 39-gauge machines or others that are in bad repair. T h e year 1930 brought to the full-fashioned hosiery industry the effects of three situations—the general business depression, the rapid expansion of the hosiery business, and possibly the advent of longer skirts for afternoon and evening wear. Adjustment to the two latter factors can scarcely be made until a recovery in business conditions indicates the trend of the market. It is likely, however, that the shaped silk stocking which began as a luxury and became a necessity during the era of short skirts has now become a matter of custom. T h e estimated production 5 of women's full-fashioned hosiery for 1930 is 25,209,900 dozen pairs of stockings, a drop of 1,695,600, or 6.3 per cent from the previous year. T h e heavy purchase of machines during the latter months of 1929 should have been reflected in production in 1930. It has been estimated that according to productive capacity of the equipment in existence in October, 1929, it would have been possible, with no further increases in machinery, to knit 32,400,000 dozen pairs6 of women's stockings the following year. T h e difference between this figure and the 25,209,900, which represents more nearly the actual production for the year, means idle and deteriorating equipment, unemployed workers and non-productive capital. It represents also a year of price cutting, wage reductions, and business failures. Aside from this distress common to all industries in 1930 and 1931, full-fashioned hosiery had * Estimates of individual manufacturers and of several machine companies. * George W . T a y l o r , " T h e Outlook f o r 1931 Output," Hosiery and Underwear Review, March, 1931. " George W . T a y l o r , "Full-Fashioned Hosiery Trends," Textile World, A p r i l i x , 1930.

HOW

38

WORKERS

FIND

JOBS

been showing symptoms of over-expansion and instability for the previous three years. For an analysis of this malady, as seen in the position of stock on hand, shipments, and unfilled orders, the reader is referred to Chapter II in " T h e Full-Fashioned Hosiery W o r k e r — H i s Changing Economic Status." 7 THE

POSITION

OF T H E

INDUSTRY

IN

PHILADELPHIA

In Relation to the Rest of the Industry

Philadelphia, long considered the center of the fullfashioned hosiery industry, has been affected by the fortunes and misfortunes of the business. In 1919, with twenty-eight mills, Philadelphia claimed 30 per cent of the concerns in the United States making women's hosiery. In 1925, nearly 40 per cent of the mills were in Philadelphia. This proportion has been dropping steadily, despite the fact that the number of mills has increased annually from sixty-two which was the Philadelphia total for that year. In 1929, the city had eighty-three firms, but these represented less than a third of the number in the United States.8 T h e number and types of knitting machines and their actual production of goods are better measures of a city's significance as a hosiery center than the number of establishments located there. According to the census of equipment9 made by the Industrial Research Department of the University of Pennsylvania there were 3,668 machines in Philadelphia, about 31 per cent of the 11,904 in operation in the United States as of March 1, 1929. T h e Philadelphia machines represented 53.5 per cent of those in operation in T George W . T a y l o r , Industrial Research Department, Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1931. " For information on the growth in number of mills making women's full-fashioned hosiery, see page J5, Significant Post-War Changes m the Full-Fashioned Hosiery Industry, George W . T a y l o r , Industrial Research Department, Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1929. A more recent calculation made after the close of 1929 attributes to Philadelphia 84 firms with 95 mills. See page 54 of this chapter. * For description o f method in taking the census, see pages S 8 and 90 of Significant Post-War Changes m the Full-Fashioned Hosiery Industry, by George W . T a y l o r , University of Pennsylvania Press, 1929.

THE

HOSIERY

39

INDUSTRY

Pennsylvania. T h e majority of the equipment was reported for this machine census according to gauge and number of sections per machine. Table 9 shows the distribution of these machines by gauge in Philadelphia and in the United States. TABLE 9 F U L U F A S H I O N E D H O S I E R Y K N I T T I N G M A C H I N E S IN O P E R A T I O N , MARCH I, 1929

(Classified by Gauge) A Comparison between Philadelphia United States

and the Rest of the

Ratio of Leggera to Footers

Machines in Operatio Gauge of Machine

United States*

Number

Total 36 and under. 39 42 45 48 5' 54

8,759 314

2,746 4,420 904 354

16 5

T h e United States Outside of Philadelphia

Per Cent Number

IOO.O 3-6 31 4 505

10.3 4.0 O.I Î

Philadelphiat

Per Cent Number

6,186

IOO 0

165 1,666

2 7 26 9

3,324 721 294 11 5

53 7 11 6

8 O 2 O I 4

2,573 149

ι ,080 ,096 •83 60

I

5

Outside of Philadelphia

Philadelphia

2 7

3-2

2 4 2 7 2 7

3-5 3 5 3 3 1 9 I -4 1-5

Per Cent

IOO 0 ç 8 42 0 42 6 7

I

2 3 0 2

3 0 2 9 I 7 4 0

* 7$ per cent of all machines in the United States, t 68.s per cent of all machines in Philadelphia. i Less than one-tenth of one per cent.

H a l f of the machines in the country were of the 42-gauge variety and there were a good many of the 45- and 48-gauge as well. 1 0 In contrast to this, of the Philadelphia machines only 42 per cent were of the 42-gauge type and a similar amount of the 39-gauge type, with a smaller showing in the finer gauges. Comparison of Philadelphia with the rest of the United States showed an even greater variation in equipment between the two areas. Although relatively few machine purchases were made in " D u r i n g - 1930 half of the installations of full-fashioned machines in the United States were of the 45-gauge type. See Hosiery Release No. 1, M a r c h i t , 1 9 3 1 , Industrial Research Department, University o f Pennsylvania.

40

HOW

WORKERS

FIND

JOBS

1931, the installations of 1929 and part of 1930 were numerous enough to change the proportions shown by the survey completed in the early months of 1929. Available estimates of equipment in 1931 which show the effect of these changes are given in Table IO. TABLE

10

ESTIMATED* DISTRIBUTION o r FULL-FASHIONED HOSIERY ΚΝΓΓΠΗΟ MACHINES, MARCH, 1931 (Classified b y G a u g e ) Percentage of Machines in Gaufe of Machine

Total 36 and under 39

4î 45

48 $1 54

United S ta test

Philadelphia!

IOO.O

IOO.O

1.6 16.0 47 0 28.0 7.0 •3 .I

5-0 34° 42.Ο IJ.O 3 0 •7 •3

* Estimates baaed on previous records and on m i r ^i n f * shipments and imports, 1929-1031. Information supplied by Textile Machine Works, Reading, Pa. 116,400 msrnines. 14*884 machines.

Although Philadelphia, according to the above estimates, has improved its position in regard to 45-gauge machines it still is at a disadvantage when compared with the United States as a whole. T h e city is burdened with old equipment, the 39-gauge type which does not knit easily the sheer stocking demanded in recent years. T h e older machines are hard to operate and do not knit as many courses11 to the minute as do the newer, finer-gauge machines, nor have they as many sections.12 T h e service weight stocking usually knitted on 39-gauge machines requires more silk because of its five, six, or seven threads as compared with the threeor four-thread chiffon stocking made on the finer-gauge machines. While this expense may be balanced by the fact A course is one h o r i z o n t a l r o w o f stitches in the s t o c k i n g . E a c h section knits one leg o n a l e g g i n g m a c h i n e o r one f o o t on a f o o t i n g machine. u

u

THE

HOSIERY

INDUSTRY

41

that the knitter does not have to give as much time and attention to these stockings of stronger silk, yet their cost of production is high in relation to the price which they bring. These machines, therefore, represent relatively high overhead cost and, in addition, must frequently lie idle because of the lack of demand for their product. During the depression of 1 9 3 0 - 3 1 there has been an unexpected use of 39-gauge machines in Philadelphia, due to the need for producing a low-priced stocking. It remains to be seen whether this activity will continue when the demand for sheer hosiery increases. Another significant point in the Philadelphia equipment is to be found in the ratio of legging machines to footing machines. Because of the speed with which a foot is knitted, between three and four legging machines are required to supply work for one footing machine. 13 If a manufacturer wishes to economize on capital outlay 14 he purchases only two leggers to each footer and then operates the leggers on a second shift or night shift. While this involves some additional operative overhead it is probably more than balanced by the fact that he need not have a plant large enough to house a full quota of the legging machines. Table 9 shows that there were in 1929 over three leggers to every footer of the 39- and 42-gauges in Philadelphia. This means that, while some Philadelphia firms may have had a night shift or run long hours on legging machines, in general they have not had the advantage found in the double use of leggers which is indicated by the lower ratio of leggers to footers in the rest of the United States. In busy times, however, Philadelphia concerns have a distinct advantage in being able to run both leggers and footers on a two-shift basis and, through the balanced equipment, in increasing their production correspondingly. This intensive use of equipment has been discouraged in the last two years because of the general " The ratio of legging machines to footing machines varies with the number of sections in the two types of equipment. u Each machine costs between eight and nine thousand dollars.

42

HOW

WORKERS

FIND

JOBS

overproduction in the industry. In times of depression, Philadelphia has some advantage also in its age as a hosiery center because a large proportion of its machines have been paid for. According to Table 9, 8,759 of the twelve thousand machines in the industry in March, 1929, were reported by gauge and number of sections for the survey15 made in that year. Of these, 2,573, o r 2 9 · 4 P e r c e n t > w e r e Philadelphia. Table 11 compares these machines in Philadelphia and TABLE

H

FULL-FASHIONED HOSIERY KNITTING MACHINES IN OPERATION, MARCH I , 1 9 1 9 (Classified b y N u m b e r of Sections per M a c h i n e ) A Comparison

Sections per Machine

between Philadelphia United States

United States

and the Rest oj the

The United Sutes Outside of Philadelphia

Philadelphia

Number

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

Total

8,759

100.0

6,186

IOO.O

2,573

IOO.O

18 20 24 All others

3,470 3,685 1,469

39 6 42.1 16.8 1-5

2,180 2,664 1,242 IOO

35-2 43 · I 20. I 1.6

I ,290 I ,021 227 35

SO . I 39-6 8.8 1-5

135

elsewhere according to the distribution of sections per machine. Half of the city's equipment consisted of i8-section machines as compared with only 35 per cent of this type in the United States not including Philadelphia. T h e machine with more sections predominated in the hosiery industry outside of the city. This situation is not as disadvantageous to Philadelphia as appears at first glance. Two or four additional sections per machine do not loom large, unless greater numbers of machines are involved. I f the section is taken as a unit, Philadelphia had 28.6 per cent of the total number of sections in the country, as compared with 29.4 per cent " See p a g e 3 9 .

THE HOSIERY

INDUSTRY

43

of the total number of machines.18 According to the estimates for 1 9 3 1 , as given in Table 1 2 , Philadelphia has only TABLE

IL

ESTIMATED* DISTRIBUTION o r FULL-FASHIONED HOSIERY KNITTINO MACHINES, MARCH, 1 9 3 1 (Classified b y Section) Percentage of Machines in Number of Sections per Machine

Total 18 10 24

United Stalest

Philadelphia!

IOO

IOO

IS SI 32

41 42 '4 3

1

* Estimates based on previous records and on machine shipments and imports, 1929-1031. Information supplied by Textile Machine Works, Reading, Pa. t 16,400 machines. t 4,884 machines.

4 1 per cent of its machines in the 18-section group but the country as a whole has still less of this variety. According to the above analysis of equipment, then, Philadelphia had in 1929 and also in 1 9 3 1 an unhealthy proportion of the older, slower types of knitting machines in the coarser gauges and with a small number of sections. The city had a larger number of legging machines in proportion to footers than is the case in the rest of the country. This represents advantages or disadvantages, depending on business conditions. There are no continuous data as to the trend in the machine situation. Repeated surveys are needed to show the changes in the position of Philadelphia in relation to the rest of the country but present estimates indicate that this city suffers from a handicap. There are no figures available on actual production of full-fashioned hosiery in Philadelphia. One of the striking features about this business, probably the largest manufacturing industry in the city, is the lack of information about u T h i s r e f e r s o n l y to those machines f o r which there was a report g a u g e and section.

on

•4

HOW WORKERS

FIND

JOBS

it. N o printed page shows the number of dozen pairs of full-fashioned stockings produced in Philadelphia in any one year, nor yet in a series of years. There is no way of knowing the trend of the business in the city in relation to the rest of the country. T h e same is true of number of wage earners, number of establishments, amount of wages, value of product, and so forth. T h e United States Census of Manufactures, in its biennial reports, includes full-fashioned and seamless hosiery under the "knit goods" classification in the section on individual cities. Such combinations of data would be necessary in most cities in order to avoid disclosing the identity of establishments, but this does not hold true for Philadelphia, the center of the trade with over eighty firms. The Pennsylvania State Department of Internal Affairs combines full-fashioned and seamless hosiery in its reports on numbers of establishments and numbers of wage earners. The research department of the Federal Reserve Bank of District No. 3 " gathers monthly figures on numbers of wage earners, wages, and hours of employment from a sample of firms in the full-fashioned and seamless hosiery industry, but the two branches are not recorded separately. The United States Department of Commerce secures and publishes monthly production figures of a large sample of both full-fashioned and seamless hosiery firms. T h e Federal Reserve Bank of District No. 3 obtains this information for its district. These data make it possible to compare the situation in Pennsylvania with that in the United States. As it is impossible to secure information for Philadelpha separately and as Philadelphia has over 50 per cent18 of Pennsylvania's productive capacity, it has been considered worth while to construct Chart X I , which compares Pennsylvania's rate of production with that of the United States. T h e monthly index of full-fashioned hosiery for the 11

This district includes most of Pennsylvania, f r o m the east as f a r west as Johnstown and Altoona, the southern half of New Jersey, and all of Delaware. " A c c o r d i n g to 1929 figures. See page 38.

THE HOSIERY

INDUSTRY

45

M H ·< H c/a α ë 2 D u S H Ζ a ζ


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ΕΝΝ5ΥΙVANIA-C UTSIOl F PHILAOtLPHtA — 140 5 650 AvVi-NO.OF Ζ.MPLOYLl-S 120 ,Λ \ /' V \ too

S

\

so L M P L O · 1-ME.NT

60

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V

WAGE. 5DAYMENTS

40 ^

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1

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1 I

80

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£0 40

1 1

1 1 I I ! 4> 5> 6 , and 7 until she has nine or ten stockings on as many transfer bars. Carries the bars to the footing machine and quickly places one bar on each section of the machine. Goes f r o m section to section of the footing machine, setting a transf e r bar into the machine over the needles of each section, drawing the stitches over these needles, releasing the transfer bar, and placing in f r o n t of the needles the loose threads ravelled off in the first setting up of the stitches.

0. Gathers up the transfer bars, returns them to her stand, and makes ready the next set. 1 . Puts her work place in good order at the end of the day. THE

FOOT

KNITTER

OR

"FOOTER"

1 . T h r e a d s each section of his double bank of machines. 2. Supervises the bar-toppers in transferring the stocking legs to the foot knitting machine. 3. W i t h the help of an apprentice clamps each welt to an elastic tension holding the stocking leg horizontally away f r o m the needles. 4. Starts the machines and scans the new webbing f o r flaws. 5. Supervises the helper in clipping the threads previously ravelled by the topper f r o m the lower edge of the leg and in keeping the loose ends of these threads in position. 6. Stops machine if work is f a u l t y and straightens needles or summons fixer. 7. Measures the webbing f r o m time to time to insure the proper length of each part of the foot. 8. Takes off the stockings when the foot is completed and sets up new work. 9. Pays close attention to the operation of his machine and reports signs of trouble to machine fixer. 0. Cleans and oils his machine. 1 . Instructs helper and bar-toppers in the details of the work. 2. Encourages his team and maintains morale so that each member of the group feels that the success of the team depends on his work.

168

HOW WORKERS THE

FIND

JOBS

LOOPER

1 . Seats herself on a chair of such height that her eyes are on a level with the disc of needles of the looping machine, threads the looping needle, and takes a stocking f r o m the bundle. 2. T u r n s a lever that starts the looping machine. 3. Impales the stitches of a loose course at the end of the toe on needles projecting horizontally f r o m the disc, placing two stitches on each needle, or the corresponding stitches f r o m the two edges of the toe opening. 4. Sets up two corresponding stitches on each side of the heel on each needle of a portion of the disc, as closely as possible to the needle« on which the toe was set up. 5. Cuts the thread that connects the toes and heels, after they have passed under the vertical needle of the looping attachment. ( B e f o r e the stockings reach the looping needle, a cutting attachment removes the webbing that extends above the line of stitches set upon the needles.) 6. Oils and cleans her machine daily and keeps it f r e e f r o m dirt and threads. THE

SEAMER

1 . Seats herself at a power-driven sewing machine and threads the machine. 2. Removes a stocking f r o m the bundle delivered to her. 3. Stitches together the two edges of the bottom of the foot, starting at the toe and stopping at the point on the heel whet« the looping begins, starting and stopping her machine with a foot H v e r before and after each bit of stitching. 4. Stitches the leg seam, holding the edges of the webbing together firmly at critical points, such as the point where the high splicing reinforcement on the heel stops, the point where narrowing begins, and the point where the reinforcement of the top or welt begins. 5. Places her finished work in a bin back of her machine, or beside her machine, f o r collection. 6. Rips and reseams hose returned to her improperly seamed. 7. Cleans and oils her machine daily. THE

EXAMINER

AND

MENDER

1 . Takes her place at the menders' table. 2. Draws a stocking over a f o r m and examines it carefully f o r errors in knitting, looping, and seaming. 3. I f there are no imperfections, removes it f r o m the f o r m and lays it with a pile of perfect ones. 4. I f the stocking reveals imperfect seaming, places it in a group to be returned to the seamer. 5. I f the stocking reveals slight imperfections of knitting or looping, mends these imperfections with a mending hook and thread, f o l lowing the weave of the fabric in detail.

APPENDIX

Β

169

6. Places mended hose in piles of " f i r s t s " and "seconds" according to the degree of imperfection. (Slightly imperfect goods, when mended, are not distinguishable f r o m perfect goods.) 7. I f the stocking reveals a flaw that cannot be economically mended by hand, places in a pile to be unwound, or in a pile f o r a more hasty machine mending, which places it in the rank of " m i l l thirds." THE

BOARDER

1 . T h e boarder draws and fits a stocking over one of the forms, matching the position of the heel on the foot, of the heel splicings at the ankle, of the narrowing points, of the beginning of the welt, and the line that the top of the welt makes across the f o r m with points marked on the f o r m . 2. Places the seam of the first stocking in a regular line near one edge of the f o r m , so that the seam is distinctly on that side of the f o r m facing him. 3 . Draws a second stocking on the next f o r m , placing the seam near the edge of the form but as distinctly on the side away f r o m the boarder. 4 . Repeats this procedure on several forms and then draws the first stocking o f f — t h e interval between placing stockings on the forms and drawing them off depends on the weight and the kind of yarn used and the degree of moisture in the stockings. THE

PAIRER

1 . Goes to stock table and carries a pile of stockings to her work table. 2. Lays a number of stockings out flat on the table, piling them so that each stocking is almost covered by the one above it with perhaps an inch of each extending beyond the seam of the one above. 3. Picks up a stocking f r o m those not laid out and compares it with the stockings spread before her. 4. Selects the stocking which corresponds to the one in her hand in total length, length of foot, length of heel splicing or reinforcement, position of narrowing points, and position of welt, and yet does not correspond in the position of the leg seam. 5. Lays one stocking over the other so that the seams are hidden f r o m view. 6. Takes another stocking to match and repeats the process, scrutinizing each pair f o r imperfections of any sort and laying aside any imperfect hose f o r the press menders. 7 . Carries to the folders' stock table completed work and secures more hose to be paired from the pairers' stock table.

APPENDIX C TABLE Ι AOE o r

FULUFASHIONED HOSIERY WORKERS W H O ANSWERED

Total

QUESTIONNAIRE

Women

Men

Age in Years

Total

Number

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

4.03a

IOO. O

I.644

IOO.O

2,388

IOO.O

639 6*4

15.8 16.2

167 240

I0.2 146

472 4>4

19.8 >7-3

2J 30 3J 40

1,219 628 34Ο 213

30.2 15.6 84 5-3

474 283 «77 121

28.8 17.2 10.8 7 4

74 S 345 163 92

31 3 «4-4 6.8 3 9

40 a n d u n d e r 50 50 a n d u n d e r 60 60 a n d o v e r N o report

I $2 Í7 39 91

3-8 14 ι .0 2-3

83 40 33 26

5 > 2-4 2.0 1.6

69 17 6 6j

2.9 0-7 0.2 2-7

U n d e r 18 18 a n d u n d e r 20 10 25 30 35

and and and and

under under under under

TABLE 2 ACE o r

F U L L - F A S H I O N E D H O S I E R Y W O R K E R S W H O A N S W E R E D QUESTIONNAIRE AND o r A L L E M P L O Y E S IN M E C H A N I C A L AND M A N U R A C T U R I N O INDUSTRIES IN P H I L A D E L P H I A *

Percentage* of Workers Total Age in Years

Total Under 18 a n d 20 a n d 25 a n d 45 a n d 6J and

18 under under under under over

20. 25. 45. 65.

Men

Women

All Workers in M f h i n i cal and Mfg. Occupations

Hosiery Workers

Workers in Mechanical and Mfg. Occupations

Hosiery Workers

Workers in Mechanical and Mfg. Occupations

Hosiery Workers

IOO.O

IOO.O

IOO.O

IOO.O

IOO.O

IOO.O

6.7 5-4 >3 9 47-9 23.2 2.9

16.I 16.6 30.9 3 3 ·> 31 0.2

4-4 4.0 12.3 jo.7 2 Î 3 3-3

IO.4 I4.8 29 3 39-4 5·2 0.9

165 II . 2 20.9 36.I 13 9 >•4

20.3 17.8 32.2 28.4 1 -3

* United States Census of Population, ipso. 170

APPENDIX T A B L E AOE

or

171

C 3

FULL-FASHIONED HOSIERY W O R K E R S WHO ANSWERED QUESTIONNAIRE AND A L L E M P L O Y E S I N M E C H A N I C A L AND M A N U F A C T U R I N G I N D U S T R I E S IN P H I L A D E L P H I A * Cumulative Percentages Total

Age in Yean

Under Under Under Under Under

Men

Women

All Workers in Mechanical and M i * . Occupations

Hosiery Workers

Workers in Mechanical and Mfg. Occupations

Hosiery Workers

6-7

15.8 32.O

4-4

62.2

20.7

10.2 24.8

73 9 971

94 5 97-5

71

i8. 20. 25. 45. 65.

12. I 26.O

84

53

6

97

5

Workers in Mechanical and Mfg. Occupations

92.4

4

96.7

Hosiery Workers

19.6

16.j 27.7 48.6 846 98.6

36.9

68.1 95 97

7 3

* United States Census of Population, igao. T A B L E

4

A O E ON E N T E R I N G H O S I E R Y Total

INDUSTRY· Women

Men

Age in Years Number

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

Total

4-03Î

IOO.O

1,644

100.0

2,388

100.0

Under 18 18 and under 20.

2,097 784

52.0 19.4

984 226

59 8 13 8

1,113 558

46.5

20 and under 25. 25 and under 30.

i°3 226

12.J 5-6

193 87

II.7

5 3

310 >39

13.0 5-8

30 and under 40. 40 and under 50. 50 and under 60. 60 and over No report

1

3 8 I .2 °-7 0.4 4-4

39 31 20 '3 51

2-4 19 I .2 0.8 31

114 16 7 3 128

4-8 0.7 0-3

53 47 27 16 179

33.4

O.I

5-4

* All figure· in this and subsequent tables may be Assumed to refer only to the full·fashioned hosiery workers in Philadelphia who answered the questionnaire used in this study, unless otherwise noted.

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HOW WORKERS FIND

172

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H

APPENDIX TABLE

C

173

6

M A R I T A L STATUS BT

SEX

Men

Total

Women

Marital Status Number

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

Total

4.031

IOO.O

1,644

IOO.O

2,388

100.0

Single Marned Widowed Separated or divorced N o report

1,584 ι , 192 86

64 3 29.4 2.1

861 73° 12

5*·4 44 4 °·7

1,723 462 74

72.2 19 3 31

87 83

2.2 2.0

IO

Ο.6

31

19

77 52

3-2 2.2

TABLE M A R I T A L STATUS o r MEN

Other Men Hosiery Workers

Knitters Marital Status Number

7

MEW HOSIERY WORKERS IN P H I L A D E L P H I A *

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

AND o r

ALL

All Men in Philadelphia Number

Per Cent

20 and Under 2¡ Years of /Ige Total

316

100.0

158

100.0

8I,30S

100 0

Single Marned Widowed, separated or divorced Unknown

203 107

643 33 9

134 22

84.8 139

59,928 20,840

73 8 2< 6

3 3

0.9 09

2

1-3

351 : 86

0 4 0 2

25 and Under 35 Years 0f Age Total

381

100.0

79

100.0

69,320

100.0

Single Married Widowed, separated or divorced Unknown

87 283

22.9 74-3

21 54

26.6 68.4

57,553 108,413

34 0 64.0

8 3

2.0 0.8

I 3

I .2 3-8

3,035 319

1.8 0.2

* United States Census of Population, igao.

WORKERS

Is 3«

is i

FIND o g

JOBS

Μ ^ wo η J*« «AM

* Μ «MO •η Μ «· ONο

All Other» Men

O O00 g S í » » * ó Ζ

Seimer»

¿3 ο ζ

2 1Γ"" O g

« "O « «o «JO» UN

3-

Loopers

O Ό n« o0 KH o «0 « ^ *n ci Ζ

Topper»

bg ».(S

Footer»

O M 00 -O Ό σ> ^Nw 00 >ο « mn

ó ζ

Ο βο ΙΛ t*t t^ «6 MMη MM

¿8

Ο Ν »O ^ ^ . : 8

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:

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η VIMOMI •O 00 QoO 00 00 0 MM

wiaowea Separated or divorced t

HOW

ToUl

174

•S 3 ί (2 I a>

1

APPENDIX TABLE

C

175

9

NATION A LITT B T

Total

SEX

Women

Men

Number

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

Number

Per Cent

Total

4.0J2

IOO.O

1.644

100.0

2,388

IOO.O

United States. . . England Scotland Ireland Germany Poland Austria Russia Miscellaneous*. . N o report

3,226 78 45 22 39° 69 50 23 58 71

80.0 19 I.I 0.5 9.8 1-7 I .2 0.6 14 1.8

I ,266 3Í 16 5 18 J 45 17 14 34 27

77.0 2. I I .0 03 11 3 2-7 I .0 0.9 2.1 1.6

I ,960 43 29 17 205 24 33 9 24 44

82.1 1.8 I .2 07 8.6 I .0 14 0.4 I .0 1.8

* Includo IUly, France, Czechoslovak», Roumania, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, South American countries, and others. TABLE

IO

NATIONALITY OF HOSIERY W O R K E R S AND o r A L L PERSONS EMPLOYED IN MANUFACTURING AND MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES IN PHILADELPHIA Percentages Race or Nationality

Total Native-born Negro Other races and unknown • Computed from the Population Census figures of 1920.

All Workers in Mechanical and Mfg. Occupations*

Hosiery Workers

IOO.O

IOO.O

33-5 59.8 6.6

80.0 18.2

0.1

l'¿

176

HOW

WORKERS ì

ä a* o o

FIND

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β eυ CUÇJ s"S

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h. c ν V

Ο*

β

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no

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íO

h

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3

I sss

tB

ÖÖCÖ

i §i i

ö g « • •CTJtt

ssss

6 „8 -o Tj-O

99

§§§§ §§

Co o « oo η ^ΟΟΟ Ο Ζ Η D- -- r «λν

FIND

JOBS

βοΌ O 0

Ο

Ο C

r-

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APPENDIX TABLE

C

179

14

F U L L - F A S H I O N E D AND SEAMLESS H O S I E R Y PRODUCTION, UNITED STATES, 1 9 1 9 - 1 9 2 9 *

A. Value 0f Product Full-fashioned

Total Year

>9'9 1911 1913 19ÎÎ 1927 '9^9

Seamless

Dollars

Per Cent

Dollars

Per Cent

Dollars

Per Cent

308,662,377 290,488,560 378,732,878 411,366,392 440,572,650 500,381,773

IOO.O IOO.O IOO.O IOO.O IOO.O IOO.O

66,539.105 93,019,520 129,259,871 148,151,061 232.785.996 313.7U.244

21.6 32.0 24.0 36.0 52.8 62.7

242,123,272 197,469,040 249,473,007 263,215,331 207,786,654 186,667,529

78.4 68.0 66.0 64.0 47-2 37-3

B. Quantity 0/ Product Year

1919 I921 '923 1925 1927 >9*9

Full-fashioned

Total

Seamless

Dozen Pairs

Per Cent

Dozen Pairs

Per Cent

Dozen Pairs

Per Cent

84.645.7i7 80,240,936 97,432,927 «03.707,336 103,166,976 III,190,705

IOO.O IOO.O 100.0 IOO.O 100.0 100.0

7.566,741 8.364.563 II,230,867

8-9 10.4 II.5

13.899.973 21,035,199 33,205,290

134 20.4

77,079,016 71,876,373 86,202,060 89,807,363 82,131,777

29 9

77.985.4>5

91.1 89.6 88.5 86.6 79 6 70.1

* United St*tes Census of Manufactures.

HOW WORKERS

180

TABLE

FIND

JOBS

15

Indexes or Production F e d e r a l R e s e r v e D i s t r i c t No. 3 J a n u a r y 1924 = 100

January February.... March April May June July August September. . . October November. . . December

I«J7

FullFashioned

Seamleu

FullFashioned

Seamless

FullFashioned

Seamless

FullFaahioned

Seamless

100.0 102.3 Hi.I 115.6 I 19.2 107.9 92. I 85.4 95-7 >24 3 112.4 124.9

IOO.O 88.7 89.0 97 9 94 4 96.4 87.1 60 4 76.2 96 0 81.8 100.5

128.1 129.6 152.5 1577 I47 4 166.6 176.1 170.8 174-7 201. I 182.4 190.8

107.0 II4.2 1308 I30.7 135 9 131.6 105. I 97 4 98.7 99 9 86.5

189.8 187.1 225.5 216.9 208.2 235 3 209.2 225.3 221.2 244.9 237-3 234-7

70.8 65.0 73-3 64 . I 60.2 66.6 62.4 55 0 54 6 637 54 0 41.8

229.5 223.8 265.2 246.1 247.6 256.0 204.5 261.6 259.0 270.7 284.5 260.6

37-7 44-7 56.7 60.0 56.2 57-3 48.7 50.0 523 53 2 44-7 304

1928

January February.... March April May June July August September. . . October November. . . December

1926

1925

19J4

77-5

1929

1930

1931

FullFashioned

Seamless

FullFashioned

Seamless

FullFash ioned

Seamless

FullFashioned

Seamless

2 7 2 -3 282 .1 308.1 2859 306.2 296 . I 236.6 302.8 279.8 348-9 346.5 303 9

33 8 35 3 35 ι 36.0 32-9 304 37-6 41.1 383 48.1 45 9 30.6

348.3 335 8 359 ° 360.4 381.7 354 6 326.6 3674 361 9 441.2 390.0 349 I

40.5 36 9 35-6 385 42.4 390 36 9 34 5 31.2

371.8 337-2 348 3 325 3 303 8 271.9 214.0

163 15.8 153 18.1 18.0 13.4 12.2 8-3 11.5 12.5 9 4 IO. I

253 2 250.4 276.7 306.0 288.9 282.3 212.6 216.2

10.8 II.6 17-7 21.8 24-5 23-3 14.6 10. I

37-3 26.9 20.6

2365 302.2 373-5 318.6 2855

APPENDIX

C

181

T A B L E 1 5 (Continued) INDEXES or PRODUCTION OF HOSIERY IN THE UNITED STATES

Month

JANUARY FEBRUARY.... MARCH April MAY JUNE

July

AUGUST SEPTEMBER. . . OCTOBER NOVEMBER. . . DECEMBER

1026

IQJS

>9J4

I0»7

FullFashioned

Seamless

FullFashioned

Seamless

FullFashioned

Seamless

FuUFashioned

Seamless

IOO.O 104.7 III.8 III.J "3 9 101.3 89.0 88.1 97 6 128.0 118.6 131.6

100.0 93 0 93 7 87.6 90.9 85 5 75 7 73-7 793 94.2 930 93 6

132 > 133 7 149 . 1 156.1 153 6 160 5 162.8 164 . 1 165 5 187.1 169 3 185.5

ΙΟΙ .9 104.5 126 3 119.6 125. I 123.2 116.4 "3 4 115.1 118.9 I 10.0 103.7

171 4 176.4 207.6 ΙΟΙ .2 I96.4 208.5 188.7 205.5 209.6 226.4 219.2 224.9

96 6 97-5 109.2 90.1 87.0 91 Ι 89.4 95 5 102.2 106 3 100.0 86.4

225.5 224.4 262.8 240 . 2 240.7 260.6 I94.4 241 3 1483 261.0 267.2 251.7

88.8 77-O 88.1 83 7 86.5 92.9 66.3 877 88.2 90.6 80.6 59-4

1038

1930

¡939

l»3I

Month

FullFashioned

Seamless

FullFashioned

Seamless

FullFashioned

Seamless

FullFashioned

Seamless

January February.... March April May June July August September. . . October November. . . December....

263.8 267.Ο 295.Ο 276.1 295 5 278.6 221.5 281.1 259.2 323-7 314 3 275.3

70.I 657

319 9 3077 332 9 332 2 348.5 309.8 296.5 320.5 3288 399-5 365 9 323-8

55 8 52-7 57 3 61 9 66.3 70.0 66.8 65.4 65.0 74-8 57-8 40.2

353 9 324 9 3301 320.5 305 · Ι 279.8 233 4 260.2 314 3 386.0 335-8 290.8

43-7 39 7 35 9 37 2 39-8 387 32.2 29.0 34-4 41 3 35-9 31-7

256.0 245.0 273.2 293-7 278.4 273-7

31 8 34 5 38.9 43 0 45-5 47-7

66

. s

61.9 65.1 62.5 58.5 69.2 66.9 76.5 70.6 48.5

HOW WORKERS

182

TABLE

FIND

JOBS

16

MEASURES o r SEASONAL CRANOES IN FULL-FASHIONED HOSIERY PRODUCTION, PENNSYLVANIA 1925-1930· Month

19*5

January February March April May June July August September October November December

98 94 IOJ 104 93 ΙΟΙ 104 98 97 108 9? 97

7 7 8 5 6 9 2 0 5 4 7 5

1936

I9»7

95.2 92.6 109.1 103.0 97 > 107.4 94.0 99 7 96. J >05-3 101.0 98.5

97 · I 94 8 110.9 101 6 101.3 103.1 81.6 103.0 100.0 103.1 107.0 96.3

19*8 99 101 109 101 IOJ 100 79 99 90 III 108 93

I 6 7 I 9 6 4

1

6 4 5 3

¡9*9

1930

I02.8 97.0 102.0 100.4 104.0 95-7 87.2 97 6 96.1 117.4 104.7 95 4

107.0 99-7 106.4 100.9 96.0 87· 5 70.0 80.0 104.7 132.2 "3-4 102.1

* Baaed OD indexes of production in Federal Reserve District No. 3. Ratios to a centered twelvemonth movine average were calculated and these ratios were then related to their own monthly average in each calendar year. TABLE

17

INDEXES OF EMPLOYMENT AND WAOE PAYMENTS IN THE FULL-FASHIONED HOSIERY INDUSTRY IN PHILADELPHIA AND IN PENNSYLVANIA OUTSIDE PHILADELPHIA A v e r a g e for 1929 and 1 9 3 0 = 1 0 0 Nine Firms in Philadelphia* Month

Employment 1929

January 99.O F e b r u a r y . . . . IO7.9 IO8.8 March 112.8 April II4.8 May June »3 4 IO9.4 July August »3 4 September. . . 1 2 4 . 4 October 117.5 November. . . 1 1 8 . 7 December .104.4

Wages

Four Firms Outside Philadelphiat Employment

Wages

:93ο

1919

1030

1929

1930

1929

1930

100.3 106.4 103.2 99-9 91.4 81.2 48.6 72.5 85.2 102.0 95 ι 69.5

I02.2 120.7 127.1 128.1

114.5 »1.3 91 5 92-3 71.1 58.9 32.2 53-3 68.6 88.0 84.5 60.7

93 5 95 2 97.6 99 0 100.3 100.8 101.3 102.3 103.8 107.6 i°9 3 107.5

106.7 104.2 104.8 103-9 102.0 98.7 96.5 95-4 93 9 92.9 92.6 90.2

96.7 100.0 103.7 116.9 109.6 1 2 1 .4 II4.2 I06.2 117.5 128.1 119.8 1 2 1 .7

I02.2 I16.9 123.1 IOO. I 68.7 83.8 69.0 56.7 75·« 79-5 86.5 82.4

13' 8 127.1 105.8 »4 5 124 3 129.1 1328 129.7

* Average number of employees, 3,934. t Average number of employees, 5,550.

183

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