Homer in the Twentieth Century: Between World Literature and the Western Canon [Reprint ed.] 0199591318, 0199298262, 9781429489973, 9780199591312, 9780199298266, 1429489979

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C L A S S IC A L P R E S E N C E S G en eralE dttors

Lorna H ardw ick

Jam es 1.Porter

C L A SSIC A L P R E SE N C E S

T h e texts, ld eas, lm ages, an d m aterlal culture of an clen t G reece an d R om e h ave alw ays b een cru clal to attem p ts to ap p rop rlate th e p ast ln ord er to au th en tlcate th e p resen t. T h ey u n d erlle th e m ap p ln g of ch an ge an d th e assertlon an d ch allen gln g of valu es an d ld en tltles, old an d n ew .C lasslcal P resen ces b rln gs th e latest sch olarsh lp to b ear on th e con texts, th eory, an d p ractlce of su ch u se, an d ab u se, of th e classlcal p ast.

'

o m er ln th e Tw en tieth C en tu ry B etw een JV//'/l L iteratu re and the W csfcrrl C anotl

E dited by B A R B A R A G R A Z IO S I

an d E M IL Y G R E E N W O O D

O X TO RD L N IV lbl' t b 1 l '%r la R lar: b

U N IV E R S IT Y P R E S S

G reat C larendon street O xford oxz 601. O xford U nlverslty Press ls a departm ent of the U nlverslty of O xford lt furthers the U nlverslty s ob/ectlve of excellence ln research scholarsh lp and educatlon by publlshlng w orldm de ln O xford N ew York A uckland C ape Tow n D ar es ' Salaam H ong K ong K arachl K uala Lum pur M adrld M elbourne M exlco C lty N alrobl N ew D elh l Sh an ghal Talpel Toron to W 1th offices ln A rgentln a A u strla B rr ll C hlle C zech R ep ubllc Fran ce G reece

G uatenaala H ungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal slngapore South K orea Sm tzerland T h allan d T u rk ey U kraln e V letnam

O xford ls a reglstered trade m ark of O xford U nlverslty P ress ln the U K and ln certaln other countrles Publlshed ln the U nlted States by O xford U nlverslty Press Inc N ew York C hO xford U nlverslty Press 2007 T he m oral rlgh ss of the au thor h ave been asserted

D atabase rlghtO xford U nlverslty Press (m aker) Flrst p ubllsh ed 2007 A 11 rlghts reserved N o part of thls publlcatlon m ay be reproduced stored ln a retrleval system or tran sm ltted ln any form or by any m ean s w lthout the prlor perm lsslon ln w rltlng of O xford U nlverslty Press or as expressly perm ltted by law or under term s agreed w lth the approprlate reprographlcs rlghts organlzatlon Enqulrles concernlng reproductlon outslde the scope of the above should be sent to the R lghts D epartm ent O xford U nlverslty Press at the address above You m ust n ot clrcttlate thls b ook ln any oth er b ln dlng or cover an d you m u st lm pose the sam e con dltlon on any acqulrer B rltlsh Llb rary C atalogu ln g ln P ubllcatlon D ata D ata avallable Llb rary of C on gress C ataloglng ln P ubllcatlo n D ata D ata avallable

Typeset by SP1 Publlsh er Servlces Pond lcherry lnd la p rln ted ln G reat B rltaln on acld free paper by B lddles Ltd K lng s Lynn N orfolk ISB N 9 78 0 19 929826 6 1 .3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2

T(? Paul C artledge and P at E asterhng

A ckn ow ledgem en ts

T u ls book h as 1ts orlgln s ln a con feren ce h eld m D urh am from 20 to

23 July 2004.W e are gratefulto severallnstltutlon s for thelr hnan clal supp ort: th e B rltlsh A cadem y: th e Soclety for th e P rom otlon of H ellen lc Stu d les, th e D ep artm en t of C lasslcs an d A n clen t H lstory

(D urham U nlverslty), and the School of Classlcs (U nlverslty of St A ndrew s). Several lndlvlduals helped us w lth com m ents and practlcal h elp : w e are partlcularly grateful to P at E asterllnp E dlth

H all,Johannes H aubold,Jon H esk D avld H unt,G reg W oolf,H edw lg H aubold ,V lctorla M addocks, an d E sth er M cG llvray. H llat'y O 'Sh ea of O xford U nlverslty P ress expressed an lnterest ln th e prolect even

before the conference had taken place: h er p atlen ce an d supp ort h elped us see the book through to lts com pletlon . A t th e tlm e of th e con feren ce w e b en ef ted from th e gen ero u s ld eas an d crltlclsm of

th e p artlclp an ts: alth ough w e cann ot n am e th em

ln dlvldually, w e

w ould llke to record th elr con trlbutlon . A t a later stage, th e p rolect

benef ted from the searchlng com m ents of the Serles E dltors an d the an onym ous reader for O xford U nlverslty P ress. R anla K n obl h elp ed u s to edlt th e volum e an d com plle th e ln dex w lth great en ergy an d good h um our: h er con trlbutlon w as extrem ely valuable. A shley C lem ents h elp ed w lth th e lllustratlon s. V eron lca lon s an d V lrgln la M asardo saved us from m any errors an d lnfellcltles. W e happlly

acknow ledge h ow m uch w e ow e to th e contrlbutors to thls volum e; thelr lndlvldual chap ters h ave prom pted us to thlnk harder and furth er ab out th e plurallty of H om erlc receptlon s ln th e tw entleth cen tury; w h lle th elr com m ltm ent an d supp ort h ave m ade w orkln g on th ls volu m e an enloyable exp erlen ce.W e w ou ld also llke to th an k

Johannes H aubold and D avld M lln e for thelr support and en couragem en t th rou gh ou t th ls p rolect, esp eclally d u rln g th e edltln g p h ase.

W e dedlcate thls book to Paul C artledge an d Pat E asterllng: they sup en used o ur P IA.D . dlssertatlon s w h en w e w ere grad u ate stu d en ts

A cknow ledgem en ts

vll

ln C am brldge an d ,even w h lle w e w ere grap p lln g w lth sp eclf c asp ects of arch alc an d classlcal G reece,en co u raged u s to lo ok b eyon d E urop e

an d an tlqulty ln search of p osslble future dlalogu es. B G an d F, G D urham an d B allater, M ay 20 0 6

C on ten ts

f-lsrof Illustrattons Ltstof Contrtbutors

x xl l

Introd uctlon B A RBA RA G Rytzlo sl an d E M ILV G Rslw w oo o

P A R T 1. P L A C IN G H O M E R IN T H E T W E N T IE T H C E N T U R Y

1. H om er after P ar1'y:Tradltlon , R eceptlon ,and the 27

T lm eless T ext

Jol-lAx x l!s H wusot.o 2. Sln gln g across th e F aultlln es: C ultural Sh lfts ln Tw en tleth -c entury R eceptlon s of H om er

47

L o ltx A H au o w lcx

P A R T II . S C H O L A R S H IP A N D F IC T IO N

3. H om er am ong the lrlsh :Yeats, Sp lge: T hom son , and P arry

75

R tc l-lw tto M A R T tN

4. H om er an d Joyce:T h e C ase of N auslcaa

92

S'rlpl-lsx M lx rrA

5. H om er ln A lbanla:O ral E plc and th e G eograph y of L lterature

l20

B A R SA RA G ltA zlo sl P A R T III . D IS T A N C E A N D F O R M

6. L ogu e's Tele-v lston : R ead lng H om er from a D lstan ce E M ILV G uEEx w o o o

145

C on ten ts

7. Som e A sslm llatlon s of th e H om en c Slm lle ln L ater Tw en tleth -c en tury Poett'y

lx

177

O LIV ER T A PLIN

8. Kl-lom ecom lngs w lthout H om e':R epresentatlons

of (Postlcolonlal nostos (H om ecom lng) ln the Lyrlc of A im e C esaire an d D erek W alcott

19 1

G R EG SO N D ytv zs

9. T h eo A ngelop oulos ln th e U n d erw orld

2 l0

F R A N CO ISE L llrro u s l-o x

P A R T IV . P O L IT IC S A N D IN T E R P R E T A T IO N

l0. H om er ln the G reek C lvllW ar (1946-1949)

231

D -w zo R zcx s

11. N aked an d O B rotherj W /yérrérA rt T litltl? T h e P olltlcs an d P oetlcs of E p lc C ln em a

245

SlM o w G O LD I-IILL

12. A n A m erlcan H om er for th e Tw entleth C en tury

268

SE'I'I-I L . SC I-IEIN

B lbllograp hy

286

Indexes

313

Listof Illustrations l l R om are Bearden,Roots O dyssey (1976),w lth klnd p erm lsslon of th e R om are B earden Foun datlon

68

6 l M lrella lklcclardl, ph otograph of a K enyan w arrlor lm age u sed as th e cover lllu stratlon for C L ogu e Patroclem

(Scorplon Press, 1969)

l55

Every effort has b een m ade to galn p erm lsslon from th e ow n er of th e lm age

11 1 M lke Lelgh,N aked Johnny holdlng a book (H om er, The O dyssey Penguln),w lth klnd perm lsslon of Fllm Four

250

ll 2 M lke Lelgh, N aked Johnny addresslng Loulse,w lth kln d p erm lsslon of Fllm Fou r

254

11 3 M tke L etgh , N aked th e restattrant,w tth km d perm tsston of Fllm Four

255

ll 4 C oen B rothers, O B rother, W ' /lcrc A rt Thouh op enlng qu otatlon ,w lth kln d p erm lsslon of U n lversal Stu dlos ll 5

262

C o en B roth ers, O B rother, W ' /lcrc A rt Th t?1/?, B 1g D an Teagu e

ln a ru ral settlnp w lth km d p erm lsslon of U nlversal Stu dlos

265

Listof Contributors G regson D avis ls P rofessor of C lassics and C om p aratlve Llterature at D uke U nlverslty, w h ere h e ls th e A ndrew W . M ellon D lstlngulsh ed P rofessor ln th e H um an ltles an d D ean of H um anltles. H ls m aln research focl are L atln llterature of th e L ate R ep ubllc an d con tem -

porary C arlbbean poetry (francophone and anglophone).A m ong hls

m alor publlcatlons are Polyhym nîa'The Rhetonc of H oratkan f-yrrc D lscourse (B erkeley, 1984) and A km e C esakre (C am brldge, 1997).H e ls currently w rltlng a m on ograph on V lrgllns E clogues. Sim on G oldh ill ls P rofessor of G reek at C am brldge U n lverslty. H e

h as publlshed w ldely on G reek llterature and on th e relatlon b etw een G reek culture an d m odern culture. H ls m ost recent books are W ' JIt?

N eeds Greek? Cultural Contests ;rl the H vtory of H ellenksm (Cam brldge,2002); The Temple of Jerusalem (London,2005),and Love, Sex and Tragedy'f-ft/w the A naent Jlbr/t;lShapes our faivts (Chlcago, 2005).H ls nextbook ls fft/w to Stage G reek Tragedy Today (Chlcago). B arb ara G raziosi ls Sen lor L ecturer ln C lasslcs at D urh am U nlverslty.

She ls the author of Inventkng H om er'The Flr/y Receptkon of Fpitr (C am brldge,2002) and of shorter studles on early G reek llterature

and culture.She hasw rltten H om er'The Resonance of Fpitr(London, 2005) together w lth Johannes H aubold, and ls currently w orklng w lth h lm on an ed ltlon an d com m entary of Ihad 6 for th e C am brldge

G reek and Latln C lasslcs. E m ily G reenw ood ls L ecturer m

G reek at th e U n lverslty of St

Andrew s.She lsthe author of Thucydkdes J/CJ the Shapkng of bhstory (London,2006) and varlous artlcles on the receptlon of C lasslcs ln th e C arlbbean .She ls co-edltor,w lth Llz lrw ln,of R eadtng H erodotus'

Studkes ;rl the f-txt?; of Book 5 (Cam brldge,2007) and ls currently w rltlng a book entltled Afro-Greeks' D talogues between C' fzrllpk tfrf L tterature and C lasskcs.

L orn a H ardw ick teach es at th e O p en U n lverslty w h ere sh e ls P rofes-

sor of C lasslcal Studles an d D lrector of the R eceptlon of C lasslcal

xu

Lkstof Contnbutors

T exts R esearch P rolect. H er p ubllcatlon s ln th at lield ln clu d e Trans-

latkng J'kbrls Translatkng Cultures (London,2000),N pw Surveys irlthe C lasskcs'Receptkon Studkes (C am brldge,2003),and artlcles on G reek dram a an d ep lc ln p o stcolon lal con texts.Sh e ls cu rren tly w orkln g on a m on ograp h on th e relatlon sh lp s b etw een m o d ern rew rltln gs of an clen t d ram a an d p o etry an d b ro ad er cultural sh lfts.

Johann es H aubold ls Leverhulm e Lecturer ln G reek Llterature at D urh am U n lverslty. H ls p ubllcatlon s ln clude H om er's P eop le' Fp itr

Poetry and Soa alForm atw n (C am brldge,2000),asw ellas artlcles on H om es H eslod , H erod otu s, Iub an lu s, N ear E astern E p lc, an d th e m o d ern recep tlon of th e classlcal p ast.H e ls co -au th or,togeth er w lth

Barbara Grazlosl,of H om er'The Resonance of Fpitr(London,2005) an d ls curren tly w orkln g w lth h er on a com m en tary of Ihad 6. Fran çoise L etou b lon ls P rofessor of G reek L lteratu re an d L ln gu lstlcs

at the U nlverslte Stendhal (G renoble).She ls the author of 11allakt parekl a la rlt/if (Parls 1985), and of Les Dpt/x com m uns du rom an' stereotypesgrecs d'aventure etd'am our (Lelden,1993).She has edlted H om m age a M klm an Parry (A m sterdam ,1997),and publlshed several stu dles on H om erlc p oetry an d lts recep tlon . Sh e ls p artlcularly ln terested ln th e w ork of T h eo A n gelop o ulo s an d h as w rltten several

artlcles on hls lilm s ln collab oratlon w lth C arolln e E ades an d Sylvle R ollet.

R ichard R M artin holds the A nth ony and lsabelle R aubltsch ek C halr of C lasslcs at Stanford U nlverslty. R ecent p ubllcatlon s h ave focu sed on ep lc p oetry, H eslo d , an d Solon .H e ls E n lsh ln g a h lstory of G reek

llterature an d w orkln g on tw o oth er books: R hap sokdka, on G reek

hexam eter tradltlons,and M ythologkzkng Perjorm ance,on Greek lyrlc p o etry an d m u slc. H ls m o st recen t w ork on lrlsh llterature ls KU p -

staged: lrlsh D ram a ln lrlsh' (forthcom lnp Prlnceton U nlverslty Llbrary Chronlcle). Step h en M in ta ls Sen lor L ectu rer ln E n gllsh ln th e D ep artm en t of E n gllsh an d R elated L lteratu re at th e U n lverslty of Y ork .H ls research fo cu ses on com p aratlve llteratu re.H e ls th e au th or of L ove P oetry irl

Skxteenth-century France (M anchester, 1977); Petrarch and Petrar-

tr/liyrrl(M anchester,1980);GabrwlGaraa M arquez'W nterofcolom Jpifl(London,1987);Agukrre'The Re-creatkon of a Skxteenth-century

Lkstof Contnbutors

xlll

Journey across South A m enca (London, 1993); and O n a Voweless Shore'Byron irlG reece (N ew York,1998).H e ls currently w orklng on a p olltlcal blograp hy of B yron .

D avid R icks teach es ln th e D ep artm ent of Byzantln e an d M odern G reek Stu dles an d th e C om p aratlve L lterature P rogram m e at K ln g's

College London.H e ls the author of The Shade of H om er (relssued, Cam brldge,2004)and ofthe chapter Kl-lom e/ ln The Oxford H kstory of Lkterary Translatkon irlEnghsh,1v.1790-1900 (O xford,2006).H e h as also w rltten on th e w ork of m any m o d ern G reek p o ets, am on g th em C .P. C avafy. Seth Sch ein is P rofessor of C om p arative L iteratu re at th e U n iversity of C allforn la, D avls. H e w orks m aln ly on H om erlc ep lc, A ttlc tragedy, an d th e recep tlon of classlcal llterature, an d h as recen tly p ubllsh ed several essays on Sop h o clesn P hkloctetes an d a tran slatlon

of that play (N ew buryport, 2003). H ls current prolects lnclude a com m en tary on P hkloctetes an d a tran slatlon of A eschylu s' O resteka. O liver T ap lin ls a P rofessor of C lasslcs an d T u torlal Fellow at M ag-

dalen C ollege,O xford.H e has recently com pleted a book (w lth 125 plates) called Pots and Plays Interactzons betw een Tragedy and G reek

v' flyérPakntkng of the Fourth Century Bc, w hlch w lll be publlshed by G etty M u seu m

P u bllcatlon s ln 2007. H e ls attem p tln g a verse

tran slatlon of th e p lays of Sop h o cles.

This p ag e l'n ten tionally /c# .

blank

lntrod u ction B arbara G raziosi and E m ily G reenw ood

fEveryon e w h o n ow read s and w rltes ln th e W est, of w h atever raclal b ackgroun d , sex or ldeologlcal cam p , ls stlll a son or daugh ter of H om e/ :thls ls h ow H arold B loom attem p ted to capture th e place of H om er ln 1975, as p at't of hls lllustratlon of th e anxlety of ln fluen ce

ln A M ap of M iyrptzfhrlp lBloom ns statem entrepresents a w ellestabllsh ed w ay of th lnkln g ab out th e place of H om er ln tw entleth cen tury culture. H ow ever, lt seem s to u s th at thls vlslon of H om er as th e fountalnh ead of all W estern llterature, gran d as lt ls, actually u n d erp lays H om er's role ln tw en tleth -cen tu ry culture ln at least tw o

resp ects. T h e first and m ost obvlou s problem ls th e restrlctlon of

H om er's lnfluence to fthe W estl how ever concelved: even a superé clal survey of H om erlc tran slatlon s p ubllsh ed ln th e tw entleth cen tury sh ow s th at H om er w as deem ed relevan t to readers of, to quote but a few , U ltram lan , A rablc, C h lnese, E sp eranto, A lb an lan , T urklsh , and K orean .z To b e sure: ln som e cases H om er w as tran slated preclsely as th e def nlng auth or of W estern llterature; yet th e close en gagem en t w lth H om erlc eplc on th e p art of readers an d w rlters from m any corn ers of th e w orld ch allenged an d redeE n ed th e vety con cept of W estern llterature.W e m ay th lnk of th e w ays ln w hlch D erek W alcottns O m eros w eaves conn ectlon s betw een St Lu cla an d th e an clen t M edlterran ean , of h ow O dysseu s n avlgates th e

l B loom 1975 33, see also B loom 1973 2 For a fu11 11st of translatlons of H om er publlsh ed m th e tw entleth cen tury see You n g 2003

(

2

B arbara G m zics; and F rrli/y G reenw ood

p o etry of th e Syrlan p oet A d on ls, or of lsm all K ad are's com p arlson s b etw een A lb an lan an d H o m erlc ep lc.3 T h e secon d p roblem w lth B lo om 's vlslon lles w lth th e gen ealoglcal

m odel th at lt con stru cts: H om er ls prlm arlly vlew ed as an an cestor w lth m any son s an d d augh ters.'l Y et on e cru clal con trlb u tlon of H om erlc sch olarsh lp ln th e tw en tleth cen tury w as th e ln slsten ce th at H om erlc p o etry co uld b e fru ltfully com p ared to ep lc tradltlon s

from

dlfferent tlm es an d places: for exam ple, m odern Serbla an d

A lbanla, m edleval Japan : an d the an clent N ear E ast.5 C om paratlve ap p ro ach es to ep lc h ave sh aken n o tlon s of a gen ealogy or h lerarchy b etw een dlfferen t ep lc tradltlon s an d h ave d em on strated th at ep lc

ls n elth er dead n or fun dam en tally W estern . T h ese approach es h ave

been extrem ely lnfluentlal ln the academ lc study of H om er (no con tem p orary classlclst can lgn ore th elr lm p act on th e u n d erstan d -

lng of early G reek eplc),butthelr lnfluence ls even greater than that: th ey h ave ch allen ged tradltlon aln otlon s ofw h at llterature ls an d h ow lt ls d on e.6 T h e rou tes th at H om er travelled ln th e tw en tleth cen tury o u tm an oeuvred th e gran d n arratlves of llterary cn tlclsm . ln p lace of B loom ns O edlp al m o d el of llterary lillatlon , th e stu dy of H om erlc

recep tlon s ln th e tw entleth century n eeds a m ore dlffu se an d h etero -

gen eous m odel.A s C harles Pollard h as argued ln a dlfferent context, m odels of llterary ln fluen ce th at lsolate w rlters by geograp hy or K

race or th at op p ose w rlters ln O edlp al struggles are slm p ly n ot m u ltl-faceted en ou gh to d escrlb e th e tran scu ltu ral relatlon sh lp s b etw een w rlters ln th e tw en tleth

cen tury.n; P ollard 's statem en t

: For D erek W alcotfs engagem ent w lth H om er, see the essays ln D avls 1997: , H ardw lck 2000 C hs 6 an d 7,M artynlttk 2005,M elas 2005,as w ellas C hs 1,2,7,and

8 ln thls volum e O dysseus features ln Adonls's Songs of M thyar the D am ascene (Aghant M thyar alD tm ashqt, lg6ll- French translatlon ln A donls 1982 K adare's com p arlson s b etw een G reek an d A lb an lan ep lc are esp eclally pro m ln en t ln K ad are 1997, see also C h 5 ln thls vo lu m e

4 C om pare R obert Fow ler 2004 8 Q1n talktng about H om er,how ever,w e do w ell to rem em b er h ow very h eterogeneou s and n u m erou s are th ose w h o w lsh to clalm h 1m as

partofthelr herltage,and to brlng as m any ofthese helrs lnto the conversatlon asw e can 7 5 A recen t exam ple o f th ls ap pro ach can b e fou n d ln Foley 2002,w h o offers a ftt11

blb llo grap hy of earller stud les See also th e collectlon of essays edlted by B elsslnger, Tylu s, an d W o ffo rd 1999 6 See C h 5 7 P ollard 2004 22 P ollard 's stu dy exam m es seem m gly u nlikely relatio nsh ip s, tran scu ltu ral, an d tran shlsto rlcal b o rrow ln gs b etw een E u rop ean m o dern lsm an d w h at h e term s Qd lscrepan t cosm op olltan m od ern lsm s' See p 14

Introductkon

3

certaln ly ap p lles to th e dlverslty o f H om erlc recep tlon s ln th e last

cen tury, w h ere com plex tran scultural relatlon shlp s w ere com bln ed w lth tran sh lstorlcal on es.8 T h ls b ook exam ln es th e p lace of H om er ln th e last cen tury by

focuslng on som e fun dam en tal lssues w hlch sh ap ed b oth creatlve an d sch olarly ap p ro ach es to H om erlc ep lc b u t w h lch h ave, so

far, largely escap ed cn tlcal en qulzy. O ur th esls ls th at shlfts ln th e academ lc study of H om erlc eplc w ere p art of a m u ch broader re-p o sltlon ln g of H om er ln th e cu ltu ral lan d scap e of th e tw en tleth cen tu ry.For over tw o m lllen n la H om er h ad b een th e d ef n ln g auth or

of th e W estern hterary can on :Kto be llke H om er' generally lm plled a p osltlve valu e Ju dgem en t, so th at h ls p o etry llterally b ecam e th e K

m easurlng rodl kanön ln G reek, agaln st w hlch the value of later p oetry w as m easured . T h ls ls on e reason w hy th e suggestlon th at H om erlc ep lc w as slm llar to m any, often oral, ep lc tradltlon s from

aroun d th e w orld proved to be exploslve. T h e an alogy betw een H om erlc ep lc an d , for exam p le, ep lc trad ltlon s ln th e an clen t N ear E ast or m o d ern A frlca w as p art of a larger sh lft aw ay from n arrow n otlon s of th e W estern llterary can on an d tow ard s a bro ad er con -

ceptlon of w orld llterature.T h e term W elthteraturw as first coln ed by G oeth e an d w as p art of h ls con cep tlon of h ow th e stu dy of llteratu re

w ould look ln th e future;hls term ls used today to ln clu de any w ork w h lch Kclrcu lates ou t ln to a bro ad er w orld b eyon d lts lln gulstlc an d

culturalp olnt of orlglntg For sch olars of w orld llterature,orallty ls an lm p ortan t lssu e. ln h ls recen t volu m e D ebatkng J'kb rlt;l L kteratu re, for exam p le, C h rlstop h er P ren d ergast ob serves: Kln classlcal an tlqu lty ...

un derstan dln gs ofw rltlng an d readlng w ere h eavlly ln fluen ced by th e oral.O n th e stan dard d efinltlon s,orallty falls outsld e th e scop e of th e

KKllterar/n.But,then,thls perforce excludes not only w hat has been b ut w h at con tln u es to b e th e m o st w ld esp read form of verb al art ln

th e w orld .nlo It ls our con ten tlon th at tw entleth -cen tury p erceptlon s

of H om er w ere sh ap ed by a shlft of focus from

the W estern

8 See D avls on D erek W alcotfs recyclln g of H om erlc arch etyp es, p 208 Qsu ch a vlew p oln t carrles lm p llclt tran sh lstorlcal, as w ell as tran scu ltu ral ram lficatlon s ' 9 D am rosch 2003 6 10 P ren d ergast 2004 p x

4

B arbara G m zitm and F rrlily G reenw ood

llterary can on to w orld llterature; b ut w e also belleve th at H om erlc p oetry w as cru clal ln brln glng about th at shlft. T h e collectlon as a w h ole sh ow s h ow

acad em lc an d creatlve

approaches to H om er lntersected, lnfluenced, and m lsun derstood on e another. lt explores how scholars attem pted to w ork out th e relatlon sh lp b etw een H om erlc p o etry an d oth er ep lcs from

m any

tlm es and places, an d sh ow s h ow n ovellsts, poets, playw rlghts, an d é lm -m akers establlsh ed a con n ectlon w lth H om en c eplc w hlle slm ultan eo u sly aë rm ln g th elr d lstan ce from lt.11 A t th e h eart of our lnvestlgatlon ls a ten slon b etw een app arently

con tradlctory approach es to H om er ln tw en tleth -cen tury culture.O n th e on e h an d , th e H om erlc p oem s w ere accepted as th e E rst great llterat'y w orks m a gen ealogy th at ln clud ed such auth ors as A p ollo n lus, V lrgll, L ucan , D an te, Tasso, Sp en ser, an d M llton . O n th e oth er h and ,H om erlc eplc ln creaslngly cam e to b e vlew ed as on e ex am p le of oral/tradltlon al p oett'y am ong m any oth ers, orlgln atln g from

th e

m ost dlverse tlm es an d places.lz In thls w ay, H om er w as slm ultan eou sly vlew ed as th e m ost central auth or ofth e W estern llterary can on an d seen as sh arln g fun dam en tal slm llarltles w lth a vast range of p oem s th at w ere often deem ed n elth er llterary n or W estern . W e could p erh ap s p ut lt llk e th ls: lf H om erlc ep lc w ere a C D : lt w ould b e foun d both ln th e classlcal an d ln th e w orld m u slc sectlon s.W lthln th e f eld of classlcal sch olarshlp, thls sltuatlon 1ed to a h eated d ebate over th e correct m terp retation of th e H om erlc p oem s.T h e alm of th ls

collectlon,how ever,ls not to trace the genesls of an academ lc quarrel; rath er, w e w lsh to explore the tenslon s an d connectlon s betw een d lfferent con ceptlon s of H om er:and to lnvestlgate h ow th ese ten slon s 11 Settls (J004) m akes a dlstlnctlon betw een llnear hlstorles of classlcal art and llteratu re,an d th e recent ten den cy to Juxtapose classlcal an d oth er elem en ts of w orld ctllture w ltho ut posltln g a clear teleolop r, or h lstory of developm ent

12 See Ford 1997 396 (see also p 120) CTo callthe Iltad and the O dyssey Qoeplcs'' to day can evoke tw o qulte dlfferent sets of com p arab le w ozks T h e û rst group ln g

w ould put H om er at the head of a W estern tradltlon of llterary eplc that runs from A po llon lu s of R ho des th rough V lrp l,on to the R enalssan ce an d beyo nd T h e seco nd , w lth equ alJu stlce,w ou ld vlew H om erlc p oetry as on e lnstan ce of a type o f trad ltlonal oraln arratlve to be foun d the w orld over,m clud lng cu ltures far o utslde th e ln flu ence of th e W est Fo r all th elr d lvergence,these tw o classes of ''ep lc''are no t u nrelated th e tradltlo nal o ral art em bodled ln H o m er w as, after ally w hat A rlstotle too k as h1s exem plar w h en he lald th e groun dw ork for the theory of W estern eplc ln the P oettcs' C f also B elssln ger, Tylusy and W o ffo rd 1999 l- 3

In trod uctlon

5

p en raded n ot on ly academ lc dlsco urse l3 b ut also creatlve rew orkln gs of H om erlc ep lc ln p o etry p rose llctlon , th eatre, an d film ,

,

.

A n exploratlon of th ls ktnd m u st n ecessarlly confront som e ch allenglng lssu es of m eth odology In p artlcular, th e con cep ts of recep tlon an d tradltlon, w hlch are typ lcally used to dlscuss th e place ofH o m er in th e t'w en tleth centu ry n eed careful scrutlny.ln th e 1930s .

,

,

M llm an P arry argu ed th at th e H om erlc p oem s w ere essentlally dlffer -

en t from

th e w orks of A p ollonlus or V lrgll an d rath er resem bled th e eplcs p erform ed by llllterate b ards ln an area w h lch ls n ow dlvlded ,

b etw een Serbla, B osn la H erzegovln a an d K osovo/a l'l H ls com p aratlve w ork revolutlonlzed th e academ lc study of H om er but th e .

,

p ercep tlon of H om erlc ep lc as a text th at w as orlp n ally n ot a çtex tn

d eE ned th e place of H om er w ell b eyon d academ lc clrcles A rtlsts asslm llated H om erlc ep lc ln to m any n on -can on lcal tradltlon s ro oted .

ln oralp erform an ce:n otpust th e ep lcs of th e B alkan s b ut for exam p le, ,

(lrlsh) G aellc folk song, and the spontaneous lnventlveness of the B lues.15 T h e ackn ow led gem ent th at H om erlc ep lc w as o rlgln ally: an oral tex tn h as en co uraged tw en tleth -cen tury recep tlon s to cro ss :

K

dlfferent gen res an d m edla ln th elr rew orklng of H om er T h ese asslm llatlons n ot only contrlb uted to destab lllzm g an d reallgnlng .

th e W estern llterary can on , but also com pllcated th e n otlon of eplc as a llterazy genre. H om er ln th e tw en tleth cen tury th en , ls a go od startln g p oln t for th lnkln g ab out eplc an d lts gen erlc tran sm utatlon s for lnvestlgatln g ch allen ges to an d redeE m tlon s of, canon lcal lltera,

,

,

ture, an d for reflectln g on th e p olltlcs of readlng H om er .

T h e essays collected h ere stem

from

a conferen ce h eld ln

D urham from 20 to 23 July 2004.A ll contrlbutors took p art m th e conferen ce an d thls book grow s dlrectly out of th e p ap ers an d d lscu sslon s w e h ad th en V olum es of con feren ce p roceedlngs often .

13 Fo r exam p ley m the last decad e,tw o sep arate C oAnp ïm son s fo f'lolvn cr have b een p ubllsh ed The N ew C om p an lon to H om etï edlted by 1 M orrls an d B P ow ell ln 1997 focu ses alm ost exclu sively on th e tech nlcal m tn cacles of o ral/t : rad ltlonal po etry an d o zl H o m erlc so clety B y co n trast T hc C fz///lvrll gr C om pan ton to H om er, edlted by R ob ert F ow ler ln 2004, ad op ts a self co n sclou sly llterary app roach aces th e , an d pl ,

.

H om erlc poem s atthe beglnnlng ofa canon ofgreatm asterpleces (m ostly w rltten ln Engllsh) The tenslon betw een the tw o Com pantonscan be gleaned from Pow ell2005 14 See Parry 197 1,4v1th C h l ln th e p resen t volu m e 15 O n th e tradltlo n s o f th e B alkan s see ln th ls volu m e G razlo sl C h 5, on G aellc folk so n g see M artln , C h 3 th e B lues ls d lscu ssed by H ardw lck ln C h 2 ,

,

6

B arbara G rflzitly; and F rrlily G reenw ood

ru n th e rlsk of b elng selectlve, or one-slded . T h at rlsk seem s esp eclally threatenln g for thls volum e, sln ce lt tackles a p oten tlally ln finlte top lc: th e receptlon of H om er ln th e tw en tleth century. L eavln g asld e th e rlch cultu ral and lln gu lstlc dlverslty of H om erlc recep tlon s ln any glven cen tury, even w lthln a slngle lan guage an d cultural tradltlon lt ls lm p osslble to w rlte a total,truly representatlve

receptlon hlstory of H om er (w hlch w ould lnclude the notlon of H om er as a culturallcon,as w ellas the eplcs them selves).A lthough surveys are p o sslble, an d catalogu es or arch lves of p u bllcatlon an d p erfo rm an ce are a valu able reso u rce fo r recep tlo n stu d les, accum u latln g an lnven toty of recep tlon s w lll n ot result ln a sum -total or com m on d en om ln ator of recep tlon s. C o n sequ en tly, th e p resen t collectlon d o es n ot alm to p rovld e an

en cyclop aedlc survey of th e place of H om er ln tw en tleth -century culture. In recen t years, som e dlscu sslon s of th e receptlon of H om er h ave b een crltlclzed for tellln g a n arrow ly W estern , or

even A n glocen trlc story; w hlle oth ers h ave been b erated for tellln g n o stot'y at a11.16 W e look at H om er ln a w lde range of places an d questlon hls W estern ld entlty, but th e story w e tell ls stlll hlghly selectlve. ln term s of m edla, w e d o n ot system atlcally dlscu ss th e lm p act of H om er on tw en tleth -cen tury m u slc, n or d o w e ad dress

th e rew orkln g of H om erlc th em es an d

m otlfs ln

tw entleth -

cen tury art alth ough th e w ork of R om are B earden ls dlscu ssed ln

C hapter 2). The m alorlty of the chapters concern them selves w lth lictlon , p o etry, an d , ln tw o cases, lilm . H ere, to o, th e alm ls n ot to

provlde an lnven tory of dlfferen t rew orklngs but rath er to offer a selectlon of exam ples th at sh ed llght on th e cen tral con cern s of th e collectlon . W e d o n ot tackle h ead -on th e everyd ay recep tlon of H om er ln p op ular culture. A s w e w rlte our Introdu ctlon , H om er ls belng rew rltten ln Fan tasy Flctlon p ubllsh ed through llve Journ als on th e W orld W ld e W eb .17 T h ese w rltln gs are h ard to assess as acts of recep tlon . Slm llarly, H om er Slm p son ls n ot ln clu d ed ln th ls

16 R u th erfo rd 2006 Jind s th e hlsto ry of recep tlon o u tlln ed ln R obert Fow ler 2004 Qfirm ly A n glocen trlc', cf also Pow ell 2005 B lan chl 2005 crltlclzes N lcosla 2003 fo r fallln g to o ffer any coh eren t vlew of H o m erlc receptlon 17 See M cE ld u ff 2006 l90

Introductkon

7

volum e: hls n am e h as m ore to d o w lth th e genteel fashlon for assum ln g G raeco -ltom an n am es ln ante-bellum A m erlca th an w lth any dlrect en gagem en t w lth H om erlc ep lc.A s th e n arrator ln D erek W alcottns O m eros says w h en h e ls confronted w lth th e m odern G reek n am e for H om er, Kl-lom er an d V lrg are N ew E nglan d farm ersll8 Som e key lssues ralsed by H om er Slm p son an d th e W orld W ld e W eb are, h ow ever, dlscu ssed ln th e collectlon : d lfferen t typ es of cu ltural llteracy, th e exclu slven ess of th e W estern llterary can on , th e

artlstlc an d lnterpretatlve p osslbllltles op en ed up by tw entleth -

century technologles, and the pltfalls of recognlzlng (or lnventlng) allu slon s. W e tak e serlou sly th e p osltlon of soclologlsts an d reader-resp on se crltlcs w h o deny th at th ere are prlvlleged receptlon s or th at th ere ls a h lerarchy of au dlen ce resp on ses.lg w e also see th e valu e of grap h s, m ap s, an d trees, as advo cated by M orettl,zo even lf ln th ls volu m e w e seek to dlscu ss som e cru clal lssu es ln th e recep tlon of H om er ln th e tw en tleth cen tu ty by relyln g on a n arrom

an d ln som e w ays u n rep -

resen tatlve, set of exam p les.O ur focu s ls n ot ln ten d ed to con stru ct a

stralghtfotw ard hlerarchy betw een w h at w e ln clud e an d w h at w e do n ot. B ecau se w e w lsh to exp lore th e con n ectlon s b etw een creatlve an d acad em lc resp on ses to H om er, w e p rlvllege dlrect en gagem en ts

w lth th e H om erlc eplcs over th e m ore varled m anlfestatlon s of H om er as a cultural lcon .Som e stu dles of recep tlon lnvolve sch olars

assessln g th e cultural value of creatlve rew orkln gs of classlcal llteratu re: by con trast, w e w lsh to sh ow th at sch olarsh lp ls ltself p art of recep tlon an d en gaged ln a w ld er cu ltu ral dlalogu e.zl T h e essays ln th ls volum e lllu strate th at H om er h as travelled a

clrcultou s route ln th e tw entleth century. M any of th e tw entleth -

century Ktexts' (broadly construed) that are typlcally studled as ln stan ces of H om erlc recep tlon are th em selves rlch sources for

18 O m eros 11111 (14) 19 Janet Stalger 1989 359,Creadlngs and vlew lngs that do not conform to verslons recogn lzed b y th e academ y are n o less ''real'' or any less lm portant w lth ln a hlsto ry of audlence con sum ptlon of llterary and film lc fictlon an d n on fictlon' 20 M o rettl 200 5

21 See M artln dale 199 1 46 Co ur cu rrent ln terpretatlon s of anclen t texts,w heth er o r n ot w e are aw are of lt are,ln com p lex w ays,con stru cted by the ch aln o f recep tlo n s throu gh w hlch th elr con tln ued readablllty over the cen turles has b een effected 7

8

B arbara G rfyzit?a and F rrli/y G reenw ood

oth er recep tlons of H om er. For exam ple, the artlst R om are B earden u sed H om er as a referen ce p olnt ln hls O dyssey kst/ifér, an d w e th en fin d D erek W alcott explaln ln g th e app eal of H om er through w h at B eard en m ean s to h lm .22 Furth erm ore, w e th en lin d acad em lc p ub -

llcatlons uslng W alcott to explaln H om er.23 W alcott, Joyce, and Seferls are all sources of m eanlngful lnterference ln the tw entleth cen tury receptlon of H om erlc ep lc. D ep en dlng on th e dlsclplln ary

orlentatlon of the reader, an d on w hat s/he has read, alluslon s to

Joyce m lght lead us to H om er os conversely, alluslon s to H om er m lght lead us to Joyce. ln the clnem atography of A ngelopoulos, dlscussed ln thls volum e by Fran çolse L etoublon , an d ln th e m odern G reek texts dlscu ssed by D avld R lcks, Seferls em erges as a key tw en tleth -cen tu ry ln terp reter of H om er. ln fact, lt seem s en tlrely ap p rop rlate, ln th e con text of th e recep tlon of H om er ln m o d ern G reece after 1950, to sp eak of Kseferlsn H om e/ an d- ln th e early

decades of the twentleth century- of Kcavaf/s H om e/. ln such con dltlon s, to look for the H om erlc Ksource' ls actually to look for th e source from w hlch kn ow ledge of H om er ls draw n .A n d yet:ln th e m ldst of th ese lm p ortan t m edlatlng con texts,th e auth orlty of H om er

as auth or fun ctlon perslsts. A s C harles M artln dale has argued, KW e do n ot m erely lnterpret H om er by th e llgh t of our taste, sln ce th e H om erlc p o em s h ave th em selves con trlb u ted to th e tran sform atlo n of th at taste.724 T h ere are n o easy lln ear:ch ron ologlcaln arratlves to b e

told h ere. T h e artlstlc an d llterary context of th e tw en tleth century,

w hlch w e m lght use to explaln tren ds ln H om erlc scholarshlp,ls ltself lm pllcated ln and lnform ed by that sch olarshlp .Several of the chap ters explore thls ln teractlon , reveallng h ow w rlters su ch as Yeats,

R ltsos, K adare, an d Logue take cues from H om erlc scholarshlp . G lven th e sp eclé c focu s of thls volum e,lt m ay be u sefulfor readers to b ear ln m ln d oth er recen t p ub llcatlon s th at dlscu ss th e recep tlon

of H om er ln th e tw entleth century.P. H .Young, T he P n nted H om er

(2003),endeavours to 11st allknow n edltlons and translatlons of the Ihad an d th e O dyssey from

an tlqulty to th e year 2000. G . Steln er,

22 w alcott 1997 23 For exam ple, W alcotfs O m eros sets the fram e and fttrnlsh es k ey m etaph ors

for C arol D ougherty's study of the 'ethn ographlc lm aglnatlon' of the O dyssey

(D ougherty 2001) 24 M artlndale 199 1 62, 1993 6

Introd uch on

9

H om er irl Englksh (1996), as w ell as S. U nderw ood, Enghsh

Translatlons of H om er from George Chapm an to Chnstopher Logue (1998/) can be used to lnvestlgate,m ore speclfcally,the lm pact of translatlons of H om er ln the Engllsh-speaklng w orld.Boltanl (1994) traces th e é gure of O dysseus ln th e W estern llterary tradltlon . T h e

collectlon edlted by S.N lcosla, Ulksse neItempo'Ia m etafora irl / rllffl (2003) com prlses over thlrty dlsparate essays on the receptlon of the O dyssey ln th e last three m lllen nla an d ls p artlcularly valuable on n eglected auth ors w rltln g ln ltallan and Sp anlsh .A recen t lssu e of th e M agazkne t ifftrrfpirér d evotes a sub stan tlal sectlon sp eclf cally to th e

recep tlon of th e O dyssey ln th e tw entleth century.25 A n oth er collec-

tlon of slx essays edlted by A ndreas Luther (O dyssee-Rezeptkonen, Frankfurt, 2005) offers an eclectlc lnslght lnto the receptlon of the O dysseyl lt dlscusses th e use of typ e-scen es from

th e O dyssey ln

R om an vlllas, th e questlon of an E gyptlan receptlon of th e O dyssey th e E gure of Telem ach u s ln chlldren's llterature, an d th e O dyssey as a

flashpolnt for the tran slatlon of m oral norm s and confh cts ln film lc

adaptatlon s of eplc.J.P.H oloka h as recently edlted,translated, an d com m ented on Slm on e W ellns fam ous essay on the 1had.16 O ther stu dles explolt th e flexlble m edlum of electron lc on lln e databases, w hlch allow for a llvlng archlve th at can be con tln u ally supplem en ted ln resp on se to th e varlety of receptlon s en coun tered ln th e w orld . T hls route ls exem pllf ed by th e excellen t database m alntaln ed by th e

O pen U nlverslty, w h lch docum ents tw entleth -cen tury receptlons of H o m erlc p o etry, an d o f oth er texts an d lm ages of A n clen t G reece.27

A n oth er em plrlcalroute ls suggested by a research prolect carrled out by N aolse M acsw eeney ln 2004:ln w hlch she analysed the responses of vlsltors to an exhlbltlon at th e B rltlsh M u seum entltled K'l-roy

R etoldl w hlch w as tlm ed to colnclde w lth the release of the m ovle Trcy.28 T h ls sam p lln g of llve con su m ers of H om erlc recep tlon , as

opposed to im plled or Kldealn audlences, lllustrates the p otentlal for 25 M agaztne L ttteratre, January 2004,lssue 327 26 See W ell,2003 27 T h e ftt11tltle of th e d atab ase ls Q'I'h e R eceptlon of th e Text and lm ages ofA n clent G reece in late Tw en tleth C entury D ram a and Po etry u'l E n gllsh D atabase' http //

w wu,2 open ac A /classlcalstudles/G reee lays (last accessed A prll2006) 28 N aolse M acsw eeney presented the fin dlngs of her survey at the A G M of the So clety fo r th e P rom o tlo n of H ellen lc Stu dles at th e ln stltu te o f C lasslcal Stu d les ln

London (1l June 2005)

(

10

B arbara G m zitly; and F rrlily G reenw ood

a dlalogu e across dlfferent audlen ces, ln w hlch assum ptlon s can b e ch allen ged an d revlsed .29 Even th ls brlef survey ofrecen t stu dles suggests th at th e recep tlon of H om er allow s for m any dlfferen t ap p roach es.3o C onversely, th e

varlety of app roach es com pllcates th e questlon of w h at an act of recep tlon m lght be. O n e lssu e th at n eeds to be con sldered ls th e p erm eab le relatlon sh lp b etw een recep tlon stu d les an d stu dles of

allu slon an d lntertextu allty; an oth er ls th e qu estlon of h ow th e dlscou rse of recep tlon dlffers from

th e w ell-establlsh ed stu dy of th e

classlcal tradltlon . ln b oth cases, an lm p ortan t dlstln ctlon seem s to b e th at recep tlon stu d les cro ss p o etlcs w lth p olltlcs,forcln g acad em lc com m u n ltles to foregro un d th e qu estlon of w h o sees th e allu slon s,or

ln w h ose lnterests th e ldea of a classlcal tradltlon ls b eln g w lelded .3l A n oth er sou rce of com p lexlty ls th at th e very term ln ology of recep tlon ls frelgh ted w lth p roblem atlc accen ts an d assum p tlon s. ln th ls volu m e ln dlvld u al con trlbutors exp lore dlfferen t m od els of recep tlon an d em p loy a bro ad sp ectrum of term ln ology to d escrlb e th e p ro cess.W h at m any of th ese m o d els of recep tlon h ave ln com m on

ls th e m otlf of rep etltlon .T hls m otlf ls w rltten ln to receptlon by m any of th e term s th at are u sed m ost frequen tly to descrlb e th e process

at w ork: rew rlte, rew ork revlse, retell, recover, recycle, revlvlfy, ren oun ce, react, resp on d .A lth ough th ese verbs are u sed actlvely for th e m o st p art, th e om n lp resen ce of th e Kren p refix suggests lteratlon , rep etltlon , an d secon d arln ess.

N otw lth stan dln g thls gen eral p oln t, th e term s u sed h ave dlfferen t accen ts.P ostcolon lal sch olars h ave w earled of Krevlslonn as a descrlp tlon of th e w ays ln w h lch can on lcal texts h ave b een u sed an d relm agln ed by w rlters w orkln g ln p o st-colon les, on th e gro u n d s th at th ls assu m es kn ow ledge of w h at h as gon e b efore ln ord er to recogn lze or d etect th e p resen ce of a revlslon .32 T h e lm p llcatlon th at a classlc, 29 See C arey 2005 167- 8,w h o- ln th e trad ltlon of P lerre B ou rd leu- advo cates a tu rn ln arts research aw ay from th e Ju dgem en ts of crltlcs tow ard s em p lrlcal,h lstorlcal

stud les of aud len ces and read ershlp s 30 R A rm stro n g an d C D u e are cu rren tly ed ltln g a volu m e b ased on a con feren ce entltled H om ertzon C oncep tualIn terrogattons CrlH om ertc Studtes,w hlch took place at th e C en ter for H ellen lc Stu d les ln W ash ln gton ,D C ,ln 2005 T h e volu m e w 1llm ake an ln terestlng contrlbu tlon to the study of H om erlc recep tlon 31 See G oldh lll, C h ll 32 M arx 200 4 92

Introd uctkon

11

can on lcal w ork of llterature un d erlles a n ew w ork an d th at lt ls ln tegral to th e ln terp retatlon of th ls w ork p erp etu ates w h at H om l B h abh a h as d escrlb ed as Kth e u n equ al an d u n even forces of cu ltu ral rep resen tatlon t33 H ow ever,w h lle Krevlslon nm lgh t seem to p rom ote a

hlerarchy ofknow ledge that ls founded on a grand archlve of (W estern) culture, paradoxlcally lt also underm lnes thls archlve by challen gln g an d op p o sln g can on lcal w orks. T h e revlslon ln qu estlon ls n ot so m u ch a slm p le rew rltln p b u t a Kw rltln g b acknas form u lated by p ostcolon lal th eory.34 R evlslon lm p lles lo okln g agaln an d E n dln g w h at on e sees as ln ad equ ate.lt carrles ln lts w ak e a h ost of atten d an t

verbs, all w lth undertones of relectlon: rew rlte, rew ork and retell. T h e p ro cess at w ork ls akln to recyclln p w h ere H om erlc p o etry an d th e ep lc cycle are scram bled to create a n ew an d un fam lllar w ork w lth recogn lzable m aterlal.35 A lon gsld e revlslon an d recyclln g, revlvlf catlon ls a term som etlm es u sed of classlcal recep tlon s ln th e p resen t d ay

th at ls

brln gln g

th e p ast b ack to llfe.36 If tragedy w as a d eb ate w lth a H om erlc p ast th at w as stlll allve ln A th en s ln th e fifth cen tury sc,37 w e m lgh t w on d er w h en th ls p ast exp lres: ln R ep u bllcan R om e, ln B yzan tlum , ln R en alssan ce Floren ce, ln V lctorlan B rltaln , ln p o st-w ar G reece, ln 1960s P arls, to d ay, tom orrow ? A lth o ugh th e term

Krevlvllicatlon n

% B h ab h a 1994 27 1, d lscu ssed ln G lkan dl 2004 94 34 T he p h rase Qthe em p lre w rltes b ack '- w h lch b ecam e a slogan fo r sub altern an d p ostcolo n lal stu d les- orlgln ated ln th e tltle of an artlcle by Salm an R u shd le Q'I'h e

Em plre W rltes Back w lth a Vengeancel The Ttm es, 3 July 1982 C f also A shcroft, G rlflith s, an d T lflin 1989 35 Fo r the lm age of ap prop rlatln g W estern can on lcal llteratu re by d lsm an tlln g an d

recycllng 1t,see M arx 2004 89 A tw ood'srecentnovelThePeneloptad (2005)lsa good exam p le o f th e p ro cess Sh e focallzes h er sto ry throu gh P en elop e an d fixates o n O dysseu 's h an gln g of tw elve of th elr m ald s, su ggestln g that Ql-lom er's O dyssey ls n o t th e o n ly verslon o f th e story T h e story as to ld ln th e O dyssey d oesn 't h old w ater'

(pp xtv-xw l H er readlng runs parallelto academ lc scholarshlp,w hlch has long seen troub lln g, su p pressed fem ale p lo ts ln H om er, cf K atz 199 1, Felson R u b ln 1994, an d O 'G orm an 2006 O n A tw ood 's con testatlo n o f H o m er ln an earller n ovel, T he

H andm atd's Tale (1987),cf H ardw lck 2000 122-3 (p 63 below ) 36 See e g Z alko an d L eon ard 2006 2 Cln stead of creatln g n ew gen ealogles, m any fem ln lsts h ave ch osen to revlvlfy an clen t n arratlves to arm con tem po rary stru ggles' T he m etaph or of revlvlficatlo n u n d erlles a forth com ln g volu m e of essays, ed lted by Step hen H arrlson an d p rovlslon ally en tltled Qlwlvln g P resen ces' T h e volu m e ls b ased o n a con feren ce h eld ln O xfbrd ln Sep tem ber 2005 57 See V ern an t an d W d al N aqu et 1988 33 on the Qd eb ate w lth a p ast th at ls stlll allve' at th e heart of G reek tragedy

12

l flrlpflrfl G rflzlclsl (IJIJ F rrllly G rccrlw clt?l

m lgh t be used loosely of any receptlon ,lt m akes an lm pllclt clalm th at th e p ast,or an elem en t of th e p ast,ls stlll allve.M yth lcalplots are often brough t back to llfe so th at th ey m lght be confron ted an d revlsed . T hls ls seen p artlcularly clearly w lth fem lnlst recep tlon s ofth e classlcs, ln w hlch m etam orph osls ls a com m on trop e.38 In keep ln g w lth O vld, p ast represen tatlon s p erslst an d survlve th e tran sform atlon lnto a n ew form . H ow ever, th e brlngln g b ack to llfe of classlcal llteratu re ln m odern form s creates lastln g ln terferen ce ln term s of h ow w e con celve of thls very llterature. Fllm , for exam ple, h as tran sform ed th e w ay ln w hlch m odern readers envlsage an clent eplc: by n ow , th e n otlon th at Kl-lom er ls cln em atlc' h as becom e a stan dard trop e of sch olarsh lp .3g T h e con cept of classlcal receptlon ls sh ap ed by th e shlftlng relatlon shlp betw een classlcs an d m odern m ed1a.40 D lfferen t n otlon s of tem p orallty also sh ap e th e p rocess of receptlon

an d n eed to b e tackled rlght at th e start of th e present volum e.W e h ave already argued th at com paratlve approaches ch allenge llnear hlston es of llterature. M ore gen erally, lt seem s th at current approach es to H om er dlffer radlcally ln th elr treatm en t of tlm e. Som e academ lc studles dlsplay a hlston clst blas,w hlch ls lm p atlent w lth the supp osed lm plauslbllltles,ln accuracles,an d an achronlsm s of oth er acts of recep tlon . ln fact,hlston clst readlngs also lead to cn tlclsm of, an d dlssatlsfactlon w lth ,th e H om erlc eplcsth em selves,sln ce th ey too fallth e test of hlstorlcal accuracy. From the poln t of vlew of th e earllest H om erlc audlen ces, th e H om erlc eplcs w ere already set ln a dlstant p ast that could be know n on ly w lth th e help of the M use.41V arlou s oth er m eans, apartfrom dlrect dlalogue w lth the M u ses,can be u sed to brlng th e past

lnto the present:a focus on (contlngent) colncldence,z iz the elllpsls of tlm e,43 an d a rellan ce on th e p resen t ten se.For exam ple,ln h ls on goln g

verslon s of H om e/ s Ihads C hrlstoph er L ogu e u ses the vlvld present ten se an d secon d-p erson addresses,w hlle at the sam e tlm e m edlatln g

's see R ow en a F ow ler 2006 39 Saun ders 1999 363, G reenw oo d, p l63 below

40 See G reenw oo d ,p p 154-6,an d G oldh ill,pp 259-6 1,267 41 See G razlo sl an d H aub old 2005 ch 2 42 O n co ln cld en ce, see e g R ow en a Fow ler's d escrlp tlon o f the rem o dellln g of

classëcal m yth tn Joe Shapcotfs Qm ad cow 'persona ln term s of Qa happy colncldence

ln classlcalm yth and toplcalscandal'(2006 386) 4: See D avls, p 20 8

Introd uctkon

13

th e dlstan ce betw een p ast an d present through m ultlple hlstorlcal contexts ln clu dlng th e N apoleonlc W ars, the W orld W ars, an d th e C old W ar.44 In Ellzabeth C ook's A chklles, the present ten se ls used exten slvely, as seen ln h er retellln g of P rlam ns su pp llcatlon of A chllles

ln B ook 24 of th e Ihad:KB ut Prlam ls ttred an d craves a bed.A chllles'

guard goes 1. 1/.45 H ere too,how ever,the use of the present tense ls fram ed by m edlatln g contexts, rem ln dlng the reader th at th e current tale h as travelled a long and com pllcated ltlnerary to reach u s as m od ern readers: a sup p lem en t called Kltelay' focallzes C ook's retellln g

of A chlllesn story through K eats's readlng of C h apm anns H om er.46 R esearch ln to H om erlc ep lc an d lts receptlon n eeds to p ay closer atten tlon to th e tem p oralltles envlsaged ln th e tellln gs an d retellln gs. Som e of th e m ost lnterestln g aven u es for research m ay start w lth th e qu estlon

of h ow

read ers ln

d lfferent h lstorlcal p erlod s m ake

con n ectlon s acro ss tlm e w h en th ey read .47 O n e vet'y recen t rew orkln g of H om erlc ep lc p o sltlon s ltself ln

relatlon to M odern lsm 's reuse of th e p ast to m ake sen se of th e ch aos of th e presen t. D avld Farr ln trodu ces hls lirst volum e of p lays, w hlch are all based on storles from

th e can on of W estern

llterature w lth the explanatlon that,Kgthese playsl are allrew orklngs of exlstlng storles, from th e an clent w orld of H om er to th e begln n ln gs of M o d ern lsm . l h ave b ecom e ln creasln gly ln terested ln

ad dresslng the turb ulen ce of our w orld through looklng at archetyp al storles ln a n ew

w ayt48 Far/ s statem en t allu d es to T . S. E llot's

form ulatlon of m yth as Ka w ay of con trolllng, of orderln p of glvln g a sh ap e an d slgnlf can ce to th e lm m en se p an oram a of futlllty an d an archy w h lch ls con tem p orary h lstory7.49 M o d ern lsm asserts a 44 O n L ogu e's m an lpu latlon Of ten se and h lstorlclty, see fttrth er G reenw ood , P P 16 8- 7 1

45 C ook 200 1 48 46 Fo r an excellent d lscu sslo n of C ook's poetlc novel, an d th e slgnlfican ce of the

Qlkelaï'attheend,seeZalko 2006 See also Hardwlck 2004 347,who com m entson C ook s n arratlve m ethod and her avoldan ce of anach ronlsm 47 O n thls lssu e, see Z alko 2006 T h e p rob lem ls also d lscu ssed ln C h s l an d 2 of the present volum e 48 Farr 2005 p v11 T he o ther sto rles th at Farr rew orks are D ostoevsky's C rtm e and P untshm en t,T he N atlvlty of C hr1st,an d D lcken s's G reat Exp ecta ttons 49 E llo t 19754 l77 O n M od ernlsm 's preoccup atlon w lth m yth as a w ay of

com prehendlng hlstory (T S Ellot's Qm ythlcal m ethod'), see Zalko 2004 314-15, an d R ow en a Fow ler 2006 382 See also M artin m th ys vo lu m e, p 76 , :! 5

14

B arbara G rfkzitls; and F rrlify G reenw ood

dyn am lc relatlon shlp ln w hlch a dlstant p ast én ds m ean lng through con tact w lth th e presen t,w hlle th e present- too close for com fort-

ls glven m eanm g th rough storles from the past.By now ,M odern lsm ls ltself outm oded,an d often evokes th e kln d s of cultural ch auvlnlsm

assoclated w lth the Kc lasslcal Tradltlonn. Yet lt seem s to u s that the m ovem ent also h ad an un d en lable stak e ln tw orld llterature: ln

th e broadest sen se of th e term .50 O n th e on e h an d, M odernlsm fed ln to p ostcolon lal llterature- leadln g to w h at C h arles Pollard h as called a Kdlscrep an t cosm op olltan m odern lsm n;on th e oth es lt represen ted a ch allen ge to th e tradltlon al valu es o f E urop ean culture.sl

T hls broadenlng out m ay som etlm es have taken the form of p rlm ltlvlsm an d exotlclsm , but lt lntroduced tw o-w ay connectlon s betw een cultures th at raclal m yth s h ad ln slsted on sep aratlnp or h ad con iin ed to a h lerarchy.T h e place of H om er ln th e tw entleth century m u st, w e b elleve, be un derstood as p art of thls gradu al eroslon of E u rop ens cu ltu ral lsolatlon .

T he presentvolum e explores th e conn ectlons and ten slon sb etw een dlfferen t p ercep tlon s of H om er ln th e tw en tleth cen tury, an d sh ow s h ow H om erlc p o etry h as p layed a cen tral role ln th e evolutlon of

con cepts su ch as tradltlon ,receptlon ,llterature,orallty,an d eplc.P art

l of ln thls volum e,fplaclng H om er ln the Tw entleth C enturyl offers an m trodu ction to these concepts and provldes a theoretlcal fram ew ork for the rest of th e collectlon . P art ll, Ksch olarshlp and

Flctlonl lnvestlgates the connectlons betw een academ lc and creatlve readlngs, an d explores th e w ays ln w h lch b oth contrlb uted to radlcal

redefnltlons ofllterature.Part111,tD lstance and G enrells speclfcally con cern ed w lth th e p roblem s of readln g H om er from a dlstan ce an d

lnvestlgates the w ays ln w hlch such problem s affect ch olces of form

and genre.Flnally, Part IM 'Polltlcs and Interpretatlonl lnvestlgates the polltlcal and soclologlcal lm pllcatlons of readlng H om er ln th e tw en tleth cen tu ry. A s th e qu otatlon from B lo om w lth w h lch w e b egan sh ow s,H om er

h as often b een seen as th e an cestor of a llterary tradltlon th at

50 O n the concept of Qw orld llteraturel see Prendergast 2004 51 Pollard 2004 15 O n the provocatlve overturnlng of tradltlonalvalues ln Jam es Joyce's U lysses,see M lnta,p l19

Introd uctkon

15

grew an d exp an d ed con tln u o u sly, llke a fam lly tree M etaph ors of tradltlon often evoke th e organ lc an d ln exorable grow th of n ature .

,

b ut m ore vlolen t an d p urp oseful m etaph ors are also p osslble:

H om e/s poetry can be Kyanked out of lts hldey-holel as M lchael L on gley p uts lt,an d radlcally Juxtap osed w lth experlences con sldered forelgn to 1t.52 T h e essays ln thls volum e explore w h at ls at stake ln p osltln g con tln u ltles an d rup tures. C on trlbu tors lnvestlgate h ow n ovellsts, sch olars, p oets, playw rlghts an d E lm -m akers p osltlon ,

th em selves ln relatlon to H om er h ow read ers read an d d o n ot read allu slon s, an d h ow ln stltutlon al con texts affect th e place of H om erlc ,

ep lc ln tw en tleth -cen tu ty culture. T h e collectlon

as a w h ole, ls ln ten ded n ot on ly for classlclsts b ut also for stu den ts of com p aratlve ,

llterature, p ostcolonlal stu dles, an d cultural hlstory lts m aln alm ls to offer a theoretlcal fram ew ork w lthln w hlch to sltuate H om er ln .

tw entleth -century culture,to p rovlde a gulde to th e slgm f can t blbllograp hy, an d to stlm ulate research ln to m any areas th at d eserve an d

w ould rew ard furth er lnvestlgatlon

.

P A R T 1. P L A C IN G H O M E R IN T H E T W E N T IE T H C E N T U R Y

T hls lirst sectlon addresses a problem

th at vexes m any receptlon

stu dles of classlcal auth ors. lt ls certaln ly tru e to say that m th e course of th e tw entleth cen tury,H om erlc p oetry ln creasln gly becam e ,

p art of w orld llterature, an d th at th ls p ro cess ch allen ged an d

redef n ed th e conf n es of th e W estern can on T h e qu estlon ls w h at w e sh ould m ake of thls fact. C lasslclsts ourselves ln cluded, often .

,

m ake th e rev1slon lst clalm th at th e G reek an d R om an w ork s ln th e W estern can on w ere alw ays un can on lcalan d cou n tercultural ln deed, .

ln the second halfofthe tw entleth century (speclfcally ln the 1980s), sch olars ln all dlsclplln es w ere turn ln g to th e p aradox th at th e w orks ln th e can on are n ecessarlly cou n tercan on lcal lf w h at ls m ean t by th e Kcan onn ls th e ldea of a n orm atlve tradltlon of great texts ,

.

52 M Longley,el-lom er's O ctopus'ln The G hostO rchtd (1995) See H ardw lck,p 56 below

16

B arbara G rfkz/tls; and Frrlily G rccnw tlt)cl

A s D om lnlck L ac apra h as w rltten : K'fh e m ore ch allengln g an d : at

tlm es,dlscon certlng text seem s to rew rlte th e genre or to take part m a contm ual foundln g an d alterlng of expectatlon s. T he apparen t p aradox ls that texts halled as p erfectlons of a genre or a dlscurslve p ractlce m ay also test an d contest 1ts llm lts.753 T h e dan ger h ere ls a repllcatlon , w lth subtle dlfferen ces, of p reclsely the ktnd of cultural ch auvlnlsm th at cn tlcs of can onlcal llterature alm ed to contest. lf evety n ew culture th at com es lnto contact w lth a can on lcalw ork an d reads lt ln un can on lcalw ays ls foun d to b e ech oln g w h at w as already th ere,th en th e w ork m qu estion becom es lnvested w lth quasl-lm pen al status.In thls w ay,receptlon studles,for all th at th ey are ln tend ed to free up read ers to read texts on th elr ow n term s,ln fact run th e rlsk of conf rm lng w h at th e m ost con servatlve of classlclsts h ave alw ays clalm ed: that H om eric p oetry is an in exhaustlble source ofln splratlon an d ln slght.T he é rst tw o essays ln th e collectlon tackle thls p oten tlal p arad ox of receptlon stu dles from dlfferent, but com plem en taty an gles.

Johannes H aubold begm s w lth an lnvestlgatlon of the w ork of M llm an P arry an d suggests th at h ls approach to H om erlc ep lc

radlcally questloned dom ln ant n otlon s of orlgln allty, authorshlp, an d llterary h lstot'y.H e lnvestlgates som e un resolved ten slon s w lth ln

Parryns w ork and show s how th ose ten slon s dom lnated subsequent ap proach es to H om er ln th e tw entleth cen tury. O n th e on e h and , H om erlc eplc w as th ough t to belon g to th e w orld of tradltlon al

poetry (a type of poetry w hlch w as concelved as çtlm elessl ln m ore than one sense); on the other, H om er w as placed Erm ly w lthln a lln ear h lstory of W estern llterature.H aub old suggests th at n otlon s of tradltlon an d recep tlon n eed to be lnvestlgated ln relatlon to on e an oth er.M odels of tradltlon allty are n ow begln nln g to accom m odate m any ph en om en a w lu ch Parry assoclated excluslvely w lth th e great

auth ors of the W estern llterary can on ,such as A pollonlus an d V lrgll. lnn ovatlon , selectlvlty, an d careful negotlatlons w lth other texts are also m anlfest ln tradltlon al p oetry. C onversely, P arry's n otlon s of tradltlonal p oetry can b e u sed to ch allen ge llnear con ceptlon s of llterary h lstory,so th at H om erlc ep lc ls n ot seen slm p ly as th e so urce

for later acts of receptlon . T hls suggestlon ls lm p ortan t for th e

,: L ac ap ra l9 ss 140- 1

Introd uctkon

17

ln terp retatlon of m any tw en tleth -cen tu ty au th ors, n ot least D erek

W alcott, an d ls taken up m th e secon d ch ap ter. L orn a H ardw lck qu estlon s lln ear m odels of receptlon by reflectln g on creatlve en gagem en ts w lth H om erlc p o etty ln th e tw en tleth

cen tury.M any of th e m ost successful creatlve adaptatlon s of H om er h ave been preoccupled w lth th e qu estlon of roots. T h us, w hlle classlclsts ln E urop e an d A m erlca are n ow llkely to dlstan ce th em selves from gen ealoglcal an d blologlcal m odels of llterary hlstory ln th elr p ubllsh ed sch olarsh lp , creatlve acts of receptlon h ave kept th e lssu e of gen ealogy on th e agen da.54 A galn st th e m odel of H om er as a n atlon less, stateless, an d colourless bard , w orks such as D erek

W alcotfs O m eros (1990), or The O dyssey'A Stage Versw n (1993) ralsed th e questlon of th e Kcolou/ of H om er even w h lle th ey w rested H om erlc ep lc aw ay from an exclu slvely E urop ean tradltlon .H ardw lck d lscu sses th e th em e of ro ots an d ro otlessn ess ln several tw en tleth cen tu ry w ork s an d argu es th at th ey suggest com plex m o d els of recep tlon th at d efy exlstln g n otlon s of th e bro ad cultu ral slgn lf can ce

of H om er, and m ove aw ay from the danger of eternal regresstlon) ln receptlon studles.A ccordlng to H ardw lck the practlce ofrecelvlng H om erlc eplc ln th e tw en tleth century ls ah ead of th e th eory. T hls ln slgh t ls reln forced by m an y o th er con trlb u tors, w h o suggest th at

th e m od el of Kreceptlonn ls n ot en tlrely adequate to exp laln th e com pllcated , crlss-crosslng dlalogu es b etw een H om erlc eplc and tw entleth -century culture.

P A R T II. S C H O L A R S H IP A N D F IC T IO N

T h e secon d

sectlon

lnvestlgates th e con n ectlon s an d

ten slon s

b etw een app roach es to H om er ln sch olarshlp an d ln E ctlon . A galn , questlon s of lnfluen ce an d orlgln allty qulckly em erge. A t th e m ost b aslc level: on e m ay ask w h eth er sch olars lnfluen ced w rlters or vlce versa; b ut, ln reallty, p attern s of ln teractlon w ere far m ore com p lex. 54 See Sald 1991 16-24, and ch 5 (CO n Repetltlon') for dlscusslon of fillatlon, affiltatton ,and genealo p calm odels m ltterary crtttctsm O n the p otenttally dtstu rb m g overton es of genealoglcal and b lologlcal m od els ln genre th eory, see th e excellen t

dlscusslon by Barchlesl (2001)

18

B arbara G rflzftu f and l'rf7l/y G reenw ood

A 11 th e ch apters ln thls sectlon sh ow th at th ere are n o easy, lln ear n arratlves to be told h ere. T h e artlstlc and llterary contexts of th e tw entleth century,w h lch w e m lght u se to Kexp lalnntren ds ln H om erlc sch olarshlp, w ere th em selves lm pllcated ln , an d ln form ed by, thls sch olarsh lp . R lch ard M artln's essay tells an altern atlve stot'y about H om er

am ong th e In sh by focuslng not on Jam es Joyce,but on the dram atlst John M lllm gton Synge and the scholar G eorge D erw ent T hom son .lt ls a story th at offers a com p elllng vlew of h ow H om er w as recelved, represen ted , an d rem ad e ln th e early tw entleth century an d sh ed s llght on som e p ow erful altern atlve ap proach es to H om erlc p oetry to

the fam ous m ythlc m ethod of poyce an d other m odernlst w rlters. M artln argu es th at Syn ge's an d T h om son's con sclou sn ess of H om er w as sh ap ed by th elr exten d ed vlslts to th e A ran Islan ds an d th e B lasket lslan ds resp ectlvely. H ow ever, h e also argu es th at H om erlc p oetry affected th elr d escrlptlon s of contem p orary lrlsh p eople llvln g on th ose lslan d s. B y dlscusslng h ow an clen t G reece w as lm p orted ln to m od ern lreland , an d h ow ln turn lreland w as exp orted lnto H om erlc eplc, M artln offers a n uan ced plcture of th e conn ectlon s an d dlfferen ces betw een plap vn gh t an d sch olar. ln M artln's essay, H om er rem aln s h ldden - even supp ressedb ehln d referen ces to Kold ; cu stom s an d p oem s, so th at hls presen ce on th e lrlsh lslan d s em erges ln p art from a reflectlon on tlm e an d

tlm elessness. ln Jam es Joyce's U lysses, there ls no such retlcence about H om erlc preceden ts: th e n ovel ls expllcltly con structed as a rew ork ln g of O dyssean eplsod es;yet lt too establlsh es a com pllcated relatlon shlp w lth th e H om erlc p ast. ln C h apter 4, Steph en M ln ta Juxtap oses th e en co un ter b etw een O dysseus an d N au slcaa ln th e O dyssey w lth th at b etw een L eop old B loom an d G erty M acdow ell ln U lysses. H e em ph aslzes th e sexual an d llngulstlc am blgultles of 170th texts an d contrasts th em w lth sanltlzed readlngs of th e O dyssey su ch as a V lctorlan p oem

by M ortlm er C ollln s, w h ere O dysseu s an d

N auslcaa are presen ted as slm ple p aradlgm s of w lsdom an d ch astlty.

loyce's know ledge of th e O dyssey d epends on nln eteenth -century verslon s, an d th ese are rep eatedly evoked ln th e n ovel: th e op enln g p aragraph s of th e N auslcaa eplsode, for exam p le, read llke a bad

V lcton an n ovel m tent on subllm atlng sexual deslre. Joyce's U lysses exp oses th e m oral blln d -sp ots ln prlor receptlon s of th e O dyssey

Introductkon

19

and lnitlates the rehabllltatlon of O dysseu's subtle character (his artlstlc hom ecom lnp as lt w ere) ln tw entleth-century receptlons. T he result,for us,ls that Joycens readlng of H om er n o longer seem s radlcal: th e sex u al an d lln gulstlc am blgu ltles of O dyssey 6 are so

w ldely recognlzed ln curren t scholarshlp that Joycens readlng seem s closer to H om er th an th e V lctorlan verslon s on w hlch h e relled . T h e last ch apter ln th ls sectlon also explores aë n ltles across tlm e an d sp ace,th ls tlm e by lo okln g at th e en co un ter b etw een th e sch olar A lb ert L ord , P arryns m o st ln flu en tlal collab orator, an d th e A lb an lan n ovellst an d p o et lsm all K ad are.B arb ara G razlo sl traces som e of th e

w ays ln w hlch th e w ork of P arry an d L ord ln sp lred K adare's n ovel D osla H through 1ts dlfferen t A lban lan , Fren ch , an d E ngllsh ln carn atlon s. lt tnvestlgates so m e w llfu l m lsu n d erstan d ln gs b etw een

scholar and w rlter (m ostly about the lm pact of Serblan eplc on the study of H om er), and suggests that K adare perform ed a careful b alan clng act through hls engagem en t w lth th e w ork of P arry an d L ord . O n th e on e h an d, h e used lt to byp ass m ost of th e hlstory of W estern llteratu re, th u s p o sltln g a dlrect con n ectlon b etw een A lb a-

nlan an d H om erlc eplc.O n the othes that very conn ectlon w as then u sed to ln scrlb e K ad are's ow n w ork w lth ln m aln stream

E u rop ean

llteratu re. K ad arens p osltlon resem bles th at of several sch olars w h o

h ave draw n on th e w ork of P arry an d L ord an d argu ed for th e exlsten ce of ep lc p o etry ln several p arts of th e w orld , p artlcularly

sub-saharan A frlca. The so-called A frlcan eplc controversyl llke K adare's D osla f-t qu estlon s and redefn es th e n otlon of llterature by su ggestln g con n ectlon s an d an alogles acro ss tlm e an d sp ace.

P A R T lll . D IS T A N C E A N D G E N R E

C ontrastlng def nltlon s of eplc as a genre h ave con stantly shlfted th e p lace of H om er ln th e cultural lan dscap e of th e tw entleth cen tury.55 A s often , th e acad em lc d ebate relates to bro ad er m ovem en ts ln th e

55 c f Ford 1997,quoted ln n l2,Foley 2004,M artln 2005,an d C hs l an d 5 ln the p resent volum e For a general dlscu sslon o f gen re ln classlcal scho larsh lp see B rau n d 200 1

20

B arbara G m zitly; and F rrlily G reenw ood

recep tlon of H om er. T h e essays ln th ls sectlon sh ow h ow w rlters, p oets an d E lm -m akers h ave w orked closely w lth som e def nln g features of eplc and m lxed th em w lth oth er form s an d gen res: ln ord er to m easure th elr dlstan ce from H om er. ln C h ap ter 6, E m lly G reenw o od exp lores th e lssu es lnvolved ln

readlng H om er from a dlstan ce by focu slng on C hrlstoph er L ogu e's on goln g ad ap tatlon s of th e Ihad, w h lch draw on m o d ern tech n olo -

gles, contem p orary cultu ral references: and th e full tradltlon of E n gllsh llterature ln ord er to m ed late th e forelgn n ess of H om er for

m odern readers. ln keepln g w lth th e focu s on th e dlalogue b etw een E ctlon an d sch olarsh lp ln p revlou s essays, G reenw ood argu es th at, for all lts dlstan ce from H om er, L ogu e's J'Uflr M uskc conveys m any of th e dlstln ctlve features of H om erlc eplc ln equlvalen t term s, an d reflects m any of th e sh lfts th at took place ln H om erlc sch olarsh lp ln th e N en tleth cen tury. T h e relatlon shlp w lth sch olarshlp ls, h ow -

ever, n ot alw ays harm onlous. Judgem ents about Logue's H om er ln academ lc crltlclsm ten d to crltlclze th e falth fuln ess of L ogu e's adap tatlon s, dem on stratlng E llzabeth Sh een ns observatlon th at Kfidellty crltlclsm ls p erh ap s m ost approprlately seen as a rh etorlc of p ossess 1o n 7 56 .

G reenw ood's dlscu sslon suggests th e p oten tlal for tw o -w ay

readlngs th at hlghllgh t th e H om erlc ln L ogue an d th e L ogu e ln H o m er, ln so far as C h rlstop h er L ogu ens W f 'lr M tfsfc h as b egu n to

feed b ack ln to th e receptlon an d ln terpretatlon of H om er.

O llver Taplln tackles the toplc of dlstance and (dlslslm llarlty by look lng sp ecliically at th e lm p act of H om erlc slm lles on th e p oetry of M lch ael L on gley, C h rlstop h er L ogu e, an d D erek W alcott.Slm lles are am on g th e m ost m em orab le featu res of H om erlc ep lc:T ap lln argu es

th at th elr expresslve force derlves as m uch from th elr dlsslm llarlty to th e m aln n arratlve as from

th e p arallels th ey suggest. L ogue an d

L on gley explolt thls asp ect of th e H om erlc slm lle ln ord er to express th elr dlfferen ce from , as w ell as th elr aë n lty w lth , H om er. T h e H om erlc slm lle ls th u s used to m ap th e dlstan ce betw een H om erlc ep lc and tw entleth -cen tury p oetry. T h e n ext tw o ch apters lllustrate h ow an oth er def n ln g feature of eplc p oetry, th e katabasks or descent lnto th e un detw old, ls u sed to explore th e relatlon sh lp betw een tw entleth -centu ry exp erlen ce 56 Sh een 2000 3, see p l50 below w lth n 15

Introd uctkon

21

an d H om erlc p oetry. ln C h apter 8 G regson D avls dlscusses th e ad aptatlon of th e m otlf of katabasks ln A lm e C esalre's C ahw r d 'un

rcfptfrfltfpaysrlflffll(1939/47)and ln a shortpoem by D erek W alcott, Kl-lom ecom lng:A nse La R aye' (1969).57 H e lnvestlgates w hat lt m ay m ean to return h om e ln a p ostcolonlal con text an d sh ow s h ow th at

return ls conf gured slm ultan eously as a hom ecom lng and an lnfern al Journ ey. ln th e p oem s, th e m otlf of katabasv also hlnts at th e ten slon betw een llvlng tradltlons an d th e cultural deadw elght of p ast clvlllzatlon s, ralsln g th e qu estlon of w h eth er H om er llves, or ls

a gh ostly presen ce. D avls sh ow s h ow C esalre an d W alcott m oblllze som e fun dam en tal conven tlon s ln th e tradltlon of E urop ean ep lc, ln cludlng the ldea of th e W estns cultural possesslon of H om er,w hlle

at th e sam e tlm e explorlng w h at an Keplc of th e dlsp ossessedn m lght lo ok llke.58 ln C h ap ter 9, Fran çolse L eto u blon lo ok s at th e th em e of katabasts

ln tw o recent E lm s by A n gelop oulos.ln U lysses'G flzc th e p rotagonlst, a G reek -A m en can lilm dlrector kn ow n on ly by h ls ln ltlalA .,w an ts to

track dow n three film

reels sh ot by th e M an akls broth ers at th e

b eglnnln g of th e tw entleth century. Sln ce the orlglns of film , th e

lirst Kgazel are to be found ln the B alkans,the dlrector travels from G reece through w ar-torn Yugoslavla, In order to fin d the key to hls

ow n past (and future).ln the course ofhlsJourney,dlfferent vlslons of th e p ast clash an d converge, su ggestln g a com p lex n etw ork of

repetltlon s, m em orles, docum en tazy evldence an d, ultlm ately, an lm p resslon of clrcularlty. L eto ub lon go es on to sh ow h ow E tern kty

JrIJ O ne D ay rew ork s m any elem en ts of katabasks already presen t ln U lysses'G aze an d, bulldlng on p revlou s w ork sh e p ubllsh ed togeth er w lth C . E ad es an d S. R ollet, argu es th at A n gelop o ulo s d o es n ot slm p ly ap p ro ach H o m er th ro u gh th e W estern llterary trad ltlo n ,b u t

also develop s a lilm lc ldlom of rep eated typ lcal scen es an d form ulas w hlch closely resem bles th e tradltlon al langu age of H om er. T h e argu m ent h ere ls n ot th at A n gelop oulosns w ork ls sh ap ed by H om erlc stu dles of form ulas an d typ e scen es, b ut rath er th at h e reads H om er llke sch olars ln terested ln th e tradltlon al p o etry of th e B alkan s.

57 A firstverslon of Cesalre's Cahterw as publlshed ln the Journal Volontes (Par1s) ln 1939, the poem s w ere first pub llshed ln bo ok form ln N ew York ln 1947 58 T he ph rase ls taken from the tltle of H am n er 1997

22

B arbara G rflzit?s and F rrlily G reenw ood

T h e essay sh ow s h ow A n gelop oulos's katabasks deties lln ear n otlon s of tlm e an d h lstory.

P A R T lV . P O L IT IC S A N D IN T E R P R E T A T IO N

R eadlng H om er from

a dlstan ce lnvolves careful self-p osltlonlng.

W e saw ln Part lll h ow th e form s an d conventlons of tradltlon al ep lc w ere used to m ap th e dlstan ce betw een H om er an d tw entleth cen tury exp en en ce as deplcted by n ovellsts, p oets, and lilm -m akers. T hls process of self-posltlonlng ln relatlon to H om er also h as lm p ortant p olltlcal: cultu ral: an d soclologlcal lm p llcatlon s, w h lch are th e focus of our last sectlon . C h ap ter 10 looks at th e recep tlon of H om er durln g th e G reek C lvllW ar of 1946-9 an d sh ow s h ow th at con fh ct preven ted stralghtforw ard asslm llatlon s of H om erlc p oetry.

Chapter 11 dlscusses the culturalpolltlcs of recognlzlng (or lnventlng) alluslons to H om er ln two late tw entleth -century Elm s:N aked an d O B rothez J'kr/lprérA rt T hou? Fln ally, C h apter 12 sh ow s h ow an an alysls of ln stltutlon al con texts can sh ed llgh t on th e recep tlon of H o m er.

Slm llarly to the last ch apter ln Part 111, the érst essay ln P art IV dlscusses th e problem s of n egotlatm g on p n s ln a m odern G reek context;h ow ever, m th ls case,th e lnvestlgatlon focu ses on an earller p erlod of con fh ct: 1946- 9. D avld R lcks sh ow s h ow p oets dlstan ced

them selves from H om er,or approach ed H om erfrom a dlstan ce,ln th e context of th e G reek C lvll W ar. :1 learned m y H om er ln A lbanlan clalm ed Z lsslm os L orenzatos,w h lle,ln th e late 1950s,A rlsA lexan drou w arn ed readers about th e dan gers of tran slatln g H om er ln to th e p resent d ay.T h e lssu e:h ere:ls w h eth er on e can escap e th e rep etltlon s of hlstory,an d of th e llteraty tradltlon .P oets slgn al th elr acts of rep etltlon an d at th e sam e tlm e express a yearnlng for dlfferen ce- tb at

thlngs w lll som ehow be dlfferent (as ln R ltzosns Repetktw ns, also dlscussed ln thls chapter), and that the dlstance travelled from H om er m ay actually m ean som ethln g. T h e n ext essay tackles th e problem of dlfferen ce from

perspectlve: that of lilm

an oth er

au dlen ces vlew lng O B rotherj J'krk rp A rt

Thouî(2000) by the C oen Brothers,and M lke Lelgh's N aketl(1993).

Introd uctkon

23

Slm on G oldh lllasks w h eth er H om eric allusion s m atter,and to w h om . C lasslclsts are lm pllcated ln con fh ctln g cultural p olltlcs ln term s of th e w ay m w h lch th ey grade alluslon s.To glve a sp eclE c exam ple:w h at m akes W alcottns *O -m cr-os'59 a classler p un th an L elghns Kl-lom oph o -

bicn (H om erphoblcl?6o The very dlsclpllne of Kclasslcs' has lts ow n com plex relatlon shlp w lth lssues of class: th e n am e of th e dlsclplln e d erlves ultlm ately from th e L atln adlectlve clflssfctfs w h lch orlglnally referred to som eon e from

th e h lgh est of th e live R om an classes.6l

G oldh lll exam ln es th e lm pllclt cultural p olltlcs of th ese E lm lc recep tlon s of th e O dyssey as w ell as th e p ow erful m ythlcal structures th at H o m erlc ep lc co ntln u es to assert over artlstlc rep resentatlo n s of m o d ern exp erlen ce. T he E nal ch apter: by Seth Sch elm offers an expllclt dlscusslon of a

qu estlon th at reverberates through out thls volum e:h ow lnstltutlon al contexts affect th e readlng of H om er.ln partlcular, Scheln focuses on th e p olltlcs of teachlng H om er ln KG reat B ooks' courses at N orth A m erlcan um versltles. A lthou gh th e oth er chapters ln thls volum e

dlscuss free (and loose), creatlve tw entleth-centuty receptlons, they fin d ln them slgnlf cant dlalogu es w lth H om erlc eplc th at reflect an d elucldate ten slon s ln th e p oem snvalue system s an d p oetlcs.C onversely an d p aradoxlcally, Sch elnns stu dy of th e acad em lc receptlon of H om er as lnstltutlon allzed ln KG reat B ooks' courses exp oses a fashlon for on e-dlm en slon al approaches h am p ered by an overt presentlst fram lng. H ls essay questlon s n arratlves of W estern ldentlty an d culturalprogress an d sh ow s how the H om erlc p oem s w ere som etlm es m ade to volce th ose n arratlves on N orth A m erlcan cam p uses. T aken togeth er,th e essays ln th e last sectlon lnvlte u s to lo cate th e h lstorlcal, cultural, an d ln stltutlon al con texts th at h ave sh ap ed our ow n receptlon of H om er.M any of th e contrlbutors ln thls collectlon are classlclsts an d all w ork as acad em lcs ln th e U n lted K ln gd om ,

Fran ce,or th e U n lted States;som e h ave exp erlen ced th e dlff cultles of n egotlatln g dlvergent cultural h erltages ln th elr ow n llves. T h ese

59 Q uoted by H aubold at p 45 For dlscusslons of thls etym ologlcal pun, see D ou gh erty 1997 336, and M elas 2005 158-61 60 See G oldh lll, p 249 C f also P orter 20044 324 on th e place of H om er ln th e cu ltu re w ars of an tlqu lty an d m o dern lty

61 See Sch eln 1999 288 for dlscusslon

24

B arbara G rfyzitm and F rrli/y G reenw ood

clrcum stan ces m form th e story of H om en c receptlon th at w e tell ln th ls b ook .

A t the beglnnlng of the tw enty-érst century,H om erns future looks ln creaslngly com plex an d cosm opolltan : the M artlnlcan n ove1lst P atrlck C h am olseau h as em b arked on a Fran cop h on e C reole verslon

of th e O Jysscy;62 w h lle th e C anadlan w rlter M argaret A tw ood h asJu st

publlshed a m edltatlon on the O dyssey volced by Penelope (2005). Tow ard s th e en d of A tw ood's n ovel, P en elop e reflects on th e w orld ln h ablted by th e reader from th e p ersp ectlve of h er p osltlon ln th e

undetw orld, m uslng on all the dlfferent form s that O dysseus takes w h en h e ls Kreb orn n ln to th e w orld ab ove.P en elop e ls sup p osedly th e

on e ch aracter w h o refuses to drlnk th e w aters of L eth e an d to forget ab out th e p ast.T h ls con celt fun ctlon s as a com m en tary on A tw oo d 's

ow n lm pllcatlon ln th e reblrth of H om er-o dysseu s: as the author b ehln d P en elop ens accoun t,A tw ood strateglcally Kforgetsnelem en ts of H om er ln order to spln h er ow n story.63 T h ere are good H om erlc precedents for th ls kln d of m an oeuvre:already ln th e O dyssey H elen an d M en elaus rem em ber to forget ln order to rew rlte the future.64 W e hope th at thls volum e w lll help read ers to navlgate th e llterary,

cultural,and polltlcallssues ralsed by rem em berlng (and forgettlng) H om er ln th e tw en tleth cen tury.

62 W e ow e th ls lnform atlon to L orn a M lln e,a C h am o lseau exp ert at th e U n lverslty o f St A nd rew s 6:5 Fo r a related co ncelt,see 'W alcotfs O m eros w here th e narrator, ln conversatlon

w lth O m eros,clalm s never to have read h1s Qbook'(W alcott 1990 I-vl111 (283) CCC1

never read 1t7' Il sald Qolçotallthe way through 77 Qo-l'he gods and the dem lgods aren'tm uch use to us''$QoForgetthe godsr''O m erosgrowled>Qoand read the rest''' 64 O dyssey 4 2 19- 89

P art 1

P lacin g H om er in th e Tw entieth C entu ry

This p ag e l'n ten tionally /c# .

blank

1 H om er after P arry ' .Tradition ,R ecep tion ,an d th e T im eless text Iohannes H aubold

T hls ch apter explores som e of th e w ays ln w hlch tw en tleth -century

classlcal scholars read and studled H om er. M y startlng polnt ls the w ork of M llm an P arry ln th e 1920s an d 1930s: h ls essays m ade a

lastlng contrlbutlon to H om erlc scholarshlp an d had a w lde lnflu en ce ln sh ap ln g tw en tleth -cen tury p ercep tlon s of H om en l M y m aln

con cern w lll be w lth P art'y an d h ls receptlon am on g classlclsts, but

the lssues he ralsed have lm pllcatlons w ell beyon d the n arrow con fin es of classlcs as a dlsclpllne. Part'y ch allenged fam lllar n otlon s of w h at con stltutes a text:h ow m eanlng enters lnto texts,and h ow texts relate to oth er texts across tlm e an d sp ace.Even th e m ost sup erE clal glan ce suggests th at w e cann ot dlvorce hlm an d hls su ccessors from w lder m ovem ents ln tw en tleth -century cultural an d llterary h lstory: for exam ple, th e tltle of T . S. E llot's essay f'Fradltlon an d th e In dlvl-

dual Talent' (1920) could easlly be used to sum m arlze the central concerns raised by Parryns w ork .2 H e en gaged ln a system atlc stu dy of oral eplc p oetry ln order to w ork out, am ong oth er th ln gs, h ow

lndlvldual perform an ces and perform ers related to th e w lder eplc tradltlon w lth ln w hlch th ey op erated .P arry's dlscusslon of H om erlc I am gratefttlto the E dltors,and to those w ho to ok p art ln the con ference on H om er ln the tw en tleth cen turp for thelr h elpful suggestlon s l T he lastln g ln flu ence o f Parry's w o rk ls even m ore rem arkab le lfw e conslder th at

he dled at the age of 33 H 1s essays w ere collected posthum ously and (w here necessary) translated from the French by h1s son Parry 1971 2 E llot 19754

28

Johannes H aubold

ep lc also p oln ts ah ead to th e p o stm o d ern ch allen ges of crltlcs llk e

M lchel Foucault an d Jacques D ern da sln ce,llke th em ,h e called lnto q u estlon som e fun d am en tal attrlb u tes of th e llteraty w ork : th e p os-

slblllty of an ln dlvldual style, th e con cept of auth orshlp, th e very ablllty of w ords to convey m ean ln g. Fln ally, by com p arlng H om erlc w lth Y ugoslav ep lc, P arry an tlclp ated p ostcolon lal m odels of ln tertextuallty as a com pllcated w eb th at sp an s dlverse cultures,m odes of

com m unlcatlon (e.g. the oral and the w rltten w ord), geographles, an d tem p oralltles.3 lf l focus on developm ents w lthln classlcs h ere, th ls ls n ot to d eny th e lm p ortan ce of th o se b ro ad er lssu es. O n th e

con trary, m y alm ls to prep are th e groun d for oth er p ap ers ln th e collectlon w hlch look at th e w lder con text of H om en c recep tlon ln th e tw en tleth century. M y essay focu ses on an asp ect of P arryns w ork w hlch h as n ot yet recelved w ld esp read atten tlon b u t w h lch ls of p artlcular ln terest for a

cultural hlstory of H om er ln th e tw en tleth century :h ls vlew of h ow texts relate to oth er texts; an d th e lm pllcatlon s thls vlew h as for readlng th e w ork of oth er sch olars an d of creatlve w rlters. l suggest th at P arryns n otlon s of th e tradltlon al text n ot on ly affect h ow w e vlew sp eclf c acts of receptlon , su ch as W alcottns com plex evocatlon of a C arlbbean H om er, but m ore gen erally sh ed llght on H om erlc recep tlon ln th e tw entleth century as a process of con stant an d often radlcal textu al an d cultu ral reallgn m en t. Tw entleth -cen tu ry H o m erlc sch olarsh lp h as b equ eath ed u s a curl-

ou s dlch otom y.O n th e on e h an d,H om erlc eplc ls vlew ed as th e lirst ln a lon g gen ealogy of great texts ln th e W estern llterary tradltlon , a gen ealogy w h lch ln clu d es, for ex am p le, V lrgll, D an te, an d M llton .

O n the other,Parr/sw ork on Yugoslav eplc hasopened thew ay to a w ld e ran ge of co m p aratlve stu d les of ep lc p oem s p erform ed arou n d th e w orld .4

C om p aratlve stu dles som etlm es focus on eplcs th at exlst ln w rltten

form (llke the H om erlc poem s them selves) but lnslst that thelr lan gu age ls sh ap ed by m any acts of com p o sltlon an d recom p o sltlon

3 C f th e In trod u ctlo n to th ls volu m e, p p 10- 14, an d H ardw lck ln C h 2

4 See Ford 1997 396 A n em ph asls on the W estern llterary can on can be p ercelved , for exam ple,ln G rlflin 1980 an d R ob ert Fow ler 2004,com p aratlve app roach es to eplc are evld en t ln Lo rd 1960 an d 1995, Foley 2002 an d 20059, M artln 1989 an d 2005

H om erafterParry

29

ln p erform an ce. ln ord er to avold th e m lsleadln g category of Koral ep lc' for p o em s th at are som etlm es w rltten d ow n , sch olars p refer to d escrlb e th em

as Ktrad ltlon alt Y et th at term to o can b e m lsleadln g.

Thls ls how John Foley (1999) attem pts to clarlfy lts use ln H om er's Trad ktkonalA rt:

Thls concept gsc 'tradltlon'l has suffered from m uch m lsunderstandlng ln th e p ast, so 1et m e b e as sp eclfic as posslble ab out 1ts lnten ded u sage ln thls b ook In allu dlng to 'tradltlon'I do n ot refer to th e kln d of ab stractlon th at

w e gllm pse ln term s llke 'llterary tradltlonl ln w hlch m uch of the netw ork of contln ulty ls con stru cted by crltlcs organ lzlng ln dlvldu al texts from an

ou tslder's p ersp ectlve, often w lth th e h elp

of hlstorlcal con text,

docu m en tary evlden ce of ln flu en ce or ln tertextu allts an d th e llke N or do I p olnt tow ard a m on ollthlc m ass, a b aslcally ln ert lnh erltan ce th at on e gen eratlon tran sm lts to th e n ext m th ou t m u ch , lf ans m odlficatlon , thls n otlon of tradltlon as a keep sake or an tlqu e h as b een m u ch crltlclzed, an d w lth Ju stlficatlon N elth er ab stractlon n or m 011011th , th e p oetlc tradltlon u n der exam ln atlon ln thls volum e ls first an d forem ost a language- a sp eclallzed an d hlghly ldlom atlc langu age to b e sure,w lth a focu sed purp ose an d a p artlcu lar content an d con text,b ut n on eth eless a langu age A s su ch , a tradltlon ls alw ays evolvlng w lthln certaln ru les or bou n darles, alw ays provln g a som ew h at dlfferent 'thln g' from on e p erform an ce to an oth er an d from on e p ractltlon er to an oth er 5

T h o se w h o see H om er as b elon gln g to th e classlcal tradltlon an d th o se w h o con sld er h ls p o etry tradltlon al ln Foley's sen se d o n ot alw ays talk to on e an oth er.ln d eed ,so dlfferen t are th elr con cern s th at th ey som etlm es ap p ear to u se th e sam e term s w h lle sp eakln g tw o w h olly dlfferen t lan gu ages: w h lle read ers of H om er as tradltlon al p oetry talk ab o ut form ulalc p attern s, orallty, an d recom p osltlon ln -p erform an ce, th o se w h o stu dy H om er w lth ln th e con text of th e E u rop ean llterary tradltlon are m ore ln terested ln lm ltatlon , ap p ro p rlatlon , an d th e p olltlcs of can on form atlon . ln term s of ln stltu tlon al aë llatlon , too, th e tw o

ap p ro ach es p oln t ln

dlfferen t

dlrectlons.'W hereas the student of H om e/s Ktradltlonal art' (Foley's phrase) gravltates tow ards com paratlve llngulstlcs,6 the study of folklore; an d even cogn ltlve sclen ce,8 th o se ln terested ln H om e/ s

5 Foley 1999 p x11 6 N ap r 1974, 1979, 1990, B akker 1997 7 M ltchell an d N agy 2000 pp xtx-u l 8 B akker 1997, M ln ch ln 200 1

(

30

Johannes H aubold

p lace ln th e W estern llteraty can on ap p ear m ore ln terested ln llterary th eory,g tran slatlon ,lo an d recep tlon stu dles.ll T h ere are obvlo u s p oln ts of con tact b etw een th e tw o cam p s, b ut th e rlft ls real:w ltn ess

th e tw o com p etln g C om p ankons to H om er th at h ave app eared over th e p ast ten years. O n e of th em , th e N pw C om p ankon to H om er p ubllsh ed by B rlll, looks at H om erlc eplc as w h at Foley w ould call tradltlon al p oetry,w hlle T he C am bn dge C om p ankon to H om er expllcltly allgn s ltself w lth th e stu dy of llteratu re an d 1ts recep tlon .tz T h ere are m any factors th at con trlb ute to th e curren t sltu atlon , ln clu dln g gen erlc on es su ch as th e ln creasln g sp eclallzatlon of research ln th e

H um anltles. B ut sh lfts ln th e n ature of academ lc research cann ot b e h eld resp on slble for all asp ects of thls dlsagreem ent over th e kln d of

com pany H om er keeps (A pollonlus,V lrgll, or the Yugoslav bards) an d h en ce w h at kln d of C om p anw n hls p oetry deserves. H ere l w ould llke to slngle out on e p oln t th at seem s to m e of p artlcular ln terest ln th e con text of th e presen t collectlon :th e uses of th e term s Ktradltlon n an d Krecep tlon n. B roadly sp eakln p lt seem s th at tw o sh lfts are cu rren tly u n d er w ay. A n arrow fo cu s on oral ep lc ls ln creasln gly b eln g rep laced by an ln terest ln trad ltlon al p oetry

m ore broadly defin ed .l3 M eanw hlle,m on ollthlc vlew s of th e classlcal tradltlon as em b o dled by th e great auth ors of th e W estern llterary

can on are belng replaced by an ln terest ln th e receptlon of classlcal llterature w ell beyon d th e conf n es of llterature or th e W est.14 W h at rem aln s to b e w orked o u t ls th e relatlon sh lp b etw een th ese em ergln g

dlscourses of tradltlon an d receptlon . A t lirst slght, th ere ls llttle evld en ce of ln teractlon or com m un lcatlon : on ce agaln , th e tw o

recen t C om p ankons to H om er lllustrate th e p oln t. T h e C am bn dge

Com pankon to H om er devotes one substantlal sectlon (com prlslng 9 P u ccl 1987: Lyn n G eorge 1988: P erad otto 1990: G old h lll 199 1

10 M ason 1972, Stelner an d D ykm an 1996 and 2004, H ardw lck 2000 11 H ardw lck 2003, R ob ert Fow ler 2004 12 M o rrls an d P ow ell 1997 an d R ob ert Fow ler 2004 See th e ln tro d u ctlon ,p 5 w lth n

l3

13 Foley 1999 1) xtl,quoted at p 29 For allthat M llm an Parry started from an ln terest ln H om er's tradltlon al style b efore m ovlng on to the com paratlve study of o ral ep lc,h 1s lm m ed late su ccessors w ere partlcu larly con cern ed w lth o rallty C u rren t H om erlc scholarshlp adop ts m ore flextble n otlon s of tradltlon w hlch straddle th e dlvlde b etw een oral an d w rltten texts,see Fo ley 1999, Scodel 2002 14 C f In trod u ctlon , p p l- 2

H om erafterParry

31

elghtchapters) to t'l-he Receptlons ofH om ertisBy contrast,TheN pw C om pankon to H om er publlshed by B rlll an d edlted by 1.M orrls and B . Pow ell, offers n o few er th an five ch ap ters on asp ects of H om er's

tradltlonallanguage,as w ellas John Foley's m ore w lde-ranglng essay entltled Ko ral Tradltlon an d 1ts Im pllcatlon stl6 A t a very gen eral level, tradltlon an d receptlon both have to do w lth h ow w e con cep tuallze th e relatlon sh lp betw een texts over tlm e, th ough of course the tw o term s m ean dlfferent thln gs: w h ereas

Ktradltlonn em phaslzes w hat ls handed dow n (Latln tradere),reception starts from w hat ls recelved (Latln rctupcrc).A s l have already p oln ted out, tradltlon and receptlon also have dlfferent tralectorles ln th e h lstory ln acad em lc sch olarsh lp . A lth ou gh receptlon studles dlstan ce them selves from n arrow definltlon s of llterature, thelr em ph asls ls stlll on creatlve resp on ses to can on lcal w ork s of llterature.i; C onversely, w hlle an lnterest ln the tradltlon al language of eplc ls obvlously relevant to the stu dy of llterature,th e concept of tradltlon n ow seem s to be of partlcular lnterest to students of hum an culture an d soclety.l8 W lthln th e field of classlcs, tradltlon an d tradltlonally are m ost lnslstently dlscussed by H om erlsts. W h at seem s to be at stake ln the dlfferent dlscourses of tradltlon an d receptlon ls not m erely th e relatlon sh lp betw een texts: but also th e n ature an d status w e attrlbute to th ose texts. Tw en tleth -cen tury

H om erlc sch olarshlp , l argu e,developed 1ts ow n dlscourses of tradltlon an d recep tlon p reclsely ln th e con text of sh lftln p an d often confllctlnp p erceptlon s of H om erlc eplc as a text.T h e seeds of th ls d evelopm ent w ere already sow n In th e w ork of M llm an P arry, an d

l th erefore b egln by conslderlng h ow and w hy h e developed hls ldea of a trad ltlon al text agaln st a very dlfferen t m od el of creatlve recep -

tlon . l th en con slder som e of th e w ays ln w hlch P arry's approach d evelop ed ln th e course of th e cen tuty an d w hy lt proved to be 170th ln flu en tlal an d con tested .

1, R o bert Fow ler 20t)4 p art 5

16 SeeH orrockson Ql-lom er'sD lalect'(193-217),Russo on Q'rhellorm ula'(238-60), Edw ards on 'H om erlc Style and ''O ralPoetlcs''7 (261-83),Bakker on C'I'he Study of H om ertc D tscourse'(284-304),Kahane on Qo uantlfp ng Eplc'(326.-42) 17 e g M achor and G old steln 200 1,H ard w lck 2003 id See e g H obsbaw m and R anger 1983,and the host of publlcatlons on lnven tcd tradltlo ns that have appeared slnce

32

Johannes H aubold

M y story, th en , starts w lth M llm an P arty an d hls dlstln ctlon b etw een tradltlon al an d u n tradltlon al typ es of p o etry. P arryns w orks are easlly accesslble, so 1 can be br1ef.19 Tradltlon al po etry, for P arry, w as d ef n ed by certaln ln n ate p rop ertles w h lch can n ot b e red u ced to ln d lvld u al ch olce, or to h lstorlcal or cultu ral clrcum stan ce. So:

H om erlc p oetty ls tradltlon al n ot becau se lt exp resses th e genlu s of

a partlcular people or because lt w as h eld ln great and en durlng esteem through tlm e; rath er, lt ls tradltlon al becau se lt em p loys a

tradltlonalstyle.Form ulalc phrases such as bkob-'O jtptzov/ç (Kbrllllant O dysseus') or ' rroA/zzttç t ' iioq no bvaowLb- (tm uch-sufferlng brllllant O dysseusn) sen re as bulldlng blocks w hlch enable the bard to tell hls story com p eten tly but w lth out p erform lng an act of llterary creatlon . P arry fam ou sly con trasted h ls ln terp retatlon of H om er's tradltlon al style w lth w h at h e saw

as th e un tradltlon al style of

A pollonlus an d V lrgll. A t a supel clal level, those poets can seem rather slm llar to H om er yet, un llke H om er: they use language ln con sclou s an d creatlve resp on se to earller m odels, above all H om er h lm self. P arry rep eatedly rem arked on th e orlgln allty of A p ollon lu s ln p artlcu lar. A p ollon lu s, for h lm , created See M yrlck 1993 for general background and for detalled study of Togatl T' rm , the m ed ëeval Irlsh verslon of D ares,D e exa dto Trotae hv torta 4 Text ln M eyer 1958, tran slatlon ln M eyer l886 C f M yrlck 1993 78-9 w lth fu rth er b lbllography

76

R w hard M artkn

For students of the tw entleth centu ty the stoty of H om er am ong th e lrlsh lnvarlably has centred on a slngle book, publlshed on the auth o/ s fortleth blrth day ln 1922,sp ortln g a cover b edecked w lth th e

blue an d w hlte of the G reek flag.Yet Joyce's U lysses ls only part of the story; an oth er lrlsh n arratlve can b e told aroun d th e m argln of th at rem arkable p allm p sest,b u t on ly p artlally as a glo ss on lt.A n arratlve

ln lts ow n rlgh t,lt offers a com p etln g vlew of h ow H om er ln th e early tw entleth century w as recelved , represented , and rem ad e, com ple-

m entlng th e m ore fam ous Km ythlcal m ethodn of Joyce, Seferls, and oth er H lgh M oderm st resh ap ers of th e H om erlc h erltage.s T h e cen tral ch aracters are a p erlp atetlc lrlsh w rlter an d a qu arter-lrlsh

Engllsh don . T h e lirst m an Joyce hlm self knew an d ln U lysses fo un d occaslon to p arod y h ls style. T h e oth er w on a sch olarsh lp to

K ln g's C ollege, C am brldge, ln th e year th at U lysses w as p ubllsh ed : w antlng to stu dy lrlsh th ere, h e h ad to settle for hls secon d ch olce,

C lasslcs.T here are plenty of slgnlé can t contrasts betw een th ese tw o

m en- the dram atlst John M llllngton Synge an d the scholar G eorge D erw ent T hom son . T he curlous resem blan ce th at brlngs th em to gether ls the w ay ln w hlch thelr con sclousn ess of H om er and the h erolc tradltlon w as declslvely sh ap ed by th elr exten ded vlslts to

sm all lslan ds off the w est coast of lreland. T he resp on ses of these tw o E gu res h ave a m ore th an local slgn lf can ce,for th ey en cap su late,

resp ectlvely,tw o m odes of h an dlln g th e H om erlc m odel,m odes th at ap p eared through out th e tw entleth cen tury an d are stlllw lth u s m ore gen erally tod ay.W e m lgh t call th em Klm p orf an d Kexp ort'.

M y tltle m entlons Yeats, w ho of course deserves (and has got) w hole books devoted to hls C lasslcal reson ances.6 B ut 1 shall do th at great m an th e dlsservlce of usln g hlm h ere only as an em blem an d an ecd ote. A s an em blem , let hlm

stan d for th e lirst m od e

Ju st m entlon ed, th e lm p ort. T h lnk of such verses ln T he G reen

H elm et and O ther Poem s (1910) as A W om an H om er Sung'or fN o Second Troylthe latter celebratlng a beauty Knotn aturalln an age llke

thls Ibelng hlgh and solltary and m ost sternt Os from the sam e 5 T he m ethod w as first ldentlfied by Ellot ln an essay on Joyce ln 1923,reprlnted ln E llot 19754 175-8 For an extended analysls of the m ethod ln the w ork of Seferls, see K eeley 1983 68- 84 6 See e g A rk tn s 1990

H om er am ong the frs /l

77

collectlon, Kpeacel w lth 1ts openlng lam ent A h, that Tlm e could

touch a form lthat could show what H om e/s age tbred to be a h erons w aget? W h at H om er rep resen ts for Y eats ls a lo st ep o ch , a

greater age w hen herolc m en and w om en (and,by lm pllcatlon,thelr devoted cllent bards) held sw ay.There are strong undercurrents of n ostalgla for th e arlstocratlc p ast of hls ow n A n glo -lrlsh ascen d ancy class.B u t p rlm arlly th ls v lslo n sees ln th e p resent-d ay lro n A ge rellcs

of a m ore dlstant G old.Joyce,w ho had no such class fantasles,w ould

turn thls to an advantage and lronlze (so to speak) hls sltuatloneven suggestlng th at th e H om erlc h ero w as at h eart b aslcally a B loom , an d th e age of O dysseu s m ade of baser m etal th an w e w ould llke to lm agln e.8 For Y eats, h ow ever, th e G olden A ge stlll ten uously exlsted, llke th ose gh osts h e w as alw ays trylng to ralse at h ls sean ces. lt served to en oble th ose few contem p orarles an d represen tatlve typ es w h om h e con sld ered w orthy. T h e KW om an H om er Sun g' becam e lm m ortal becau se Yeats, th e latter-day bard, san g h er as w ell.H elen ,M au d G onn e,A ch llles,R ob ert G regory- th e featu res are h ard to dlstln gulsh ln th e C eltlc twullt h aze.R om an tlc bardolatry, O sslanlc dream s, n oble savagery, an d p easan t w lsd om - th e w h ole syn drom e,elegan tly com pressed ,em erges ln th e m ln d of early Yeats.g

T he poet km p orts- ïje takes H om er to lreland an d bestow s hlm llke a blessln g on th e select fem h ls frlen d s an d h eroes. N ow , w h eth er Yeats taugh t Syn ge thls m ode, or th e oth er w ay rou n d :ls stlll an op en questlon . It h as been argu ed, by B ush rul, th at lt w as Synge w h o brought Yeats to greater aw aren ess of th e folk as th e ldeal audlen ce of th e slm ple an d un corrupted .lo A n d D eborah

7 C lted from Yeats 1983 89-92 Yeats seem s aw are th at h1s rom an tlc H om erlzln g ls old fashloned ln th e early tw en tleth centu ry C f h1s w ry rem ark ln the 1905 preface

to Synge's The J. ' k' c//of theSatnts,reprlnted m Yeats 1924 375 C1fH om erw ere allveto d ay,he w ou ld only reslst,after a d ellberate struggle,th e tem p tatlon to fin d h 1s subyect n ot ln H elen's beau ty,that every m an has d eslred ,no r ln the w lsd om and end ttrance o f O dysseu s,that h as been th e deslre of every w om an that h as com e ln to th e w orld ,

but ln w hat som ebody w ould descrlbe, perhaps, a. s Qothe lnevltable contest'l arlslng o ut o f econ om lc causes, betw een the coun try places an d sm all tow ns on the one h an d, an d, up on th e other, th e great clty of Troy,representlng on e k n ow s not w h at Qoten den cy to cen trallzatlon '''

8 See M lnta,C h 4 on Joyce's provocatlve adm lratlon for O dyssetfs flaw s 9 A p rob m g analysls of th e m txtu re of m flu en ces is B oyd 19 87,see also Flem m g 199 5 55- 75

10 B u shru l 1972

78

R w hard M artkn

Flem ln g th ln ks th at Syn ge hlm self b ecam e for Yeats an lm age of th at very ldeal- tA m an w h o does n ot exlst, a m an w h o ls but a dream lll

A ccordlng to Yeats, how ever, w lthout h1s ow n lnfluen ce lohn M lll1n gton Syn ge w ould n ever h ave fou n d h ls tru e sublect.A s Yeats later

recalled,he had m et Synge ln a student hostelln the Latln Q uarter of P arls ln D ecem b er of 1896.Syn ge w as 25,Y eats slx years old er.tl sald KKG lve u p P arls,you w lll n ever create anyth ln g by readln g R acln e, an d

A rth ur Sym on s w ll1 alw ays be a better crltlc of Fren ch llterature. G o to th e A ran lslan ds. L lve th ere as lf you w ere on e of th e p eople them selves, express a llfe that h as never found expresslon .'n712 W e are m eant to lm agln e a d lrect tralectoty from th e m asterns

com m and to the creatlon of The J'UPP of the Saknts, Playboy of the J'kr ésrérrrl J'O /-JJ, and R kders to the Sea. Yet w e m lght w on der w h eth er Yeatsns brllllan t talen t for self-fash lonlng h as n ot obscured som e of the w lndlngs of th e story h ere. T h lngs are m ore com pllcated, an d H om er, lt can b e argued ,has an lm portant role. It h as been ln suë clently appreclated because lt w as n ever op enly declared , and that: l suggest,w as by deslgn .Synge, one m u st rem em b er,w as th e op p o slte of Y eats w h en lt cam e to d ram at-

lzlng th e self.l: P erh ap s h e later foun d lt conven len t to go along w lth Y eatsns m yth ologlzln g. A t any rate, th ere are lnd lcatlons th at Synge

w as prepared before m eetlng Yeats to plunge Into the llfe of slm pler folk,and yet dld n ot do so untll a year and a h alf after th e alleged llfech an gln g d lrectlve.ln 1896, Syn ge's m oth er rem arked ln a letter th at

Johnnle w ent to Parls Kto study soclallsm n- n ot qulte the effete aesthete that Yeats conlures up .14 A lso, som e m onth s before h e m et Yeats, Synge h ad becom e acq ualn ted ln P arls w lth an oth er Irlshm an w h o w ould b e h ls llfelon g frlen d .Steph en M aclçen n a,a year youn ger th an Synge, w as an arden t n atlon allst.ls A s w lth Synge, hls m alor w ork lay a decade or so ah ead of hlm :th e great E n gllsh tran slatlon of

the E nneads of Plotlnus, a translatlon that w ould ln turn feed the om nlvorous Yeats ln h ls n eo -14 aton lst ph ase. M ore lm m edlately

11 Flem ln g 1995 8, exten d ln g an Ob servatlon by D eclan K lb erd 12 Y eats 1924 370

13 Qsynge w as a great m ystery solltary,detached:over educatedyw atchfttl; ln the w ord s of Tolb ln 2002 59 14 Saddlem yer 1983 7 15 yo r b rlef b lo graphs see lb ld 57 n l

H om er am ong the frs /y

79

relevan t, M acK en n a ln 1897 b ecam e a m od el for h ow on e p uts ln to actlon a sch olarly love.H ls p asslon for all th ln gs G reek led h lm th at

year to Joln an lntern atlon al brlgad e E ghtln g for H ellenlc dem ocracy agaln st th e Turks. ln th e survlvln g letters betw een th e p alr, n elth er Syn ge n or M acK en n a elab orates on th e m otlves for th ls rath er B yron esqu e m ove. Yet h ls clo sest frlen d ns en ergetlc ex am p le can h ardly h ave b een lo st on th e w rlter w h o stayed b eh ln d ln P arls.

T h e secon d slgnlh can t event, ln m y reckonln p w as academ lc: Syn ge on 18 Febru ary 1898, en rolled ln a cou rse at th e Sorb on n e

taught by the lnfluentlal C eltlclst H enrl D 'A rbols de Jubalnvllle

(1827-1910).16 The course, w hlch w as w rltten up for publlcatlon th e n ext year, w as entltled K'l'h e clvlllzatlon of lrelan d com p ared w lth th at of H om er'. T h e p ubllsh ed verslon sh ow s a typlcally th orough an d sym p ath etlc m ln d w orklng through th e evlden ce of ln do E u rop ean p arallels,m aterlalcultu re,an d verb alart.17 Syn ge's n otes for th e co urse survlve ln th e archlves of h ls alm a m ater, Trln lty C ollege, D u blln .T h e m an u scrlp t sh elf 11st ln dlcates th at h e later u sed th e sam e

notebook to record hls lm presslons of Gllbert M urrayns H kstory of G reek f-ifpm ft/ra l8 T h ls sld e of Syng e- th e C lasslclst- h as u su ally

b een suppressed by th e n atlvlst con cern to w rap up lrlsh auth ors ln

the green flag (rather than G reek w hlte-and-blue).Butseveralsources attest to h ls ablllty at G reek ;lt w as ln th e fam lly, h ls m atern al gran d -

father h avlng been a tran slator of Josephus.lg A n d Flon a M aclntosh h as draw n attentlon to Syn gens college G reek stu dles,as w ell as to th e m any p arallels betw een hls dram as an d G reek tragedy.zo

16 Ibld p x.xl K lb erd 1979 32-7 traces Syn ge's ln terest ln Com paratlve m yth o logy an d lln gu lstlcs to thls cou rse an d read ln g o f the sch olar's w orks Syn ge later

revlew ed translatlons of h1s Irtsh M ythologtcal Cycle (Speaker, 2 A prll 1904) and

Cuchulltn of M utrthem ne (Speaker,7 June 1902) Skelton 1971 48 17 A rbols de Jubalnvllle l899

18 M S 4378,Trlnlty College D ublln,contalns the notes see Synye 1971 40-1 19 G reen e an d Steph ens 1989 4 R obert Tralll,th e fath er of Syn ge's m oth er,dled ln 1847 of fam ln e fever S Syn ge 193 1 l38 n otes that the future playw rlght k new G reek w ellan d n ever falled an exam ln lt T h e Trln lty C ollege en tran ce exam b o oks show h e d 1d w ellln the G reek vw flfor h1s m ld su m m er m atrlcu latlon ln l888 see Syn ge 1959 35

20 See M aclntosh 1995 3 n 12 for the evldence ln Synge's notebooks (esp h1s references to readlng H om er ln 1892-3) and passtm for parallels betw een Synge's d ram as an d G reek tragedles For Syn ge's P layboy as an lnverted verslo n of O edtp us the K tng see fttrther C on ach er 1969

80

R w hard M artkn ln sh ort, Syn ge,w lth a u n lverslty kn ow led ge of H om er an d of th e

lrlsh lan gu age,w ou ld h ave b een w ell p rlm ed to ap p reclate A rb ols d e

Jubalnvlllens teachlng.zl Itls perhaps not accldentalthat ltw as exactly w h en h ls H om er class en d ed , ln sp rln g 1898, th at Syn ge to ok th e m om en to u s step of vlsltln g th e A ran lslan d s off th e coast of G alw ay for th e first tlm e.O ver th e co urse of th e n ext fou r years,h e w ou ld go on to sp en d a total of fo u r an d a h alf m on th s th ere,m o stly on th e less d evelop ed m ld dle lslan d , ln lsh m aan .H e sum m ed u p th e exp erlen ce

ln hls prose w ork T he A ran Islands, to w hlch l turn now . O ne footn ote before that, though : A rbols D e Jubalnvllle, w lth w hom Syn ge w ould go on to study O ld lrlsh ln 1902, w ould h ave been

acqualnted w lth (and probably taught)A ntolne M elllet (1866-1936), w h o recelved h ls d octorate from n lce accld en tal sym m etty

th e Sorb on n e ln

1897. ln a

M elllet, w h o w ould b ecom e th e leadln g

ln d o -E u rop ean lst of h ls gen eratlon , som e tw en ty years later advlsed a yo un g A m erlcan ,w h om h e m et ln P arls, to lm m erse h lm self ln th e son g tradltlon s of Y ugo slavla, as a test for h ls n ew ly m ln ted th esls ab ou t th e trad ltlon aln atu re of H om erlc p oetry.22 It w o uld b e fan clfu l to lm agln e th at M elllet h ad Synge ln m ln d w h en h e coun selled th e yo un g M llm an P arry. B u t l am

sure b oth A n glo -lrlsh m an

an d W elsh -A m erlcan w ou ld b e d ellgh ted lf th ey co u ld h ave seen a later gen eratlon of lrlsh sch olars, ln clu dln g K evln O 'N olan an d G eorge H uxley, ap p ly th e results of P arryns E eldw ork to lrlsh h erolc n arratlv e s.z3

Syn gens b o ok on th e A ran lslan d s,vlew ed ln on e w ay,ls an ln ten slve exerclse ln N ln eteen th -cen tury n ovellstlc reallsm .A n oth er m lgh t see lt as p ostm o d ern eth n ograp hy, w lth th e su blect exp llcltly em b ed d ed ln th e ob servatlon s.Syn ge h lm self sen d s slgn als b oth th ese w ays- h e obvlo u sly h as th e n otlon of collectln g folk tales w h en h e arrlves, an d m ak es o ccaslon al dlgresslon s ab o ut ln d o -E u rop ean tale-typ es.zzl Y et th e b o oks h e bro u gh t w lth h lm

w ere by th e lo cal c0101. 11-1st

P lerre L ôtl, Flaub ert, a llfe of M aup assan t, an d D an te G abrlel

21 In 1892,alongslde H om er,he read the Chtldren offs/rand D tarm utd and Granta ln lrlsh G reen e an d Step h en s 1989 30 22 Fo r M elllet's ln flu en ce on P arry, see L am b erterle 1997 23 O 'N olan 1968 an d 1969, H u xley 1969 19 1- 6 24 G reen e an d Step h en s 1989 84, 9 1- 3

H om er am ong the frs /l

81

R ossettl.25 M y suggestlon ls for a thlrd vlem a m otlve ofw hlch Synge w as p erh ap s on ly h alf-con sclous:hls A ran book ls a p ralse-p oem ln p rose,h erolzlng th e m en an d w om en ofA ran ,through an lm pllclt but con stan t com p arlson w lth th e w orld of H om erlc ep lc. Syn ge's su r-

n am e supp osedly com m em orated a slxteen th -centuty an cesto/ s vocal ablllty; through hls m ln or ep lc of A ran , Syn ge grow s ln to th e role an d b ecom es th e oral b ard , a sln ger.

A close readln g of each H om er-tlnged eplsode ln th e book w ould take som e tlm e.L et m e p oln t to th e m ore slgn lf can t.Flrst,th ere ls th e

m eetlng w lth th e old m an w h o w ould be hls lrlsh teach er for aw hlle on lnlshm ore- a blln d m an , full of storles, w h o h ad on ce kn ow n th e fath er of O scar W llde. KA s w e talked,n w rltes Syn ge, Kh e sat h uddled togeth er over th e fire,sh aklng an d blln d ,yeth ls face w as lnd escrlb ably p llan t, llghtln g up w lth an ecstasy of h um our w h en h e told m e anythlng th at h ad a p olnt of w lt or m allce, an d grow ln g som bre an d d esolate agaln w h en h e sp oke of rellglon or th e falrles.726 T h e falrles,lt tu rn ed o ut, h ad stolen on e of th e m an ns ch lldren years ago . Syn gens

en counter w lth h ls blln d gulde ls hls en tryw ay lnto an archalc w orld . A few days later,h e says,Kas th e old m an talked contln u ally ofth e falrles an d th e w om en th ey h ave taken , lt seem ed th at th ere w as a p osslble lln k b etw een th e w lld m yth ology th at ls accepted on th e lslan d an d th e stran ge b eau ty of th e w om en .727 Syn ge w as alw ays su scep tlb le to th e

fem lnln e; h e seem s h ere ready to belleve ln h alf-dlvln e fem ales, lrlsh nym ph s, an d by exten slon ,nym ph olep sy.H e seem s, also, at th e very start of hls vlslts to h ave looked on th e face of a local H om er. W h en h e m oved on to th e sm aller ln lshm aan , ln search of m ore p n m ltlve atm o sp h ere, Syn ge fo u n d h lm self ln a w orld w h ere even

tlm e w as dlfferen t.A galn ,h e does n ot m en tlon H om er,b ut th e detall h e n otlces are preclsely of th e sort th at w ould occur to on e w h o h ad

read of the Koxen-looslng hourl or slm llar H om erlc expresslons.O n lnlshm aan , th e w ln d con trolled th e reckon lng of tlm e, cau slng p eople to op en south -facln g d oors, at certaln p erlod s, w h lch th en m ad e th elr d oor-p o st ln to sun dlals.28 I w on d er,also,w h eth er Syn ge&s

25 Ib ld

89 an d skelto n 197 1 25

26 syn ge 1992 6 27 Ib ld 10 28 Ib ld 22

82

R w hard M artkn

ln ten se ob servatlon of th e fun eral lam en ts of A ran w om en , th e

caokneadh, w ould h ave been so d etalled h ad h e n ot been prep ared

by slm llar scenes m H om er (e.g.Ihad 24.719-75).KEach old w om am as sh e to ok h er turn ln th e leadln g recltatlve, seem ed p o ssessed for th e m om en t w lth a p rofo un d ecstasy of grlef,sw ayln g to an d fro,an d

b en dln g h er foreh ead to th e ston e before h es w hlle sh e called out to th e dead w lth a p erp etually recurrln g ch an t of sobs,nh e w rltes.T hls keen lng h e ln terprets as a breakthrough of th e lslan dersn lnn er con sclou sn ess: K'l-h ey are u su ally sllent, b ut ln th e presen ce of death all outw ard sh ow of ln dlfferen ce or p atlen ce ls forgotten , an d th ey sh rlek w lth p ltlable desp alr before th e h orror of th e fate to w h lch th ey are all doom ed .729 T h e attltud e ls lm pllcltly vlew ed as preC hrlstlan , even h erolc. A slm llar com bln atlon of sllen ce follow ed by a p asslon ate o u tbu rst o ccu rs w h en som e d ays later a ten an t ls evlcted ,w lth th e collu slon of a traltoro u s yo un g m an w h o h ad tu rn ed

p ollce ln form er. A fter lt w as over, th e m anns m oth es stan dln g on a rock n ear th e b o at sllp , sh ook h er fist an d b egan w h at Syn ge calls Ka

é erce rh ap sody ln G aellct Sh e Kgave an account of hls llfe, coloured w lth a vln dlctlve fury l can n ot rep ro d u ce. A s sh e w en t on th e excltem en t b ecam e so ln ten se l th ou gh t th e m an w ou ld b e ston ed b efore h e co uld get b ack to h ls cottage.n3o It ls n ot h ard to see h ow

th ese Km agnlf cen t w ords an d gesturesn w ould be tran sferred w h ole ln to Synge's dram as; less obvlous, p erh ap s, ls th e m y thlc tem p late,

fatally curslng m others llke that of M eleager ln the Ihad (9.566-71). O n ce agaln , lt ls n ever stated ; It Is a m atter of focallzatlon , of w hy som e scen es en ter Syn gens cam era w h lle oth ers fall to ap p ear. T h e cam era ls m ore th an a m etap h os by th e w ay, for th ls style: Syn ge m ad e th e lirst p h otograp h s ever on th e lslan d s,as w ell as ln tro d u cln g

to th e A ran p eople, so lt seem s, th at arkhë kakön, th e first alarm clo ck . T h ere are oth er vlgn ettes th at on e w h o h as read th e Ihad an d O dyssey w lll p au se over: th e m an ln ln lsh eer, th e u gllest Syn ge h ad

seen, w ho turns out to be the w lttlest at repartee (a Thersltes?);

29 G reene and Steph en s 1989 3 l, on co m m o n trop es and behefs m lrtsh and G reek lam en t, an clent an d m odern , see M artln 2003 O n th e lam en t tradltlon an d Syn ge's later u se of h 1s A ran exp erlen ce of lt ln h 1s d ram as, see B o u rke 2000 30 Syn ge 1992 46-7

H om er am ong the frs /l

83

prophetlc dream s and apparltlons before death (the dream of A gam em non; the death of Patroclus, om ens ln the O dysseyî); the suprem e catastrophenof any outrage to the fam lly hearth (the xenka them e, O dysseus ln Phaeacla?). Synge notes the contlnual danger K

from w ln d an d w ave th at m akes lt Klm p osslble for clum sy fo olh ardy or tlm ld m enn to llve on A ran an d agaln n otlces th at each m an of ,

A ran ls a skllled E sh erm an , can m an age a curragh, can farm , burn kelp, m ake sh oes, cradles, coflin s, an d b ulld an d th atch a h ou se- a d evelopm en t,h e says,th at glves th e p eople m uch of th elr ln telllgen ce

and charm .3l W ere w e to translate thls lntelllgence lnto G reek m Ltks w ould surely be th e w ord for lt,an d O dysseus lts em blem - h e seem s n ever far from Syn gens m ln d .32

T he rlsk, of course, ls that w e assum e too m uch w as on hls m ln d

.

A n d som eon e m lght oblect th at Syn ge's fallure to m entlon H om er m ean s h e w as notreally u sln g ep lc as a fram e at all H e d o es m en tlon .

H om er several tlm es ln h ls varlous essays an d revlew s, so th ere ls

evldence he took A rbols de JubalnvllleRs parallels to heart B ut th e .

sllen ce ls ltself slgn lf can t as a w ay of h an dlln g th e H om erlc Klm p orf .

For to m ake expllclt any an alogles w ould dam age Syn ge's p rolect ln several w ays. Flrst, h e clearly requlres th at th e tradltlon s h e cltes be

anonym ous, the volce of the folk com lng stralght from the soll. T h us, even w h en h e sp en ds tlm e w rltln g dow n a dozen p ages of on e old m anns songs, Synge falls to glve us a fact h e surely m ust h ave ellclted ,th e m an ns n am e To n am e H om er w ould b e n ot on ly to .

sound too hlgh-class (and hls self-presentatlon ls never that of the scholar). Besldes, lt w ould also m ake G reek poetry less of a folk art, less an onym o us. In addltlon , w e m ust take ln to account th e ten se envlronm en t ln w hlch Synge w as w rltlng: on th e on e h an d ,

th ere h ad already b een rldlculo u s exaggeratlon s m ad e ab o ut th e

slm llarlty of G reek to G aelby p eople llke th e am ateur 1lngulst A tkln s

w ho clalm ed G reek and Latln w ere but dlalects of C eltlc,an d Stan d -

1sh O nGrady,w ho ln 1881 ln h1s H lstory of Ireland asserted: ' k ttwx

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Kcom plexn> Klnterw ovenn> Klntrlcaten1 he w as evoktng ln part lts n arratlve techn lque of flashback and lnset story, ln part lts love of dlsgulse, m anlpulatlon , an d trlckery, ln part the textns van atlon s of

tone and dlrectlon (Poetws xxuv 1459b). It ls not by chance that L elghns N aked,llke poycens U lysses,for a11th e bleakn ess an d aggresslon of1ts vlslon ,ls also very funny.T h e O dyssey ls p artlcularly b ew ltch lng told -tlm e m uslc' for th e confh ctlng and confllcted volces of th e m odern lst artw ork . By allow m g us to see thls fragm ented , dlffuse, and m ultlple w ork of alluslon w lthln the p oetlcs an d polltlcs of eplc reson an ce, N aked and O B rother W /lprp A rt T /yt?t/a, for a11 thelr m anlfest dlfferences, together provlde a p aradlgm atlc m odel, I w ould suggest, of how H om er enters the lm age w orld of the tw en tleth century.

12 A n A m erican H om er for th e

Tw entieth C entu ry Seth L . Schein

T h ere p rob ably h ave b een m ore read ers of th e Illad an d O dyssey ln un d ergrad uate h um anltles and great b ook s courses ln th e U n lted States sln ce th e 1920s th an ln th e 500+ years sln ce th e E rst p rlnted ed ltlon s of th e H om erlc ep lcs- m ore,p erh ap s,th an sln ce th e tlm e of th e A lexan drlan edltors. O ver 100,000 stu dents take su ch courses an n ually, and th e slgn liican ce of th ese cou rses as a n ew m stltutional an d soclal context ln w h lch to read H om erlc p oetry ls p erh ap s th e m aln factor ln th e A m erlcan recep tlon ofH om er du rm g th e tw entleth

(and now the tw enty-Erst) centurles.tThe only rlvallsln the realm of popularculture,w here Elm sand TV Kspecialsnloosely based on (parts of) the Iltad and O dyssey attract even larger audtences (e.g. U lysses, Contem pt,O Brother,J'krhcrcA rfThtlzf?,Troy,the O dysseyj,and other E lm s seem to assum e som e degree of fam lllarlty w lth or m terest ln H om erlc ep lc, for exam ple T he f' ftfrrlflrl Stazn, w h ere a p rofessor ls sh ow n dlscussm g th e JDfIJ w lth u ndergradu ates.z T hese p op u lar recep tlons, h ow ever, d o n ot lnvolve the sam e km d of engagem ent w lth th e ep lcs th em selves as do the h um an ltles an d great books cou rses th at are th e sublect of thls chapter. l w ould llke to thank Em lly G reenw ood for d etalled co m m en ts and crltlclsm th at lm proved thls essay I also am grateful to C aesar A d am s, P enelop e A d am s, B arb ara G razlosl,N ancy Felso n ,an d E m lly W llson for th elr en cou ragem en t an d su ggestlon s l A noth er l50 ,000-200,000 studentsperyear read allo rparts ofthe Ihad,the O dyssey or bo th eplcs ln h lgh schoolo r college courses ln M lrtholop ror C lasslcalLlterature

2 O n the polltlcs ofclasslcalreceptlons ln film ,see G oldhlll (Ch ll above)

An Am erwan H om erfor the20th Century

269

T he great books courses l have ln m lnd are usually taught not only by classlclsts b ut by ln structors from varlou s hu m anltles dlsclp lln es as a hlstorlcalsequen ce of texts read ln tran slatlon ,reflectln g th e rlsen or Kp rogressn of W estern clvlllzatlon . A t th e sam e tlm e, even the oldest of these texts,w hlch ten d to be the Ihad an d O dyssey are K

consldered to em body fundam ental an d p erslstent values, n ot on ly of W estern clvlllzatlon but som etlm es of h um an clvlllzatlon gen erally. G reat b ooks courses are usu ally h oused ln stltutlon ally

outslde of C lasslcs an d other llterature departm ents, an d th ey are relatlvely un con straln ed by dlsclp lln ary kn ow ledge or d evelop m ents ln sp eclallzed sch olarsh lp- a dlstln ctlvely A m erlcan arran gem en t.

ln Fren ch , G erm an , ltallan , and B rltlsh unlversltles an d sch ools, th ere tradltlon ally h ave b een n o su ch courses, an d H om er an d oth er

classlcal authors have been taught by classlclsts un der th e ausplces of C lasslcs d ep artm en ts or facu ltles.3 ln thls ch apter l lirst trace th e backgroun d an d hlstoty of th e great

books courses,ln an effort to sltuate the readlng of th e H om erlc eplcs ln th e U n lted States durln g th e tw en tleth cen tury ln a broad hlstorlcal context. T hen l con slder brlefly th e rem arkable num ber of translatlons these courses have ellclted, especlally slnce the Secon d W orld W ar. Fln ally, l attem p t to sh ow h ow readln g H om er ln tran slatlon ln these courses, often ln snlppets an d usually ln llght of such

supposed natlonal values as Krugged lndlvlduallsm l has affected th e w ay ln w hlch the Ihad and O dyssey have been ln terpreted an d un derstood by tw en tleth -cen tury A m erlcan readers. T h ere w ere th ree m aln cau ses of th e developm en t of great b ooks

courses ln th e 1920s and 1930s:lirst,th e d eslre to reslst th e G erm an un lverslty m odel, w lth lts sp eclallzatlon an d professlon al em ph asls, th at h ad becom e dom ln an t ln th e U n lted States ln th e tin al qu arter of th e n ln eteen th centuryi4 secon d, th e quest ln th e late nln eteenth an d early tw entleth centurles to replace 170th a Ksterlle classlclsm sym bol-

lzed by ...gG reek andlLatln entrance requlrem entgsl15 and a m alor p artof the undergraduate currlculum w lth m ore vltalofferlngs ln th e Kh um anltlesni6 thlrd, the changlng ch aracter of the student body: 1 5 Cf Stray (1998) for the qtute dlfferent hlstory of classlcal cttrrlcttla ln Brltlsh u n tversftëes and sch ools: 1830- 1960 4 L evln e 1996 4 5- 7, W ln terer 2002 153-.6 , 174- 8

5 B ell 1966 13

6 'W lnterer 2002 l 18- 32

270

Seth Schekn

especlally at ellte ln stltutlons,as the chlldren of C athollc and Jew lsh lm m lgran ts from so uth ern an d eastern E urop e grew m ore n u m ero u s an d b egan to d om ln ate ln tellectu ally.; U n tll th e early n ln eteen th cen turs th e Ihad an d O dyssey h ad b een

read ln A m erlcan colleges ln G reek ln selectlons chosen m alnly for th e exam p les th ey p rovld ed of gram m ar an d syn tax, th e stu dy of

w hlch w as con sld ered to traln th e m ln d ln d eslrable w ays. T h e ln flu en tlal Yale U n lverslty rep ort of 1828 d efen d ed th e tradltlon al classlcal currlculu m

agaln st p rop o sals for ch an ge th at em p h aslzed

th e lm p ortan ce of sclen tlf c kn ow ledge an d th e ch arge th at a classlcal ed u catlon dld n ot ad equ ately serve th e n eed s of th e p eop le: fam lllarlty w lth the G reek an d R om an w rlters ls esp eclally adapted to form th e taste an d to dlsclplln e th e m ln d, b oth ln th ou ght an d dlctlon , to th e rellsh of w h at ls elevated, ch aste, an d slm ple

Every facu lty of th e m ln d ls

em ployed, n ot only th e m em ors Ju dgm ent, an d reasonlng p ow ers, but th e taste an d fan cy are occupled an d lm proved 8

B y th e 1820s an d 1830s, h ow ever, a n ew gen eratlon of classlcal lan gu age p rofessors h ad already b egu n to ch an ge th e w ay ln w h lch

G reek and Latln, especlally G reek w ere taught and the reasons for w h lch G reek au th ors w ere stu dled . T h ese w ere th e lirst sch olars to

brln g th e valu es of G erm an sch olarshlp to th e U nlted States an d to ln corp orate m o d ern h lstorlclsm ln to th e cu rrlcu lum .Su ch E gu res as E dw ard E verett an d C urtls C onw ay Felton , at H arvard , an d C h arles A n th on , at C olum bla, p ro d u ced n um erou s ed ltlon s of G reek auth ors, lexlcon s, an d gram m ars b ased clo sely on G erm an m o d els,to b e u sed as u n d ergrad u ate textb ooks.g U n d er th e ln flu en ce

of Johann Joachlm W lnkelm ann an d A ugust W llhelm von Schlegel, ln p artlcu lar, th ey also ln fu sed th elr w n tln gs an d teach ln g w lth aesth etlc ap p reclatlon s of G reek llteratu re an d art. U n llke W ln kelm an n , h ow ever, w h o saw G reek art, esp eclally classlcal G reek scu lp tu re, as exp ressln g tlm eless, tran scen d en t, an d un lversal b eauty th at cou ld b e kn ow n , enloyed, an d vlrtu ally w orsh lp p ed , th e A m erlcan

7 B ell 1996 3, 19-2 1, 25, G lazer 1988 271- 2, Sh lls 1988 228- 9, Levln e 1996 57- 6 0 , l3 3- 9

8 D ay an d K ln gsley l829 328- 30, cf Steven son 1988 16 1-2 9 Everett 1826, Felton 1833, A nth o n 1838

An Am erwan H om erforf/lfr20th Century

271

H ellenlsts tn ed to sltuate w orks of G reek llterature and art ln thelr hlstorlcal an d soclal contexts.lo From th e 1830s on , m ost stu den ts read H om er ln Felton's edltlon of selected books of th e Ihad,th e text of w hlch w as based on th at of Frledrlch A ugust W olf ll Felton stated ln h ls lntrod uctlon th at h e w lshed to Klead the young student to read the poem ,n ot ln the spm t of a school-boy connlng a lesson to be fKconstruednn an d KK arsednn but ln dellghtful con sclou sn ess th at h e ls em ploylng hls m ln d up on

on e of the noblest m onum ents of th e genlus of m ant H e w ent on, h ow ever,to say th at h e h op ed to Kprom otenln hls stu dents Ka h ablt of

analytlcal cn tlclsm ltz and ln a revlsed edltlon,l: lnfluenced by the

lirst volum e of G rotens H kstory of G révtz,l' l Felton devoted m ore attentlon to the H om erlc Q uestlon and the effort to place H om er ln a hlstorlcal context, on the groun ds th at studylng H om er hlstorlcally h elp ed stu d en ts to un d erstan d th e p o em s as llterature.To asslst

students ln cultlvatlng th elr llterary sen slbllltles, Felton lnclu ded ln h ls edltlon m any of Flaxm anns lllustratlon s,w hlch ,he argued,though m odern , represented the splrlt of the H om erlc age an d sh ow ed artlstlcally w hat H om er's language revealed llterarlly. T he study of art and llterature togeth er, he clalm ed: w ould help stu dents to un derstan d H om er Kln a llberal w aytls ln th e last h alf of th e nln eteenth century, th e tradltlon al un d er-

graduate llb eral arts colleges, ln w hlch Felton7s approach to H om er an d G reek llterature gen erally h ad flourlsh ed, w ere tran sform ed by the rlse ln lm portan ce of the sclen ces and soclal sclen ces. T hls tran sform atlon p robably orlgm ated ln th e ever-expan dlng lnd ustrlallzatlon of th e age an d lts con com ltan t utllltarlan lsm an d sclentlsm .

lt w as catalysed from 1876 on by the foundlng and lncreaslng lm portan ce of graduate sch ools, w lth speclahzed doctoral program m es m odelled on an d lm bued w lth th e scholarly values of G erm an un lversltles, ln clu dlng th e lm p ortan ce of research rath er than p eda-

gogy as the chlef goal of the unlverslty. (The lirst such doctoral program m e w as ln C lasslcs at the new ly founded Johns H opklns

U nlverslty (1876),w lth BasllA .G lldersleeve as Professor of G reek.)

10 W ln terer 2002 52- 7

11 Felton 1833 an d 1848

12 F elton 1833 pp 111-1v, quoted by W ln terer 2002 88-9 13 Felton 1848 14 G ro te 1846-9 15 Felton 1833 p v11

272

Seth Schetn

T he organlzatlon of know ledge lnto auton om ous dlsclpllnes, organ lzed along professlon al lln es,w as com plem ented by a new system of m alors an d electlve cou rses alm ed at p rod u cln g sp eclallsts even at th e

undergraduate leve1.16 ln resp on se to th ese d evelop m en ts, ln th e fin al q u arter of th e n ln eteen th cen tury, th e Kh u m an ltlesn cam e ln to b eln g as a slgn lf can t

ln tellectu al dom aln w lthln th e m odern A m erlcan college. T h ese th um anltlesn w ere n o longer th e tradltlon al stud ka Jlt/rrlfprTiffkfs ,w lth th elr em ph asls on th e G reek an d L atln langu ages an d llteratures.

R ather, ln the context of college currlcula, the Khum anltlesn cam e to m ean Kth e elevatln p h ollstlc study of llterature, m u slc, an d arttli T hey w ere dlstlngulshed from

studles ln the sclen ces and soclal

sclences by a categorlcal refusal of econ om lc an d soclal utlllty; ln stead,th e h um am tles em ph aslzed kn ow ledge for th e sake of kn ow ledge an d learnln g as a p ath to lnw ard reflectlon an d self-cultlvatlon . B y th e turn of th e cen tuty th e academ lc study of th e h um anltles,

especlally of C lasslcs and even m ore esp eclally of H om er, Sophocles, an d P lato n ow read ln tran slatlon , w as an lm p ortan t p art of th ls p rocess of self-cu ltlvatlon , w h lch cam e to b e seen as an an tld ote for sclen tlsm an d m od ern lty.l8

T he rlse of the h um anltles w lthln th e academ y w as parallel to slm llar d evelop m en ts ln A m erlcan so clety gen erally. For exam p le, ç

on e of th e great d em o cratlc m ovem en ts of th e n ln eteen th cen turyn

w as th e develop m ent of th e Kp arlo/ as a stan dard feature of th e m lddle-class A m erlcan h om e. T h e p arlor w as Ka testam en t of

the fam llyns refnem ent gandl proof that they understood how to be p ollten; Klts furnlshlngs stood for repose, pollsh, econom lcally u seless kn ow ledge, b eauty, an d d ecoratlve actlvltyn an d alm ost

alw ays ln cluded Ka book-case Elled w lth w ell selected and w ell b oun d volum esn reflectln g th e fam llyns Km ental culturetlg It ls n o

accldent that Thom as Bullinch, ln The x4gérof Fable'or, Stones of Godsand H eroes(1855),frequently republlshed asPart 1 ofBu# twh's M y thology an d stlll ln p rln t, referred to h ls w ork as Kn ot ...a

study but a relaxatlon from studyl Ka C lasslcal D lctlonary for the

16 Levln e 1996 46- 7, W ln terer 2002 l52- 7, l75- 8, B ell 1966 16- 18

17 W lnterer 2002 ll7

18 Ibld

19 B ushm an 1992 273,251,264,280

ll8- 19

A /CA m erwan H om erforthe20th Ck/yft/ry

273

p arlor...th at m 11 lm part a kn ow ledge of an lm p ortan t braxn ch of ed ucatlonn to Kth e read er of elth er sexn w h o h ad n ot studled th e classlcal lan guages.zo In effect,B ulf n ch alm ed to dem ocratlze m yth ology by op en lng up lts m ysterles to w orkln g-class p eop le an d p ersons of both sexes w ho dld not attend secondary schools or colleges w h ere G reek an d L atln w ere studled .zl H 1s effort to m ake classlcal m yth ology avallable to readers w h o w ould prevlously n ot h ave h ad access to lt b oth p arallels th e developm en t of th e Kp arlo/ as an archltectu ral an d social phen om enon ,an d an tlclp ates the gen eral ed ucatlon an d great books courses of th e tw entleth century. T h e second m aln reason for th e n se of great books courses w as n ot so m uch acad em lc as ldeologlcal.T h e earllest su ch course orlgln ated at C olum bla U n lverslty durlng th e FlrstW orld W ar as a Kw ar lssu es'or t

w a r a lm

an d the ldea spread to m any oth er un dergradu ate

s n c o u r se ,

ln stltutlon s. T h ls course w as actually m ore h lstorlcal an d p olltlcal th an llterary, m ore a clvlllzatlon th an a h um anltles offerlng. lt w as sp on sored by th e Stu den t A rm y Tralnln g C orp s, an offsh oot of th e federal governm entns C om m lttee on E d ucatlon an d Sp eclal Tralnln p an d lt alm ed to explaln to sold lers an d to th e gen eralp op ulatlon b oth th e un derlylng an d th e lm m edlate cau ses of th e w ar.22 T h e çw ar lssu es' or çw ar alm sn course reflected th e W llson lan n otlon of a struggle b etw een en llghtenm en t an d barbarlsm , dem ocracy an d autocracy, ln w hlch th e U nlted States, B rltam , and Fran ce w ere on on e sld e an d G erm any on th e oth er, w lth th e future of clvlllzatlon ltself

hanglng ln the balance.ln The Openkng of the A m encan M CFIJ,Leo L evln e quotes from

a represen tatlve lecture by P rofessor E dw ard

R . Turn er: Kth e E n gllsh , m ore th an any oth er p eop le ln th e w orld, except th e Fren ch an d ourselves ...h ave th e h um anltarlan splrlt, a d eslre for falr play an d to do w h at ls rlgh t, to h elp p eople w h o are w eaker th an th em selves, n ot to take advan tage of w eaker p eop le, ln oth er w ords to do to oth ers as th ey w ould be d on e byl T h e G erm an s, on th e oth er h andy Kcarry on w ar as th ey h ave ln Fran ce an d B elglum b ecause th e G erm an p eople do n ot h ave th e h um an ltarlan splrlt of falr p lay, w hlch th e E n gllsh , A m erlcan s, an d Fren ch do h ave'.23 T h e

20 B ulfin ch 1979 p p v1,vll,vlll 21 C leary 1993 22 H eck el 19 19, B ell 1966 14- 15, L evtne 1996 54- 7 2:5 L evln e 1996 55

274

Seth Schezn

valu es of th e clvlllzatlon for w h lch th e A m en can s, E n gllsh , an d

Fren ch supp osedly w ere E ghtln g w ere traced back to th e G reeks, th o ugh th ere w as an effort to avold th e G erm an N ew H um an lsm , w lth w h lch th e stu dy of G reek llterature, esp eclally of th e H om erlc ep lcs,w as asso clated .zzl

A t th e en d of th e w ar, C olum bla renam ed 1ts course Kc on tem p oraty C lvlllzatlon' an d added a KG en eral H on orsn course develop ed by

John Ersklne that began w lth the Ihad and O dyssey and w as prlm arlly llteraty T h ese coursescontln ued to serve p atrlotlc purp oses,presentln g W estern clvlllzatlon ,esp eclally th e clvlllzatlon of th e U n ited States and

w estern Europe,as ln effect the telos of w orld hlstoty or at least of all

w orld hlstory that counted. (N elther C ontem poraty Clvlllzatlon nor G eneralH onorsm cluded any readlng from an A slan orA frlcan cultttre.) T h ey blen ded th ese patrlotlc p urp oses w lth the un dergradu ate collegens goal of com batlng th e electlve system , w hlch C olum blans Presldent, N lcholas M u rray B utler: o n ce lts ard ent su pp orter, n ow accused of

destroylng Kthat com m on body of know ledge and sym pathy w hlch h eld m en togeth er ln sym p ath etlc understandlngn.T h ey also alm ed to sh ap e th e currlculum ln resp on se to w h atw as,even by 1920,an ln creas-

lngly dlverse student pop ulatlon .zs T hls Kdlverse student pop ulatlon' ls the thlrd m aln reason for the developm ent of th e great books courses.T h ere w as a p ercelved n eed to em ploy a revam p ed con ceptlon of th e Kclasslcaln ln th e effort to acculturate th e n ew m ultltu des of students, m any th e chlldren of

C athollc an d Jew lsh lm m lgrants from southern an d eastern Europe: w h o ow ln g to th elr 1ow

statu s an d exclu slon from

Kh u m an lstlc'

ed ucatlon ln th e coun trles from w h lch th ey h ad em lgrated, could n ot be exp ected to b e fam lllar w lth tradltlon s an d valu es th at classlcal llterature h ad hlstorlcally tran sm ltted . T h e alm , th o ugh , w as n ot slm ply to lntrodu ce n ew kln ds of students to texts, values, an d tradltlon s w lth w h lch th ey w ere unfam lllas b ut to m ak e th ese stu dents sufflclen tly W estern an d acculturated to take th elr place ln at least th e low est levelof th e soclalellte,th e m lddle class,to w hlch th elr college ed u catlon s w ere b ou n d to adm lt th em . O n e resu lt w as th at

classlcal culture ln creasln gly cam e to b e seen by th e stu dents th em selves as a com m odlty, th e con sum ptlon an d con splcuou s dlsplay of

21 G rub er 1975 2 14- 19 , 238- 42

25 L ev ln e 1996 58, l84 n 6

zirlA m erwan H om erfor the20th Century

l75

w h lch co u ld p rom ote th elr upw ard so clal m oblllty. T h e p ow er an d

fun ctlon of classlcal culture, as tran sm ltted ln great books courses, are an alogous to th e role of classlcal currlcula ln soclal stratlh catlon ln G erm any, Fran ce, an d esp eclally B rltaln ln th e nln eteenth an d tw en tleth cen turles.z6 lt ls n o accldent that th e developm ent m th e 1920s an d 1930s of great books cou rses, featu rln g classlcal llteratu re an d alm ost alw ays

beglnnln g w lth th e Ihad or O dyssey w as con tem p oran eous w lth th e rlse of an other ln stltutlon alm ed at aw akem np and th en satlsfp n p a deslre for the classlcs an d for books gen erally as a m arker of m lddleclass culture an d soclal status.l refer to the Ksetsn of classlcs sold to the gen eral p ubllc an d to th e book clubs that sprang up ln th e 1920s an d 1930s, w lth the B ook-of-th e-M onth C lub an d the R eaders' G ulld

leadlng the w ay. A s Janlce R adw ay has polnted out, the classlcs w ere classlcs b ecau se th elr legltlm acy an d ,as lt w ere,th elr ed u catlon al

an d m oral u se value had been establlshed by accepted edu catlon al an d rellglous authorltles. T hey galn ed addltlon al Ksym bollc w elghf n ot only from th etr conn ectlon w lth th ese sam e auth orltles, but b ecause th ey Kcam e to be assoclated con ceptually w lth the sort of people w h o could afford to buy th em n an d to atten d the colleges w here they w ere read .27 T h ls Ksort of people'used th e classlcs ln th elr h om es vlrtually as a com pon en t of lnten or decoratlon ,to dem on strate to them selves and

others thelr status asw elleducated,econom lcally w elloff and soclally w ell placed . T h ey dlsplayed th em ln attractlve, unlform ly b ound sets th at could be sh elved con splcu ously ln a place of h on our ln th elr llvlng room s,28 llke B ulf n ch's Kc lasslcal D lctlon ary for th e p arlo/. T he prototype of such sets w as th e H arvard C lasslcs, th e fam ous Klivefoot sh elfn of books first sold by H an rard U nlverslty ln 1909, w lth a gen eral lntrodu ctlon by H arvard's P resldent, C h arles W . E llot, on e of

the countrfs leadlng culturalcntlcs.Early advertlsem entsfor thls set em ph aslzed n ot o n ly th e ed u catlon al bu t th e econ om lc advan tages

of readlng the classlcs for even Efteen m ln utes a day: KD o you kn ow h ow m uch m ore you could do an d earn lf you gave yourself a real ch an ce? ...Yo u can get from

these KKl-lazv ard C lasslcsn th e culture,

th e kn ow ledge of m en an d llfe, an d the broad vlew p olnt th at can

26 Stray 1998 30-45

27 R adw ay 1997 l63

28 Ibld

147- 5 1

276

Seth Schekn

alon e w ln for you an ou tstan dln g an d solld su ccess7.29 T h e actu al con ten t of thls Kkn ow ledgen an d Kbroad vlew p oln f th at could lead to

upw ard m oblllty w ere n ot speclfied but taken for granted,ln the sam e w ay lt w as taken for granted ln great b o oks cou rses th at on e sh o uld

read the Ilkad an d O dyssey through the len ses of con tem p oraty A m en can valu es.ln b oth cases,th e classlcs w ere m ass-m arketed as fetlshlzed

com m odltles w hose lnherent pow es m ystlque,or Kaural to use W alter B enlam lnns term ,could h elp readers fulfil thelr m ost ardent ln dlvldu al an d soclal d eslres.3o M any b o ok club s,ln clu dln g th e B ook -of-th e-M on th C lu b an d th e

R eaders' G ulld , w ere less ln terested ln m arketlng th e classlcs, w h lch after all w ere finlte ln n um ber, esp eclally w h en sold ln sets, th an ln arou sln g an d satlsfp n g a d eslre ln th elr su b scrlb ers for n ew b o oks,of

w hlch th ere w as a p oten tlally en dless qu antlty. N everth eless, a surprlsln g n um b er of b ook club s dld em ph aslze th e classlcs, ln cludln g th e top of th e lln e H erltage B o ok C lu b an d th e som ew h at less sh ow y

W alter J.Black C lasslcs Book C lub and C arleton Book C lub (to both of w h lch m y ow n p aren ts su b scrlb ed an d w h ose b o oks th ey dlsp layed

on our sh elves as a m arker of th elr h ard -w on status as m em bers of

the first college-educated,m lddle-class generatlon ln thelr fam llles). T hese books w ere certalnly lnten ded for dlsplay at least as m uch as for read ln g. T h ey often w ere gllt-edged , w lth gold to oled leath er b oard s an d gllt letterln g on th e sp ln e, th o u gh som etlm es th ere w as

a bu dget verslon ln c10th ; th e b ooks of th e H erltage B ook C lub also cam e ln dlstln ctlve sllp cases. T h e Ihad an d O dyssey w ere alw ays am on g th e earllest offerln gs of

th ese classlcally on en ted book clubs. T hey also w ere featured ln M ortlm er A dle/ s an d R ob ert M . H u tch ln s's G reat B o ok s of th e

W estern W orld (w hlch lncluded 443 lndlvldualw orks by 74 authors ln 54 large, double-colum ned volum es). Thls canonlcal set w as p ubllsh ed by th e E tw yclop aedka l riffprlrlitw an d sold door-to-door, llke th e en cyclop aedla, alon g w lth A dle/ s Syntop kcon, an ln dex an d gu lde to th e m aln ph llosoph lcal and m oral ldeas ln th e G reat B ooks.3l lt ls n o accldent th at thls collectlon w as a by-produ ct of

29 Ibld

146, cltln g A m ertcan M agaztn e, Feb ru ary 1926 l95

:0 B enlam ln 1969 22 1- 3, 245 n 5, R adw ay 1997 166, 376 n 42 :1 A d ler 1952

zirlAm erwan H om erjor the20th Century

l77

th e ln stltutlon of great books cou rses by H utch ln s, A dler, an d R lch ard M cK eon at th e U n lverslty of C hlcago an d by Strlngfellow

B arr and Scott B uchanan at St Johns C ollege,A nnap olls,tn 1937co urses th at w ere based on C olum blans G en eralH on ors course.T h ese courses,llke th e Kl-lu m anltles X course ln stltuted at C olu m bla also ln 1937, w ere year-lon g gen eral ed ucatlon co urses requlred of a11 f rst-

year students.(At St Johns a canonlcalset ofgreatbooks:ofW estern classlcs, w as, an d stlll 1s, p rescrlbed for all stu den ts for all four

years.32) These general educatlon courses w ere w ldely copled and, llke th e H arvard C lasslcs an d th e sets of books sold by classlcally orlented book clubs: th ey app ealed to th e m lddle-class deslre for culture 170th for Its ow n sake an d for th e sake of th e status to w hlch lt contrlb uted an d testlE ed . Perh ap s th ls ls w hy at C olum bla, H um an ltles A cam e to b e kn ow n as Llterature H um anltles, abbrevlated Llt. H u m .an d th u s su ggestln g O xford U n lversltyns L kterae H um an kores.ss

T h e tran slatlon s of th e Ihad an d O dyssey offered by th ese book clubs,p erh ap s becau se th ey requlred n o p erm lsslon fees,w ere alm ost lnvarlably th e A n drew L ang, W alter L eaf, an d E rn est M yers or th e Sam u el B utler Ihad an d th e A n drew L an g an d Sam uel H . B utch er, th e Sam uel B utler, or th e G eorge H . P alm er O dyssey. R an dom H ou se's M od ern Llbrary,n ot actually a book club but a b udget-prlced serles of llteraty an d p hllosop h lcal classlcs alm ed at a w orklng- an d m lddle-class audlen ce, w as exceptlon al because lt ln cluded n ot only th e L an p L eaf, an d M yers Ihad an d L ang an d B utch er O dyssey avallable ln ln dlvldual volum es an d ln on e M odern Llbraty KG lan t' w lth an ln trodu ctlon by G llbert H lgh et,but also th e verse tran slatlon s by th e South C arollnlan p oet an d classlclst E n nls R ees. ln th e U nlted States ln th e tw entleth cen tury, th e prod uctlon of n ew tran slatlon s of H om er w as largely a by-produ ct of th e contln u ln g p op ularlty of great b ooks cou rses ln un d ergrad u ate colleges, elth er as requ lred com p on en ts of gen eral ed u catlon cu rrlcula or as

a com m on m ean s by w hlch stud ents could satlsfy Kdlstrlbutlonn or Kbreadthn requlrem en ts ln ten ded to gu arantee th at even lf th ey sp eclallzed ln areas outslde th e h um anltles, th ey w ould h ave som e exp osuren to th e so -called Km asterplecesn of W estern llterature, cul-

K

ture,an d th ough t.A s l h ave sald,p robably m ore p eople h ave read th e

:52 B ell 1966 14- 15, 26- 7, L evln e 1996 47- 53

:H W llson 2005

278

Seth Schekn

TDJJ an d O dyssey ln th ese courses over th e p ast slxty or seventy years th an ln th e precedln g five centurles, and the suë clently w ldespread ad optlon of a p artlcular tran slatlon as a textb ook can be resp on slble

for sales of m any thousan ds of coples per year. Sm ce the end of th e Secon d W orld W as n o few er th an elght n ew tran slatlon s of th e Ihad an d th lrteen of th e O dyssey h ave b een p ubllsh ed ln th e U n lted States, m o st o f th em con celved , com m lsslon ed, an d m ark eted at least p artly

w lth sales to undergraduate readers ln m ln d. T h ese tran slatlon s ln clude verslon s of both p oem s by E nnls R ees,R lchm ond Lattlm ore, R obert Fltzgerald, R obert Fagles, an d Stan ley L om bardo, an d verslon s of th e O dyssey alone by A lan M andelb aum , A lbert C ook, R odn ey M errlll, an d E dw ard M cc rorle. T h e lntrod uctlon s to th ese tran slatlon s an d th e n otes, glo ssarles, an d ln d exes are ad dressed p rlm arlly to stu d en t read ers. Sln ce th e p ub llcatlon ln 1976 of M al-

colm W lllcockns C om p ankon to th e tran slatlon of R lchm on d L attlm ore,34 lt ls n ot un u su al for oth er tran slatlon s to be accom p anled by

slm llar stu dent alds, as w ell as by Kcourse n otesn or Kstudy guld es; ln ten ded to h elp studen ts p ass exam ln atlon s an d w rlte p ap ers on th e

poem s (w lthout necessarlly readlng them ). Som e of these translatlon s,such as th ose of Fltzgerald an d Fagles,h ave also been m arketed to n on -acad em lc gen eral read ers ln trad e edltlon s, bu t l su sp ect th at, at least from

a p ub lish erns v iew p oln t, th ey w ere m eant ln th e E rst

p lace for un d ergrad u ates. lt ls strlklng th at alm ost all th e A m erlcan tran slatlon s of th e

H om erlc eplcs h ave b een ln verse, w h lle m ost B rltlsh verslon s

sln ce the V lctorlan perlod, ln cludlng those of L ang et a1., B utler, P alm es W llllam

R o u se, E m lle R leu , W alter Sh ew n n p an d M artln

H am m ond,have been ln prose.T hls m ay have som ethlng to do w lth the fact th at the m alorlty of B rltlsh tran slatlon s are alm ed m alnly at non-academ lc general readers:w hose fam lllarlty w lth the novel m ay h ave been th ough t to m ake a prose tran slatlon of th e Ihad or O dyssey m ore accesslble an d satlsfp n g th an on e ln verse. O n th e oth er h an d, m o st A m erlcan tran slatlon s sln ce th e Secon d W orld W ar h av e b een

ln ten ded prlm an ly for studen ts ln h um anltles and great books courses, w here eplc as a genre ls clearly dlstlngulshed from

the

n ovel,of w hlch prose ls a m alor delin ln g ch aracterlstlc.Furth erm ore,

:4 w lllcock 1976

A n A m erwan H om erfor the20th Century

l79

ln th e U nlted States, p oetry ln an d of ltself ls a slgn of h lgh culture an d h elp s to con fer th e status th at great bo ok s co urses alm

to

P rovld e. W h en th e Ihad an d O dyssey are read ln great books courses, th ey

u su ally are de-contextu allzed an d de-hlstorlclzed .Except w h en classlcal sch olars teach th ese co urses- an d n ot alw ays th en- th ere ls

llttle or n o attem pt to un d erstan d th e p oem s as produ cts of a lon g oral tradltlon or to sltu ate th em

ln a late elghth -, early seventh -

century hlstorlcal and cultural context. ln stead, th ey are taugh t ln relatlon to oth er b o ok s ln th e co u rses, as lf th ey p o ssessed , ln com m on w lth th ese texts, tlm eless llterary an d eth lcal qu alltles th at m ake th em

exam p les an d exp resslon s of th e en d urln g valu es of

W estern cultu re an d clvlllzatlon . T h e elem en t of th e p o em s m o st

dlstorted by such de-contextu allzlng ls th e O lym plan gods, w h o are rarely con sldered ln llght of a Kcosm lc hlstoryn recoverable from th e p oem s of H om er an d H eslod , ln clu dln g th e H om erw H ym ns an d th e fragm ents of th e ep lc cycle.35 A s a result, relatlon s betw een dlvlnlty an d h um an lty ln th e Ihad an d O dyssey ten d to b e lnterpreted an achronlstlcally, for exam ple ln term s of fate an d free w lll, an d th e actu al conn ectlon s betw een dlvlnlty, fate, n ature, an d p oetlc n arratlve are ob scured .

A s John G ulllory says, KB y suppresslng th e con text of a cultural

w ork's productlon and consum ptlonl the great books course creates

Kthe llluslon that ga1 culture ...ls transm ltted slm ply by contactw lth th e w orks th em selvest36 A n H om erlc ep lc,h ow ever,as taugh tln th ese courses, does n ot prlm arlly express ça culture ofW estern clvlllzatlonn or even w h at m lght b e con sld ered Kl-lom erlc valu esn. R ath er, lt ex p resses th e culture an d valu es o f th e ed u catlon al ln stltutlon s th at offer th e course- ln stltutlons th at, llke slm llar ln stltutlons at least sln ce an clen t R om e, h ave en d ow ed certaln w ork s w lth can on lcal

statu s an d th elr readers w lth soclal p ow er by ln clu dlng th em

In

th elr currlcula.3; T h e stud ents w h o, throu gh th e n ln eteen th century, read H om er ln G reek garn ered a p artlcular kln d of cultural capltal, w hlch w as on e m arker of upp er-class status. N ow ad ays th e great b ooks courses, w h ere th e readlng ls don e ln tran slatlon , p rovld e a

:5 G razlosl an d H aub old 2005 35-93 57 Ib ld 51

36 G u lllory 1994 43

280

Seth Schekn

w atered -dow n verslon of su ch cultural capltalfor a far larger n um b er of m ld dle-class an d w ould -be m lddle-class readers. lt ls n ot su rp rlsln g, glven th e orlgln s of great b o oks co urses as

courses ln KW ar A lm sn or KW ar lssuesl that, even w hlle they express th e culture of th e edu catlon al ln stltutlon s ln w hlch th ey are offered, th ey also h ave b een tau gh t ln w ays th at h elp to con stru ct or reln force

a n atlon al culture an d n atlon al ldeology. ln p art thls m ode of ln terp retatlon sp rln gs from

th e assu m p tlon th at th e U n lted States

ln the tw entleth century w as, as lt w ere, the goal tow ard w hlch W estern h lstory h ad b een ten dln g . G lven th ls assu m p tlon lt m akes ,

sense that A m erlcan core values, esp eclally those havlng to do w lth ln dlvldu al rlghts an d freedom s, sh ould be ld entlf ed w lth or pro Jected onto th e values ln th e books taken to be th e fcoren of W estern

culture. T herefore, ln readlng an d teachlng these w orks ln great b ooks or Kcoren courses, stu dents an d teach ers all too often lin d th em selves dlscoverln g an d aë rm ln g su p p o sed n atlon al valu es an d

th e actlon s th at follow from th em . For exam ple,there ls frequ en tly a ten den cy,w hen teachlng the Ihad, to see th e ln dlvldu alw arn or vs.th e com m un lty or soclety as th e m aln th em e ofth e p oem an d to pn vllege the ln dlvldu alover th e com m unlty or soclety. T hls ls a p rolectlon of th e Krugged ln dlvlduallsm n that ls

supposed to be a dlstlnctlvely A m erlcan value (though the focus of W estern llberalculture generally hasalw aysbeen on the lndlvldual).In any case,th e p n vllegln g of th e ln dlvld u aldlstorts th e H om erlc eplcs,ln

w hlch the values and actlon s of th e ln dlvldu al h eroes are n ot only, or n ot so m u ch ,ln opposltlon to those of th e com m unlty as they are the

com m unltyns values and actlons taken to an extrem e. ln oth er w ords, lndlvldualherolc values are soclalvalues.Even w hen A chllles ln B ook 9 of th e Ihad calls som e of th em ln to qu estlon an d ln so d olng seem s to

stand agam stthe Kcom m um tynor Ksocletf ofthe Greek arm y,he does so because, as the w arn or h ero p ar excellen ce: h e p aradoxlcally takes

soclalan d com m unalvalu es m ore serlou sly than do others ln the arm y, an d ln th at w ay h e ls m ore, n ot less, so clal. To p u t lt ln G reek term s,

A chllles ls characterlzed as m uch by phklotës (Kfnendshlpl Ksoclal solldarlty') as by m ënks (Kw rathn), and lt ls slm pllstlc to vlew hlm onedlm enslon ally as an ln dlvldual h atefully opp osed to th e com m unlty.

R ather,hls h atred ofA gam em non and lnten se solldarlty w lth Patroclus are both expresslons of hls p hklotës m anque. N evertheless, especlally

An Am erwan H om erfor the20th Century

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becau se ln great books courses, len gthy w orlts llke the Ihad are often read only ln selectlon s the em phasls ls frequently placed on A chlllesn lndlvldual em otlon s and actlon s ln B ooks - 1: % and 24,w lth the result th at the com m unlty to w hlch he belongs ls relatlvely n eglected. T h e ldeolop cal an d ln stltutlon al assum p tlon s of great b ook s courses lnvlte th ls k lnd of slm pllf catlon , as th ey lnvlte th e Ktlm elessn approach of w hlch l sp oke earller.ln b oth cases stu dents are lnvited or taught to read w ith com placency groun ded m th e assum ptlon that the poem and lts values are transparently fam lllar and recognlzably contem porary. T he problem ls esp eclally acute, because m any teachers of great books courses are n ot classlclsts an d én d lt dlë cult to hlston clze thelr treatm ent of H om erlc eplc. If an em ph asls on con tem p oran elty an d on th e ln dlvldu alleads to on e lo n d of lnstltutlon al slm pllficatlon and m lsunderstan dlng of H om erlc eplc, an oth er, qulte dlfferent w ay of slm pllfp ng an d m lsun derstandlng th e Ilkad and O dyssey ln great books courses sprm gs from th e desire of m any ln structors, esp eclally non -classlclsts from m odern llterature departm ents: for a slngle, progresslve n arratlve that w ll1 unlfy the course an d h elp lt m ake sen se to them selves and th elr students. T h ey yearn for a story of successlve shlfts ln th em es,

values,and narratlve m odes,for exam ple,from H om er (honour and sham e) to V lrp l (em plre and colonlzatlon) to D ante (Chn stlanlty) to the novel (m odernlty, econom lcs, soclal stratlhcatlon). Erlch A uerb ach's M km esls and M lkh all B altlm n's KEp lc an d N over are favourlte sources for su ch un lfp ng narratlves. A s a result, generatlons of students have been told , w rprlgly, that ln H om erlc eplc

Knothlng ls left ln darkness or unexternallzedl there ls no narratlve p erspectlve or depth,and a11phen om ena take place ln fa brlghtly an d unlform ly lllum lnatedn foreground, an Kexcluslve presen tni38 or that th e eplc, ln con trast to th e n ovel, ls too un sophlstlcated a genre to

Klncorporate extrallterary heteroglosslal to be Kcrltlcal and self-

cntlcall to expose the dlchotom y between Qm anyts) ...surface and h ls center, b etw een h ls p otentlal and h ls realltyt3g T h e urge for a h lstorlcal n arratlve ln w h lch to sltu ate th e varlou s texts m a great

books course, lncludlng th e JIJfIJ and O lysséy can generate Just as slm p llstlc a m lsun derstan dln g of H om erlc p oetry as a presum ptlon :58 A uerbach 1957 2, 3, 5

. 39 B akhtln 1981 7, 10, 34- 5

'

è

282

Seth Schezn

of th e su p p o sed ly tlm eless qu alltles of th e p o em s or an em p h asls on th e ln dlvld u al.

T h e Ihad an d O dyssey llke alm ost every b ook read ln a typlcal great b o ok s co urse, ln th elr ow n tlm e called ln to q u estlon , or p rob lem atlzed ,th e ln stltutlon s an d valu es of th e cu ltures th ey rep resen ted an d th o se ln w h lch th ey w ere created , w h eth er to su bvert or, ln th e

en d,to reaë rm an d reln force th em .W h en ,h ow ever,th ese w orks are ab sorb ed ln to a tradltlon an d establlsh ed as p art of a can on ,th ey lo se th elr crltlcal edge,ln p art b ecau se th elr valu e n ow seem s self-evld en t. ln th e U n lted States, at least ln great b o ok s co urses ln w h lch th ey are u su ally read ln on ly a w eek or tw o, th e H om erlc ep lcs are typ lcally tran sform ed ln to d ocu m en ts at th e b egln n ln g of a p rogress tow ard

(and Justlfcatlon of) Kournow n supposed W estern values and selves, esp eclally w h en , as all too often h app en s, th ey are stu dled as p art of a serles of texts ln relatlon to on e an oth er,w lth ln suë clen t atten tlon to th e so clal, cu ltu ral, an d h lstorlcal con texts ln w h lch th ey w ere p rod u ced . T h u s, at th e m o st slm p le-m ln d ed level, stu d en ts m ay b e

lnvlted to vlew A chllles ln the Ihad as Ksellishl unpatrlotlc, and th erefore ln th e w ron g, w lth out con slderln g w h at self shn ess or p atrlotlsm

m lgh t an d m lgh t n ot m ean ln th e w orld of th e p oem ,

or w h eth er th e ep lc rep resen ts or lm p lles dlfferen t n otlon s of rlgh t an d w ron g from th e stu d en tsn ow n , or w h eth er rlgh t an d w ron g are even relevan t categorles of an alysls an d ln terp retatlon . T h e O dyssey as tau gh t ln great b ooks cou rses can b e su blect to slm llar ld eologlcal or self-servln g ln terp retatlon s. For exam p le,

O dysseusn destru ctlon of th e Sultors ls seen as ln dlcatln g n ot only h ls ow n ln dlvldu alp row ess but also a con ceptlon of soclalJu stlce th at allow s so m asslve an assau lt by a h erolc ln dlvld u al on a com m un lty, w h en lt ls d on e ln d efen ce of th e h erons ow n p rop erty- th at ls, h ls w lfe, h ls h om e, h ls h erd s, an d h ls kln gd om . lt ls n ot to o far-fetch ed

to say th at th e O dyssey as taught ln th e typ lcal great books or W estern h u m an ltles cou rse, ls th e earllest extan t w ork ln sup p ort of p rlvate p rop erty as an ln stltu tlon an d of h erolsm as ln tlm ately b ou n d u p w lth th e d efen ce of th ls ln stltutlon .'lo In th ls read ln g, P en elop e's loyalt'y to O dysseu s an d resou rcefu l p reservatlon of h 1s p rop erty an d T elem ach u s' ln h erltan ce, alon g w lth Telem ach u sn ow n

40 H

I'o rter 1962 15- 16

grow ln g

A n A m erwan H om erfor the20th Century

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aw aren ess w lthln th e p oem of th e n eed to defen d h1s rlght to thls

ln herltan ce, are further expresslons of the prln clple of prlvate prop erty.ln a great books course,B ook 24 ls an approprlate endln g of the p oem m aln ly becau se lt ls n ecessary to establlsh th at th e gods really d o en d orse O dysseu sn un preced en ted d ef an ce of com m un al n orm s ln th e ln terest of a h lgh er Ju stlce th at allow s h lm to get aw ay w lth klllln g 108 Sultors, alth ough , as h e tells Telem ach u s at 23.117-22, u su ally w h en som eon e kllls even a slngle m an , h e m ust go lnto ex1le.41 lt w ould be p osslble to lnterpret O dysseus' slayln g of th e Sultors d lfferen tly, for exam p le, by foregro u n dln g A th en a as an ln strum en t

ofZ eus (asln the O resteka),w ho helps O dysseusto take vengeance ln ord er to establlsh a n ew kln d of Ju stlce. ln a great books course,

h ow ever, such a readlng, w hlch subordlnates the lndlvldual to the p urp oses of dlvlnlty,w ould b e p uttln g th e cart b efore th e h orse.T h e p oem ls never m ore A m erlcan ldeologlcally th an w hen O dysseus ln fllcts on th e Sultors fron tler Ju stlce an d sh ow s by su ccessfuldefen ce of h ls prlvate ln terests th at h e h as god on h ls sld e. ln an essay lirst p ubllsh ed ln 1956, rep rln ted several tlm es, an d frequ en tly draw n on

by teach ers of great books courses, G eorge D lm ock elucldates th e

m eanlng of O dysseusn nam e by com parlng hlm to Ka character ln

agn A m erlcanl w estern m ovlen w ho says, Klust call m e Trouble: strangerl ldentlfp ng hlm self as Ka hostlle type w ho m akes trouble for oth er p eople, an d so presum ably for h lm self alsot42 Slm llarly: H ow ard Porter,ln an ln trodu ctlon to a 1962 p ap erback reprlnt of th e G eorge H . P alm er tran slatlon , com p ares th e lonlan soclety repre-

sented ln the poem to that of the KW lld W estl presum ably w lth O dysseus as the Kfastest gunl and says of H om er: K'l'he experlence of h ls ow n p eople w orked on hlm - as th e frontler on th e A m erlcan w rlters of th e nln eteenth centuryt43

ln GreatBooks'M y Adventureswif/lH om erjRousseau,W btl/ f,and otherIndestructzble J'krrlfpryof the J'kr éryférrrlJVP/-ll,D avld D enby quotes C olum bla Professor Edw ard Tayler as asklng the students (both m ale and fem ale) ln hls sectlon of the Llterature H um anltles course,Y ou are all Telem ach u s, aren't you7?44 D en by's book ls a p aean to great

41 Ib ld 4:5 H

18

42 D lm o ck 1956 57, cf 67-8, 70

Po rter 1962 l7, 19

44 D enby 1996 76

284

Seth Schekn

b ooks courses as featurlng w orks w h ose pow er supp osedly exlsts

an d m akes ltself feltln depen dent of any ldeology or lnterpretatlon .Yet

D enby hlm self proudly asserts that Kgtlhe great thlng about W estern cultu re ls th at any A m erlcann- and h ere h e actu ally ls sp eak m g

of A frlcan -A m en cansl- Kcan stand on lt, or on som e sm all part of lt. ln thls countty w e take w hat w e w ant an d m lx lt w lth our ow n com p osltlonn' ts A s typ lcally tau ght, great b ooks courses are 170th dem ocratlc an d

un dem ocratlc: they are free from the con straln ts and know ledge of

any partlcular dlsclpllne and reflect an ldeology of Kllberal educatlonl of kn ow ledge and culture that are op en and accesslble to all; at th e sam e tlm e, th ey take for gran ted, as p re-texts, tradltlon al A m erlcan

m yths and (supposed)W estern values,and ln thlsw ay they are hlghly con straln ed an d llllberal.46 G reat books courses tran sform the H om -

erlc eplcs (and other requlred texts) from w orks that ln thelr ow n hlstorlcal and cultural contexts had problem atlzed tradltlon al lnstltutlon s an d values, lnto Km asterplecesn that, as part of a tradltlon , a11 too easlly lose thetr edge an d becom e slm pllstlcally aë rm atlve expresslon s of Kou/ KW esternn cultural h erltage. A ll too often , thls

transform atlon m ystlf es the role of th e educatlon al lnstltutlon , ln

w hlch a glven course lstaught (and often requlred),ln the productlon an d con su m ptlon of cultural capltal an d en co urages stu d en ts to read com placen tly an d un crltlcally. G reat b ooks co urses con tln u e to flo un sh ln A m erlcan colleges an d

unlversltles.A t C olum bla,w h ere lt all started,th e C olum bla U nlverslty R eglster, th e off clal volce of th e unlverslty, on th e seven ty-f fth an n lversary of th e G en eral H on ors course referred to 1ts great books

courses as lts Kslgnature, lts lntellectual coat of arm s7.47 A G oogle search for çgreat b ook s co ursesn yleld ed 5,280,000 results, ln clud ln g

th e G reat B ooks Foun datlon , th e electronlc Journ al Teachkng G reat B ooks an d th e Top 100 B ooks C lub .T h ere ls also an A ssoclatlon for

C ore Texts and C ourses, w hlch , llke acad em lc dlsclplln ary assoclatlon s, h olds an n ual m eetlngs w lth a p rogram m e sp read over several days an d ls dedlcated to th e p edagogy of th e great books.

4, D en by 1996 462 46 I ow e thls lnslght an d w ordln g to E m lly G reenw ood 47 C olu m b la U n lverslty 1994

ArlAm erwan H om erfor the20th Century

285

G lven th e contlnu lng p op ularlty an d p revalen ce of great b ooks co urses ln A m erlcan un dergrad uate ed ucatlon , w h at can be don e to lm prove th e teach ln g of th e H om erlc eplcs? O n e an sw er ls th at teach ers sh ould take th e tlm e, even w h en th ere are only a few classes

ln w hlch to Kcove/ the Iltad or O dyssey to help studen ts un derstan d h lstorlcally h ow an d w hy lt and th e oth er texts ln th e course b ecam e

great bookst T h ls m lght productlvely lnvolve a dlscusslon of A ulus G elllusn w ell-kn ow n approprlatlon of th e socloecon om lc term clas-

K

yitrt/y for th e km d of w rlter w h ose w ork sh ould b e read by young m en b eln g groom ed to get ah ead ln ïbfe- classw us adskduusque flngt/i. s

scrkptos Fltp/J proletarlus (Ksom e classlcat landow nlng w rlter, not a proletarlan onel N octesA tttcae 19.8.15).lt also w ould touch on the subsequent hlstory of the w ords Kclasslcn and çclasslcaln ln relatlon to educatlon al ln stltutlon s.'l8 A hlstorlcally lnform ed dlscusslon of th e

w ords tclassn and çculture: along th e llnes sketch ed by R aym ond W llllam s ln K eyw ords, also w ould be productlve.'lg Even brlef con slderatlon of the m eanlngs and h lston es of these w ords m lght h elp stud en ts to read w lth h lstorlcal aw aren ess and crltlcal en gagem ent.

Fln ally, an em phasls on the confhctln g values an d dlscourses w lthln th e Iltad an d O dyssey w ould h elp both teachers and students to reslst th e slm pllstlc, on e-dlm enslon al lnterpretatlons often fostered by great b ooks courses, an d to en gage w lth th e com p lex, ch allengln g p oem s w h ose m eanln gs are n ot slm ply p ven but hlston cally con tln gent an d con structed , th e p oem s th at ln dlfferent w ays b elon g to m any cu ltu ral h erltages.

48 Sch em 1999 288-91

49 R W llh am s 1953 60-9 ,87-93

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W ot,Fsox,S J (ed ) (2001) The Cam bndge Com pam on to Keats C am brldge C am bn dge U m verslty P ress

W ooouousy,,C M (11d g19481)Appde ofLhscord London H utchm sort W oooRlxc, C (1990) fO n Lookm g lnto Keats's Voyagesl ln de A lm elda

(1990),15-22

B kbhograp hy

3 11

W RIGHT,G M and P V Joxy,s (eds) (1997) H om er G erm an Scholarshtp ln Translahon O xford an d N ew York O xford U nlverslty P ress

W v'KE, M

(1997) Prolechng the Past A nctent Rom e, Ctnem a and I' h story

N ew York an d L on don R outledge

Y BATS,W B (1924) Essays London M acm tllan (1983) The Poem s -4 N cw Edthon, ed R J Flnneran N ew York -

-

M acm lllan

Youxc,P H (2003) The Pnnted H om er Jefferson M cFarland & C o ZACI-I,W and K L G ooow lx (eds) (1996)N ahonahsm vs Internahonaltsm (Interlnahonal fh/wlcrls/t?rs of Ltterature /?: Enghsh Tublngen Stauffenb erg V erlag

ZAJKO,V (2004) fl-lom er and U lyssesl ln R obert Fow ler (2004),311-23 (2006) fffW ho are w e w hen w e read?'' K eats, K leln, Clxous, and Ehzabeth C ook's A chtlles',ln Zayko and Leonard (2006),45-66 and M Ly,oxytRo (eds) (2006) Laughm g w /r/lM edusa ClasncalM yth

-

-

-

-

and Fcpv/ns r T hought O xford an d N ew York 0 xf - ord U nlverslty P ress

ZEITLIN,F I (1996) fFlgurlng Fldellty ln H om er's O dysseyj ln ld ,Playtng the O ther G ender and st?c/cry tn C lasn cal G reek h terature C hlcago an d L on don U n lverslty of C hlcago P ress 19- 52

Z ORZETTI,N (1991)fpoetry and theA nclentClty The C ase ofR om el (:186, 3 11- 2 9

This p ag e l'n ten tionally /c# .

blank

Index of H om ericpassages .

P/JJ l 3 1l

2 1 34- 135 95

l 590- 4

l4 9

l 57 1- 600

l4 9

235

2 1 74- 96

2 35

2 1 122- 7

2 35

2 2 139- 5 6

57

2 4 5 9- 68

l79

2 2 158- 6 6

l78

2 4 84- 92

l54

2 3 6 1- 10 7

24 2

3 l80

l72

23 85 ff

3 20 0

95

2 4 7 19- 7 5

3 20 2

96

3 220

95 l72

4 452 ff

23 l

5 30 2- 5

l4 6 n

5 76 7- 72

6 35 6

3

l4 6 n 3

l04

59

8 55 3- 65

l l

247

l3

166, 267

l 23

l00 n

2 93

96

2 l06

l72

8 30 6- 8

82

O dyssey

3 4 14- 17

6 l2 l ff

242

l89

13

96

5 35

98

6 31

l0 7 n 2 8

6 33

102- 3

9 13- 15

24 l

6 56

l0 7

9 18 5- 9

l70

6 66

102 , l0 7

6 92

l0 3

9 30 8- 42 9 9 56 6- 7 1

ll 269- 72

238 82

6 l0 l

l74 n l04

l 12

6 l02 ff

l12

12 298 ff

l04 ff

6 l09

16 2 1- 45

l53

6 l15 ff l07 n 30, l15

16 2 34- 5

2 32 n 2

6 l2 9

l0 7 n 2 8

16 6 3 3- 7

164- 5

6 l3 6

l0 6 n

24

6 l5 5

l0 7 n

28

16 74 2

24 l n

16 788 ff

10

l07

l58

6 18 1- 5

l05

17 4 2 3- 4 5

60

6 18 3- 5

2 58

17 4 4 2- 5 5

l5 7 n

37

6 l8 6

l 12

18 3 72- 9

l57 n 37

6 20 3

l0 l

18 5 9 1- 2

l79

6 20 4

99

6 20 5

l0 0

6 2 l8

l0 7 n

19 4 0 8- 17 21 27

235

l5 7 n 3 7

30

314

Index of H om encpassages

6 244- 5

106, l13

12 59 ff

98

6 273 ff

l05

12 525

96 n 8

6 3 l3

l 13

13 l80

l0 0

6 32 4

l0 7 n 30

13 l87

99

13 2 93

96

15 4 l5

l00 n

7 39

l00 n

7 75

l 13

14

8 457 ff

l02

16 227- 8

8 4 6 1- 2

l 16

19 l 18

8 4 6 1- 8

25 l

19 3 95- 6

l 18

2 0 34 7- 8

2 57

8 4 8 9- 9 1

l68 n 84

l00

2 65

8 52 l ff

93

23 47- 8

243

9 19-20

96

23 85 ff

243

9 42 2- 3

96

2 3 l 17- 2 2

10 30 5

24 l

2 3 12 1- 2

11 2 l9

2 40

2 3 2 96

11 5 63- 4 12 2 1- 2

2 40 22 5 n

30

14

2 83 l 18

93, 24 4 n

2 3 4 4 8- 9

2 24

2 3 30 0- 1

258

12

G eneralIndex A chllle (character ln W alcott's O' Jrncros) 66,186,194-5 A chllles 92,152-3,160,168-9,213,

U lysses'G aze 212,214-22, 225-7,259,lfilm archtves 1n) 215-7,225-6

233, 235, 238, 242, 28J

Voyage to Cy thera 2 11, 22 3, 22 6

A dler,M ortlm er 276-7 syllfop lco' n 276

A nten or 95 A n ttd eta 213, 221

A donls tsyrlan poet) 2 n 3 A eneas 195,203,225

A nton,Charles 270 aphrön (gr ) 95

A enetd, see V lrgll

A pollodoru s 118

A eschylus, O restesa 283

A p ollontu s of R h odes 4, 5, 30,

aesth etlc Ju dgem en t, see hterary valu e

. 32, 37, 38 A rablc 47- 8

A ethtop ts 92

A ran lslan ds 80-6,91

A fn ca 125-31,155,194-5

A rbots de Jubam vllle,H enrl 79,

A gam em n o n 83, 168, 174 , 2 13, 24 1,

263,280

80 , 83

A rgos (O dysseus's dog) 75,223

A lb anla 121, 132-42, 224, 231

A rlstarchu s 106

A lexan drou , A rts 232- 3, 242

A rlstotle

fM edltatlons of Flavlu s M arcu s' 232- 3

A rlstotehanlsm

50

P oettcs 13 1, 267

A lexlou,M argaret 87

A rn old ,M atth ew 35-6

allu ston 10, 260 A n dron lcu s, Llvlu s 122-4 A ngelop oulos 2 10-27, 259- 60

A styan ax 58,235 A tw ood, M argaret 24, 63 A u erb ach, E rlch 28l

L ttrntty and a D ay 211,212,

auth orshlp 30-40 , 89

2 14 , 2 19- 2 7

The H unters 2 1l

B akhtln , M lkhall 281

The R tconstruchon 2 1 l

B akker, Egb ert 70- 1

The Suspended Step of the

Barchtest,Alessandro l24

Stork 22 1,224

B arth es, R olan d 248

The Travelhng P layers 2 l2

B earden , R om are 8, 44-5, 67- 9

The W eep m g M eadow 2l2

B ellos, D avld 134-5

typlcal scen es m

B h abh a,H om l ll

21 l

3 16

G eneral Index

B lebuyck ,D anlel P l26

C hrlstlanlty 66, see also C ath ollclsm

Bllly Blue (character ln W alcott's

Clcero 233

T he O dyssey ..4 Stage

V' t?rs/tpn) 62

cln em a 146, 154- 7, 162- 3, 182,

210-27,245-67,268,see also

B lan ch ot,M aurlce l46

W estern m ovles

B lasket Islan ds 85- 7

C lrce 2 14, 252, 256

B loom ,H arold 1-2, l4,40

C ivil W ar, G reek 226-7, 231-44,

th e B lu es 5, 62

Sp an lsh 60, see also th e

B oltanl,P lero 9,2 l0

Troubles,Yugoslavla

B ow ra, S1r M au rlce 126, l28

class 23, 285

B recht, B ertold 259

classlclsm

B row n ,D an 264

84,274-5,285,s:e also

class

B u lfin ch , T hom as 272- 3, 275

th e classlcal tradltlon l0, 122,

B u rt, Steph en l55 B u tch er, Sam u el H

157, 246 C lasslcs 26 1, 267, 269

277

B u tler,N lch olas M u rray 274

C loon ey,G eorge 26l

B u tler, Sam u el 277,278

C oen B roth ers 245,261-7 O B rother, W hcrc A rt T /l()l/? 245,

C acoyannls,M lch ael 2 1l

261-7,268

C alyp so 2 14, 252

cogn ltlve sclen ce 29

can on ,W estern 3, 15- 16, 30, 35,

C ollln s, M ortlm er l8, l08

43- 5, 124, 125, 207- 9

C arn b ean p oetry 45, 65, 191-209

colon lallsm , 199, see also

p ostcolonlallsm

C ath ollclsm , l10- 11, l40

C olum bla U nlverslty 270, 273, 274,

C avafy; C on stan tln e P 236- 7

277, 284 com m u n lsm , see m axlsm , so clallsm

8, 232- 3,

fc aesarlon ' 240

com p aratlve eplc 2,28- 9,43,125- 3 1

fD arlus' 233 f'I'he H orses ofA chllles' 242

C ook A lbert 278 C ook Ellzabeth 13

f'frolan s' 236- 7

C yclop s 17 1, 262, 265, 266, see also

C ave, T eren ce 52

P olyp h em u s

C esalre, A lm e 19 1- 20 9

C ahw r 191-2, 195-6, 198-9, 200- 4 , 20 6, 20 9

D ante 4,28, 94, 177, 193, 198-200, 2 10- 1 1, 22 5

D tscourse on C t?/t??2,;?!s ??: l99

D em odocu s 99- 100, l68

Letter to M aun ce T horez l99

D enby,D avld 283

Sp trales 191, 198-9

D errlda,Jacqu es 28

C h am olseau ,P atrlck 24

D ldo 203

C h ap m an , G eorge 13, 107, 157- 8,

D lm ock , G eorge 283

165-8

D lom edes l04

G eneral f/lfv x

3 17

dolos (gr) 96,97

R tzgerald,Robert 102,

D ough erty, C arol l67

156- 7, 278 Flem m p D eb orah 78

E ades, C arolln e 210,2 1l

Flow er, R obln 86

E co,U m berto 264

Foley,John M lles 29,38,43, l47

Ellot, C h arles W 275 E h ot, G eorge 108 E llot,T hom as Stearn s 13- 14,27,

Ford,A ndrew l20 form ulas 2 l,29,32, 33, 90, 211, see also oral p oetry

197, 2 11, 226

Forster,E dw ard M

87

E llts, H avelock 1l6 E lp en or 232, 238-42

Fou cau lt,M lch el 28 Fow ler,R ob ert 5 n 13, 30- 1, 123

E plc

Frangop ou los, T h eophllos D

A frlcan eplc 125-31

A rlstotle's defm ltlon of eplc 126- 7, l3l com p aratlve stu dles of eplc 28-9

234-5, 236-8

Tetcllom achta 236- 8 fW e H ave T aken R oot' 234-5 fun eral lam ent 82

En gllsh eplc 149

epos (gr ) l30

G alnsford,Peter 56-7

G reek an d R om an eplc 12 1-5,l30

G alllel, G allleo 180- 1

N ear E astern eplc 171, 193-4, 204, 225

G alllp oll l6l G an ue,A F 4 1-2

E tm an ,A h m ed 47-8 Eum aeu s 223

G elllus,A u ltls 285 gen der p olltlcs l12- 17, 173,243-4,

E urlpld es 173

249-58, see also fam lly

Euryclela 63, 216, 223, 243

valu es,fem ln lsm

E urydlce 22l

G lldersleeve,B asll A

Eu stathlu s l06

G tlgatnesh, see N ear E astern eplc

Everett,E dw ard 270

G llroy,Paul 51

Fagles,R obert 96, 100,102, l11,l56

G latlcu s l04 gods, an clent 24 n 63, 149, 160,

fam lly valu es 2 17-2 1, 257- 8,

282-3

27l

171-2, 204,283

G oethe,Johann W olfgang von 3

Fantasy Flctlon 6, 175

G oodm an,John 265

Farr, D avld 13- 14 Farrell,Joseph 45 fem lnlsm 63, see also gender

G orglas 173 G orgythlon l88 G orky In stltute of W orld

p olltlcs

Llterature l32

Felton , C urtls C onw ay 270,27l

O 'G rady,Stan dlsh 83

Flnn egan ,R u th 125- 8

G rote, G eorge 27l

Flrst W rorld W ar 53-5,59-61, 161,

G ulllory,John 279

186, 188,273-4

G u m p ert, M atth ew

l73

318

G cnérrfll Index

H alhw ell, Steph en 50

H am m on d ,M artm

T he O

169,278

.

#@c/(z/of theD ream

Palace 140

H ardm ck ,L orn a 32, 15l H arrls,W llson 66-7,69-70

l rokc' n A prll l33 C llro' nlclc 1, n sfo?1e l33

H arvard U nlverslty 270,275

The Gepcrlzlofthe D crltï

l-lalv ard C lasslcs 275-7 H ean ep Seam u s l87 H ector 58, 178,232,238

A rm y l33 T he M onster 133 katabasls, see U n derw orld

H elen 95-6, 172-3

K eats,Joh n 13, 157-8, 165-8,169

H erltage B ook C lub 276

K eble,John 1O8

H errnsteln 5m 1th,Barbara 123-4 H esfod 36,279 H eubeck,A lfred 42-3

kleos / klea (gr ) 130,161,252,264 Ktm chalovsky,A ndrel (The O dyssey TV adaptatlon) 246

H tgh et, G llbert 277

K ubrlck, stanley l57

H tn ds, Step hen 49 H tstortctsm

12

L ac ap ra, D om ln lck 16

H om ecom m g 49 , 53, 6 1,

191-209,252

L am b , C h arles 107- 8

Lang,A ndrew 277, 278

H om ersc H ym n s l79

L an g ,Frttz 154- 5

H om er Slm p son 6-7

L atm

H opkln s,G erald M anley 88

Lattlm ore,R lchm ond 95,278

The H um an 5,1://1(dlrected by R obertB enton) 268

Leaf,W alter 277 Lelgh,M lke 22-3,245-61,267

H un ter,H olly 2 62

H utchlns,RobertM

270- 3

A btgatl's Party 246

276,277

Lfe fsswccr 258 N aked 2 45- 61, 2 66-7

ln tertextu allty 10, 246, 260

Secrets antl L les 246, 2 58

Irelan d 18-9, 50, 53-61, 75- 91,

W r/ D rake J58

see also Joyce,Longleyk the T rou bles Isocrates l73

Leo,Frledrlch 122, 125 lln gulstlcs 29 llterary valu e 40, 88, 122- 4

L ogu e, C hrlstoph er 12- 1. 3, 145- 76

Johns H opkm s U ntverstty 271

A IlD ay Perm anentR ed 160, 162,

Joyce,Jam es 8,45,47,76-7,93-4,

169-70, 171-2, 183

97- 119,210- 11,217,242,

an achrom sm tn 148,168,171,l82

246 , 259 , 267

A tfllo/tlgtfc 159 cm em atli techm qu es m

K ad are,lsm all 2, 121, 132-42 Th t .F//: on H 121, 132-9, 141-2

Sp n ng F low ers, qsp r/p.jrF rost 134

182-3 C old C /lls 161, 170- 1 G BH

182

K m gs 151

146,

G eneralIndex

319

Patrocleta 151, 153, 154, 160, l8l

M arxlsm

86, 89, 9l, 199-200, 233

P ax 15 1, 182

M axw ell, M ary 152- 3

Prm ce C htzrl-nl' ng l52

M cc rorte,E dw ard 278

slm lles ln 146, 181-4

M cK eon , R lch ard 277

J'Q r M ustc 145-76, 181-4

m ëdea pukna (gr) 96

Lom bardo,Stanley 157,278

M edledovlc,A vdo 40, 123

L ongley, M lchael 15, 53-61,

M elllet,A n toln e 80

186-90,244

M elanth o 63-4

A Poppy' 59-60, 187- 8

M eleager 82

A n Exp loded v kcw 53,57

M enelau s 174,263

f'I'he C am p Ftres' 189

m ëm s (gr ) 280

fc easeflre' l87

M errlll,R odn ey 278

T uryclela' 56-7

m etam orph osls 12

Gorse F/rcs l87 fl-lom er's O ctopus' l5,56

M etropohs (dlrected by Frlz Lang) 154-5

s' now W tzfcr 57,l87

M tlton ,John 4,28,94,149-50,177,

The G host O rchld 58, l89 f'I'h e H elm et' 58

180, l93 M ln ch ln ,E llzab eth 163-5

f'T'h e H orses' 60

M ltch ell, Steph en 40

The W eather />7Japan 188

M oderm sm

f'W ar an d P eace' 57, 187

M orettl,Fran co 7, l3l

W oun ds' 53-4

M orrls, 1an 5 n 13, 30- 1

13,76,267

L ord,A lb ert 39- 45, l5, 132-41 L oren zatos, Z tsstm os 231

M ost, G len n W l22 M ulokozl,M ubyam bu so 127-8, l30

L ô ttl, P lerre 80

M urrayk G llb ert 79

L ow e,N lck 153, 163

m yth lcal m eth od 70,76

L ow ell, R ob ert 235, 240

M yers, E rn est 277

Ly caon 2 32- 8

Lynn -G eorge, M tch ael 34 lyrlc p oetry 55, 187, 190

N agy, G regory 38,40,88 N au slcaa 64, 98, 100- 17, 248, 25 1

L u can 4

N ear E astern ep lc 35 , 17 1, 193- 4 ,

Lu ce, John V

87

Lu th er,A n dreas 9

204,225 negn tude 206- 7, 209, see also race

N ekum (gr ),see U nderw orld M ach aon 174

N estor 173

M acln tosh , Flon a 79

N letzsch e, Frledrlch 49

M acllenna,Stephen 78-9

nostos (gr ),see hom ecom lng

M ahafh; John Pentland 84 M akrlyan nls, G en eral 237

O dysseu s 93- 107, 111-16, 118- 19,

M an delb aum ,A lan 278

233, 247, 251, 256- 8, 264- 6,

M artln dale, C h arles 8

282,283

320

G eneral Index

O kp ew h o, Isld ore 128-130

p ostcolonlallsm

11 ,

oral p o etry 3- 4, 33-7, 48, 90- 1 on p n ahty 17, 30-7

2 8, 5 1,

19 1-2 09

p ost

O

traum atlc stress dlsorder 64 Poun d E zra 242 -

rp h eus 2 12- 15,224,225

,

O ttom an em plre 14O

Pow elt Barry 5 n 13 ,

O vld 213

P rlam

30- 1

92 96 ,

O w en ,W llfred 54, 59

Proust M arcel 2 10- 12 ,

p acllism

P ullm an , P h lllp 177 P ren dergast C hrlstoph er 3, l3l

148, see also w ar

,

P alm er, G eorge H

2 77-8 283

P ygm ah on 67

,

A n th em for D oom ed Youth ' 59

Parls (Tro?an prlnce) l73

Q ulntlllan 233

P arly M llm an 5 I6, 2 7-.-46, 89- 9 1, ,

12 1- 3, 12 5, 13 1-2 ,134 - 9 , 141 P atrod us 83, 153, 181,235 , 242 , 2 80

race I7 see also negn tude

P en elop e 24, 62-4, 75, 96 98,2 16,

receptlon 6- 7 9- 10 , 15- 16,.30- 3 1,

,

R adw aykJanlce 275 ,

,

22 3, 243- 4, 2 52 2 5 6, 2 58,

33 , 42>44 -6,24 6,2 59, 2 6 1 2 67 ,

,

2 63, 2 65, 2 82

Peradotttw John 95, 171

.

recognltlon 52 3, 55- 7, 6 1, 75, -

penpeto a (gr ) 52,61,64

223 ,

P haeacla, th e P h aeaclan s 98- 101 ,

l 11, 251

246

R eesy E n n ls 2 77- 8

R eld C hn stoph er 150- 1, 159 ,

Phlloctet: (character ln W alcott's

Relnhardt K arl l18

O m eros) 1S5 phtlotës (gr ) 280

repetltlon l0 90 revlslon 10

photography 161 2 18- 19

revlvlficatlon 1 1 12

Plcasso (G uerntca) 60

RleuyEm lle V 60

,

,

y

-

,

Pln dar 3. % 38,220

249, 2 78

R llke R am er M arla 220, 226 ,

P lato 159, 2 72

R ltso s

Yannls (T enelopeRs D espalr') 243 4

,

A lctbtades 222,226 1on 159

m yth of th e cave 226

-

R o sen b erg Isaac 54 , 59 , R ou se Jv llllam 278 ,

P llny the Younger 233

R upke

lorg 124, 130

,

P lu tarch 106- 7

Polltls,Kosm as (Etm ca) 236

Saralevo 214-16 ,

22 5- 6

P ollard, C h arles 2- 3 14

Sarp edon 164

polutnëtts (gr ) 95 polutvopos (gr ) 95

Schlegel A u gu st W llh elm von 270 Scholes R ob ert 159

P olyph em us 96, see also C yclop s

Secon d W orld W ar 147

,

,

,

-

P op e, A lexan der 106- 7

170 ,

P orter,H ow ard 283

22 6, 2 32- 3,

238 2 7 8 :

8,

G eneral . J/J/V .X seferls,G eorge 8,76, 119,2 11,222, 226,232,234-5,237-8, 240,242,

f'rhe K m g of A sm e' 24Q fT hrush' 238

32 1

P h jloctetes 1 18 Sp en ser, E dm und 4 Stefan ovlc K aradllc, V uk

137 n 62 Stem er, G eorge 8-9, 156, l66

Serb la, see Y ugoslavla

Steslch oru s l73

seven Seas (character m W alcott's

stevens,W allace 243

O m eros) 186 shakespeare,W llllam 167, 169, 214-15,220 Shay,Jonathan l47

sturges Preston 263 O 'Sulllvan,M aun ce (M uln s O sulleabhaln) 86,91 sultors (O dysseyj 253,256-7,283

Sheen ,Eh zab eth 150 Sh ew m np W alter 278

Sunlata 126- 7 Synge,John M lllm gton 76-85, 117

Slck er,P h lh p 116 slkeh an os,A ngelos 232

T agore,R ab ln dranath 48

slm lle l77- 90

T an talu s 2 13

reverse slm lle 6 1

Tassth Torqu ato 4, 177

eptc stm tles 177-81 hon stm tles 104

Tatum ,Jam es 147-8 Tayler, Edw ard 283

w orld of th e H om en c

Telem achu s 75, 223, 282- 3

slm lles 179-80

slm llarlty and dlsslm lllarlty

Tennyson ,A lfred l18, l77

textu al f-undam entallsm

ln 178-9, 181, 184-5,

T h atch er, M argaret 258

188, l90

T h ew hss, D avld 246

slm lles ln C hrlstopher L ogu e 181-4

m M tch ael L on gley 186-90 ln D el-ek W alcott,see W alcott, D erek

49

T hom as,E dw ard 54 T h om son , G eorge D erw en t 76,

85- 9 l tlm e an d ttm elessn ess 12- 13, 34-46, 6 1-7 1

sln op oulos T akls 235-42

T lreslas 213,2l6

fE lp en or' 238-40 fW ake for Elp en or' 240-2 Slren s 262, 266

T ltyus 213 tradltlon al poetry 29-30, 42 tran slatlon s 1, 30y 35- 6, 4 7- 8, 5S,

Slsyphu s 2l3 soclah sm 78

95, 10U, 102, 106, 146, 150- 8, 272, 277-9, see also

Solom os 220, 224

entm es un der m dtvtdu al

som m e,B attle of th e 55

tran slatol-s

Song ofhhlm an Parry see Vo?lèlc,

Troubles,The (N orthern

M llovan Sophocles 272 A nttgone 220

Ireland) 55,61 Troy (dlrected by W olfgang Petersen) 9,245,259,268

322

G eneralIndex

Tu rn er, E dw ard R

273

typ e scen es 2 l,2 1 1, see also form u las, oral poetry recognltlon scen es 56- 7

W ar, O dysseu s as w ar dodger, 94 W ell, Slm on e 9, 147 W eln steln ,P hlllp l13 W est, M artln L

l93.-4

U nd erw orld 66, 192-206,

W estern can on , see can on ,W estern

2 10- 27, 242

W estern clvlllzatlon 269, 274, 279

U n derw ood, Slm eon 154, 164

W estern cultu re l1, 280,284 W estern hterature 1, l5, 30,

V lco, G lam b attlsta 33 n 25 V letn am W ar l47

40- 1, 43 W estern m ovles 170, 283, see also

V lrp l 4, 5, 28, 30, 94, 122- 3, 193, 195, 197,203,2 10 ,281,fv lrg'

cln em a W estern valu es 269,282 ,284

as a N ew England farm er 7

A enetd 94, 123, 195, 198, 245 V ollélc,M llovan 136-4 1

The Song of .Az . 9 /?' rl;7/:Parry 136- 9, l4 l

W lcke,Jennlfer l14

W llcock M alcolm 278 W llde, O scar 84 W llllam s,R aym on d 285

W lnkelm ann,Johann Joachlm 2 70

W olf, Frledrlch A ugu st 33, 271

W alcott,D erek 1,7, 8, l7,28y44- 5, 52, 61-8, 7l, 85, 191-3, 204- 8,246,259 fl-lom ecom lng A n se L a R aye' 191, 204-6 O tn eros 1, 7, l7, 2 3, 44- 5, 66- 8, 177, 184- 6, 19 1- 2, 194- 5,

206- 7, 245, 259 T he O dyssey .?t Stage F a's/t??l 6 l- 6

w orld llterature 3-4, 12 l W orld W ar 1, see Flrst W orld W ar W orld W ar I1,see Second W orld W ar W orld W ld e W eb 6 W yke,M arla 258- 9 Y ale U n lverslty R ep ort 270 Y eats,W llllam B u tler 76- 8, 85- 6

slm lles ln 185- 6

Younp P hlllp H

TheM use of Ihstory 65

Yugoslavla 136-41,214-16,

The Sea at D aup htn 85

8

225- 6

w ar 57, 188- 9, 280, see also C lvll

W ar,FlrstW orld W ar, Second W orld W ar,V lem am

2001 .A Space O dyssey (dlrected by Stanley Kubrtck) l57