Hot Springs in Nepal: Health Benefits and Geothermal Applications 3030994996, 9783030994990

Citation preview

Mahendra Ranjit

Hot Springs in Nepal Health Benefits and Geothermal Applications

Hot Springs in Nepal

Mahendra Ranjit

Hot Springs in Nepal Health Benefits and Geothermal Applications

Mahendra Ranjit Consultant, Renewable Energy London, ON, Canada

ISBN 978-3-030-99499-0    ISBN 978-3-030-99500-3 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99500-3 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Dedicated to my late parents: Narayan Das Ranjitkar and Bishnu Devi Ranjitkar

Preface

Nepalese people have been using natural hot springs for a long time for bathing, washing clothes, and healing to some extent. In response to cutting global carbon emission, the use of geothermal energy as an alternate source of energy has risen sharply. Many countries are using low-temperature geothermal fields for space heating and cooling, swimming pool heating, baths or therapy, greenhouse farming, crop drying, animal husbandry, and heating fishponds and raceways. The high cost of medical treatment in hospital settings has deprived most rural Nepalese access to basic healthcare services. As such, they travel to nearby hot springs in hopes of utilizing their health benefits. This is an advantage no other alternative energy source can provide. With little or no support from the government, some sites are still developing as spa centers through community-level efforts. Several hot spring sites are eagerly waiting to provide such novel services to the general public, when necessary financial and technical support are met. Hot springs have been used as a source of income in many countries through tourism and developed good infrastructure around the spring sites. In recent times, local people and journalists are more enthusiastic about the use of hot springs and the need to accelerate their development. People from dozens of hot spring sites in Nepal express that “high-quality infrastructure matters” when connecting hot springs with the tourism sector. The importance of hot springs (as a geothermal resource) is still overshadowed in Nepal because energy planners did not see them as viable resource to fulfill the country’s electricity needs. Nepal possesses a number of hot springs, including Kermi of Humla district, which is one of the Earth’s captivating natural wonders. Many springs have the potential to offer benefits in different sectors. However, the identity of a majority of them is not exposed yet. In recent years, voices have also been echoed in national and foreign media about the need to bring awareness to hot springs in Nepal. As my work in the field of geothermal systems was also aimed at the popularization of hot springs besides research, the formation of a book dedicated to compiling the hot springs in Nepal and exploring their benefits and beauty seemed an intuitive next step. This book is presented as a general introduction to various hot springs of Nepal

vii

viii

Preface

and their associated health benefits. More so, this is expanded on to illustrate their vast socio-cultural/practical importance to the public. By tackling the misunderstandings and misconceptions that enshroud the use of hot springs, I hope this book will help to change the mindset of energy planners and the general public from conventional wisdom that has been built up over the past four or five decades to achieve necessary focus towards other uses, including tourism, spa development, and extensive application of geo-heat pumps, among other things. This book will also enrich knowledge among students in geology and a variety of disciplines including agriculture, renewable energy, health, and natural sciences. Private entrepreneurs, businesspeople, and those involved in the travel and tourism sector could draw lessons on how best to benefit from hot springs. Besides, it may also attract scientists contemplating research in geothermal energy to explore the high occurrence of some chemicals in a geothermal zone of Nepal that are mostly found in the volcanic and earthquake-prone areas. Such studies can be helpful to develop and test a model to have a better understanding of transport properties and fluid circulations in the subsurface. I believe that this book will mark the beginning of a long journey and serve as a blueprint for geothermal development in Nepal. London, ON, Canada

Mahendra Ranjit

Acknowledgments

While writing this section, several pictures come to my mind. I would inevitably miss a few who deserve to be on the list.    First and foremost, Dr. Ingvar Birgir Fridleifsson, former director of the United Nations University/Geothermal Training Program, Iceland, and former president of the International Geothermal Association, has been a great source of inspiration to work in and publish papers about geothermal energy of Nepal. I owe a tremendous debt of gratitude to him. Dr. John Lund (professor emeritus at the University of Oregon, USA, and former head of Geo-heat Center, Oregon) constantly encouraged me to write geothermal papers about Nepal and granted me permission to use some diagrams published by the Center. I am grateful to him for his valuable assistance. Dr. Wendi Roscoe (Professor at Fanshawe College, Canada), Raghu Nath  Adhikary, Suresh Chandra  Shrestha, Amanda Vaccarello, Gemini Ranjit (daughter), Adam Redgrift, and Gaurab Tewari deserve my heartfelt thanks for their assistance, suggestions, review of different chapters and support in completing this book. Likewise, Shyam Krishna Shrestha and Buddhi Tamang provided updated information on some springs of remote locations. They are greatly acknowledged. No need to mention the unshakeable moral support I received from my wife Kalpana and son Rishav throughout the completion of this book. The role of the University of the Third Age (u3a) forum sharing in Nepal was praiseworthy in allowing me to interact with Nepalese people from different walks of life. I could draw updated and valuable new information, particularly from Mr. Himmat Singh Lekali, a sociologist, an extensive traveler of Nepal, and a great lover of hot springs. I was craving for some photographs of a very important Kermi hot spring of Humla district which Mr. Lekali availed me of. I am also indebted to Damodar Lamichhane of u3a forum, Nepal for the arrangement, encouragement, and review of water and culture chapter. Birendra Man Shakya (Chairman) and Kumar KC (Assistant Secretary) of Singa Tatopani Management Committee are greatly acknowledged for permitting me to use photographs posted in the committee’s websites and some from personal collections. Likewise, I would like to thank Mr. Shunya Awamura (Prabodh) who worked as a Japanese Overseas Cooperation Volunteer in midwestern Nepal. He allowed me ix

x

Acknowledgments

to use some of the recent photographs and those contained in the “journeytohotspringsinmidwesternnepal.wordpress.com” website. Various postings in “Hot soaks of the Himalayas” provided me an opportunity to understand the feelings of foreigners who visited hot springs in Nepal. My heartfelt thanks go to anonymous writer “jubedablam” for some postings on the website. I would also express my gratitude to many unknown people of Nepal who have indirectly helped me with new/updated information through various media. Finally, this book would not have been published without the painstaking efforts of Margaret Deignan (Senior Publishing Editor) and Joseph Daniel (Production Editor) of Springer Nature. They deserve my great thanks for the cooperation!

Contents

Part I 1

 Hot and Mineral Springs in Nepal ��������������������������������������������������������    3 1.1 Nepal: Brief Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������    3 1.2 Kathmandu Valley and the Capital of Nepal������������������������������������    5 1.3 Geological Setting of Nepal��������������������������������������������������������������    7 1.4 Heat Source of Geothermal Springs ������������������������������������������������   11 1.5 Geology of Some Thermal Sites in Nepal����������������������������������������   12 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   15

2

 Introduction to Hot and Mineral Springs����������������������������������������������   17 2.1 Classification of Spring Waters��������������������������������������������������������   19 2.1.1 Temperature��������������������������������������������������������������������������   20 2.1.2 Mineral Content��������������������������������������������������������������������   20 2.1.3 Chemical Composition ��������������������������������������������������������   21 2.1.4 Potential of Hydrogen ����������������������������������������������������������   21 2.1.5 Hydrological/Geographical Features������������������������������������   21 2.2 Location of Hot Springs in Nepal ����������������������������������������������������   22 2.3 Information About Hot Springs��������������������������������������������������������   26 2.3.1 General����������������������������������������������������������������������������������   26 2.3.2 Chemical Information ����������������������������������������������������������   26 2.3.3 Isotopic Data of Geothermal Springs in Central Nepal��������   28 2.3.4 Existence of a Large Geothermal Reservoir in Western Nepal ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   29 2.4 Features of Thermal Springs ������������������������������������������������������������   34 2.5 Renewable Energy Situation in Nepal����������������������������������������������   35 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   37

3

 Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal ����������������������������������������   39 3.1 Far Western Nepal����������������������������������������������������������������������������   39 3.1.1 Darchula District������������������������������������������������������������������   40 3.1.2 Bajhang District��������������������������������������������������������������������   43 xi

xii

Contents

3.2 Mid-Western Nepal ��������������������������������������������������������������������������   44 3.2.1 Dang District������������������������������������������������������������������������   44 3.2.2 Dolpa District������������������������������������������������������������������������   45 3.2.3 Humla District����������������������������������������������������������������������   46 3.2.4 Jumla District������������������������������������������������������������������������   55 3.2.5 Mugu District������������������������������������������������������������������������   58 3.2.6 Eastern Rukum District��������������������������������������������������������   60 3.2.7 Surkhet District ��������������������������������������������������������������������   64 3.3 Western Development Region����������������������������������������������������������   65 3.3.1 Hot Springs in the Annapurna Circuit����������������������������������   65 3.3.2 Gorkha District���������������������������������������������������������������������   67 3.3.3 Kaski District������������������������������������������������������������������������   70 3.3.4 Lamjung District ������������������������������������������������������������������   74 3.3.5 Manang District��������������������������������������������������������������������   79 3.3.6 Myagdi District ��������������������������������������������������������������������   80 3.3.7 Mustang District�������������������������������������������������������������������  104 3.4 Central Nepal������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  106 3.4.1 Dhading District��������������������������������������������������������������������  106 3.4.2 Dolakha District��������������������������������������������������������������������  110 3.4.3 Rasuwa District��������������������������������������������������������������������  111 3.4.4 Sindhupalchowk District������������������������������������������������������  117 3.5 Eastern Nepal������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  119 3.5.1 Dhanusha District�����������������������������������������������������������������  119 3.5.2 Sankhuwasabha District��������������������������������������������������������  121 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  126 Part II 4

 Applications of Geothermal Energy������������������������������������������������������  131 4.1 Basic Types of Geothermal Technologies����������������������������������������  131 4.2 Systems in Application for Exploitation ������������������������������������������  134 4.2.1 Conventional Hydrothermal Resources��������������������������������  134 4.2.2 Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) ��������������������������������  134 4.2.3 Super-Hot-Rock (SHR) Geothermal������������������������������������  134 4.2.4 Advanced Geothermal Systems (AGS)��������������������������������  135 4.3 Electrical Power Generation ������������������������������������������������������������  137 4.4 Direct Utilization������������������������������������������������������������������������������  137 4.4.1 Space Heating ����������������������������������������������������������������������  140 4.4.2 Greenhouses and Covered Ground Heating��������������������������  141 4.4.3 Aquaculture Pond and Raceway Heating������������������������������  143 4.4.4 Food and Agricultural Crop Drying��������������������������������������  144 4.4.5 Industrial Process Heat ��������������������������������������������������������  148 4.4.6 Bathing and Swimming��������������������������������������������������������  148

Contents

xiii

4.4.7 Snow Melting and Space Cooling����������������������������������������  150 4.4.8 Other Uses����������������������������������������������������������������������������  152 4.5 Worldwide Applications of Geothermal Heat Pumps ����������������������  152 4.6 Geothermal Cooling System ������������������������������������������������������������  153 4.7 Current and Potential Uses of Geothermal Energy Resource in Nepal��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  154 4.7.1 Potential for Electricity Generation��������������������������������������  155 4.7.2 Industrial Applications����������������������������������������������������������  156 4.7.3 Geo-cooling Study����������������������������������������������������������������  157 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  158 5

 Hot and Mineral Spring Water for Health Benefits������������������������������  161 5.1 Worldwide History of Soaking in Hot Springs ��������������������������������  163 5.2 Therapeutic Springs and Their Values����������������������������������������������  165 5.3 Types of Therapies Practiced by Using Spring Water����������������������  167 5.3.1 Balneotherapy, Spa, Hydrotherapy and Contrast Therapy ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  170 5.3.2 Sulfur Treatment ������������������������������������������������������������������  173 5.3.3 Pelotherapy ��������������������������������������������������������������������������  175 5.4 Role of Hot Spring Water in Diseases Treatment: An Overview ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  176 5.4.1 Treatment with Hot Spring Water Therapy for Everyone?������������������������������������������������������������������������  177 5.4.2 Some Precautionary Measures����������������������������������������������  177 5.4.3 A Long-Standing Tradition of Hot Spring Bath in Nepal��������������������������������������������������������������������������������  178 5.5 Potential Use of Other Hot Spring Waters in Nepal for Health Benefits����������������������������������������������������������������������������  181 5.6 Hygiene and Sanitation in the Thermal Springs ������������������������������  183 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  184

6

 Cultural Aspects of Hot Springs ������������������������������������������������������������  189 6.1 Water and Culture ����������������������������������������������������������������������������  189 6.2 Hot Spring Water and Culture����������������������������������������������������������  191 6.2.1 Bathe the World��������������������������������������������������������������������  193 6.3 Significance of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati’s Idols at Spring Sites ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������  194 6.4 Belief in Other Communities������������������������������������������������������������  198 6.5 Water Spouts and Their Values ��������������������������������������������������������  199 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  201

7

Hot Springs and Tourism������������������������������������������������������������������������  203 7.1 Hot Springs as Tourist Destination ��������������������������������������������������  204 7.2 Impacts and Scope of Hot Springs in Tourism ��������������������������������  206 7.2.1 Access to Hot Spring Sites����������������������������������������������������  208

xiv

Contents

7.3 Tips for Foreign Visitors ������������������������������������������������������������������  211 7.4 Infrastructure Development in Hot Spring Sites������������������������������  212 7.5 How to Tap Unused Hot Spring Water: An Example of Blue Lagoon in Iceland����������������������������������������������������������������  214 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  215 8

 Public Sector’s Involvement and Prospects of Geothermal Development in Nepal������������������������������������������������������������������������������  217 References��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  223

Part I

Hot springs are one of the natural energy resources which have been used by the Nepalese people for a long time. These springs have been serving the poor people to relieve them from many health ailments and laundering problems in remote parts of the country. However, most people do not know how these springs originate, how many springs are in the country, where they are located and what are the other possible uses of hot spring waters. The lack of a good understanding of this knowledge has been a constraint to the development of this resource in Nepal. This part whets the appetite of a wide range of interested readers, including those with no technical background to understand the facts mentioned above. It also gives an idea of the general status of so many hot springs along with the temperature, flow rate, accessibility and the infrastructure. It provides answers to the basic questions such as: how hot the water should be to be considered as hot water? What makes the hot spring medicinally valuable, and what type of chemicals are beneficial or hazardous for health? Is there a complete analysis of hot spring waters in Nepal to identify which ones are good for health? Hot springs are scattered in Nepal to the extent that people in one corner are hardly aware of other springs in the next corner. The profile part bridges this information gap that is presented according to the five development regions of the country along with their districts. The reader will be able to have detailed information about their location, access to them, present status, cultural, social values, services and the efforts of the locals to develop the hot spring areas. People visiting a district or trekking area express that they would have never missed to visit had they got a hint about it. A brief introduction to the district, interesting pictures of the springs and their description help the general readers to taste the touristic value of the hot spring sites as well. Overall, this part reflects the present-day reality of hot springs in Nepal and encourages many to feel the need to enhance their development.

Chapter 1

Hot and Mineral Springs in Nepal

1.1 Nepal: Brief Introduction Rich in spectacular scenery, Nepal is a quiet cousin of neighboring powerhouses China on the North and India on the east, west and south. The country is situated in central part of the Himalayas between 26°22′ and 30°27′ N latitudes and 80°04′ and 88°12′ E longitudes, covering an area of 147,181 km2. Lately, due to the inclusion of a small portion of land in the far western part, the official area is yet to come. The country is divided into five development regions and 77 districts. The mountainous north of Nepal which acts as natural border to China has eight of the world’s tallest mountains, including the highest point on Earth, Mount Everest [1]. The country is officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, and its politics function within the framework of a parliamentary republic with a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister and the cabinet, while legislative power is vested in the Parliament. The country has a population of 29,192,480 in November 2021 according to the preliminary National Census Report.  The proportion of male and female population constituted    48.96 % and  51.04 % respectively with an average population density of 198 per km2. Nepal’s average annual population grew by 0.93 %, lowest in 80 years [2]. The country has been facing high political instability over the four decades and no government has been able to complete a full 5-year term since then. After remaining as one of the 48 Least Developed Countries (LDCs) in the world for 50 years, Nepal graduated to Developing Country status in November 2021 by meeting two of the three criteria set by the United Nations: gross national income per capita, human assets and economic vulnerability.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Ranjit, Hot Springs in Nepal, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99500-3_1

3

4

1  Hot and Mineral Springs in Nepal

Nepal is known to the outer world as a small country full of hills, mountains and the Himalayas. Roughly 75% of the country is covered by mountains. From the south to the north, Nepal can be divided into four main physical belts, each of which extends east to west across the country. These are, first, the Tarai, a low, flat, fertile land adjacent to the border of India; second, the forested Churia foothills and the Inner Tarai zone, rising from the Tarai plain to the rugged Mahābhārat Range; third, the mid-mountain region between the Mahābhārat Range and the Great Himalayas; and, fourth, the Great Himalaya Range, rising to more than 29,000  ft (some 8850 m) [3]. Both religions, Hinduism and Buddhism, prospered in Nepal over the centuries and co-exist in perfect harmony. In recent years, Muslim and Christianity is flourishing. Beautiful landscape of Nepal has been attracting tourists from around the world for trekking, notably in Annapurna Circuit, Everest Base Camp, Arun Valley, Langtang Valley and Limi Valley. Thankfully, Nepal is also gifted with dozens of ‘tatopanis’ (hot springs in Nepali language) that are rich in mineral contents and have high medicinal values. Each of these tatopanis are surrounded by small villages and many offer breathtaking panoramic views of Himalayan peaks and are great places to stop while trekking in Nepal (Figs. 1.1 and 1.2).

Fig. 1.1  Nepal in the world map

1.2  Kathmandu Valley and the Capital of Nepal

5

Fig. 1.2  Map of Nepal

1.2 Kathmandu Valley and the Capital of Nepal Located in the foothills of the Himalayas, Kathmandu valley is made up of three districts: Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur with an area of less than 650  km2. Kathmandu is the capital city of Nepal. Kathmandu valley is a cultural and political hub of Nepal. Kathmandu valley  enjoys diverse ethnicities, colorful festivals, and countless celebrations. One of these celebrations is ‘Mha Puja’, a yearly rite to purify and invigorate the soul. The event heralds an auspicious start to the Nepal Sambat (New Year) and bestows riches and longevity on all who take part. The Newars are the indigenous inhabitants and the creators of the historic civilization of the valley. Their language is known as Nepal Bhasa. Newars are known for their contributions to art, sculpture, architecture, culture, literature, music, industry, trade, agriculture and cuisine, and left their mark on the art of Central Asia. The artistic brilliance of Newars is showcased around the three cities in the form of temples and monuments that were built centuries ago. Creation of their fine architecture and exquisite woodcarvings is well exhibited in the monuments of the valley. These monuments were defined by the outstanding cultural traditions of the Newars, manifested in their unique urban settlements, buildings and structures with intricate ornamentation displaying outstanding craftsmanship in brick, stone, timber and bronze that are some of the most highly developed in the world [4].

6

1  Hot and Mineral Springs in Nepal

The valley’s trademark is the multiple-roofed pagoda which may have originated in this area and spread to India, China, and Japan. The most famous artisan who influenced stylistic developments in China and Tibet was Araniko, a Newar who traveled to the court of Kublai Khan in the thirteenth century AD. He is known for building the white stupa at the Miaoying Temple in Beijing [5]. The Kathmandu valley was accorded the status of a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in the year 1979. This World Heritage property is inscribed as seven Monument Zones: Durbar squares or urban centers with their palaces, temples and public spaces of the three cities of Kathmandu (Hanuman Dhoka), Patan and Bhaktapur, and the religious ensembles of Swayambhu, Bauddhanath, Pashupati and Changu Narayan. Not only does Kathmandu valley have many gods, goddess, deities, Bodhisattvas, avatars and, manifestations which are worshiped and revered as statues, images, paintings and symbols, but Kathmandu is also home to a real living goddess entitled “Kumari” – a virgin mother of the world (Figs. 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6 and 1.7).

Fig. 1.3  Courtyard at the Kumari Ghar, House of Living Goddess (https://en.m.wikipedia. org/wiki)

1.3  Geological Setting of Nepal

7

Fig. 1.4  Chariot pulling at Lalitpur

1.3 Geological Setting of Nepal Nepal can be distinctively divided into six geological zones. 1. Gangetic Plain (Terai): Considered as a breadbasket, the Terai is a rich and fertile land in the southern part of Nepal. The Terai is the Nepalese portion of the Indo-Gangetic Plain that extends from the Indian Shield in the South to the Siwalik Fold Belt to the North. The plain is less than 200 m above sea level and usually 400–600 m thick. This Zone forms a nearly continuous belt from east to west. To the north, this zone is separated by an active thrust system called the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) with Siwalik. Northern Terai (Bhabar Zone) acts as a recharge zone for the groundwater of Terai. Middle Terai Zone is a narrow zone of about 10–12 km wide. Southern Terai Zone is the southernmost part of Terai

8

1  Hot and Mineral Springs in Nepal

Fig. 1.5  Chariot pulling at Bhaktapur. (Source: Himmat Singh Lekali)

Fig. 1.6  Lakhe dance during Indrajatra in Kathmandu (https://ntb.gov.np/indra-­jatra)

1.3  Geological Setting of Nepal

9

Fig. 1.7  Waiting for Mha Puja. (Source: Canadian Newa Guthi, Brampton)

up to Nepal-India border and also continues into India. This zone consists of main sediments of Gangetic Plain. 2. Sub-Himalaya (Siwaliks): The Sub Himalayan Zone or the Siwaliks of Nepal extends throughout the country from east to west in the southern part. It is delineated by the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) and Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) in south and north respectively. It extends all along the Himalaya forming the southernmost hill range with width of 8 to 50 km. It also forms the topographic front of the Himalaya. It rises from the fluvial plains of the active foreland basin, and this front is generally mapped as the trace of the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT). The Siwalik Group consists of upward coarsening successions of fluvial mudstone, siltstone, sandstone, and conglomerate. 3. Lesser Himalaya (Mahabharat Range and Valleys): The Lesser Himalaya lies between the Sub-Himalayas and Higher Himalayas separated by MBT and the Main Central Thrust (MCT) respectively. The total width ranges from 60 to 80 km. The Lesser Himalaya is made up mostly of the unfossiliferous sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks. The geology is complicated due to folding, faulting and thrusting and these complications added by the unfossiliferous nature. The northernmost boundary of the Siwaliks Group is marked by the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), over which the low-grade metasedimentary rocks of the Lesser Himalaya overlie. The Lesser Himalaya is a thick (about 7 km)

10

1  Hot and Mineral Springs in Nepal

section of parautochthonous crystalline rocks comprising low- to medium grade rocks. The Lesser Himalaya thrust over the Siwaliks along the MBT to the south. 4. Main Central Thrust Zone: The Main Central Thrust (MCT) is the single largest structure within the Indian plate that has accommodated Indian-Asian convergence. It extends for nearly 2500 km along strike and has been the site of at least 140 and perhaps more than 600  km of displacement. The metamorphic grade within the Lesser Himalaya increases towards the MCT and at higher structural levels. The highest-grade rocks (kyanite and sillimanite gneisses) are found within the MCT shear zone i.e. upper Lesser Himalaya. 5. Higher Himalaya: This Zone mainly consists of huge pile of strongly metamorphosed rocks. It includes the rocks lying north of the Main Central Thrust (MCT) and below the highly fossiliferous Tibetan-Tethys Zone. It consists of an approximately 10 km thick succession of the crystalline rocks, commonly called the Himal Group. It extends continuously along the entire length of the country. Granites are found in the upper part of the unit. 6. Tibetan-Tethys: The Tibetan-Tethys Himalayas generally begins from the top of the Higher Himalayan Zone and extends to the north in Tibet. This zone is about 40  km wide and composed of fossiliferous sedimentary rocks such as shale, sandstone and limestone etc. Most of the Great Himalayan peaks of Nepal such as Manaslu, Annapurna, and Dhaulagiri have rocks of Tibetan-Tethys Zone. In Nepal, these fossiliferous rocks are well developed in Thak Khola (Mustang), Manang and Dolpa area (Fig. 1.8).

Fig. 1.8  Geological map of Nepal

1.4  Heat Source of Geothermal Springs

11

The area north of the Annapurna and Manaslu ranges in central Nepal consists of metasediments that overlie the Higher Himalayan zone along the South Tibetan Detachment system. It has undergone very little metamorphism except at its base where it is close to the Higher Himalayan crystalline rocks [6].

1.4 Heat Source of Geothermal Springs There are no known geologically recent magmatic intrusive and/or volcanic rocks in the Nepal Himalayas. Most thermal springs are located very close to the MCT or MBF.  Heat flow in Nepal falls within the global mean range (60–80  mW/m2). Therefore, the heat acting on the spring water is likely to be of tectonic origin. The MCT is a major tectonic boundary, stretching along most of the length of the Himalayan chain, and it seems likely that while slip was taking place in the Everest region it was also happening in the Annapurna – Manaslu region in Western Nepal. Secondly, there is an indication that melt was present in the MCT zone during, and at a late stage of, its major movement [7]. But the Syabru-Bensi hydrothermal zone, in the Langtang region, is characterized by high radon-222 and CO2 discharge. Such high values for radon so far have only been reported on uranium mining waste piles whereas for CO2 fluxes have been reported only on active volcanoes. The measurement of gas fluxes at the ground surface is a promising and sensitive tool in order to obtain information on processes taking place in the earth crust, and to study its transport properties. A study was conducted in this area in order to find out if the hot springs in Nepal are not just of tectonic origin. It pointed out that long-term monitoring of the gas discharge is feasible here and suggested that more data on the seasonal and transient variation of gas discharge is needed in the Syabru-Bensi hydrothermal system (SBHS) to evaluate the relevance of long-term monitoring strategies [8]. A follow­up study pointed out metamorphic decarbonation at depth. It also identified this area as a unique geosystem with significant deep origin CO2 discharge located in a seismically active region [9]. A hydrogeological investigation in the Kali Gandaki area has indicated that the hot springs of Nepal correspond to the exit points of meteoric water which is recharged on the High Himalayan and the Tibetan plateau [10]. It means that in the Nepal Himalayas the surface water seeps beneath the ground through the discontinuities existing in the rocks exposed in the region. The water then reaches at greater depth around the MCT and gets heated due to high temperature in the crust and rises up to the surface along these fractures/thrust faults in the form of hot springs [11]. The same phenomenon can be applied to the springs in the Siwalik Hills situated to the south of the MBT. Some researchers however suggest that hydrothermal fluids (produced in the MBT) should be percolated at the MCT zone with late phase of heating/deformation around 4–5  Ma. This late phase of deformation around the MCT could be responsible of the recharged meteoric water to emerge out as hot springs [12].

12

1  Hot and Mineral Springs in Nepal

1.5 Geology of Some Thermal Sites in Nepal Darchula thermal springs: The thermal springs in the Darchula district are found in three places: (a) The Sina thermal springs occur in crystalline rocks located near the thrust contact between the overlying augen gneiss and the underlying sericitic schist and quartzite. The thrust is displaced by a recent fault (NW-­SE direction) on which many springs are aligned. (b) In Tapoban – Sribagad, the hot springs rise from the recent river sediments and are located near the tectonic contact between the autochthonous metasedimentary zone of Baitadi-Bajhang and the crystalline sheet. The tectonic contact is marked by the highly crushed chlorite-sericite-quartz phyllites on the ridge, east of Sribagad. (c) The Dethala  – Chameliya (named in earlier reports as Chameliya) spring issues from the recent terrace deposit and is confined to the metasedimentary autochthonous zone composed of various slates and carbonate rocks. A major NE-SW directed fault occurs along the Chameliya River which passes through the axial part of an anticline. It displaces the contact of the underlying black slate and the overlying cherry dolomite [13]. Bajhang thermal springs: The thermal springs of the Bajhang district are located near the major thrust between the crystalline allochthonous and metasedimentary autochthonous zones. The purple shales and green sandstone with gritty quartzites are highly folded. The major thermal source is located near the thrust zone whereas the minor sources are either near some fault or the contact zone of different lithological units. Chilime thermal spring: This spring is not situated on the bank of a river and has only one discharge point. The surrounding bedrock consists of quartz, biotite sandstone, graphitic argillaceous schist and siliceous limestone. Mayangdi thermal spring: This spring emerges from the base of a cliff of poorly cemented Quaternary conglomerates. An extensive fault passes through it, and carbonaceous schist and siltstones are exposed on both sides of the fault. There are four springs in this locality. Jumla thermal spring: Fig.  1.9 shows a geological map of the Jumla area. The thermal springs in the Jumla district occur mainly in two places Tila Nadi and Dhanchauri [14]. 1. Tila Nadi. Figure  1.10 shows a vertical geological section along Tila Nadi of Jumla. There are seven closely located hot springs on the right bank of Tila Nadi, below the Tatopani village. Gas seepage occurs in some of them in recent deposits of gravel and boulders with sandy-silty clay. Mini-folds and micro-faults can be observed along the Tila Nadi valley indicating neotectonic activity. Two seepages occur at the fracture joints in the calcareous gneiss and marble. The joints strike N-S and they dip west or east steeply.

1.5  Geology of Some Thermal Sites in Nepal

13

Fig. 1.9  Geological map of Jumla (Bhattarai and Bashyal [14])

Fig. 1.10  A vertical geological section along Tila Nadi (Bhattarai and Bashyal [14])

2. Dhanchauri. In this area, the spring emerges from the light-gray platy dolomite and is characterized by a thick tuffaceous deposit consisting of carbonate and silica. Three major hot springs are located here. Rihar thermal spring: This spring is located in the Siwalik formation in the south, and the immediate vicinity is covered by soil.

14

1  Hot and Mineral Springs in Nepal

Surai Khola thermal spring: The rock in the surrounding area is sandstone, siltstone and clay, belonging to the middle Siwalik. There are two discharge points in this area. Kodari thermal springs: Hot water issues at several points in the Kodari area. The surrounding bedrock is of quartz biotite sandstone overlain by slightly graphitic argillaceous schist and underlain by siliceous limestone. Jomsom thermal springs: The springs are grouped at the foot of a berm (a horizontal shelf that modifies or breaks the uniformity of an earth slope) about 100 meters high on the bank of the Kaki Gandaki River, consisting of fine crystalline and pelitic Lias limestones. Figure 1.11 shows the geological map of the Thak Khola-Mustang area where the Jomsom springs are located. There are five springs in the locality.

THAK KH

OLA FAU

LT

Lo Manthang

LEGEND Fluvio-glacial gravel alluvial deposit Thak Khola formation Tetang formation Mesozoic series Muktinath Paleozoic series

Tatopani iR

Jomsom

Dhaulagiri

Ka li G

an da k

Mustang leucogranite Mylonites

Nilgiri

Fault

0

25 km Scale OS 94.10.0332 MR

Fig. 1.11  Geological map of Thak-khola – Mustang area (Bhattarai and Bashyal [14])

References

15

References 1. Nepal country profile. https://dlca.logcluster.org/display/public/DLCA/1+Nepal+Count ry+Profile 2. Government of Nepal, Central Bureau of Statistics, National Census (2022) 3. Government of Nepal, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation: NEPAL Fifth National Report to Convention on Biological Diversity, Kathmandu, Nepal (2014) 4. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/121/ 5. American University (Washington, DC) Foreign Areas Studies Division; United States. Army (1964). “Area handbook for Nepal (with Sikkim and Bhutan)”. Washington, DC. For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Off. Retrieved via Internet Archive (2018) 6. http://www.oocities.org/geologyofnepal/geology.html 7. Chapman, D.S., Pollack, H.N.: Global heat flow: spherical harmonic representation. In: XIX General Assembly, International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, Abstracts, vol. 1, p. 50. Springer, Cham (1987) 8. Girault, F., Koirala, B.P., Perrier, F., Richon, P., Rajaure, S.: Persistence of radon-222 flux during monsoon at a geothermal zone. J. Environ. Radioact. 100, 955–964 (2009) 9. Girault, F., Perrier, F., Crockett, R., Bhattarai, M., Koirala, B.P., France-Lanord, C., Agrinier, P., Ader, M., Fluteau, F., Gréau, C., Moreira, M.: The Syabru-Bensi hydrothermal system in central Nepal: 1. Characterization of carbon dioxide and radon fluxes. J. Geophys. Res. (2014). https://doi.org/10.1002/2013JB010301 10. Perrier, F., Froidefond, T., Tiwari, D.R., Gautam, U., Kafle, B., Chitrakar, G.R., Trique, M.: Estimating streaming potentials associated with geothermal circulations at the Main Central Thrust: an example from Tatopani-Kodari hot spring in central Nepal. J. Nepal Geol. Soc. 26, 17–27 (2002) 11. Catting, R., Martelet, G., Henry, P., Avouce, J.P., Diament, M., Shakya, T.R.: Gravity anomalies, crustal structure, and thermomechanical support of the Himalaya of Central Nepal. J. Geophys. Res. 147, 381–392 (2001) 12. Copeland, P., Harrison, T.M., Hodges, K.V., Maruejol, P., Le Fort, P., Pecher, A.: An early thermal disturbance of the Main Central Thrust, Central Nepal. J.  Geophys. Res. 96, 8475–8500 (1991) 13. Bashyal, R.P.: Preliminary Investigation o/Thermal Springs of Darchula and Bajhang District. Department of Mines and Geology, Kathmandu, Internal report, p. 17 (1984) 14. Bhattarai, D.R., Bashyal, R.P.: Preliminary investigation of thermal springs in Jumla and Jomsom areas. Department or Mines and Geology, Kathmandu, Internal report, 18pp. (1983)

Chapter 2

Introduction to Hot and Mineral Springs

The word geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and therme (heat). Geothermal is the heat of the earth, which is estimated to be 5500 °C – almost as hot as the surface of the Sun. That’s why the geothermal energy industry is fond of calling it “the sun beneath our feet.” This natural geothermal heat radiating from the Earth’s mantle – a byproduct of our solar system’s formation billions of years ago – is virtually limitless in supply. Geothermal is an increasingly valuable contributor to energy diversity – and for good reason: it’s an “always-on,” renewable resource. The heat is continuously replenished by the decay of naturally occurring radioactive elements, at a flow rate of roughly 30  TW, almost double all human energy consumption. That process is expected to continue for billions of years. The ARPA-E project AltaRock Energy estimates that “just 0.1% of the heat content of Earth could supply humanity’s total energy needs for 2 million years.” There’s enough energy in the Earth’s crust, just a few miles down, to power all of human civilization for generations to come [1]. The earth’s crust is broken into pieces called tectonic plates. Magma comes close to the earth’s surface near the edges of these plates, which is where many volcanoes occur. The lava that erupts from volcanoes is partly magma. Rocks and water absorb heat from magma deep underground. This heat is transferred to the beneath of earth’s surface by conduction (through rocks) and convection (through water). Even where water is not available down the earth’s surface, there is heat available in the rocks. With depth the rate of temperature increases, this is what we call geothermal gradient [2]. According to Lambert [3], the water temperature increases from near the surface to the depth of 1000 m from 15 °C to 35 °C. This shows that the deeper the water flows the higher the temperature of the spring’s water produced (Fig. 2.1). Unlike the other renewable energy sources like wind and water, solar energy is homogenous at the source; the sun is providing energy in all directions at the same intensity. When it comes to earth, its distribution becomes uneven – some parts of the earth receive more light than the other. Likewise, the geothermal energy behaves © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Ranjit, Hot Springs in Nepal, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99500-3_2

17

18

2  Introduction to Hot and Mineral Springs

Fig. 2.1  Thermal structure of Earth [1]

in the same pattern – its core is like a sun but when its energy reaches the surface, some areas with volcanic activity receives much more energy at or near the earth’s surface and the other parts receiving very less energy in the form of fluid. Many of the best locations for geothermal energy are found in the “Ring of Fire,” a horseshoe-shaped area around the Pacific ocean that experiences a lot of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. That’s because hot magma is very close to the Earth’s surface there (Fig. 2.2) [4]. Therefore, countries like Iceland, Indonesia, Japan, USA, France, Italy which have volcanic activity are able to generate electricity from the high temperature fluid. Geothermal reservoirs are naturally occurring areas of hydrothermal resources. These reservoirs are deep underground and are largely undetectable above ground. Geothermal energy finds its way to the earth’s surface in three ways: • Volcanoes and fumaroles (holes in the earth where volcanic gasses are released) • Hot springs • Geysers The most active geothermal resources are usually found along major tectonic plate boundaries where most volcanoes are located. One of the most active geothermal areas in the world is called the Ring of Fire, which encircles the Pacific Ocean. When magma comes near the earth’s surface, it heats groundwater trapped in porous rock or water running along fractured rock surfaces and faults. Hydrothermal features have two common ingredients: water (hydro) and heat (thermal). Geologists use various methods to find geothermal reservoirs. Drilling a well and testing the temperature deep underground is the most reliable method for locating a geothermal reservoir [5]. Geysers are hot springs which at regular or irregular intervals emit a stream of mingled steam and hot water. The vent from which eruption takes place usually lies at the bottom of a pool of clear water, situated at the top of a conical mound of

2.1  Classification of Spring Waters

19

Fig. 2.2  Ring of fire. (Source: https://www.worldatlas.com/geography/pacific-­ring-­of-­fire.html)

siliceous sinter. The temperature of the water at the surface is about 212 °F (100 °C), but that of the water below the surface exceeds the normal boiling-point of water. The water in the lower part of the tube is prevented from boiling by the pressure of the overlying column. When the temperature at any point in the tube exceeds the boiling point for that depth, steam is formed. The expansion and rise of steam bubbles cause the water to overflow at the top. The consequent relief of pressure throughout the column of water causes instantaneous formation of steam from the superheated water. The result is an eruption. The three known geyser regions of the world are in New Zealand, Iceland, and Yellowstone Park, in each of which the geysers are associated with active or relatively recent volcanism.

2.1 Classification of Spring Waters Since early nineteenth century, many scientists have been classifying the springs in different ways, based on the temperature, rate of flow, type and amount of minerals present in the water, geographical features, other characteristics or peculiarities of springs etc. Kirk Bryan summarized and published all these classifications in 1919 [6].

20

2  Introduction to Hot and Mineral Springs

Classification works by other scientists is still underway, mainly centering around the terms presented in this publication. None of the systems of classification are complete enough to include all springs, nor are the classes established even mutually exclusive.

2.1.1 Temperature Springs may be divided according to temperature into thermal and non-thermal springs. Most non-thermal springs have temperatures that are approximately the same as the mean annual temperature of the air of the region in which they are found. Thermal springs are usually called “hot,” but those of slightly lower temperature are sometimes called “warm.” Cold springs have temperatures below normal. The water of some cold springs is derived from the melting of ice or snow; that of others, being quickly transferred from a higher to a lower elevation through open channels, retains the temperature of its point of origin on emergence [ibid.]. Some classify water as being “cold” (less than 20 °C), “hypothermal” (20–30 °C), “thermal” (30–40 °C), or “hyperthermal” (higher than 40 °C) [7, 8]. Some countries have their own classification system. For example, French mineral springs may be classified as cold (under 20 °C or 68 °F), warm (20–35 °C or 68–95 °F), hot (35–50 °C or 95–122 °F) or very hot (over 50 °C or 122 °F). In Japan, any spring that is 25  °C or hotter is classified as a simple thermal spring. The Japanese classify spring waters by temperature: Cold: Tepid: Warm: Hot:

under 25 °C (77 °F) 25–34 °C (77–93 °F) 34–42 °C (93–108 °F) over 42 °C (108 °F)

2.1.2 Mineral Content Mineral springs are those which yield water containing in solution (i) unusual amounts of mineral matter, or (ii) some uncommon or especially noticeable mineral matter. In distinction other springs are called “common springs.” Mineral springs are classified according to the chemical composition of the water. If the water has or is supposed to have therapeutic value, “mineral springs” are often called “medicinal” or “therapeutic”. In general, a spring is termed as a “therapeutic” or ‘mineral spring’ if it contains a minimum amount (1000 mg) of one or more minerals per liter or kilogram of water [9]. Some countries have their own way of classification. For example, in Japan, a spring is considered therapeutic if it contains at least a minimum amount of one of the following components: total dissolved solids (1000 mg), free carbon dioxide

2.1  Classification of Spring Waters

21

(1000 mg), copper (1 mg), iron (20 mg), aluminum (100 mg), hydrogen (1 mg), arsenic (0.7 mg), sulfur (2 mg), or radon (8.25 mache units) [9, 10].

2.1.3 Chemical Composition Some of the simpler and more generally used terms are self-explanatory. Saline springs contain common salt; sulfur springs contain compounds of sulfur, usually hydrogen sulfide; chalybeate springs contain iron; calcareous or lime springs contain calcium carbonate; gypsum or “gyp” springs, gypsum; borax springs, borax, etc. Oil springs contain petroleum suspended in drops in the water. False oil springs also occur. The iridescent film in these springs is due to iron hydroxide. In some springs an oily scum is produced by the decomposition of plants or animals buried just a few inches or feet below the spring opening [11]. The major types of springs based on chemical composition include bicarbonate, calcite (calcium carbonate), sulfate (including sodium sulfate, calcium sulfate, and magnesium sulfate), chloride (including sodium chloride, calcium chloride, and magnesium chloride), sulfur, iron, or lithium. Some springs may be classified as sulfate springs if they contain at least 1000 mg of sodium, calcium, or magnesium sulfate per kilogram of water [9]. In some countries, including Nepal, the springs are also classified as a combination of two or more anions because the presence of only one anion in the spring water is rare. So, when a spring water is classified as of bicarbonate type, bicarbonate is the dominant component and the presence of other anions in small quantities is possible.

2.1.4 Potential of Hydrogen Springs are often classified as alkaline, neutral, or acidic, expressed by the symbol pH (potential of hydrogen). A water that is neither acid nor alkaline is expressed as pH 7, an alkaline spring has a pH of over 8.5 and an acid spring has a pH value of less than 3. The pH value is determined primarily by the amount of calcium and magnesium salts the water contains: the greater the amount, the lower the pH.

2.1.5 Hydrological/Geographical Features Several names have been attributed to the type of springs based on the hydrological features, mainly due to deep-seated water and shallow-seated water. Deep-seated waters have a complex origin. They doubtless include water derived by absorption from the surface, water entrapped in sedimentary rocks at the time of

22

2  Introduction to Hot and Mineral Springs

their deposition, and water expelled during the crystallization of igneous rocks. It is believed that these waters do not move because of hydrostatic head, that is, that they are not connected with any overlying and connecting body of water, but that flow is the result of other agencies operating deep within the earth. ‘Volcanic’ spring, and ‘Fissure spring’ are the result of these deep-seated waters. Many names are given to the shallow-seated waters issuing due to meteoric and occasionally other water moving as ground water. These are broadly classified under (i) Depression springs (Dimple, Channel, Border springs), (ii) Contact Gravity, Mesa spring (iii) Impervious bed (Inclined gravity, Cuesta, Pocket, Rock dam, Fault dam spring), and (iv) Impervious rock (Tubular, Fracture spring). Springs bear other names also based on their nature and duration of flow, temperature, shape of spring area and other geographical features. Some of these names are boiling spring, bubbling spring, flowing spring, blowing spring, breathing spring, ebbing spring, mound and knoll spring, permanent (perennial) spring, temporary spring, Big spring, Fish spring (due to fish shape), and Valley spring. Dimple spring issues due to depressions in hillsides which permit the land surface to cut the water table [6].

2.2 Location of Hot Springs in Nepal Figure 2.3 shows the location of hot springs in 22 districts of Nepal. Details of the springs in each district are given in Table 2.1.

Fig. 2.3  Location of hot springs in Nepal

2.2  Location of Hot Springs in Nepal

23

Table 2.1  Basic information on thermal springs in Nepal [12–16]

Locality Far western Nepal Darchula district Barapta [15, 16] Dethala – Chameliya [16] Sina Tatopani Tapoban – Sribagad Bajhang district Chainpur [13, 15] Jeoligadh [13, 15] Tapoban – Bauligadh [16] Mid-western Nepal Jumla district Dhanchauri–Luma Tilanadi Humla district [16] Jhang Kermi Kharpu Lamchhahara – Jair Unapani Mugu district [16] Kachiyakot Purumaru – Tatopani gufa Ruwa – Bhusekuna Soru – Jima Kulaha Dolpa district [16] Rupgadh Shahartara Dang district Rihar Surai khola Surkhet district [16] Bulbule Taal East Rukum district [16] Dimurgaira Eight other hot springs – see Note Western Nepal Mustang district [15, 16] Charang Chookumau

Longitude (E) Decimal degrees

Latitude (N) Decimal degrees

Surface temp. (°C)

Flow rate (liters/ second)

80.783 80.607 80.683 80.562

29.733 29.686 29.883 29.866

28–33 30–34 Warm 57–73

n.a. 0.25 0.76 1.8

81.243 81.083 81.167

29.596 29.633 29.575

n.a. n.a. 31

n.a. n.a. 0.3

82.304 81.583

29.305 29.133

24.5 42

0.8 3

81.563 81.666 82.084 81.895 81.898

30.231 30.016 30.058 29.669 29.793

35 95 30–35 32 40

n.a. n.a. 2–3.5 0.9 4

82.025 81.963 82.026 81.978

29.619 29.623 29.621 29.628

40–45 35–40 30 40

n.a. 3.5 n.a. 3.6

82.873 83.027

28.968 28.847

n.a. 65

n.a. n.a.

82.333 83.701

27.917 27.801

33 37

1.5 3.8

81.608

28.574

32–36

14–15.2 

82.641

28.645

45–50

n.a.

83.937 83.713

29.091 29.228

33 21

0.2 0.2–0.5 (continued)

24

2  Introduction to Hot and Mineral Springs

Table 2.1 (continued)

Locality Dhi – Lomanthang Jomsom Muktinath Manang district [16] Chame Dharapani Makaibari Myagdi district [15, 16] Bagara – Mudi Bhurung Dagnam Darbang Darmija Folding Khola Histan Mayangdi Paudwar (lower Narchyang) Rato Pani (Dhirchyang) Sekaar (Bega) Singa Kaski district [15, 16] Chitepani – 1 Chitepani −2 Chhomrong Down Batase Jamile Jhinu Kharpani – Sardi Khola Machhapuchhre base camp Mirsa – Seti Khola Naya Gaun Sadhu Khola Seti Khola (Kharpani – N.) Up Batase Lamjung district [16] Bahundanda −1 Bahundanda – 2 Bhotewodar – Marshyangdi R. Jagat

Longitude (E) Decimal degrees 83.741 83.738

Latitude (N) Decimal degrees 29.156 28.784

Surface temp. (°C) n.a 21

Flow rate (liters/ second) 1.5 0.2–0.4

83.871

28.817

22

3

84.238 84.359 84.361

28.516 28.518 28.405

55 33 n.a.

1 0.16 n.a.

83.373 83.632 83.541 83.411 83.552 83.313 83.640 83.509 83.655 83.632 83.626 83.503

28.570 28.496 28.432 28.421 28.401 28.571 28.418 28.369 28.500 28.491 28.457 28.367

42 72 27 n.a. 40 50 n.a. 40 66.2 54 28 54

n.a. 1.8 n.a. n.a. 1 n.a n.a. 2 6.8 1.5 2.5 10–12

83.954 84.072 83.818 84.645 83.951 83.819 84.008 83.910 83.961 83.962 83.741 83.995 84.667

28.290 28.226 28.418 27.898 28.491 28.427 28.356 28.528 28.362 28.360 29.156 28.419 27.913

n.a. n.a. 48 44.3 30.6 35 49 64 44 n.a. 69 n.a 21.5

n.a. n.a. 0.9 0.1 0.05 3.2 0.4 2.2 0.3 n.a. 1.39 n.a. 0.2

85.323 85.320 84.443 84.407

28.167 28.159 28.150 28.317

95 36–40 n.a. 80

2.8 1.2 n.a. n.a. (continued)

2.2  Location of Hot Springs in Nepal

25

Table 2.1 (continued)

Locality Seti Khola Gorkha district [15, 16] Arughat Bhulbhulekhar Khoplang Machha Khola – Uhiya Tatopani – Khorlabesi Central Nepal Rasuwa district [15, 16] Chilime Lende Khola – Bahundanda Pargang Sanjen Syabru Besi Timure – Sedang Thuman Dhading district [15, 16] Chalish (e) Linjo-Tipling Jharlang Sindhupalchowk district Kodari Dolakha district [16] Gonggar Eastern Nepal Dhanusha district [13] Janakpur Sankhuwasabha district [15, 16] Bhot Khola Hatiya Nundhaki

Longitude (E) Decimal degrees 83.995

Latitude (N) Decimal degrees 28.419

Surface temp. (°C) 44

Flow rate (liters/ second) 0.2

84.860 84.473 84.466 84.523 84.899

28.097 28.028 28.001 28.136 28.276

n.a. 34 n.a. 59.8 n.a.

n.a. 1.2 n.a. n.a. n.a.

85.305 85.331 85.299 85.327 85.342 85.368 85.302

28.184 28.164 28.219 28.179 28.164 28.253 28.211

55 n.a. 48.9 23.4 34 70.7 48

8.0 n.a. 5.0 30–34 0.1–0.37 3.2 0.83

85.086 85.127 85.009

28.187 28.212 28.085

53 32 29

2.5 1.2 3.2

85.950

27.943

42

30–34

86.216

27.835

38

1.2

85.933

26.717

38

Well water

87.439 87.340 87.469

27.758 27.737 27.308

42–50 32–35 30–37

6 0.5 70–75

Note: Besides, there are a number of hot spring sites reported in some publications and media that do not cover the basic information about the spring water East Rukum district has nine more thermal locations at Pokhara, Jodu, Khara, Jharlung, Rala, Okhma, Pelma, Maikot and Birgum Myagdi district is reported to have one hot spring at ‘Bhale Basne Taal’ in Malika Rural Municipality and the next one at Dhadkhark Humla district has Chagzur hot spring in the famous Limi Valley trekking route, Darbi at Chankheli rural municipality and several other locations like Tile, Kurap, Takchi, Yangar, Yalwang, Khagal village, Kholsi, Khaloi, Kudilla, Salisalla Sindhupalchowk district has one hot spring at Sailung village in Jugal rural municipality Dolpa district has one hot spring at Suligadh

26

2  Introduction to Hot and Mineral Springs

2.3 Information About Hot Springs 2.3.1 General Table 2.1 presents some basic information about the locations, surface temperature and flow rate data of thermal springs in Nepal. Longitude and Latitude are expressed in two decimal degrees to maintain uniformity in the locations of all springs.

2.3.2 Chemical Information Table 2.2 shows the surface temperature, subsurface (geothermometer) temperature and flow rate of some geothermal locations of Nepal (Table 2.3). The plots of log Q/K versus temperature curves for thermal waters of various locations indicate that the spring waters of Jomsom, Sadhu Khola, Bhurung Tatopani, Chilime, Tapoban – Sribagad, Dhanchaur and Tila Nadi are in equilibrium and all the other springs waters are unsaturated with the most common hydrothermal alteration minerals [12]. Table 2.2  Surface/subsurface temperature, flow rate and ionic balance of geothermal springs [12]

Locality Tapoban – Sribagar Sina Tatopani Dethala – Chameliya  Tapoban – Bajhang Luma Tilanadi Rihar Surai Khola Jomsom Bhurung Sadhu Khola Kharpani Mayangdi Singa Chilime Syabru Besi Kodari

Surface temp. (°C) 73 30 30

Flow rate (l/s) 0.9 0.8 0.3

Geothermometer temp. (°C) Na/K SiO2 Chalcedony ratio 85.1

31 24 36–42 33 36 21 72 68 49 40 54 48 34 42

0.3 0.8 1.3 1.5 1.7 3 1.8 1.5 0.4 2 10–12  0.9 0.4 23–25

55.1 106.9 110.6

Ionic balance (%)

37.6

158

88.2 −34.3 54.2 50.1

50.3 115.4 109.8 89.8 91 98.8 86.5 96.5

Discharge enthalpy (kJ/kg) 361

52.3 100.4

115.3

4.8 1.61 −0.19 4.52 −21.03

55

126 448 464 227 210 211 484 460 376 452 386 365 17

2.3  Information About Hot Springs

27

Table 2.3  Chemical composition of thermal springs waters [14, 17, 18] Location Bhurung Jomsom Tilanadi-Jumla Dhanchauri Mayangdi Rihar Surai Khola Tapoban – Sribagar Dethala-Chameliya Tapoban – Bajhang Sadhu Khola Chilime Singa Syabrubesi – 1 Syabrubesi – 2 Kodari

pH 7 8 7.3 7 8 9 9 7 7 6 7 7 7.2 8 7.5 7.3

Na 370 60 56 49 460 310 123 100 n.a. n.a. 300 7.35 64 73 7.2 147

K 95 5.6 0 1.3 49 4 3.9 11 n.a. 22 12 8.1 1.5 44 12.5 29.7

Mg 27 54 1.2 0.2 17 3 28 8.5 n.a. 10 0.6 20.8 1.8 84 90.5 20.5

Ca 108 113 6 6.1 2 4 18 n.a. n.a. n.a. 10 25.8 6.8 38 75.9 53.5

Cl 583 96 45 82 351 14 3.2 34.2 39.6 50.1 286 10 51 66 12 31.5

SO4 207 249 130 104 68 70 70 18.5 10.7 25.9 197 6 140 94 121.4 85.6

HCO3 370 302 0 217 430 7.9 370 n.a. n.a. n.a. 78 180 10 848 760 412.5

SiO2 71 14.3 60 56 43 37.5 38.5 35 10 16 60 47.1 68 59.7 35.3 44.3

B 14.1 2.4 0 0 0.3 6 0.1 0 n.a. 0 0 0 0 n.a. n.a. 1.36

TDS 1650 850 353 803 1340 788 510 516 1320 444 954 166 353 620 1300 n.a.

Note: Even though some updated and/or new chemical data of springs are available, these are not included in the table as the data are incomplete or unreliable

A Cl-SO4-HCO3 diagram for nine thermal springs is shown in Fig. 2.4. It seems that the spring waters from Tatopani (Bhurung) and Sadhukhola are chloride waters (relatively mature), and those of Jomsom, Dhanchauri-Luma, Mayangdi, Surai Khola and Chilime are representative of the waters with high CO2 reactivity. The spring of Tilanadi and Rior (Rihar) plot close to the SO4 corner to represent steam-­ heated character. However, their respective pH values of about 7 and 8.5 makes them unlikely to be pure steam-heated waters. A Na-K-Mg plot for spring waters from ten thermal waters is given in Fig. 2.5. As can be seen, the spring waters are all shifted, to varying degrees, towards the magnesium corner. This points to extensive interaction of the spring water with rock at comparatively low temperatures because the concentrations of Mg are relatively high in low temperature waters. Evaluation of Na-K and K-Mg equilibrium temperatures of the thermal springs shows that the springs waters are all shifted, to varying degrees, towards the magnesium corner. This points to extensive interaction of the spring water with rock at comparatively low temperatures. The types of thermal waters available in Nepal have also been confirmed from detailed chemical studies. Attainment of equilibrium in the reservoir depends on a number of factors, such as the nature of the host rock, the temperature of the reservoir a t particular temperature, kinetics of the particular reaction and the concentration of the indicator elements in the water [19]. In the thermal springs under study, many of them are not found to be in equilibrium. The Sadhu Khola, Dhanchauri-Luma

28

2  Introduction to Hot and Mineral Springs

Fig. 2.4 CL-SO4-HCO3 diagram for thermal springs

and Rior (Rihar) spring water seem to be in or near equilibrium with several minerals at temperatures of 120 °C, 100 °C and 50 °C respectively. These temperatures agree fairly well with those determined using silica and Na/K geothermometers (Table 2.2). The silica-enthalpy graph (Fig. 2.6) shows that the springs in Rior (Rihar) and Surai Khola (located in the Main Boundary Fault of recent origin) are in equilibrium with chalcedony and all the rest are in full equilibrium with quartz. In other words, there is no difference between the initial and the present enthalpy of the hot water component. All these results suggest that there is no mixing taking place between the geothermal and cold ground water.

2.3.3 Isotopic Data of Geothermal Springs in Central Nepal In 1985, Grabczak and Kotarba [20] conducted a study of various thermal springs located in the central part of the Nepal Himalayas as shown in Fig. 2.7.

2.3  Information About Hot Springs

29

Fig. 2.5  Diagram for the evaluation of Na-K and K-Mg equilibrium temperature of the thermal springs

Likewise, Ader et. al conducted a midcrustal microseismicity study covering Nepal and certain area of India to the west from 1996 to 2008, presented in Fig. 2.8. The high shear stress rate in the mid-western region (in Myagdi and Mustang districts, shown in red lines just below the mid peaks in the country map) highly supports the fact that there exists a huge geothermal reservoir in this area due to continuous percolation of water melted from the Himalaya to recharge the groundwater. Table 2.4 shows the isotopic data of 28 thermal springs in Central Nepal. The number attached to the hot springs refers to the altitude mean above sea level in meter.

2.3.4 Existence of a Large Geothermal Reservoir in Western Nepal Even though the above table suggests that none of the springs have a huge mass flow rate, a number of springs emerging in the vicinity could have lowered the flow rate. Water containing chloride concentration less than 100 ppm in case of Jomsom and

30

2  Introduction to Hot and Mineral Springs

Fig. 2.6  Silica – enthalpy diagram for thermal springs

Fig. 2.7  Location of hot springs investigated in the central parts of the Nepal Himalayas; (1) river, (2) massif, (3) peak, (4) locality or village, (5) springs region, (6) hot spring, and (7) wrench fault

2.3  Information About Hot Springs

31

32

31 0

5 10 Shear stress rate (kPa/yr)

Latitude (°N)

30

15

29

28

27

26

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

Longitude (°E)

Fig. 2.8  Map view of the midcrustal microseismicity from superposed to the map of the shear stress accumulation rate on the MHT, deduced from the coupling pattern. The thick red line represents the 3500 m elevation contour line above which the seismicity seems to drop [21]

Table 2.4  Isotopic composition of some thermal springs in Central Nepal [20] Region – altitude (m.a.s.l.) Tatopani – Beni – 900

Tatopani – 1250

Jomsom – 2850

Muktinath – 3800

Spring No. B-1 B-2 B-3b T-1 T-2c T-7B T-8 T-10a T-10b T-16 T-17b T-19c T-20 T-21 T-22 J-1a J-1b J1-c M-1

Temp. (°C) 35.8 34.4 52.3 44 63 61 71 70 55 35 66 64 21.4 25.4 63.5 20.8 20.7 20.6 6.5

Discharge (l/s) 1 0.4 – 0.3 0.1 0.2 1.8 0.7 0.1 0.05 0.5 1.1 – 3 0.7 4.5 0.2 3.1 0.07

TDS (g/L) 0.46 – 1.68 1.14 – – 1.84 – – – – – – 0.98 4.69 – 0.89 0.96 0.38

δ18O (0/00) −8.6 −8.6 −8.7 −8.9 −10 −10 −10.3 −10.4 −10.3 −10.8 −9.9 −10.1 −7.6 −8.4 −10.8 −15.7 −15.5 −15.5 −15.2

δD Tritium (0/00) (T.U.) −65 45 ± 2 −64 −8.6 −65 13 ± 1.5 −61 33 ± 2 −69 – −71 – −72 7 ± 1.5 −72 – −74 – −76 – −71 – −71 – −52 – −60 55 ± 2 −79 10 ± 1.5 −115 – −112 63 ± 3 −115 68 ± 3 −114 67 ± 3 (continued)

32

2  Introduction to Hot and Mineral Springs

Table 2.4 (continued) Region – altitude (m.a.s.l.)

Spring No. Mirsa - Setikhola Area – 1200 SK-1b SK-2 Jamaile −1500 SJ-1 Machhapuchhre base camp – 800 SM-1a Down Batese − 1900 SB-1b Up Batese – 2000 SB-2 Syabru Besi – Trisuli area TS-1 TS-2 Pargang – 2600 TP-1

Temp. (°C) 44 35.4 30.6 64 44.3 21.5 38 51 49

Discharge (l/s) 0.3 0.6 0.05 2.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.02 3.8

TDS (g/L) 3.32 – – 1.02 0.42 – 0.63 1.98 0.39

δ18O (0/00) −10.9 −11 −11.3 −13 −12.4 −11 −10.2 −9.6 −11.6

δD (0/00) −72 −74 −79 −89 −83 −72 −70 −66 −81

Tritium (T.U.) 14 ± 1.5 – – 8 ± 1.5 – – 24 ± 1.5 7 ± 1.5 20 ± 1.5

Singa Tatopani (only two springs applicable here) does not meet the mixing characteristics since their pH values do not lie between 6 and 7; calcite is either supersaturated or almost saturated in Jomsom, Mayangdi and Sadhukhola spring waters, suggesting that there is no mixing. No high concentration of silica is observed relative to discharge temperature in all the five spring waters. However, there is a variation in oxygen isotopes ranging between −7.6 and −15.7 and variation in hydrogen isotopes between −52 and −118. It leads to conclude that the waters are mixed. The waters at Sadhu Khola, Tatopani-Mustang and Mayangdi lying in this region have relatively high chloride, suggesting that the waters are fairly mature as indicated by the Giggenbach’s diagram of concentrations of the major anions, Cl−, SO42– and HCO3− . The following mixing characteristics of mixing are described by Arnonsson [22]: (i) A huge mass flow rate of the spring (ii) Low pH of water relative to the water salinity (water containing chloride concentration less than 100 ppm should have pH between 6 and 7) (iii) Variation in oxygen and hydrogen isotopes (iv) Calcite unsaturation (v) A high concentration of silica relative to discharge temperature. Isotopic data in Table 2.4 above showed that increase of water temperature from about 20 to 70  °C is reversely correlated to tritium concentration from 55 to 7 T.U. This dependence could either be caused by a different transit time of the one-­ age-­component water or mixing of two water components: one hot water presumably without tritium, and the second, a young cold water. The case for mixing appears less speculative from the tritium data (Fig. 2.9). The oxygen-18/16 and deuterium ratios of water samples from 36 hot springs in the central part of Nepal, and the tritium activity of 14 of them show that the thermal waters where outflow temperatures are up to 71 °C are characterized by two features, results of stable isotope measurements fit the so-called world meteoric line as shown in Fig. 2.6 by the equation line and all the springs tested have tritium activity

2.3  Information About Hot Springs

33

Fig. 2.9  δ18O – δ D correlation of analyzed waters [20]

between 7 and 68 T.U. However, nearly all points for Seti Khola are regularly displaced, with mean deuterium excess equal to 14.8‰ (local meteoric line?). Besides, three points for Tatopani-Myagdi show a slight positive oxygen-18 shift (about 0.7‰) which could be suspected to result from isotopic exchange [20]. If the tritium content is appreciable and variable with time. it means that an appreciable amount of water younger than 40  years is present and the variations imply a short circulation time of the order of a few years. Another possibility is that water from two different sources is present: a mixture of an old tritium-free water and a young water containing tritium. If the tritium content is appreciable and constant in time, the young water is well mixed in the aquifer with old water and the size of the reservoir masks any fluctuations in recharge [23]. The study result does not indicate whether the tritium is variable or constant in time. However, since the waters are found to be unmixed, the relatively high chloride content of Sadhu Khola, Tatopani  – Bhurung and Mayangdi lying in the western region suggests that the waters are fairly mature. This is possible only if the size of the reservoir is large as interpreted above. Hence the studies indicate that there is possibly a large geothermal reservoir in the Sadhu Khola – Jomsom area in the western region of Nepal [24]. The presence of 13 geothermal springs in Myagdi district and 13  in Kaski district in western Nepal itself is a testimony to this fact. The study result provides a preliminary qualitative estimation of reservoir. Geophysical investigation is highly suggested to confirm it.

34

2  Introduction to Hot and Mineral Springs

2.4 Features of Thermal Springs Ground water takes up soluble substances from the rocks through which it flows. In consequence small quantities of soluble matter near the point of emergence of spring water are very effective in changing its composition. Thus, the mineral content is at best an uncertain guide to the origin of the water or the cause of the spring (Table 2.5). Table 2.5 Cl-SO4-HCO3 indications, chemical and geological characteristics Location of thermal spring Chemical characteristics Jomsom Slightly alkaline and chloride-sulfate-bicarbonate type, calcite saturated Sadhukhola Slightly alkaline and bicarbonate type with emission of H2S and CO2, almost calcite saturated Tilanadi Chloride-sulfate type with Jumla little H2S odor Luma Bicarbonate type, (almost Dhanchauri calcite saturated) Sina Chloride-sulfate type

Sirbari

Chloride-sulfate type

Dethala – Chameliya Tapoban – Bajhang

Chloride-sulfate type

Bhurung

Chloride-sulfate-­ bicarbonate type Bicarbonate type (calcite saturated) Alkaline, (almost calcite saturated) Calcite saturated

Kodari Rihar Surai Khola Mayangdi

Slightly acidic, chloride-­ sulfate type

Highly alkaline, (bicarbonate – chloride) Chloride – sulfate type

Cl-SO4-­ HCO3 indications Geological characteristics Peripheral Situated north of MCT zone in fluvo-glacial gravel deposit Mature

Confined north of MCT zone

Steam-­ Occurred north of MCT zone in heated? calcareous gneiss and marble Peripheral Occurred north of MCT zone, deposit of carbonate and silica Occurred north of MCT zone, overlying augen gneiss and underlying sericitic schist and quartzite Occurred north of MCT zone, highly crushed chlorite-sericite-quarz phyllites Occurred north of MCT zone, slates and carbonate rocks Occurred north of MCT zone in calcareous gneiss and marble, purple shales and green sandstone with gritty quartzites Mature South of MCT in black carbonaceous schist and phyllite North of MCT in quartz biotite sandstone and silicious limestone Steam-­ South of MBT in sandstone and heated? siltstone Peripheral South of MBT in sandstone, siltstone and clay Peripheral Carbonacious schist and siltstones

Singa – Myagdi Syabrubesi Highly alkaline, bicarbonate type Chilime Bicarbonate type Peripheral Quartz, biotite sandstone, graphitic argillaceious schist and silicious limestone Modified after references [12–14, 18]

2.5  Renewable Energy Situation in Nepal

35

2.5 Renewable Energy Situation in Nepal Nepal’s energy is still dominated by the traditional sources that constitute firewood for cooking, agriculture residues, and livestock residues (mainly cow dung cake). However, its contribution to the total energy consumption has slowly decreased from 77.6% in 2014/15 to 68.63% in March 2021. This gap is mainly filled by the increase of share from the commercial sources (petrol, coal) and electricity. Contribution from these sources increased from 19.99% to 28.18% in the past 7 year’s period as shown in the following Fig. 2.10. Indeed, the notable increase in hydroelectricity has made this change possible. Until 2019/2020, the electricity over-demand was met by the import of electricity from India to certain extent. In the mid-March of 2021, domestic electricity production reached 1685 MW, leading to less import of electricity. With the completion of hydroelectricity projects at Upper Tamakoshi, Rasuwa Gadhi, Rahughat and some others under construction by private sectors, the country is expected to add another 1623 MW in March 2022 [25]. With this leap-frogging, Nepal is promoting to utilize more electricity domestically with new policies and incentives. The country has started to export the surplus electricity to the neighboring country India and is expected to export to Bangladesh within a few years. The following Fig. 2.11 shows the trend of hydroelectricity production over the past 7 years. However, the picture of renewable energy is still bleak. Its contribution stood only at 4.93% until mid-March 2021, still up from 2.5% in 2014. Renewable energy sources are household solar, improved bio-gas plants (institutional, urban and commercial), improved water mills, and improved cook stoves, electrification from wind/solar energy mixed systems and electricity production from micro and small hydropower projects. Geothermal energy sector’s contribution is almost negligible.

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2014/15

2015/16

2016/17

Traditional

2017/18

Commercial

2018/19

2019/20

Renewable

Fig. 2.10  Energy consumption pattern in different sub-sectors. (Source: Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation, 2020)

36

2  Introduction to Hot and Mineral Springs

Electricity producon (MW) 2500

Producon (MW)

2000 1500 1000 500 0

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

Year

Fig. 2.11  Electricity production trend

120

3.5

100

3

80

2.5 2

60

1.5

40

1

20

0.5 0

2000

2005 2010 Capacity (MWt)

2015 2019 Energy use (TJ)

Annual energy use (TJ)

Annual capacity (MW)

4

0

Fig. 2.12  Annual capacity and geothermal energy use

Its theoretical capacity increased from 1.1 to 3.7  MW in 2019 over a period of almost two decades. The energy use also has increased steadily over this period. Fig. 2.12 represents the use of geothermal energy only for bathing, swimming and laundering purposes. This is based on the calculations made from 28 thermal sites only. As new thermal site data becomes available, the contribution from this energy sector definitely goes up.

References

37

References 1. Roberts, D.: Geothermal energy is poised for a big breakout “An engineering problem that, when solved, solves energy.” www.vox.com/energy-­and-­environment/2020/10/21/21515461/ renewable-­energy-­geothermal-­egs-­ags-­supercritical (2020) 2. Heath, M., Foyer, A., Georgescu, C.: Geothermal: for heat. https://energyminute.ca/single/ infographics/1016/geothermal-­for-­heat/ 3. David Lambert Group: The field guide to geology. Library of Congress Cataloging, p. 29 (2007) 4. https://www.worldatlas.com/geography/pacific-­ring-­of-­fire.html 5. U.S.  Environmental Information Administration Geothermal explained Where geothermal energy is found (2020). www.eia.gov/energyexplained/geothermal/where-­geothermal-­energy-­ is-­found.php 6. Bryan, K.: Classification of springs. J.  Geol. (1919) U.S.  Geological Survey, Washington, DC. journals.uchicago.edu 7. Nasermoaddeli, A., Kagamimori, S.: Balneotherapy in medicine: a review. Environ. Health Prev. Med. 10, 171–179 (2005) 8. Matz, H., Orion, E., Wolf, R.: Balneotheraphy in dermatology. Dermatol. Ther. 16, 132–140 (2003) 9. Spas in Japan (Tokyo: Japan Spa Association) 4, 25 (1983) 10. Altman, N.: Healing Springs: the Ultimate Guide to Taking the Waters. Healing Arts Press, Rochester (2000) 11. Peale, A.C.: The Natural Mineral Waters of the United States, U.S. Geol. Survey, Fourteenth Annual Report Part II, p. 66 (1894) 12. Ranjit, M.: Geochemical Studies of Some Thermal Springs in Nepal, Reports 11, pp. 267–290. The United Nations University Geothermal Training Programme, Reykjavik (1994) 13. Department of Mines and Geology, Government of Nepal – Geothermal hot spring resources in Nepal (2004) 14. Ranjit, M.: Geothermal energy update of Nepal. Proceedings of World Geothermal Congress, Anatalya, Turkey (2005) 15. Ranjit, M.: Geothermal energy update of Nepal. Proceedings of World Geothermal Congress (2020+1), Reykjavik, Iceland (2021) 16. Ranjit, M.: Hot Springs in Nepal: Health Benefits and Geothermal Applications (under publication) (this volume) 17. Bashyal, R.P.: Preliminary Investigation o/Thermal Springs of Darchula and Bajhang District. Department of Mines and Geology, Kathmandu, Internal report, p. 17 (1984s) 18. Bhattarai, D.R., Bashyal, R.P.: Preliminary investigation of thermal springs in Jumla and Jomsom areas. Department or Mines and Geology, Kathmandu, Internal report, 18pp. (1983) 19. Amorsson, S., Gunnlaugsson, E., Svavarsson, H.: The chemistry of geothermal waters in Iceland II.  Mineral equilibria and independent variables controlling water compositions. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta. 47, 547–566 (1983) 20. Grabczak, J., Kotarba, M.: Isotopic composition of the thermal waters in the central part of the Nepal Himalayas. Geothermics. 14, 567–575 (1985) 21. Ader, T., Avouac, J., Liu-Zeng, J., Lyon-Caen, H., Bollinger, L., Galetzka, J., Genrich, J., Thomas, M., Chanard, K., Sapkota, S.N., Rajaure, S., Shrestha, P., Ding, L., Flouza, M.: Convergence rate across the Nepal Himalaya and interseismic coupling on the Main Himalayan Thrust: implications for seismic hazard, Lin Ding, Mireille Flouzat. J. Geophys. Res. (2012). https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JB009071 22. Arnorsson, S.: Application of silica geothermometer in low-temperature hydrothermal area in Iceland. Am. J. Sci. 275, 763–784 (1975)

38

2  Introduction to Hot and Mineral Springs

23. Nuti, S.: Isotope techniques in geothermal studies. In: D’Amore, F. (Co-ordinator), Applications of geochemistry in geothermal reservoir development. UNITAR/UNDP Publication, Rome, 215–251 (1991) 24. Ranjit, M.: Preliminary evaluation of geothermal reservoir in the central Nepal using geochemical data. Proceedings World Geothermal Congress, Indonesia, April (2010) 25. Economic Survey: Ministry of Finance, Government of Nepal (2021–22)

Chapter 3

Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Typically, hot springs found near volcanoes tend to be geysers – springs where the thermal energy regularly builds up and releases a powerful blast of boiling energy. With no volcanoes in the Nepalese Himalayas, the types of hot springs found in Nepal are not boiling, and therefore have a perfect spa-like temperature. This is due to the water being warmed near the earth’s crust, on the point where two tectonic plates meet. It is the pressure built up in this area combined with the heat of the earth’s mantle that warms our water. These pleasant temperature hot springs are scattered in 21 out of 77 districts of the country. They are originating from about 90 sources, with just two springs having a surface temperature of 80 °C. This chapter presents a profile of the hot springs found in different regions of Nepal, their current uses, and physical states, as well as the attractions they provide to both domestic and international visitors. Each region also has a brief description of the districts so someone visiting the hot spring area can have information about the other interesting places to visit in the district. Hot spring profiles of the districts are arranged alphabetically from west to east without any priority to their importance and the profiles supply basic information about the water, its temperature, and flow rate. Detailed chemical information is given in Tables 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 in Sects. 2.2 and 2.3 of Part I.

3.1 Far Western Nepal The far western region is blessed with diverse geographical structures, natural beauty, culture, and thermal water resources. In spite of this, the region has remained the most neglected part of the country with the least infrastructure development in terms of health, education, and road facilities. The region is well known for its poverty as well, with most of the younger generation penetrating India for labor jobs. The Visit Nepal  – 2020 program has given high importance to its development © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Ranjit, Hot Springs in Nepal, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99500-3_3

39

40

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

through the promotion of tourism. Terming the region as ‘Dev Bhoomi Sundar Bhoomi’ meaning, ‘God’s Land, a Beautiful Land’, the program has posted a number of videos and pictures on social media depicting the social, cultural, and natural aspects of Darchula, Jumla, and Humla districts. It has helped to attract the local and foreign tourists in recent years.

3.1.1 Darchula District Darchula is one of the seven districts in Nepal’s far west with Khalanga (Mahakali Municipality) as its district headquarters. Bordered by India on the south and China on the north. it is a remote area forgotten by development activities. According to etymology, Darchula is a combination of two words “Dar” and “Chula” which mean edge (peak) and hearth, respectively, in the Dotyali language spoken by the people of Doti district. Darchula means a three-stone cooking fire, the stones represented by three hilltops. Aerial view of this area depicts the three mountain peaks as a three-stone cooking fire. Legend has it that the sage Byasa cooked his food over the cooking fire using these three hilltops. A majority rural people of Darchula still cook their food over a three-stone cooking fire to this day. According to the census of 2011, 26.94% of households in the district have electricity supply and 33.05% of households are equipped with solar powered systems. The northern area is fully covered with snow during winter, and the people deprived of energy resources migrate to the district headquarters to sustain life. The average temperature of the remaining part varies between 5.7 and 28.6 °C. Although it is known as “the Land of Gods”, the lack of basic infrastructure, difficult geophysical conditions, traditional agricultural practice, low literacy rates, and a high population growth rate are some causes behind the deeply rooted poverty in this area. However, it owns unique attractions for tourists and a beautiful landscape, so it stands to gain much more popularity. The Api Nampa Conservation Area is a famous gateway to the pilgrimage spot of Kailash Manasarovar in the Autonomous Tibetan Region of China. Many pilgrims pass through this Conservation Area to get to Kailash Parbat (Mountain). Nepalese and foreigners come here to experience satisfaction, spirituality, and the boons of nature. The local youths have launched a campaign ‘Visit Darchula – A Hidden Heaven’ to attract domestic and international tourists [1]. Figure 3.1 depicts the panoramic view of Api Himalaya seen from Marma Rural Municipality. Apart from these socio-cultural, religious and geographical attractions, Darchula district is blessed with five hot springs, of which only three are commonly known to the people. 3.1.1.1 Dethala – Chameliya Hot Spring This spring used to be reported as Chameliya hot spring in all the earlier publications since it lies on the bank of Chameliya River. Chameliya River originates from Mount Api in the far-northern part of the district and pours down to the south

3.1  Far Western Nepal

41

Fig. 3.1  Api Himalaya seen from Marma Rural Municipality (https://marmamun.gov.np)

crossing the entire district. This hot spring lies on the bank of Chameliya River in the Dethala village at the southernmost part of the district. A new name, Dethala, has been attributed to this spring to help the readers better find this place. When this river reaches Dethala, it changes its color into that of rice-soaked water (chaulani in Nepali language). Hence, this section of the river is also locally known as Chaulani River. The water is warm, and the flow rate is also not significant (0.25 l/s). This spring water is enjoyed mostly by the locals. 3.1.1.2 Sina Hot Spring This spring area is located at the northernmost part of the district in Byas Rural Municipality, Sunsera village committee, ward number 3, north-east of Tapoban-­ Sribagad. It is popularly known as Tatopani pilgrimage owing to the existence of this hot spring. The spring water is just warm and soothing. Since it is located in the remote area and off the trekking route, only the locals visit it for bathing and laundering. A detailed project report prepared for its development is awaiting implementation. Construction of a road to connect it from Sina Tinkar branch road has started in late 2021. 3.1.1.3 Tapoban – Sribagad Hot Spring This spring in the popular land of ‘Tapoban’ provides a huge religious and cultural significance. Tapoban is a combination of two words ‘Tapa’ (meaning penance) and ‘ban’ (meaning forest), literally signifying ‘hermitage’. Legend also has it that eight sages meditated in Tapoban at the same time. Stone statues of the sages can be seen on either side of the huge mountains of Tapoban. The existing infrastructure of the spring site, however, does not deserve the holy name of the land. No hot water pool exists for a longer soak and even the locals use it to a minimum.

42

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

This spring, also known as Sribagad and Sirbari, is the most popular one among all found in the district as it lies in a charming setting of Tapoban village. It is situated in ward no. 3 of Duhun Rural Municipality on the bank of the Chameliya River, just 24  km north of the district headquarters. The spring temperature rises up to 73 °C, recording one of the highest surface temperatures of springs in Nepal. Some other springs in the vicinity flow at the rate of 1.8 l/s. As mentioned earlier, sage Byasa cooked his food here over a fire between three mountain peaks. During the process, a large amount of heat was produced that warmed the surrounding water. This is why the local people believe that the spring water has healing as well as divine powers. Thousands of people from the Bajhang, Bajura, Achham, Baitadi, Dadeldhura and Darchula districts, as well as those from the northern and southern parts of India visit this site in the months of Magh (December–January). On the eve of Maghesankranti (the coldest day of the year), thousands of people assemble at the site and build a fire for mendicants which is kept burning throughout the night and say prayers. In the early morning, hot water rises and fills the pool to the top before receding in the evening. The high temperature of the spring water is maintained throughout this month. After having a bath in the hot spring water, people offer rice balls to their dead ancestors with the belief that they will be able to smoothly cross the Waitarani River which flows in the hell. Some take a bath in the hot spring and undergo fasting so they can cross the Baikuntha River, an imaginary river in heaven, after death [2]. Besides this hot spring, Marma Rural Municipality has various places of religious and tourist importance. These include Latinath Baba temple (Latinath village), Masta temple (Matela village), Kwakatte temple (Sheri village), Durga Bhawani temple (Guljar). The district also has the following two lesser-known hot springs. Barapta Hot Spring Near the remote village called Barapta lies another thermal spring. It is on the south-­ west of Lama Bagar in Marma Rural Municipality. The water is just soothing. It is also used by the local people for bathing and laundering. Godu Hot Spring Located on the bank of a river close to Sina village, spring source is swept away every year by the flood, making it difficult to maintain a pool. Whenever the spring water finds a way out, local people as well as those from neighboring areas including India visit here to get a soak and pray for blessings from Lord Shiva. A couple claimed to give birth to a child after decades of infertility soon after visiting this place. During Dashain festival and Maghe Sankranti, a priest sits on the riverbank close to the spring site with the poster of Lord Mahadev and offers prayer.

3.1  Far Western Nepal

43

3.1.2 Bajhang District Bajhang district is one of the poorest districts in the Far Western development region of Nepal. Chainpur of Jaya Prithvi Municipality is its district headquarters and is situated at the bank of Seti River and Bauli Khola. Till now, trail routes were the only means of transportation for a large area of the district. Consequently, transportation of goods and services from the market centers to the rural areas has been difficult and costly. The district has immense natural attractions including several Himalayas like Saipal, Vyas, Arya, Jethi Bahurani, Nampa, Yoga, Uribhanjyang, Rakshe, Dubai Bhanjyang and Raidhangi Bhanjyang. The other places of tourist importance are Surma Sarovar, Khaptad, Bitthad, Tapoban Jwala, Tapoban Hot spring, Khapar Daha, Rhishikunda (lake), Kailash cave, etc. [3]. Road construction is under way to link the district’s northern part. This will also provide easy access to visit Mansarovar and Mount Kailash in the Autonomous Tibet of China, the religious sites for the Hindus. 3.1.2.1 Tapoban Hot Spring There exists hot springs in the Tapoban area which bears the same name as the neighboring district, Darchula! The Seti River transects the Tapoban area and hot springs on both banks. The springs are located at an elevation of 1277  m, about 5 km east of Chainpur (district headquarters). Hot springs on one side of the river falls within Talkot Rural Municipality ward no. 1 and the other side within Masta Rural Municipality. Locals regard the hot spring sites as a holy place and have constructed temples in the spring premises on both sides. The water is just warm and still worth soaking. The flow rate is also minimal (0.2 l/s). Locals collect the hot water in small ponds for bathing and laundering. Following two hot springs also exist in the district [4]. Chainpur Hot Spring One hot spring is located at Chainpur Rural Development Committee, on the bank of Seti Khola, east of Dau and Maubhire villages. The spring is also accessible only during the summer. No further details are available. Mayana Hot Springs Three little-known hot springs are located at Mayana, near Bauli Gad. The springs are accessible only during the summer. No further details are available.

44

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

3.2 Mid-Western Nepal 3.2.1 Dang District Dang district is located in the Inner Terai (Churiya range) of midwestern Nepal, with Ghorahi as the district headquarters. Ghorahi is the seventh largest city and the largest sub-metropolitan city of Nepal. Tulsipur sub-metropolitan city, the second largest city of Dang, is a major transportation hub with extensive road and air networks. Deukhuri valley of Dang, is the capital of Lumbini province and the second largest valley of Asia; surrounded by Siwalik Hills and Mahabharata Range [5]. Dang district is considered by archeologists as very ancient, being the home for Sivapithecus, a link between man and ape. Hence, extensive studies have taken place since the twentieth century due to discovering ancient fossils of apes and early humans [6]. As well as Sivapithecus, Dang valley is considered to have been inhabited by the indigenous Tharu people; albeit the exact timing of origin is still uncertain. Researchers consider the valley a growing center for the Tharu civilization. Currently, Tharu people comprise one of the prominent indigenous ethnic communities of Nepal. Tharus inhabiting Dang valley are called Dangaura Tharus, and have been able to retain their highly rich and uniquely traditional culture [7]. Despite poorer soil, its healthier climate made it attractive to settlers from outside; even before the introduction of DDT chemical to eradicate malaria. Since the early 1990s activist groups have been attempting to eradicate the practice of child indentured servitude among the Tharu, many of whom sold young daughters to wealthy families in urban areas. 3.2.1.1 Rihar Thermal Spring Mentioned elsewhere as Rior and Riar, in the former reports, the Rihar spring is located in the Deukhuri valley Lamahi rural municipality ward no. 9. Also called Tapta Kunda in Nepali, the spring is located 20 km south-west of Lamahi on its way to Nepalganj and about 1.5 km north of Rapti River. To its south lies the Siwalik formation. Two ponds collect the murky spring water, measuring surface temperature of 33 °C. People pack raw rice in a cloth, dip in the hot pond for cooking and show reverence for Lord Shiva. There is a Bagaar Shiva Temple besides the spring pool. Local people believe that the Bagaar Shiva blesses infertile people with offspring. Thousands of people from the adjoining area visit the spring area and the temple on the day of Maghi Sankranti, including the local ethnic group called Tharus. According to a legend, the Sun meets its son, Saturn, on this day. Hence, this day is observed as the Union Day between father and son. This day also marks the shifting from winter to spring season. The festival starts one day before Sankranti and lasts for a week. An oval shaped heavy stone is one of the main attractions of the festival. There is a belief that only

3.2  Mid-Western Nepal

45

Fig. 3.2  Rihar hot spring – Dang

the pious ones can lift it. Recently a huge pond has been constructed to allow bathing for a large number of people visiting during the festival (Fig. 3.2). 3.2.1.2 Surai Khola Thermal Spring The Surai Khola spring is located on the south of Dang valley and close to the eastern border of the Kapilvastu district. It is 75 m downstream from the bridge on the Mahendra Highway. The rocks in the surrounding area are sandstone, siltstone, and clay, belonging to the middle Siwalik. There are two discharge points in the spring area ranging between 36 and 40 °C situated between cliffs. Emerging natural gasses can also be visualized in the area. A Shiva temple is located close to the spring area and there are a few hotels available in the vicinity.

3.2.2 Dolpa District Dolpa, with Dunai as its district headquarters, is the largest district of Nepal covering 5.36% of the total landmass of the country. Trekking into Dolpa presents an exposure to the high and remote Himalayan valleys, resembling the Tibetan highlands. The notable features of trekking to Lower Dolpa are snowy peaks, ancient and remote villages, rich wildlife, lovely Buddhist monasteries and wonderful lakes. Dolpa district is a labyrinth of wide glacial valleys and ridges. Shey Phoksundo National Park of this district is one of the major national parks of Nepal while its

46

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

part, Shey Phoksundo Lake, is another famous feature of the district. Surrounded by rocks, forests, and snow-capped peaks, the area has been described as one of the world’s “Natural Hidden Wonders”. This district has three hot spring areas [8]. 3.2.2.1 Shahartara Hot Spring Shahartara is the most popular hot spring in Dolpa district. The spring area lies about 15 km north of Dunai, the headquarters of Dolpa district. Source temperature of the spring is 65 °C and is highly sulfurous in nature. Local people have made a cemented pond to collect water from a tap. Since the water is very hot, it draws cold stream water from another cemented pond to make it suitable for bathing and soaking (Fig. 3.3). 3.2.2.2 Rupgadh and Suligad Hot Springs Two more hot spring area of the district are located at Rupgadh and Suligadh. However, there is a lack of information about these springs.

3.2.3 Humla District Humla, the second largest district of Nepal, lies on the southern edge of the Kailash– Manasarovar region, which is located in Pulan County, Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR) of China. Humla, with Simikot as its district headquarters, covers an area of

Fig. 3.3  Sahartara hot spring

3.2  Mid-Western Nepal

47

5655  km2 with a population of 50,858. It is surrounded by Mugu, Bajura, and Bajhang districts in Nepal and Pulan County in Ngari Prefecture, TAR, China. Humla is a gateway to Kailash–Manasarovar and a key stop on the ancient salt trade route that connects communities in the Tibetan Plateau to those in the mountains and lowlands of Nepal and India. Over the centuries, the unique north–south connection between Pulan and Humla has nurtured common cultural, environmental, and socio-economic values. Thousands of Hindu and Buddhist pilgrims make an arduous journey each year to Mount Kailash. Besides being a pilgrimage site, the Kailash–Manasarovar and Humla areas also attract thousands of international tourists interested in nature and cultural tourism each year [9]. The Southern and middle part of the district is inhabited by Khas people, originating from Sinja valley, whereas the North border is mostly inhabited by Tibetans. This district is a historic part of the Tibetan Buddhist religious tradition, with several points of interest for the history, culture, and values of a typical Buddhist life. The Nepal section of The Great Himalaya Trail ends at Hilsa at the border with Tibet [10]. The border crossing at Hilsa is a main entry point for treks going to and coming from the Tibetan holy peak of Mount Kailash. More  than  40,000 Indian pilgrims visit Mansarovar-Kailash via Nepal these days. This influx of people has made the district a place of tourist attraction despite its remote location. Most people used to follow the Kodari Tatopani route to visit Mansarovar until 2015 when the Gorkha Earthquake blocked it. The locals of Humla are experiencing an unexpected rise in income through tourism due to route diversion. 3.2.3.1 Jhang Hot Spring This spring exists near Jhang, high (4000 m +) up in the Limi valley near Limi village. People can enjoy a good wash at the spring outlet itself. A shower tent is erected for everyone to use free of charge. The Limi valley is also referred to as Shangri-la. This valley falls in the trekking route from Simikot to Hilsa (Tibet border) after crossing Nara-la pass. The amazing mountain ranges such as Nalakandad and Saipal stand before you during the trek. Limi is an isolated and very beautiful village (Fig. 3.4). 3.2.3.2 Kermi Hot Spring Sulfurous in nature, the Kermi hot springs are more of a river than anything else. Situated in the Namkha rural municipality, the spring source is just 10-min walk up from Kermi village. Steaming water courses down the mountainside, leaving a vivid coloring on all rocks it touches. This cascade of hot water proves to be one of Earth’s most captivating natural wonders. The source water temperature is above 90 °C. Unfortunately, this spring is still lost in the horizon of the development planners and the local leaders partly due to its remote location, lack of popularization, and investment. Only the locals have been able to utilize this natural bliss by

48

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.4  (Jhang Limi valley) hot spring, 2020

collecting a fraction of the hot river water in a small pool built by themselves. The spring water thus collected at the two pools are ideal for a relaxing soak. The spring water is still waiting for scientific investigation. Local trekkers leave their container with raw rice and egg in the spring water upstream. They soothe their feet in the mixed river water while enjoying spectacular views of the surrounding areas. On their return, they find their food to be completely cooked. The rural municipality has developed a plan to manage the hot spring area with better access and facilities. If this local level plan faces a lack of political commitment in the implementation and budgetary problems, it should not be taken as an exception because it is a persistent problem everywhere in Nepal (Figs.  3.5, 3.6 and 3.7). Unlike many other important hot springs in Nepal, The Kermi hot spring site holds a prospect of good tourism since it is located in the Namkha Rural Municipality in the most North-west part of Humla District and its close proximity to Tibet (China) in North and West. It lies in the famous trekking route from Simikot to Limi, Muchu and Yalwang. The municipality and the region surrounding it is rich and unique in natural and cultural heritage, with a high potential of transforming into a hub for cultural and eco-tourism. The Kermi village boasts of having Laikyo Monastery and Lhundrup Choling Monastery, which has been preserved for centuries. Likewise, Namkha Khyung Dzong monastery of the Yalbang village is another notable monastery just 2 h walk from Kermi village. Along with about 130 monks, this monastery also operates a school and a health clinic. To date, no plan seems to exist to harness the huge natural hot water resource available in this municipality. A road connection to Kermi spring site is what can change the fate of the municipality itself. A standard swimming pool using the spring water, restaurants and accommodation facilities can attract thousands of tourists every year like the Svartsengi-based Blue Lagoon of Iceland. Investment in infrastructure development can yield substantial monetary gain in a short period. It

3.2  Mid-Western Nepal

49

Fig. 3.5  Kermi hot spring, Humla. (Source: Himmat Singh Lekali 2014)

can also offer employment opportunities to a great number of local people who are currently obliged to migrate to India in search of labor jobs for survival. The high temperature of spring water makes it viable for a health spa that would greatly lengthen the tourist stay as well. Construction of a water park can greatly add economic importance to the locals as well as the tourists. During winter when there is no possibility of farming, food products are air-lifted from Nepalganj to Simikot to meet the needs of almost the entire district, thereby raising the price multi-fold. Greenhouse farming with the use of this abundant hot natural water can greatly enhance the supply of fruits and vegetables for the district itself. Cascaded use of this hot water also makes space heating and fish farming possible. Given the flow rate and the water temperature, this spring water is one of the three viable geothermal sources in Nepal which can be used to generate electricity in the villages that are not connected to the national electricity grid. However, the surface water needs to be tapped with the solar-geothermal Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) technology to increase the temperature between 120 and 150 °C. Alternatively, the water drilled from a few 100 m depth can be used directly to run a turbine to

50

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.6  Local kids enjoying at the Kermi hot spring pool, 2014

Fig. 3.7  Kermi hot water collecting chamber

3.2  Mid-Western Nepal

51

generate electricity at an economically feasible price. For this, the first step would be to determine the subsurface temperature based on chemical data and establish a logging of temperature at different depths. With the availability of surplus hydroelectricity in the country, a comparative economic study between the cost of extending transmission lines to the area and harnessing electricity from geothermal resources also need to be conducted. A Visit to Kermi Hot Spring: Choosing an Easy or Adventurous Route? Until the recent past, Kermi village was accessible only to the adventurous travelers who can fight through the stinging nettle bushes in the hot, humid, post-monsoon afternoon. However, a much easier and alternate way exists today. The starting point is Simikot (some call it Simkot), a scenic 50-min flight from Kathmandu to Nepalganj followed by a 45-min flight from Nepalganj. People embarking upon the Limi Valley trek start from Simikot which follows the ancient salt trading and pilgrimage route towards the frontiers of Nepal and China. Local vehicle transport is available from Simikot to Chyasara. A 2 h walk from there leads to Kermi village. Alternately, if you are heading from Hilsa (which can be reached by flight from the nearest airport – Nepalganj or Surkhet –, via chartered helicopter flights) to the east, local vehicle is available up to Yalbang, from where a 2 h walk takes you to Kermi village. The hot spring lies just 10 min walk up from this village. However, for a traveler interested in enjoying the mesmerizing natural beauty, the trekking route is strongly advised. A local jeep from Simikot and a few hours’ walk leads to Dharkermi village where the travelers can have a good rest in the tents made available to guests. Enjoying walking or riding a horse is your choice to reach Thanwarma Kermi village which offers good local food and lodges at an affordable price. En route to this village lies a number of astounding waterfalls, the Chyasara Waterfall being the prominent one. To pass up this waterfall would be a true rookie mistake. The Kermi village is just a few hours walk from Thanwarma village of Kermi rural municipality. Thanwarma is the entry point to Limi Valley via Halji village where a majestic Halji monastery awaits visitors. One can also get there enjoying a horse ride. Most people follow Limi – Lapcha trail to get to Mansarowar Lake and Mt. Kailash, a pilgrimage to millions of Nepalese and Indian visitors every year (Figs. 3.8, 3.9, 3.10 and 3.11). 3.2.3.3 Kharpu Hot Spring Kharpu hot spring is one of the most popular springs of Humla district. It is located at Kharpunath Rural Municipality ward no. 4. Around Kharpunath, hot water sources like Agnikunda, Dudhkunda, and Raktakunda exist that are considered to have high religious significance – ‘kunda’ meaning pool in Nepali language [11]. People from surrounding villages including Rahdev Phucha, Durpa, Thehe visit this spring mainly during winter season [12].

52

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.8  Hot springs along trekking route in Limi valley. (Modified after https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Namkha_Rural_Municipality)

Fig. 3.9  Chyasara Waterfall on way to Kermi hot spring from Simikot. (Source: https://namkhamun.gov.np)

3.2  Mid-Western Nepal

53

Fig. 3.10 Hotel and lodge at Thangwarma, Kermi, Humla. (Source: Nepal Television, Documentary on Travel to Humla, 2018)

Fig. 3.11  Trail to Limi – Lapcha, Humla district en route to Mansarowar Lake and Mt. Kailash. (Source: Nepal Television, Documentary on Travel to Humla, 2018)

54

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

3.2.3.4 Unapani Hot Spring This is one of the popular hot springs of the district for its central location. It lies in the Sarkegad rural municipality – Unapani village ward no. 3. Due to heavy snowfall during winter, people find it difficult to have a bath anywhere and the only option for them is to have a soak in this hot spring pool, locally known as ‘tappan’. People from all seven rural municipalities throng this site during winter by walking for 2 or 3 days. Most of them normally carry staple food enough to sustain their stay for several weeks. Tents are arranged for free in the vicinity of this spring site [13]. Unlike many other thermal sites in Nepal, Unapani spring has a distinct recognition as a place where the age-long hydrotherapy service has been provided to sick people. Their numbers peak during two periods of the year, April–May and November–December. They take regular baths 2–3 times a day in the spring pool. The ‘patients’ are also provided healthy food as a supplement along with body massage using locally produced organic oils. Some 2000 or 3000 domestic and foreign tourists visited this spring for a soak in 2020. Apart from bathing and laundering purposes, people flock to this spring from dawn to dusk to get relief from cold weather, arthritis, and skin problems. Due to the popularity, this site is rarely missed by hikers passing through (Fig. 3.12). Humla district has Chagzur hot spring in the famous Limi Valley trekking route, Darbi at Chankheli rural municipality and several other locations like Tile, Kurap, Takchi, Yangar, Yalwang, Khagal village, Kholsi, Khaloi, Kudilla, Salisalla [14]. Despite its remoteness, the Unapani area offers many natural sights including a

Fig. 3.12  Unapani hot spring. (Source: Rajan Raut, gorkhapatraonline.com 3 March 2021)

3.2  Mid-Western Nepal

55

waterfall which is generating 12  kW electricity services to more than 200 households.

3.2.4 Jumla District Jumla is known for cultivating unique rice and their apples are grown at the highest elevation in the world. Jumli Marshi, a Japonica variety of indigenous rice, having cold tolerant gene, was probably cultivated 1300 years ago in Jumla on the bank of Tila River. The Tila Valley as well as the Sinja Khola Valley are covered with paddy fields growing the ‘Kali Marshi’ rice variety, a unique red rice that is sought after for its special taste. This district, with headquarters Khalanga, is the usual starting point for treks to Rara Lake. The Nepali language (then known as Khas language) originated in the Sinja Valley. Sinja was the capital of Khas Kingdom, and the dialect called “Khas Bhasa” is still spoken among that region’s people. The district has a lot of snowy mountains, valleys, and places of scenic beauty as attractions to the tourists [15]. 3.2.4.1 Jarmi – Tila Thermal Spring There are some thermal locations in Nepal where the name of the village municipality itself is given after Tatopani (hot water). Tatopani Rural Municipality of Jumla is one of them. Under this municipality falls four village development Committees, one being Tatopani itself. Initially reported as Tila Nadi Tatopani, this hot spring is located in Jarmi village ward no. 2. There are seven closely located hot springs on the right bank of Tila Nadi (river), below Tatopani village about 11 km northeast of Khalanga bazaar. On the way, one should not miss the splendid view at Dhaulapani. The spring water temperature varies between 36 and 42 °C. Gas seepage occurs in some of them in recent deposits of gravel and boulders with sandy-silty clay. This hot spring has been a welcoming respite for rheumatism and joint-related patients in remote Karnali zone for years. In December, a large number of people from Dolpa, Kalikot, Surkhet, Mugu, and sometimes from far districts like Bajura, Achham, Dailekh, and Jajarkot visit here. Nearly 500 visitors flock here mostly during dry and winter seasons. Medicinal baths in this spring water are believed to be especially effective. Before the construction of the road leading to the spring site, people used to walk for more than a week to take a bath in the spring. Indian tourists visiting Jumla seldom miss the opportunity to enjoy the hot water of this area. Infrastructure improvements are still underway, with financial support generated from the meager entrance fee of Rs. 20 for people visiting from other areas. A recently built stone trail leads down to a small hot water pool from the Tatopani village where a few hotels and lodges are available. This small hot water pool is often a playground for the kids. A few taps have been added by its side with an open

56

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.13  Excursion tour of Singa Hot Spring Management Committee members of Myagdi to Jarmi hot spring, Jumla 2018. (Source: Kumar KC)

partition wall allowing male and females to have shower separately. One of the greatest advantages of this spring area is that it is accessible by the gravel road from the district headquarters. According to a legend, Lathankrirti Baikelo, a progenitor of black rice, was a very popular and powerful person of the area and he thrust his knee to erupt hot spring water from that place which is still continuing (Figs. 3.13, 3.14 and 3.15). 3.2.4.2 Dhanchauri – Luma Hot Spring This spring is located at Chaudhabesi Khola between Lamri and Bhotgaon villages. Temperature of this thermal site is just 24 °C with a flow rate of 0.6 l/s. The water has a rich chloride content of 80 ppm. However, the quartz geothermometer indicates the underground water is as hot as 120 °C, indicating a heavy mix up of the groundwater with cold water in its way up to the surface [16]. Because of its mild temperature, it is not so common to the people outside the area. Here, the spring emerges from the light-gray platy dolomite and is characterized by a thick tuffaceous deposit consisting of carbonate and silica. Three major hot springs are located here. Detailed information is not yet available.

3.2  Mid-Western Nepal Fig. 3.14  Main pool, 2018. (Source: Himalayan Guest House, Singa, Myagdi, 2018)

Fig. 3.15  Main pool, 2018

57

58

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

3.2.4.3 Sanar Hot Spring Sanar village has yet another hot spring. Hot water is collected in three ponds. The bottom of two ponds is of clay while the main pond has paved stones. Women can use the hot water on Wednesdays and Thursdays.

3.2.5 Mugu District Mugu is the least developed and remote district of Nepal with a population of 55,286 as per census 2011. The majority of the district, with its headquarters Gamgadhi, lies in the rain shadow of the Dhaulagiri and Annapurna Himalayan ranges and is very arid. Nepal’s largest Rara Lake, situated at an elevation of 2990 m, has been the attraction for many domestic and international tourists. The elevation varies from 1201 m to 6717 m from mean sea level. The district temperatures vary from 0 to 30 °C. Only 5% of total areas are cultivable, hence the majority of the households face acute food shortages for a large part of the year. Mugu District Coordination Committee is divided into four broad geographical areas; Khatyad, Gam, Karan and Soru area. The district has only one urban municipality (Chhayanath Rara) and three rural municipalities [17]. 3.2.5.1 Ruwa – Bhusekuna Hot Spring This spring is located at Ruwa village ward no. 13 of Chhayanath Rara Municipality, just 3 km away from Gamgadhi, the district headquarters. Besides the local people, this spring is visited by those from adjoining villages like Tharp, Ima, Nigale, Hennikandh, Shreenagar, Bhambada etc. On Saturdays, the tap hot spring attracts some 200 people. Like in many hot spring sites, the locals use the spring water to get rid of skin diseases, high blood pressure, body ailments etc. Lack of health facilities has also led the people to take utmost advantage of the hot water [18]. 3.2.5.2 Jima – Kulaha Hot Spring This spring is located in Jima village ward no. 5 of Soru Rural Municipality and is popularly known as Soru hot spring – 27 km away from Gamgadhi and just 2 km away from the nearest bus station. The spring water is mostly enjoyed by the local people. During winter, the river and tap waters are frozen. A lot of people from the surrounding villages Nathapu, Kalai, Rara, Shipa, Dhainkot, Purumuru, Sip Khyalp, Rara Gilaha throng the hot spring to have baths. People enjoy bathing in the hot water while engaging in Deuda which is a Nepali genre of song and dance presented in the far western and mid-western region of Nepal during various festivals. It is performed by a group of male and females

3.2  Mid-Western Nepal

59

without any musical instrument. Both males and females join their hands and legs and move around by singing Deuda song. 3.2.5.3 Kachiyakot Hot Spring Just a few meters below the Ruwa hot spring site lies another hot spring at Kachiyakot on the bank of Karnali River. Water temperature here ranges between 40 and 45 °C. While taking a bath here, one can experience a spectacular feeling of fresh cold splash of this river water on the back, providing a unique contrasting feeling of body temperature – also practiced in some countries in the form of contrast therapy (Fig. 3.16). 3.2.5.4 Purumuru – Tatopani Gufa It is located at Soru Rural Municipality ward no. 6, Shipa village, south-west of Jima, Kulaha. It is 2 h drive and half an hour walk from the district headquarters, Gamgadhi. On the full moon day of Paush (December–January), a festival takes place in the spring premises. People from neighboring villages throng for a bath and enjoy spending the night performing Deuda dance. Locals visit this spring to cure skin rashes, arthritis, and gastric problems. Hot water temperature ranges between 35 and 40 °C. Two taps with a partition wall have been serving the local people with a shower. A dress change facility is also available. There are several sources of hot water emitting on the riverbank where the locals enjoy with a soak rather than having a shower (Fig. 3.17).

Fig. 3.16  People enjoying soak on the river bank at Kachiyakot village

60

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.17  Tatopani Gufa spring, Mugu

3.2.6 Eastern Rukum District Eastern Rukum is a mountain district located in the Lumbini Province of Nepal with Rukumkot as the interim headquarters. Formerly, Eastern Rukum District was part of Rukum District, which was split into two districts, Western Rukum and Eastern Rukum, after the state’s reconstruction in 2015. The district contains over 60% of Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve in the western section of Dhaulagiri mountain range. It is also the only mountain-district of the province with its tallest mountain Putha Hiunchuli (Dhaulagiri VII) at an elevation of 7246  m. Eastern Rukum has been included as one of “Nepal’s top 100 travel destinations” by the Government of Nepal [19]. The district is known for its lakes and 53 hills. With 5,200,000 in Rukumkot alone, the district has a substantial quantity of water bodies and rivers in proportion to its size. Among many lakes, Rukilometersini Lake has been the centerpiece in the district. During the centuries long Shah Dynasty and Rana Dynasty rule of Nepal, numerous young women of this region were made Queens and wives of the dynasties through royal marriages, locally known as “Dola Palne” tradition. The district became the heartland of Nepalese Civil War (Maoist revolution) for its people against land inequality, ethnic inequality, feudalism and aristocracy from 1996 until 2006, ultimately resulting in the end of the 240 year old Shah Monarchy and turning the country into a democratic Federal Republic. A Guerilla trekking route has also been developed in the district as an adventure tourism following the past trails of the Maoist rebels in the base of Himalayas providing experiences of scenic landscapes, Dhaulagiri mountain ranges, and rich Kham Magar culture [20]. In this culture, a peculiar form of land worship takes the form of a folk dance locally known as Bhume Naach (Earth dance) which is performed around a fire, representing Earth as a mother and protector. The dance normally takes place from mid-May to mid-June. The geometrical pattern of this dance

3.2  Mid-Western Nepal

61

has men dancing in the center and women dancers enveloping them – the outer circle of women symbolizing the mother and protection to the community. Twenty-two steps per song are performed in harmony, conveying a message of gratitude to Earth as a source of protection [21]. There are eight hot springs in the district. Little is known about the five springs in Jharlung, ward no. 2 (Ranmamaikot), Rala of ward no. 2, Okhma of ward no. 13, Pelma and Birgum due to lack of publicity through media at all levels. During winter, people from Rolpa, Baglung, Pyuthan, Salyan and Rukum West districts visit these hot springs for bathing and spa. Even the limited local articles carry very general and brief information. All these spring sources are also located along the stretches of Sanibheri River [22]. 3.2.6.1 Dimurgaira Hot Spring This is one of the six hot springs under Putha Uttarganga Rural Municipality of the district. It is located at ward no. 6 along the stretches of Sanibheri River. The temperature of hot springs emerging from several points on the bank varies between 50 and 60 °C. A partition wall has been built for the pools for male and females, but when the flow of people is low during certain times of the year, they enjoy taking a bath in a single pool. Taps are also fitted to have a shower facility. The spring water has been serving people from the adjoining villages to treat ailments from chronic arthritis, gastrointestinal problems, piles, physical injury, back pain, and skin rashes. People from adjoining districts also flock to this area for a holy bath on the Maghesankranti day (first day of the month Magh). People believe that a bath taken here in the dawn before speaking to anybody relieves them from any sin they have accumulated and also their physical ailments like back pain, arthritis, skin diseases etc. There is the Pathibhara temple above the pond. Many people also believe that Goddess Pathibhara blesses them for a holy bath in the spring water emanating from the temple. Local people also offer prayer on the full moon day in the month of Falgun (February) every year [23] (Fig. 3.18). This spring location can be accessed through a 1-h jeep ride or and 3 h walk from Taksera village (once known for the cultivation of marijuana). A local standard homestay facility is also available. People can also enjoy cold water bath from a nearby waterfall while enjoying its beauty. Four taps have been installed for bathing and laundering purposes, one pond for soaking with the financial support of four million rupees from the Provincial government in 2020. A gravel road has also been expanded from Dimur village to the hot spring site. 3.2.6.2 Maikot Hot Spring This spring is also located on the bank of Sani Bheri River, just 20-min walk down from Dimmurgaira and close to Maikot village, Putha Uttarganga Rural Municipality ward no. 6. Water temperature ranges between 60 and 70 °C at the source. Locals

62

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.18  Local kids dipping in Dimurgaira hot spring river

Fig. 3.19  Maikot hot spring, East Rukum

mix it with cold water from a nearby stream to make it suitable for a soak. Since 2020, the site management committee is able to draw financial assistance of up to six million rupees from the Provincial government to construct a pond and protect the source from being washed away by monsoon flood. Gabion walls are constructed in some parts along with a toilet. Knowing its special healing properties, people from Rolpa, Dang, Pyuthan, Butwal and Nepalganj districts visit this site, and some of them on a regular basis to cure skin disease and arthritis. Besides these, three other sources of hot springs exist in the Putha Uttarganga Rural Municipality of the district (Fig. 3.19).

3.2  Mid-Western Nepal

63

3.2.6.3 Sisne Hot Spring The spring is located near Dhaune village at Sisne village municipality ward no. 4 on the bank of Sanibheri River. The spring area was managed in the late 2020s by the local municipality. The area is still full of stone boulders, the water temperature is 60 °C, and sulfur gas can be smelt from a distance. Thousands of people from the surrounding area gather here as early as 4 o’clock to take a bath on the full moon day of Magh and enjoy the entire day. Shamans used to take part in this festival in the past, but the local people are trying to revive the tradition. People suffering from arthritis and skin diseases take a regular dip. Recent construction of a bridge over the Sanibheri River has eased people from adjoining areas to take the benefits from this hot spring [24] (Fig. 3.20). 3.2.6.4 Pokhara Hot Spring This is the most popular hot spring of the district since it is in close proximity to the district headquarters. It lies in Sisne Rural Municipality. People from the adjoining villages and other districts visit here for a bath in this spring water on the first day of Magh. Even though the spring temperature is about 50 °C, due to poor infrastructure and other facilities, very few people visit this place at other times. Like in Dimmurgaira hot spring, people believe that a bath taken here in the dawn before speaking to anybody relieves them from any sin they have accumulated and also their physical ailments like back pain, arthritis, skin diseases etc. [25]. There is a report of the existence of Khara hot spring in a rural municipality.

Fig. 3.20  Sisne hot spring

64

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

3.2.7 Surkhet District 3.2.7.1 Bulbule Tal Hot Spring Surkhet district’s iconic lake, Bulbule Taal, is the country’s largest hot water body that appears in the form of a lake spanning a 30 km2 area. The sheer force of rising bubbles of hot water is what makes Bulbule Taal a tourist must-see. Indigenous people used this natural hot spring for centuries. The spring water has been pipe-­ delivered to a village south of the lake for drinking. Despite its span over an area of 12,000 m2, it holds an ability to maintain a temperature between 32 and 36 °C all year round. Attraction to this hot water lake is also favored by its location within the extremely beautiful and well-managed Bulbule Park of Latikoili Village Development Committee. The artistic waterspouts, beautiful flowers, ornamental plants, Siddha Paila, Lande and walk-around space, and its proximity to Surkhet bus station (500 m), are the major features that prompts about 300 domestic and foreign tourists to visit daily. The park management offers boating and fishing facilities and organizes cultural programs to make the visitor’s stay memorable. The park garden has also inspired many poets and singers to flourish their creativity. One of the popular songs entitled “Surkhet Bulbule taal, maya mai saying humble chatty maya jails” has provided an identity as a place of tourist destination [26]. With a joint investment of the federal and provincial governments under the Greater Bulbule Area Expansion Project, this iconic pond is all set to expand to 28,500 m2 to accommodate 10 picnic spots and enhance boat operation. So far 20 million rupees has been spent on the lake expansion [27] (Figs. 3.21 and 3.22).

Fig. 3.21  Bulbule Taal, 2020

3.3  Western Development Region

65

Fig. 3.22  Hot water spout bath at Bulbule Taal, 2020

3.3 Western Development Region 3.3.1 Hot Springs in the Annapurna Circuit Annapurna is a massif in the Himalayas in north-central Nepal that includes one peak over 8000 m (26,247 ft), 13 peaks over 7000 m (22,966 ft), and 16 more over 6000 m (19,685 ft) [28]. The massif is 55 km long. The entire massif and surrounding area are protected within the 7629-km2 Annapurna Conservation Area, the first and largest conservation area in Nepal. This area is home to several world-­class treks, including Annapurna Sanctuary and Annapurna Circuit. Etymology has it that the mountain is named after Annapurna, the Hindu goddess of food and nourishment, who is said to reside there. The name Annapurna is derived from the Sanskrit-language words anna (“food”) and purna (“filled”), and it can be translated as “everlasting food” [29]. Many streams descending from the slopes of the Annapurna Massif provide water for the agricultural fields and pastures located at lower elevations. Annapurna Circuit has often been voted as the best long-distance trek in the world, as it provides a wonderful combination of trekking routes within the Annapurna mountain range along with a cultural variety from Hindu villages at the low foothills to the Tibetan culture of Manang Valley and lower Mustang. The Circuit trek crosses two different river valleys and encircles the Annapurna Massif. The path reaches its highest point at Thorung La pass (5416 m), touching the edge of the Tibetan plateau. With this, Mustang has become one of the world’s most popular mountain biking destinations. This Circuit covers five districts namely Kaski, Lamjung, Manang, Mustang and Myagdi, all blessed with gorgeous and picturesque hot springs. These bring the trekkers and travelers a sense of relief and refreshing change in the heat and dust of the adventurous journey (Figs. 3.23 and 3.24).

66

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.23  View of Annapurna massif near Manang

Fig. 3.24  Hot springs in the Annapurna Circuit. (Modified after including hot spring locations in the trek route at https://himalayaguidenepal.com/annapurna-­circuit-­trek/)

3.3  Western Development Region

67

3.3.2 Gorkha District Gorkha is the fourth largest district (by area) of Nepal and connected historically with the creation of modern Nepal and the name of the legendary Gorkha soldiers. This district contains more than 40 mountains of the three major mountain ranges Manasalu, Annapurna and Ganesh Himal. Gorkha is one of the potential tourist destinations of Nepal. It is very close to Kathmandu and other popular tourist destinations such as Pokhara and Chitwan. It is also linked with the national highway. The district headquarter is Gorkha, the same name of the district itself, and it falls under the Gorkha Municipality. Gorkha is a picturesque hill town as well as one of the districts of Nepal that has a rich history of its own. It is situated on a small mountain at the height of 3500 ft and offers a magnificent view of the Himalayan Peaks [30]. Gorkha was the epicenter of the earthquake on April 25, 2015 (7.8 Richter scale) in Nepal that damaged or destroyed the tourism products and tourism activities. Gorkha Durbar, erected in the sixteenth century, is one of the major places of attraction. It is a fort, palace and temple – all in one. It is regarded by many as the crowning glory of Newari architecture. The temple-palace is perched high above Gorkha on a knife-edge ridge, with superb views over the Trisuli Valley and has magnificent panoramas of the soaring peaks of the Annapurna, Manaslu and Ganesh Himalaya. On a beautiful ridge south-east of the township of Gorkha lies the holy temple of Manakamana, the holy goddess of aspirations. This temple is thought to be one of the manifestations of the Hindu goddesses Bhagwati. Manakamana Cable Car is the first cable car in Nepal. It is situated on a prominent ridge overlooking the river valley of Trishuli and connects to the Manakamana Temple from Darechok, Chitwan. 3.3.2.1 Arughat Hot Spring This hot spring lies just south of the town of Arughat. Here, the spring has been channeled into a public bath. Next to this bath are two small buildings which, over the centuries, were used as Buddhist and then Hindu shrines. 3.3.2.2 Bhulbhulekhar Hot Spring It is a unique spring area located in a flat land at Palungtar Municipality ward no. 1, in the Budhi Gandaki Valley just 19  km away from the district headquarter. Bhulbhulekhar spring lies very close to the bank of Marsyangdi River. The name of this locality should not be confused with ‘Bhulbhule’ that also lies on the bank of Marsyagdi River in Lamjung district at an elevation of 8401 m below Bahundanda. The spring water measuring 24 °C oozes out at several places with a sulfur smell. It is saline in nature and hence takes its name from – ‘bhulbhul’ in Nepali language means ‘ooze out’ and ‘khar’ means salt. The hot water was first detected in 1949 (2006 Bikram Sambat) and a few years later, local people constructed a pool with taps for showers. However, the massive earthquake of 1972 almost converted the walls of the pool into debris. It has been waiting for support from the local and

68

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

central government for its renovation since then. However, driven by the development of neighboring hot spring sites, the locals are conducting a fund-raising program to develop it as a tourist destination. In its vicinity exists a small pool which channels hot spring water through three taps. The locals use this sulfur-rich spring water as a laboratory to test the purity of some precious metals because the sulfurous hot water colors gold to bluish tint and silver to yellow color (Figs. 3.25 and 3.26).

Fig. 3.25  Bhulbhulekhar hot spring (2019)

Fig. 3.26  Bhulbhulekhar hot spring (2019)

3.3  Western Development Region

69

3.3.2.3 Khoplang Hot Spring This spring is located in Palungtar Municipality ward no. 1 of Gorkha district, less than 500 m from the main road. The water tastes salty, and the locals are known to have benefited from this water to treat skin diseases for a long time. A stone sculpture carved by a foreign national can be found near the spring in memory of their prolonged stay at the site to cure their ailments including skin diseases. Plans are underway to improve the infrastructure of this area by the local municipality. A conservation committee has been formed to approach all the three tiers of the government administrative system for funding. Locals are also making efforts to make it a destination of domestic and foreign visitors [31] (Fig. 3.27). Machha Khola – Uhiya hot spring is located in the Budhi Gandaki Valley and the surface temperature is 59.8 °C. 3.3.2.4 Tatopani – Khorla Besi The name of this hot spring ‘Tatopani’ literally means ‘hot water’. As a reference, Khorla Besi is tagged to it in order to locate it easily. This spring lies by the side of Budhi Gandaki River, north of Khorla Besi en route to Dobhan village. Local people use the water to treat various skin diseases. They also believe that one can fulfill their wishes by taking a bath here. During a certain period of Magh (December and January), people celebrate in the spring site and pray to ‘Tatopani Mai’ (Goddess Hot Spring) for 6 days.

Fig. 3.27  Khoplang hot spring

70

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

3.3.3 Kaski District Kaski district lies at the centroid point of Nepal. The district headquarters, Pokhara, is one of the best tourist destinations in the world. The district covers parts of the Annapurna mountain range, and the picturesque scene of the mountains can be observed from most parts of the district. The district is full of rivers such as Seti Gandaki, Modi, and Madi along with other rivulets. The district is known for the Himalayan range with about 11 Himalayas higher than 7000 m. The nearby peaks include Machhapuchhre (Virgin Peak  – 6993  m). The Annapurna Range in the northern side is always full of snow. The scenery of northern mountains, gorge of Seti River, Davis Falls, and natural caves are the famous natural resources of the district. Phewa Lake is a tourism destination in Nepal and the second biggest lake of Nepal with an area of 4.43 km2 and a perimeter of 18 km. The other two lakes of attraction are Begnas Lake and Rupa Lake [32, 33]. 3.3.3.1 Chhomrong Hot Spring This spring is located in the Chhomrong village in the Annapurna area of Nepal and is a famous night stopover for those going to the Annapurna sanctuary trek. In the dawn, one can enjoy the outstanding scenery of the Himalayas: Hiunchuli, Machupachare, and Annapurna from this village. There is no road leading to the hilltop where this village is located. However, the obligation to walk is marred by the beautiful sceneries along the way. During this short journey, one can also fulfill the trekking necessities. The spring water is quite hot (48  °C) with a moderate flow rate of 0.9  l/s. Besides the local people, many travelers enjoy this spring water to refresh their body and mind. 3.3.3.2 Jhinu Hot Spring The name of this spring is derived from a hilltop (danda in Nepali) known as Jhinu Danda which can be accessed through a stiff climb north of the lower part of the Khumnu/Kimrong Khola, (local name Kladi Khola). The Danda is within a small but very beautiful village called Ghandruk, ward no. 11 of Annapurna Village Development Committee. It is located along a much-frequented trekking route near Chhomrong en route to Ghorepani Poonhill and Annapurna Base Camp (ABC). A number of quality guest houses offer western menus. A hike steeply down from this Danda for 30 min through a narrow lush forest rich with flora and fauna leads to this hot spring on the bank of the powerful Modi River. The spring water is moderately hot (35 °C). This therapeutic hot water pool is serving as a source of relaxation to the foreign trekkers and the local people while enjoying magnificent views of the river. Some foreign visitors also coined the term, ‘Jap quality hot spring’ as a compliment because it is clean and well maintained,

3.3  Western Development Region

71

similar to those in Japan. Some feel lucky to experience this unspoiled place, especially at dusk when they use candles for light which creates a special atmosphere. Depending on the time of year and amount of water in the river, some people even climb out of the hot pools and dip in the icy water of the river and quickly scramble back into the hot pools to feel the exhilarating rush of heat filling the body – also a type of contrast therapy popularly used in some countries. Visitors can then head back for dinner and a peaceful night sleep. Some find this so refreshing that they return to this hot spring in the early morning for a bath. Normally, travelers come to this place before heading to Pokhara while trekking from the north. Recently, two more pools, one big and small, have been added just below the main pool. These new pools are lying adjacent to each other with hot water taps in between. A retention wall has been built to prevent frequent damages to all these spring pools from floods and landslides. The Shree Tauji Barah Tatopani Conservation Committee charges a nominal entrance fee from the visitors to maintain the pool. During Sri Panchami festival (the day marking the departure of winter season), locals bathe in the hot spring pool and sacrifice animals in the Shiva temple nearby (Figs. 3.28, 3.29 and 3.30).

Fig. 3.28  Jhinu Tatopani (Jhinu Tatopani near Jhinu Danda, Annapurna Circuit)

Fig. 3.29  Bathing in the hot springs at Jhinu Danda. (Source: Anna, Nepalorama Trekking, February 2019 (https://nepaloramatrekking.com/hot-­springs-­jhinu-­danda/))

Fig. 3.30  Showering in the hot springs taps at Jhinu Danda. (Source: Anna, Nepalorama Trekking, February 2019 (https://nepaloramatrekking.com/hot-­springs-­jhinu-­danda/))

3.3  Western Development Region

73

3.3.3.3 Kharpani Hot Spring This hot spring lies in Sardikhola village committee on the bank of Seti River and close to Bhurjunkhola bridge at Banjhokhet. Some reports have also mentioned this spring as Sardi Khola hot spring. It is en route to the famous Sikles trek about 20 km away and accessible from Pokhara by bus in an hour. The area falls in the Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP) and the Machhapuchchhre Model Trek route also starts from here. The water is saline in taste, hence the name khar pani, meaning salty water. Local people take baths in these ponds with the belief that these waters possess medicinal value as many people have reported being cured from physical ailments including constipation, joint pains and skin diseases. People observe the festival on Maghe Shankranti day (the coldest day of the year, that usually falls in the mid January). Especially pregnant women who have abnormalities come to bathe. It is believed that abnormalities will get healed when a person takes a bath, consumes chicken meat and Jhinuwa rice and sleeps covering oneself with a blanket until they sweat. Locals here feel that the site is mismanaged. The ponds are small and uncomfortable. Bathing in these ponds are scheduled alternatively for males and females as ladies feel very uncomfortable to share the same pond with men. As with some other locations, some people are still using soap on their bodies and washing it off into the pond! A management committee oversees the pool water and raises small amounts of money for repair and maintenance. However, bathrooms are not still in place to wash off the body with the fresh river water after a dip in the hot pool. Three ponds of hot water used to be the main attraction until a flash flood in the Seti River in May 2012 left the small settlement at Kharpani area in ruins. Landslides following rainfall had apparently blocked the river at an altitude of around 4600 m. The huge mass of blocked water, accumulated also from the melting of ice due to rising temperatures, burst through the temporary barrier in May 2012, resulting in the flash flood. Eight houses in the village, which is a popular tourist destination located around 18 km from Pokhara, were destroyed by the sudden flood and the area, normally bustling with domestic and foreign tourists and revelers, was littered with debris. A 25-m high suspension bridge joining Machhapuchchhre and Sardikhola Village Development Committee (VDC) was also destroyed by the flood. Students on picnics, people going to take a dip in the hot spring, tourists and laborers excavating stones were the hardest hit. More than 27 persons were killed in the incident [34]. After the deadly incident, the hot water source disappeared for 2 years and the locals dug the area to some depth to regain it. Attempts were made to reestablish the pools with little success as the area is swept away by the annual flood in Seti River. The beautiful waterfall in the Kharpani village evades everyone due to the lack of publicity. The waterfall site can be accessed from multiple directions. 3.3.3.4 Machhapuchhre Hot Spring It is located at the Machhapuchhre base camp. Besides the locals, people trekking the base camp take a dip in this hot spring measuring 64 °C at the source. Cold water from a pipe is mixed to make the sizzling hot water pleasant for a soak (Fig. 3.31).

74

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.31  Machhapuchhre hot spring. (Source: Prabodh) (Source: https://journeytohotspringsinmidwesternnepal.wordpress.com)

3.3.3.5 Sadhu Khola Hot Spring This spring lies on the bank of Sadhu Khola between Ghandruk and Pokhara. From Ghandruk village, a trail descends through terraced fields at Kilu, onto a suspension bridge over the Sadhu Khola where this hot spring is located, finally arriving alongside Midim Khola in Shyauli Bazaar. This is an ideal stop over to refresh and take a meal during trekking. Water temperature of the spring is 69 °C, one of the hottest springs recorded in Nepal. It has a flow rate of 1.3  l/s. The subsurface temperature of this spring is 115.3 °C as determined by the geothermometer [16].

3.3.4 Lamjung District Lamjung, with Besisahar as its district headquarters, lies in the mid-hills of Nepal spanning tropical to trans-Himalayan geo-ecological belts. It is host to probably the highest density of the Gurung ethnic population in the country. The epi-center of an earthquake on 25 April 2015 was very close to this district. As a result, it suffered a massive loss of life and properties.

3.3  Western Development Region

75

The district is known for the provision of ‘Homestay’ facilities in a number of villages, the most popular one being the Kaulepani village. Likewise, the Ghale village is popular as the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation model village for its management and attractions for the tourists. The village is a vantage point for viewing Langtang Mountain, Annapurna Mountain, Manaslu Mountain range and sunrise [35]. 3.3.4.1 Bahundanda Hot Spring Located 20 km north of Besisahar (district headquarters) Bahundanda Development Committee ward number 4. Motorable road exits from Besisahar to Khudi village and Bhulbhulekhar (another geothermal site) up to Arkhale Besi. Once the Marsyandi River is passed, a hectic and lengthy (about 600 m) trail in the plain area leads to the spring site. This hot spring itself is a sulfurous orange pool above the frosty waters of the Marsyangdi River that boiled around house-sized boulders 100 m below. This is one of the two hot spring sources of Nepal that has source temperature of above 95 °C (Figs. 3.32 and 3.33). A long trail amidst lush greenery slope from the hilltop leads to this spring pool. The trail is now in a dilapidated condition. Traveling this trail during the rainy season is not so easy as one has to struggle with the tapeworms and the stinging nettles! A cemented pool is in place to accommodate about 50 people. Only the locals and

Fig. 3.32  Boiling water source of Bahundanda hot spring

76

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.33  Boiling water channeled to the pool at Bahundanda close to the bank of Marshyangdi River

some people from Khadi and Sinapani villages used to visit the place until a decade ago. A conservation movement led to the construction of the current pool, and its popularity  has increased  since then. These days, it has attracted people from far distant places of Manang and Mustang districts. They usually visit this site during October–February. Some of their visits lasted for 3–4  days for four consecutive years as they had felt relief from different diseases related to skin, rheumatology, body aches etc. On the lower part of Bahundanda has another spring pool on the bank of the river that is also frequented by locals and visitors from neighboring districts (Fig. 3.34). 3.3.4.2 Jagat Tatopani About one and a half hour walk down the trail from Ghermu village of Lamjung, the Jagat hot spring can be located along the riverbank. It is located at ward no. 3 of the Marsyandadi Rural Municipality (1300  m above sea level). Two ponds each of dimension 11.8  ft  ×  8.8  ft  ×  2.8  ft contain the spring water measuring 57  °C.  A gravel road from the village leads to this hot spring. No need to be surprised if you are asked to donate 100 rupees to support the local school for computers. The other spring source located nearby has a record high 80.3 °C. Cold water from the river is mixed with the hot water in both the pools to attain suitable spa-like temperatures. The pool surrounding is covered with dark yellow colored mud – a soil with a characteristic of high sulfur content. Locals patch the mud on the body to get relief from skin diseases – the only geothermal site in Nepal where this sort of opportunity exists! (Figs. 3.35 and 3.36).

3.3  Western Development Region

77

Fig. 3.34  Bahundanda hot spring, 2018. (Source: Singha Tatopani Management Committee)

Fig. 3.35  Jagat hot spring Feb 2020

3.3.4.3 Seti Khola Hot Spring This spring is located west of Lami Danda and north of Ilam Pokhari. The water has a moderate flow rate 0.2 l/s and has a temperature of 44 °C. One more hot spring is reported to have existed in the Marsyangdi riverside of Lamjung district (Fig. 3.37).

78

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.36  Jagat hot spring pool (2021)

Fig. 3.37  A typical trail leading to the hot spring sites in hilly regions of Nepal

3.3  Western Development Region

79

3.3.5 Manang District Manang is a remote and least populated district of Nepal. Chame is the district headquarter of Manang. Due to its location in the northern part of Nepal, it has remained mostly inhabitable and is one of the most underdeveloped districts. The districts’ name is believed to have come from the Tibetan word ‘Mha’ meaning ‘help’ and ‘Nang’ for ‘provide’. Literally, it means it is possible to live only by helping each other. Even though the district is very rich in flora and fauna, the people of Manang survive through a combination of animal husbandry, agriculture and trade – lifestyle similar to the nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralists of the Tibetan frontier and the Central Asian Plains. They have adopted a system of migrating livestock to lower altitude during snow season. Most of the district falls in the Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP) [36]. Tilicho Lake is known for its location at the highest altitude (4919 m) lake in the world and is growing as a popular destination for nature lovers. Tilicho Lake Trek provides some amazing and thrilling views, great variability of culture and diversity, fine deep gorges, and high peaks adjoining the massive Mount Annapurna [37]. 3.3.5.1 Chame Hot Spring Just below Chame, one can see steaming water welling up from the ground near the picturesque Marsyangdi river in the Chame Village Committee ward no. 5. The gabion wall protects the pool from any possible flood. Around 400 domestic and international tourists have been taking baths in the pool daily. This site is 65 km away (5–6 h of jeep ride) from Besisahar, the headquarter of Lamjung district. Two hot water pools were constructed in January 2020 and a local contract person manages the pool to provide a healthy look and comfort for the local people. Since it lies in the Annapurna trek, foreigner trekkers enjoy baths in these pools to relax sore muscles and re-energize. People flock to this spring pool to improve blood circulation, get relief from skin diseases, arthritis problems, mental stress, and indeed, to have a good sleep. The flow rate is high during July and August when the monsoon rain water percolates the ground and both the pools possess enough hot water to fill in. At other times of the year, however, the low flow rate is capable of filling only one pond. In spite of this, the pool is always crowded as the day progresses. The pool area also has a metallic overhead frame to avoid the risk of the falling stone boulders and debris from the adjoining hill (Fig. 3.38). 3.3.5.2 Dharapani Hot Spring There is a seepage of hot water at Dharapani (1920 m) from stone boulders at the bank of the river. It discharges water at a temperature of 33 °C and at a flow rate of 0.16 l/s. The source can be accessed just below trekking trail via a short vertical,

80

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.38  Chame hot spring

wooden stair. Unfortunately, there is no space for five people to stand at a time. The water could be a good relaxing resource to trekkers if pumped up and collected in a pool. However, the dilemma remains whether there needs to be adequate flow and long  stay of trekkers  first to profit out of investment  in    diesel-pumping or  such a facility should be in place first to attract them for staying longer. Two other hot springs are reported at La Ta Manang and Makaibari in Manang district. No details are available except their locations given in the general table. Some other hot springs have been reported at Thuman, Lendekhola, Chitepani at Madi riverside, Seti Khola.

3.3.6 Myagdi District Myagdi district is a lovely mountainous region. Tourists have been drawn to the district headquarters, Beni Bazaar, because of the natural beauty of the location. This district is particularly significant since it serves as a gateway to Mustang region and China’s Tibet. This district is a destination for tourism. The world-famous Poon Hill lies in the Ghara Village Development Committee of this district. Ghorepani is another attraction for travelers. The trekking/hiking trail called Ghorepani Poon Hill Trek is considered an easy and most liked trail in the Annapurna region. Mohare Hill (3000 m above sea level) of Ramche is another destination for hikers. From here, Annapurna Dhaulagiri mountain range can be observed.

3.3  Western Development Region

81

Fig. 3.39  Some hot springs in Myagdi and Kaski districts. (Source: https://journeytohotspringsinmidwesternnepal.wordpress.com)

The flora, fauna, and wildlife of this district is uniquely rich in cultural heritage. For a long time, Magars, particularly the Pun community, have greeted foreign visitors with a grin [38]. This is one of only two districts in Nepal which houses the largest number of hot springs (Figs. 3.39 and 3.40). 3.3.6.1 Bagara Hot Spring The Bagara (also called Bogara) spring lies in Dhaulagiri village municipality ward no. 3, north-west of Myagdi district. Also known as Phaltikhet of Mudi, this site can be reached from Beni headquarter via Darbang and Dharapani where a traveler can also enjoy the separate hot springs en route to Jeltung village. It can be best accessed from Beni to Mudi village via Paryagaun village with 5 h drive and an hour walk. Further 4 h walk north leads to Naura village. Depending on your walking ability and desire to enjoy the natural scenery on the way, it may be worth walking another

82

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.40  Map showing hot spring locations in Myagdi district

6 h along the trails with unique, local, mini bridges because the lovely people welcome you with local food and drink at Jeltung village. It is another 2 h walk from here to enjoy the Bagara hot spring pool. Situated on the bank of Myagdi River, spring pool is uniquely housed in a shed made of local raw materials. Inside, it contains a 42 °C hot natural water. The blue water color is a reminiscent of the Blue Lagoon of Svartsengi, Iceland. The pool has the ability to provide a very refreshing dip for 20 people at a time. The peak time is during March and April when people from Mudi, Khewang, Takam, Devisthan, Muna and Malkawang throng here for healing. Normally, people from these villages carry their staple food for a week or two and stay in the nearby areas at a minimal or free rent. They carry ghee (clarified butter) as their considered nutritious food item since having a meal with meat is often out of their reach. In the evenings, they enjoy singing and dancing by playing madal (a local drum) to seek mental relaxation amidst their problem to make both ends meet. The water is sulfurous and salty in nature. As it lies en route to Dhaulagiri base camp, some trekkers also enjoy soaking in this pool to relax their sore muscles in the uncrowded environment and continue the journey. During your visit, feast your eyes on a beautiful waterfall which has been a source of attraction to many visitors in recent years. The waterfall itself is like a small, untouched oasis in the middle of a jungle. It is a pretty sight, and a fun area to explore (Figs. 3.41, 3.42 and 3.43).

3.3  Western Development Region

83

Fig. 3.41  Bagara Tatopani

Fig. 3.42  Waterfall seen from the pool window

3.3.6.2 Bhurung Hot Spring It is often said that no trek to Annapurna Base Camp is complete without stopping at Bhurung hot spring, located in Annapurna village ward number 2. Its location in a perfect setting compels trekkers of Annapurna area to enjoy the hot water and banish their tiredness. The lovely people and the management facilities tempt you to have an acclimatization day in the site. Some locals call this hot spring ‘Bhu Tatopani’ for short. Even though the source temperature is as high as 60 °C, the pool

84

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.43  Bagara hot spring, 2018. (Source: Shunya Awamura)

temperature is a pleasant 44 °C and contains a concoction of minerals, including sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, and bicarbonate, among others. Two ponds offer a unique opportunity for the visitors to relax their body on their trekking in the Annapurna Circuit. A initial pond was subject to damage by Modi River flooding almost every year. So, the local people constructed a new pool in the middle ground and later a second pool was also constructed with a high-quality gabion wall. Hot spring water is pumped up to these pools from the main source at the river bank about 250 m away. People entering the pools must have a shower in the nearby hot water tap. No soaps are allowed in the pool but you can still enjoy your bath while singing or playing music of your choice. A small grocery store (along with liquors) is located nearby to complete your experience. A portion of the revenue generated from the entry fee is used to support the Sarbodaya Higher Secondary School of the area (Figs. 3.44 and 3.45). 3.3.6.3 Dagnam Hot Spring It lies 3–4 h drive west of Beni (the district headquarters) on the way to Darmija hot spring. It falls in Raghuganga Village Municipality. Located by the side of Raghu Ganga River, this thermal spring is visited mostly by the locals. Water temperature is around 27 °C. Due to the poor infrastructure and tepid water, the local people visit the nearby hot springs like Narchyang (Paudwar) and Darmija for better health benefits. No further information is available about this site.

3.3  Western Development Region

85

Fig. 3.44  Bhurung hot spring main pool – 1, 2018. (Source: Shunya Awamura)

Fig. 3.45  Bhurung Tatopani pool – 2. (Source: Kamal Khatri – National News Agency, 2021)

3.3.6.4 Darmija Hot Spring Of all thermal spring sites, Darmija offers the most artistic and mesmerizing aerial view. A visit to this pool rewards you with a breath-taking view of Darmija village which sits on the lap of a gently sloped hilly region. While the Raghuganga River

86

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.46  Darmija village, 2018

adds beauty to it, this river shows its wilderness during each seasonal monsoon period when it swells. The spring area suffered badly from a landslide and flood in 2021. Previously, the gabion wall along the river bank was badly affected by the April 2015 earthquake causing the pond to suffer a major destruction. The spring site is located at Raghuganga Rural Municipality ward number 4, north-west of Dagnam village. It is quite popular for the people from nearby villages like Kuine Mangale, Chimkhola, Jhin, Dagnam, Dowa, Pakhapani, Patlekhet, Bega, Rakhu Piple and Bhagwati [39]. These days both locals and visitors soak out their muscles and treat their physical injuries, headaches, body pain, joint problems, gastric problems etc. all year round. The spring site can be reached from Beni to Tite Khola of Darmija via Galeshwar by a local bus. Further half an hour walk via Ajingar Bheer (giant slope) leads to the Darmija village. The spring site is located at a half an hour distance from this village. On your way to the pool, be sure to take in all the beauty along the way. A nice trail along with the railings will make you feel that you are not walking on a steep slope (Fig. 3.46). The hot water pool has been upgraded and repaired with an investment of over 3.4 million Rupees under a scheme implemented through the Water Resources and Irrigation Development Division Office in Myagdi at the initiative of Gandaki State Assembly Member, Binod KC. Various river control measures including the construction of a gabion wall have given a new life to the spring area. Two more hot water pools have been constructed including a swimming pool. Local labor support was also equally mobilized voluntarily [40]. Darmija hot spring site is one of the limited sites which have been able to receive remarkable financial support from the provincial  government. The site also recently constructed a house which is estimated to accommodate more than 200 visitors. Besides, three local standard home stays near the spring site offer Nepalese food and lodging at low cost (Figs. 3.47, 3.48, 3.49, 3.50 and 3.51).

3.3  Western Development Region

87

Fig. 3.47  Overview of Darmija Tatopani, 2020

Fig. 3.48  Darmija Tatopani, Myadgi district, 2021

3.3.6.5 Dhadkharka Hot Spring It is visited by local people and little is known about this spring. 3.3.6.6 Dowa Hot Spring It is situated in the Dowa village which itself spans on either side of a charming hill. The spring water greatly varies between 40 and 70 °C during various seasons. While enjoying a soak in the spring water, visitors can enjoy the life style and settings of this beautiful village (Fig. 3.52).

88

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.49  Darmija Tatopani, hot water taps, Myadgi district

Fig. 3.50  Inner view of Darmija hot spring (https://journeytohotspringsinmidwesternnepal.wordpress.com)

3.3.6.7 Folding Khola Hot Spring Walking is the most ancient exercise and still one of the best forms of modern exercise. A somewhat steep and narrow trail is what an adventurous and determined trekker prefers. If you belong to this type who also wants to enjoy the astounding

3.3  Western Development Region

89

Fig. 3.51  A common shelter for visitors of Darmija hot spring

Fig. 3.52  Dowa village, Myagdi

beauty of nature and take a dip in a less crowded area, this hot spring is on the top of your list. The spring pool itself is situated in a beautiful mountain setting in the north-west of Beni, the Myagdi district headquarters. This spring is located at the bank of the Gurja river and the base of the mountain at Dhaulagiri village municipality. It is about 6 h from Mudi village. A pond measuring 10 m × 5 m × 1 m has been constructed with the financial support from the municipality along with the labor contribution of the local people to collect hot water from the source. The spring source water temperature measures more than 50 °C. The pond can accommodate at least 35 people at a time. Two toilets and temporary cottages have been erected at the pool site which can be accessed by a foot trail. The salty water is mainly utilized by the local people to relieve them from different diseases [41].

90

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

A good route to approach this spring is to walk about 3 h from Mudi village to take a rest at Arche village. Another 3 h walk north-west leads you to the spring site. However, you will have to walk through the forest area, rocky places and along the edge of the cliff. The way is mysterious and unforgettable. Once you enjoy soaking the hot spring water, the body aches will fade away immediately, offering you a pleasant relaxation. You will be tempted to stay here for long hours but there is no accommodation or hotels in the vicinity. So, establishing a camping site in someone’s garden is the only option. Better to remember though: A bad day camping can still be better than a good day working. Refreshments at this place will tempt you also to see another beautiful village called Gurjakhani, just about 4 h walk towards north-east (Figs. 3.53 and 3.54). 3.3.6.8 Khorla Besi Hot Spring This spring is located north of Khorla besi. Only local people are known to visit this spring. No further information is available. 3.3.6.9 Mayangdi Khola Hot Spring Mayangdi Khola hot spring is located at an elevation of 1326 m above sea level in the upper Narchyang village committee of Annapurna rural municipality. It is on the north of Myagdi River, between Beni and Babiyachour. It has surface water

Fig. 3.53  Folding Khola hot spring. (Source: Prabodh)

3.3  Western Development Region

91

Fig. 3.54  A nearby Gurjakhani village from Folding Khola hot spring

temperature of 40 °C with a flow rate 2 l/s. The water is highly alkaline with sodium content of 460 mg/kg and potassium 49 mg/kg. Total dissolved substance remains at 1340 mg/kg, highest amount detected so far in the hot springs of Nepal. 3.3.6.10 Paudwar (Lower Narchyang) Hot Spring One-and-a-half-hour drive north of popular Beni headquarter of Myagdi district leads to Paudwar thermal spring (also called Narchyang tatopani) in the Annapurna Rural Municipality, ward no. 5 Sikha rural development committee. While dipping in the pool, one can enjoy the astounding beauty of Nilgiri Himal on the north. Hot water measuring 66.3 °C gushes out from the source with a flow rate of 6.8 l/s. Locals use the pool area away from the source where they can tolerate the heat. Two pools of equal dimensions (22.5 ft × 14.7 × 1.9) and one smaller pool (7.5 ft × 14.9 × 1.9) are available for bathing along with a building which provides toilet, shower and dress change facilities. A large number of people from Dagnam, Darmija hot spring areas as well as from other districts also visit this area during winter for recreation and spa-use since they think the spring water here is drinkable to fight gastric and some other diseases. The water here is salty and sulfurous (Fig. 3.55). 3.3.6.11 Ratopani (Dhirchyang) Hot Spring Ratopani, also called Dhirchyang, thermal spring lies at Annapurna-1 Pokhari Bagar. As with many other hot spring sites on the river banks, this site also was not free from the vagaries of nature  – the seasonal monsoon flooding. With the

92

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.55  Narchyang hot spring. (Source: Shunya Awamura)

construction of a gabion wall and labor support from the local people, the site is safely used these days. Two pools are already in place and the area is still in the extension phase. Hot water at 54 °C issues from a number of creeks and boulders at the river bank. Despite the ideal temperature for a dip, it is visited by the local people and those from Dowa village only (Figs. 3.56 and 3.57). 3.3.6.12 Sekaar (Bega) Hot Spring Also called Bega Tatopani, this spring is on the bank of Bega river. It falls under Dowa village (ward no. 1) of Annapurna Rural Municipality. It is very close to Tiplyang village which is accessible through 1 h drive from Beni. One can arrive at this spring site after a half an hour walk from Tiplyang. On the way lies yet another spring which issues moderately hot water. People from its neighboring villages Tiplyang and Dowa utilize the hot water here for bathing and laundering since it is not in the trekking route. It evades many tourists as the site is still untouched by modernity. The site is waiting for better accessible roads, good infrastructure of the spring pool, and hotels to make it a tourist destination. The water has a surface temperature of 28 °C with an average flow rate 2.5 l/s (Figs. 3.58 and 3.59).

3.3  Western Development Region

93

Fig. 3.56  Ratopani (Dhirchyang) hot spring pool under construction. (Source: https://journeytohotspringsinmidwesternnepal.wordpress.com)

Fig. 3.57  Hot spring sources along the river at Ratopani (Dhirchyang)

94

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.58  Sekaar hot spring – 1. (Source: Prabodh)

Fig. 3.59  Sekaar hot spring – 2

3.3  Western Development Region

95

3.3.6.13 Singa Hot Spring Myagdi district is full of great hot springs but Singa hot spring is the pick of the bunch. On the way to Dhaulagiri Base Camp, this spring area is often overlooked by foreign trekkers but locals have been coming here for centuries believing in the healing property of the spring water. It is located at Singa Village Development Committee, Beni Municipality, ward no. 13 on the bank of Myagdi River. It is one of the popular hot springs of Nepal. It is also conveniently situated about 390 km west of Kathmandu and 150 km from Pokhara – international tourist destinations. It is super easy to get to from either of the towns Beni bazar or Darbang within an hour by local bus. You have the choice to enjoy your soak along with the fully packed visitors during peak season or take a refreshing dip in one of the two smaller hot spring pools in the vicinity with a slightly higher entry fee. The water temperature straight from the springs is a sizzling 54 °C, but you can stay further away to a more tolerable 42 °C for a pleasant dip. If you don’t have your own gear to soak in the pools, you can buy one for a minimal price from a store in the vicinity. Despite its moderate in size dimension of 11.0 m × 5.8 m × 0.62 m (41 ft × 21 ft), it has never lost its importance. Just ask the nearly 60,000 yearly visitors who have been making a pilgrimage to this lovely pool every year. The waters here contain over nine different minerals which provides many wellness benefits, including relief from rheumatism, arthritis, back pain, goiter, skin rashes, paralysis, nerve diseases, gastrointestinal disorders, stress and aches, promoting skin health, boosting blood circulation and more. For these reasons, the thermal site has been the center of attraction to many people from Myagdi and across different districts of Nepal, India, Japan, Singapore etc. An interesting case is that of Balram Subedi from Jaljala-5, Parbat district, who was in a serious bus accident in Kuwait, and had a lot of bone fractures and injuries. Luckily he received partial treatment from a standard hospital in Kuwait and returned to Nepal. He was having intolerable muscle aches and joint pain for about a year and was unable to conduct his daily activities properly. He came to Singa hot spring in 2019 and after a week-long regular bath, he recovered enough to lead almost  a normal life. Similarly, Dal Bahadur Khatri from Beni-9 had complete numbness in both his thighs, received prescriptions from general physicians at different hospitals for 3 months at the expense of 2,50,000 rupees but did not have any improvement. Later, he visited this hot spring pool in 2019 and had regular baths. In a matter of 1 week, he claimed his full recovery. He looks quite healthy, can walk and leads a normal life. These are just two examples of how the people suffering from joint and nerve pains have benefitted from taking a dip in this pool. Innumerable success stories are told by the visitors of this pool with varying health problems. 1. A memoir about the location and popularization of the spring site: The history of development of this hot spring site goes back to 1995 when I first caught sight of it. I was on a short project visit to Lumle Agricultural Center in August of that year. My two and a half weekend days’ stay in the guest house indeed

96

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

was not going to be monotonous, as it is centered in the beautiful forest area with foot trails to walk around. Being a fresh graduate in geothermal field from Iceland and highly motivated to advance the development of geothermal energy in Nepal, I thought to explore with the Center about the existence of any hot springs in the nearby areas. I got the hint of an anonymous hot spring. Taking advantage of weekend holidays, I marched ahead to look for it, quite unprepared. After several hours of walks along the trail in the dark night from the nearest bus station, I took a shelter in the village closest to the hot spring site. When I asked how far the Singan hot spring was, the host lady just burst into laughter because ‘Singan’ in Nepali means ‘mucus’. She then corrected me with its correct name – Singa. Next morning, I departed to Singa village where this spring is located. It was a sunny day with a scorching heat and there was no roof over the pool. There was no trace of anyone in the surrounding area as well. Later, I met a local businessman named Mr. Birendra Man Shakya (current Chairman of the Singa Tatopani Management Committee) at his grocery store and inquired about the use of this hot spring. I learned that, unlike in other spring sites, people from adjoining areas visit here mostly during winter for cure of different diseases as the water has a high mineral content. I assured him to offer maximum help to gain recognition of the thermal pool. That time, neither I had a camera nor did he have a photo of the pond, but he referred me to his brother who was running a business in Kathmandu. I got a picture of the pond from him and I managed to get it posted in the front page of Kathmandu Post- the newly born daily magazine at that time (Fig. 3.60).

Fig. 3.60  Singa Tatopani, Myagdi, 1995

3.3  Western Development Region

97

Subsequently, I published an article about hot springs in Nepal, including Singa, in the leading Gorkapatra and The Kathmandu Post daily magazines. I was highly inspired by the editors to write more articles on the topic. Then it occurred to me, I need to do something to make this spring pool more popular. It prompted me to meet the General Manager of Nepal Television (NTV) – the only and most watched television channel in Nepal of that time. For many years, this remained the only television channel of Nepal. Due to its limited budget, the institution requested me to arrange some contribution from a third party as well. Upon mutual agreement, a plan was formulated to get it televised. The Nepal Television agreed to send a team with the local community’s support for their travel, food and shelter. The next proposal from the General Manager was that the telecast should also cover another hot spring area – Kodari Tatopani with the coverage of waterfall scenery on its way. As it was dealt as a package program, and the project work emerged from my personal interest, I had to bear the responsibility to cover all the expenses for the TV personnel for 3–4 days. After 2 months’ effort, the spring pool was captured by the national TV camera. Everybody waited eagerly for its broadcast on national television. Weeks and months passed without any signs of being aired. My approaches to the higher personnel of NTV, including the General Manager, did not yield satisfactory results for several months. Later, it became clear that one of the team members responsible for finalizing the documentary was not paying any heed to the General Manager because of the former’s strong family attachment to a powerful leader of the incumbent government. By that time, the General Manager had lost his patience being undermined by a junior staff member for so long. On the day when the government was overthrown after 9  months, the General Manager was learnt to have threatened his junior to telecast the program immediately or face consequences. To my surprise, the program was telecast within a week! Moreover, the General Manager even went as far as transferring that guy to one of the least priority divisions of NTV. This story is a reflection of Nepal’s bureaucracy which still functions to this date. Once the show was on the air in 1996, NTV started to telecast it consecutively for 4–5 years during the winter seasons. 2. Current status Since then, the spring site gained more and more popularity. People from the far eastern and western parts of Nepal as well as from India started to throng. With increased flow of people, the management committee was able to collect money from different sources to expand the infrastructure that led to the present condition. Patients are enjoying the pool all year round without a care for rain, thunderstorms or the scorching heat of the sun since there is a roof overhead now. The popularization of this site also played a catalytic role for the adjoining hot spring areas including Bhurung and Darmija to manage and expand their local infrastructure (Figs. 3.61, 3.62 and 3.63).

98

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.61  Aerial view of spring site. (Source: Singa Hot Spring Management Committee)

One of the fundamental differences between this site and the others is that people visit here for 7 to 14 days with the main intention of treatment while people visit other spring pools for a short relaxation. People living almost a decade with the ‘ignominy’ of a skin disease are reported to have gained a new hope after dipping in the hot spring here. Some experience imperfect marks on the body vanishing miraculously – a treatment the allopathic medicine could not make. January to April is the peak season for the patients. People spend an allotted time of an hour or two easily while taking a dip in the pool by singing songs composed particularly for this site. Sometimes, people perform dances near the pool which creates a unique vibe. Most of them also drink about 3 l of spring water rich in various chemicals and salt with the hope to cure their gastric problems.

Fig. 3.62  Singa hot spring pools under tin sheets, 2000. (Source: Singa Hot Spring Management Committee)

Fig. 3.63  Internal view of main pool. (Source: www.tatopanikunda.com)

100

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.64  Women dipping in the hot spring pool, 2019. (Source: Singa Hot Spring Management Committee/ #ScotNepal #TatoPani)

During the peak period, approximately 1200 to 1500 people come for a soak here daily. The pool is packed with more than a hundred people at one time with males and females taking turns alternatively (Fig. 3.64). Entry is prohibited for people with tuberculosis, high blood pressure, jaundice and those menstruating. Even before the emergence of Covid-19, use of a mask was made mandatory for people with respiratory diseases to avoid contamination. The Singa Tatopani Management Committee consisting of 13 members has also established a Singa Tatopani Natural Therapy Center where people can get information about what diseases can be treated by soaking in the pool. It is mandatory for the visitors to have a fresh water bath in the hot water taps before entering the pool. Three hot water taps on the other side of the river are used only by the locals for bathing and laundering purposes. This thermal site has five other sources with different flow rates and temperatures ranging from 54 to 57 °C (Figs. 3.65 and 3.66). While the perennial Myagdi River adds beauty to this site, it also creates a major problem as the water sources on its banks are swept away by monsoon flood every year, depriving the visitors of having a hot water shower before and after taking a soak in the pool. A gabion wall has been constructed to protect it. Like other thermal spring areas in the hilly regions of Nepal, this location was no exception to suffer from the earthquake in April 2015. The gabion wall cracked down. As a proverb goes, ‘blessings do not come in pairs, misfortune never comes singly’. The

3.3  Western Development Region

101

Fig. 3.65  Activities in the spring site people queuing up for entry to hot spring pool and waiting for fresh water after pool bath. (Source: Singa Hot Spring Management Committee) Fig. 3.66  People lining up for entry to hot spring pool and waiting for fresh water after pool bath. (Source: Himalayan Guest House, Singa, Myagdi)

102

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

earthquake forced the management committee to rethink about the site’s future that led to further upgrading the structures so an increased number of visitors from distant places can be accommodated with even better facilities. Following the earthquake, two more sources of thermal water have also appeared on the river bank of Tatopani market, allowing the construction of two small pools without any impact on the water flow to the main pool. In the initial phase, the management committee was able to expand the infrastructure with limited entrance fees for the visitors. The Myagdi Relief Committee, the Nepali diaspora based in Bahrain, also started to provide financial support. A roof was placed over the pool making it possible for people to enjoy the pool all year round. The committee charges 200 rupees for 10 days and 50 rupees for a single day from the visitors. With this nominal entrance fee, some donation from the visitors and one million rupees contribution from Pokhara Tourism Board, the management committee has been able to add user-friendly structures such as wheelchair accessibility to the pool, separate restrooms and change rooms for males and females at a total cost of 4 crore rupees in 2017. The local military unit has also contributed to add a building. Two more pools have been constructed for people who are willing to take a dip in a more relaxing environment, without having to wait for a long time to enter the main pool. Hot water is supplied to these pools by pumping hot spring water emerging on the banks of Myagdi River. The committee has received around a hundred buckets in donations. The pumped water are also collected in green high density polythene drums to fill the buckets. This has greatly helped to manage the influx of visitors from being crowded to wash their bodies after soaks in the pool. Bathrooms and change rooms are available in the vicinity (Fig. 3.67).

Fig. 3.67  Men using hot spring water in green drums to wash off body after soaks

3.3  Western Development Region

103

Besides engaging in the gradual expansion of the site, the Committee is also supporting the local Saraswati Secondary School with over 300 students and provides salary for its 11 teachers out of its revenue. At present, the Committee is contributing 20% of it to Beni Municipality. Local people have been employed by the Committee to operate the pool and the local business has flourished with many hotels, restaurants, guest houses and homestays growing around the thermal area. Patient and the family members from distant places can rent a single room with cooking facilities and enjoy their own food at a low cost. Besides people from many districts of Nepal, Indians from Rupaidia, Nanpaar, Bihar, Gorakhpur, New Delhi etc. visited the place annually for health care [42] (Figs. 3.68 and 3.69). Local people have been employed by the management committee to operate the pool. In a bid to make the area more attractive in line with its popularity, the old temple has been modernized. People pray for Hindu God Shiva and Goddess Pārbati and sacrifice animals to cure them from ailments. Its increased popularization through newspapers and ‘YouTube’ has tempted people in the adjoining and distant areas to improve the infrastructure and management of their hot spring sites. On the full moon day of Falgun month, a local shot put (a sport in which a heavy and nearly round stone ball is thrown from the shoulder as far as possible) is held. The Thakali ethnic group observes it as a special day and an archery game (a game of shooting at a mark) is also organized in a bid to add charm to the festivity.

Fig. 3.68  Aerial view of newly constructed hotels, lodges and homestays in the hot spring periphery. (Source: Kumar KC)

104

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.69  Extended Singa hot spring pools. (Source: Singa Hot Spring Management Committee)

A natural spring water treatment hospital, the first of its kind in Nepal, has been set up in 2021 to provide hydrotherapy service by using the hot spring water. The hospital aims to impart acupuncture, yoga therapy, physiotherapy, massage therapy and dry therapy services. Ten million rupees has been allocated with the support from the federal government and the spring water management committee for this establishment that aims to employ a minimum of 15 trained health professionals.

3.3.7 Mustang District Mustang district is one of the remote areas in Nepal. The headquarters is located at Jomsom. It is the fifth largest district of Nepal. Mustang was an ancient forbidden kingdom, bordered by the Tibetan Plateau and sheltered by some of the world’s tallest peaks. The elevation ranges from 1372 to 8167 m (Mount Dhaulagiri, the seventh highest mountain in the world and Mount Annapurna), with several peaks above 7000 m. The annual temperature varies between 26 and −9 °C [43]. Strict regulations of tourists here have aided in maintaining Tibetan traditions. Upper Mustang was a restricted demilitarized area until 1992, which makes it one of the most preserved regions in the world due to its relative isolation from the outside world, with a majority of the population still speaking traditional Tibetic languages. Apart from its natural beauty, its isolated history has attracted several visitors and researchers from around the world. LoManthang, a Rural Development Committee, is the capital of the old kingdom of Lo, which encompasses the northern two thirds of the district and is known as

3.3  Western Development Region

105

Upper Mustang. Though the capital of the district is Jomsom, the traditional Tibetan-­ style locales lie north of Kagbeni. The old capital Lo Manthang, a square-walled town on the Plain of Prayers, is the residence of the present king. One of the most fascinating features of Mustang is literally thousands of cliff dwellings, some of which look completely inaccessible. The most recent theory is that they may date 8000–10,000 BC when Mustang was a much greener land [44]. A number of documentary films about LoManthang are available on YouTube, including those posted by Jacques Trevisan and Visit Nepal 2020 program. 3.3.7.1 Dhima Hot Spring Anyone undertaking a long trekking in the Annapurna Circuit via LoManthang can find this hot spring quite relaxing. Also called Dhi for short, this spring is located near Dhi village in LoManthang. A hot water fountain gushes out from the rocky mountain directly into Kali Gandaki River, making it unsuitable for any purpose including bathing. There is no prize for guessing that the water is highly sulfurous in nature because a dark yellow color can be visualized in the rocks wherever the fountain hits! A pool is reportedly constructed upstream with water temperature as high as 71 °C and a flow rate of 30 l/s – one of the highest recorded in Nepal – the other spring with such a high flow being Nundhaki hot spring in Sankhuwasabha district. The subsurface temperature of this area measured by geothermometer is 115 °C – the highest recorded so far in the hot springs of Nepal (Figs. 3.70 and 3.71). 3.3.7.2 Jomsom Hot Spring Jomsom, the district headquarters of Mustang, is situated at an altitude of 270 m and is the gateway to Muktinath. A few hot springs are located here with flow rates varying between 0.2 and 0.5 l/s. However, the water temperature is mild (21 °C), still soothing for high altitude areas where the ambient temperature is generally below this temperature even during summer.

Fig. 3.70  Dhima hot spring (Upper Mustang Tatopani – 1)

106

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.71  Dhima hot spring (Upper Mustang Tatopani – 2)

3.3.7.3 Charang Hot Spring Some may find it a little difficult to wade across this spring site. Located north–east of LoManthang, this spring water with low discharge rate of 0.2  l/s records 33 °C. Since this place is located in a remote area, only locals use this spring water for skin diseases, joint pains and relaxation. Yet another low temperature (21 °C) spring is reported at Chookumau with the flow rate of 0.2–0.5 l/s. It lies far north near the Nepal–China border. 3.3.7.4 Muktinath Hot Spring Muktinath-Chumig Gyatsa is one of the most important pilgrimage sites of Nepal for both Buddhists and Hindus. Muktinath means ‘Place (nath) of Salvation (mukti)’. People from surrounding districts as well as pilgrims from India visit this place. Tourist flow to this area has increased drastically over the years after it has been made accessible by bus. Regular bus service is available all year round except in winter when the area is covered with snow. Some thermal springs are located here with a mild temp of 22 °C with 3 l/s flow rate. This tepid water has been a source for bathing to the local people who are obliged to experience bone-chilling air temperature during most time of the year. Five other spring sources are reported in the vicinity.

3.4 Central Nepal 3.4.1 Dhading District Dhading district is well known for its Ruby Valley which has evolved as one of the most popular and relatively new trekking sites in the Central Himalayan range of Nepal. This valley has gained its popularity among trekkers and explorers mainly

3.4  Central Nepal

107

because the region is largely unexplored and less crowded compared to the popular trekking routes of the Everest and Annapurna region. This trek is also popular to people looking for low altitude hikes. Ruby Valley got its name as the Ganesh Himal region has deposits of the Gem Ruby. The whole region has high deposits of other minerals as well. This valley trek offers the majestic view of green landscapes and stunning panorama of the magnificent Himalayan view of Ganesh massif, Manaslu, Lamjung Himal, Langtang and other peaks. Besides, it gives a unique experience of mesmerizing cultural and biological diversity of several Nepalese Tamang and Gurung tribes. In contrast to the famous hot springs in Ruby Valley of Nevada, US where the springs are located in a flat marshy land, both springs of Nepal’s Ruby Valley are situated on the banks of the river [45] (Figs. 3.72 and 3.73). 3.4.1.1 Linjo Tipling Hot Spring From Syabrubesi towards the North, after the Pangsa La Pass leads to Tipling village. This village is the intersection of the two hot springs in the Ruby Valley. Tipling is an old quaint village that offers a close and commanding view of Mt. Ganesh Himal and a fascinating glimpse of mountain culture. The people residing in this village practice a culture similar to Tibet. People celebrate Mane Jatra during winter which has been followed for generations. Likewise, Jhakri or Bombo (witchdoctors) perform rituals during the Janai Purnima festival.

Fig. 3.72  Hot springs in the Ruby Valley. (Modified after including hot spring locations in the trek route at https://himalayaguidenepal.com/ruby-­valley-­camping-­trek/)

108

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.73  Map showing Linjo, Chalish and Jharlang hot spring areas

A walk towards the north-east leads to Linjo village where the moderately hot spring is located on the bank of Ankhu River. The infrastructure built in the site is washed away every year by the swollen river during monsoon period. Only local people visit these springs as it lies somewhat off trekking route, and only a few foreign visitors are able to enjoy the spring water. Chemical and physical information about the site is still underway. 3.4.1.2 Chalish Hot Spring Ascending north-west from Tipling village leads to Gomba Danda (hill) in Shertung Village Development Committee (VDC). The name Shertung signifies ‘place of gold’ in the Tamang language. The Tamang people exhibit Jhankri (shaman) dance and horse dance, which are thought to have been inspired by Tibetan culture. In the Jhankri tradition, natural forces and indigenous divinities interwoven with Hinduism and Buddhism, are worshiped as a healing ritual.

3.4  Central Nepal

109

Fig. 3.74  Chalish hot spring

A descent from this Danda through a narrow trail further leads to a hot spring below Chalish village. It is at the intersection of Lapa and Napier villages of Lapa VDC and Chalish (some also call Chalishe) village of Shertung VDC. This unexplored trekking trail provides you the opportunity to understand the life style of people in the remote areas in Nepal, not frequented by tourists. Lodges, and guesthouses have not been developed yet so homestay is the mode of accommodation, which allows to get a first-hand experience of Nepali rural life as you stay with locals. Chalish village is populated mainly by Gurung, Ghale, and Kami (blacksmith) ethnic groups. The friendly people of this area have distinctive customs and craftsmanship. During the festive season, trekkers get a chance to observe the traditional dance of locals such as Maruni Dance during Dashain and Tihar, Hai Nelo Dance of Tihar, and the Ghatu (Ghasiri Dance) that is performed on the full moon day called Chandi Purnima. There are two pools near Ankhu River (also called as Tatopani Khola meaning hot water river) which collect water melted from the Ganesh Himal glacier. The spring water temperature is 53 °C. However, the trekkers are known to enjoy this hot spring for hours to banish their tiredness (Fig. 3.74). 3.4.1.3 Jharlang Hot Spring This spring is located at the confluence of Dundure River and Ankhu River of Jharlang Village Development Committee (VDC). A descent from Lapa village along the Ruby Valley trek leads to this spring. It is close to Chalish hot spring but located in a remote area with difficult accessibility due to narrow and rocky trails. Efforts are underway to expand the trail to ease the trekkers. The area is also susceptible to landslides. However, it is a good place for adventurous trekkers who can clear the path with stinging nettles. Steaming water courses down the mountainside through huge stone boulders and one has to enjoy the hot water shower since no pool for soaking exists (Fig. 3.75).

110

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.75  Jharlang hot spring

3.4.2 Dolakha District The central hill district of Dolakha is naturally and culturally sublime. Mount Gaurishankar, based on which the Nepal Standard Time is determined, and the Rolwaling mountain range, stand tall in the north. Kalinchok Bhagwati Temple, known for snowfall during the winter, is revered by the locals as the “shrine of the district”. Charikot, the district headquarters of Dolakha, is around 133 km east of Kathmandu [46]. Legend has it that a Lama, with divine powers, had meditated in the area for a long time. Over time, a bird made its nest in the beard of the meditating Lama, so the place was named Charikot, meaning the ‘nest of the bird’. Kotihom – a sacred place set up by Kalinchok Baba who was enlightened, as the legend has it, after meditating for 12 years by consuming only water, milk and sugar candy – is a must-visit. Statue of Shankhadhar Sakhwa, the founder of Nepal Sambat (era), stands in one of Charikot’s squares which is named after him. Located 4 km east from Charikot, Dolakha Bazaar houses a famous temple of Bhimeshwor, also known as Bhimsen Temple. A mammoth stone pillar erected on the temple premises is a wonder in itself. Many believe that there will be political change or natural disasters in case the statue of Bhimeshwor sweats [47]. 3.4.2.1 Gongaar Hot Spring Along with so many magnificent places and natural resources, the district has one hot spring resource. There exists a hot spring near Gonggar which is about 12 km north of Singati and lies en route to Lamabagar via Jagat. Moderately hot water bubbles at several locations on the riverbank. However, it has been ignored by the people from the neighboring place. Local people request help with improving infrastructure in the spring site along with direct access so its benefits may be utilized (Fig. 3.76).

3.4  Central Nepal

111

Fig. 3.76  Gonggar hot spring – Dolakha

3.4.3 Rasuwa District Widely varying terrain and plenty of natural blessings make Rasuwa district a famous tourist destination in Nepal. Langtang mountain range stands to the north of Rasuwa. The northern parts of the district largely fall within the boundaries of Langtang National Park. Gosainkunda Lake, Ganja La Pass, and Tamang village in Bridim are the major highlights of Rasuwa for tourism. Located in the Langtang region is the beautiful Lake Gosainkunda, also known as “Frozen Lake”. There are about 108 kundas (lakes) in this area. Langtang valley is another attraction in Rasuwa which is aptly called the valley of glaciers. The valley offers pine forest, swift mountain streams, rugged rock and snow-capped peaks. Due to its unique geological setting, the district has been drawing international geologists to conduct research [48]. The district headquarter, Dhunche, marks the beginning of the famous Gosaikunda trek. It is 120 km from Kathmandu and can take about 6 h on a local bus or car. Buses depart from Kathmandu regularly, offering stunning mountain views along paved winding roads (Fig. 3.77). 3.4.3.1 Chilime: Sanjen La Hot Spring This hot spring lies in the Amachhodingmo rural municipality, ward number 5, Chilime village within the Sanje La Valley. The popular Sanje La Himal in the north adds astounding beauty to the spring site. This village is inhabited by the Tamang ethnic group and is a popular destination to learn about their culture. Locals and the people from adjoining areas travel to this place for bathing, laundering and healing. Yoga and other forms of meditation are common practice as well. The village is connected to a highway network by gravel road, providing access for 700–800 international tourists annually. This village was placed under the Tamang Heritage Trail recently, leading to a decline in essential tourism. As a result, the standard and

112

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.77  Hot springs at Timure, Thuman, north Tatopani, Chilime, Bahun Danda and Syabru Besi in the Upper Trishuli Valley

lovely hotels built there are in jeopardy. This village lies on the way to Sanjen La Himal and Sanjen Valley. A 2-h uphill walk brings one to Nagthali, a vantage point for the panoramic view of Lantang Himal and Sanjen Himal peaks. Hot water issues from six spouts managed in three pools (Figs. 3.78, 3.79 and 3.80). An interesting story connected to earthquakes is told about this spring. The Great Earthquake of 1934 had blocked the source of the spring and it dried up completely. But after 3 years, the water began welling up again on its own. Another earthquake in April 2015 caused the spring to go dry again, thereby significantly impacting the lifestyle and business of the local people. A minor earthquake in July 2019 brought the spring back to life. The picture below shows the site when the water stopped to flow (Fig. 3.81). 3.4.3.2 Chilime Hot Spring Situated at 2600 m altitude, this spring area is the pillar of the local economy since it is the most important in Central Nepal after the Kodari hot spring. The source water temperature of 55 °C makes this spring more enjoyable during winter. The

3.4  Central Nepal

113

Fig. 3.78  Chilime village near the hot spring spouts on the right bottom

Fig. 3.79  Chilime village (hot spring spouts on the right bottom corner)

road constructed for Chilime hydropower station has made this area accessible to many visitors from the neighboring districts. Three spring sources exist in this area. One of them is located on the top of the hill. The water temperature of the spring is 48.9 °C with a high flow rate. One of the main characteristics of this spring is that it is the only site situated on the top of a cliff as against most lying in the river banks. It is definitely a wonderful site to visit for hiking lovers and enjoy the fountain water. Otherwise, it is good for the local residents and for those who want to use it for health benefits. Even though the site is difficult to access for the elderly people, it has created a history to attract people from distant places. Sick people from

114

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.80  People having soaks in Chilime – Sanjen La hot spring

Fig. 3.81  Chilime – Sanjen La hot spring during recession of hot water flow before 2019

Kathmandu and adjoining districts are taken to this area on ‘Doko’ (a deep basket which is carried on the back and shoulders and secured by a scrap called Namlo round the forehead), a week’s walk away from Kathmandu and allowed to soak in the hot water regularly for months to cure for different diseases including arthritis and paralysis. The second hot spring site is located at a lower altitude close to the market where water is transferred from the upper source through pipe lines. It is just 5 h drive from Kathmandu. The water temperature is 48.9 °C with a flow rate of 5 l/s. The Hot

3.4  Central Nepal

115

Fig. 3.82  Chilime hot spring source shifted to the river bank, 2018

Spring Management Committee used to charge a meager amount for the visitors for a dip. Two pools were constructed along with taps to manage the hot water. Like the Chilime – Sanjen hot spring of the village, elderly people of this area also reported that there was an intermittency during the 1934 earthquake, but with no cession. There was a stable flow rate of more than 5 l/s. However, spring source suffered a complete cessation by the end of October 2015, after periods of unusual intermittence between April and June 2015. The flow has resumed and people are enjoying soaks in the main spring pool and on the bank of Sanjen River (Fig. 3.82). The other hot spring in the Chilime village can be accessed 795  m up from Syabru Besi to a pass on the mountain where one can observe a panoramic view of Langtang mountain. From here follows a steep and rocky 510  m downhill to Tambuchet via Tetanchet. A square lake of Chilime hydro-power station also can be seen from Tambhchet. A single track of about 2 km leads to Chilime village. The spring area is 830 m up from here (Fig. 3.83). 3.4.3.3 Syabrubesi Hot Spring Syabrubesi, just about 80 km from Kathmandu, is a lovely village located inside the world-famous Langtang National Park. The market lies at the base of a green hill on the way to Langtang Valley. The famous religious yatra (travel) “Kailash Yatra” is helping Syabrubesi to the spotlight for domestic and international tourism. A

116

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.83  Another site of Chilime hot spring, 2018. (Photo: Himalayan Guest House, Singa)

number of hotels and lodges offer a sense of local hospitality along with the community festival culture and traditions. Syabrubesi hot springs that originate from five sources are located on the bank of Trishuli River, The temperature ranges between 23.5 and 51 °C with a maximum flow rate of 0.3 l/s. It is an ideal place for respite in all seasons particularly for the tourists to banish their tiredness of mountainous journey. Beside the pool is a tap for laundering and taking showers. Before the construction of this cemented pool, locals had to find the spring sources once the river bank was washed by the yearly monsoon flood. The local businessmen also use the hot spring water puddles to cook eggs and rice in small pots. Small Pool But of High Scientific Value The pool may not look so fascinating due to its narrow space accommodating only a dozen people. However, its location just below the Syabrubesi village market along the river bank has the power to draw everyone. The Syabrunbesi area has also sought the attention of international scientists due to a high occurrence of carbon dioxide gasses and radon-222 flux which are found mostly in the volcanic and earthquake prone areas. They are thinking of developing and testing a model in this area to help our understanding of transport properties and fluid circulations in the subsurface. Some scientists are also trying to use the radon data of Syabrubesi to other areas where geology mapping is not straightforward or still remains controversial. They also believe that the data obtained after long-term monitoring would be useful for the surveillance of volcanoes, active faults, as well as the leakage of stored CO2 or radioactive contaminants (Fig. 3.84).

3.4  Central Nepal

117

Fig. 3.84  Small hot spring pool in the middle. (Source: Kumar KC)

3.4.3.4 Timure Hot Spring Also known as Sedang, this hot spring lies on the way to Rasuwagadhi, very close to the China border. Due to its remote location and off the trekking route, only local people visit this spring. The spring water temperature is 77.7 °C. It is accessible from Syaphrubesi via Thulogaun and Thuman (Fig. 3.85).

3.4.4 Sindhupalchowk District Sindhupalchowk district, with its headquarters at Chautara, is a hilly region in the Central part of Nepal. Agricultural land covers 29.0% of the district area and about 77.3% of the active population are involved in the agricultural sector. In spite of this, the majority of the households face acute food shortages due to a low level of production. Chautara is linked with a strategic road from the Araniko highway at

118

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.85  Timure hot spring, Rasuwa, 2020

Bandeu/Dolalghat. Tatopani has remained the major trading point of Nepal with the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China from where Chinese goods are imported via land. The annual temperatures in this district vary from 7 to 32 °C [49]. This district is rich in tourism resources. Sunkoshi and Bhotekoshi are the world-­ famous rafting rivers which flow via this district. Bhairav Kunda and Panch Pokhari are popular trekking destinations for their religious and cultural values. Bungy jump over the Bhotekoshi river is another attraction of the district. Hill stations like Tamche, Ghunde, Yangima Danda have high prospects for tourism. Cultural heritages like the Gaurati Bhimeshwor temple, Tauthali Mai Temple, Sunkoshi Kapheshwor Mahadev Temple, Kshemadevi Temple, and Larke Ghyang are the popular pilgrimages in the district [50]. The district has two hot springs and little is known about the Sailung village in Jugal rural municipality. 3.4.4.1 Kodari Hot Spring When people living in Kathmandu Valley and the surrounding areas talk about a visit to Tatopani (literally meaning hot water), they mean Kodari Tatopani. Very few people are aware that it is just one of the few most popular thermal areas in Nepal. Kodari Tatopani is located on the banks of Bhotekoshi River at Kodari near the Nepal–China border, about 114  km from Kathmandu. Kodari is the last village before crossing the bridge to China and is basically a 2 km long village with houses and buildings along the road and squeezed between the road and the river. The sign posted hot springs are at the northern end of the village, down steps towards the Bhotekoshi River.

3.5  Eastern Nepal

119

Activities here take a festive turn in December when thousands of people from the surrounding villages and Kathmandu valley throng here to take a bath. Kodari Tatopani consists of two areas for males and females and partitioned by a concrete wall and covered with a roof. Sprightly colored lion heads spout the spring water between their fanged teeth. The temperature of the water is 42 °C flowing at the rate of 5.5 l/s. Apart from the spouts, the site houses a hot spring water pool, and a relaxing recline in the sauna room. Domestic and foreign tourists visiting Kodari Tatopani from Kathmandu with expectations of enjoying a relaxing dip after a 4-h drive may experience that the hot springs are far from a delight – more like a hot shower in a damp and dark room. They might be a little bit frustrated at not finding an open hot water pool. On their way back, however, they will feel that the visit was worth the expense. Several waterfalls between Kodari and Barhabise as well as the beautiful landscape en route make the trip a thrilling experience. Apart from the spouts, there used to be a swimming pool filled mostly with children who took turns doing back flips into the murky waters. Realizing the need to improve the infrastructure coupled with the skinny showering by people from the northern border, a new plan replaced the old structure. The open spouts are covered and a pool built underneath the beautiful Shiva temple. The entire market area around the thermal spring faced massive devastation from the April 2015 earthquake. As a result, the trade route to China had to be closed for 3  years. Its recent re-opening has created hope for using the spring water again. However, the road leading to Kodari from Barhabise is prone to landslides, travel is not advised during monsoon season. While Kathmanduites visit the area during the winter for recreation, the locals and the Chinese staff at the border checkpoint often visit this spring to seek solace and refreshment. Businessmen from surrounding areas and Kathmandu go to the nearby Khasa market in China via Kodari all year round, fostering the local hotels and restaurants. Locals visit Tatopani for the purification of blood, freedom from skin diseases, and elimination of gastric problems through the reactivation of a dull metabolism, removal of toxins, muscle relaxation, and rehabilitation (Figs. 3.86 and 3.87).

3.5 Eastern Nepal 3.5.1 Dhanusha District Dhanusha is one of the southern Terai districts of Nepal, with Janakpur as its district headquarters. Besides emerging as a national commercial and administrative hub of Terai, this district has remained one of the major religious centers in the country with great tourism potential. Social and gender-based exclusion and discriminatory practices are embedded in everyday life, thereby thwarting social, economic,

120

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.86  Kodari hot spring besides Bhote Koshi river

Fig. 3.87  Kodari hot spring premise

cultural and political opportunities for large portions of the population in the district. Over two thirds of Dhanusha is cultivable. Fisheries are another agricultural facet of Dhanusha. Janakpur is widely known as the birthplace of Goddess Sita who was married to Lord Ram and is one of the top destinations of pilgrimage for Hindus from Nepal, India and overseas after the Pashupatinath Temple in Kathmandu. Sita Janaki Temple in Dhanusadham is one of the district’s centers of attraction. According to Hindu mythology, a part of God Shiva’s bow that Lord Rama broke is said to have fallen here. A Mithila Women’s Art Center is also a tourist attraction in the area. The district is housed with many standard hotels [51].

3.5  Eastern Nepal

121

3.5.1.1 Janakpur Hot Spring It has been reported that in Janakpurdham, a spring well exists with temperature 38 °C, however, it does not deserve tourist attraction as the source is invisible. Only the locals use the water for bathing and laundering.

3.5.2 Sankhuwasabha District Sankhuwasabha district is known for the deepest valley in the world, the Arun Valley, which is also famous for cardamom farming. With its headquarters located in Khandbari, the district is blessed with many places of religious, cultural, natural and spiritual significance. Sabha Pokhari is a natural lake located at an altitude of 4240 m at the foot of Lumba Sumba Himal in the district. According to a Hindu mythology, this is the place where a wise ascetic named Byasa (the author of Vedas, the Hindu holy scripts) once organized a gathering of all 88,000 sages, saints, and ascetics and gave a speech on how humans can acquire peace and attain heaven after death. The beautiful landscape also attracts the people for trekking. Makalu Barun National park and Conservation Area is one amongst the must-­ visit places in Nepal. The park houses some of the country’s richest and unique species of flora and fauna. Chhyankuti, located en route to Mt. Makalu Base Camp, 10  km north of Khandbari, is one of the most beautiful sites from where one can see the snow-­ capped Mt. Makalu and the other Himalayan peaks, the green forests, and Arun Valley. The Manakamana Devi (Durga in her original form) Temple is located at the north of Tumlingtar on the eastern bank of Arun river where the Durga’s ancient stone idol is enshrined along with the idols of Lord Shiva, Lord Ganesh and many more [52]. The district is also blessed with three hot springs. 3.5.2.1 Nundhaki Hot Spring This is one of the few hot springs in eastern Nepal to visit if you want to feel your worries melt away during your strenuous journey. Whether you are looking for a resort experience complete with fine local dining or a full natural view, Nundhaki hot spring is a perfect jumping off point. This hot spring is located in Chainpur Rural Municipality ward no. 1 – just 17 km away from Chainpur Bazaar (district headquarters). The spring water stays between 30 and 36 °C during November to January. At other times of the year, however, its temperature is just tepid (around 27  °C). The spring water flows at 70 l/s, the highest flow rate recorded in the Nepalese hot springs. The water flows south to north at the source, against the

122

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

north–south flow, in most part due to the country’s topography. Hence, local people believe that such water should possess unique divine powers for healing. There still exists a cave called Gufa Pokhari near the hot spring source which was used by early sages to exit at a point near the Nundhaki pond. Locals are worried that the road leading over the natural cave section could be unstable causing harm to the cultural value of the cave. In this spring site, you can enjoy Limbu culture, lifestyle and food. In a bid to make the spring a tourist destination, a 3-year project was started in 2017 by a local resident Prem Sanjaya Limbu. Starting with a small amount in donations from the Nepalese diaspora (mainly from Malaysia, Korea, Hong Kong and Singapore) it turned into a record highest investment project for a hot spring site in Nepal executed at the community level. The Nundhaki Tatopani Religious and Tourist Area Conservation Committee has also been established to seek cooperation from different entities for the development of the hot spring area (Figs. 3.88 and 3.89). Currently, statues of Lord Shiva and a lion have been erected in the vicinity along with a community hall and a change room with four partitions for men and women. Efforts are underway to expand the infrastructure. The Yellow Villa Community Homestay has already been established. If you are visiting this site, the Homestay

Fig. 3.88  Nundhaki hot spring, 2021. (Source: https://heartfmdharan.com.np)

3.5  Eastern Nepal

123

Fig. 3.89  Nundhaki hot spring. (Source: https://heartfmdharan.com.np)

will welcome you at an affordable price. It also provides delicious local organic foods and drinks. A combination of night fire, free WIFI, folk music along with local ‘tinpane’ (local whisky) and ‘tongba’ (local beer made of rye), provides full entertainment to a guest and makes the stay memorable (Fig. 3.90). Till now, the spring water is used only for drinking, bathing and laundering. Two swimming pools have been recently constructed just below the spring site to utilize the spring water directly (Fig. 3.91). One should not expect constant temperature of the pool water throughout the year as the spring water temperature varies greatly during different seasons. However, the locals can enjoy the pool even during winter when the surrounding water is generally frozen. Given the volume of spring water with a high flow rate, there are prospects to harness this huge geothermal water resource for fish farming. The spring water has been consumed directly by the locals for decades, with no known side effects. The hugely wasted mineral water can be bottled and sold elsewhere for drinking once its content is justified through biological and chemical analyses. Apart from being a tourist destination, the spring site possesses a great religious value. In 1589, Jaya Man Thaklung established a Mahadev temple in the vicinity. The Singhdevi ‘peeth’ (pilgrimage site) is revered by locals for its power to bestow blessings. On Balachaturdashi day (a Hindu holiday), an annual festival takes place when a crowd from distant places visit the area and have a holy bath in the spring water. The spring site can be accessed via direct flight from Kathmandu to Tumlingtar followed by a challenging 14 km, a 2-h drive through gravel road. Alternatively, one can pick a direct bus route from Kathmandu or Biratnagar to Dharan followed by Hile (Dhankuta district), and Basantapur. From there, one can either follow the route to Sanischare and Chainpur or follow Tute Deurali, Tinjure and Gufa Pokhari which lie 7 km upstream from the spring site (Fig. 3.92).

124

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.90  People enjoying local food with tongba (local drink made of rye) at the Community Homestay of Nundhaki hot spring site. (Source: Prem Limbu)

Fig. 3.91  Swimming pools at Nundhaki, 2022

3.5  Eastern Nepal

125

Fig. 3.92  Location of Nundhaki hot spring

3.5.2.2 Hatiya Hot Spring Five hot spring sources exist within 50  m2 of the Bhotkhola rural municipality, Hatiya village development committee, ward no. 4. The remote location of these springs at the northernmost part of Sankhuwasabha district makes them tricky to access. The water temperature from all the sources are tepid, ranging from approximately 24 to 30 °C. However, its value is felt by the local people who survive with ambient temperature much less than this during winter. Apart from drinking, this is the only source of water for the locals for bathing where no other sources of energy is affordable for heating water. Laundering has always been the other way of tapping this energy source (Fig. 3.93). 3.5.2.3 Bhot Khola Hot Spring If you are an adventurous trekker craving a relaxing soak in naturally heated mineral water, there is a spring waiting for you on the bank of the Arun River! It is just an hour walk from the closest Kimanthaka Highway and is the best option to access during spring through autumn. This is the first hot spring you will encounter if you walk north from Khandbari, the district headquarters. Many trekkers marvel at this remote hike off-the-beaten path. In the summertime, you may need to clear your own path to discover the trails by using a few cowboy tricks. Local residents report that an incense lit from a distance of 20 m triggers the spring water to boil. What chemicals cause it to boil remains a mystery.

126

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

Fig. 3.93  Hatiya hot spring. (Source: Prem Limbu)

Other Unknown Hot Springs in Eastern Nepal Some reports show the existence of a hot spring on the Nepal-India border in Mechi zone. An article titled ‘Resourcing Nepal and Eastern Nepal’ reports: “In Antu, the source of the Mechi River, it is said that a long time ago people would come to enjoy the hot spring, not only for pleasure but also for its curative properties”. The river forms the border between Nepal and India. Where this spring existed in the past remains a mystery. It is likely that the source of the water was blocked by earthquakes or the local people. For instance, three thermal springs at various locations in Kathmandu, emitting mildly hot water with high flow rates, were blocked by locals in the 1970s to prevent undesirable bathing activities in the residential areas.

References 1. Darchula District Coordination Committee, Government of Nepal, December (2021). https:// dccdarchula.gov.np/ne-­brief-­introduction/ (in Nepali language) 2. https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/tapoban,_darchula 3. Bajhang District Coordination Committee, Government of Nepal, December (2021). https:// dccbajhang.gov.np/ne-­brief-­introduction/ (in Nepali language) 4. Amatya, J.: Getting into hot water. https://colorfulnepal.com/travel-­destinations/getting-­into-­ hot-­water.html 5. Ghorahi Municipality: https://ghorahimun.gov.np (in Nepali). Retrieved December (2020)

References

127

6. Sharma, D.R.: Archeological Remains of the Dang Valley, pp. 9–10. University of Cambridge: Digital Himalaya, New Haven. (Year not found in the citing at Wikipedia) 7. Ganga, K.C.: Maghi – the festival among the tharus. Patan Pragya. 5(1), 84–94 (Sept. 2019) 8. https://nepalindata.com/resource/District-­profile%2D%2DDolpa 9. Namkha Rural Municipality/International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD): Kailash Confluence, Reviving connections for a sustainable future Sept (2018) 10. http://www.thegreathimalayatrail.org/humla 11. Amatya, S.: Water and Culture. Jalsrot Bikas Sanstha, Kathmandu (2003) 12. https://www.loksambad.com/news/13600 13. Rawat Rajan – (No title of article), 3 March (2021). https://gorkhapatraonline.com/tourism/ 2021-­03-­03-­33020 14. Palika news  – hot spring pools of Humla for hydrotherapy (nepali language). https://www. palikanews.com/2021/01/26312/ 15. Jumla District Coordination Committee, Government of Nepal, December (2021). https:// dccjumla.gov.np 16. Ranjit, M.: Geochemical Studies of Some Thermal Springs in Nepal, Reports 11, pp. 267–290. The United Nations University Geothermal Training Programme, Reykjavik (1994) 17. Mugu District Coordination Committee, Government of Nepal, December (2021). https://dccmugu.gov.np 18. Shahi, R.B.: Hot spring area crowded after tap water frozen (in Nepali language). Kantipur Daily, 24 December (2020) 19. Rukum: Virgin land – a new tourism destination in Nepal Himalayan Mentor, 30 June 2014. Retrieved 30 Oct 2021 20. RAOnline Nepal: Trekkings in Nepal  – new trekking routes in Nepal-Guerrilla tourist trail launched. www.raon.ch. Retrieved 22 Oct 2020 21. Thabang Bhume – Magar Festival in Nepal (in Russian), 20 October 2019. https://discoveringnepal.ruplayers.com/spmH2bqVrGBhho0/thabang-­bhume-­bhum-­n-­ca-­magar-­festival-­in-­ nepal.html. Retrieved 20 Oct. 2021 22. Naya Yougbodh  – National daily 13 August (2020). nayayougbodh.com/news/2020/ 08/13/817900 23. Khadka, M.R.: Hot springs attracting the tourists (in Nepali language). Karobar Daily, 19 November (2018). https://www.karobardaily.com/news/ 24. Thaha Khabar: Increasing number of visitors in the Eastern Rukum hot spring (in Nepali language), 29 January (2021). https://thahakhabar.com/news/117217 25. Khatri Chhetri, M.: Rukum hot springs in shadow (in Nepali language), Annapurna Post 15 December (2016). https://annapurnapost.com/news/60737 26. Niraula N.: Bulbule lake. https://www.landnepal.com/details/2071.html 27. Nepal National News  – Rastriya Samachar Samiti: Surkhet to expand Bulbule lake, 6 September (2021) 28. Carter, H.A.: Classification of the Himalaya (PDF). Am. Alp. J. 27(59), 127–129 (1985) Retrieved 1 May 2011. http://c498469.r69.cf2.rackcdn.com/1985/109_carter_himalaya_ aaj1985.pdf 29. Loar, J.: Goddesses for Every Day: Exploring the Wisdom and Power of the Divine Feminine Around the World, p. 287. New World Library, Novato (2011) ISBN 978-1-57731-950-4 30. Gorkha District Coordination Committee, Government of Nepal, December (2021). https:// dccgorkha.gov.np/ne-­brief-­introduction/ 31. Bista, A.: Medication for skin diseases: hot and saline water site in Gorkha awaiting for protection (in Nepali language), 24 February (2020). https://npstarmedia.com/15733 32. Handbook of District Development Committee, Kaski. Pokhara, pp. 3–5 (2015) 33. Kaski District Coordination Committee, Government of Nepal, December (2021). https:// dcckaski.gov.np/ne-­brief-­introduction/ 34. Tandavnews: Hot spring awaiting conservation (in Nepali language), 14 May (2019). https:// www.tandavnews.com/2019/05/23577

128

3  Profile of Hot and Healing Springs in Nepal

35. District Profile of Lamjung: Central Bureau of Statistics, Government of Nepal (2016) 36. District Profile of Manang, Central Bureau of Statistics, Government of Nepal (2016) 37. Annapurna Circuit with Tilicho Lake Trek. https://www.viator.com/tours/Kathmandu/ Annapurna-­Circuit-­with-­Tilicho-­Lake-­Trek/d5109-­74243P36?mcid=56757 38. Myagdi District  – Gandaki Province, 7 June (2021). https://www.hopnepal.com/blog/ myagdi-­district-­gandaki-­province 39. Baniya, K.B.: The power of Myagdi hot springs (in Nepali language) Beni online, 10 December (2074) 40. Kaligandaki Media: Darmija hot spring in a new look (in Nepali language), 6 September (2020) 41. Myagdionline: Infrastructure development in the overshadowed Gurja hot spring (in Nepali language), 15 May (2018). https://myagdionline.com/archives/20017 42. Tandavnews: Hot springs of Myagdi: a boon (in Nepali language), 8 June (2018). https://www. tandavnews.com/2018/12/15108 43. Mustang District Coordination Committee, Government of Nepal, December (2021). https:// dccmustang.gov.np/ne-­brief-­introduction/ 44. Kingdom of Mustang: Himalayan expeditions. https://himalayanexpeditions.com/wp/trips/ kingdom-­of-­mustang/ 45. Dhading District Coordination Committee, Government of Nepal, December (2021). https:// dccdhading.gov.np/ne-­brief-­introduction/ 46. Dolakha District Coordination Committee, Government of Nepal, December (2021). https:// dccdolakha.gov.np/ne-­brief-­introduction/ 47. Manandhar, R.: Dolakha is a holy trinity of nature, culture and architecture. Kathmandu Post, 23 September (2021). https://kathmandupost.com/travel/2020/02/22/ dolakha-­is-­a-­holy-­trinity-­of-­nature-­culture-­and-­architecture 48. Rasuwa District Coordination Committee, Government of Nepal (2021). https://dccrasuwa. gov.np/ne-­brief-­introduction/ 49. Sindhupalchowk District Coordination Committee, Government of Nepal (2021). https://dccsindhupalchowk.gov.np/en/brief-­introduction 50. http://archive.rapnepal.com/district/district-­profile-­1 51. Dhanusha District Coordination Committee, Government of Nepal (2021). https://dccdhanusha.gov.np/ne-­brief-­introduction/ 52. Sankhuwasabha District Coordination Committee, Government of Nepal. https://dccsankhuwasabha.gov.np/ne-­brief-­introduction/

Part II

This part provides an overview of the application and potential benefits of geothermal waters in several fronts. It consists of four parts. The first part presents the worldwide applications of geothermal energy with an introduction to the basic types of this energy resource. The application part is discussed in terms of power generation and direct utilization. The latter part is a composite of various sections such as space heating, greenhouse and covered ground heating, aquaculture, agricultural crop drying, industrial process heating, bathing and swimming, and snow melting. Process details with suitable diagrams provide a technical idea to the general reader to apply techniques for direct uses of geothermal water. It also points out the growing trend in the application of geothermal heat pumps in the world. Some activities related to power generation, industrial application and geo-cooling application in Nepal are also presented. Hot springs have provided many health benefits to the people worldwide for a long time. Along with interesting histories of soaking in hot waters, a review of scientific literature gives an insight into the long efforts in recognizing various diseases that can benefit from hot and healing springs. A case study of treating Singa hot spring water for musculoskeletal problems is also presented. It describes the strong link between water and culture in Nepal and some other countries with interesting examples. Myths and legends surrounding the Hindu culture and some religious communities along with the significance of artistic spouts in hot spring showers are discussed. This part also outlines the nexus between tourism and infrastructure development for the optimal use of hot springs in Nepal. Many hot springs are still poorly known or underutilized for the lack of accessible roads, lack of accommodation facilities, and popularization. It provides information about the current road networks in the hilly and mountainous areas where most of the hot springs are located. Various governmental, non-governmental and private institutions play significant role in the utilization of geothermal resources in Nepal. Action plans are presented for the better utilization of this resource. It also provides information about opportunities of external support for private partnership in the projects including geothermal.

Chapter 4

Applications of Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is just as inexhaustible and renewable as solar energy, and has the added advantage of being continuously available. Its production cost is less than that of fossil energy. The high temperature geothermal fields have been utilized in some countries for electricity generation. Its front-end expenses are often high if the production wells are deep and the ground is rocky. Still, the cost of generating geothermal power has decreased by 25% over the past two decades. Many nations of the world with low temperature geothermal resources are deprived of opportunity. But recent technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of geothermal resources, especially for applications such as building heating. As a result, the capacity use of such energy has grown by three times compared to electricity generation. The following figure shows the uneven use of geothermal energy for electricity and other purposes around the world [1] (Fig. 4.1). The temperature of thermal springs can reach 350 °C (662 °F). At that temperature, “direct heating” is possible. If the groundwater temperature exceeds 150 °C (302 °F), then “flash steam” power plants can be built. And if the water temperature is between 100 and 150 °C (212–302 °F), then “binary cycle” power plants can be operated as depicted in Fig. 4.2.

4.1 Basic Types of Geothermal Technologies Geothermal energy is now used to produce electricity, to heat and cool buildings as well as for other industrial purposes like grain and lumber drying, pulp and paper processing, fruit and vegetable cultivation, soil warming, to run fisheries or greenhouses, to dry cement, or (the really hot stuff) to make hydrogen and many others.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Ranjit, Hot Springs in Nepal, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99500-3_4

131

132

4  Applications of Geothermal Energy

Fig. 4.1  Imbalance between direct and indirect uses of geothermal energy worldwide. (Source: Geo-Heat Center, Oregon Institute of Technology, U.S.)

Only a small fraction of the world’s geothermal potential has been developed so far, which leaves enough room for growth and development in both electricity and direct use sectors. 1. Existing power plant technologies enable generation of electricity either directly from [3]:

(i) high temperature steam. (ii) steam-water mixtures using flash (meaning the underground water isn’t boiled directly) technology. Flash plants require heat of at least 200 °C. (iii) geothermal water with intermediate temperature (70–170 °C) using binary technology. In a binary cycle plant of Organic Ranking Cycle (ORC) type the geothermal fluid (water, steam or both) passes a heat exchanger heating another working fluid (i.e. isopentane or isobutane) with a low boiling point, which vaporizes and drives a turbine. This is called ‘steam flashing’ meaning the underground water is not boiled directly two or more of the above basic plant types. This is called combined or hybrid plants These plants are designed to improve versatility, increase overall thermal efficiency, and improve load-following capability. (iv) cogeneration plants, or Combined Heat and Power plants (CHP), which produce both electricity and hot water for district heating at significantly higher efficiency than can be achieved by just generation electricity or supplying heat.

4.1  Basic Types of Geothermal Technologies

133

Fig. 4.2  The continuum of geothermal energy technology applications and uses [2]. (Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Geovision 2019)

134

4  Applications of Geothermal Energy

4.2 Systems in Application for Exploitation The following four types of systems are in operation to exploit the geothermal energy:

4.2.1 Conventional Hydrothermal Resources In a few select areas, water or steam heated by Earth’s core rises through relatively permeable rock, full of fissures and fractures, only to become trapped under an impermeable caprock. These giant reservoirs of pressurized hot water often reveal themselves on the surface through fumaroles or hot springs. Once a reservoir is located, exploratory wells are drilled until a suitable location can be located for a production well. The hot water that rises through that well can range from just over ambient temperature to 370 °C, depending on the field (to get into temperatures hotter than that requires going deeper). Once heat is extracted from them, the fluids are cooled and returned to the field via an injection well, to maintain pressure. Almost all conventional geothermal projects, most of what’s now running, make use of high-quality hydrothermal resources (Fig. 4.3).

4.2.2 Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) Conventional geothermal systems are limited to specialized areas where heat, water, and porosity come together just so. But those areas are limited. There’s plenty of heat stored down in all that normal, solid, nonporous rock, though. A geothermal developer makes its own reservoir by drilling down into solid rock and injecting water at high pressure through one well. The rock is fractured to let the water pass through, and then collect the heated water through another well (Fig. 4.4).

4.2.3 Super-Hot-Rock (SHR) Geothermal At the far horizon of EGS is “superhot rock” geothermal, which seeks to tap into extremely deep, extremely hot rock. At extremely high heat, the performance of geothermal doesn’t just rise, it takes a leap. When water exceeds 373 °C and 220 bars of pressure, it becomes “supercritical,” a new phase that is neither liquid nor gas. There are two important things about supercritical water. First, its enthalpy is much higher than water or steam, meaning it holds anywhere from 4 to 10 times more energy per unit mass. And second, it is so hot that it almost doubles the Carnot efficiency of its conversion to electricity.

4.2  Systems in Application for Exploitation

135

Fig. 4.3  Idealized cross-section of a hydrothermal resource showing various conceptual elements of a high-temperature hydrothermal reservoir. (Source: Geovision, U.S.  Department of Energy, modified after Cumming, 2009 [2, 4])

The promise of these resources is that one well accessing a reservoir at these temperatures can produce 5–10 times the energy than a conventional geothermal well. Using technology that is either available today or near deployment, these resources can be developed for much lower cost than conventional geothermal resources, enabling them to compete with solar, wind and gas generation [5].

4.2.4 Advanced Geothermal Systems (AGS) AGS refers to a new generation of “closed loop” systems, in which no fluids are introduced to or extracted from the Earth; there’s no fracking (hydraulic fracturing to release hydrocarbon). Instead, fluids circulate underground in sealed pipes and boreholes, picking up heat by conduction and carrying it to the surface, where it can be used for a tunable mix of heat and electricity. Closed-loop geothermal systems have been around for decades, but a few startups have recently amped them up with technologies from the oil and gas industry.

136

4  Applications of Geothermal Energy

Fig. 4.4  Conceptulization of an enhanced geothermal system

4.4  Direct Utilization

137

4.3 Electrical Power Generation Geothermal power plants use hydrothermal resources that have both water (hydro) and heat (thermal). Geothermal power plants require high-temperature (300 to 700 °F) hydrothermal resources that come from either dry steam wells or from hot water wells. People use these resources by drilling wells into the earth and then piping steam or hot water to the surface. The hot water or steam powers a turbine that generates electricity. Some geothermal wells are as much as 2 miles deep. (https:// www.eia.gov/energyexplained/geothermal/geothermal-­power-­plants.php). Today, geothermal power plants are operating in 29 countries with a total installed power generation capacity of 15,400 MW at the year-end 2019. The leading countries based on installed capacity are the United States, Indonesia, the Philippines, Turkey, Kenya, Mexico, New Zealand, Italy, Japan and Iceland [6]. On average, the levelized costs of energy (LCOE) of geothermal electric power at the source is about $0.06 per kWh, which is below the LCOE cost of fossil or nuclear-based electricity. Actually, the only renewable electricity that’s less expensive is wind energy at an LCOE cost of $0.04 to $0.06 per kWh [7]. Bist and Sircar conducted a simulation at Gujrat, India using the software (ASPEN+), and concluded that a satisfactory increase in the enthalpy of water can be achieved (from 60 to 184.7  °C). Based on this improved temperature we can design an ORC consisting of a condenser, pump, turbine and evaporator to generate electricity, up to 240 KW using heat transfer fluid R-134a (1,1,1,2 Tetrafluoroethane) in a plate type heat exchanger (PHE) with the assumption that (i) the efficiency of heat exchanger is 0.95 (ii) the pump compression factor is 2.8 and (iii) the process between pump, heat exchanger and turbine is considered isentropic in nature [8].

4.4 Direct Utilization Direct utilization (direct use) of geothermal energy is one of the oldest, most versatile and most common forms of utilizing geothermal energy. The early history of geothermal direct-use has been reviewed for over 25 countries in the Stories from a Heated Earth – Our Geothermal Heritage which documents geothermal use for over 2000 years [9]. Direct use and district heating systems use hot water from springs or reservoirs located near the surface of the earth. Ancient Roman, Chinese, and Native American cultures used hot mineral springs for bathing, cooking, and heating. Today, many hot springs are still used for bathing, and many people believe the hot, mineral-rich waters have health benefits. Today, the direct use of hot water has received a much wider application. These include geo-heat pumps, bathing and swimming, space heating, greenhouse heating, aquaculture pond heating, industrial applications, irrigation, frost protection creation of a geothermal tourist park, cooking, boiling water etc. (Figs. 4.5 and 4.6).

138

4  Applications of Geothermal Energy

Fig. 4.5  Thermal energy direct use TJ/year (TJ Terajoule; unit of energy equal to a trillion joules). (Source: Geo-Heat Center, Oregon Institute of Technology, U.S.)

Fig. 4.6  Global geothermal direct use 2019 [1]. (Sources: Geo-Heat Center, Oregon Institute of Technology, ENERGYminute 1st April 2021 https://energyminute.ca/single/infographics/1016/ geothermal-­for-­heat/)

4.4  Direct Utilization

139

In modern direct-use systems, a well is drilled into a geothermal reservoir to provide a steady stream of hot water. The water is brought up through the well, and a mechanical system – piping, a heat exchanger, and controls – delivers the heat directly for its intended use. A disposal system then either injects the cooled water underground or disposes of it on the surface. Direct use of hot spring water has been made in various ways, for example, space heating, agricultural residue drying, swimming pool, greenhouses, aquaculture. The five countries with the largest direct use, without geothermal heat pumps, in installed capacity (MWt) are: China, Turkey, Japan, Iceland and Hungary, accounting for 76.0% of the world capacity. This is also based on the figures reported by 38 countries at the WGC 2020. The five countries with the largest annual energy use (TJ/ year), without geothermal heat pumps, are: China, Turkey, Japan, Iceland and New Zealand, accounting for 76.5% of the world use (Fig. 4.7).

Fig. 4.7  Comparison of worldwide direct use of geothermal energy in TJ/year from 1995, 2000, 2005, 2010, 2015 and 2020 [10]

140

4  Applications of Geothermal Energy

The five countries with the largest direct use (with geothermal heat pumps) installed capacity (MWt) are: China, USA, Sweden, Germany and Turkey, accounting for 71.1% of the world capacity and five countries with largest annual energy use with geothermal heat pumps (TJ/year) are: China, USA, Sweden, Turkey and Japan, accounting for 73.4% of the world use. However, an examination of the data in terms of land area or population shows that the smaller countries dominate, especially the Nordic ones. The “top five” for installed capacity (MWt/population) then become Iceland, Sweden, Finland, Switzerland and Norway; and for annual energy use (TJ/year/population) Iceland, Sweden, Finland, Norway and New Zealand. The largest percentage increase in geothermal installed capacity (MWt) over the past 5 years was in Iceland, Hungary, France, Egypt and Australia; and in terms of annual energy use (TJ/year) over the past 5 years was in Spain, Yemen, Australia, Kenya and Georgia. Most of these increases were due to geothermal heat pumps installations or better reporting on bathing and swimming use from 38 countries [10].

4.4.1 Space Heating Space heating with geothermal energy is one of the most common and widespread direct uses of geothermal resources. Space heating comprises over 37% of the total direct use worldwide (See Fig. 4.1). If geothermal heat pumps are included, space heating accounts for more than 50% of all geothermal non-electric uses. Space heating is also one of the oldest direct uses of geothermal, and as early as the fourteenth century the inhabitants of the French village of Chaudes-Aigues Cantal were enjoying the benefits of geothermal space heating delivered to them via a district heating network that is still in operation today. In the U.S., many cities in the west enjoy direct use space heating, many dating from the early 1900s. Space heating can be provided by means of pumped wells or through the use of downhole heat exchangers. In the case of a pumped well, the geothermal water is pumped from the well and to the structure where a heat exchanger transfers the energy from the geothermal source to an in-building system. The geothermal water is then returned to the aquifer via an injection well or disposed to the surface. Where temperatures are insufficient to meet the space heating requirements of residential or commercial buildings, heat pumps can be used to boost the temperature to desired levels. Space heating can be provided on a building -by -building basis or increasingly via a district heating network that supplies the needs of multiple consumers via an underground piping network connected to one or multiple wells or downhole heat exchangers. Provision of space cooling is also possible using geothermal resources either through use of a reversing heat pump or if temperatures are high enough, that is >100 to 110 °C, through the use of absorption technology. Although provision of cooling from direct heat geothermal has to date been very uncommon, increasing

4.4  Direct Utilization

141

worldwide demand for air conditioning will almost surely result in further research and developments in this area [11]. Based on the reports submitted to the World Geothermal Congress 2020, space heating, including individual space heating and district heating, has increased 68.0% in installed capacity and 83.8% in annual energy use over its report in 2015. In comparison 91% of the installed capacity and 91% of the annual energy use is in district heating (29 countries). The leaders in individual space heating and district heating in terms of both capacity and annual energy use are China, Iceland, France, Germany, Hungary, Japan, Russia, Turkey, and United States [10].

4.4.2 Greenhouses and Covered Ground Heating For the past 25 years, greenhouse heating has been the most common use of geothermal energy in agriculture. In many European countries, geothermal heat is used to produce vegetables, fruits and flowers on a commercial scale all year round. The use of geothermal energy to heat greenhouses has several benefits: Geothermal energy often costs less than energy from other available sources. –– Geothermal heating systems are relatively simple to install and maintain. –– Greenhouses account for a large share of agriculture’s total consumption of low enthalpy energy. –– Greenhouse production areas are often close to low-enthalpy geothermal reservoirs. –– It improves the efficiency of food production by making use of locally available energy sources. Greenhouses use a variety of geothermal heating systems, such as finned pipes, fan coil units, soil heating, plastic tubing, cascading, bare pipes, unit heaters, or a combination of these. Geothermal greenhouses are heated in two main ways: through natural air movement, and through forced air movement. The water for heating greenhouses ranges from 40 to 100  °C, depending on the required temperature within the greenhouse [12]. General design criteria greenhouses can be heated in several ways: using perforated plastic tubes running the length of the greenhouse to circulate air that has been passed over hot water in finned-coil heat exchangers, and to distribute heat uniformly [13]. (i) circulating hot water in pipes or ducts on or under the floor (ii) circulating heat through finned units along the walls and under benches (iii) using hot water to heat the greenhouse surfaces; or (iv) applying a combination of these methods. Greenhouses are built on steel or aluminum frames covered by glass, plastic film, fiberglass and/or other rigid plastics. Common greenhouse shapes are shown in Fig. 4.8. Glass is the most expensive covering material and also the heaviest, requiring a stronger frame,

142

4  Applications of Geothermal Energy

Fig. 4.8 Common shapes of greenhouse (Source: Lund, J.W.) United Nations University Geothermal Training Programme (1996) [13]

often with a peaked roof. Glass greenhouses also cost more to heat than others, because cold air infiltrates through the building joints and a single layer of glass provides low insulation. However, although glass greenhouses have the lowest energy efficiency, they also provide the highest light quality. Today, many greenhouses have plastic coverings and arched or hut-shaped frames. Recently, a double layer of plastic is sometimes used, with a small blower to maintain sufficient air pressure to keep the two layers separate. This provides insulation, reducing heat loss by up to 30–40%, thereby increasing the overall efficiency of the greenhouses. Fiberglass greenhouses are similar to glass ones but lighter. They cost less to construct than glass greenhouses, but the heat loss is about the same. Water is driven through copper or steel pipes with aluminum or steel fins, which are placed under or on top of the soil between plants, on benches, or suspended from the roof. Air is blown through a horizontal or vertical hot water unit heater consisting of a finned coil and a small propeller fan. The air is heated by the hot water running inside the system of pipes and is discharged either into a perforated distribution tube or directly into the greenhouse [13]. To heat the soil, pipes are usually buried in the floor of the greenhouse to create a huge radiator. Heat from the water circulating inside the pipes is transferred to the soil and air in the greenhouse. Two types of heating tube system are currently used for greenhouse soil heating: (i) double-­ serpentine piping systems; and (ii) single-serpentine piping systems (Fig. 4.9). The soil is heated by passing geothermal water through a grid of corrugated polypropylene pipes spaced at 1–2 m intervals and usually about 65–85 cm from the soil surface. The inlet water temperature in the polypropylene pipe system is about 60 °C and the used water is ejected at a temperature of 25 °C. The flow rate of the inlet water is controlled to maintain a soil temperature of 20–30  °C.  Wastewater from greenhouses is sometimes used to heat soil, but it is more common to have a separate supply [14].

4.4  Direct Utilization

Double

143

Single

Fig. 4.9  Soil heating systems for greenhouses. (Source: Geo-Heat Center, Klamath Falls, Oregon (USA))

The factors affecting the temperature distribution in a cross-section of soil above the pipes are air temperature, inlet and outlet water temperatures, the surface heat transfer coefficient of the soil, the effective thermal conductivity of the soil, and the depth of and distance between the pipes. At least 32 countries are using greenhouse farming these days. The leading countries in annual energy use for this farming are Turkey, China, Netherlands, Russia and Hungary, accounting for about 83% of the world’s total. The main crops grown in greenhouses are vegetables and flowers; however, tree seedlings, cacti and fish in ponds (USA), along with fruit such as bananas (Iceland) are also grown. Covered ground heating has been reported in Iceland (vegetables) and Greece (asparagus), using geothermal heat pumps. Since labor is one of the major costs in this sector, developing countries have a competitive advantage when compared with more developed countries. Experimental studies may be conducted in several northern parts of Nepal like Jumla, Manang, Dolpa, upper Myagdi where the temperature is extremely low during winter and electricity is not available.

4.4.3 Aquaculture Pond and Raceway Heating Geothermal hot water is used to heat freshwater in heat exchangers or is mixed with fresh water to obtain suitable temperatures for fish farming. Aquaculture pond and raceway heating are among the most common applications of geothermal energy. They make it possible to carry out aquaculture operations in colder climates or close to markets where alternative heating sources are not economical [15]. The use of geothermal energy in fish farming protects the fish stock against cold weather and increases fish production [16]. It is used mainly at the fish hatchery stage. The

144

4  Applications of Geothermal Energy

breeding of different species of fish in water heated with geothermal energy makes production cheap and profitable all year round. The main species raised are carp, catfish, tilapia, frogs. The use of geothermal energy in fish farming is expanding rapidly in France, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, New Zealand and the United States of America. In Iceland, geothermal energy is used for farming such species as Arctic char, turbot, tilapia and Atlantic halibut. Cold water is heated in a heat exchanger using hot wastewater from a geothermal power plant, or is mixed with water from a hot spring. Once it has reached a suitable temperature – generally about 20–30 °C – the water is pumped into the fish pond. The size of the pond depends on the temperature of the geothermal source, the temperature required for the fish species, and the heat losses incurred during operation [17]. Like greenhouses, aquaculture use of geothermal energy is labor intensive and requires well trained personnel. As this is often difficult to justify economically, growth is slow. Twenty-one countries report this type of use, the main ones in terms of annual energy use being China, United States, Iceland, Italy and Israel. Tilapia, salmon, bass and trout seem the most common species cultivated, but tropical fish, lobsters, shrimp and prawns, as well as alligators, are also being farmed. Two of the main alligator raising facilities are in the United States. It should be noted that if the fish are raised in covered ponds, say by a greenhouse, the energy requirements would be about half. However, very few covered ponds are known to be in use.

4.4.4 Food and Agricultural Crop Drying Drying of agricultural products is a very important process in avoiding wastage and ensuring that nutritious food is available all year round, and during droughts. Lowto medium-enthalpy geothermal resources with temperatures less than 150 °C [18] are used because they have the highest potential for agricultural drying applications [19]. The heat for drying can be obtained from the hot water or steam of geothermal wells or by recovering waste heat from a geothermal plant [20]. The many advantages of using geothermal energy rather than oil and electricity in food processing include the far lower costs of using hot water or steam. In western Nevada, United States of America, a large-scale onion and garlic drying facility employs 75 workers. Continuous conveyor belt dryers approximately 3.8 m wide and 60 m long (Fig. 4.14) are fed 3000–4300 kg/h of wet onions. The capacity of the dryers varies from 500 to 700 kg/h of dried onions, reducing the moisture content of the onions from 85 to about 4% after 24 h of drying [21]. It is well known that grain drying consumes a significant amount of energy annually. These drying processes can easily be adapted to geothermal energy. A deep-bed dryer (batch dryer) commonly used for drying grains (Fig. 4.15) consists of a fan that blows air through a geothermal heat exchanger, where it is heated. The hot air is then distributed uniformly to the product through the perforated floor. The temperature of the hot air is controlled by adjusting the flow rate of geothermal hot

4.4  Direct Utilization

145

water. The drying temperature of some grains can approach 90 °C, but moderate temperatures of 50–60 °C with relative humidity of about 40% is adequate for drying other produce. For example, the drying temperature of coffee berries is about 50–60 °C, that for rice must be maintained below 40 °C to prevent cracking [22]. The moisture content of dried grains should be in the range of 12–13% to prevent mould growth and spoilage (Fig. 4.10). Many food and agricultural industries make use of thermal drying processes to preserve a growing range of foods. In industrialized countries, drying processes use 7–15% of total industrial energy consumption, but their thermal efficiency remains relatively low, at 25–50%. In some highly industrialized countries, drying operations account for more than a third of prime energy consumption [23]. It is therefore necessary to reduce energy consumption by using efficient energy resources for agricultural drying, and low- to medium-enthalpy geothermal resources are the best option. Drying can use heat from the hot water or steam of geothermal wells or the waste heat recovered from a geothermal plant (Fig. 4.11). At least 15 countries are known to use geothermal energy for drying various grains, vegetables and fruit crops. Example includes seaweed (Iceland), onions (USA), wheat and cereals (Serbia), fruit (El Salvador, Guatemala and Mexico),

Air outlet Grain spreader

Bin roof

Bin wall

Grain level Transition duct Heater Blower

Hot water inlet

Perforated floor Concrete floor

Fig. 4.10  Batch grain dryer using geothermal energy. (Source: Geo-Heat Center, Klamath Falls, Oregon (USA))

146

4  Applications of Geothermal Energy 5

4 3

2

6

7

8 9

12 10 11 1

13

Fig. 4.11  Cabinet dryer for drying chillies and garlics. (Source: Gissurarson M. Arason, S. 2018 and Geo Heat Center, Klamath Falls, Oregon (USA) [24]) 1. Window, 2. return air duct, 3. exhaust opening, 4. valve, 5. Inlet, 6. centrifugal fan, 7. air duct, 8. heat exchanger using hot water, 9. hot water tap, 10. insulated walls, 11. grills, 12. shelf for putting grill, 13. door

lucerne or alfalfa (New Zealand), coconut meat (Philippines), and timber (Mexico, New Zealand and Romania). The largest users are China, France, Hungary, United States and Japan, accounting for 94% of the world’s use. Fish Drying Indoor drying has been applied for more than 43 years in regions where geothermal energy is available. Salted fish, cod heads, cod backbones, small fish and stockfish are among the products most commonly dried in this way. Fish is dried in a two-step process: (i) primary drying in a rack tunnel dryer or conveyor dryer for 24–40 h at a drying temperature of 20–26 °C, to reduce the moisture content from 80% to 55%;

4.4  Direct Utilization

147

and (ii) secondary drying in containers for 3 days at a temperature of 22–26 °C, resulting in a moisture content of about 15% [25] (Fig. 4.12). Algae Cultivation Spirulina and other algae are sold as health foods and medical cures in many countries around the world. Spirulina is “a photosynthesizing cyanophyte (blue green algae) that grows vigorously in strong sunshine under high temperatures and highly alkaline conditions”. When conditions are good, production is constant and of high quality. Spirulina is usually cultivated in shallow ponds, with paddle wheels mixing the culture. Optimum temperatures are between 35 and 37 °C [13]. Irrigation Using Geothermal Water Geothermal water at temperatures in the range of 40 to 75 °C can be used for heating of winter crops in open-field agriculture and greenhouses. It is also used directly for the irrigation of oases. Geothermal water is supplied through a surface irrigation piping system and/or a pipeline heating device buried under the soil. When using geothermal water in irrigation, the chemical composition and salinity of the water must be carefully monitored to prevent damage to the plants [17]. In Tunisia, for example, the use of geothermal water to both heat and irrigate greenhouses is proving to be a promising and economically viable option. After heating the greenhouses, the geothermal water is collected in large concrete ponds where it is cooled and stored until needed for irrigation, usually on nearby fields. Small, simple ponds with plastic linings provide a practical and cheaper alternative for individual farmers [27].

Fig. 4.12  A schematic diagram of continued counter current tray dryer [26]

148

4  Applications of Geothermal Energy

4.4.5 Industrial Process Heat This is a category with applications in 14 countries, in 2020. These operations tend to be large and have high energy consumption, often operating year-round. Examples include concrete curing (Guatemala and Slovenia), bottling of water and carbonated drinks (Bulgaria, Serbia and the United States), milk pasteurization (Romania and New Zealand), leather industry (Serbia and Slovenia), chemical extraction (Bulgaria, Poland and Russia), CO2 extraction (Iceland and Turkey), pulp and paper processing (New Zealand), iodine and salt extraction (Vietnam), and borate and boric acid production (Italy). The installed capacity is 852 MWt and the energy use is 16,390 TJ/ year, an increase of 38.8% and 56.8% respectively, compared to WGC2015. The leaders in energy use (TJ/year) are: China, New Zealand, Iceland, Russia and Hungary, accounting for 98% of the use [10] (Lund, 2020).

4.4.6 Bathing and Swimming Fifty-three countries have spas and resorts with swimming pools heated by geothermal water, including balneology, the treatment of diseases with water, but many never regulate the water flow, even at night when the pool is closed. Some countries do not keep track of pool use. As a result, the actual usage and capacity figures may be off by as much as 20%. Where no flow or temperature drop was reported, estimates of 0.35 MWt and 7.0 TJ/year were applied for capacity and energy use. In other cases, 5 l/s and 10 °C temperature change were used for the installed capacity of 0.21 MWt, and 3 l/s and 10 °C temperature change were used for the annual use of 4.0 TJ/year based on communications with various country update authors. Undeveloped natural hot springs are not included. In addition to the 53 countries (70 reported in 2015, 67 in 2010, and 60 in 2005) that reported bathing and swimming pool use, there are known installations in Denmark, France, Mozambique, Nicaragua, Singapore, and Zambia for which no information was available. The total installed capacity is 12,253 MWt and the energy use is 184,070 TJ/year, up 35.1% and 53.9% respectively over 2015. The largest reported annual energy uses for bathing and swimming are from China, Japan, Turkey, Brazil, and Mexico, accounting for 79.5% of the annual use [ibid.] (Fig. 4.13). Milk Pasteurization Milk is a nutritious food and an important part of the diet of pastoralist communities. The quality of milk deteriorates rapidly after collection, mainly as a result of enzyme activity and the growth of microorganisms, particularly under unhygienic production and storage conditions at ambient temperatures. To prevent enzyme activity and microbial growth, milk must be processed using high-temperature treatments such as pasteurization or the ultra-high temperature (UHT) process [29] (Fig. 4.14).

4.4  Direct Utilization

149

Fig. 4.13  A schematic diagram of swimming pool integration with the sustainable heat source [28]

Fig. 4.14  Milk pasteurization using geothermal water. (Source: Geo-Heat Center, Klamath Falls, Oregon (USA))

150

4  Applications of Geothermal Energy

Geothermal hot water can be used for milk pasteurization and drying processes, while geothermal steam can be used for milk evaporation and the UHT process. A flow chart of the milk pasteurization process is shown in Fig. 4.15. Fresh cold milk at a temperature of 3 °C is preheated to 71 °C in plate heat exchanger A by the hot milk from the homogenizer. The heated milk is then passed through geothermal plate heat exchanger B for pasteurization, where it is heated to at least 78 °C for 15 s. After pasteurization, the hot milk is passed through the homogenizer and then back through plate heat exchanger A where it is cooled to 12 °C. It is finally chilled to 3 °C by cold water in plate heat exchanger C before packaging and storage. The temperature of the inlet geothermal hot water is about 87 °C and the outlet is 77 °C [30]. The hot water and milk fluid flow through the plate heat exchanger as depicted in Fig. 4.16, moving in opposite directions on either side of the plates. Water flow and circulation are controlled by the placement of the plate gaskets, which are installed to prevent mixing of the milk and hot water.

4.4.7 Snow Melting and Space Cooling The very few applications in this area mostly consist of snow melting projects for pavement. Snow melting applications for streets and sidewalks operate in Iceland, Japan, Argentina, United States, and Slovenia, and to a limited extent in Poland and

PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER USER SYSTEM

PRODUCTION WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT

INJECTION WELLHEAD EQUIPMENT

PEAKING/ BACK-UP UNIT

Fig. 4.15  Geothermal direct utilization system using a heat exchanger [13] (Lund, 1996)

4.4  Direct Utilization

151

Hot water outlet (77 °C)

Milk intlet (71 °C)

Hot water inlet (87 °C)

Milk outtlet (78 °C)

Fig. 4.16  Fluid flows through a plate heat exchanger. (Source: Geo-Heat Center, Klamath Falls, Oregon (USA))

Norway. An estimated 2.5 million square meters of pavement are heated worldwide, the majority in Iceland (74%). A project in Argentina uses geothermal steam for highway snow melting in the Andes to keep a resort community open during the winter. In the United States, most of the pavement snow melting is used on the Oregon Institute of Technology campus and in the City of Klamath Falls, where it is part of the district heating system using the lower temperature return water in a heat exchanger with a glycol-water mixture to melt snow on sidewalks and bridge decks. The power required varies from 130 to 180 W/m2 (United States and Iceland). The installed capacity for snow melting is 415 MWt and the energy use is 2389 TJ/ year, a slight decrease over WGC2015. Space cooling (air conditioning) is used in seven countries with Bulgaria being the leader followed by Brazil, Australia, Slovenia, Algeria, Albania and India for a total of 19.9  MWt and 200.1  TJ/year. Heat pumps in the cooling mode are not included as they only return heat to the subsurface, and thus do not use geothermal energy. However, their numbers are included in later discussions since they replace the use of fossil fuels. The total for both uses is: 434.9 MWt and 2589.1 TJ/year.

152

4  Applications of Geothermal Energy

4.4.8 Other Uses This category includes 106 MWt and 1950 TJ/year 34.2% and 35.4% higher respectively compared to 2015. These values are reported in 14 countries, which include animal husbandry, spirulina cultivation, desalination and sterilization of bottles. The largest use is in New Zealand, where it is used in irrigation, frost protection and a geothermal tourist park, followed by Japan (cooking) and Kenya (boiling water).

4.5 Worldwide Applications of Geothermal Heat Pumps Heat from subsurface hot water and steam, has the potential to provide clean, low-­ carbon renewable energy. When the groundwater temperature is less than 100 °C (212 °F), geothermal heat pumps (GHP) can be used. Geothermal heat pumps can do all sorts of things  – from heating and cooling homes to warming swimming pools. In the winter, geothermal heat pumps can take the heat from ground water in a well outside the building, and move it to heat air inside the home. In the summer, reverse the flow, and these same heat pumps can cool the building. These systems transfer heat by pumping water or a refrigerant (a special type of fluid) through pipes just below the Earth’s surface, where the temperature is a constant 50 to 60 °F. During the winter, the water or refrigerant absorbs warmth from the Earth, and the pump brings this heat to the building above. In the summer, some heat pumps can run in reverse and help cool buildings (Fig. 4.17). Illustration of how a geothermal heat pump works: 1. Water or a refrigerant moves through a loop of pipes. 2. When the weather is cold, the water or refrigerant heats up as it travels through the part of the loop that’s buried underground. 3. Once it gets back above ground, the warmed water or refrigerant transfers heat into the building. 4. The water or refrigerant cools down after its heat is transferred. It is pumped back underground where it heats up once more, starting the process again. 5. On a hot day, the system can run in reverse. The water or refrigerant cools the building and then is pumped underground where extra heat is transferred to the ground around the pipes [31]. Among many other alternative energy resources and new potential technologies, the ground source heat pumps (GSHPs) are receiving increasing interest in many countries today  because of their potential to reduce primary energy consumption and thus reduce emissions of greenhouse gases efficiency of a GSHP system is generally much greater than that of the conventional air-source heat pump systems. Higher COP (coefficient of performance) is achieved by a GSHP because the source/sink earth temperature is relatively constant compared to air temperatures. Additionally,

4.6  Geothermal Cooling System

153

Fig. 4.17  Schematic of a geothermal heat pump showing the simplified ground heat-exchanger loop, heat pump, and indoor delivery system [2]. (Source: Modified from Water Furnace International, Inc. 2017. https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2019/06/f63/GeoVision-­full-­ report-­opt.pdf)

heat is absorbed and rejected through water, which is a more desirable heat transfer medium due to its relatively high heat capacity. Almost 59% of the thermal energy from direct use is from heat pumps. The growing awareness and popularity of geothermal (ground-source) heat pumps have had the most significant impact in  58 countries or regions, as clearly seen from Fig. 4.7. The annual installed capacity grew 1.54 times at a compound rate of 9.06%. The annual energy use of these units grew 1.84 times at a compound rate of 12.92% compared to the figures compiled from the reports presented at the World Geothermal Congress in 2015. This is due, in part, to better reporting and the ability of geothermal heat pumps to utilize groundwater or ground-coupled temperatures anywhere in the world.

4.6 Geothermal Cooling System Geothermal cooling systems could be easily implemented in cooling storing unit, refrigeration systems, multiple building cooling as well as for household use. It has low operational cost compared to traditional cooling systems. The system uses

154

4  Applications of Geothermal Energy

water as its primary energy exchanging source. Water is renewable, and the water extracted from the outlet of the condenser could be used for irrigation purposes as well. The overall emission of ozone-depleting gasses also decreases through implementing the geothermal cooling system. Water provides an effective medium for the transfer of energy. It, in turn, also provides an alternative renewable source compared to the traditional cooling system. After further research, the system could be used as a distinct replacement of the traditional air-cooled cooling system.

4.7 Current and Potential Uses of Geothermal Energy Resource in Nepal The utilization of geothermal energy in Nepal should be seen in the context of electricity production in Nepal. In spite of abundant hydroelectric potential, Nepal was not able to harness it even to meet its domestic demand for several decades due to financial constraints. Over the past few decades, the country was able to generate hydroelectricity with the financial loan and ‘Build and Transfer’ (BOT) system. The country has been able to generate 456 MWt of electricity from the Upper Tamakoshi River by fully utilizing the domestic financial resources, including investment from the general public. Such an internal investment is under way in other low scale generation projects as well. Likewise, the attempt to exploit solar energy, wind energy, biogas and uses of improved cook stoves, and improved water mills was made by the Research Centre for Applied Science and Technology (RECAST) of Tribhuvan University, Nepal since 1976 with modest funding from the university and large financial support from external resources. Even though I was associated with RECAST, I conducted chemical analyses and other studies about geothermal energy at my personal interest, without any financial support. Alternate Energy Promotion Center (AEPC) established in 1996 under the Ministry of Energy, Water Supply and Irrigation initiated a minor work in this area in 1997. However, it did not embrace geothermal energy as a renewable energy source as the institution also viewed it as not a viable option for electricity generation. Presently, the Center acts as the focal point for renewable/alternate energy technologies in Nepal. It is transitioning from an implementing agency that provides services like subsidies directly, to a support agency that enables provincial and local governments to promote and implement renewable energy technologies, mainly on solar, wind, biogas and some other technologies. Some staff members at the Department of Mines and Geology, Government of Nepal initiated chemical studies of a few thermal springs in Nepal in early 1970s at the personal level and published a report on the occurrence of hot springs in some parts of Nepal in 2004. No further attempts have been made until now. All these institutions weighed geothermal energy in terms of its ability to generate electricity which apparently could not prove as a viable option because of the low temperature

4.7  Current and Potential Uses of Geothermal Energy Resource in Nepal

155

nature of the thermal sites. Consequently, its role as a source of renewable energy was completely ignored. However, its importance was constantly emphasized at the community level with popularization activities. It is gradually being recognized as a great source of energy for health spa (wellness) and tourism development. Some feasibility studies have also been initiated for space cooling and electricity generation.

4.7.1 Potential for Electricity Generation Many countries including Nepal which are struggling for electricity still tend to judge geothermal energy from the viewpoint of its potential to provide electricity. The Department of Mines and Geology, Government of Nepal initiated chemical studies of a few thermal springs in Nepal in the early 70s and also trained more than half a dozen manpower in Italy in the geothermal field but the geothermal exploration work was completely stopped. Likewise, the Alternate Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC) also wanted to see this resource for electricity generation like other renewable sources solar and wind. It has sponsored a feasibility study in one of the geothermal sites of Nepal in 2021. In 2018, a study was conducted with modest funding from Tribhuvan University in a bid to find if it is technically and economically feasible to generate electricity from the available temperature at Bhurung Tatopani (hot spring), Myagdi district of Nepal [32]. It was  experimented on the stand-alone hybrid solar  – geothermal Organic Ranking Cycle (ORC) technology for power generation from this site with the hot spring temperature 69.7 °C. When this water was fed into the solar collector, the temperature reached 99 °C. The simulation result showed that two different working fluids A and B behave differently when he heat source changed from 70–120 °C. With 1 kg/s mass flow rate of the working fluid A with temperature 70 °C, the power output from the system was 17.5 kW. The power output increased to 25 kW when the hot spring water being heated with solar collector reached the temperature of 99 °C. The thermal efficiency was found to be around 8%. For the working fluid B with the same mass flow rate and temperature, the power output from the system was 22.5 kW. The thermal efficiency was found to be around 10%. The author concluded that the working fluid B could get higher power output due to its thermo-physical characteristics when subjected to various temperature values. The techno-economic analysis for the power output of 30 kW showed the following results: For fluid A, the cost of electricity production is $0.17 kWh with payback period 12 years, benefit cost ratio 1.34 and internal rate of return (IRR) 12%. For fluid B, the cost of electricity production is $0.14 kWh with payback period 5.5 years, benefit cost ratio 1.62 and internal rate of return (IRR) 17%.

156

4  Applications of Geothermal Energy

For both cases, LCOE (levelized cost of energy) was $0.38/kWh. The study concluded that the stand-alone hybrid solar- geothermal ORC system is feasible for power generation and is economically viable. Using silica geothermometer, the subsurface temperature of this site has been estimated at 115 °C [33]. For both cases, LCOE (levelized cost of energy) was $0.38/ kWh. The study concluded that the stand-alone hybrid solar- geothermal ORC system is feasible for power generation and is economically viable. Likewise, the Alternate Energy Promotion Center (AEPC) sponsored a feasibility study to generate electricity from Paudwar hot spring which has surface temperature 66.2 °C and mass flow rate 6.48 kg/s. The simulation used the R227ea as an organic fluid in the closed loop system. The study recommended to use the spring source by applying ORC system under a scenario, where the discounted payback period is 24.06 years and the levelized cost of electricity is NRs. 9.66/kWh, about four-fold less than the Bhurung hot spring, but with much longer payback period [34]. If the water at the subsurface temperature can be used directly by drilling, there is no need to use the hybrid system and can yield even better electricity output. Whether the surface water is used by applying the solar-geothermal hybrid system or the underground water directly, the main question remains as to how long the production can be sustained without knowing the reservoir capacity. For this, a surface geoscientific exploration, drilling, resource assessment, reservoir numerical modeling need to be carried out before initiating the electricity generation works. As stated earlier, water temperature is between 100 and 150 °C (212 to 302 °F), then “binary cycle” power plants can be operated. In Nepal, not a single geothermal site has been identified so far to use the surface water directly unless coupled with other source (solar or wind energy) to raise the temperature to the required range. However, a few geothermal locations have the capacity to do so through this coupled technology or directly using the underground water with temperature above 100 °C by drilling. These sites include: 1. Hot spring at Dhi (Mustang district) with high flow rate and high surface temperature 2. Hot spring at Kermi (Humla district) with excessive flow rate 3. Hot spring at Jagat (Lamjung district) with moderate flow rate and surface water temperature of 80 °C 4. Hot spring at Sadhu Khola (Kaski district) with flow rate 1.39 l/s, surface temperature of 69  °C, geothermometer temperatures (110  °C with silica geothermometer and 115 °C with Na/K ratio)

4.7.2 Industrial Applications So far, Nepal has not made any effort to utilize geothermal water for industrial applications. However, realizing that thermophilic bacteria can produce industrially important enzymes, a study was carried out for enzymatic screening and molecular

4.7  Current and Potential Uses of Geothermal Energy Resource in Nepal

157

characterization of thermophilic bacterial strains that were isolated from a hot spring located at Bhurung, Myagdi district of Nepal. It revealed different thermostable extracellular enzymatic activity of bacterial strains isolated from the spring water. The study confirmed that the isolated Bacillus sp. is a true thermophile and could be a source of various thermostable exozymes which can be exploited for pharmaceutical and industrials applications such as leather, food and waste processing [35]. The study has recommended to: (i) conduct detailed study of the isolates for enhancing the potential of isolates and (ii) perform further optimization of growth parameters for optimum extracellular enzymatic activity of the isolated bacterial strains (iii) identify and clone the gene to produce recombinant enzymes and further use for industrial production.

4.7.3 Geo-cooling Study In Nepal, no geo-heat pumps have been installed nor a feasibility study conducted to date. However, a study on design, and analysis of geothermal cooling system has been concluded in 2019 at Aaurahi, Mahottari district in the Terai Region of Nepal. The area lies in the Siwalik region [36]. A bore was inserted about 50 m below the earth’s surface. A thermally insulated pipe was inserted inside the bore to measure the temperature below the earth. The water from the earth’s surface was found to flow at 20 l/min through the insulated pipe. The water was found to be clean, transparent, with no prevalent sediments. The ambient water temperature remained constant through the measurement at 23 °C, The ambient temperature was found to vary from 24 to 40 °C. The designed geothermal cooling system was found to be much more efficient than a traditional air-cooled cooling system having a theoretical coefficient of performance (COP) around 6.77 and the experimental coefficient of performance around 4.63. This system was also found to produce maximum performance when the difference between the inlet and outlet of water temperature in the condenser is 9.5–10.5 °C. The cooling system was also found to be economically feasible when used higher than 5 h per day through incremental analysis. So far, Nepal has not used geothermal energy for space heating. Studies should be conducted in northern parts like the headquarters of Jumla, Dolpa, and Manang districts covering large government buildings and hotels to see if it is technically and economically feasible.

158

4  Applications of Geothermal Energy

References 1. Heath, M., Foyer, A., Georgescu, C.: How the world uses geothermal for heating. In: ENERGYminute (2021). https://energyminute.ca/single/infographics/1016/ geothermal-­for-­heat. 2. U.S.  Department of Energy, Geovision (2019). https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/ files/2019/06/f63/GeoVision-­full-­report-­opt.pdf. 3. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S.  Department of Energy. https://www.nrel.gov/ research/re-­geo-­elec-­production.html 4. Cumming, W.: Geothermal resource conceptual models using surface exploration data. Thirty-­ Fourth Workshop on Geothermal Reservoir Engineering Proceedings; February 9–11, 2009, Stanford, California. SGP-TR-187. Santa Rosa, CA: Cumming Geoscience, pp. 1–6 (2009). https://pangea.stanford.edu/ERE/db/IGAstandard/record_detail.php?id=5548. Accessed 19 Mar 2019 5. Geothermal Resource Council 2020 Annual Meeting: A case for superhot rock geothermal (2020). https://grc2020.mygeoenergynow.org/case-­superhot-­rock-­geothermal 6. Huttrer, G.: Geothermal Power Generation in the World 2015–2020 Update Report: Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2020 Reykjavik, Iceland, April 26–May 2 (2020) 7. Bela, L.: Three technologies to capture geothermal energy (2020). https://www.controlglobal. com/articles/2020/3-­technologies-­to-­to-­capture-­geothermal-­energy/ 8. Bist, N., Sircar, A.: Hybrid geothermal and solar setup for low enthalpy geothermal reservoirs: a case study from Gujarat, India. Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2020+1 Reykjavik, Iceland, April–October (2021) 9. Cataldi, R., Hodgson, S.F., Lund, J.W.: Stories from a Heated Earth – Our Geothermal Heritage. Geothermal Resources Council, International Geothermal Association, Sacramento (1999) 10. Lund, J.W., Toth, A.N.: Direct utilization of geothermal energy 2020 worldwide review. Proceedings of World Geothermal Congress 2020 Reykjavik, Iceland, April 26–May 2 (2020) 11. Bloomquist, R.G.: Geothermal Space Heating. Washington State University Energy Program (2020). https://pangea.stanford.edu/ERE/pdf/IGAstandard/EGC/szeged/O-­8-­01.pdf 12. Popovski, K., Vasilevska, S.P.: Heating greenhouses with geothermal energy. In Proceedings of the International Geothermal Workshop, 6–10 October 2003, Sochi, Russian Federation. Paper No. W00037, 17pp. (2003) 13. Lund, J.W.: Lectures on Direct Utilization of Geothermal Energy. Report No. 1. United Nations University Geothermal Training Programme, Reykjavik (1996) 14. Kumoro, A.C., Kristanto, D.: Preliminary study on the utilization of geothermal energy for drying of agricultural product. In Proceedings of the International Geothermal Conference, 14–17 September, Reykjavik, Session 14 (2003) 15. Boyd, T.L., Lund, J.W.: Geothermal heating of greenhouses and aquaculture facilities. In Proceedings of the International Geothermal Conference, 14–17 September, Reykjavik, pp. 14–19 (2003) 16. Gelegenis, J., Dalabakis, P., Ilias, A.: Heating of wintering ponds by means of low enthalpy geothermal energy. The case of Porto Lagos. Geothermics. 35, 87–103 (2006) 17. Dickson, M.H., Fanelli, M.: What Is Geothermal Energy? International Geothermal Association (2004). http://www.geothermal-­energy.org/geothermal_energy/what_is_geothermal_energy.html. 18. Muffler, P., Cataldi, R.: Method for regional assessment of geothermal resources. Geothermics. 7(2–4), 53–89 (1978) 19. Ogola, P.F.A., Davidsdottir, B., Fridleifsson, I.B.: Potential contribution of geothermal energy to climate change adaption: a case study of the arid and semi-arid eastern Baringo lowlands, Kenya. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 16(6), 4222–4246 (2012) 20. Vasquez, N.C., Bernardo, R.O., Cornelio, R.L.: Industrial uses of geothermal energy a framework for application in a developing country. Geothermics. 21(5–6), 733–743 (1992)

References

159

21. Lund, J.W.: Direct heat utilization of geothermal resources worldwide 2005. ASEG Ext. Abstr. 1, 1–15 (2006) 22. Abdullah, K., Gunadnya, I.B.P.: Use of geothermal energy for drying and cooling purposes. In Proceedings of the 2010 world geothermal congress, 25–29 April 2010, Bali, Indonesia (2010) 23. Chou, S.K., Chua, K.J.: New hybrid drying technologies for heat sensitive foodstuffs. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 12(1), 359–369 (2001) 24. Giuarsson, M., Arason, S.: Geothermal direct use, with a focus on agriculture and agro-­industry sectors. Iceland Geothermal Conference Geothermal Direct Utilisation and Food Security 24. April–Reykajvik, Iceland (2018) 25. Arason, S: The drying of fish and utilization of geothermal energy; the Icelandic experience. In Proceedings of the International Geothermal Conference, 14–17 September 2003, Reykjavik, pp. 21–31 (2003) 26. Maharjan, R.: Design of a Dryer and a Swimming Pool Using Geothermal Energy. United Nations University/Geothermal Training Programme, Report No. 7 (1995) 27. Mohamed, M.B.: Low enthalpy geothermal resources application in the Kebbili region, Southern Tunisia. In Proceedings of the 2005 World Geothermal Congress, 24–29 April, Antalya, Turkey (2005) 28. Tarrad, A.H.: Heating mechanism and energy analyses for over-ground outdoor swimming pool technology. Asian J. Appl. Sci. Technol. 1(6), 8–22 (July 2017) 29. Perko, B.: Effect of prolonged storage on microbiological quality of raw milk. Mljekarstvo. 61(2), 114–124 (2011) 30. Lund, J.W.: Milk pasteurization with geothermal energy. Geo-Heat Center Q.  Bull. 18(3), 13–15 (1997) 31. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. https://archive.epa.gov/climatechange/kids/solutions/ technologies/geothermal.html 32. Baral, S.: Experimental and techno-economic analysis of solar-geothermal organic ranking cycle technology for power generation in Nepal. Int. J.  Photoenergy, Article ID 5814265, 15pp. (June 2019) 33. Ranjit, M.: Geochemical Studies of Some Thermal Springs in Nepal. United Nations University/Geothermal Training Programme, Report No. 11 (1994) 34. Alternate Energy Promotion Center: Report on Detailed Feasibility Study of Geothermal Energy Projects in Nepal, Kathmandu (2021) 35. Adhikari, H., Ghimire, S., Khatri, B., KC, Y.: Enzymatic screening and molecular characterization of thermophilic bacterial strains isolated from hot spring of Tatopani, Bhurung Nepal. Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. 3(3), 392–397 (2015). https://doi.org/10.3126/ijasbt.v3i3.12724 36. Aryal, M.R., Pun, S., Yadav, A.K., Basnet, B.: Study, design, and analysis of geothermal cooling system and its possibilities in the Terai Region of Nepal. J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. C. (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40032-­021-­00669-­9

Chapter 5

Hot and Mineral Spring Water for Health Benefits

In the Kaski district of Nepal, a hot spring is located at Kharpani. Jhdubbleldam (2009) mentions a breathtaking story told by Hari Bahadur Sunar, an octogenarian local of Sardikhola Village Development Committee. Here goes his version: “I was a small boy then when my father told me this story. A man from a nearby village was regularly visiting this site where now we can see the ponds. The man was chopping off the tree into small pieces so that he could carry them off easily in small bundles. For this purpose, he was visiting the site for several days. During the interval of chopping the wood, he noticed that a crow with one of its dangling legs was regularly visiting the site. Out of curiosity, he started watching the activities of the bird. He saw the bird was regularly taking a plunge into a certain place in the river. The bird repeated the act almost every day. Then one day the woodcutter was very surprised when he saw the bird’s dangling leg was completely healed and it was firmly standing on its both legs” [1]. People in the area are definitely inspired by such stories for a visit to this site. Such a story, mostly related to human beings, is commonly heard in many hot spring sites in Nepal. One of them is a story I was told by my relative in Kathmandu. His 80 years old grandfather was bed-ridden for a couple of months due to joint pains, body aches and some unknown conditions. People in those days considered hot springs as the abodes of gods and goddesses and heard the positive impact of having a soak in the hot springs. So, he asked the family members to take him to the closest hot spring. The springs in Kodari and Chilime were closer but Kodari site did not have a pool for a dip. Lack of transport facility was the bottleneck, particularly in the hilly and mountain areas. Finally, they managed to carry him on ‘Doko’ to the Chilime hot spring in Rasuwa district, a week’s walk away from Kathmandu.1 The old patient was kept in a village close to the spring pool for 3 months and was taken  Doko is a deep basket which is carried on the back and shoulders and secured by a scrap called Namlo round the forehead. Doko still serves as a ‘Human Ambulance’ to transport sick or injured people on narrow mountain paths in almost all regions of Nepal until today. 1

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Ranjit, Hot Springs in Nepal, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99500-3_5

161

162

5  Hot and Mineral Spring Water for Health Benefits

to have a regular dip every day. He felt rejuvenated and relaxed, then was able to walk with the help of a cane after 2 months! A 71 years-old man in Kaski district tells that when he was 14 years old, he fell down from a tree and his feet were badly injured. He got soaked in Darmija hot spring in Raghuganga Municipality and got fully cured within a week. Even now, he holds a firm belief that soaking in hot spring water is a remedy for all sorts of diseases and vows not to visit the hospital throughout the rest of his life. Stories of getting cured from physical injuries and joint pains abound in Nepal among those who visit hot spring sites. Among the common phenomena of nature, springs are notable because of their high usefulness. Since the earliest times the homes of men have clustered around them, and used the spring water for cleaning, cooking, bathing, and healing. Besides, the early people also used the hot spring locations for meetings and spying in some European countries and the United States. Some sites provided lavish entertainment, including the theaters and concerts, while others offered more natural pleasures such as fishing, hunting and boating (Fig. 5.1). Locals at Khoplang (Gorkha district) areas tell a story of the foreigners who had resided close to the hot springs, bathed in the spring waters and gained health benefits. A stone sculpture carved by them which mentioned the importance of that hot

Fig. 5.1  A sick person being carried to Singa hot spring in Myagdi district (Source: Singa Hot Spring Management Committee)

5.1  Worldwide History of Soaking in Hot Springs

163

spring can still be found there [2]. The Singa hot spring area of Myagdi and Nundhaki hot spring area of Sankhuwasabha district share a similar saga about the hot spring water. Sages from India had visited those places about a century ago, by walking for months for their health treatments and penance. Here, we review some information about how the hot springs waters were used in different countries in the past.

5.1 Worldwide History of Soaking in Hot Springs Soaking in the hot spring water has been taking place not only in Nepal but worldwide since centuries for health benefits. Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest direct use of geothermal power occurred at least 10,000  years ago in North America, where indigenous peoples were drawn to hot springs for both spiritual and practical reasons. Traces of human beings dating back 600,000  years have been found in the vicinity of some hot springs. It is clear that many viewed hot springs as sacred spaces and considered them sites of healing, believing that soaking in warm spring water brought a wide range of medicinal benefits. This drew people to the springs, making them gathering sites for different people and offering opportunities for trade, diplomacy and cultural exchange. Others used hot springs for more mundane reasons, like cooking food or providing an escape from the frigid winter climate. Similarly, the peoples of ancient Greece and Rome viewed hot springs as places of healing imbued with sacred power. The Greek physician Hippocrates (460–320  BCE) promoted the health benefits of hot bathing, while the Roman author Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) wrote about the particular benefits of hot mineral baths for people suffering from muscle, joint, or paralytic ailments. The Romans built shrines at hot springs, many of which yield archaeological evidence that people sought to communicate with the gods. At the shrine to the goddess Minerva at Bath, for example, archaeologists have uncovered 130 lead tablets upon which people had written various pleas to the gods for assistance. Like the indigenous peoples of North America, the Romans also used geothermal energy for more practical applications, such as providing space heating for buildings [3]. By the seventeenth century, physicians from China and Japan began to evaluate and classify several medicinal springs and a doctor from Tokyo (then called Edo) initiated the first Japanese medical study of hot springs in 1709. In 1737, a book entitled ‘Demonstrations on the Usefulness of the Mineral Waters of Spa’ was published. Thereafter, the importance of hot spring water began to be well appreciated in Japan. During that time, communication with the outside world was the major problem. People in different parts of the world simply visited hot spring areas for bathing due to their faith which is also supported by their religious beliefs about the curative properties of spring waters at a time when the allopathic medicines were not available.

164

5  Hot and Mineral Spring Water for Health Benefits

During World War I (1914 to 1918), spas often became centers of hospitalization and a place of recovery for wounded servicemen. After the war, scientific interest in the medicinal value of spas increased. Over the years, much scientific evidence has been generated to testify the healing value of medicinal waters and related treatment. Unlike Japan and many European countries, The United States experienced major ups and downs in its history towards the use of hot spring water. During the nineteenth Century, the country built up great interest in hydrotherapy, and by 1850, several hundred ‘water-cure’ establishments had been set up throughout the eastern United States. One of the most popular and biggest centers is the Saratoga Springs which attracted over 750,000 patients a year during the 1930s and 1940s. A magnificent spa was completed in 1935 with the ability to treat over 4500 patients a day. In the later part of the nineteenth century, many springs attracted presidents, writers, musicians, and artists in Europe and the United States. However, by the end of the century, many American spas had begun their decline, for various reasons. Modern medications held out the promise for rapid cures of many chronic diseases, which seemed more attractive than several weeks of bathing and other water-related treatments. As scientific proof of the curative value of spring waters was often scarce, few physicians remained convinced of their therapeutic value. However, spa towns that experienced a decline in popularity in the 1940s such as Calistoga in California, Hot Springs in Arkansas, and Saratoga Springs in New York are becoming popular tourist destinations once again [4]. Japan never had to experience this sort of upheaval. Bestowed with a number of hot springs, the people never stopped taking advantage of it for healing. Not only did they use it, they continued to quest for more scientific evidence. It led to the founding of the Balneotherapy Institute in Beppu by Kyushu University in 1931. Thereafter, the Japanese extended this program to many parts of the country, and university research facilities were established at numerous hot springs throughout the country including Beppu. As a result of increased publications, several European countries including France, Spain, Portugal, Luxembourg, Belgium, Germany, Austria, Italia, Greece, Turkey, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Russia and other former Soviet Republics as well as the United States realized the greater importance of hot springs and craved for further research in “thermal waters” or “medicinal waters”. Meanwhile, the archeologists were able to provide the evidence of people bathing in thermal springs, in lakes and seas in 1853 when Tunstall published a paper highlighting the importance of such a benefit [4, 5]. Figure 5.2 shows the trend of research papers publications since then. This Figure also demonstrates that the research works have increased over the last 50 years [6].

5.2  Therapeutic Springs and Their Values

165

Fig. 5.2  Research relating to thermal waters has been increasing over time

5.2 Therapeutic Springs and Their Values The term ‘therapy’ simply means a treatment to help a person get better from the effects of a disease or injury. Therapeutic springs are the waters which have the ability to treat a disease. This type of water is different from the water we normally use for drinking, cooking, cleaning, washing etc. Water is a universal solvent, and it can hardly remain in its pure form that consists only two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen in each water molecule. As soon as pure water encounters other solid, liquid or gas, it dissolves these substances. Distilled water is a pure form of water because it is free of almost 100% of the essential minerals naturally found in fresh water. These minerals are required for the proper electrolyte balance within the body. When we drink it, the water will quickly take away many elements necessary to keep our body functioning, making us sick. So it is not ideal to drink distilled water unless it is consumed alongside a variety of foods, including fruits and vegetables.  The potable water or the bottled mineral water holds a lot of minerals as described below. Even at normal or cold temperature, these mineral waters can provide therapeutic value. Hot water has the ability to dissolve more minerals. Our earth naturally does not contain any water below the crust (or outer surface). Any water we find below the earth’s surface is the rain or surface water that flows through cracks or creeks of the surface. Some exceptions to this are the water entrapped in sedimentary rocks at the time of their deposition, and water expelled during the crystallization of igneous rocks. When these waters at the surface go down, it gains the opportunity to be in contact with hot rocks. The longer and deeper it stays in contact with the rocks, hotter the water becomes and carries more elements in the rocks it dissolves. If it can come up very fast to the earth’s surface, it will not only be very hot for a dip, but also carry a lot of minerals which makes it unusable for a soak. Not all the crustal surface and below it is uniform. So, the water that comes out from the hot springs or mineral springs from different parts of the world is unique in form, size, temperature, and mineral content.

166

5  Hot and Mineral Spring Water for Health Benefits

The heat content of the water itself has a unique power to treat our body, let alone the effect of minerals it contains. Just by dipping in hot water for a short time, the temperature of the body gradually increases, thus killing harmful germs and viruses. It also increases blood circulation as compared to saunas and steam baths. The increasing blood flow also helps dissolve and eliminate toxins (poisons produced by bacteria) from the body. It also increases the flow of oxygen-rich blood throughout the body, bringing improved nourishment to vital organs (such as kidney, heart, lungs, liver) and tissues. It also helps to stimulate the secretions of the intestinal tract and the liver, aiding digestion. Repeated hot spring bathing (especially over a 3- or 4-week period) can help normalize the functions of the endocrine glands as well as the functioning of the body’s autonomic nervous system. This system regulates a variety of body processes such as heartbeat, blood flow, breathing, and digestion that takes place without conscious effort. Besides the effect of temperature, the presence of specific minerals and gasses in the water helps to figure out the medicinal qualities of a spring. Trace amounts of carbon dioxide, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, and lithium are absorbed by the body and provide healing effects to various body organs and systems. These healing effects can include stimulation of the immune system, leading to enhanced immunity, physical and mental relaxation. Mineral springs contain high amounts of negative ions, which can help promote feelings of physical and psychological well-being [7]. A chemical compound in the hot water does not exist in the neutral state. It soon decomposes into two parts – one containing positive ions (called cations) and the other containing negative ions (called anions). So, the calcium carbonate in the hot spring can be found as calcium (carrying positive charge) and carbonate or bicarbonate (both carrying negative charges). The most commonly found cations in hot spring waters are calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium. The major types of anions include sulfate, sulfite, chloride, carbonate and bicarbonate. Hot spring waters also contain fluoride, lithium, arsenic, silica, zinc, copper, iron and some other trace elements. While some springs may contain more primary element, such as sulfur, many healing springs contain a combination of up to several dozen different elements, such as sulfur, fluoride, calcium, magnesium, bicarbonate, sodium and potassium, trace amounts of arsenic as well as radioactive elements such as radon, often in unique proportions. For example, the unusual combination of free carbon dioxide with sodium chloride and bicarbonates of sodium, calcium, and magnesium helped make Saratoga Springs, New  York, a popular center for treating heart disease, arthritis, and skin problems throughout much of the nineteenth and the first half of the twentieth centuries. Today’s growing interest in natural lifestyles, physical fitness, and alternative healing has brought about a renewed interest in healing springs, both for bathing and drinking. Over the past four centuries, the medical community, especially in Europe and Japan, has been accepting the healing value of spas. Japan is one of the

5.3  Types of Therapies Practiced by Using Spring Water

167

leading countries in the world to conduct research in this area and link its uses directly with the hospitals and educational institutions. By 1995, there were about 90 hospitals in spa stations in Japan, including 5 branch hospitals belonging to the National Universities. In addition to pleasure and relaxation, hot springs in Japan were used therapeutically for the treatment of rheumatism; neuralgia; chronic diseases of the stomach, intestines, liver, and gallbladder; hypertension; skin diseases; and gout. People also go the hot springs after having undergone surgery or been through an accident. Special courses in treatment using hot spring waters are offered to both physicians and nurses by major medical schools in Europe as well [8]. In 2018, there were 27,280 hot springs in Japan. A majority of these have been tapped and used as assets in the tourism industry and other fields. Around 10,000 hot spring sources remain unused [9]. Some minerals present in the hot spring water are beneficial while others are harmful. As mentioned earlier, even the water we drink contains a lot of minerals. The World Health Organization has issued guidelines for quality drinking water that contains various elements. Different countries and scientists  of the world have approved a range of chemicals in the water for use in their respective countries and informed the people about the type of spring water widely used to cure ailments.

5.3 Types of Therapies Practiced by Using Spring Water Despite the novel achievements made so far in the medical field, along with sophisticated equipment for diagnosis, the effort to supply a safe treatment and cure a number of diseases has remained a daydream. Degenerative diseases such as cancer, diabetes, heart disease and obesity continue to affect a large portion of the population. The use of prescription and over-the-counter medications is increasing each year. While the cost of medication is very costly, their adverse side effects including those resulting from multiple drug interactions sometimes nearly outweigh the benefits they can provide. Therefore, there is a growing interest in natural lifestyles, physical fitness, and alternative healing these days. So, several techniques such as hydrotherapy, mud therapy, physical therapy, massage, physical exercises, yoga, meditation, steam baths, inhalation of water vapor, and drinking mineral water, are often used as part of a complex therapy for both health promotion and treatment from diseases. Broadly speaking, the beneficial effect of spring water is achieved via one or more of the following main routes: 1. Drinking 2. Bathing or soaking (balneotherapy /hydrotherapy/spa) 3. Applying directly on body (mud/pelotherapy) 4. Inhalation

168

5  Hot and Mineral Spring Water for Health Benefits

Drinking Mineral Water Nepal possesses a huge volume of mineral water of drinking quality. The pristine river waters originating from the Himalayas possess unique taste, purity and quality for drinking. The unique taste of mineral waters collected from many of these sources has attracted the five-star hotels of Saudi Arabia. The country is focusing on importing a huge quantity of bottled mineral waters from Nepal in the near future. As in many parts of the world, Nepalese people who visit hot springs for a soak also drink the water collected directly from the source to get relief from gastrointestinal problems. Clinical research was conducted in the past few decades to collect evidence of the health benefits of drinking water that has different minerals. The research has shown positive results of drinking such water to cure different diseases. So, a variety of drinking mineral waters are now available in the world market such as those having bicarbonate, carbonate, sulfate, nitrate, chloride, fluoride, calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, and silica. These bottled mineral waters are produced to suit different medical conditions. Table 5.1 presents the range of minerals contained in bottled mineral waters with popular brand names and sold in different parts of the world. Some waters are collected directly from the natural source while the others are processed through sediment filtration, treated with ultraviolet light, and then artificially carbonated. People with gastrointestinal problems have been drinking the water at Caldas de Chaves healing spring of Portugal for nearly 1900 years. Substances in the water are absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract and stimulate gastrointestinal functions. Water rich in bicarbonate is indicated for disorders affecting the stomach, liver, and gallbladder. Water rich in sodium bicarbonate are especially useful in treating gastritis and stomach ulcer. Water rich in bicarbonate, calcium, and fluoride help calm intestinal spasm. Water rich in calcium sulfate help relieve the symptoms of colitis and intestinal problems related to allergic reactions to food or medication [10].

Table 5.1  Range of minerals found in bottled drinking mineral water Analysis Bicarbonate Calcium Magnesium Sodium Potassium Chloride Fluoride Sulfate Nitrate Silica (silicon dioxide) pH 6.0–8.16

Milligrams per liter (Minimum) 5.50 0.70 0.73 0.00 0.50 0.80 0.26 1.50 2.00 5.30

Milligrams per liter (Maximum) 1420.0 347.0 108.0 171.0 16.0 260.0 9.5 130.0 3.8 83.0

Table prepared from information provided in ‘Healing Springs’ – Altman [4].

5.3  Types of Therapies Practiced by Using Spring Water

169

In addition to providing our normal daily requirements for water, drinking water rich in calcium can help neutralize the ill effects of certain type of drugs. It can help reduce the risks of osteoporosis, and water rich in magnesium may help prevent hypertension. Mineral water contributes to our daily dietary allowance of both macroelements (such as iron) and trace elements (such as copper). Minerals from spring water are absorbed into the bloodstream through the mucosa of the digestive tract. Drinking water rich in bicarbonates and sulfates before meals has been found to increase blood insulin levels and provide vital nutrients such as calcium, magnesium, and iron. It also helps treat certain gastrointestinal, kidney, metabolic, and cardiovascular diseases. When mineral water containing sodium bicarbonate and sodium sulfate is drunk before meals, it increases blood insulin level and bile acid concentration [11]. Drinking bicarbonate water and sulfated water helps relieve the symptoms of constipation; in fact, such waters should be avoided in patients with diarrhea [12]. A study conducted in Moscow, Russia, showed that a 4-week treatment of patients with obesity showed a marked decrease in cholesterol and triglyceride level. Drinking may also result in improved elimination of toxins from the body [6, 13]. Mineral water consumed directly at the source of the spring is not the same as commercially bottled water taken from the same spring and processed at a bottling plant. For example, drinking a particular mineral water rich in calcium and magnesium at the source of the spring may aid digestion and promote regularity. But these minerals and gasses tend to oxidize within hours after leaving the earth and may no longer have the therapeutic effects for which they are taken. Drinking some types of mineral waters may cause problems and needs to be careful. For instance, mineral waters containing arsenic have been shown to be very good for treating fungal infections of the skin but can be poisonous when swallowed, therefore, should only be used externally. Drinking mineral water rich in sodium chloride is not recommended for those on long-sodium diets. Some springs contain heavy metals and other elements that may be good for your skin and sore muscles, but harmful to drink. For this reason, do not drink water from a medicinal spring unless you know that it is safe [14] (Table 5.2). Calcium is a naturally occurring mineral and when it combines with carbonate, calcite is formed. When calcium is found in high concentrations, such water is Table 5.2  Type of spring waters found in different parts of Nepal Bicarbonate type Luma, Dhanchari Chilime Sadhukhola Syabrubesi Kodari Suraikhola

Chloride-sulfate type Tilanadi, Jumla Sina Sirbari Dethala – Chameliya Tapoban, Bajhang Singa

Bicarbonate-chloride type Mayangdi

Chloride-sulfate-bicarbonate type Jomsom Bhurung

170

5  Hot and Mineral Spring Water for Health Benefits

called “hard” water. Calcium hardness is one of the important spas and hot tub water chemistry parameters and its control is important to help assure proper water quality. Calcium problems do not normally impart a color to the spa water, as does the presence of metals such as iron and copper. Health benefits of having a bath in spring water containing high calcium is not known so clearly. The preferred range for spas and hot tubs is 80–200 ppm.

5.3.1 Balneotherapy, Spa, Hydrotherapy and Contrast Therapy When the spring water or other water containing minerals is used for the treatment of diseases, it is called balneotherapy (Latin: balneum ‘bath’) or ‘spa’. The term ‘hydrotherapy’ is used synonymously with balneotherapy, water therapy, aquatic therapy, and pool therapy. Balneotherapy is a natural approach to health and healing that uses spring water (hot or cold), gasses, mud, and climatic factors (such as heat) as therapeutic elements. It  includes bathing and physiotherapy in thermal water, therapeutic drinks, medical massage, and water jet massage. Hydrotherapy is used for the same purpose and with the same technique but normally understood as a technique that uses water not necessarily the natural spring water. Different minerals are added artificially to water to treat specific diseases. The word ‘spa’ comes to our mind whenever we talk about bathing in hot water or using balneotherapy. This word ‘spa’ originates from a small town in Belgium, famed Europe-wide since the fourteenth century for its healing hot springs. Here, an ironmaster used this iron-rich spring to cure rheumatism. He founded a health resort in this spring site called Espa meaning ‘fountain’ or ‘spring’ in Walloon language spoken in the Wallonia Region in Belgium. This word ‘Espa’ was known in English as ‘spa’. It is commonly claimed that the word ‘spa’ is an acronym of various Latin phrases, such as ‘salus per aquam’, or ‘sanitas per aquam’, meaning health through water. This word became so popular that it became the common designation for health resorts around the world. Today, many healing and wellness centers of the world are located near these springs. Hot water has more capacity to dissolve solids. The spring water that emerges from underground are in contact with hot rocks and dissolve minerals like calcium, lithium, sulfur, fluorides, carbonic acid, hydrogen sulfide etc. Due to high content of these kinds of salts and minerals along with the warm temperature of water, hot springs quite often serve as centers for social medicine, religious and faith healing centers and thus popular destinations for tourists. In the past, people used balneotherapy (by having a soak in hot spring water) to get relief from physical pain, for enjoyment and relaxation. Along with this, lots of clinical research was also conducted to collect evidence of the benefits of drinking mineral waters and having a soak in the hot spring water. As a result, it has become an important part of medical practice in Japan and many European countries. Today, special courses are offered to both physicians and nurses by major medical schools in these countries. European physicians routinely refer their patients to spas for specialized treatment with medical coverage from the government.

5.3  Types of Therapies Practiced by Using Spring Water

171

A study carried out in the State of Selangor, Malaysia concluded that the constituents of Na+, K+, Ca2+, S, SO42− and Cl− present within acceptable range in the spring water is good for balneotherapy. Table 5.3 shows the content of various minerals in 16 hot springs of the studied area along with the comparison of such minerals found in Japan, Austria, Turkey, South Africa USA, and Nepal [15, 16]. Table 5.3 reveals that all the 16 hot springs fall within the range of other hot springs which has been utilized by the people for health benefits. Trace amounts of minerals such as carbon dioxide, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, and lithium are absorbed by the body and provide healing effects to various body organs and systems. These healing effects can include stimulation of the immune system, leading to enhanced immunity, physical and mental relaxation. Hot spring bathers often experience accelerated rates in heartbeat and breathing. After bathing in a hot spring, some find that they want to eat something or need to go to the bathroom. This is because bathing in thermal water stimulates the secretions of intestinal tract and the liver, aiding digestion. Nathan Altman in his book Healing Springs published in 2000 has collected the facts about the benefits of having a bath in the hot spring water for so many diseases. The medical evidence includes the comparative studies on diseases related to heart and chronic inflammatory peptic ulcer by using simply hot water, water with sulfur and water with naturally occurring elements in water as in hot spring water. Studies have shown that certain mineral waters can help the body heal itself from heart, liver, kidney and urinary tract problems; a wide range of respiratory diseases (including children) like asthma, skin diseases; digestive disorders; joint and muscle diseases (arthritis) including lower back pain, and osteoarthritis. The book also covers the beneficial effects for the diseases of the mouth and gums, ear, diabetes, weight control and gynecological problems. Besides relieving stress, bathing in hot spring water helps to treat gout, depression, migraine (in hot spring waters with high magnesium), remove toxins from the body by stimulating the liver, and improve general circulation [4]. Table 5.3  Comparison of mineral contents in spring water in some countries Location 16 locations in Selangor, Malaysia Kusatsu hot spring, Japan Sulfur baths, Austria Ataturk Balneotherapy and Rehab Centre, Turkey Northern part of Limpoo Prov., South Africa Saragota Spa state, USA 16 locations in Nepal n.a. means ‘not available’

Ca 2+ 3.75– 19.77 72.00 n.a. 91.90

Na+ 37.03– 81.91 53.70 n.a. 222.50

K+ 1.7– 56.81 16.00 n.a. 23.00

S 6.25– 12.86 n.a. 7.30 n.a.

SO42− 1015– 1.51 611.00 n.a. 277.00

Cr 7.06– 20.66 343.00 n.a. 2.20

1.31– 13.73 32.20– 872.00 2.00– 108.00

10.59– 156.31 2.00– 3820.00 7.20–460

0.99– 4.25 0.15– 340.00 1.30–95

n.a.

2.98– 53.17 22.00

19.47– 168.97 4.80– 6030.00 n.a.

n.a. n.a.

6.00– 249.00

172

5  Hot and Mineral Spring Water for Health Benefits

Even though the information contained in Altman’s book dates back to the 1980s and 1990s, publications to challenge the findings are yet to surface. Rather, many new clinical trials conducted afterwards have supported the early findings and added new dimensions for the use of balneotherapy or hydrotherapy. Here we review some clinical works conducted before and after the publication of Altman’s book. According to Pospisil et  al. (2007), heart rate and diastolic blood pressure in patients with Parkinson’s disease had decreased significantly after water immersion (32.5 °C) up to level of the heart. Variations in temperature of hot springs water gave different effects to the human beings and generally depending on the conditions of the individual [17]. A study conducted in Sikkim, India has indicated that 36.98% of people with arthritis, 30.14% with joint pain, 19.18% with gastric/metabolic disorder, 9.59% with skin diseases (mainly scabies) and 4.11% of the people with paralysis have been cured from the hot spring water [18]. Bathing in the hot spring water has also provided a notable reduction of symptoms in many Parkinson’s patients since immersion in thermal (hot) water helps to improve body coordination and mobility of the joints. Bathing in thermal springs facilitates healing because it can help promote feelings of physical and psychological well-being through high amounts of negative ions contained in it [19]. In Japan, elderly people with diabetes are treated with soaking in hot water followed by forest-air ‘bathing’ and walking. Volatile components, such as negative ions emitted from the forest, have been found to possess certain chemical properties and can produce psychological functioning in humans, including lowering blood pressure, increasing saliva secretions, decreasing the amount of cortisol, and balancing autonomic nervous system activity [20]. Walking in the forest air is considered an ‘air bath’ that is healthful and enjoyable. In yet another study conducted at Hokkaido University School of Medicine, Japan, 48 non-insulin dependent diabetic patients were selected. Out of them, 11 were given only dietary and exercise therapy while the other 27 were medicated orally, and 10 were given insulin. After careful examination of blood glucose levels, the participants were divided into two walking groups, with one group walking 3–4 km and the other 6–7 km. Blood samples were taken after the walk. Among the patients taking a shorter walk, blood glucose level dropped an average of 79 mg per deciliter, and levels among those taking the long walk dropped to a statistically similar 76 mg per deciliter. By contrast, when patients performed for 30 min on a cycle ergometer their blood glucose levels fell by only 13  mg per deciliter. Researchers concluded that exposure to negative air ions through forest walking leads to decreased glucose levels [21]. Also known as Kneipp therapy, contrast therapy is a common practice within the global hot spring community. It has been established that hydrotherapy for osteoarthritis of the hip or knee joint using serial cold and warm water stimulation not only improves the range of movement but also reduces pain significantly and increases quality of life over a period of up to 3 months. In the custom-designed ‘Yin & Yang’ pool at Bishuiwan Hot Springs Resort in Guangdong Province, China a person is allowed to alternate 20 s at 45 °C with 10 s at 8 °C, for a total of 5 min. Promoting

5.3  Types of Therapies Practiced by Using Spring Water

173

circulation, resetting the body’s homeostasis and cultivating mindfulness are some of the key benefits of this type of treatment.

5.3.2 Sulfur Treatment Sulfur is a chemical element which has antifungal, antibacterial, and keratolytic activity that takes place on the outermost layers of the skin which makes up about 90% of the cells. Sulfur may be present in sulphurated waters as free (S) or combined ions. The positive effect of sulfur and sulfates SO2− 4 in hot spring water along with other elements has been realized by many people around the world since long for treating skin diseases (including dandruff, scabies, and warts), acne vulgaris, respiratory, and musculoskeletal disorders. When it is applied directly on skin, it causes rare unwanted (adverse) effects and mild reactions at the application site. Several researchers in Europe and Japan have found that bathing in and drinking sulfurous mineral water can have a positive effect on patients with diabetes. The healing properties of the water are believed to penetrate the body both through the skin and when inhaled as vapor. Patients with a lower severity of the disease showed improved glucose tolerance and better energy utilization, and others reported improved appetite and greater ease of movement. Kan-no-Jigoku is one of the famous hot spring regions of Beppu, Japan and has been popular with people with asthma, skin diseases and rheumatoid arthritis for hundreds of years. A study was conducted on five elderly patients who took two 15-min baths a day for 12 days in this spring, and these patients showed better control of diabetes. Then the spring was recommended for helping patients control diabetes [22]. Sulfur, used alone or in combination with agents such as sodium sulfacetamide or salicylic acid, has demonstrated efficacy in the treatment of many dermatological conditions. Sulfate ions may have originated from the weathering of pyrite or the leaching of other sulfide by hypothermal waters of deep origin [23]. Bathing in springs containing these minerals have been found to strengthen the immune system and to kill bacteria and fungi. Isumo Fudoki reported that the Japanese Tamatsukuri Hot spring water having calcium sulfate and sodium bicarbonate was extremely popular and that by ‘bathing once, the visitor was made fair of face and figure, bathing twice, all diseases were healed; its effectiveness has been obvious since the days of old’ [24]. A few studies in patients with osteoarthritis of the hand and knee have shown a beneficial effect of the sulfurous thermal bath as compared to normal hot water bath [25, 26]. Studies in patients with hip osteoarthritis have also shown a beneficial effect of treatment with sulfur or mineral-containing baths as compared to exercise alone [27]. Recent research works on topical treatments are starting to show benefits for various conditions such as hypertension, atherosclerosis, heart failure, peptic ulcer, acute and chronic inflammatory diseases. The beneficial effects of sulfurous mineral waters, which include mud, or peloids made from sulfurous mineral water have

174

5  Hot and Mineral Spring Water for Health Benefits

been attributed to the presence of sulfur mainly in the form of hydrogen sulfide. And low levels of hydrogen sulfide may be tolerated indefinitely [28]. 5.3.2.1 Inhalation of Sulfurous Water Vapor Inhaling mineral water as water vapor has been effective in helping people with asthma, sinus problems, allergies, and other respiratory problems. The water vapor takes the form of an extremely fine spray that can be released from a fountain. By standing over the fountain, and pushing a button, the person releases a fine mist from the fountain, which can be inhaled. At Rio Caliente spa near Guadalajara, Mexico, the steam room is connected to one of the spa’s hot mineral springs, which contains trace amounts of lithium. After one or two sessions of breathing in the therapeutic steam, even the most nervous or stressed-out guest becomes relaxed and very mellow. Therapeutic steam rooms are also found in many European spas [29]. Rather than lithium, hydrosulfide ion (H2S), and sulfide anion are the most common sulfide species present in thermal waters, with H2S being the most abundant (30) (Braga 2008). Therefore, extensive studies have been focused on the use of H2S to treat different diseases, including respiratory. Hydrogen sulfide is a colorless gas with potent reducing properties resulting from geothermal activities (sulfurous mineral water and volcanoes). It is also found in vegetable proteins (broccoli, garlic), and synthetic compounds. It is produced by a variety of cells in the human body and has been regarded as a good biomarker of airway dysfunction and severity [28, 30–33]. Therapeutic exposure to Sulfurous Thermal Waters (STWs) is performed mostly through inhalation in the treatment of respiratory diseases [34, 35], and recently, significant clinical efficacy (e.g., nasal resistance and nasal flow improvement, and reduction of mucocilliary clearance time) was demonstrated when adult and elderly patients underwent hydrogen sulfide-enriched nasal water inhalations [36]. The main advantages of the therapeutic use of STWs lies in the fact that these provide a non-aggressive treatment, and which also has preventive properties [35, 37]. Even though these authors pointed out that there were no considerable side effects, this aspect must always be taken into consideration, whatever the implemented therapy. In a systematic review and meta-analysis, Keller et al. (2014) analyzed all side effects occurring in the pooled total patient population that took part in 13 clinical studies. Focusing on sulfurous waters, after 90 days of STWs treatment, only 19 out of 370 patients presented some adverse events. From those, 13 experienced mild nasal irritations and a sensation of burning, 5 suffered from very limited epistaxis, and one from dermatological hypersensitivity. Moreover, it is of note that even when subjects presented those effects, most of them were local and reversible [38].

5.3  Types of Therapies Practiced by Using Spring Water

175

After a thorough review of 180 research papers related to the use of H2S available in the thermal water, Viegas et al. (2019) [39] published a report with the following conclusions: Mainly due the presence of H2S, STWs might be an advantageous and promising option as an add-on non-pharmacological complementary therapy for respiratory diseases, such as AR, chronic rhinitis/rhinosinusitis, bronchial asthma, and COPD, since these natural mineral waters have been associated with significant, quick onset, and relatively long-lasting improvement of clinical parameters in patients with these diseases. Furthermore, H2S-rich STWs have various effects upon inflammatory and immunological parameters that may contribute toward their clinical efficacy. It may thus be possible to use STWs in a preventive way in terms of disease progression and exacerbations, although this needs to be better ascertained. Moreover, if correctly applied, no significant side effects have been reported with STWs.

5.3.3 Pelotherapy Peloid is a technical term for mud. Pelotherapy (also called fangotherepy) is a technique to use thermal mud for medicinal purposes. In general, mud is made up of water and earth containing approximately one-thirds solids and two-thirds water. The chemical composition of the therapy varies from place to place. Mud can also be prepared artificially by adding certain chemicals. Natural mud can also be chemically modified for specific therapeutic purposes and can be applied at different temperatures. During ancient Egyptian and Roman times, mud was used to firm masks and continues to be practiced today. In some spas, pelotherapy involves total immersion in a tub of warm mud made with water from the mineral springs. Mud may naturally contain a variety of minerals (such as sulfur) as well as decomposed vegetable matter (including fungi, microflora, and algae) containing mineral and medicinal elements. Prolonged contact between the mud and mineral water can produce a variety of chemical reactions within the mud itself and can contribute to its therapeutic properties. It is believed that mud helps remove toxins from the body, relieves arthritic and muscle pain, and helps to relieve diseases of the skin, including psoriasis, eczema, and acne and fungal infections. Mud packs are applied to certain parts of the body such as the joints of the arms and legs to relieve symptoms of rheumatism and arthritis. The warm mud (usually applied to a thickness of 10 cm at a temperature of 38–46 °C) is applied on the skin for approximately 20 to 40 min and then washed off with warm water. Besides, mud therapy also helps to relieve from the pain resulting from an accident or operation to a joint or vertebra as well as digestive complaints, such as gastritis or constipation,

176

5  Hot and Mineral Spring Water for Health Benefits

gallbladder inflammation. Another study has also shown that the treatments with mineral thermal water or mud is effective in pain relief and function restoration, impacting also on quality of life [40]. Some consider balneotherapy harmful to patients as it can cause acute attacks of rheumatoid arthritis (an autoimmune disease where the body mistakes its own tissues as foreign and attacks them). A clinical trial was conducted in 40 patients with classical or definite rheumatoid arthritis in a stage of active disease by treatment for 2 weeks at a spa hotel. The researcher found only three cases of mild thermal reaction, which did not require treatment to stop the reaction. No clinical aggravation, even temporary in nature, due to spa treatment was found. The study concluded that mud packs and sulfur baths alone or in combination are safe and effective in reducing objective and subjective indices of rheumatoid arthritis activity for a period of up to 3 months [41].

5.4 Role of Hot Spring Water in Diseases Treatment: An Overview In summary, hot spring or mineral water has been used as a supplementary resource in different parts of the world to treat the following, among other diseases: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Skin (psoriasis, eczema, acne, fungal infections) Arthritis and rheumatic arthritis Musculoskeletal problems Diabetes Heart and circulatory diseases Digestive complaints (gastritis, constipation) Gastrointestinal problems (stomach, duodenum, ulcer, gastroenteritis) Gynecological problems (inflammatory infections and hormonal problems) Liver, kidney, urinary tract Nervous system disorder Migraine headaches (treatments are successful due in part to the high magnesium content of the water) Depression (due to thermal effect and chemical effects as hot springs contain a large amount of negative ions that produce neurochemicals that can increase the feeling of well-being) Diseases of mouths and gums (spraying mineral water cleanse lesions and stimulates gums) Parkinson disease (shown notable reduction of disease symptoms, immersion in hot spring water helps to improve body coordination and mobility of the joints) Ear diseases (improves hearing for people suffering from chronic otitis, a condition often resulting in deafness by stimulating the production of immunoglobulin gamma A antibodies)

5.4  Role of Hot Spring Water in Diseases Treatment: An Overview

177

5.4.1 Treatment with Hot Spring Water Therapy for Everyone? Most research works conducted elsewhere point out that a natural water therapy is beneficial for health in combination with other treatments. Therefore, except for those seeking relaxation and enjoyment, all the visitors seeking health benefits are highly advised to consult with the medical professionals as well. Dr. Agishi and other medical and balneologists suggest that it is not for everyone. People who have the following conditions should avoid bathing in hot springs unless they are under the direct supervision of a physician who is an expert in medical balneology. –– –– –– –– –– –– –– ––

Any disease involving high fever Severe hypertension, uncompensated congestive heart failure Severe liver, kidney or circulatory disease Irregular heartbeat Recent heart attack or stroke Any disease involving hemorrhage and severe anemia Early and late stage of pregnancy Severe mental illness [42].

5.4.2 Some Precautionary Measures Even though using sulfur and hot springs has a number of benefits, some of my own experiences should help the readers. In 2000, I was having a lot of allergic reactions on both of my cheeks for a couple of months and the medication prescribed by the general physician did not help at all. I had heard that people in some parts of the world have been using sulfur for skin diseases. They do so by mixing sulfur in the pork fat and apply directly on the affected part of the body. Use of fat is to help stick sulfur in the body. I used this theoretical knowledge and applied fat mixed with sulfur on my cheeks. To my surprise, my condition deteriorated immediately, with inflammation beyond tolerance limit until I visited a dermatologist for help the next day. The case was resolved only after a week-long treatment with the specialist-­ prescribed ointment. Later, I discovered that I did not care for the concentration of sulfur to be used. Likewise, when I was soaking in a hot water tub for about half an hour in Reykjavik for pleasure and relaxation, I felt dizzy and almost fainted. I could hardly manage to get out of the bathroom and get rid of the probable consequences. Glen Woodsworth (Ref. Woodsworth [14]) has also suggested that the following points need to be considered seriously. –– Avoid soaking in the hot spring alone –– If you are with children or elderly adults, be especially mindful of possible exhaustion or overheating

178

5  Hot and Mineral Spring Water for Health Benefits

–– If you are pregnant, avoid prolonged hot spring bathing –– Do not enter a hot pool if you are under the influence of alcohol or drugs, especially heart medications –– Many people believe that if spending 10  min in a hot spring is good, 30  min is better –– Avoid overheating, and do not remain in the water if you feel tired or uncomfortable. If you feel faint or dizzy, leave the pool immediately –– Drink plenty of water (not from the hot spring itself) to avoid dehydration –– Use private pools if you have a skin disease. I would suggest that even though the mineral water (hot or cold) has positive effects, it should not be used blindly. A knowledge of usage time and concentration, route of application matters a lot. So far, people in different parts of Nepal have not been able to consider these factors because the proper dissemination of related information has not taken place. For this, chemical characteristics of most hot spring waters has yet to be determined. In Europe, many physicians refer their patients to take on mineral water but they are strictly monitored and the patients are given enough instructions about the use of such waters. The health system of Nepal has a long way to go in this direction. Even though the patients visiting Singa hot spring are informed of the limitations, these are limited to the information board.

5.4.3 A Long-Standing Tradition of Hot Spring Bath in Nepal The Nepalese people flock to the pool for treatment, they are guided by belief about medicinal benefits of a soak, lack of money to receive allopathic treatment in a distant hospital, distrust in such treatments, peer-pressure, relaxation or just a visit. For humans, it is necessary to maintain body temperature to minimize adverse effects due to sudden changes. Such a rapid temperature change takes place when entering or exiting the hot spring pool. More as a tradition than with scientific reasons, most people cover their body with rags or blankets soon after exiting from the thermal pool for about half an hour. Many of them also cover their heads with clothes while immersing in hot water. This has been the practice in most other thermal sites of Nepal. Musculoskeletal (muscle and skeleton) pain is very common in the general population affecting around 20% of the adults. People of all ages are subject to this pain due to various reasons at some time during their life [43]. This is also one of the pains commonly found in Nepalese people [44] maybe because of the country’s hilly landscapes, culture, nutrition and lifestyle. Many people including the Nepalese seek alternative ways of treatment including the most popular natural therapy – a treatment from the hot spring water. Many Nepalese people having back pain often visit the hot spring (wherever available) for treatment since they have heard that heat therapy and hydrotherapy

5.4  Role of Hot Spring Water in Diseases Treatment: An Overview

179

can alleviate pain arising from arthritis. A clinical trial study has provided evidence for it. Since these methods have fewer side-effects, are economical and accessible, they could be used, alongside allopathic treatments, as supplementary ones for reducing pain in the patients with low back pain [45]. 5.4.3.1 A Case Study of Singa Hot Spring for Musculoskeletal Problems While it may be curious to know why the Nepalese people visit thermal sites for a soak, a case study of Singa hot spring site may quell the readers’ interests. In 2019 a survey was conducted by two rheumatologists, Binit Vaidya and Sweta Nakarmi to examine the understanding, attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions of people taking on water at Singa hot spring site [46] The survey involved 126 patients (females constituting 72.2%) and used a semi-structured questionnaire. The selected patients were above 18 years of age with a mean age of 52.8 years. The most common musculoskeletal problem was inflammatory arthritis (31.0%), followed by degenerative disorders (29.4%) and soft-tissue rheumatism (12.7%). An excerpt of the report prepared by the survey team members is presented below. • Perception and Acceptance of Hot water More than 75% of the respondents perceived that the natural hot spring has natural healing powers. Some participants, who inhabited nearby villages, commented that as they are geographically benefited compared to people who come from a distance, they would prefer to use the “blessing” they received from nature: “It is easy for me. I just dip in the spring for few days whenever I feel aches and pains”; “the pool has divine powers and has been worshiped by our ancestors.” The cost was another factor for the acceptance: “If they were commercial, they would not provide the stay for free”. • The Need for perseverance and expectation of cure Participants who were visiting the hot spring for the first time were very hopeful that their ailments could be cured: “I have tried many options but the pains keep coming. I came here with a belief that spending some time in this pool can cure me permanently”; “I have met many people who were cured after coming here.” However, few local inhabitants and repeated visitors believed that the pains do improve to some extent but need repeated visits: “I usually come here every year before or during winter. I feel better after a week of daily dipping in this spring, but the pain comes back every year”; “Anyways you need medicine for life. It is better that I keep coming here once or twice a year”; “I am not sure if it can cure my arthritis, but what is the harm in trying?” • Contraindications More than two-thirds of participants believed that there is no side effect in seeking natural treatment. “This is my fifth visit here and I usually stay for 7 to 10 days

180

5  Hot and Mineral Spring Water for Health Benefits

in the pool. Sometimes, I even drink this water when I have worse pain. But I have never experienced any side-effects”; “There are hundreds of people here and I have never heard anyone talking of side-effects.” However, a minority of respondents reported intolerance: “My pain gets better but my urine stops and burns whenever I try this pool” a lady said. “My swelling increased on the third day of dipping, I do not know whether I should continue,” a person who was later diagnosed with scleroderma by the rheumatologist complained. I am not sure if it is just a coincidence (Fig. 5.3). • Peer-pressure About 30% of participants and most who were visiting for the first time narrated the importance of pressure from peers and relatives in visiting. Most of the participants emphasizing the importance of peer pressure were females. The following statements highlight this: “I was better with medications too, but my mother wanted me to visit here. It seems she was cured here long back”; “I do not believe, nor do I refuse that this spring cures the pains, but I did not want to say no to my family.” One participant said “I was not aware that we came here for medicinal purposes. I came with my family for an outing and was taken by surprise. However, no harm was done!”

Fig. 5.3  People having soaks in Singa hot spring pool (Source: Singa Hot Spring Management Committee)

5.5  Potential Use of Other Hot Spring Waters in Nepal for Health Benefits

181

The study group concluded that the thermal water bath therapies are beneficial for the alleviation of chronic pain. Various minerals present in natural hot spring pools provide added benefits. However, it can only be used as added therapy for patients with rheumatic diseases along with specific treatments. 5.4.3.2 Discussion This survey was not necessarily a representative study, because it is focused on only one aspect of the diseases. Furthermore, the thermal site is more accessible and centrally located in the country. Of all the hot spring sites in Nepal, Singa hot spring is the most prominent one used for balneotherapy. About 60,000 people visit every year to try to cure ailments from different health conditions. During the peak season, 120 to 150 people take a dip in a pond for an hour at a time, about ten times every day. The people visiting this pool stay within the premises for a period varying from a few days to a few weeks for the treatment of diseases related to skin, arthritis, back pain, abdominal pain, paralysis, and neurological disorder. No other spring sites have this high level of patients’ turnover. Based on the flow of regular visitors and interviews taken by a variety of media, Singa hot spring seems to have shown promising results in health benefits. The spring water of Singa is considered mature with relatively high chloride and sulfur content as shown in Table  5.3, Part I.  Water temperature is also high and people can enjoy soaking in temperature ranging from 35 to 42 °C inside the pool although some patients can enjoy soak in the hot water close to the source temperature at 54 °C. Probably due to these factors, this site is extremely popular amongst patients with rheumatic diseases and a lot of people are known to have benefitted from it. Given the sample size of the patients and other factors such as the coverage of other diseases, geographical condition, infrastructure, community participation in other thermal sites, the survey result cannot claim to be exhaustive and exclusive. The management committee of the hot spring elsewhere in Nepal claims about the huge number of visitors every year, however, no information is available about how many people have really received help from a vast array of diseases, including musculoskeletal problems. Nevertheless, this study has offered various opportunities to attract experts in other health areas or stakeholders and add further emerging issues. It is intuitively clear that the survey is a beginning of efforts to explore the effect of thermal water for health benefits in Nepal.

5.5 Potential Use of Other Hot Spring Waters in Nepal for Health Benefits Even though taking in the spring water is not a panacea for all diseases, an increased number of people is visiting the spring sites in Nepal, particularly during winter seasons with the hope to cure different ailments. Many people in Nepal have a clear

182

5  Hot and Mineral Spring Water for Health Benefits

feeling that sulfur-containing hot water is extremely helpful to cure musculoskeletal and skin problems. Jagat is the only spring area in Nepal that shows the application of mud therapy for skin problems. Pictures 1 and 2 show the pool area and pool with sulfur mixed mud and water. The spring water temperature at the source is 80 °C – the highest temperature recorded in the thermal water of Nepal. Locals use the source water with cold water in the other pool to adjust the temperature that is fit for a soak. So, the concentration of sulfur is also lowered. People from different areas visit the site for a soak and even stick the sulfur-laden mud on their bodies. Most people are reported to have benefits for their skin ailments. Without knowing the chemical characteristics of Singa hot spring water, many people are taking examples of the power of spring water and strengthening their belief in it. The water of Singa spring is of chloride-sulfate type which is also found in the hot spring waters of Tilanadi in Jumla, Sina, Dethala – Chaulani and Tapoban in Darchula and Tapoban in Bajhang districts. People visiting these thermal springs can enjoy similar benefits. Each thermal spring has its unique chemical characteristics. The efficacy of treatment depends on the concentration of desired chemicals in the water. While some water might produce undeserved consequences, other type of water might yield better results for specific diseases. Unfortunately, chemical information of only 16 thermal springs in Nepal is available and they are limited to basic parameters. In many thermal sites in Nepal, there exists a pool, temporary or permanent, on a flat area and mostly on the bank of the river with different infrastructures. People in these areas take a dip normally exceeding 1 h at a time. Such spring pools are located at Jhinu, Kodari, Chilime, Syabrubesi, Timure, Kharpani, Chame, Bahundanda, Bhulbhulekhar, Darmija, Jagat, Bhurung, Paudwar, Gurja, Ratopani, Bagara, Rihar, Kharpani, Dimurgaira, Sekaar, Sanje, Chalish, to name a few. As the name suggests, trace elements such as lithium, radon and arsenic are those found in trace amounts. While arsenic is harmful for health even in trace amounts if taken orally, it has its own value in treating fungal diseases when soaked in water containing it. Other trace elements also contribute to the healing process. So, it is especially important to know the concentration of trace elements in the hot springs of Nepal. Given the country’s unique geographical features, it is possible that Nepal’s hot spring waters contain trace mineral elements that have not yet been discovered or are not able to be measured by present-day technology. We may expect that with the need to analyze rock and water samples from Mars and other planets in the future, new technologies will be developed.  It will also enable us  to  discover other elements on Earth that help to  cure many  chronic  diseases human beings are facing today (Figs. 5.4 and 5.5).

5.6  Hygiene and Sanitation in the Thermal Springs

183

Fig. 5.4  Jagat hot spring

Fig. 5.5  Sulfurous mud in the vicinity of Jagat hot spring pool

5.6 Hygiene and Sanitation in the Thermal Springs Each thermal water has its own peculiar and typical composition. Such water represents an interesting richness and a potentially beneficial property for health. Based on their geological composition, natural waters may be enriched with several salts and ions, such as sulfur, halogens (chlorine, bromine and iodine) or magnesium and calcium. Therefore, in natural spa pools, the water should be left untreated for assuring the specific composition, maintaining the original properties and the potential health benefits.

184

5  Hot and Mineral Spring Water for Health Benefits

While doing so, it is also very important to know that pools and spas can present a considerable source of infection and other threats to human health. In particular, several bacteria as well as protozoa such as amoebae, algae and other microorganisms can naturally grow in the condition’s characteristic of thermal waters. If they are not managed properly, it can become a hazard for users [47]. This problem represents a dilemma whether to treat natural spa waters or not with disinfectants in natural waters that are highly rich in salts. The treatment with disinfectants affects the original water properties in favor of safety, despite other unknown chemical risks. Several options are available to address this problem. The recent progress in nanotechnologies is contributing to the field, leading to the introduction of innovative water treatment strategies for thermal waters and spa [48]. Unfortunately, no microbiological characteristics of hot springs of Nepal are still unknown to date, except in the Bhurung site. Lack of such knowledge poses difficulty in the chemical treatment of spring waters to make hygienic. Besides these water-borne diseases, there is also a possibility of transmission of other infectious diseases, particularly tuberculosis, given the nutritional and hygienic conditions of the visitors from rural areas. Singa hot spring site has already exhibited such a possibility by becoming a ‘hot spot’ area for the spread of Covid-19 viruses in April 2021. Untimely precaution even led to the complete closure of the pool for a few months. So, the local organizers should screen and restrict the incoming visitors with various disease conditions. The government’s focus has so far been on allopathic and to some extent, on traditional (ayurvedic) herbal treatment. Efforts should also be made to examine the chemical characteristics of all hot spring waters and provide guidelines for using the spring water in an optimal way. Since people in most sites also drink hot spring water to cure abdominal problems, it is also necessary to see if these waters fulfill the criteria for drinking developed by Nepal National Drinking Water Quality Standards (NDWQS, 2005) and World Health Organization (WHO 2004) standards [49].

References 1. Jhdubbeldam: Hot soaks of the Himalayas – south of the Annapurna’s and up the Kali Gandaki, December 22 (2009) 2. Bista, A.: Medication for skin diseases: hot and saline water site in Gorkha awaiting for protection. https://npstarmedia.com/15733. 24 February (2020) 3. Alberta Culture and Tourism. http://www.history.alberta.ca/energyheritage/energy/alternative-­ energy/geothermal-­energy/geothermal-­energy-­throughout-­the-­ages.aspx 4. Altman, N.: Healing Springs: The Ultimate Guide to Taking the Waters. Healing Arts Press, Rochester (2000) 5. Tunstall, J.: Clinical remarks upon the effects of the bath thermal waters in the treatment of chronic rheumatism. Assoc. Med. J. 1, 8–10 (1853). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.s3-­1.1.8 6. Valeriani, F., Margarucci, L.M., Spica, V.R.: Recreational use of Spa thermal waters: criticisms and perspectives for innovative treatments. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 15(12), 2675 (Dec. 2018)

References

185

7. Agishi, Y.: Hot springs and physiological functions of humans. Asian Med. J. 38(3), 115–124 (1995) 8. Agishi, Y., Ohtsuka, Y.: Recent Progress in Medical Balneology and Climatology, p.  8. Hokkaido University School of Medicine, Sapporo (1995) 9. Alexandru A.: Statista total number of hot springs (onsen) in Japan from fiscal year 2009 to 2018 March 15 (2021). https://www.statista.com/statistics/682636/japan-­hot-­spring-­numbers 10. Goncalves, M.: Mineral spring therapy for the treatment of diseases of the Digestive system (in Spanish). In: Thermalism in Galicia in the Decade of the Eighties, pp. 225–233. Conselleria de Sanidade, Santiago de Compostela (1988) 11. Digiesi, V.: Dietetic prevention and therapy with mineral waters. In: Proceedings: 33 World Congress of the International Society of Medical Hydrology and Climatology, p. 176. Lubomar Houdek and Nakadatelstvi, Prague (1998) 12. Pombo, S.P.: Thermalism in gastrointestinal processes (in Spanish). In: Thermalism in Galicia in the Decade of the Eighties (in Spanish), pp. 237–239. Conselleria de Sanidade, Santiago de Compostela (1988) 13. Gutenbrunner, C.: Present features of drinking Cure. In: Agishi, Y., Ohtsuka, Y. (eds.) Recent Progress in Medical Balneology and Climatology, pp. 135–148. Hokkaido University School of Medicine, Sapporo (1995) 14. Woodsworth, G.: Hot Springs of Western Canada Vancouver/Seattle: Golden Soules Book Publishers Ltd. pp. 27–28 (1997) 15. Hamzah, Z., Rani, N.L.A., Saat, A., Wood, A.K.: Determination of hot springs’ physic-chemical water quality potentiality use for balneotherapy. Malays. J. Anal. Sci. 17(3), 439–444 (2013) 16. Ranjit, M.: Geothermal energy update of Nepal. Proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress Tohoku, Japan (2000). https://www.geothermal-­energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/ WGC/2000/R0009.PDF 17. Pospisil, P., Konecny, L., Zmeskalova, M., Srovnalova, H., Rektorova, I., Nosavcorova, E., Sosikova, M., Dobsak, P., Siegelova, J.: Balneotherapy in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Scr. Med. (Brno). 80(5), 233–223 (2007) 18. Das, S., Sherpa, M.T., Sachdeva, S., Thakur, N.: Hot springs of Sikkim (Tatopani); a socio-­ medical conjecture which amalgamates religion, faith, traditional belief and tourism. Asian Acad. Res. J. Soc. Sci. Humanit. 4(1), 80–93 (2012) 19. Antonio, J., Fernandez, F.: Parkinson’s disease: present status and treatment at the Filero Spa (Navara). Bull. Span. Soc. Med. Hydrogeol. (in Spanish). 9(3), 127–134 (1996) 20. Miyazaki, Y., Motohashi, Y.: Forest environment and physiological response. In: Agishi, Y., Shtsuka, Y. (eds.) New Frontiers in Health Resort Medicine, pp. 67–77. Hokkaido University Medical School, Sapporo (1996) 21. Ohtsuka, Y., Yabunaka, N., Watanabe, I., Noro, H., Fujisawa, H., Agishi, Y.: Thermal stress and diabetic complications. Int. J. Biometeorol. 38(2), 57–59 (1995) 22. Asoh, T.: Cold spring therapy in Kan-no-Jigoku. In: Agishi, Y., Ohtsuka, Y. (eds.) New Frontiers in Health Resort Medicine, pp. 117–125. Hokkaido University Scochool of Medicine, Sapporo (1996) 23. Gupta, A.K., Nicol, K.: The use of sulfur in dermatology. J.  Drugs Dermatol. 3(4), 427–431 (2004) 24. Oshima, Y.: Thermalism in Japan, p. 6. The Forim on Thermalism in Japan, Tokyo (1988) 25. Kovács, C., Pecze, M., Tihanyi, Á., Kovács, L., Balogh, S., Bender, T.: The effect of sulphurous water in patients with osteoarthritis of hand. Double-blind, randomized, controlled follow-up study. Clin. Rheumatol. 31(10), 1437–1442 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10067-­012-­2026-­0 26. Branco, M., Rego, N.N., Silva, P.H., Archanjo, I.E., Ribeiro, M.C., Trevisani, V.F.: Bath thermal waters in the treatment of knee osteoarthritis: a randomized controlled clinical trial. Eur. J. Phys. Rehabil. Med. 52(4), 422–430 (2016)

186

5  Hot and Mineral Spring Water for Health Benefits

27. Kovács, C., Bozsik, Á., Pecze, M.: Effects of sulfur bath on hip osteoarthritis: a randomized, controlled, single-blind, follow-up trial: a pilot study. Int. J. Biometeorol. 60(11), 1675–1680 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-­016-­1158-­3 28. Carbajo, J.M., Maraver, F.: Sulphurous mineral waters: new applications for health. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat. Med. 11 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/8034084.8034084 29. Kocab, B.: Spa Treatment in Czechoslovakia, pp. 27–28. Balnea, Prague (1972) 30. Braga, P., Sambataro, M., Dal Sasso, M., Culici, M., Alfieri, M., Nappi, G.: Antioxidant effect of sulphurous thermal water on human neutrophil bursts: chemiluminescence evaluation. Respiration. 75, 193–201 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1159/000107976 31. Bazhanov, N., Ansar, M., Ivanciuc, T., Garofalo, R., Casola, A.: Hydrogen sulfide: a novel player in airway development, pathophysiology of respiratory diseases, and antiviral defenses. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 57, 403–410 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1165/rcmb.2017-­0114TR 32. Predmore, B., Lefer, D., Gojon, G.: Hydrogen sulfide in biochemistry and medicine. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 17, 119–140 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1089/ars.2012.4612 33. Yuan, S., Patel, R., Kevil, C.: Working with nitric oxide and hydrogen sulfide in biological systems. Am. J.  Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 308, L403–L415 (2015). https://doi. org/10.1152/ajplung.00327.2014 34. Varricchio, A., Giuliano, M., Capasso, M., Del Gaizo, D., Ascione, E., De Lucia, A.: Salso-sulphide thermal water in the prevention of recurrent respiratory infections in children. Int. J.  Immunopathol. Pharmacol. 26, 941–952 (2013). https://doi. org/10.1177/039463201302600412 35. Salami, A., Dellepiane, M., Crippa, B., Mora, F., Guastini, L., Jankowska, B.: Sulphurous water inhalations in the prophylaxis of recurrent upper respiratory tract infections. Int. J.  Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol. 72, 1717–1722 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2008.08.014 36. Neri, M., Sansone, L., Pietrasanta, L., Kisialiou, A., Cabano, E., Martini, M.: Gene and protein expression of CXCR4 in adult and elderly patients with chronic rhinitis, pharyngitis or sinusitis undergoing thermal water nasal inhalations. Immun. Ageing. 15, 10 (2018). https:// doi.org/10.1186/s12979-­018-­0114-­y 37. Salami, A., Dellepiane, M., Strinati, F., Guastini, L., Mora, R.: Sulphurous thermal water inhalations in the treatment of chronic rhinosinusitis. Rhinology. 48, 71–76 (2010). https://doi. org/10.4193/Rhin09.065 38. Keller, S., König, V., Mösges, R.: Thermal water applications in the treatment of upper respiratory tract diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Allergy. 17 (2014). https://doi. org/10.1155/2014/943824 39. Viegas, J., Esteves, A., Cardoso, E., Arosa, T., Vitale, M., Luís Taborda-Barata, L.: Biological effects of thermal water-associated hydrogen sulfide on human airways and associated immune cells: implications for respiratory diseases. Public Health. (5 June 2019). https://doi. org/10.3389/fpubh.2019.00128 40. Matsumoto, S.: Evaluation of the role of balneotherapy in rehabilitation medicine. J. Nippon Med. Sch. 85, 196–203 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1272/jnms.JNMS.85-­30 41. Sukenik, S., Buskila, D., Neumann, L., Kleiner-Baumgarten, A., Zimlichman, S., Horowitz, J.: Sulphur bath and mud pack treatment for rheumatoid arthritis at the Dead Sea area. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 49, 99–102 (1990) 42. Agishi, Y., Ohtsuka, Y.: Present factors of balneology in Japan. Glob. Environ. Resour. 2, 177–185 (1998) 43. Woolf, A.D., Pfleger, B.: Burden of major musculoskeletal conditions. Special theme–bone and joint decade 2000–2010. Bull. World Health Organ. 81(9), 646–656 (2003) 44. Chawla, S.C., Khanal, S., Ghimire, P.: Musculoskeletal disease in Nepal: a countrywide cross-­ sectional survey on the burden and surgical access. Int. J. Surg. 34, 122–126 (2016) 45. Dehghan, M., Farahbod, F.: The efficacy of thermotherapy and cryotherapy on pain relief in patients with acute low back pain, a clinical trial study. J. Clin. Diagn. Res. 8(9), LC01–LC04 (2014). https://doi.org/10.7860/jcdr/2014/7404.4818

References

187

46. Vaidya, B., Nakarmi, S.: A qualitative study of patients’ beliefs and perception on medicinal properties of natural hot spring bath for musculoskeletal problems. J. Environ. Public Health. 2020, 3694627 (2020) 47. Leoni, E., Catalani, F., Marini, S., Dallolio, L.: Legionellosis associated with recreational waters: a systematic review of cases and outbreaks in swimming pools, spa pools, and similar environments. Int. J.  Environ. Res. Public Health. 15, 1612 (2018). https://doi.org/10.3390/ ijerph15081612 48. Chong, M.N., Jin, B., Chow, C.W., Saint, C.: Recent developments in photocatalytic water treatment technology: a review. Water Res. 44, 2997–3027 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. watres.2010.02.039 49. World Health Organization (WHO): Guidelines for Safe Recreational Water Environments, vol. 2. WHO Press, Geneva (2006). http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/ 43336/1/9241546808_eng.pdf

Chapter 6

Cultural Aspects of Hot Springs

6.1 Water and Culture The importance of water has been realized by a wide variety of people of the world in different ways depending on their ability to understand. While a layman sees it necessary only for cooking, quenching the thirst and cleansing, others take a bath in a stream, lake, or tub for pleasure and relaxation. Some take a bath in water with an understanding of the social or cultural event to experience something native. They feel that it is to immerse onself in culture as well as water. Some go well beyond to think that water is the source of existence. Water is a supporting fluid for the life of plants and animals itself. Up to 60% of the human adult body contains water. Every cell, tissue and organ in our body needs water to function. It regulates body temperature, transports nutrients and oxygen to the cell, and is essential for the elimination of toxins. We are able to live on this planet because of the huge quantity of available water: Earth’s surface is covered by about 71% of water, and the oceans hold about 96.5% of all Earth’s water. Scientists are using the presence of water as a major tool on Moon and Mars to predict if any form of life exists or is possible to exist. Life is not just a physical body, it is also composed of two other unseen components, namely mind and soul. The World Foundation’s unofficial motto is ‘Water equals life, life equals water’, Lakes rivers and springs are at the heart of communities all over the world. Other than being necessary for survival, human beings have utilized water for treatment of various diseases. People have been meditating near the natural water sources to attain mental peace and spiritual health since the beginning of time. Different communities around the world have developed their own cultures to place a great value on water and the need to conserve it. We cite a few examples here to illustrate how water is regarded in the Nepalese culture.  ‘Shankha’ in Nepali means a conch-shell and ‘Mul’ – a source. There exists a place called Shankhamul on the bank of Bagmati River in Kathmandu. According © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Ranjit, Hot Springs in Nepal, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99500-3_6

189

190

6  Cultural Aspects of Hot Springs

to Hindu and Buddhist traditions, water issued from this conch has more potential to heal diseases. Likewise, according to Swayambhu ‘Puran’ (a Sanskrit compendia of myth and ritual lore), a monkey was trying to save a man but due to misunderstanding, the man tried to kill the monkey. Because of this, the man was cursed with leprosy. Later, he bathed at Shankhamul and got emancipated from his disease and sin. According to Skanda Puran, “Chandra was cursed by his Guru Agastye to lose mental and physical powers for having a child through after a sexual affair with Guru’s wife. He was also emancipated from the curse after taking a bath at Shankhamul” [1]. In Sankhu, a town within Kathmandu valley, there is a pond called Manichud ‘Daha’ (pond in Nepali language). Kathmanduites, especially the Buddhists, regard this pond a very holy place. In ancient times, an ascetic king Manichud was performing penance in a cave near the pond. The king soon realized that people residing in the peripheral villages were suffering from a plague. He had an idea to prevent the people from contracting this disease – by throwing the ‘mani’ (crystal stone) that comes out of his forehead into the pond. By sprinkling this pond water, people would recover from the disease. He also knew that if he took the ‘mani’ off of his forehead, he would die instantly. But for the benefit of the people at large, he sacrificed his own life and was transformed into a ‘shila’ (stone). This shila still exists there. People visit there and take bathes in Falgun ‘Krishna Saptami’ (the seventh day of Dark Moon), Chaitra ‘Purnima’ (Full Moon) and Sankrantis (first day of each month) with the belief that they will be relieved from all fears [2]. In Nepal, water has been strongly linked with the Hindu and Buddhist culture. Providing water to a thirsty person is believed to be an act of piousness in the Nepalese society. This society regards the development of natural water supply infrastructure and protection of water sources as the biggest contribution to humanity. All the sources of water are regarded as holy pilgrim sites. Besides cleaning the body, numerous stories are told about the benefits of having a dip or shower in the water that includes becoming wealthy, having children, and becoming free from sins and diseases. In this country, one can often find religious sanctity, temples and holy places by the side of rivers, lakes, ponds etc. Similarly, religious festivals and fetes are on riverbanks, natural water sources, ponds, and lakes to rejuvenate life through holy baths on these water bodies. The Mundane affair of Nepali people starts by having a bath in the natural water source (river, stream, pond, tap, well etc.) soon after they wake up. Hindus institutionalized holy dip in the water as part of their religion. They consider it essential to bathe prior to performing religious rituals and worshiping. Ancient stories in Hindu religious scriptures narrate the saga about how goddess Ganga was brought from Heaven to Earth. It is believed that Ganga was created through Shiva’s jata (hair lock), Vishu’s foot, and Bramha’s kamandalo (water pitcher). Ganga is regarded as pure, sacred, divine, motherly and the provider of fertility for fecund products. She is also believed to free people from sin and diseases [3]. Ganges is a trans-boundary river of Asia flowing through India and Bangladesh. Indian people believe that the goddess Ganga transformed herself into the Ganges, a river which flows from the big toe of the god Vishnu, ‘the preserver’

6.2  Hot Spring Water and Culture

191

in Hindu mythology. Bathing in that river has always been an important part of ritual purification. Due to the belief that a river is the transformation of the Goddess Ganga, Hindus gather in the spring areas (including hot and mineral springs) on certain days of the year and hope to relieve themselves from diseases and sins. A system of donation and conducting meditation were also institutionalized at such sites in Nepal. In many of the world’s religions, taking a bath in river has long been part of ceremonial practices. The early Egyptians worshiped the Nile, and priests were required to bathe in the river twice daily before entering the sacred temples. The first Christian baptisms took place in the sacred waters of the Jordan River, and Christians continue to be immersed in water during baptismal rites today. Muslims are required to wash their face, hands, and neck in a ritual manner five times a day before each of their daily prayers. Among the Jews, the Talmud taught the importance of water in personal cleanliness, and Jewish women long used the mikvah, a ritual cleansing bath, after menstruation [4]. An important Japanese legend relates how Izanagi, the male god who created the world with his wife, Izananami, took a bath to purify himself after descending into the land of the dead when his wife died. Washing one’s hand and mouth with water is a customary behavior for many Asian people when they enter the grounds of a shrine. 

6.2 Hot Spring Water and Culture In groups or alone, large outdoor  hot spring pools, and small private bathrooms, Japanese immerse themselves daily in hot water. These ablutions do more than cleanse their bodies: the baths are imbued with meaning and symbols of Japanese culture. Even though Nepalese culture place high importance in hot spring baths, due to the topography and location of many hot spring sites on the riverbanks, people often face challenges to practice this culture. People have to walk through bushes and find or create their own trail to reach the hot spring source. As people regard these sites as abodes of gods and goddesses, several instances can be cited where local charitable people contributed their labor or money to create access trails or construct a hot water pool. Chitra Bahadur Garjuwa, a local at Darmija site explains how his grandfather and father initiated a contribution of labor to make an easy passage to the spring site. He recalls the story told by them that the grandfather sat in a box connected to a rope that hung from the cliff. With a heavy cutting tool, he cleared a portion of the rocky mountain and sought help from other laborers who later cleared the rest, ending up with a railing by the side of the steep winding slope (Fig. 6.1). A trail leading to Bahundanda hot spring also contains a monument displaying that a military man-made financial contribution to clear the bushes and pave an access from the hilltop 15 years ago in memory of his late wife. This is a unique example of how local people love to visit the hot springs in certain rural areas of Nepal (Fig. 6.2).

192

6  Cultural Aspects of Hot Springs

Fig. 6.1  Rocky slope now safe with railings

Fig. 6.2  Monument on the way to Bahundanda hot spring

In Tapoban a hot spring source exists by the side of the Chameliya River. Legend has it that sage Vyasa cooked his food there over a fire between three mountain peaks. During the process, a large amount of heat was produced that warmed the surrounding water. Local people believe that the spring water has healing as well as divine power, so meditating on such sites provides a unique experience. On the eve of Maghesankranti (the coldest day of the year), thousands of people from the surrounding areas assemble at the site, build a fire for mendicants which is kept burning throughout the night and say prayers. According to the locals, in the early morning of Maghesankranti day, hot water rises and fills the pool to the top before receding in the evening. After having a bath in the hot spring water, people offer rice balls to their dead ancestors with the belief that they will be able to smoothly cross the Waitarani River which flows in hell. Some visit the place to take a bath in the hot spring and fast so they can cross the Baikuntha River, an imaginary river in heaven, after death.

6.2  Hot Spring Water and Culture

193

People at Sanibheri hot spring in Rukum district believe that a bath taken here in the dawn before speaking to anybody relieves them from any sin they have accumulated as well as relieves them from physical ailments like back pain, skin rashes etc. Meditation has remained a tradition for ancient rishis (sages) in Nepal for thousands of years. They used to perform meditation in holy places like monasteries, and hot spring sites. This practice gradually vanished over time. However, it has revived in recent years, with the establishment of institutionalized meditation centers in and around Kathmandu. In the Sanje hot spring (Rasuwa district), Tapoban hot spring of Darchula district and some other places, people meditate followed by taking a shower in the hot water tap. Such examples can be found in other countries as well. For instance, many of the early Japanese medicinal springs were believed to be the abode of spiritual beings, and it is believed that the priests and other holy people have discovered the sources of spring waters with their spiritual vision and divine guidance. The popularity of hot springs in Japan was documented by early regional chronicles: the Isumo Fudoki reported that the Tamatsukuri hot spring was extremely popular and that by ‘bathing once, the visitor was made fair of face and figure, bathing twice, all diseases were healed; its effectiveness has been obvious since the days of old’ [5]. Likewise, a famous spring in the ancient city of Thermae – today’s Loutraki – in Greece was thought to be much loved by the gods and was the first health resort to be recorded in history. The name Thermae comes from Artemis Thermia, the proteress of hot mineral springs. Both Apollo, the god of the sun and of spiritual peace, and Hera, the mother of the gods, were worshiped at temples. In many countries, hot springs have attracted a number of dignitaries like the Japanese emperors, Roman legionnaires, Presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Franklin Roosevelt of the United States. A galaxy of famous writers, artists, military heroes, actors, and industrialists spend their summers at spas ‘taking the water’ and enjoying the wide range of recreational and social activities [6]. In Nepal, a visit by such popular figures has not yet taken place except at Singa Tatopani in Myagdi district by a high-ranking political leader in recent years for the treatment of her paralyzed wife. She took the dip in the pool only for a few days expecting a miracle which did not occur. Likewise, a group of Nepalese artists made a courtesy visit to the same hot spring recently. The impact of such visits are yet to be felt.

6.2.1 Bathe the World In order to raise awareness around the world about the importance of water in our daily lives and to popularize the benefits of bathing, ‘Bathe the World Foundation’ was established in 2018. The Foundation promptly initiated a move to observe ‘World Bathing Day’ on 22 June by using social media. The Foundation supports the annual celebration of this day to recognize the diverse rituals and cultural traditions associated with the act of bathing and cleaning. World Bathing Day’s development is being closely nurtured by the global hot springs industry, in particular the

194

6  Cultural Aspects of Hot Springs

Global Wellness Institute’s Hot Spring Initiative. In 2021, the day was celebrated by organizing music programs in the hot spring sites in New Zealand, Australia, Japan, Austria, Hungary, Germany and the United States through virtual media [7]. Under the theme ‘Bathe the World 2023’ the Foundation is organizing a program on June 22nd 2023, where one person from each of the 195 countries on earth will be invited to bathe together at Irrwanyere/Dalhousie Springs in South Australia. Designed to raise global awareness about the contribution bathing makes in achieving the United Nation’s third Sustainable Development Goal, ‘Good Health and Well-being’, the project is being developed in collaboration with local Lower Southern Arrernte and Wangkanggurru people [8].

6.3 Significance of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati’s Idols at Spring Sites Apart from the need to protect water sources, Nepalese ancestors were prudent to build temples, stupas and pagodas near waterspouts, wells, ponds, and prominent hot springs. This attracted people and quickly became pilgrimage sites. Now, festivals and fairs are held at least once a year in all the prominent locations. With a few exceptions, the idols of Lord Shiva (Mahadev) and Goddess Parvati are most commonly found in the hot spring sites of Nepal. Kodari Tatopani, Singa Tatopani, Nundhaki Tatopani, are just a few examples. Ancient stories in Hindu religious scriptures narrate the saga about how goddess Ganga was brought from Heaven to Earth. It is believed that Ganga was created through Shiva’s jata (hair lock), Vishu’s foot, Bramha’s kamandalo (water pitcher). Ganga is regarded as pure, sacred, divine, motherly and provider of fertility for fecund products. She is also believed to free people from sin and diseases. Legend surrounding Manikaran, a hot spring site of India, has it that while roaming around, Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati once got an opportunity to find a place surrounded by lush green mountains. Enamored by the beauty of the place, they decided to spend some time there. During their stay, Goddess Parvati lost her ‘mani’ (precious stones) in the stream. Upset over the loss, she asked Shiva to retrieve it. Lord Shiva commanded his attendant to find the ‘mani’ for Parvati. As they failed to do so, the Lord became furious. He opened his third eye, a tremendously inauspicious event, which led to disturbances in the universe. An appeal was made before the serpent god, Sheshnag, to pacify Lord Shiva. Sheshnag hissed, thereby giving rise to a flow of boiling water. The water spread over the entire area resulting in the emergence of precious stones of the type Goddess Parvati had lost [9] (Figs. 6.3 and 6.4). At Nundhaki hot spring in Sankhuwasabha district, a Mahadev temple has been erected along with a Singhdevi ‘peeth’ (pilgrimage site). This site is renowned to the local people for its power of blessings. On Balachaturdashi day (Hindu festive day), people from distant places visit the area and have holy baths in the spring water. Due to the geographical situation of Nepal, most of the river flows from North to South. However, at the source, the spring water flows South to North for

6.3  Significance of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati’s Idols at Spring Sites

195

Fig. 6.3  Shiva temple at Singa hot spring 2020. (Source: www.facebook/singatatopani)

Fig. 6.4  Idol of Lord Shiva inside the temple at Kodari hot spring

some distance. People regard this owing to the unique power of the God and place high significance to the hot spring water believing it to possess great healing power. This sort of belief prevails in other parts of Nepal, even for the river. For instance, the Uttar Ganga River (Uttar meaning north in Nepali) at Dhorpatan in Baglung district also flows South to North and the river is highly revered. People from all the adjoining districts celebrate in this river on Srawan Sankranti day and the gathering takes a festive turn in the night (Box 6.1).

196

6  Cultural Aspects of Hot Springs

Box 6.1  Why the idol of Sati Devi are found in some hot spring sites in place of Lord Shiva? The Holy Trinity According to Hindu legend, Lord Brahma plays the role of a Creator, Lord Vishnu the role of the Preserver, and Lord Shiva is a Destroyer of the universe. Lord Shiva is regarded to hold a pivotal position in the Holy Trinity. Some consider Shiva as the ‘Adi-Dev’ which means the ‘Oldest God of the Hindu mythology.’ Shakti Peeth The Shakti Peethas (seats of Shakti) contain many significant shrines and acts as a pilgrimage destination in Shaktism, the goddess-focused Hindu tradition. There are 51 Shakti peethas by various accounts, of which 18 are named as Maha (major) in medieval Hindu texts [10]. Various legends explain how the Shakti Peetha came into existence, the most popular one being the death of Goddess Sati. Lord Brahma had a son named Daksha, also known as Prajapati (Lord of human beings). Daksha’s daughter, Sati and Lord Shiva fell in love with each other. Daksha did not approve of Shiva because of his ascetic nature, so they married in secret. However, after learning of the marriage, Daksha swore revenge on Lord Shiva. Daksha performed a yajna (Vedic ritual of fire sacrifice) in which he invited all the deities, except Shiva and Sati. In spite of this, Sati desired to join the yajna. Shiva tried his best to dissuade her from going but failed to change her mind. When Sati arrived at the yajna, she was not given due respect. Rather, she had to bear the brunt of Daksha’s insults aimed at Shiva. Anguished, Sati cursed her father and self-immolated. Shiva, enraged at the death of his spouse, took the form of Virabhadra (an extremely fierce and fearsome form of Himself). Virabhadra not only destroyed the performing site of Daksha’s yajna (ritual sacrifice) but went on to cut off his head. However, even this did not satisfy Shiva. Immersed in grief, He performed ‘Tandava’, (the celestial dance of destruction), carried Sati’s body, reminiscing about their moments as a couple, and roamed around the universe with it, bringing an utter chaos everywhere. Being a preserver of the universe, God Vishnu had to finally use his most powerful Chakra (a spinning, discus weapon, having 108 serrated edges) on Sati’s corpse. It caused her corpse to fall on 51 parts of the Indian subcontinent and each part became a sacred site known as ‘Peetha’ (Figs. 6.5 and 6.6). In the Dummargaira hot spring of Rukum district, the idol of hill Goddess Pathibhara has been instituted near the spring area, as an exception. Pathibhara is regarded as one of the ‘Shakti Peethas’. Worshippers from different parts of the district flock to the temple on the full moon day in the month of Falgun (February–March) every year. It is believed that a

6.3  Significance of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati’s Idols at Spring Sites

197

Fig. 6.5  Idol of Lord Shiva at the premise of Nundhaki Tatopani

Fig. 6.6  Nundhaki Tatopani – Singhadevi peeth

pilgrimage ensures long-cherished dreams of her devotees, like sons for those without sons and wealth for the poor, after having a holy bath in the hot spring water originating from the temple (Fig. 6.7). A hot spring pool called Saubhagya Kunda is located on the premise of Kamakhya Temple located at Guwahati in Assam State, India. Kamakhya is the name of an important Hindu Tantric ‘goddess of desire’ that evolved in Kamrupa, Assam. The temple is one of the primary Shakti ‘peethas’ and denotes the spot where Sati used to retire in secret to satisfy her amour with Shiva, and it was also the place where her yoni (genitals, womb) fell after Shiva displayed His ‘tandav’ (dance of destruction) carrying Sati’s corpse. Goddess Sati is named as Parvati in her next birth and married to Shiva.

198

6  Cultural Aspects of Hot Springs

Fig. 6.7  Erected Pathivara temple (seen in red color) on the background at Dimurgaira hot spring

The water in the pool turns red during the month of Srawan and people believe that it is resulting from the menstruation of Goddess Kamakhya. Devotees avoid taking a bath during this period. Irrespective of the fact that the temperature and composition (involving color) of hot springs can change in different seasons of the year, people believe that it is due to the action of godess.

6.4 Belief in Other Communities The Sikh community has another legend to add to this place relating to the issue of hot water. During the reign of the third ‘Udasi’, the founder of Sikhism Guru Nanak who taught people the message of ‘one God’ came to this place in 1574 Bikrami (Sikh calendar) with his disciple Bhai Mardana. Mardana felt hungry but he had no food. Guru Nanak sent Mardana to collect food for the ‘langar’ (the community kitchen). Many people donated flour to make ‘roti’ (bread). However, there was no fire to cook it. Guru Nanak then asked Mardana to lift a stone, in which he succeeded. Thereafter, a hot spring appeared. As directed by Guru Nanak, Mardana placed the rolled uncooked chapatis (breads) in the hot spring pool. To his despair, this bread sank. Guru Nanak then told him to pray to God saying that if his bread floats back then he would donate bread in His name. When he prayed, many breads started floating, duly baked. Guru Nanak preached that anyone who donates in the name of God will have their sunken items float back [ibid.]. Native Americans have always considered mineral springs to be sacred healing grounds. The Aztecs considered lakes, rivers and springs to the abodes of gods and goddesses. Because water was so highly regarded in an area subject to frequent droughts, the mother of a newborn baby would often pray to these divinities for her child’s protection and healing [11].

6.5  Water Spouts and Their Values

199

Many of the early North American hot springs were regarded as sacred by native peoples who considered them gifts of the Great Spirit, who warmed them with his breath. As some tribes believed that the springs were the home of magical beings who could both heal and destroy, entering a hot spring was shrouded in ceremonial practice, and decorum and respect were observed by all who entered the healing waters. The springs at Saratoga were called Medicine Springs of the Great Manitou by the Mohawks, who considered them a gift of the Great Spirit. The Iroquois, Shawnee, and Tuscarrora peoples often bathed together at Medicine springs in what is now Bedford, Pennsylvania in the United States. In California, the Lake County and Coast Miwok peoples used the present Harbin Hot Springs as a seasonal camp and sacred ground, with the hot springs both a place of healing and a path to the spiritual realms. According to Ellen Klages, writing in ‘Harbing Hot Springs: Healing Waters, Sacred Land’: To a shaman, the waters of a hot spring were an entrance way to the underworld. In a trance state, induced by meditation on such a point of entrance – a natural tunnel, rock crevasse or spring- a shaman could travel from the material world to the spirit realm. There he could talk to spirits and do healing work which, when returning to a non-trance state, be brought back to the people of his tribe. Since these natural openings to the spirit world are rare, the springs were considered to be a very special and sacred point in the already sacred material world. [12]

Apart from cultural and religious aspects, in some parts of the world, hot springs have been linked to sport as well. N Lovejoy Springs (Los Angeles, California) and Sulfur Spring (attached to a football club in Texas) are just a few names to mention.

6.5 Water Spouts and Their Values Stone spouts are found in most of the ancient cities of Europe, Japan and Nepal. After all, why would the water be channeled through spouts instead of a simple pipe? Does spout water have any psychological effect on people just as liquor in an artistic bottle seems to taste better than the same liquor in an ordinary one? Besides the fact that spouts of Nepal have their originality and characteristics, delivery of natural water (hot or cold) through spouts is meant to add value to the water in Hindu and Buddhist culture. Stone spouts found in the Hindu culture are beautifully carved stone elements, in the shape of the head of a crocodile which is considered as a holy water animal – the carrier of the Goddess Ganga. It is believed that the water source never gets dry in doing so. At some sites, structures are also designed to shower hot water from the serpent head as an honor of the connection between snakes and rain. These are installed on the front or side walls of sunken and stepped platforms to channel water for human use. Stone spouts are the unique outcome depicting the excellence of ancient engineering and architecture. Stone and metal-crafted spouts evolved as new construction methods and designs were employed [13]. The water spout located at Mangahiti (built during 570 A.D. in northeast of Patan Durbar Square ‘Kathmandu valley’) is the oldest explored so far. This stone spout

200

6  Cultural Aspects of Hot Springs

relic, dated 751  AD, reveals that Lichhavis were involved in its construction. Between the sixth and nineteenth century, hundreds more were built in Kathmandu and all over Nepal. In several areas of the country where hot or cold water is found, such water is collected in ponds and delivered through spouts [14]. From Vedic time, the famous Varun is known as God of water, with fish, sheep and crocodile as his vehicles. The head of the crocodile is kept in the spout with the belief that the spout will not dry. Hence, the idol of Varun on the right and Varuni on the left can be found in Mungra (spout in local language) in Western Nepal. Most of the mungras are carved in commonly found designs, while some have flowers and amlak underneath. Crocodiles are kept on the front part of mungra. Traditionally there are three or more spouts in these mungras. The hot water stone spout of Sunar village in Jumla district has its own characteristics. Poles erected near stone spouts have lotus and other flowers carved on them. A pole on the right side has ‘chaitya’ (a place where the relics of Buddha are collected) and flowers, which represent Triratna (three gems) called  Buddha, Dharma and Sangha in Buddhist religion. Another pole has a horse-riding soldier carrying a spear carved onto it. Stones with these carvings are aptly named “Brave Stones”, and are found all across Jumla district. It is possible that these stones were carved in the respect of the soldiers killed in war [15]. In the Palpa district of western Nepal exists a temple of Satyawati on the bank of Satyawati Lake. On the night of Kartik ‘purnima’ (full-moon day of the month Kartik) a fair takes place at midnight, along with the sacrifice of animals. Pilgrims sit on the lake’s bank and ask for blessings from Satyawati in loud voices, as She is hard hearing. While some people take a dip in the holy lake water for physical and spiritual purpose, others also like to achieve a peace of mind. Some might ask Satyawati for the swift passing of her husband’s co-wife, while others wish for the mother-inlaw to vanish, win an expensive lawsuit or lottery and so on [1] (Figs. 6.8 and 6.9).

Fig. 6.8  Water spout at Kodari hot spring. (Source: Kumar KC)

References

201

Fig. 6.9  A portion of 108 water spouts in Muktinath pilgrimage – Mustang district

References 1. Amatya, S.: Water and Culture. Jalasrot Bikas Sanstha, Kathmandu (2003) 2. Munkarmi, L.B.: Hajar Varsa Aghi Dekhiko Aitihasik Katha Sangraha, Khopring, Bhaktapur 202-337 (In Nepali language) (1987) 3. Amatya, S.: Kathmandu Narayan. Royal Nepal Academy, Kathmandu (1997) 4. Routh, H.B., et  al.: Balneology, mineral water and spas in historical perspective. Clin. Dermatol. 14(9), 550–556 (1996) 5. Oshima, Y.: Thermalism in Japan, p. 6. The Forum on Thermalism in Japan, Tokyo (1988) 6. Altman, N.: Healing Springs: The Ultimate Guide to Taking the Waters. Healing Arts Press, Rochester (2000) 7. Bathe the World Foundation (2018). https://worldbathingday.org/ 8. bathetheworld.org/get-­involved 9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manikaran 10. Vanamali Shakti: Realm of the Divine Mother, pp.  83–84, 143–144. Inner Traditions, Rochester. ISBN 978-1-59477-785-1 (2008) 11. Sejourne, L.: Thought and Religion in Ancient Mexico (in Spanish), p. 15. Fondo de Cultura Economica, Mexico (1957) 12. Klages, E.: Harbin Hot Springs: Healing Waters Sacred Land, p.  55. Harbin Hot Springs Publishing, Middletown (1993) 13. Stone spouts heritage in Nepal Tunza Eco Generation (2013). https://tunza.eco-­generation.org/ worldReportView.jsp?viewID=3756 14. Pradhan, R.: Dhunge Dhara: A Case Study of the Three Cities of Kathmandu Valley, Ancient Nepal, No. 116–118, February–July, pp 10–1423 (1990) 15. Sharma, D.R.: A note on some typical architectural designs of western Nepal. Contrib. Nepal. Stud. 27(2), July, 201–217 (2000)

Chapter 7

Hot Springs and Tourism

Secretions from the scent gland or “pod” of the male musk deer are used in many traditional medicines as well as non-medicinal products such as cosmetics and personal hygiene products in East Asian countries. Unfortunately, a musk deer searches for the source of the fragrance without knowing that it comes from within itself. For a long time, Nepal’s situation resembled that of a musk deer. It was not until 1960 that Toni Hagen, a Swiss geologist working in Nepal, unfolded the country’s secrets through his book entitled ‘Nepal  – The Kingdom in the Himalayas’. Slowly and steadily, the country established its recognition as the birthplace of Lord Gautam Buddha – Lumbini, a place rich in cultural heritage and a heavenly place on Earth. Some religious pilgrimage sites that existed in harmony throughout the country were exposed to the followers of various sects and religions. Nepal is also a land of Himalayas possessing eight of the ten highest mountains in the world. The country has also become a hotspot destination for mountaineers, other types of adventure tourism and ecotourism. Today, Nepal’s major tourist activities include wilderness and adventure activities such as mountain biking, bungee jumping, rock climbing, mountain climbing, trekking, hiking, bird watching, mountain flights, ultralight aircraft flights, paragliding and hot air ballooning over the mountains of the Himalaya, exploring the waterways by raft, kayak or canoe and jungle safaris especially in the Terai region. These activities are well supported by the country’s year-round fair weather. The country possesses unique topographical variation etc. where the elevation ranges from around 70 m above sea level in the southern alluvial plains to 8848 m at the Mount Everest within a short (150–250 km) north-south transect. This high variability in eco-climatic conditions has resulted in a uniquely rich diversity of flora and fauna in the country [1]. Tourism is one of the mainstays of Nepalese economy. It is also a major source of foreign exchange and revenue. However, the tourism sector has been able to expose only a fraction of Nepal’s potential. In 2020, 65.5% of the tourists visited the country for recreational purposes and 12.4% for trekking/mountaineering. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Ranjit, Hot Springs in Nepal, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99500-3_7

203

204

7  Hot Springs and Tourism 60

1200

40

1000

0

600

–20 –40

400

in Percent

Number (000)

20 800

–60 200 0

–80 2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

545

598

595

586

407

573

761

969

996

183

By Land

191

205

203

204

132

180

180

204

201

47

Growth Rate (RA)

22.1

9.1

–0.7

–0.9

–31.8

39.7

24.9

24.8

2.1

–80.8

By Air

By Air

By Land

–100

Growth Rate (RA)

Fig. 7.1  Number of tourist arrival and growth rate. (Source: Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation, 2021)

Pilgrimages are a timeless expression of tourism. Nearly 15.6% visited Nepal for religious purposes in that year. Tourists visiting for unidentified purposes constituted 11.5%. These figures fluctuated largely in 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic and do not reflect the normal situation as there was a decline of tourists by 81% compared to the previous year. Slightly encouraging pictures can be seen in the horizon [2]. The length of foreign tourist’s stay has increased from 12 days (during the last 3 years) to more than 15 days in 2020. Likewise, their average spending per day has increased to $65 from $45 in 2019 (Figs. 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3). A majority of tourists from India visit Nepal for religious purpose, mainly to visit Lumbini, Muktinath (Mustang district) as a pilgrimage site. Some visit Darchula district on their way to another pilgrimage site in Kailash, Mansarovar in Tibet (China).

7.1 Hot Springs as Tourist Destination Hot springs are a geothermal resource which can be used widely to add value to tourist destinations. The main tourism sectors using hot springs are [3]: • • • • •

Spa and wellness tourism (Leisure and Recreation) Health and medical tourism (Thermalism, Balneology, Hydrotherapy) Geo-tourism and eco-tourism (Geothermal features as visual attractions) Adventure tourism (Extreme geothermal environments), and Nature-based tourism.

7.1  Hot Springs as Tourist Destination

205

Fig. 7.2  Tourist arrival according to travel objectives. (Source: Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation, 2021)

11.50%

12.4%

15.60%

60.5%

Trekking and mountaineering

Recreation

Pilgrimage / religion

Others

Fig. 7.3  Countrywide number of tourist arrivals. (Source: Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation, 2021)

206

7  Hot Springs and Tourism

Fortunately, Nepal is poised in a geographical setting which makes the scope of hot spring tourism vast in terms of all the facets mentioned above. If properly developed, it can be a lucrative addition to the tourism market. All over Nepal, locals have traditionally used hot springs for balneotherapy, to cure everything from back pain to arthritis. Unfortunately, the thermal springs have yet to become a stand-­alone selling point for national and international tourists. Hot springs are ancient places of pilgrimage and have become the centers of healthy, thriving communities in Nepal. However, due to a lack of a transportation network, very few hot spring sites in Nepal have developed as pilgrimage sites. There are dozens of hot springs from Darchula in the West to Sankhuwasabha district in the East to experience various forms of tourism. The Tatopani at Kodari is a famous hot spring among travelers for eco-tourism and wellness. The hot springs at Unu, Singa, Bhurung, Darmija are serving as spa and wellness centers while Jhinu, Jomsom, Muktinath, Kermi and many others serve as nature-based tourism centers. Dozens of hot spring sites including Sekkar, Bagara, Folding Khola, Chalishe, Linzo-Tipling, Jharlang, Paudwar, Dharapani, Chame, Timure, Thuman, Rukum East, Dolpa and Sankhuwasabha districts call for adventure tourists. Recreational facilities with parks and gardens are available at Kodari and Bulbule spring sites. Furthermore, local standard homestay facilities are available at Nundhaki and Darmija hot spring sites. Rai.SM et.al has also raised the concern to popularize hot springs for tourism development in Nepal. Besides, the paper stresses the need to use hot springs effectively in favor of local communities maintaining physical environment and cultural harmony of the thermal area [4]. 

7.2 Impacts and Scope of Hot Springs in Tourism Hot springs have displayed strong impacts in tourism in some spring sites in Nepal. The hot spring area at Chilime village – Sanjen flourished with a number of standard hotels and guest houses for the foreign tourists trekking the Sanje La Himalaya. As the hot spring water stopped to drip for years, the situation of the local businessmen were like the fishes out of water. The emergence of hot spring water revived their hotel businesses once again. Likewise, the Singa hot spring site developed rapidly with the growing number of hotels, lodges, restaurents and homestays. Their business collapsed this time due to the absence of domestic visitors, not due to any disturbances caused by the disruption of hot spring source, but by the spread of Covid-19. The hot spring pool served as a transmission point for the spread of viruses. Generally speaking, many geothermal sites are located either on hilly or remote mountain regions that are not easily accessible. For a long time, getting out to experience the natural beauty was not a part of Nepalese society, and this was largely due to heavy travel costs. Recent decades have seen a slightly increasing trend among

7.2  Impacts and Scope of Hot Springs in Tourism

207

the medium income families to visit foreign countries as their offspring settled or moved to other continents. Nepal announced a yearlong ‘Visit Nepal 2020’ campaign in May 2018 with a target of attracting two million foreign tourists. However, this could not be implemented due to the Covid-19 pandemic. Nevertheless, the initial phase of popularization at the provincial level encouraged local people to include hot springs in the list of destinations. More people are now exposing the spring areas through YouTube, Blogs and newspapers. So many hot springs in the East Rukum, Mugu, Darchula, Dolpa and Manang districts are yet to surface in the media. A number of hotel facilities have been established in the areas of tourist attraction; however, they were not designed to cater to the needs of domestic tourists. Due to imposing restrictions of the Covid-19 pandemic, the flow of international tourists declined sharply. At the same time, the middle-class Nepalese started to move internally in search of places that would provide them a sense of relaxation. Even though the high standard hotels were hit hard by the pandemic, internal tourism was able to support the local businesses. This caused five-star hotels to rethink their management practices to accommodate the domestic tourists at an affordable price. They are now hopeful that even these types of tourists can help sustain their businesses. Moreover, in a bid to foster domestic tourism, the government has initiated a plan in 2021 to offer 10 days paid holiday for all its employees to visit places of religious and natural importance. Visits to geothermal sites are also expected with the implementation of this program. The Tatopani Hot Spring Trek has recently initiated a program that takes one to a hot spring located at Jhinu Danda as a tourist destination. The trek comes with deluxe package of cultural shows, traditional dance event, and visit to religious centers along with trip to heritage sites of the local level government and UNESCO prescribed tourist sites. This has set an example of how the travel agencies should incorporate hot springs in their business with other factors to attract tourists. Given the increasing trend of internal tourism in Nepal, social media should be utilized to attract international tourists too. Tourism organizations such as the Nepal Tourism Board, Nepal Mountaineering Association, and the Hotel Association of Nepal should develop clever and funny campaigns similar to those made by Beppu (Japan) or Iceland. Kurokawa Onsen (hot spring), on the north of Mt. Aso in Kumamoto, is one of Japan’s famous hot spring resorts despite its location in one of the remotest areas in the Kyushu Region. The area is beautifully lush throughout the year. As a part of their marketing strategy, Kurokawa Tourism Association decided to actively pursue Instagram. Traditionally conservative and still wary of outside ideas, Japanese tour operators were initially slow to catch onto social media promotion. Within a few years, they succeeded in welcoming streams of tourists from all over the country. And today, there is no lack of foreign tourists!

208

7  Hot Springs and Tourism

7.2.1 Access to Hot Spring Sites The low temperature and flow rates of a majority of the geothermal sites do not support a large investment in proper road access to these sites. Over the years, Nepal has seen good prospects in the utilization of hot springs. Even though the East-West and South-North highways were constructed to transport people and goods, they have been better used by travelers attempting to reach these geothermal sites. In a number of places, people have been able to link the highways with the thermal sites by constructing local roads. Furthermore, the construction of large-scale hydropower generation projects like Chameliya Hydropower Project and the Chilime Hydropower Project have improved access to some hot springs in Darchula and Chilime (Figs. 7.4 and 7.5). The North-South and East-West (Lok Marg) highways have presented yet another possibility to explore the use of granite from the Mustang district. Utilizing High Density Rock (HDR) technology has increased for small-scale electricity generation in the much-energy deprived northern areas.

Fig. 7.4  Mid-hill highway running east-west

7.2  Impacts and Scope of Hot Springs in Tourism

209

Fig. 7.5  Strategic Road Network map of Nepal (2017–2018). 1. District headquarter; 2. Black topped road; 3. Gravel road; 4. Earthen road; 5. Planned road; 6. Road under construction. (Government of Nepal, Department of Roads: Strategic Road Network of Nepal, pp. 11 (Ref. [5]))

7.2.1.1 Impacts of East-West Highways The East-West highway (1024 km) is the main traffic artery in the country and traverses 19 districts in Nepal; most of them either lying on the plain southern belt or the middle hill region. It runs close to two hot spring areas of Dang district and has served as the lifeline to all nine districts in Far Western Nepal. So far, 1,157 km of the 1879 km long Pushpa Lal (Mid-hill) East-West highway has been blacktopped by mid-March of 2022 [2]. This highway, extending from Panchthar to Baitadi is the parallel highway which will provide an alternative to the East-West highway through hills. It connects many of the less accessible and often stagnant communities in the Mid-hill area. It is a highway over steep hills and across deep valleys, and it will be the longest highway of Nepal once completed. 278 km of this highway traverses five districts containing hot springs, namely: East Rukum, West Rukum, Kaski, Dhading and Sankhuwasabha. Madan Bhandari Inner Terai Highway Once completed, the Inner Terai highway would extend 1200 km from east to west. The highway would run parallel to Mid Hill highway to the North and Mahendra Highway to the south. This highway will have an impact on geothermal development only in Dang district.

210

7  Hot Springs and Tourism

7.2.1.2 Impacts of North-South Highways • Rapti Highway (176 km) connects hilly regions of Rolpa, Salyan, West Rukum and East Rukum districts. East Rukum has nine hot springs while West Rukum has one. • The Karnali Highway (233 km) traverses Surkhet, Dailekh, Kalikot, and Jumla; crossing the Mid Hill East-West Highway. Its construction is still under way. Jumla district has three hot springs. • The North-South highway connecting Myagdi and Jomsom districts is already in operation. It is connected to one of the most popular Bhurung hot spring along with Dagnam, Dowa, Paudwar (Narchyang) located in Myagdi district. In the Mustang district, Jomsom hot spring is connected by this highway and has increased accessibility to the Dhi area. The Dhi hot spring holds out a high prospect for geothermal exploration and utilization because it has high temperature and high flow rate. This highway will also support the possibility of utilizing low temperature geothermal water for snow melting at higher altitudes. Construction of these highways has opened the door for scientists to conduct drilling activities, geophysical and chemical studies along with implementing projects involving direct use of hot spring waters. Private investors are encouraged to consider geothermal energy as one of the options to fulfill energy needs and expand hotel business. It should however be noted that many of these highways, particularly those North-South, have construction design flaws. These include narrow width lanes, lack of safety barriers, lane markings or drainage systems, and thin or low-quality surfacing. Increased vehicle traffic, heavy trucks and monsoon rains lead to quick deterioration, surface cracks and potholes. Road accidents are common, and therefore, the North-South highway is known to be a death trap. All the highways of far Western Nepal are subject to landslides during the rainy season blocking the roads. The Mahakali Highway also suffers flash floods. Besides natural causes, road construction is considered to be plagued with high corruption, leading to reduced quality and untimely completion. With good infrastructure in place, Nepal would benefit from having a strong spa/ wellness/geo/eco tourism sector. Combining thermal springs with yoga, Ayurveda and even shamanism would increase product viability. Some travel agencies have introduced the hot spring sites in their package programs. For instance, in the Ruby Valley trekking area in Dhading district, Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) which stretches across Manang, Mustang, Kaski, Myagdi, and Lamjung districts.

7.3  Tips for Foreign Visitors

211

7.3 Tips for Foreign Visitors Many hot springs in Nepal are located in the remote, mountain, hilly areas and on the riverside. It’s not always easy to visit these hot springs as you may have to pass rough roads, the edge of cliffs, rocky terrain, and jungle. Sign boards to access most of these hot springs do not exist except in the Annapurna area. A travel guide to get there is lacking except in the areas of Myagdi district in the western area. At this point, getting help from the locals would be the best option. When you plan to visit a hot spring in a remote area, you have to be prepared to stay in the local village. Your sacrifice is worth it when you try the local food and find cheap lodging. More importantly, you will have a lifetime opportunity to experience the village life and unique culture. The fair weather of Nepal welcomes the hot spring visitors in all the seasons, but one must be aware that the rainy season may make your journey risky. How to Take a Bath? In many popular hot springs, swimwear is necessary. These are available for purchase in nearby shops. A shower before entry to the pool is mandatory and the use of soap is prohibited in the pool. Nepal is still a rather conservative society. Though it is common to see women showering half-naked in remote areas, hot spring sites are not the most appropriate place for this. As for the women’s dress code, I refer to a quote from a foreign visitor [6] in Box 7.1 (with minor language edition).

Box 7.1: Appropriate in Turkey, but not in Nepal And now I face a quandary – how much clothing to keep on [while soaking in the hot spring]? Nepalis are very modest; we haven’t seen couples kiss or even hold hands in public, and most women dress with their shoulders and knees covered. Now, stripping down to my bikini seems immodest – appropriate in Turkey, but not here. In one pool an Italian woman wears a swim ensemble of black ribbons tied together for strategic coverage. She was getting a lot of attention from the local guys but didn’t seem to notice. Most foreign women are in one-piece suits, a few wear their shirts over top as well. I looked for local women, in hopes of obtaining some cultural guidance. Unfortunately, there were none. So, I decided to go halfway – I keep a long black shirt on over my bikini but take off my shorts. The water is hot and feels amazing after two weeks of bucket washes and cold showers. As dawn turned to dusk, most left the pools and went to rest for the night. We buy a Sprite from the snack shack and settle in, enjoying the less busy hot spring. However, a new group of young Nepali women arrives shortly after. Of course, what are they wearing? Tank tops, t-shirts and shorts! Ah, everything is relative – a half hour earlier I felt slightly prudish in my swim attire, and now I feel half-naked, which compared to these Nepali women, I am!. Mark fits in perfectly in his nondescript shorts, as the dress code for men seems more lax – both local and foreign men wear anything from underwear briefs to knee-length shorts.

212

7  Hot Springs and Tourism

7.4 Infrastructure Development in Hot Spring Sites Perhaps no one likes to listen to a hymn in a dance club, or pop songs in a pilgrimage site like a temple, monastery or church. Manifestation of hot springs is a natural phenomenon, and these springs sites are well suited in natural surroundings. However, a number of spring sites in Nepal have improved their infrastructure at the cost of removing the surrounding natural landscape (Figs. 7.6, 7.7 and 7.8). In many hot spring sites in Japan, the local community has made a sound effort to maintain the traditional look, feel, and ambience of the original village or town itself. Despite the number of visitors, one sees on the streets, all you will see are the original ‘onsens’ dating back many years ago, which were built with wooden materials, earthen walls, cobblestone stairs, and curved roofs. No commercialized hotels, no colorful signs, nor skyrise buildings to be seen for miles; just pure and simple Japanese aesthetics surrounded by luscious forests and mountains with a calm river running through the village or town. In many other parts of the world, spring sites are built and furnished carefully and purposefully with their traditional design principles.

Fig. 7.6  Ruwa hot spring, Mugu (Lekali, HS: Personal photo files (2011- 2014))

7.4  Infrastructure Development in Hot Spring Sites

Fig. 7.7  Ruwa hot spring, Mugu, 2021

Fig. 7.8  Kodari hot spring premise

213

214

7  Hot Springs and Tourism

7.5 How to Tap Unused Hot Spring Water: An Example of Blue Lagoon in Iceland Box 7.2: Wild thirst for a revisit Named one of the 25 Wonders of the World by National Geographic in 2012, The Blue Lagoon (Fig. 7.9) is by far the largest tourist attraction in southwestern Iceland. Not only are the pictures of the spa all over in any mention of Iceland, but also it is a poster child of what opportunities geothermal energy could provide beyond power generation. The water temperature in the bathing and swimming area of the lagoon averages 37–39 °C (99–102 °F). In 1981, a psoriasis patient bathed in the water and noted that the water alleviated his symptoms and the lagoon subsequently became popular. Bathing facilities opened in 1987 and in 1992 the Blue Lagoon company was set up. Studies made in the 1990s confirmed that the lagoon had a beneficial effect on the skin disease psoriasis. A nearby psoriasis clinic soon opened in 1994, with the Blue Lagoon company marketing skin products which contained silica, algae, and salt [7]. Takeaway: Svartsengi geothermal power plant was opened in 1976, where hot water is vented from the ground near a lava flow and used to run turbines that generate electricity. After going through the turbines, the steam and hot water passes through a heat exchanger to provide heat for a municipal water heating system. This wastewater is fed into the man-made Blue Lagoon. It is just 10 km from the capital Reykjavik and 20 km from Keflavík International Airport. Even though there exists no other attractions in the nearby area, the Blue Lagoon is one of the most visited in all of Iceland. This is largely due to improvements in the road quality leading to the thermal plant. Investing in highway construction for the facilities developed at the lagoon made it possible to receive help from the by-product water. 1.3 million people had visited it in 2017, up from 919,000 visitors in 2015. The company had a revenue of €102 million and a profit of €31 million in 2017 [8]. But with the increase in tourism in Iceland over the past few years, the Blue Lagoon now faces being a victim of its own success. It could hardly cope with a large increase in visitors and has explored ways to deal with the growth in demand. I still have the thrilling experience of dipping in the Blue Lagoon in 1994, when the infrastructure was not well established. That memory drove me to revisit it even in the evening time last year when the view of blue color of water and beautiful surroundings  was not expected. However, my wife and myself could enjoy a lot in the pool. The Blue Lagoon is still on our wishlist of visits during daytime.

References

215

Fig. 7.9  Blue Lagoon of Iceland

References 1. NEPAL Fifth National Report to Convention on Biological Diversity: Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal (2014) 2. Economic Survey Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation. Government of Nepal (2021) 3. Erfurt-Cooper, P.: The importance of natural geothermal resources in tourism. Proceedings world geothermal congress 2010 Bali, Indonesia, 25–29 April (2010) 4. Rai, S.M., Bhattarai, T.N., Khatiwada, D.: Hot water springs (Thermal springs in Nepal: A review on their location, origin, and importance). J. Develop. Innov. 4(2), 24–42 (2020) 5. Government of Nepal, Department of Roads (2018): Strategic Road Network of Nepal, Management Information System and Information Communication Technology (HMIS-ICT Unit) (2018). www.dor.gov.np. 6. Allie: Enduring the Road, Wind and Grit by Allie, December 17 (2010). http://www.alliemark. com/enduring-­the-­road-­wind-­and-­grit 7. https://guidetoiceland.is/travel-­iceland/drive/blue-­lagoon 8. Global Wellness Institute (2015). https://globalwellnessinstitute.org/global-­wellness-instituteblog/2015/03/18/2015-­3-­18-­hot-­springs-­global-­revenues-­50-­billion/

Chapter 8

Public Sector’s Involvement and Prospects of Geothermal Development in Nepal

The 15th Economic Plan of Nepal (2019/20–2023/24) has identified the need to rapidly develop alternative/renewable energy sector to: • ensure energy mix and energy security as well as to increase access to energy • promote and develop alternative energy and mainstream this sector into the development process –– to enhance access to energy services for rural and urban populations in collaboration with the provincial and local governments and –– to reduce dependence on imported energy [1]. However, the words ‘geothermal energy’, ‘geothermal resource’ or ‘hot springs’, once appeared in the late 90s has lost in the horizon of the following Plan documents. The reason for undermining this energy resource in Nepal since the 1970s is clear – it is not a good source of electricity for Nepal due to the absence of high temperature geothermal fields. Hence, all the past Plan documents of Nepal have been following the rhetoric of using alternative energy sources such as micro and small hydropower, solar energy, bioenergy, and wind energy to generate electricity and meet other energy requirements. Nor has there been a serious attempt to explore its use for electricity generation because the government still does not yet have a profile of viable geothermal resources in the country. The planners at the federal government still lack the knowledge of how geothermal energy can support different economic sectors. With the adoption of provincial level government, it was expected that the voice of the locals would be heard to develop geothermal resources and necessary investment from the provincial level would follow. To date, only a handful of geothermal sites at (for example, Singa and Darmija in Myagdi district), have received financial support from the provincial government, leading them to develop as spa centers.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Ranjit, Hot Springs in Nepal, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99500-3_8

217

218

8  Public Sector’s Involvement and Prospects of Geothermal Development in Nepal

Prospects of Geothermal Energy Development in Nepal Unlike other alternate energy resources such as solar, wind, bioenergy, mini and micro-hydroelectricity, geothermal energy resource has many unique facets. Besides its ability to provide electricity, it can be a good source of income through tourism and a resource providing direct health benefits. Sun cannot provide solar energy during night and wind can show its unusual behavior within 24 h, but this resource is active day and night – it is just under the ground and at your few arms’ length below the ground. It seldom shows erratic behavior, it has its own pace that is calm and steady. The only challenge before us is to recognize and use it. Electricity Generation The capability of the existing hot spring sites in generating electricity can be an icebreaker in the eyes of government planners. Even though the currently available technologies do not show high economic viability to generate electricity from most hot spring sites in Nepal, there exists some high temperature geothermal fields such as Bahundanda hot spring and Jagat hot spring of Lamjung district, Kirme hot spring of Humla district, with surface temperature above 80 degrees Celsius. These are technically potential feasible sites to generate electricity. The Dhima hot spring (Upper Mustang) can be yet another candidate. However, all these resources still call for the need to use solar-geothermal Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) Technology. Alternatively, a high possibility exists to generate electricity directly from water drilled a few hundred meters down the surface. Action Needed A geo-physical study including temperature logging to help in providing information about temperature at certain depths. Feasibility study needs to be carried out in the potential sites to generate electricity and a detailed project report should be prepared for Bhurung hot spring (Myagdi) where a feasibility study has already been completed. More importantly, financial viability for harnessing electricity using geothermal resources should be analyzed via-a-vis hydroelectricity generation which has already exceeded national demand. Link road to these sites need to be constructed to conduct drilling activity and provide access to the users. Chemical Study of Thermal Springs During the exploration phase, chemical and isotope geothermometers can be used to estimate subsurface temperatures, i.e., temperatures expected to be encountered by drilling, using the chemical and isotopic composition of the hot spring. Subsurface temperature of thermal sites will aid in planning for the use of hot spring water. These sorts of chemical data also provide a blue print for other potential uses of thermal springs, that include identifying thermal sites having potential to treat the diseases. Such a data exists only for a limited number of thermal springs in Nepal. Action Needed –– Conduct thorough chemical and isotopic analyses of all the hot springs in Nepal, including the updating of a few available ones. –– Determine subsurface temperature of the potential hot springs for sustainable use.

8  Public Sector’s Involvement and Prospects of Geothermal Development in Nepal

219

1. Geothermal mapping and reservoir estimation Resource assessment and reservoir estimation play a critical role in the utilization of a geothermal field. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), or simply drones, have advanced rapidly in recent years for thermal mapping in areas having ample geothermal surface manifestations. Drone operations are becoming fairly user-­ friendly and expenditure of equipment has likewise dropped significantly. This development is a welcomed fast and cost-effective geothermal exploration opportunity. Geothermal reservoirs can be estimated by new techniques of exploration such as fluid inclusion survey and AE (acoustic emission) method. Digital imaging can improve the efficiency and accuracy of collection, interpretation and archiving of reservoir data. Digital images whole or core with the resolution of conventional photographs can be collected using either a still or video imaging camera and then using image processing Geographic Information System (GIS) software. 3D images of geothermal reservoir rock can be obtained by using imaging techniques such as micro-CT (μCT) scanning devices, that helps us to know the nature of cracks. During the exploration phase, chemical and isotope geothermometers can be used to estimate subsurface temperatures, i.e., temperatures expected to be encountered by drilling, using the chemical and isotopic composition of the hot spring and fumarole discharges. Action Needed • Prepare detailed map of geothermal areas • Estimate reservoir of the following areas: –– Middle and Central part of Nepal particularly covering Myagdi and Kaski districts where initial studies indicate the presence of a huge geothermal reservoir –– Kermi hot spring area of Humla –– Dhima hot spring of Mustang –– Jagat and Bahundanda hot springs of Lamjung –– Jharlang hot spring of Dhading 2. Tourism development The potential to use many geothermal sites as tourist destinations is vast provided they are connected by good roads or access by low-risk hiking. Hiking and happiness go hand in hand or foot in boot. However, gone are the days to find many adventurous travelers who can fight through the stinging nettle bushes in the hot, humid, post-monsoon afternoon to get to the hot spring site. Most travelers today seek a comfortable hike route, if not a good road, and enjoyment during their journey.

220

8  Public Sector’s Involvement and Prospects of Geothermal Development in Nepal

Action Needed Many countries in the world have provided excellent examples that geothermal sites can be used to attract tourists through investment. They have been able to get return within a very short pay-back period. Some geothermal sites at Bhurung and Jhinu in Myagdi district have already demonstrated this fact even with low investment. It is necessary to: –– Link geothermal sites by road or make a good accessible trail to the spring sites –– develop on-site infrastructure including facilities for bathing, construction of standard pools (including swimming pools wherever feasible), hotel facilities for tourist stay. –– Popularize hot springs through various media –– Incorporate hot springs in the travel packages along with eco-tourism and spa –– Place sign posts leading to spring sites as in some parts of the Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP) area. 3. Popularization Popularization of the available hot springs is the backbone of their development. The impact of popularization on development of a geothermal site is provided by Singa hot spring in Myagdi district. Since the telecast of this site in 1996, the flow of visitors and the patients seeking health benefits has been on the rising trend. This has led to the construction of road to the site, which further enhanced the flow of visitors and the development of infrastructure. This has shown a spiraling impact. Unfortunately, a majority of the hot springs scattered in different parts of the country are struggling to show their existence, let alone their development. The Kermi hot spring of Humla is one out of many. Many foreign tourists who had traveled Nepal became frustrated that they do not even know of the existence of any hot springs in Nepal. A few travelers place hot springs in their priority. Lately, Nepal Television has been instrumental in direct or supportive telecasting some documentary about the trekking, including Limi Valley in Humla district and Darmija village of Myagdi district but fell short of introducing Kirme hot spring which is waiting for international recognition. Action Needed –– At the central level, Nepal Tourism Board, established in 1998, Nepal Mountain Association, founded in 1973 and the Hotel Association of Nepal should come forward to play tremendous roles in this direction. –– The provincial level government and local journalists should play a crucial role in exposing this natural resource in the respective areas. Maybe the locals has a secret spot that they are willing to share. 4. Development of spa centers and pilgrimage site Since very ancient times, thermal baths have been known to the Nepalese people for their health-giving properties for a variety of illnesses. The soothing power of hot water on tired muscles, aching bones and tense minds have helped hot springs

8  Public Sector’s Involvement and Prospects of Geothermal Development in Nepal

221

to become pilgrimage spots where men and women ease physical disorders and gain divine blessings. Action Needed • Develop infrastructure in the thermal site with support from local communities and provincial government to provide facilities for people seeking treatment • Identify and categorize hot springs for the treatment of specific diseases based on chemical properties • Develop Singa Tatopani of Myagdi district as the Natural Hydrotherapy and Referral Center which will also conduct clinical trials among patients with musculoskeletal problems and skin diseases as well as: –– monitor the health benefits received by the patients for the diseases they intended to use the hot spring –– monitor the entry of patients with certain diseases likely to have adverse effects –– log seasonal variation of chemicals in the spring water for 3–4 years for spa and drinking purposes 5. Involvement of private sectors: The political interest of the party leaders and the bureaucratic procedures often demand the critical role of private sectors in this sector. Action Needed –– Private entrepreneurs, in partnership with local community, should jump in to build infrastructures to develop hot springs as tourist centers and spa centers. 6. Role of government As with promotion of other alternate energy resources, financing plays an important role in geothermal programs. The challenge often faced in the financing of geothermal energy projects is in developing models that can provide technologies and services to consumers at affordable prices while ensuring that the industry remains sustainable. Multilateral, bilateral, private and other entities are less willing to finance resource exploration and assessments than other phases of geothermal development. Investment from Federal and Provincial governments therefore plays a crucial role in opening up and preparing early phases of geothermal projects (i.e., exploration and appraisal). Government policies and legislation are important factors in creating an enabling environment for geothermal investment and resource mobilization and in encouraging investments from the domestic and foreign private sector. However, the Nepalese government lacks a policy that promotes the use of geothermal and budgetary allocations to geothermal energy research and development. Emphasis has been misplaced by the Federal government from the early 70s as the government viewed the utilization of geothermal energy only in terms of generating electricity. Recently, with the development of various energy efficient technologies, many countries are applying these technologies in the direct use of geothermal resources. Nepal can also benefit from their experiences without having to reinvent the wheel.

222

8  Public Sector’s Involvement and Prospects of Geothermal Development in Nepal

The Alternate Energy Promotion Center (AEPC) of the Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation should take a leading role in this direction by initiating projects, coordinating and mobilizing various types of manpower available in the Department of Mines and Geology, Nepal Academy of Science and Technology, Research Center of Applied Science and Technology (Tribhuvan University). The Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Aviation has the big role to play in developing infrastructure and popularizing the hot springs in Nepal to attract visitors, domestic and international. Action Needed • facilitate exploration for geothermal resources • coordinate donor funding and bilateral borrowing • interact with private sectors including Nepal Association of Tour and Travel Agents • Nepal Mountaineering Association, Hotel Association of Nepal and semi-­ governmental organizations like Nepal Tourism Board to promote the use of hot spring sites and devise legislations for its use • provide fiscal incentives to attract investors such as to: –– extend guaranteed concessionary funding to investors to increase investments in geothermal energy development –– provide loan guarantees for pilot projects, so that unsuccessful projects do not have to repay loans in full –– promote structured soft loan programs that provide developers with support throughout a project. –– provide funding for feasibility studies, • encourage private insurance companies to cover the risks of developing geothermal resources and commercial banks to invest in geothermal development projects at earlier stages of their implementation • conduct pilot projects to –– utilize Geo-heat pump technology for space heating in large government buildings (initially where electricity or other energy is not available or the cost is high) –– utilize geothermal energy resource for direct use in swimming pool building, aquaculture (fish farming), agricultural products drying, greenhouse farming etc. 7. Manpower development Geothermal development involves the utilization of technical manpower in different areas such as chemistry, civil engineers, mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, geologists, geophysicists, economists. Most of the manpower are already available in Nepal except a few specialized in geothermal activities. Action Needed –– Train a few experts in geothermal field to conduct resource assessment and reservoir estimation

References

223

–– Seek foreign technical assistance in the exploration of geothermal fields in the initial phase where local manpower is not available 8. Manpower training and external support for private partnership An international training programme in geothermal energy research and technology has been operated in Iceland under the auspices of the government of Iceland and the United Nations  University (UNU) since 1979. Participants from leading energy agencies in Africa, Asia, and Central America have received 6 months specialized training [2]. The program is currently renamed as GRÓ/GTP and is run under the auspices of UNESCO. The Sustainable Development Goals Partnership Fund of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Iceland has the objective to encourage Icelandic businesses to collaborate with private sector and other partners in developing countries on business projects. The overall aim is to reduce poverty and support job creation and sustainable growth in the poorest countries of the world in line with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. Special emphasis is placed on women’s job creation and projects which have a positive environmental impact. Projects can receive up to 50% of total funding and a maximum of 200,000 EUR. Contributions can be made to projects in low-income countries, lower middle-­ income countries and selected higher middle-income countries (SIDS’s), according to the DAC list of the OECD. The fund was established in 2018 and has already enabled several projects in Africa and Asia. One such project is CARICE, by the Icelandic company Fisheries Technologies. The pilot project has the primary objective to introduce the latest technology for fisheries data management in small island developing states (SIDS) in the Caribbean. The goal is to improve data-collection and management for evidence-­based decision-making. The project is co-funded by the SDGs Partnership Fund and Fisheries Technologies as well as the target countries in the Caribbean. Fisheries Technologies ehf. draws experience from the Icelandic fishing industry and from the fisheries governance in Iceland [3].

References 1. The Fifteenth Plan (Fiscal year 2019/20–2023/24): Government of Nepal, National Planning Commission, Kathmandu (2020) 2. Fridleifsson, I.B.: Geothermal Training in Iceland. Geo-Heat Center, Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls (1983) 3. https://www.government.is/topics/foreign-­affairs/international-­development-­cooperation/ private-­sector-­collaboration/