History of the Akkadian Language (2 vols) 9789004445215, 9004445218

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11

Handbook of Oriental Studies Handbuch der Orientalistik SECTION ONE

The Ancient Near East

Editor-in-Chief M. Weed en (London)

Editors C. Leitz (Tubing en) H. Gzella (Leiden) C.Waerzeggers(Leiden) D. Wicke (Mainz) C. Woods (Chicago)

VOLUME 152/1

The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/h01

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History of the Akkadian Language Volume 1 Linguistic Background and Early Periods

Edited by

Juan-Pablo Vita

BRILL LEIDEN

I BOSTON

Cover illustration: Late Babylonian tablet, apprenticeship contract, written in Babylon in the year Nabonidus 16, i.e., 540 BCE. Copyright: Altorientalisches Institut der UniversWi.t Leipzig. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Vita, Juan-Pablo, editor. Title: History of the Akkadian Language I edited by Juan-Pablo Vita. Description: Leiden ; Boston: Brill, 2021.1 Series: Handbook of Oriental studies. Section one, The Near and Middle East, 0169-9423 ; 152/1 I Includes bibliographical references and indexes. I Contents: v. 1. Linguistic background and early periods- v. 2. The second and first millennia BCE as well as its afterlife. Identifiers: LCCN 2020052247 (print) I LCCN 2020052248 ( ebook) I ISBN 9789004445673 (v. 1; hardback) I ISBN 9789004445680 (v. 2; hardback) ISBN 9789004445208 (hardback) I ISBN 9789004445215 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Akkadian language-Grammar, Historical. I Akkadian language-History. Classification: LCC Pj3241.H57 2021 (print) I LCC PJ3241 ( ebook) DDC 492/.109-dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020052247 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020052248

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Typeface for the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts: "Brill". See and download: brill.com/brill-typeface. ISSN 0169-9423 ISBN 978-90-04-44520-8 (hardback, set) ISBN 978-90-04-44567-3 (hardback, vol. 1) ISBN 978-90-04-44568-0 (hardback, vol. 2) ISBN 978-90-04-44521-5 ( e-book) Copyright 2021 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Rodopi, Brill Sense, Hotei Publishing, mentis Verlag, Verlag Ferdinand Schoningh and Wilhelm Fink Verlag. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Requests for re-use and/or translations must be addressed to Koninklijke Brill NV via brill.com or copyright.com. This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner.

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Contents VOLUME I

Preface IX List of Figures and Tables IX Abbreviations: Bibliographical XIV Other Abbreviations and Conventions Notes on Contributors XLII

XXXVI

PART 1

Introduction 1

Research on the Akkadian Language Michael P. Streck

3

PART 2

Teaching and Writing Akkadian in the Ancient Near East 2

Teaching Akkadian in the Ancient Near East Alexandra Kleinennan

3

Akkadian and Cuneiform Michael P. Streck

4

Akkadian and Alphabetic Cuneiform 75 Carafe Roche-Hawley and Robert Hawley

5

Akkadian and the Greek Alphabet (Graeco-Babyloniaca) MartinLang

37

66

PART 3

Akkadian: Some General Trends of Its Develop1nent 6

Classification of Akkadian within the Semitic Family Rebecca Hasselbaclz-Andee

129

102

:;:;;

CONTENTS

VI

7

Historical Morphology of Akkadian NJ C. Kouwenberg

8

A Historical Overview of Akkadian Morphosyntax 228 IlyaArkhipo~ Maksim Kalinin and Sergey Loesov

9

A History of the Akkadian Lexicon 366 Leonid Kogan and Manfred Krebernik

10

A History of Akkadian Onomastics Regine Pruzsinszky

147

477

PART 4

Akkadian in the Fourth and Third Millennia BCE 11

Old Akkadian 513 Wafter Sommerfeld

12

Eblaite 664 Leonid Kogan and Manfred Krebemik

VOLUME2

PART 5

Akkadian in the Second Millennium BCE: Akkadian in Mesopotamia 13

Old Babylonian 993 Michael P. Streck

14

Middle Babylonian 1039 Wiifred H. van Soldt

15

Old Assyrian 1103 NJC. Kouwenberg

16

Middle Assyrian 1137 Stefan]akob

~!~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .

VII

CONTENTS

PART 6

Akkadian in the Second Millennium BCE: PeripheralAkkadian 17

Akkadian and the Amorites Dominique Charpin

18

Akkadian in Syria and Canaan juan-Pablo Vita

19

Akkadian and the Hittites Gary Beckman

20

Akkadian in Egypt 1293 Matthias Muller

21

Akkadian in Elam 1316 Florence Malbran-Labat

1177

1213

1266

PART 7

Akkadian in the First Millennium BCE 22

Neo-Assyrian 1347 Frederick M. Pales

23

(Early) Neo-Babylonian Christian W. Hess

24

Late Babylonian 1431 johannes Hack[

25

The Death of Akkadian as a Written and Spoken Language johannes Hack[

1396

PART 8

Afterlife: Akkadian after Akkadian 26

The Legacy of Akkadian John Huehnergard

1481

1459

-~

CONTENTS

VIII

Index of Personal Names 1533 Index of Divine Names 1541 Index of Geographical Names 1543 Index of Subjects 1549 Index of Texts Cited 1568

Preface Akkadian is, after Sumerian, the second oldest language attested in the Ancient Near East, as well as the oldest known Semitic language. It is also a language with one of history's longest written records. And yet, unlike other relevant languages written over a long period of time, there has been no volume dedicated to its own history. The aim of the present work is to fill that void. Because it grew to embrace so many facets of Akkadian, and some of its chapters are so extensive, the work is divided into two volumes, the first covering parts 1-4 (Linguistic Background and Early Periods), the second covering parts s-8 (The Second and First Millennia BCE. Afterlife). A work of this type could only be a collective endeavor. The outcome is presented in 26 chapters written by 25 authors. It is, therefore, a work with a long and complex gestation. The authors were given only a general suggestion that, as far as possible, their chapters should not be limited to the grammatical aspects of the language, but should also take into account its historical and cultural background. Some authors exceeded (in a few cases considerably) the assigned number of pages, but we trust that the result of their efforts is justification for retaining them in their entirety. On the other hand, the initial plan included several chapters that, for various reasons, it has been necessary to abandon. We hope, nevertheless, that the final product will be useful both to students and to professionals in Assyriology, in Semitic studies, and in general linguistics. I wish to express my profound thanks to the authors for having responded positively to the invitation, for having honored their commitment, for having entrusted me with their valuable manuscripts and, in short, for having made possible the work that the reader now has in hand. Special thanks are addressed to several of the authors. Wilfred H. van Soldt welcomed the initial proposal, encouraged me to undertake it, helped to give it shape and directed it to Brill publishing. The advice and personal support of John Huehnergard and Leonid Kogan were essential both in the composition of the final plan of the work and at various times throughout its implementation. Michael P. Streck's personal interest in and commitment to the project were key to the resolution of several obstacles that arose in the last stages of the work. My thanks are due as well to Brill publishing for its prompt acceptance of the project, for its patience and editorial support during the long process of compiling and editing the manuscript, and for including the volume in its prestigious Handbook of Oriental Studies series. This appreciation extends also to my contacts at Brill, Jennifer Pavelko, Katelyn Chin and Erika Mandarino, for

PREFACE X

their great help, support and professionalism during these years, and to Cas Van den Hof (TAT Zetwerk) for his effective help and guidance through the proofreading and typesetting process. Here too I wish to signal my sincere thanks to the two anonymous reviewers of the volume for their constructive suggestions for improving the final manuscript, and to Mark Weeden and Caroline Waerzeggers, Editor in Chief and Editor, respectively, of Brill's Handbook of Oriental Studies-The Ancient Near East, for their careful review and revision of the entire final manuscript. On a more personal level, and in the context of a work of this nature, I may be permitted to recall with deep gratitude my teachers of Akkadian, in particular Joaquin Sanmartin, Manuel Molina, Karel Van Lerberghe, Florence MalbranLabat, Daniel Arnaud andjohannes Renger. juan-Pablo Vita Madrid, September 2020 Consejo Superior de lnvestigaciones Cientificas (c s 1c) lnstituto de Lenguas y Culturas del Mediternineo y Oriente

Proximo (ILC)

Figures and Tables Figures 4.1 4.2

RS 5.156+ (eTA 162, KTU 1.70). Photo C. Roche-Hawley and R. Hawley 93 RS 5.303bis (CTA 165, KTU 1.73). Photo C. Roche-Hawley and R. Hawley 95

4·3

A hypothetical reconstruction of RS 5.199 (CTA 164, KTU 1.67) +? RS 5.213 ( CTA 163, KTU 1.69). Photo C. Roche-Hawley and R. Hawley

4·4 6.1 6.2

97 RS 5.216 (CTA 208, KTU 5.2 ). Photo C. Roche-Hawley and R. Hawley The genetic or family-tree model 131

11.2

Genetic classification of the Semitic languages 135 Genetic affiliation of the major Akkadian dialects 138 Tree diagram of ES 149 'Sumerian' BAD. PES 5, 34 i 50 563 'Akkadian' BAD. PES s, 34 viii 57 s63

11.3

MO BAD. MDP 2, 40:145, cf. Charles Fossey, Manuel d'Assyriologie. 2.

6.3 7.1 11.1

99

Evolution des cuneifonnes (Paris: Conard, 1926), 386:12753 11.4

s63 MO EZEN. MDP 2, 40:144, cf. Fossey, Manue[ d'Assyriofogie, 386:12738

11.5

'Sumerian' i-gul-gul. PES 15, 41 v 4'

11.6

'Ak.kadian' i.GUL.GUL. PES 15,41 vi 7'

11.7 11.9

MOGUL. MDP 2, 40:158, cf. Fossey, Manuel d'Assyriologie, 838:27615 Sum. ba-gul-gul OSP 1, 95, 13 564 Ak.k.Ti-pi-a-ku[l](GU[L])OSP1,47ii3 564

11.10

The sign TU in calligraphic and simplified form

11.8

563

564 564 564

566

Tables 4.1

Parallels with the first millennium Assyrian anti-witchcraft series "Maqh1",

4.2

recognized by Dhorme 79 Parallel passages marked with clause dividers in RS 5.156+ (CTA 162, KTU 1.70)

7.2

and RS 5.303bis (CTA 165, KTU 1. 73) 88 Major Akkadian dialects 137 The inflection of the noun in PAkk 155 The cardinal numbers 1-10 in OB, OA and PS

7·3

The independent personal pronouns in PAkk

7·4

Idem in Arb and PS 173 The suffix pronouns of PAkk Idem of Arb and PS 177

6.1 7.1

7·5 7.6

175

167 170

;;;

FIGURES AND TABLES

XII

The determinative pronouns of SAkk

7·9

7.11

179

Idem of Ar 180 The personal endings of the prefix conjugations and the Imp 184 The personal endings of the Akk stative and the perfect in Arb and Gez 196 The personal endings of the AA stative conjugations

198

7.15

The paradigm of the precative 200 The subjunctive and the Arb imperfective 203 The G-stem and three of the primary stems 206 The Gt-stem and the secondary stems with -t- 213

7.16

The Dt- and St-stems in older Semitic

7.17

9·4

The paradigm of the tan-stems 215 Akkadian-West Semitic phrasebook 383 Concepts with different lexical exponents in OA and oB 398 Pan-Akkadian lexemes with special meanings in Assyrian 402 Main types of correspondences of stops and sibilants in the

9·5

Sumero-Akkadian borrowing process 418 Glottalization and aspiration in Sumerian and Akkadian

7.12 7.13 7.14

9.1 9.2 9·3

9.6 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8

214

419

Sibilants in Sargonic Akkadian 420 Dating, periodization, and terminology 514 Distribution of the Late Uruk text corpus on genres 519 A survey of the cuneiform documentation of the third millennium

524

Distribution of ED I/11 texts according to origin 527 Composition of the ED Ilia onomasticon of KiS 535 Composition of the ED IIIb onomasticon of KiS 535 Composition ofthe Sargonic onomasticon ofKis 536 Composition of the onomasticon of the ED Ilia administrative texts of Tell

11.10

Abu Salab1l] 536 Composition of the ED Ilia onomasticon of Nip pur 537 Composition of the onomasticon in the ED IIIb administrative documents

11.11

of Nippur 537 Composition of the onomasticon in the ED IIIb votive inscriptions of

11.12

Nippur 537 Composition of the onomasticon in the 'Akkadian' texts of Nippur

11.13

Composition of the onomasticon in the 'Enlilemaba Archive' of

11.9

11.14 11.15 11.16 11.17

538

Nippur 538 Composition of the onomasticon in the 'Onion Archive' of Nip pur 538 Composition of the onomasticon in the ration lists, etc. of Nip pur 539 Composition of the onomasticon in the ED Ilia documentation oflsin 539 Composition ofthe onomasticon in the ED IIIb documentation of Isin 540

XIII

FIGURES AND TABLES

11.18

11.19 11.20 11.21

11.22 11.23

11.24 11.25 11.26 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 20.1 20.2

Composition of the onomasticon in the Sargonic documentation of lsin 540 Composition of the onomasticon in the NPL 541 The sign inventories of various Sargonic text groups 557 Phonogram system in use to differentiate vowels in various environments. 575 The approximant /j/ in syllable onset 579 Semitic proto-phonemes and their reflexes in the Old Akkadian writing system 6os The features of the coronal fricatives in Old Akkadian 607 Changes in the system of phonograms in the dialect of Mugdan Merger of the sibilants in the Mugdan dialect 629 Kings and "viziers" of Ebla 666 Ebla Lexical Texts (T =Tell Abii Salabil], F = Para, U = Uruk) Sources of Vocabolario di Ebla 670 The basic Eblaite syllabary 68o

22.1 22.2

NA conjugated

20.4 20.5 20.6

23.1 24.1

669

Oblique pronominal forms of Eblaite 760 Presence of mimation in Vocabulario di Ebla according to sources Attested paradigms for sulmu and amiitu 1298 Imperfective, Perfective and Stative from sapiiru 1299 Anterior perfect from sapiiru 1299 Infinitive from sapiiru 1301 Distribution of patterns 1305 Gap ping in coordinated patterns 1309 Phonological framework for NA consonants

20.3

621

837

1371

forms to mark person, gender, and number 1382 Overview of enclitic pronouns in Neo-Babylonian 1411 Nominal inflection in diachronic perspective (based on the table in Streck

2014, 285)

1441

Abbreviations: Bibliographical

A.1998

Donbaz, Veysel. "A Middle Babylonian Legal Documents Raising Problems in Kassite Chronology." journal of Near Eastern Studies 41 (1982 ):

AAICAB I/1

207-12. Gregoire, Jean-Pierre. Archives administratives et inscriptions cune-

iformes. Ashmolean Museum, Bodleian Collection Oxford Contribution

a l' histoire sociale, economique, politique et culturelle du Proche-Orient AAICAB I/2

ancien, vol. I, les sources 1. Paris: Geuthner, 1996. Gregoire, jean-Pierre. Archives administratives et inscriptions cuneiformes. Ashmolean Museum, Bodleian Collection Oxford Contribution

al' histoire sociale, economique, politique et culturelle du Proche-Orient ancien, vol. I, les sources 2. Paris: Geuthner, 2000. ABAW

Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.

AbB

Altbabylonische Briefe in Umschrift und Uberzetzung. Leiden, 1964-.

AbB 1

Kraus, F.R. Altbabylonische Briefe in Umschrift und Obersetzung. Leiden-

AbBz

Boston: Brill, 1964. Frankena, Rintje. Briefe aus dem British Museum. Leiden-Boston: Brill, 1966. Frankena, Rintje. Briefe aus der Leidener Sammlung. Leiden-Boston: Brill, 1968. Kraus, F.R. Briefe aus dem Archive des Samas-Ijazir in Paris und Oxford.

AbBs

Leiden-Boston: Brill, 1968. Kraus, F.R. Briefe aus dem Istambuler Museum. Leiden-Boston: Brill,

AbB6

1972. Frankena, Rintje. Briefe aus dem Berliner Museum. Leiden-Boston: Brill, 1974· Kraus, F.R. Briefe aus dem British Museum. Leiden-Boston: Brill,

AbB8

1977· Cagni, Luigi. Briefe aus dem Iraq Museum. Leiden-Boston: Brill, 1980. Stol, Marten. Letters from Yale. Leiden-Boston: Brill, 1981.

AbB9 AbB1o

Kraus, F.R. Briefe aus kleineren westeuropiiischen Sammlungen. Leiden-

AbBn

Boston: Brill, 1985. Stol, Marten. Lettersfrom Collections in Philadelphia, Chicago and Berke-

AbB12

van Soldt, Wilfred H. Letters in the British Museum. Leiden-Boston: Brill,

AbB13

1990. van Soldt, Wilfred H. Letters in the British Museum. Part

ley. Leiden-Boston: Brill, 1986.

Boston: Brill, 1993.

2.

Leiden-

ABBREVIATIONS : BIBLIOGRAPHIC AL

AbB14 ABIM

ABL

AD ART

AED

AfO AfOzs AHK

XV

Veenhof, Klaas R. Letters in the Louvre. Leiden-Boston: Brill, zoos. Zaybari, Akram. Altbabylonische Briefe des Iraq-Museums. PhD diss., University of Munster, 1962. Koln, 1964. Harper, Robert Francis. Assyrian and Babylonian Letters. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1914. Sachs, Abraham J., and Hermann Hunger. Astronomical Diaries and Related Texts from Babylonia I-VII. Vienna: Verlag der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1988-. Kane, Thomas L. Amharic-English Dictionary. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1990. Archiv fur Orientforschung. Westenholz, Aage. "Old Akkadian School Texts:' Archiv for Orientforschung 25 (1974-1977): 95-110. Elmar Edel. Die iigyptisch-hethitische Korrespondenz aus Boghazkoi in babylonischer und hethitischer Sprache. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag,

AHw

1994· von Soden, Wolfram. Akkadisches Handworterbuch. Unter Benutzung des lexikalischen Nachlasses von Bruno Meissner (1868-1947 ). Wiesbaden:

AIA8

Harrassowitz, 1959-1981. Tablets in the collections of the Australian Institute of Archaeology, Melbourne. Rasheed, Fawzi. The Ancient Inscriptions in Himrin Area. Baghdad: Ministry of Culture and Information. The State Organization of Antiquities

AIHA

AKT8

AOAT

51

ARCANE

and Heritage, 1981. Veenhof, Klaas R. Ankara Killtepe Tabletleri VI I 1. The Archive ofElamma, son ofIddin-Suen, and his Family. Ankara, 2017. Paulus, Susanne. Die babylonischen Kudurru-Inschriften von der kassitischen bis zur friihneubabylonischen Zeit, untersucht unter besonderer Berilcksichtigung gesellschafts- und rechtshistorischer Fragestellungen. Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2014. Associated Regional Chronologies for the Ancient Near East and the

ARET2

Eastern Mediterranean. Civil, Miguel. The Early Dynastic Practical Vocabulary A (Archaic HAR-ra A). Roma: Missione Archeologica Italiana in Siria, zoo8. Archivi reali di Ebla. Roma, 1985-. Archi, Alfonso. Testi amministrativi: assegnazioni di tessuti (Archivio L.2769 ). Roma: Missione Archeologica ltaliana in Siria, 1985. Edzard, Dietz Otto. Verwaltungstexte verschiedenen Inhalts (a us de m

ARET3

Archiv L.2769 ). Roma: Missione Archeologica Italiana in Siria, 1981. Archi, Alfonso, and Maria Giovanna Biga. Testi amministrativi di vario

ARES4

ARET ARETI

ABBREVIATIONS: BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

XVI

contenuto (Archivio L.2769: ™·7S·G.soo0-4707 ). Roma: Missione Archeo-

ARET4

logica Italiana in Siria, 1982. Biga, Maria Giovanna, and Lucio Milano. Testi amministrativi: assegnazioni di tessuti (Archivio L. 2769 ). Roma: Missione Archeologica Ital-

ARET5

iana in Siria, 1984. Edzard, Dietz Otto. Hymnen, Beschworungen und Verwandtes (Aus dem Archiv L.2769 ). Roma: Missione Archeologica Italiana in Siria, 1984.

ARET7

Archi, Alfonso. Testi amministrativi: registrazioni di metalli e tessuti (Archivio L.2769 ). Roma: Missione Archeologica Italiana in Siria, 1988.

ARET8

ARET9

Sollberger, Edmond. Administrative Texts Chiefly Concerning Textiles (L.2752). Roma: Missione Archeologica Italiana in Siria, 1986. Milano, Lucio. Testi amministrativi: assegnazioni di prodotti alimentari (Archivio L.2712-Parte I). Roma: Missione Archeologica Italiana in Siria, 1990.

ARET 11 ARET12

Fronzaroli, Pelio. Testi rituali della regalita (L.2769 ). Roma, 1993. Lahlouh, Mohammed, and Amalia Catagnoti. Testi amministrativi di vario contenuto (Archivio L.2769: ™·7S·G.4702-6oso ). Roma: Missione

ARET 13

Archeologica ltaliana in Siria, zoo6. Fronzaroli, Pelio. Testi di cancelleria: i rapporti con le citta (Archivio L.2769 ). Roma: Missione Archeologica Italiana in Siria, 2003.

ARET 15

Pomponio, Francesco. Testi amministrativi: assegnazioni mensili di tessuti, periodo di Arrugum (Archivio L.2769 ). Parte

I.

Roma: Missione

Archeologica Italiana in Siria, zooS-Parte II. Roma: Missione Arche-

ARET 16

ologica Italiana in Siria, 2013. Catagnoti, Amalia, and Pelio Fronzaroli. Testi di cancelleria: il re e ifunzionari (L.2769 ), Parte I. Roma: Missione Archeologica Italiana in Siria, 2010.

ARET18

Catagnoti, Amalia, and Pelio Fronzaroli. Testi di Cancelleria: il re e ifun-

ARET19

zionari, VoL 2 (L. 2875). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, zozo. Samir, Imad. Monatliche Buchfohrung iiber Textilien aus Jbriums Amt-

ARET 20

szeit (Archiv L. 2769 ). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2019. Archi, Alfonso. Administrative Texts: Allotments oJClothingfor the Palace Personnel (Archive L. 2769 ). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2018.

ARM1

Archives royales de Mari. Paris, 1950-. Dossin, Georges. Correspondance de Samsi-Addu. Paris: lmprimerie

ARM2

Nationale, 1950. Jean, Charles-F. Lettres diverses transcrites et trauduites. Paris: lmpri-

ARM3

merie Nationale, 1950. Kupper,Jean-Robert. Correspondance de Kibri-Dagan. Paris: lmprimerie

ARM

Nationale, 1950.

ABBREVIATIONS: BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ARM4 ARMS ARM6 ARMlO ARM14 ARM26

XVII

Dossin, Georges. Correspondance de Samsi-Addu. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1951. Dossin, Georges. Correspondance de Iasmai;-Addu. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1952. Kupper, Jean-Robert. Correspondance de Bal;di-Lim. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1954. Dossin, Georges. Correspondancefeminine. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1978. Birot, Maurice. Lettres de Yaqim-Addu, gouvemeur de Sagaratum. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1974. Durand, Jean-Marie. Archives epistolaires de Mari 1/1. Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 1988.-Dominiq ue Charpin, Francis Joannes, Sylvie Lackenbacher, and Bertrand Lafont, Archives epistolaires

de Mari 1/2. Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 1988. ARM27

Birot, Maurice. Correspondance des gouvemeurs de Qattunan. Paris: Edi-

ARM28

tions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 1993. Kupper, Jean-Robert. Lettres royales du temps de Zimri-Lim. Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 1998.

AS

Assyriological Studies. Chicago, 1931-.

AS 17

Buccellati, Giorgio, and Robert D. Biggs. Cuneiform Texts from Nippur. The Eighth and Ninth Seasons. Chicago: Chicago University Press,

AS 22

1969. Whiting, Robert M. Old Babylonian letters from Tell Asmar. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1987.

ASBW

Steible, Horst. Die altsumerischen Eau- und Weihinschriften. baden: Steiner, 1982.

ASJ

Acta Sumerologica.

ASJ 4

Foster, Benjamin R. ''An Agricultural Archive from Sargonic Akkad." Acta Sumerologica 4 (1982): 7-51. Alster, Bendt, and Aage Westenholz. "The Barton Cylinder." Acta Sume-

ASJ 16 AUCT AUWE AVSB BagM

BaM

I-ll.

Wies-

rologica 16 (1994): 15-46. OB Andrews University Cuneiform Texts. Berriens Springs, Michigan, 1984-· Ausgrabungen in Uruk-Warka. Endberichte. Mainz, 1987-. Kouwenberg, N.J.C. The Akkadian Verb and its Semitic Background. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2010. Sassmannshause n, Leonhard. "Ein ungewohnliches mittelbabylonisches Urkundenfragme nt aus Nippur." Baghdader Mitteilungen 25 (1994): 447-57· Baghdad er Mitteilungen.

ABBREVIATIONS: BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

XVIII

BaM Beih. 2

Mayer, Werner R. Texte aus dem Res-Heiligtum in Uruk-Warka. Kopien von Jan van Dijk. Baghdad er Mitteilungen, Beiheft II. Berlin: Gebriider Mann Verlag, 1980. Die Babylonisch-Assyrische Medizin in Texten und Untersuchungen.

BAM BATSH

BESt

Berichte der Ausgrabung Tall Se}]. I:Iamad/Diir-Katlimmu. King, WL. Babylonian Boundary Stones and Memorial Tablets in the

British Museum. London: Trustees of the British Museum, 1912. BBVO 24

Ziegler, Nele, and Eva Christiane Cancik-Kirschbaum, edited by. D'Assur

a Mari et au-dela. Berliner Beitdige zum Vorderen Orient 24. Gladbeck:

BBVOT

PeWe-Verlag, 2014. Berliner Beitriige zum Vorderen Orient. Texte. Berlin, 1989-.

BDB

Brown, Frnacis, S.R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs. A Hebrew and Aramaic

Lexicon of the Old Testament. Oxford, 1906. BDTNS

Base de Datos de Textos Neosumerios (Database of Neo-Sumerian

BE

Texts) (http://bdtns.filol.csic.es) The Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania. Philadel-

BE

phia, 1893-. Hilprecht, H.V., and A.T. Clay. Business Documents of Murashu Sons of

9

Nippur dated in the Reign of Artaxerxes I. (464-424 B. C.). Philadelphia: Department of Archaeology, University of Pennsylvania, 1898. BE14

Clay, Albert T. Documentsfrom the Temple archives ofNip pur dated in the

reigns ofCassite rulers. Philadelphia: Department of Archaeology, UniBE 17

versity of Pennsylvania, 1906. Radau, Hugo. Letters to CassiteKingsfrom the Temple Archives ofNippur. Philadelphia: Department of Archaeology, University of Pennsylvania,

Behnstedt

1908. Behnstedt, Peter. Die nordjemenitischen Dialekte (Glossar ). Wiesbaden:

Reichert verlag, 1992-2006. BiMes

Bibliotheca Mesopotamica. Malibu, 1975-.

BIN

Babylonian inscriptions in the collection of James B. Nies.

BIN

8

Hackman, George Gottlob. Sumerian andAkkadianAdministrative Texts

from Predynastic Times to the End of the Akkad Dynasty. Babylonian inscriptions in the collection of James B. Nies vol. 8. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958. BRM

Babylonian Records in the Library of J. Pierpont Morgan. New Haven, 1917-·

BWL

Lambert, Wilfred G. Babylonian Wisdom Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959.

CAD

Oppenheim, A. Leo, Erica Reiner, and Martha T. Roth, edited by. The

Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.

ABBREVIATIONS: BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

21 volumes.

CCT5

CDA

CDG

CDLI CHD

Civil

XIX

Gltickstadt-Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University

of Chicago, 1956-2010. Sidney Smith, and Donald J. Wiseman. Cuneiform Texts from Cappadocian Tablets in the British Museum. Part v. London: Trustees of the British Museum, 1956. Black,Jeremy, Andrew George, and Nicholas Postgate. A Concise Dictionary ofAkkadian. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2000. Leslau, Wolf. ComparativeDictionaryofGe1 phonem from the rest of the Akk syllabary. A special sign ~4 (A') for the sed by Ijonly develo ped in the MB/MA period; in earlier period s /'I was expres as in signs, signs, as in u-wa-I:Je-e-er CUSAS 18,12: 6g (OB), or by additio nal vowel orders". In 10, 56 i 17 (OB), both writing s for uwa''er ''he has given

u-wa-e-erYOS

30: n (OAkk) some cases,/ ' f did not find any express ion at all, as in ku-lu-it OAIC kulu'ii ''male prostitutes". , but also An advanta ge of cuneifo rm compa red to Ancien t Egypti an writing vowels /a/, /i/ to later Semitic alphabe ts, was its ability to represe nt vowels . The if~ (PI) for and /u/ were usually disting uished, with the except ion of the sign the sign and ) (passim wa/we/wi/wu (OAkk, OB, oA), ~Hftf (Ati) for ai:J/ei:J/ii:J/ui:J the /' /. ~4 (A') for/' I in combin ation with any vowel before or after phonem e or an ary The distinc tion betwee n /e/, which only was a second E, BI, GI, allopho ne of /i/, and /i/ was, however, incomp lete. In OAkk, the signs Di 2: p.155 19 LI, ME, SI 11, s.E and z.E were used for /e/ or /e/, as inga-gi-su FAOS and ZI stood 8 kakkesu ''weapons" (obliqu e case), wherea s I, Bf, KI, Lf, MI, SI, SI d".zo presente for syllables with /i/ and /1/, as in i-ki-[s MDP 14, 44: 3 yiqis ''he uish /e/, In OB and most other varietie s of Akk, new sign-se ts served to disting e.g., e-te-ef /e/ and /i/, /1/: E, ME, NE, SE and TE against I, MI, NI, SI and TI, ''of his wife". CH iii 70 (OB) ete/''pri nce" against as-sa-ti-su CH§ 38 (OB) assatisu the sign BI: uMany signs express ed syllables with both /e/ and /i/, for examp le, l-li cHxlvi i 32 ubelli (OB) "I extingu ished" and bi-il-tam CH xvi 73 biltam

be(BI)-e "yield".

19 20

The tradition al transcrip tion is am£/elu. ebict: Tutub (MUnster: Waiter Sommerfeld, Die Texte der Akkade-Zeit. 1. Das Dijala-G 41-57. n, Akkadia Rhema, 1999), 18-zo; Hasselbach, Sargonic

AKKADIAN AND CUNEIFORM

4

71

Orthography21

"Orthography" in the world of cuneiform means writing conventions. These allowed for a certain degree of variance but were not arbitrary.zz One of the most characteristic features of Akk (and, to a lesser degree, Sumerian) cuneiform orthography was the frequent rendering of closed syllables by a combination of a c( onsonant )v( owel) sign with a vc sign: thus the word udabbabka "he will harrass you", with two closed syllables /dab/ and /bab/, could be written u-da-ab-ba-ab-ka AbB g, so: 23 (OB). This orthographic principle was only fully established, together with the development ofvc signs, after the loss of certain weak consonants like /'I and /j I (cf. section 3, above), from the oB period onwards, whereas in OAkk the scribes still had to use eve-signs in many cases, e.g., dam-bur MAD s, 72:10 tambur "she received". 23 Once implemented, it reduced the number of eve signs which otherwise would have been necessary. At the beginning and at the end of the history of writing Akk, closed syllables were rendered by two further methods besides eve-signs or combinations of cv- and vc-signs. Since in Ebla some vc values still did not exist (section 3, above) or were only rarely employed, the scribes wrote either two open syllables cv-cv or defective cv for /cvc/, 24 e.g., ga-na-ga-tum MEE 4: * 464 for kanaktum "an incense-bearing tree" with na-ga for the closed syllable /nak/, or a-za-me-ga ARET s, 1 ii 2 h$midka "I have bound you" with defective me for /mid/. The spelling cv-cv for /eve/ occurred again in the first millennium, especially in LB, less so in NB and NA, under the impact of the Aramaean alphabet: since the alphabet was able to render consonants exactly in all positions the scribes sometimes preferred to write unambiguous (or at least less ambiguous) cvinstead ofvc, e.g., li-qi-bi SAA1, 124:15 (NA) for liqbi"lethim say" (unambiguous qi instead of ambiguous iq/g/k), or a-di-gu-ul OECT 12, A135: 12 (LB) for adgul"I watched" (di less ambiguous than id/t/t). Gemination of consonants could be expressed in writing by repeating the consonant as in a-sap-par SAA 1, 1:12 (NA) asappar "I will send" or i-da-ab-buub ib. 12: 3 idabbub "he talks". This was, however, not obligatory, and in many

21

22 23 24

Cf. in general Edzard, "Orthographie", and Michael P. Streck, "Orthographie. B. Akkadisch im 11. und I. Jt." in Reallexikon der Assyriologie 10, ed. Dietz Otto Edzard and Michael P. Streck (Berlin: Waiter de Gruyter, 2003-2005), 137-40. Edzard, "Orthographie," 132. Hasselbach, Sargonic Akkadian, 36. Manfred Krebernik, "Zu Syllabarund Orthographie der lexikalischen Texte aus Ebla, Teil 1," Zeitschriftfor Assyriologie 72 (1982): 224-28; Edzard, "Orthographie," 134.

STRECK 72 25 h -ma-ra-am 6 cases gemination was left unexpressed, especially in Ebla, e.g., 5 6 e.g., da-sa-bi-ir asp 1, 7 i 5 ARET 16, 2 r. ii 4 'ammaram "I will see", in 0Akk,2 27 103: 6 agamtasabber "you will break", and in OA, e.g., a-ga-mi-ils-ka AKT 8,

milka "I will do you a favor".

i.e., an addiVowel length could be repres ented by so-called plene spellings, or a-de-e SAA 1, tional vowel sign, as in ab-nu-u AbB 9, 61: 6 (oB) abml "stones", g principle was 6: 6 (NA) ade "treaty". In Ebla and OAkk, however, this writin 7 cv-signs with unusu al because the later simple vowel signs were in fact still /, /h/, /1)./, J r:paA.ay ("canal") in the cuneiform version, or o~ov for uznu ("ear") but singularly and the crucial marG I G = j10p0' for the substantive mur$u66 ("illness," BM 34816 [11,2 = r3]).

Anaptyctic Vowels 5·4 The crucial forms of LXLAEt9 for ikleti (or ikleti?, HSM 1137 [1o,g]) or O'e arrisiiti, BM 34798 (16, 9]) or in ex assa, BM 34798 (16, 10 )69 is assimilated.

Traces ofInterferences with Aramaic? 5.6 Basically, we have to state that the extant Greek transliterations of cuneiform texts substantiate the (plausible) suspicion that the actual pronunciation does not mirror the language written down in the conservative cuneiform script with its historical character. 70 Though the preserved texts do not reflect the language of the daily life the late character of the sources could suggest visible traces of Aramaic influence onto or interference with the Akkadian material, or, at least parallel developments. Even for Late Akkadian texts that mirror more Akkadian of daily-life matters the influence of Aramaic is discussed. 71 The preserved text fragments mirror the linguistic features of the Akkadian of the late NeoBabylonian period, und we have to assume that the transliterations in Greek script reflect a linguistic development that had already begun in pre-Hellenistic times. Indeed, due to the fact that we exclusively have texts from a long scholarly (and cultic) tradition, like lists and cultic laments, but no practical texts from every-day-life, the information about this language-contact is scarce. Loan words and calques as primary indicators of language-contact are entirely missing in the present sample of sources, likewise grammatical loans like brhzy/dy X in the NB formula miirilsusaX. 72 Nevertheless, certain changes, like the dissolu-

68 6g 70 71

72

for ikleti (or ikleti?), crctalum, while *f:z, *r, and *(J caused adjacent a-vowels to change to lel, as in *barium> *berlum > belum, thus creating a new vowel that eventually became an independent phoneme. 39 Akkadian further underwent various consonantal mergers, such as the merger of Proto Semitic *{;?, *S?, *ts? > $ and *s, *{:, *S > s (Babylonian only), the aforementioned dissimilation of two emphatic consonants in the same word (Geers's law), the assimilation of 1nl to a following consonant, as in *anta > atta, the loss of lw I and ly I in certain environments, as in *zakuwam (ace.)> zakuam (Assyrian) > zakdm (Babylonian) and *rubayim (gen.)> rubaim (Assyrian) > rubem (Babylonian), the contraction of diphthongs *ay> e (Old Akkadian, Assyrian)li (Babylonian) and *aw > u, the syncope of the last short vowel in a sequence of two or more non-final short 40 vowels in open syllables, as in *parisum > parsum, and many more. These changes had major impact on Akkadian phonology and morphology. In terms of phonology, the consonantal inventory was reduced from 29 Proto Semitic phonemes to 20. Several phonemes further changed their phonetic realization, such as *s >sin Babylonian and *ts >sin Babylonian during the Old Babylonian period. Furthermore, due to certain phonological changes, Akkadian gained a new vocalic phoneme lel. These phonological changes significantly affected the morphology of Akkadian, that is, the surface representation of its verbal

37

38

39

40

This statement refers to unbound nouns only. As is well known, bound nouns had lost their case system almost completely before Old Akkadian. In Old Akkadian, the genitive is still preserved on bound nouns (Hasselbach, Sargonic Akkadian, 183). For the reconstruction of relative clauses with a noun in the construct as antecedent to Proto Semitic see, e.g., Hasselbach, Case in Semitic, 253. The situation regarding /g/ is more complex and less straight forward than the effect of le; /and /Q./ on adjacent a-vowels. For a detailed description of Akkadian /g/ see Leonid Kogan, "*gin Akkadian," Ugarit Forschungen 33 (2001), 263-97. For a full description, see Huehnergard and Woods, "Akkadian and Eblaite," 230-41.

CLASSIFIC ATION OF AKKADIA N WITHIN THE SEMITIC FAMILY

143

and nominal forms compare d to Proto Semitic and other Semitic languag escompare for example the Ge Aba-iddin in Stamm, Die akkadische Namengebung, m, and some more examples ibid., 116-17. Also Tallqvist, Neubabylonisches Namenbuch, xiv-xix provided a useful list of various attested modes of abbreviated NB names. Hackl, "Frau Weintraube," 132 further distinguishes here between shortened one-word (m.a ... )and compound I multi-element names (m.b ... ). Clay, Personal Names, 23-24, Stamm, Die akkadische Namengebung, 113-14, Buccellati, A Structural Grammar, 143-44 (including the affix -at- since these name formations refer to male name-bearers), GAG 8s-86. Buccellati, A Structural Grammar, 143 (on the afformative -an with the example Qaqqadanum 'The one with a peculiar head' or an abbreviated form of a longer name: !!anum > llum-bani), Sassmanshausen, "Review," 840, and GAG § s6r. Sassmanshausen, "Review," 840, referring Stamm, Die akkadische Namengebung, 114-17. Brinkman, "Review", 398, on Assurayu in MB texts. On nisba (nomina relationis), see e.g. Sassmannshausen, "Review," 840 (month names, place names, ethnical denominations) and more recently Mario Fales, "Ethnicity in the Assyrian Empire: A View from the Nisbe," in Literature as Politics, Politics as Literature. Essays on the Ancient Near East in Honor of Peter Machinist, eds. David S. Vanderhooft and Abraham Winitzer (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2013), 47-73: -ay /-ayum (not before the OB, only in Mari and only for 'Volker- und Einwohnerbezeichnungen') and -[/-fum (also professions): GAG§ 56p and q.

500

PRUZSIN SZKY

III.a Shortened names withou t a suffix Starting with the Kassite period, theoph oric names originally consisting of two or more elements with a participle are frequently shorten ed to e.g. Mukalli m, Nii$ir, Musallim, Musezi b or Niidin. 123 Especially from the Kassite period onwards, names with an adjectiv e or a substantival predicate are shorten ed by their theoph oric element: Ninurtarii,im-zeri > Rii,im-zeri. 124 In some cases, also other name elemen ts (predicative elemen t or preposi tion) than the theoph oric one are omitted:125 Tiib-siir-ili 126 > Siir-ili (MB), InaEsagil- ramat > Esagil- ramat (NB), ltti-Ea- baliitum 127 > Ea-bal iitum (oB, MB). III.b Shortened names with a suffix (inflected ending, diminuitive ending): Nabu-alju-iddin > *Jddin > Iddiniiya,I2 8 Gimil-M arduk > *Gimil > Gimillum (oB)P 9 III.c Transformed shorten ed names (especially from the NB period onwards ):130 Nabu-upaljljir > * Upaljljir > Puljljuru, Nergal-usezib > Siizubu , Nabumusetiq -uddu > Niqiidu. 13 1 IV Sentence-less ellipses: This last group of name pattern s consists of grammatically incomplete senten ce names for which the counte rpart of the complete name is not (securely) attested:132 Nalj-ili "Pacification of the god('s anger)" with parallels in person al

names with a similar content; Pale-dDN "reign of DN", with no or very distant parallel s.

123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132

Stamm, Die akkadisc heName ngebung , n5: sometim es these are suffixed by an ending, e.g. Musallim u and Nii$iru. For more MB examples of abbrevia ted sentence names without suffix, see Sassmanshausen, "Review," 840 sub e.). Stamm, Die akkadische Nameng ebung, n6-17, for examples. See also Suurmeijer, "Identifiers and Identification," 41-42, with example s of abbrevia ted names. "Good is the wind of the god(s)": Stol, "Old Babylonian," 194. itti ='with the approval of': Stol, "Old Babylonian," 195. Hackl, "Frau Weintraube," 130 n. 30. Stamm, Die akkadische Nameng ebung, n2. Stamm, Die akkadische Nameng ebung, 112; Edzard, "Name, Namengebung," 106. Hackl, "Frau Weintraube," 130 n. 32. Stamm, Die akkadische Nameng ebung, 274-77 and 322 sub 'Satzlose Ellipsen' (with numerous examples). This term has been also adopted in the study by Di Vi to, Studies in the Third Millennium, 229, 283-84 and 288. See also Hackl, "Frau Weintra ube;' 132 passim with some more Babylonian example s from the first millenni um.

A HISTORY OF AKKADIAN ONOMASTICS

501

Essential Studies and Databases on Akkadian Onomastics

4

OldAkkadian Andersson,Jakob. Kingship in Early Mesopotamian Onomasticon: 28oo-22ooBCE. Uppsala: Uppsala University Press, 2012. Di Vi to, Robert. Studies in Third Millennium Sumerian and Akkadian Personal Names. The Designation and Conception of the Personal God. Roma: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum, 1993.

Gelb, Ignace,J. OldAkkadian Writing and Grammar. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1952.

Krebernik, Manfred. Die Personennamen der Ebla-Texte. Eine Zwischenbilanz. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1998. Roberts, Jimmy J.M. The Earliest Semitic Pantheon. A Study of Semitic Deities Attested in Mesopotamia before Ur I I I. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University

Press, 1972. 4.2

Uriii

Hilgert, Markus. Akkadisch in der Ur III-Zeit. Munster: Rhema, 2002.

4·3

Old Assyrian

Stephens, Ferris]. Personal Names from Cuneiform Inscriptions from Cappadocia. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1928. Garelli, Paul. Les Assyriens en Cappadoce. Paris: A. Maisonneuve, 1963, 127-68. Kouwenberg, N.J.C. Introduction to OldAssyrian. Munster: Zaphon, 2019,193-94.

4·4

Old Babylonian

Ranke, Hermann. Early Babylonian Personal Names from the Published Tablets of the so-called Hammurabi Dynasty (B. c. 2000 ). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1905.

Stamm,J ohannj. Die akkadische Namengebung. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1968. Rasmussen, Carl G. A Study ofAkkadian Personal Namesfrom Mari. Philadelphia: Dropsie University, 1981. Stol, Marten. "Old Babylonian Personal Names." Studi Epigrafici e Linguistici sul Vicino OrienteAntico 8 (1991): 191-212. Late Old Babylonian Personal Names Index: http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects/

lobpni/

502

45

PRUZSINSZKY

~"v!iddle Babylonian

Clay, Albert T. Personal Names from Cuneiform Inscriptions of the Cassite Period. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1912. Oppenheim, A Leo. "Die akkadischen Personennamen der 'Kassitenzeit'." Anthropos 31 (1936): 470-88.

Holscher, Monika. Die Personennamen der kassitenzeitlichen Texte a us Nip pur. Munster: Rhema, 1996.

4.6

Middle Assyrian

Ebeling, Erich. "Die Eigennamen der mittelassyrischen Rechts- und Geschaftsurkunden." Mitteilungen der altorientalischen Gesellschaft 13 (1939): 1-120. Saleh, Saqer. Die mittelassyrischen Personen- und Rationenlisten aus Tall Seb lfamad/ Dur-Katlimmu/ Magdalu. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2014. Saporetti, Claudio. Onomastica medio-assira, vol. I I. Roma: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum, 1970. Freydank, Helmut, and Claudio Saporetti. Nuove attestazioni dell'onomastica medioassira. Roma: Edizioni dell'Ateneo & Bizzarri, 1979. See also Saporetti, Claudio, and Matini, Giovanna. Antroponimi medio-assiri (1979ProgettoAMA, Centra Studi Diyala. Roma 2016. (https://diyalawebsite.wordpres s.com/dizionari, last accessed in Nov. 2020 ).

2015).

A new project, "Die Prosopographie der mittelassyrische n Texte (PMA)", directed by Ariel M. Bagg (Heidelberg), is devoted to the study of Middle Assyrian personal names.

4· 7

Peripheral Akkadian: E.g., Nuzi, A mama, Ugarit, Alala!J, Emar, and Tacanach

Gelb, Ignace ]., Pierre M. Purves, and All en A MacRae. Nuzi Personal Names. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1956. Grondahl, Frauke. Die Personennamen der Texte aus Ugarit. Roma: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum, 1967. He ss, Richard S. Amama Personal Names. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1993. Hess, Richard S. "The Onomastics ofUgarit." In HandbookofUga ritic Studies, edited by Wilfred G.E. Watson and Nicolas Wyatt, 499-528, Leiden-Boston: Brill, 1999. Lauinger, Jacob. Following the Man ofYamhad, Settlement and Territory at Old Babylonian Alalah. Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2015. Niedorf, Christian. Die mittelbabylonischen Rechtsurkunden aus Alalab (Schicht IV). Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2oo8. Pruzsinszky, Regine. Die Personennamen der Texte aus Emar. Bethesda:

CDL

Press,

2003.

Pruzsinszky, Regine. "Das Onomastikon der Texte aus Tell Taanach." In Taanaclz/Tell

........

A HISTORY OF AKKADIAN ONOMASTICS

503

Ta /e/ (seen. 236). Minima l pairs are hardly to be expecte d but are neverth eless imagina ble: (42) *bi-ni ben-i

son( M)[ SG )\STC.NOM/ACC-ISG.C.POSS 'my son'

(43) *bf-ni bini create\G.IMP.M.SG 'create!'

215 216 217

See Sommerfeld, review of Hasselbach, Sargonic Akkadian , 220; 250-51. Such as Ba-ti-rijriki AI HA 42, 12 and 29, 10 (Tell Sulaima ). See the summary by Kogan, "On Some Orthogra phic Oppositions," 33-56, esp. 51-54, and cf. in general John Huehnergard, "Akkadian e and Semitic Root Integrity," Babe! und Bibel

7 (2013): 445-75·

OLD AKKADIAN

587

In the construct state, a distinction is made between the epenthetic vowel

1-e/, required by the syllable structure of Akkadian morphology, and the regular genetive ending /-i/: (44) a-bi URU Elamki 7 ab-e ~il-i elam father(M)[SG]\STC.NOM/ACC-EP city(M)[sG]\STC-GEN TOPN 'the city-elder of Elam' (MoB xii 4-5)

7

(45) qab-li A-ka-deki qabl-e akkade middle( M)[ SG ]\STC.NOM/ACC-EP TOPN '(in) the middle of Akkade' (RIM E2.1.4.10, 53, coll.)218 (46) in qab-li Ba-ra-alj-sumki in qabl-i baral)sum in middle( M)[ SG ]\STC-GEN TOPN 'in the middle ofBaral)sum' (RIM E2.1.2.6, 13; Ez.1.z.8, 8, coli.) The phoneme and allophone /e/ and the epenthetic vowel /e/ are hardly identical. Rather the one is a close-mid or open-mid front vowel [e] or [E], the other a mid-central vowel [a] (schwa).219 Unexpected variation in the writing leads to the basic question of the relationship between writing and language. Does the orthography reflect the language as actually spoken? Variations in articulation, resulting in a number of allophones, are a feature of any natural language; and so also the written form might take various shapes. Or are we dealing with a somewhat free orthography, in which the same linguistic item might be rendered by several different phonograms?

218

219

Hasselbach, SargonicAkkadian, 169 n. 68, parses this form: "The final /e/ reflects the adverbial ending -e < *ay". Kogan, "On Some Orthographic Oppositions," 41 n. 42, comments: "This is not implausible, but ... an adverbial dual oblique (~abl-e) should also be considered as an alternative". Neither mentions the more obvious and simple solution, that it is a status constructus with epenthetic vowel. See von Soden, Grundriss, § 8 d: "Ne ben den Vollvokalen gab es zweifellos auch den Murmelvokal a, der in der Regel als i, manchmal auch als e geschrieben wurde. Er begegnet vor allem in bestimmten St. constr.-Formen".-Cf. Catford, A Practical Introduction, 151: "The symbol [ [-anterior] was present. It is because of the very different functional load that this asymmetric development has taken place. 273 In the process of this phonetic development /s/ [s] > /s/ [J], the acoustic signal has changed markedly. 274 As a result, the phoneme has separated and is written with its own series of signs, sv.

271 272 273

27 4

Ktimmel, Konsonantenwand el, 337; cf. Meyer-Laurin, "Zur phonologischen Rekonstruktion," 85-86. On the "features for vowels," see Zsiga, The Sounds of Language, 267-70. In Eblaite, no asymmetric developments took place because similar conditioning factors were absent, see Meyer-Laurin, "Zur phonologischen Rekonstruktion," 84-87. However, asymmetric developments are by no means uncommon. For instance, of the triade of velar stops /k/- /g/- /15./, only /k/ remains a velar in Arabic, while /g/ has been shifted into the post-alveolar affricate /g/, and /15./ contrariwise into the uvular stop /q/. In the dialects even more far-reaching changes are found, and also the plosive feature can be lost. Cf. Ladefoged and Maddieson, The Sounds, 149: "The wider channel in f results in the jet of air striking the teeth at a lower velocity in f than in s.... both the lower velocity of the airstream, and the lengthening of the vocal tract by added lip rounding, will cause f to have a lower pitch than s."-Zsiga, The Sounds of Language, 134, Figure 7.14 Spectra of [s] and [f]: "[ s] has a concentration of higher amplitude energy in the region of 6ooo Hz, while [f] has higher amplitude energy in the region of 3000Hz. Thus [s] sounds higher-pitched than [f]".

SOMMERFELD

612

[6] The two proto-phonemes /s/ and /s/ are both written with the sign series sv. This seems plausible only if they shared acoustic properties or had already merged. Even if they had merged, they must have been closely similar in articulation to begin with. Comparative Semitics275 suggests for /s/ a classification as an unvoiced lateral fricative [i].276 As similarly articulated fricatives, in which, unlike the lateral (vocal tract closed at the center line, open at the side), the air flow is not blocked by the closure at the center of the oral tract, only restricted by the narrow opening, [~ ]277 or [G] come into consideration. These phonemes share with [.f] the features [-anterior], [+distributed] and differ from each other in the feature [shape ]:278 [~]

[+flat]

[.f]

[+domed]

[G]

[+palatalized]

Some variations in spelling support the hypothesis that the palatalized sibilant [G] should be posited as an (allophanic?) realization of the phoneme /s/. In the official inscriptions of the Sargonic dynasty, the three sign series sv, sv, and zv are carefully kept apart: "sv spellings tend to be used correctly in Sargonic royal inscriptions ... True exceptions are rare and mostly involve SI and IS instead of SI and IS 11". 279 Examples: (91) [s-ni-a-ma ji-snl-a=ma 3DU.Ccdo_twice\G.PRT-3DU.C1=SP 'on a second occasion the two of them did (battle) and' 280

275 276

277

278

279 280

See Kogan, "6. Proto-Semitic Phonetics and Phonology," 71-8o; Meyer-Laurin, "Zur phonologischen Rekonstruktion," 8g-go. On the articulation, see for example Zsiga, The Sounds of Language, 42: "made with the tongue in approximately the same configuration as for [1], but with a tighter constriction at the sides and/or more airflow, so that the airflow causes friction." Ladefoged and Maddieson, The Sounds, use this symbol, which does not belong to the IPA-standard, to differentiate the feature "shape" [+flat]. It should not be confused with the phonological symbol /~/which is common in Semitistic and Assyriologicalliterature to denote the "emphatic" sibilant [ts']. Ladefoged and Maddieson, The Sounds, 164: "The three sibilants ~. f, G differ from one another by increasing amounts of raising of the part of the tongue immediately behind the constriction." Kogan, "6. Proto-Semitic Phonetics and Phonology," 86. RIM E2.1.1.3, 24; cf. isu-ni-a-ma RIM E2.1.4.6 iii 23'. For the etymology (rootJni), see Kogan, "Old Babylonian Copies," 166.

OLD AKKADIAN

613

(92) tam-si-il-su tamsi:l-su image( M)[ SG ]\STC.NOM/A CC-3SG.M.PO SS 'his image' 281 This interchange in the spelling is to be understood as a reflex of palatalization in the neighborhoo d of the vowel /i/ ([+high]). Whether the phonemes /s/ and /s/ were still separate or had already merged is not evident. [7] A considerable range of allophones as well as assimilations in the pronunciation are structurally conditioned by the anatomical properties of the vocal tract. 282 In particular, in the area of [s] > [.f] with the transition [+anterior] > [-anterior] and [grooved] > [domed], a continuum of articulations is to be expected, since no phonematic oppositions require exact contrasts. However, such allophanic variation does not appear clearly in the written material, as the writing system has inadequate potential for differentiation. The interchange among the series of signs offers some revealing clues. On the whole, no alternation between the series zv and sv or sv is found in the Sargonic sources. Evidently, the conditioned developmen t /s/ > /s/ has been completed (see [4] above). Also, the position of the tongue [+anterior] and the decisive feature [+grooved], which is characterised by a strong hiss, is stable. Conversely, the evidence with regard to the series sv and sv is inconsistent: "Outside royal inscriptions, etyma logically correct use of sv is also well attested ... However, sv instead of sv is quite frequent in this corpus ... And, conversely, sv can be found instead of the expected sv''. 283 Probably these inconsistencies in the spelling are best explained as allophanic transitions within the continuum of various formations of the tongue dome: [+domed]> [+palatalized] and vice versa, see [6] above. [8] The reflexes of the six proto-phone mes /s/ /z/ /~/Id/ /t/ /$/are all consistently written with the series of zv signs and as a rule cannot be distinguished 281 282

283

E2.141001, w'; cf. example (19 ). For the etymology (root mtl) and analysis, see Kogan, "Old Babylonian Copies," 166-67. Ladefoged and Maddieson, The Sounds, 155, stress the multiplicity and range of variation in the relevant phonemes, for instance: "[T]here are no absolute landmarks in the vocal tract, so it is difficult to compare articulatory data from one person with that from another".-ibid ., 159: "(These sounds involve) subtle distinctions in tongue shape relative to the teeth."-ibid., 173: "[T]he inconsistencies between speakers are so great" ... "a subset of these fricatives as they occur in different phonetic contexts, and as spoken by different individuals." ... "There are large variations among the speakers" ... "There are also very considerable contextual effects."-ibid. , 175: "'tremendous variation .. .' between speakers." Kogan, "6. Proto-Semitic Phonetics and Phonology," 86-87; see also Kogan, "Old Babylonian Copies," 165-72.-See also section 4·3 The local varieties and linguistic variation.

mum

~

, r-'unxw

SOMMERFE LD

614

from each other. The available evidence offers little chance to observe phenomena that would allow direct conclusions as to the phonetic features of the individual phonemes . Due to accidental gaps in the material, no instance is attested of contact position between the triad reconstruc ted as affricates /s/ [ts] - /z/ [ dz] - f~/ [ts'] and the sibilant of the 3· p. pronomin al suffixes, which presumab ly is to be posited somewher e in the range[~]- [c] (see [6] above). It is to be expected that, similarly to the dentals,2 84 the feature [+delayed release] ( = opening from a stop into a fricative) is maintaine d, but after the release, the fricative and the following suffix are assimilated in such a way that the acoustic intensity of the segment ( [+strident ]) is preserved, so that the result is written with zv signs:

(93) ir-ku-uz ji-rkuts 3SG.M-attach \G.PRT 'he attached' (RIM E2.1.1.11, 16)

ir-ku-zu ji-rkuts-ii 3PL.M 1-attach \G.PRT-3PL.M 1 'they attached' (OSP 2, 24, 6)

*ir-ku-zu ji-rkuts-su 3SG.M-attach\G.PRT-3SG.M.ACC 'he attached it' In contrast, the contact position between the simple sibilant Id/ [z] ( [-delayed release]) and the pronomina l suffix leads to an assimilatio n without a closure ( [+continua nt]); by the change of tongue position, the acoustic energy is lessened (features [-anterior] , [-grooved], [-strident] ), so that the sv series is used:

(82) u-sd-bi-su-ni ju-sa-?l].is-sii-ni < ju-sa-?l].iz-sii-ni 3SG.M-S-take\PRT-3SG.M.ACC-SBRD 'he made him occupy•zss 284

285

Cf. u-sa-am-q{-it-zu ju-sa-mqit-su 3SG.M-s-fall\ PRT-3SG.M.ACC 'he felled it', RIM E2.1.4.23, 14. Here the stop of [t] is preserved and the release proceeds into the homorganic sibilant [s ], so that a homorganic consonant cluster [ts] results. See also the summation of the evidence by Kogan, "6. Proto-Semitic Phonetics and Phonology," 66-67; Vera MeyerLaurin, "Zeichenwahl zur Prazisierung von Konsonant oder Vokal: z I und ~ E (z i) im Kodex Hammurapi," Zeitschriflfo r Assyriologie 107 (2017): 222. For the analysis, seen. 257.-In support of the hypothesis that the phonemes /d/ and /z/

OLD AKKAD IAN

615

The comple x processes resulting in the merger of/~/ [ts'] and /t/ (s'] cannot a precise as yet be elucidated, and no evidence is available that might lead to pments reconstruction of the phonet ic features and their changes in the develo s). overlap nic allopha , (possibly caused by factors such as fortition, lenition [g] Two unvoiced laterals are reconstructed as Semitic proto-phonemes:Z86 they are the fricative /s/ [l] and the ejective affricate NI [d']. Typologically, affrithe expected most commo n representatives: "Like lateral fricatives, lateral ."287 ejective tly frequen are and cates are more commo nly voiceless than voiced, series In the Old Akkadian writing system, they are assigned to two separate /~/with s, svserie the with of signs: Etymological /S/-as well as /s/-is written distributhe zv series, along with the simple sibilants and the affricates. This membe r tion is unexpe cted since otherwise the unvoiced as well as the ejective of a triad are uniformly written with the same sign series. ies. The reason for this should surely be sought in different acoustic propert share the As against the triads of sibilants and affricates and also (f], which all tched characteristic feature [+strident] ("sounds have high-amplitude, high-pi [G] or ~] frication," "hissing") and thus form one class, with the fricatives [ ([and [l], the constri ction caused by the changed position of the tongue nce anterior], [+distr ibuted] ) results in a significantly muffled sound of turbule ed ([-strid ent], "hushing"). Being affricates, the acoustic energy is again increas ed by the process known as "lateral plosion," so that the acoustic signal is perceiv ( [+striby the ear as closer to that of the sibilants and affricates with the feature 8 dent]) than to that of the fricatives ([-strid ent ]).2 8

am (uz 7(Es)) in Sargonic times were still separate phonemes, note the use of the phonogr in ESnunna, attested take," for /ud/ (versus (uz) for /uz!) in forms of aljiizum (root "bd) "to mitic Proto-Se "6. Kogan, see passim), Girsu, KiS and Umm al-Hafriyat (cuSAS 27, 161-67 117. uktion," Rekonstr gischen phonolo "Zur aurin, Phonetics and Phonology," 86; Meyer-L pho"Zur aurin, Meyer-L 71-8o; y," Phonolog and s Phonetic 286 See Kogan, "6. Proto-Semitic nologischen Rekonstruktion," Sg-go. "The most common lateral 287 Ladefoged and Maddieson, The Sounds, 202; also ibid., 207: ejective lateral sound made with a glottalic airstream mechani sm is an ejective affricate; fricatives are less frequent but do occur in a number oflanguages." d and Maddieson, The 288 For the details, see the precise phonetic description by Ladefoge the different laryngeal of most by nied accompa be Sounds, 197: "Lateral articulat ions can 202: "[C]ontrastive -ibid., " stricture. of types various with settings ... and they can occur n types. They are phonatio different with and places of variety a at occur s lateral fricative alone, a stop most frequently voiceless. In addition to the occurrence of lateral fricatives tion being combina the with closure can be released into a homorganic lateral fricative, lead would that ns conditio of kind consider ed to form a lateral affricate under the same the In affricate. an be to fricative central a into to a decision to consider a stop released stop a be not could (it lateral itself not is segment the of affricates the stopped portion

SOMMERFELD

616

Thus the sign series zv renders six distinct phonemes sharing acoustic properties: the simple sibilants /d/ [z] and /t/ [s'], the affricates /s/ [ts], /z/ [dz] and/~/ [ts'], and the lateral affricate/$/ [ti']. The articulatory processes, which resulted in transitions, allophones, and in part merger, can only be reconstructed to a very limited extent. An additional possibility for differentiation is available in the facultative use of the sign ZE. As shown by the etymological relations, the phonogram is used exclusively for the lateral affricate +/e/ or /i/, i.e. (~e) /$e/ [ti'e] or (~i) /~i/ [ti'i].289 This phonogram was first introduced during the Sargonic period290 and was only gradually accepted and coexisted along with the sign ZI which, together with ZA and zu, continued as the regular member of the zv series. Therefore, in the various duplicates of the long inscription of Naram-Sin about the Great Rebellion, the following spellings occur side by side:

(94)

289

U-SU-$l

(95) mu-su-$i

ju-s-ii~i

mu-s-ii~i

3SG.M-s-go_out\PRT 'he made go out' 291

PTCP-S-go_out(M)[ SG ]\STC.NOM/ACC 'who makes go out' (zA 87,24 ix 4)

otherwise); but the stop is released by lowering some portion of the sides of the tongue, rather than the center.... Because the articulatory adjustment required to pass from a lateral to a homorganic stop or vice-versa is a minimal one, these sequences can be closely bound together at the level of articulatory organization. A special term, lateral plosion, is used to describe the release of a plosive directly into a lateral by lowering one or both sides of the tongue."-ibid., 209: "In a number of languages lateral fricatives vary with lateral affricates". See Kogan, "On Some Orthographic Oppositions," 46-47 ("The opposition between these two signs [zi-zi] belongs to the most difficult aspects"); Meyer-Laurin, "Zur phonologischen Rekonstruktion," 82-83, with n. 16; Meyer-Laurin, "Zeichenwahl zur Prazisierung," 224-25.

290

291

Aage Westenholz, "'Have You Been Near Prof. Larsen Too Long?'," in As~ria and Beyond Studies Presented to Mogens Trolle Larsen, ed. Jan Gerrit Dercksen (Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2004), 601 n. 12, provides this observation: "Yu~eum ... is known from his two seals ... from Eshnunna ... The pictorial representations are almost identical on both; but the name is spelled u-ze-um on one, as on the tablet ... , while on the other it is written u-zi-um." The use of the sign pair (ri) and (ri) is similar in that it only is used occasionally for differentiation, see section 4.2.2.2 The vowels /e/ and /i/; sign pairs, plus nn. 2n-216. RIM E2.1.4.6 iv 39· Both duplicates offer the same spelling. The faulty transliteration in RIM E2 p. 107 is to be corrected accordingly, see Raphael Kutscher, Royal Inscriptions. The Brockmon Tablets at the University ofllaifa (Haifa: Haifa University Press, and Wiesbaden: HarrassowitzVerlag, 1989), no (photo), n8 (copy); PBS 5, 36 iii' zo' (copy).

.......

OLD AKKADIAN

617

[10] It may be concluded from this investigation that, of the nine Semitic proto-phonemes, the following seven were at least in part still distinguished in the "speech of Akkade": /s/- /t/- Is/- /z/- /~/- /d/- /~/.For the status of /s/ and /t/ no evidentiary data are yet available. Whether /s/ and /s/, and similarly /~/and /tf, had already merged or were still preserved as separate phonemes cannot be ascertained. The Local Varieties and Linguistic Variation 4·3 A Case Study: The Dialect ofMugdan in North Babylonia 4.3.1 to the number of sites where written documents have been found, regard With the Sargonic period excels above all others in the whole of the third millennium-32 different such sites throughout the entire Near East have been identified. For the Ur Ill period, the corresponding number is 27; for the preSargonic period (ED IIIb ), 23; and for the Fara period (ED Ilia), 14;292 and all these come from a much more limited area. The differences among the local varieties in this material are great but have never been described in a systematic fashion. In spite of the richness and varied nature of the material, there are also severe limitations that hamper the analysis. In his epoch-making Principles ofLinguistic Change. Volume 1: Internal Factors (1994), Labov described in the section "1.1 Problems in the interpretation of historical data" the fundamental problems with historical sources in the following famous and oft-quoted passage:

But the data that are rich in so many ways are impoverished in others. Historical documents survive by chance, not by design, and the selection that is available is the product of an unpredictable series ofhistorical accidents. The linguistic forms in such documents are often distinct from the vernacular of the writers, and instead reflect efforts to capture a normative dialect that never was any speaker's native language. As a result, many documents are riddled with the effects of hypercorrection, dialect mixture, and scribal error.... Historical linguistics can then be thought of as the art of making the best use of bad data. The art is a highly developed one ... p.ll

292

See above, section 3· The third millennium down to the Sargonic period with Table 11.3: A survey of the cuneiform documentation of the third millennium. Isolated single finds are not included.

SOMMERFELD

618

To counter the problem of "bad data," which Labov stated in that programmatic way, Kouwenberg, The Akkadian Verb (2010 ), adopted this methodological standpoint: Even if we do not have full documentation of the paradigm of a specific verb, there are a few rules of thumb that allow us to establish with a reasonable degree of confidence which paradigm it has.... These rules do not give full certainty, but especially for third-millennium Akkadian, where we often have hardly more than a single form of a given verb, they are indispensable. P·555

The usual philological practice in dealing with the variations in the Old Akkadian material mostly consists of selecting a few linguistic or orthographic peculiarities of a text group and then contrasting that with those of other text groups. The important extra-linguistic data, which might be highly relevant for the analysis of the linguistic situation, are taken inadequately into consideration, if at all. In addition to date and place, a number of other parameters are important too, such as: the institutions involved; the participating persons and their networks; the geographical horizon and supra-regional contacts; the purpose and function of each document; the characteristics of each document, such as tablet format, script ductus, quality of the clay. The understanding, in particular oflinguistic registers, the origin and diffusion of innovations, linguistic change, and dialect geography, can be refined in proportion to the degree in which all of these multi-dimensional aspects are considered as a whole. Within the framework of this contribution, a comprehensive description of Old Akkadian dialectology is impossible. The study of one specific text group must suffice as an example; and for that purpose, the material from Mugdan (alias Pugdan, modem Umm el-Jir) is well suited. From that place, not far from Kis, comes a group of over 40 administrative records and three letters. 293 The group has been described as follows:

293

On this text group, see the detailed analysis by Benjamin R. Foster, "An Agricultural Archive from Sargonic Akkad," Acta Sumerologica 4 (1982): 7-51; Benjamin R. Foster, "Collations to the Umm el-Jir Tablets," Acta Sumerologica 5 (1983): 173-74; Foster, The Age of Agade, sg-6o. See also, with further literature, Schrakamp, "Ressourcen und Herrschaft," g6-g7; Visicato, The Power and the Writing, zog-12.-The legal document BIN 8, 121 should be added to this group; for an edition, see Dietz Otto Edzard, "Q!Sum, Ensi von Kazallu," in Zikir Sumim. Assyriological Studies Presented to F.R. Kraus on the Occasion ofhis Seventieth Birthday, ed. G. van Driel et al. (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 1982), 26-33.

OLD AKKADIAN

619

The ... texts are (1) the remains of an official archive of an Akkadian royal domain during the reign of Naram-Sin, and (2) a group of intramural and private documents, most of which apparently belonged to a household that administered this domain.294_ This Akkadian town ... was evidently the seat of a manor that dominated the local countryside .... This manor belonged to members of the royal family or royal household, as shown by the mention of areas controlled by the king and of an official who served the queen, but it was evidently managed by a governor (ensi) . ... Totaling the information in these records yields a manor of about 1042 hectares ... Grain raised on the manor was also given as food rations to its inhabitants ... This reflects the dependence of the household on the crown ... 295 [D]as Archiv (gehorte) zu einer Domane unter der Leitung des j(Konigssohns" (dumu lugal) Sumigri ... , der zugleich als j(Stadtfiirst" (ensi 2) amtierte ... und iiber Felder im Umfang von wenigstens ... 1042,5 ha verfiigte ... Das Archiv von Pugdan dokumentiert damit die Aktivitaten einer landwirtschaftlichen Domane, die durch Angehorige und Funktionare des Konigshauses verwaltet und kontrolliert wurde, Land an ranghohe konigliche Beamte vergab, Uberschiisse in Form von Ernteertragen, Abgaben und Pacht erwirtschaftete und an die Krone abfiihrte und sich somit durch koniglichen bzw. privaten Grundbesitz, tributare Wirtschaftsform und patrimoniale Strukturen auszeichnete. 296 The prince appears not only as a landowner and governor, he is also the supreme juridical instance and functions as judge (BIN 8, 121). With regard to ((form and script of the tablets," Foster identified three groups. [T]he tablets of the first group have the most carefully written, ((classical" Sargonic script. The script of the other tablets, excluding some ((school" exercises in student script, is also standard Sargonic, though somewhat less elegant and more cursive than the script of the first group. 297[S]hape and fineness of writing seem to be related to their level of accountability ... Tablets referring to matters at a high level of authority

294 295 296 297

Foster, "An Agricultural Archive," 38. Foster, The Age ofAgade, 59-60. Schrakamp, "Ressourcen und Herrschaft," 96-97. Foster, "An Agricultural Archive," 10.

SOMMERFELD

620

tend ... to be neatly made and written.... [D] ocuments of private or intramural concern ... can often be ... "archaic" in appearance ... 298 [S]cribes made a greater effort to write in the "Akkadian" style with certain types of records than with others.... [T]he "Akkadian" imperial style was not necessarily the way the local scribe( s) had learned to write ... Older scribes imitated it as best they could for official records, but lapsed into older habits for intramural ones. 299 On the social position of scribes, Visicato notes: It is difficult to establish precisely the role and the capacity of the scribes ... But their being mentioned along with the highest-ranking dignitaries of the realm suggests that they were involved at a very high level in the management of their respective institutions. 300 The extra-linguistic data thus yield a clear and unambiguous picture. The highest authorities of the realm are directly involved. The size of the estates and the structure of the transactions demonstrate the importance of this manor for the dynasty. Surprisingly, the linguistic analysis of the documents demonstrates equally clearly that the dialect written here differed sharply from the official "language of Akkade." Even though the basis of Akkadian grammatical and lexical morphemes is rather limited, they are nonetheless diagnostically revealing. They exhibit important phonological and structural changes in verbal morphology.

Phonetic Developments at Syllable Onset 4·3·1.1 The dorsa-palatal approximant /j/ and the glottal stop f? I are reduced at syllable onset. In the course of the developments /jV/ > /V/ and f?yf > /V/, these two phonemes merge in the pronunciation, and the phonograms originally designed to mark the difference become interchangeable or unnecessary and are discarded altogether or survive only in isolated residues. The following table 301 gives an overview of the developments.

298 299 300 301

Foster, "An Agricultural Archive," 35-36. Foster, "Collations," 173. Visicato, The Power and the Writing, 212. Cf. Table 11.21: Phonogram system in use to differentiate vowels in various environments, in section 4.2.2.1 Vowels and the dorsa-palatal approximant /j/.

OLD AKKADIAN

621

Changes in the system of phonograms in the dialect of Mugdan

TABLE 11.25

44

Language of Akkade"

Dialect ofMugdan

[?]+vowel vowel [j] +vowel Use of the phonograms /a/ /e/ /i/ /u/

~ ~

a e

-+

e

~

/e/, /i/ + sonorants

u

u

u

~

il

il

im in

im 6 en

ir

ir

~ ~

unchanged (e) not attested (i)- (i) interchangeable (u) only after a vowel (u) always for the verbal prefix (u) discarded (il)- (il) interchangeable (il)- (il) interchangeable (im 6 ) discarded no case of opposition attested, only conventional spellings (ir)- (ir) interchangeable

A more detailed description is the following. The sign pairs (i)- (i), (il)- (il), (ir)- (ir), kept strictly apart in the official royal inscriptions, have here become interchangeable; (im)- (im 6 ) is simplified; and (u) is used no longer.

(g6) 1-la-ak-nu-id nu77 id il-a-k < 7 il-a-k god( M)[ SG ]\STC-ACC-2SG.M.POSS praise\D.IMP.M.SG Praise-your-god!' (Personal name; MAD 5, 68 i 3) 4

This is the only Sargonic instance of that development. The usual writing is ila-ak-nu-id302 fiir (ilak-nu77 id/. The distinction between the phonograms (il)- (il) is the accustomed one, where (il) stands for /jil/ in onset, (il) for (il/ in onset or for /il/ in rhyme, and no distinction is made between /e/ and /i/, as in examples (17) and (18): ( 17) a-qu-ut

ji-lqot 'he gathered up'

(18) li-il-qu-ut le-lqot 'may he gather up' 302

So, e.g., CUSAS 27 p. 308; HSS 10 p. XXXII; MAD I p. 201f.; MAD 5 p.103 and passim.

SOMMERFELD

622

At Mugdan, the following opposition is attested:

303

(gS) Li-iL-qa (97) a-qa le-lqa}:l ji-lqa}:l > i-lqa}:l PREC.3SG.M-take \G.PRT 3SG.M-take\G.PRT 'may he take' (MAD s, 75, 7) 'he took' (MAD 5, 82, 6) However, the phonogram (il) is also used where normally (il) would be expected, as in

(gg)

il-su-a-ba al].-a il-su < ?il-su god( M)( SG )\STC.NOM/ACC-3SG.M.POSS brother\STAT-3SG.M 'His-god-is-brother' (Personal name; MAD s, go, 2) 304

which can only be understood if the initial approximant /j/ has already been reduced, so that (il) no longer means /jil/ but merely /il/. In addition, the rare phonogram (il), derived from the Akkadian equivalent Fil-l to Sumerian /digir/ "god" is also used:

(1oo)

ub-U u-bil 3SG.M-carry\G.PRT 'he carried' (MAD s, 79, 13; 100 rev. 6') 305

(ub-il) may well be a spelling in analogy with (ub-lam) (see example [no]), which is only understandable however if the original glottal stop at the onset Fill has been reduced, so that (il) represents a syllable /il/ with vocalic onset. The traditional spellings (i-li), (i-lum), etc., in which the initial glottal stop is indicated, are continued by convention, as in the following example:

303 304

305

Cf. also below, example (nz), fl-e- 'he prevailed'. Most likely, this text is a school exercise tablet. On its possible Early Sargonic dating, see Alfonso Archi, "Le synchronisme entre les rois de Mari et les rois d' Ebla au 11 1e millenaire," M.A.R.l. 4 (1985): son. 10; Ignacej. Gelb, Sargonic Texts in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1970 ), XVI; Gelb, "Thoughts about Ibla," 7; Sallaberger, "Ein Synchronismus," 25 n. 17. On the parsing of this spelling, see Aage Westenholz, review of Sargonic Texts in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, by Ignace J. Gelb, The journal of Near Eastern Studies 31 (1972 ): 381.

0 LD AKKAD IAN

(1o 1)

623

1-U-a-f:Ji

?il-l> il-l god(M)[ SG ]\STC.NOM/ACC-1SG.M.POSS

alJ-1 brother(M)[ SG ]\STC.NOM/ACC-1SG.M.POSS 'My-god-is-my-brother' (Personal name; MAD s, 70, 7) This is a phenomenon characteristic of many writing systems with a marked orthographic tradition, that is, speech and spelling develop each in its own direction. Even when a writing system is newly introduced or reformed, and the underlying language and its written form may correspond closely, with time conventional spellings become increasingly common which reflect a historical stage of the language, no longer the actual pronunciation. (ir) continues in use at Mugdan. No instance of its use in initial position is available, only in syllable rhyme, as in ( 102)

DINGIR-na-${-ir na~ir ?il-um > il-um god( M)[ SG ]-NOM guard\G.PTCP.STAT(3SG.M) 'God-is-guardian' (Personal name; MAD s, 68 is)

(ir) is attested just once, in innovating use instead of (ir): ( 103)

lr-su-tu-um iitu and stiiti, attested sometimes in Babylonia, do not occur. The same is true for the form tu/ i known from the middle Euphrates/lower ljabiir area. The only forms attested are satu for masc. and sati for fern., both known from Babylonia and the middle Euphrates/lower ljabiir area: Karkemis: awiitam [s]a-a-ti ARM 28, 18: 30 "this word". Aleppo: eqfam/eqfim sa-a-tu ARM 10,151:8,10,17,20 "this field".

se

Middle Old Babylonian in Israel/Palestine 4·3·7 The few texts offer only little and contradictory evidence. Differently from the texts in the middle Euphrates/lower ljabiir area but similarly to Karkemis and Qatna (see section 4.6.a, above), the vowel sequence i-a doesn't contract toe but remains uncontracted in iq-bi-am Horowitz and Oshima, Cuneifonn in Canaan, Hazor 8: 8. The i-class of the verb iribii ibid. Hazor s: 7 "they entered" is understood by Horowitz and Oshima, Cuneifonn in Canaan, 70, as a "peripheral verbal form". The verb artub ibid. Shechem 1: 3 "I proceeded to do" is well attested in the middle Euphrates/upper Ijabiir region and in upper Mesopotamia but never in Babylonia. Middle Old Babylonian in Susa 4.3.8 An extensive description of the OB language written in Susa (see section 3.9, above) is presented by Salonen, Untersuchungen. The OB Susa texts roughly date from the time of Hammurapi (1792-1750) up to the beginning of the MB period (Salonen, Untersuchungen, g). Salonen distinguishes texts of older, intermediate or recent date. Here we only deal with the older texts; for the texts of the intermediate and recent periods see section 4.4.2, below. On the whole,

STRECK 1018

apart from orthography, the older Susa texts show hardly any deviance s from middle oB texts of other regions. Orthography 4.3.8.1 The older Susa texts use some archaic signs atypical for middle OB elsewhere: Si: ana Si-mi-su MDP 24, 346: 2 "for his price". sa: only used as determin ative pronoun: MDP 24, 349: 21. ka and tu: i-ba-rla,-ka-tu MDP 24,349:21 "(who) transgresses". gi5: a-ru-gi5-ma-ni MDP 24, 351: 14 "for claims". u: r U -ul MD P 22, 63 r. 13, 14 "not". 1

Phonology 4.3.8.2 The vowel sequence l/i-a is contracte d to in an-na-am MDP 24, 331: 9; 358: 22 "this", but toe in um-me-n u-um MDP 22, 22: 9 < *ummi'a num "craftsman". The contracti on to is also rarely attested in (northern ) Babylonia (see section 4.3.1.a, above) and in the Diyala area (see section 4.3.2.a, above) whereas the contracti on to is frequently attested in the middle Euphrate s/lower J.:Hibiir region (see section 4·3·3·a, above), but also sometim es occurs in the Diyala region (see section 4.3.2.a, above) and in early OB from Babylonia (see section

a

a

e

4.2.1.a, above). Late Old Babyloni an 4·4 As late OB we designate the period which begins withAhi-esul]., the second successor of Hammur api (ea. 1711-1684 accordin g to the middle chronology) and ends around the sack of Babylon by the Hittites in 1595 before the rise of the Kassite dynasty. Pientka, Spiitaltbabylonische Zeit, 277, counts 1719 texts from southern and northern Babylonia which date to the late OB period. Together with the Sealand Dynasty Texts, some texts from Harnidum (105 texts out of n6) and Terqa in the middle Euphrates area, and texts from Alalal]. in northern Syria, the total of administrative texts from the late OB period probably amounts to 26oo texts at

least. Late Old Babylonian in Texts from the Sealand Dynasty 4.4.1 Presumably the texts from the Sealand Dynasty (cusAs 9) are among the latest in southern OB texts. They can serve as an illustratio n for the late OB language Babylonia (see section 3.1, above). According to Dalley, Babyloni an Tablets, 4, the Sealand Dynasty texts date at the earliest to the end of the First Dynasty of Babylon and at the latest before the Amarna period. Dalley, Babyloni an Tablets, 4 and 13f., sees links of the writing habits and language of these texts with OB

1019

OLD BABYLONIAN

rather than MB. However, a closer look at the texts reveals that their language shows, not surprisingly, many MB features, although not always consistently, and only few and weak links with oB. Middle Babylonian Features 4·4·1.1 MB features in the Sealand Dynasty texts are: Contraction of the vowel sequence i-a/ii to a: su-bi-la-na-si CUSAS 9, n: 9 "send us!" Mimation is used only rarely: e-sa-a cusAs 9, 3: 9 Where". Initial W drops: as-ba-( a- )ta CUSAS 9, 4: 8; 5: 6; n: 14 you sit". Intervocalic w is written m: lu-ma-as-se-er cusAs 9, 3:20 let me release". st becomes lt: ul-ta-bi-la-as-su CUSAS 9, 5= 5 1 have him brought". But us-tabi-la/ il ibid. 4: 18, 7: 29', 8: 8. Lexicon: ul-tu CUSAS 9, 5: 13 from". The subjunction kt in ki asiilusunusi ibid. 3: 7 When I asked them". The idiom ana diniini aliiku: ana di-na-ni beliya aniiku lu-ul-lik, e.g., ibid. 3: 1f. may I serve as my lord's substitute". 11

11

11

11

11

11

11

Old Babylonian Features 4.4.1.2 oB features in the Sealand Dynasty texts are: The verbs 1-w in the S-stem have ii and note as in MB (see GAG§ 103v; Dalley, Babylonian Tablets, 13): li-sa-bi-la CUSAS 9, 9: 15 may he send me"; for further references of the same verb see above. Since ii and e in these verbs fluctuates during the history of Akk (Kouwenberg, Akkadian Verb, 455-57) this link is, however, rather weak. The tense sequence preterite-perfect is attested once: ana iili il-li-ik-ma ultu iili is-sa-af:J-ra cusAs 9, 5: 12 f. he went to the city and returned from the city". The word pif:Ju llbeer jar", e.g., 19 KAS pi-!Ju cusAs 9, 247: 1 and passim in cusAs 9, 142-160 (see Dalley, Babylonian Tablets, 13). 11

11

Late Old Babylonian in Susa 4.4.2 The Susa texts have been described by Salonen, Untersuchungen. Orthography 4.4.2.1 following two orthographic peculiarities of the middle the Especially from Susa (4.3.8.a) have survived in the late OB texts from Susa: sa: i-sa-am MDP 23,206:7 he bought". s{: ana Sf-mi-su MDP 23,206:7 for its price". 11

11

OB

texts

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1020

Phonology 4-4.2.2 The vowel sequence £-ii is normally contracted to a: ana da-ra-ti MDP 22,45: 21 < *diirCiiti "forever". Initial w frequently drops: ar-ki MDP 23,206:26 "according to". Dissimilation of long voiced consonants frequently occurs: i-ma-an-da-ad MDP 22,36:12 < *imaddad "he will measure".

Lexicon Typical for OB in Susa is the word kubussu "regulation". Some loans from Elamite are also attested in the Susa texts, e.g., teppir "scribe, chancellor". 80

4.4.2.3

5

Text Genres and Their Language

Almost all text genres known in Mesopotamia are attested in the oB period. Whereas the differences between the various OB dialects seem to be rather small (see section 4, above) the differences between the languages of different text genres can be considerable. In the following not every text genre can be mentioned separately.

Letters 5.1 Most letters serve the communication between different authorities of the administrati on of the palace or temple. Some letters are exchanged between private persons. The language of letters can be characterize d as written everyday language. The description of the various dialects of middle OB in section 4·3 is mainly based on letters, without any attempt to distinguish between different groups of senders. It remains to be investigated whether the language of, e.g., royal letters is distinct from letters between more or less high officials, or the language of women's letters different from letters of men. 81 Written everyday language is not identical with spoken everyday language. The latter is, of course, not attested. However, written everyday language of letters, especially of private letters, probably comes closer to spoken everyday language than the language of any other text genre.

So 81

For Elamite loans in Akk see Manfred Krebernik, "Philologische Aspekte elamisch-mesopotamischer Beziehungen im Oberblick," Babcl und Bibel3 (zooG): 83-91. See Walther Sallaberger, "Wenn du mein Brudcr bist, ... ': Jntcraktion und Tcxtgcstaltung in altbabylonischenAlltagsbriefen, Groningen: Styx, 1999,10, for the difference between written and spoken language.

OLD BABYLONIAN

1021

Letters sometimes quote speech or oral communication. In this case some groups of letters apparently require that the reported speech is stylized in a language closer to the spoken language than the rest of the letter. See, e.g., the following letter written by Hammurapi, king of Babylon: PN kizu kfam iqb"fam umma siima KA.zfnmes sa qiitiya ... PNz ... um-ta-a[-fisu-nu-ti ki'am iqbi'am AbB 2, 26: 4-12 "PN the attendant told me thus. He said: 'PN 2 assigned the flour grinders under my authority.' Thus he told me." Before and after the reported speech the letter uses the preterite iqbi'am to express a past situation ("he told me"). The speech itself, however, expresses another past situation with the perfect umtalli- "he assigned". We know that in later Akkadian, from the MB period onwards, past situations (positive and in main clauses) are only rendered by the perfect and therefore this usage must have started in the spoken language of the oB period at latest. The scribe apparently felt that it would be inappropriate to quote the speech using the preterite which probably was confined (in this function) to the written language already in the oB period. Instead he chose with the perfect the form of the spoken language. 82 Whether also other parts of quoted speech are stylized differently from the other parts of letters remains to be investigated. Administrative Documents 5.2 Administrative documents including contracts consist of formulaic and more free elements. Whereas the latter are couched in written everyday language the former often seem to use a more archaic language; we still lack, however, detailed studies on these matters. Formulaic elements in OB documents as well as items of commodities are frequently written with sumerograms which are of very limited use for a study of the Akkadian language, e.g.:

82

Michael P. Streck, "Das 'Perfekt' iptaras im Altbabylonischen der Hammurapi-Briefe," in Tempus und Aspekt in den semitischen Sprachen, ed. Norbert Nebes (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1999 ), 113 f. and explained ibid. 117 f. See also Streck, Altbabylonisches Lehrbuch, 83 f. § 8oj. Sallaberger, "Wenn du mein Bruder bist", 145, attempts to explain this use of the perfect by an ellipsis of preterites denoting earlier situations in an alleged chain of preterites and perfects but this cannot be proven. The proof that the explanation given above is correct is given by legal documents from the MB and LB periods in which quotations of witnesses or contracting parties likewise use perfects whereas the rest of the document uses preterites (Jussi Aro, Studien zur mittelbabylonischen Grammatik, Helsinki: Societas Orientalis Fennica, 1955, 83; Michael P. Streck, Zahl und Zeit. Grammatik der Numeralia und des Verba/systems im Spiitbabylonischen, Groningen: Styx Publications, 1995, 152-55): since chains of preterites and perfects are not in use any more in these periods outside literary texts the change between preterites and perfects cannot be explained by an ellipsis of foregoing preterites but only by the wish to stylize the quotation closer to the spoken language.

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ZI.GA ina GN ITI Kinunim VD 23kam timu PNz 1 GIN KU.BABBAR ana PN OBTR 197 "1 shekel of silver to PN, outgoing from GN. Month of Kiniinum, z3rd

day, eponymate PN 2". The advantage of administrati ve documents lies in the fact that they can 83 often be dated and located more precisely than letters. They are also the main source for personal names (see section 5.8, below). Law Codes and Royal Edicts 5·3 One of the most important sources for the oB language is the Code of Hammurapi. There also exist the laws of Esnunna and edicts of the kings Samsu-iluna and Ammi~aduqa. Whereas the language of the prologue and epilogue of the Code ofHammura pi is close to the language of hymns (see section 5.7, below) the language of the laws themselves is in many respects similar to the language of letters (section 5.1, above), probably especially of royal letters, and of administrati ve documents (section 5.2, above), especially of the non-formulaic

elements. Only a few differences occur between the language of the law section of the Code ofHammura pi and the language of OB letters. A syntactic difference concerns the use of tenses in conditional clauses. Whereas the letters can use the present tense instead of the perfect and the preterite (although both, especially the perfect, do occur) to refer to a future condition the law section of the Code of Hammurapi only uses the perfect or, more rarely, the preterite for the same kind of conditions. 84 See for the perfect in the Code of Hammurapi e.g.: summa

83

84

See Aage Westenholz, "Do Not Trust the Assyriologists!" in The Akkadian Language in its Semitic Context. Studies in the Akkadian of the Third and Second Millennium BC., ed. G. Deutscher and N.J.C. Kouwenberg (Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2oo6), 256 f. I do not agree, however, with Westenholz conclusion that a "good dialect grammar of Old Babylonian" should "primarily" be "based on legal and administrative texts". On the one hand the formulaic nature of administrative and legal documents probably tends to obscure chronological developments and regional variation. On the other hand letters with their large freely formulated parts offer many insights in Akkadian grammar that cannot be gained through the analysis of administrative and legal documents. Moreover, in most cases letters can be dated at least roughly, almost always to time-spans lasting only one or two decades, and in many cases also located in at least certain regions, if not precisely to certain cities. Therefore, to my mind, a dialect grammar of OB should primarily be based on letters, supplemented by information gained from administrative and legal documents, where available. See for further references and secondary literature as well as an analysis Streck, Altbabylonisches Lehrbuch, 73 § 177n; 78 § 78l; 81 § 18ob; 130 § 294. Note that the few instances of the present tense in conditional clauses in the Code of Hammurapi are probably all conditioned by modal or pluralic nuances. Also the negation plays a certain role for the choice

OLD BABYLONIAN

1023

awilum In mtir awilim u!Jtappid Insu u!Jappadil c H § 196 "If a man blinds the eye of another man they will blind his eye". Cf. the present tense in a letter: [su Jmm a taqabbi assa [s ]su [lu ]stiri'akkum AbB 10, 9: 24 f. "If you give order I will have his wife brought to you". Royal Inscriptions 5·4 Besides the law codes and royal edicts, which had an administrative purpose, the kings had composed inscriptions recording their pious and military deeds. To a certain extent, these inscriptions are composed in a literary diction with archaisms and some other features that cannot be found in letters and administrative documents. See, e.g., the inscription RIME 4·3·7·3 of Samsu-iluna, the successor of Hammurapi:

Orthography 5.4.1 u in iq-bi-u I. 24 and ib-ba-ni-u I. 57· Phonology 5-4.2 The vowel sequences I-u and ti-i remain uncontracted: ra-bi-um I. 3 "great", ibba-ni-u I. 57 ''was built". ar-ba-im ll. 67, 120 "four". Morphology 5·4·3 Use of the locative: in libbu sattim iste'at/su'titi ll. 43f., 76f. "within a single year/that year". Use of shortened in "in": ll. 43, 46,51 etc. Syntax 5-4·4 Word order Indirect object-predicate-di rect object: ana Samsu-iluna isruksum metelliltam dunnam u baltitam ll. 103-106 "He has presented to Samsu-iluna lordship, might and life". Lexicon and Phraseology 5·4·5 inill. 1 "when". bilnisu I. 5 "his face". inilsu ll. 25, 39 "at that time". zii'iriya I. 47 "my enemies". metelliltam I. 105 "lordship". Use of affirmative lil: lil adilk I. 46 "I defeated", lil uterI. 49 "I brought back", lil assu!J "I tore out" etc. of perfect or preterite but does not affect the choice of the present tense. However, pace Eran Cohen, Conditional Structures in Mesopotamian Old Babylonian (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2012 ), 128, the use of the tenses in the law codes has nothing to do with an alleged "generic nature oflaws": the difference between "if a man blinds" and "if you order" is not a temporal one but between an indefinite ("a man") and a definite ("you") subject. Furthermore, logic requires that the conditional clauses in the law codes always refer to a future situation: a penalty or another consequence only makes sense for something which will happen in the future and not for something which has already happened in the past.

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5.5

Scientific Literature

oB scientific literature comprises, above all, lexical lists, omen texts and math-

ematical texts. Whether and how their language differs from letters and administrative documents remains to be investigated on a larger scale. The dual, which in administrative texts of the oB period is almost restricted to body parts occurring in pairs, is used in omen texts to a greater extent, probably an archaism: qarradiin senii YO S 10, 31 ix25 f. "two heros", tikiptiin sittama ibid. 22f. "two dots". Mathematical texts sometimes show syllabic spellings of numerals only written logographically elsewhere. See se-di-is "six" in Sumer 43 , 194: 32, 38, the only instance of a syllabic spelling of the masc. number six in Akk (Streck, "Die Kardinalzahl•sechs' ");the same text also has the only syllabically spelled reference for ••thirteen": sa-la-as-si-ri-is ibid. 190 ii 3 (Streck, .. Die Kardinalzahl•sechs' ", 246 n. 2 ). Epics epical texts, together with hymns, have been said to be couched in a ••hymnisch-epischer Dialekt" (von Soden, "Der hymnisch-epische Dialekt", Teil1 and 2 ). However, we do not deal with a geographical dialect in the sense of section 3, above. Hess, •Towards the Origins",n3-15, rather describes archaic, foreign and artificial features as characteristics of literary language; the different origins of these features are, however, sometimes difficult to disentangle. Moreover, the language of epics is clearly nearer to the language of letters than is the language of hymns (section 5.7, below) so that it seems better to describe both genres separately. We take as an example the text Gilg. OB I I. ss 5.6 OB

Phonology 5.6.1 Uncontracted vowels (archaic): samii,i I. 6 "sky". Morphology 5.6.2 Long form of the fern. ending (artificial): sunatam "dream" I. 1. Construct state ending in -u (artificial): aliiku miinabt[ i]ka I. 146 ••going of toil". Productive use of the terminative case: bitis I. 149 ••to the house". Stative 2sm with ending -iiti (archaic): alkatima I. 64 "you are familiar (lit. have gone)".

85

Only one example for each feature is given.

OLD BABYLONIAN

1025

5.6.3 Syntax Present tense used to express circumstantial clauses (artificial): Enki[ du w ]asib ma!Jar !Jarimtim urta[ ,]amil kilalliln 11. 45 f. "Enkidu sat before the harlot, the two of them making love together". Word order predicate-subject (archaic): urabbisu sadu l. 19 "the mountain reared him". Word order predicate-object (archaic): ummidma piltlimidil yati 11. 12 f. "I braced my forehead and they leaned against me". 5·7 Hymns Hymns are the text genre whose language is farthest away from the written every day language as represented by letters (section 5.1, above). For the terms archaic, foreign and artificial see section s.6, above. The following examples are taken from the !Star hymn of Ammiditana (RA 22 [1925] 179-77).86 5.7.1 Phonology Uncontracted vowels (archaic): namrif£1. 44 "fattened". 5.7.2 Morphology Shortened independent pronouns: sas l. 30 "before her". Shortened pronominal suffix (artificial): narbtas l. 21 "her greatness". Determinative pronoun inflected (archaic): siit mele$im l. 5 "she of joy". Accusative ending -em (artificial?): nemeqem l. 35· Productive use oflocative case (archaic): resilssa l.n''on her head". Productive use of terminativ case (archaic): simtissa l. 10 "on her features". Construct state with suffixed helping vowel (artificial): migrasun l. 41 "their favorite". 3sf has prefix ta- (archaic): tebell. 18 "she controls". Shortened tan-stem form (artificial): itnaqqisunilt l. 42 "he constantly offers". Stative of izuzzu (artificial): nazuzzill. 39 "they stand". Shortened prepositions ina and ana (archaic): in-il£1. 25 "among the gods". an-nirisu l. 52 "to his yoke". 5·7·3 Syntax Word order predicate-subject (archaic): litta'id belet nis£1. 2 "Let the mistress of people be praised". Word order predicate-object (archaic): tetersassum diirl'am baliitam arkam 11. 45 f. "she has requested for him a life long and everlasting". 86

Only one example for each feature is given.

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Lexicon 5·7·4 rasubtil.1 (archaic?) "awe-inspiring". isstl. 4 (foreign, Amorite loanword) Women". tartiim"il.17 (archaic) ~~mutual love". muttissun I. 39 (archaic?) ~~before them". 11

isttl. 45 (archaic) ~~from".

Personal Names 5.8 We know thousands of personal names from the oB period. Their language shows archaisms in the fields of morphology, syntax and lexicon (Streck, ~~sprachliche Innovationen", for OB names see ibid. n2f.): Siit-Naniiya UET 5, 281: 6 ~~she of Nanaya" (inflected determinative pronoun). lbni-Ea ibid. 16: 3 ~~Ea has created" (word order predicate-subject). Ipiq-Istar ibid. 521:10 ~~(In the) embrace of !Star" (ipqu only used onomastically). On the other hand, phonological innovations of the written everyday language are also reflected in personal names: Isme-Addu UET 5, 537: 14 ~~Adad has heard" with isme < *isma'.

6

Old Babylonian and Old Assyrian

Although OB shows many minor differences between several sub-dialects (see section 4, above), and differences between various text genres can be even greater (see section 5, above), the varieties of oB on the whole are nevertheless closer to each other than to OA. OA shows several phonological, morphological and lexical features either not shared by any OB variety or present in OB only in residual forms.87

Phonology 6.1 No oB variety shows the so-called Assyrian vowel harmony: short Ia/ in an open unaccented syllable following an accented syllable assimilates to the vowel in the following syllable, e.g., in the declension of nouns: sarratam ''queen", (accusative), sarrutum (nominative), sarritim (genitive); in the conjugation of verbs: £llak ~~he goes" (present tense of aliikum ), £lluku ~~they (m.) go", tallik"i "you (f.) go" etc. Morphology 6.2 Subordinative 6.2.1 OA has a subordinative ending -ni either additionally attached to the pan-Akk -u or present instead of -u where the latter cannot be used, e.g., sa iprus-u-ni 87

A summary of the most important differences between

OB

and

OA

can also be found in

OLD BABYLONIAN

1027

(3sm, OB iprus-u), sa iprusii-ni (3pm, OB iprus-ii without subordinative ending). There are only a handful of instances of -ni in OB royal inscriptions and literary texts (Kouwenberg, Akkadian Verb, 225). 6.2.2 D- and S-stem Forms In OA, infinitive, imperative, verbal adjective and stative of the D- and S-stems have archaic a in the first syllable, where oB has innovative u, e.g., infinitive parrusum and saprusum (OB purrusum and suprusum), imperative parris and sapris ( 0 B purris and supris ). a also occurs as an archaism in the early 0 B texts from Mari (see section 4.2.3.a, above), in D-stem forms of verbs 1-w (wassur etc.), in middle OB texts from the middle Euphrates/upper ljabur area, in upper Mesopotamia and in Susarra (Kouwenberg, Akkadian Verb, 269 f.), and in some adjectives and nouns derived from the s-stem (e.g., salbubu "furious", saklulutu "perfection"; ibid. 325 f.). 6.2.3 Precative OA has precative G Is laprus and D /S 3s luparris I lusapris against oB G IS luprus and D/S liparris. 6.2.4 Prefix tahas prefix ta- for the 3sf (taprus etc.) against i- in most OB varieties (iprus). However, ta- survives as an archaism in early oB dialects (section 4.2.2.d, above: Esnunna) and in literary text genres (section 5.6.b, above: epics; section 5.7.b: hymns). OA

6.2.5 Stative has suffix -ti in the stative 2sm (parsati) against OB -ta (parsata). However, -ta survives as an archaism mainly in early oB dialects (see section 4.2.I.c, above: Babylonia; section 4.2.2.d: Esnunna) and in literary text genres (section 5.6.b, above: epics). 88 OA

6.3 Lexicon There are also some characteristic lexical differences between oB and OA. See for an extensive discussion Kogan, "Old Assyrian vs. Old Babylonian"; e.g., OA has amm"fu ''that" against OB ulfu, or arsatu "wheat" against OB kibtu.

88

Michael P. Streck, "Babylonian and Assyrian" in The Semitic Languages. An International Handbook, ed. Stefan Weninger et al. (Berlin-Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, zon), 368-70. Rare instances from middle OB letters, e.g., mentioned in Streck, Altbabylonisches Lehrbuch, 93 §ZOIC.

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Old Babylon ian and Other Ancien t Near Eastern Langua ges

7

Old Babylonian and Sumeria n 7.1 Sumeria n was gradually superse ded by Akk and eventua lly died out, probably 89 at the beginning of the second millennium. The long contact between Sumerian and Akk during the third and the beginni ng of the second millennium is most visibly reflected in the lexicon of both languages. Akk has more than 90 nso Sumeria n loanwords, which is ea. 7°/o of the entire lexicon. The opposite direction, from Akk to Sumerian, is more difficult to assess, but no doubt 91 Sumeria n loaned many words from Akk. Both languag es also influenced each other in the realm of grammar, and this to a degree that it is perhaps justified to speak of a Sumeria n-Akk language area. For the use of both languages in different text genres see the following remarks: Letters 7.1.1 Almost all letters were written in OB. Letters written in Sumeria n are only attested from Isin and perhaps Nippur until the time of Lipitestar (19341924).92 Administrative Docume nts 7.1.2 Due to their formulaic nature, adminis trative docume nts more widely use Sumeria n than do letters. Akk administrative docume nts occur from the 19th 93 c. onwards, especially in norther n Babylonia. Law Codes 7.1.3 The Code of Lipitestar is written in Sumerian, but the Code of Hammu rapi and the Laws of Esnunn a use the oB language.

8g

go 91

92 93

of Sumerian The details of the process are still being discussed. An account of the death in Walther found be can letters of on distributi the on and evidence c onomasti on based tamischen altmesopo Sallaberger, "Das Ende des Sumerisc hen. Tod und Nachlebe n einer old Mumm Sprache," in Sprachtod und Sprachgeburt, ed. Peter Schrijver and Peter-Am (Bremen: Hempen, 2004), 108-40. 105. Michael P. Streck, review of CAD U/W, Zeitschrif tfor Assyriologie 104 (2014): to Robert D. Presented Studies in ," Sumerian in s Loanword Semitic Miguel Civil, "Early of University the of Institute Oriental The (Chicago: al. et Roth T. Biggs, ed. Martha Chicago, 2007), 11-33. Sallaberger 2004, 129. For details see Sallaberger, "Das Ende", 129-32.

1029

OLD BABYLONIAN

Royal Inscriptions 7.1.4 The kings of the dynasties of lsin and Larsa followed a venerable tradition in Mesopotamia and therefore wrote almost all inscriptions in Sumerian. 94 Exceptions are the inscription Lipitestar (1934-1924) 3, Zabaya (1941-1933) 1, Abl-sare (1905-1895) 2 and Kudurmabuk (19th c.) 2. Also the kings of Babylon used Sumerian in many of their inscriptions; monolingual OB inscriptions are Hammurapi 3,7 17,19, Samsu-iluna 1, 2,9,1002 and Ammi~aduqa 2. A new development is the appearance of bilingual royal inscriptions:95 Hammurapi 2, 12, 14, Samsu-iluna 3, 5, 7, 8, Abiesul]. 1, Ammiditana 2, Ammi~aduqa 1, altogether 10 inscriptions. Sumerian is only rarely used for royal inscriptions outside of Babylonia. The rulers, e.g., ofEsnunna almost always (exception: Bilalama 4) and ofMari without any exception write in OB. 1

Scientific Texts 7.1.5 Omen texts are written exclusively in OB. Lexical texts are either monolingual Sumerian or bilingual. Literary Texts 7.1.6 The oB period witnesses the emergence of a wide array of different literary genres in Akk language. At the same time Sumerian literature was written down on a large scale for the first time. Bilingual literary texts served the education of scribes. 96 They include the following 49 compositions: 97 94

See Sallaberger, "Das Ende", 126 f. The numbering of the inscriptions follows Douglas R. Frayne, Old Babylonian Period (200J-159SBC) (Toronto: University of Toronto Press), 1990.

95

96

For a summary of Sumerian-Akk bilingual texts in the OB period see Joachim Krecher, "Interlinearbilinguen und sonstige Bilinguentypen," in Reallexikon der Assyriologie 5, ed. Dietz 0. Edzard (Berlin: Waiter de Gruyter, 1976-1980 ), 126 f. § 4· For royal inscriptions see also Johannes Renger, "Konigsinschriften. B. Akkadisch," in Reallexikon der Assyriologie 6, ed. Dietz 0. Edzard (Berlin: Waiter de Gruyter, 1980-1983), 67 f. § 4A. For the bilingual scribal education in the OB period see the recent summaries by Hartmut Waetzoldt, "Schule," in Reallexikon der Assyriologie 12, ed. Michael P. Streck (Berlin: Waiter de Gruyter, 2009-2011), 299-305 § 11, and Jerrold S. Cooper, "Sumer, Sumerisch," in Reallexikon der Assyriologie 13, ed. Michael P. Streck (Berlin: Waiter de Gruyter, 20112013), 293. For an earlier survey of bilingual literary texts see Jerrold S. Cooper, "SumeroAkkadian Literary Bilingualism" (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 1969), esp. 16-31. Cf. also Nathan Wasserman and Uri Gab bay, "Literatures in Contact: The Balag Uru Am-mair-ra-bi and its Akkadian Translation UET 6/z, 404,'']oumal ofCuneifonn Studies 57 (zoos): 69-84.

97

See the catalogue published by Streck and Wasserman, "Sources of Early Akkadian Literature".

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Epics: 2 composit ions: Enmerka r and Ensuhke shdana (ASJ 1S, 51). Sargon (vs 24, 75)· Hymns and prayers: 16 composit ions: Amurru (AUWE 23, 106). Hammura pi (eT 21, 4 off.). Hammur api (OrS 23, 17S). Hammur api (UET 1,146 I I vs 24, 41 ). Iddin-Da gan (UET 6/I, S4)· InannaiiS tar, TIM 9' 20 ff. I I CT sS, 53). Lamasaga/ Baba (JCS 26, 174f.). Nidaba and Enki (uET 6l3, 579-5S4) . Ninurta (PBS 1/l, n). Nunnam nir (vs 2, S9). Sin (AUWE 23, 113). Temple (uET 6/I, 117). UtuiSamas (ASJ 19, 265 f.). UtuiSam as (CT sS, 2S. ). Miscella neous: Nouvelle s Fouilles de Telloh 212a. vs 24, 39· Lamentat ions: 7 composit ions:AUW E 23, 129.AUWE 23, 130.AUWE 23,136. CT 44, 24. PBS 112, 135· VS 10, 179· VS 17, 35· Incantations: 9 composit ions: PBS 1l2, 122. PRAK 2 C 1. RA 70,129 ff. UET 6lz, 399. VS 17, 34· YOS 11, 35· YOS 11, 67. YOS 11, 74· ZA 75 (IB 1554)a. Literary letters: 1 composit ion: To Zimri-Lim (FM 3, S1f.). Wisdom literature: S composit ions: BWL pi. 6S (proverb ). CBS 1354 (Farmer's Instructio ns). Alster, Proverbs of Ancient Sumer 2 pi. 117 (proverb) . RA 6o, 5 (proverb) . TIM 9, 27 (riddle?). UET 6l2, 3So (proverb ). UET 6l2, 3S5 (proverb). UET 6l2, 3S6 (proverb) . Miscellaneous texts: 6 composit ions: BE 31, 53· Iraq 63, 15S. UET 6l3, 916. UET 6/3, 917. UET 6l3, 91S. VS 17, 46+49.

Old Babyloni an and Amorite 7.2 Whereas Sumerian influence on OB is strong (see section 7.1, above), the contact between Amorite and OB has left much less traces. Amorite loanword s do not exceed the number of 100 and are mainly attested in the middle Euphrates/ lower Ijabiir area (see section 3.4, above), and grammat ical influence s are very few. 98 Amorite never served as a written language . Personal names are almost the sole source for an evaluatio n of the relations hip between both language s in the 99 different regions where OB was written (cf. section 3, above ).

98

99

See Michael P. Streck, Das amurritische Onomastik on dcr altbabylon ischen Zeit (MUnster: An Ugarit-Verlag, 2000 ), 76-130; id. "Babylonia n and Assyrian," in The Semitic Languages. Mouton, Gruyter De ston: (Berlin-Bo al. et Weninger Stefan ed. Handbook, al Internation 2011), 366 f.; id., Altbabylonisches Lehrbuch, 6 f. § 6b. The following section is a summary of Michael P. Streck, "Die Amurriter der altbabylonis 2000 in ," Evaluierung uistische chen Zeit im Spiegel des Onomastik ons. Eine ethno-ling v. Chr. Politische, wirtschaftliche und kulturclle Entwicklun g im Zciclzen einer jahrtausend Druckr Saarbrticke en: (Saarbri.ick d Sommerfel Waiter and wende, ed.jan-Waa lke Meyer the erei und Verlag, 2004), 313-55. This study and the figures given here is based on imporan is East Near Ancient the in names personal of language The a) that assumption

OLD BABYLONIAN

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Southern Babylonia In the early OB period we find between 5-27 °/o Amorite names in Lagas, Kisurra and Isin, with the exception of Nippur, where, due to strong Sumerian traditions, Amorite presence is hardly visible (o-1, 7 °/o ). In the middle and late oB period 2-8 °/o Amorite names occur in Ur, Larsa, and Isin. Already in the early oB period Amorites constitute a minority, who becomes even less visible in the later periods. Ethno-linguistically, the Amorites were absorbed by the dominant (Sumero-)Babylonian culture.

7.2.1

Northern Babylonia In the early OB period we find between 11-33 o/o Amorite names (Dilbat, Kis, Sippar, Tell ed-Der). In the middle and late OB period 1-14 °/o Amorite names occur (Dilbat, Kis, Sip par, Tell ed-Der). Already in the early OB period Amorites constitute a minority, who becomes even less visible in the later periods. Ethnolinguistically, the Amorites were absorbed by the dominant (Sumero-)Babylonian culture.

7.2.2

The Diyala region In the Diyala region (Saduppum, Nerebtum, Esnunna, Tell Yell;i) the Amorites constitute a minority in the early and middle oB period. However, compared to southern and northern Babylonia, their relative proportion is significantly higher (10-27 °/o) in the middle oB period. 7.2.3

Middle Euphrates and Lower Ijabiir Area On average, 81 °/o of the persons who are explicitely designated as members of Amorite tribes bear an Amorite name in the middle OB period. On average, 78 °/o of the persons who are designated as inhabitants of cities or regions in the area (Sul;i, Anat, Ijanu from Mari, Terqa, Saggaratum, Emar), or are mentioned in the middle OB texts from Tuttul bear an Amorite name. This means that the middle Euphrates/lower Ijabiir area is the core area of the Amorite speaking population. Although the written language is OB, the king of Mari, Yasmal;-Addu, is expected to speak Amorite for an effective administration of his kingdom (see Streck, "Remarks on Two Recent Studies", 319 ). Even in the late OB period, 38 °/o Amorite names occur in Ijana. 7.2.4

tant ethno-linguistic mark, b) Notwithstanding exceptions with single names, there is a general correlation between the language of a name and the language of the name-bearer, c) Therefore chronological developments and geographical distributions of languages can be analysed on the base of statistically significant onomastic samples.

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7.2.5

Upper Mesopo tamia

texts from Chagar Bazar and 36 °/o of the names in the 23 o;0 of the names in the

prestexts from Rima}}, both from the middle OB period, are Amorite . Amorite es/lower Euphrat ence is higher than in Babylon ia but lower than in the middle tfabur area. Susarra 7.2.6 Only 6 °/o of the names are Amorite . Norther n Syria 7.2.7 86% 62 o;o of the persons from Karkem is, 74 °/o of the persons from Aleppo and is as e presenc Amorite Thus of the persons from Qatna bear Amorite names. high as in the middle Euphrat es flower tfabur area. Israel/P alestine 7.2.8 6g 0/o of the persons from tfa~or bear Amorite names. Elam 7.2.9 Amorite s are practica lly not present.

Old Baby Ionian and Other Langua ges 7·3 s. Besides Sumeria n and Amorite , OB had contact with several other language in and This contact, however, hardly affected the oB languag e. In Sagir Bazar in the Rima}}, both in upper Mesopo tamia, Hurrian presenc e is clearly visible 100 OB texts mention dragomans onomas ticon (2g 0/o of all names are Hurrian ). 101 (turguma nnu) for tfa bingalb a teans (probab ly H urrians) and Kassi tes. An oB 102 OB letter mention s Subarea n (Hurrian ) besides Akkadi an and and Amorite . n and lexical texts list Sumeria n, Akkadia n, Elamite , Amorite , Sutean, Subarea Gutian.l 03

100 101 102

103

Streck, "Die Amurriter", 335· CAD T, 229, targumannu a 3'. . See Streck, "Remarks on Two Recent Studies", 319, with previous literature . literature previous with 318, Studies", Streck, "Remarks on Two Recent

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Bibliography Abdullah, Ahmad A.K. "Old Babylonian Loan Contracts in the Iraq Museum." PhD diss. Baghdad, 1964. Aro, Jussi. Studien zur mittelbabylonischen Grammatik. Helsinki: Societas Orientalis Fennica, 1955. Beckman, Gary. Old Babylonian Archival Texts in the Nies Babylonian Collection. Bethesda: CDL Press, 1995. Beckman, Gary. Old Babylonian Archival Texts in the Yale Babylonian Collection. Bethesda: c D L Press, 2000. Boyer, Georges. Contribution a l' histoire juridique de La 1re dynastie babylonienne. Paris: Geuthner, 1928. Charpin, Dominique. "Recherches sur la 'Dynastie de Manana'." Revue d' assyriologie 72 (1978): 13-39·

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.,.*~

CHAPTER 14

Middle Babylonian Wilfred H. van Soldt

1

Introduction*

During the Middle Babylonian period (ea. 1550-n55) Babylonia was ruled by a dynasty that was foreign to Mesopotamia. After the fall of Babylon and the Hammurapi dynasty at the hands of the Hittite king Mursili I it was the Kassites who took over the power in Babylonia, and their dynasty was the longest ruling one in the history of Babylonia. The political situation of the period following the fall of Babylon is not yet clear and different dates for the beginning of the Kassite dynasty have been proposed.l Since I do not intend to discuss the chronology of the dynasty I have chosen the date of 1550 for the beginning of Kassite rule, but I have to emphasize that this figure does not claim any chronological truth. This chapter will deal with the changes that Akkadian underwent during the Middle Babylonian period. Since the period starts around 1550 and ends in n55 we have a timespan of about 400 years. The number of sources from the first two centuries is very meagre and it is only with the ascent of KadasmanEnlil I around 1375 that they become more numerous, in particular in the city of Nippur. The archives of Nippur dry up after the Assyrian invasion under Tukulti-Ninurta in 1225 and after this date Middle Babylonian sources diminish sharply. For the period beginning with Tukulti-Ninurta our main published

*

1

©

I want to thankjohn A. Brinkman for reading my manuscript and for his suggestions and corrections. Abbreviations of PN: Asi = Adad-suma-iddina; Asu = Adad-suma-u~ur; BB= BurnaBurias; ljg = ljasmar-galSu; KaE = Kadasman-Enlil; Kg= Kurigalzu; KIJ = Kadasman-ljarbe; Kst = Kastiliasu; KT= Kadasman-Turgu; KuE = Kudur-Enlil; Mai = Marduk-apla-iddina; MS = Meli-Sipak; NM = Nazi-Maruttas; ss= Sagarakti-Surias; UB = Ulam-Burias. According to the Middle Chronology. For other proposals, see H. Gasche et al., Dating the Fall of Baby/on: A Reappraisal of Second-Millennium Chronology (Chicago-Ghent: University of Ghent and The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1998), 88 f. For Tell MuQ.ammad, see Leonhard Sassmannshausen, Beitrage zur Verwaltung und Gesellschaft Babyloniens in der Kassitenzeit (Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 2001), 456, and Frans van Koppen, "The Old to Middle Babylonian Transition: History and Chronologie of the Mesopotamian Dark Age," Agypten und Levante 20 ( 2010 ): 457 f.

KONINKLIJKE BRILL NV, LEIDEN, 2021

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DOI:IO.II63/9789004445215_015

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VAN SOLDT

2 Akkadian texts are the kudurrus erected by some of the kings. The most expedient chronological division of the Middle Babylonian period would seem to distinguish three sub-periods, period I ( ca.1550-1375), period 11 ( ca.1375-12zs), and period 111 (ea. 1225-1155). This division will be used throughout the chap-

ter. It is impossible to discuss the texts of this period all at once. Therefore 1 have divided the geographical space in a number of regions that will be treated 3 separately. Babylonia is divided in three regions. The most prominent one is Central Babylonia with Nippur and Diir-Enlile, the other regions are North Babylonia (Babylon and Diir Kurigalzu), South Babylonia including Ur, Dilmun (Failaka and Bahrain) and a smaller settlement, Tell Kirbasi. Outside Babylonia there are the Diyala region, Northern Mesopotamia, the Northwest and West (Syria and the Levant), and Elam (Kabnak). The textual material from the Middle Babylonian period is, as said, quite numerous in certain periods, especially in period I I. Since we can distinguish different genres it would seem commendable to define three genres that will be discussed under separate headings. The first genre is that of the administrative texts, such as juridical texts, letters, revenue and expenditure lists, etc., in which all documents relevant to the administration have been collected. The second genre is that of the monumental inscriptions, which can be divided into possessive, votive, and building inscriptions. 4 To these also belong the kudurrus.5 The third one is that of the lexical, literary, and religious texts. These texts belong for a large part to the traditional literature and the school products of Mesopotamia. For our purpose the administrative texts are the most reliable with regard to the linguistic development of the Akkadian language. It is this genre that will be explored as much as possible. Also, the monumental inscriptions will be used, but because of their specific nature we have to be cautious when they are quoted. When there are not enough dated administrative texts as,

For the kudurrus, see in general Susanne Paul us, Die babylonischen Kudurru-Inschriften van der kassitischen bis zur.fruhneubabylonischen Zeit (Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2014 ). 3 In view of the geographical spread of the sources and the characteristics of the archives ].A. Brinkman suggested to me to distinguish three subdivisions (central, north, and south) rather than my original two (south and north). 4 John A. Brinkman, Materials and Studies for Kassite History, Vol. 1. A Catalogue ofCuneifonn Sources Pertaining to Specific Monarchs ofthe Kassite Dynasty (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1976), 52 f.; Peter Stein, Die mittel- und neubabylonischen Konigsinschriften his zum Ende dcr Assyrerherrschaft. Grammatische Untersuchungen (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, zooo): Sf. 5 Christian W. Hess, "Untersuchungen zu den Literatursprachen der mittelbabylonischen Zeit" (PhD diss., Universitat Leipzig, 2012), 43f. 2

MIDDLE BABYLONIAN

1041

for example, in period I monumental texts will also be included. In section 8 a number of dated kudurrus are studied as comparative material for the administrative texts. The same can be said about the study of an incantation in section g. Texts of which the nature and/or origin is uncertain will not be used. Unfortunately, the amount of textual sources, in particular during period 11, and the limited space in this volume make it impossible to take every single text into account. Therefore, I will first of all use the dated published texts, which are numerous enough for a study of developments and changes in the language. It has the advantage that we can date changes in the texts rather precisely. Although most of the texts from Nip pur remain unpublished, large amounts of texts have been added to the published corpus in recent decades. 6 At the end of this chapter I have added a list of dated administrative texts in chronological order, and a list of sign values with the kings during whose reign they are first attested.

2

Corpus of Middle Babylonian Texts 7

Administrative Texts Babylon: Donbaz 1982, text A. 1gg8. 8 Pedersen zoos, ea. 210 (unpublished) texts. 9 Rainey 2015, EA 2-4, 10 6-13. 11 Weidner, KUB 3, 71. 12 Bakr Awa: Meinhold 2014, 20 textsP 2.1

6

Sassmannshausen, Beitrage, Paulus, Kudurru-Inschriften, Wilfred H. van Soldt, Middle Babylonian Texts in the Camel! University Collections. I. The Later Kings (Bethesda: CDL Press, 2015).

7

Text volumes are abbreviated, other text publications appear with their date. The abbreviations are those of the Reallexikon der Assyriologie (RlA). For this text, see n. no. In chapter 3, Olof Pedersen, Archiven und Bibliotheken in Babylon. Die Tontafeln der Grabung Robert Koldeweys 1899-1917 (Berlin: Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft, zoos), lists thirteen clusters of tablets. Nine of these (M1-9) are archives found in private houses, one (Mw) includes tablets from various loci. Mu and M12 contain the remainders of archives found in Amran and in the Kasr area, respectively. M13 contains tablets without findspot. The texts can be dated to the period 1350-1150. For EA 4, see the remarks in Cord Kiihne, Die Chronologie der intemationalen Korrespondenz van El-Amama (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1973), 56. I assume that the letters were sent from Babylon or Dur-Kurigalzu, but this is not certain. The origin is not certain. http://www.assur.de/Themen/Bakr_Awa/Tablets/body_tablets.html. The 20 texts include 17 administrative lists, two dockets, and one letter.

8 9

1o

11

12 13

VAN SOLDT

1042

Bahrain: Andre-Salvini 1999,127, texts 164-169;14 Cornwall and Goetze 1952 , Ni. 6

615, Ni. 641;15 Eidem 1997a, texts 1-7.l Chamchamal: Levy 1948, one text. Dur-Enlile: van Soldt 2015P texts 1-438. Dur-Kurigalzu:18 Baqir 1945, pl. 22, 3 texts. Gurney 1949, texts 1-n, 13-15;19 1953, texts 1-40; STT I, text 45. 20 Emar: Arnaud 1986, texts 23-29. 21 Failaka: Glassner 2008, 191 f., texts 49-51. 22 Kabnak (Haft Tepe): Herrero 1976,1-6, 8-n.

14

15

16

17

18 19 20 21

22

See Beatrice Andre-Salvini and Pierre Lombard, "La decouverte epigraphique de 1995 a Qal'at al-Bahrein: unjalon pour la chronologie de la phase Dilmoun Moyen clans le Golfe arabe," in Proceedings of the Seminarfor Arabian Studies, Vol. 27, ed. N.S. Reade and]. Pieton (Turnhout: Brepols, 1997 ), 166-70. Unfortunately, the texts have not yet been published properly. The origin of these two letters has been deduced from their greeting formulae and their content. See Eric Olijdam, "Nippur and Dilmun in the second half of the fourteenth century BC: a re-evaluation of the Il!-ippasra letters," in Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, Vol. 27, ed. N.S. Reade and J. Picton (Turnhout: Brepols, 1997), 199203. More or less the same photos can be found in Beatrice Andre, "The Written Documents (Early Dilmun period to Tylos period)," in Bahrain National Museum-Archaeological Collections: A Selection of Pre-Islamic Antiquities, ed. Pierre Lombard and Monique Kervran (Bahrain: Directorate of Museum and Heritage, 1989), 167-75, 171f., text 321. See also Muhammed Abdul Nayeem, Bahrain, Prehistory and Protohistory of the Arabian Peninsula, vol. 2 (Hyderabad: Hyderabad Publishers, 1992), 381. The texts published in this volume come from Diir-Enlile, a site close to Nippur. See now also Elena Devecchi, Middle Babylonian Texts in the Camel/ Collections. I I. The Earlier Kings (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2020 ), editing 338 texts. According to Brinkman, Materials, 43, the number of inscribed objects found in DiirKurigalzu is 225. Text DKri2 is a letter, probably from a foreign king. For text DK 4 -105 (Iraq 11, 8), see Brinkman, Materials, n6, E.2.31, and 245, Q-5·5· See Dietz 0. Edzard, review of The Sultan Tepe Tablets I, by Oliver R. Gurney and Jacob J. Finkelstein, Zeitschrift fur Assyriologie 55 (1962 ): 265. See Yoram Cohen and Itamar Singer, "A Late Synchronism between Ugarit and Emar," in Essays on Ancient Israel in Its Near Eastern Context. A Tribute to Nadav Na'aman, ed. Yairah Amit, Ehud Ben Zvi et al. (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2oo6), 129f. For text 48 see also Jesper Eidem, "The Inscribed Pottery," in Failaka/Dilmun: the second Millennium settlements. VoL 2: The Bronze Age pottery, ed. Flemming H0jlund (Aarhus:Jutland Archaeological Society Publications, 1997a ), 179.

MIDDLE BABYLONIAN

1043

Nippur: 23 Aro and Bernhardt I95S-1959, HS wS-116; Balkan 1954, 4-17; Ball1907, 273£; Bernhardt, TMH NF s, texts 1-43, 46-56, 75;24 Bernhardt and Kramer 1975; Biggs 1965 (1 text); 197S, 73, texts 21-23; Brinkman 1971, two dates; 1976, 37Sf., texts 41, 6-9, 12-24;25 19S7, 6 partially transliterated texts; 1993, 93f., 69 texts; 26 Charpin and Durand 19S1, pis. S3, 125; Chiera, PBS S/2, 15S-163; Civil1975, texts 17 and 19;27 Clay, BE 14, 1-3, 5-16S+16; 28 BE 15, 1-200+3; PBS 2/2, 1-103, 105-122, 124-144; Clay 1905; Dalley 1979, text 6o; Donbaz 19S7, D Ss; Durand 19S1, 15 texts, plates s, 7, 13-15, 23-2S, 7S, S7, 92; 19S2, 213; Finkelstein 1962; Gi.iterbock, KBo 1S, 177( +)177a; Langdon, PBS 12/1, 24; Leemans 1966, one text; TLB 1, 264; Legrain, PBS 13, 62, 64, 6S, 70-7S, So; Lutz, PBS 1/2,15-S6; Radau, BE I7,1-76,7S-9o,92-99 +4;29 Sassmannshausen 1994; 2001, texts l-459; Scheil RT lS97, s6-6o; RT IS9S, 63; Sibbing Plantholt 2014; Tenney 2011, partial transliterations pp. 11, 17-19, 21, 22, 2S, 34, 35, 116, 117, 151-210 (texts 1-107); van Soldt 1997, two texts; Walker, CT 51, texts 16-41; Waterman 1913-1914, 153 (91-5-9, S6S), 197 (91-5-9, 752); Zadok, NABU 1997/12. 30

23

24

25 26

27 28 29 30

According to Brinkman, Materials, 4If., there are about twelve thousand inscriptions and inscribed fragments from Nippur, most of which are administrative. The texts date from Kadasman-ljarbe I, Kurigalzu I, and Kadasman-Enlil I; but the bulk of the archives come from the time of Burna-Burias 11 (1356) through Kastiliasu IV/Kadasman-ljarbe 11 (1223). For the texts from Nippur, see Monika Holscher, Die Personennamen der kassitenzeitlichen Texte aus Nippur (Munster: Rhema, 1996), 2-3, and Sassmannshausen, Beitriige, 3,n.6. For studies on these texts, see Jussi Aro, Mittefbabylonische Kleidertexte der HilprechtSammlung]ena, Sitzungsberichte der siichsischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig. Phifologisch-historische Klasse (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1970 ), and Herbert P.H. Petschow, Mittefbabylonische Rechts- und Wirtschaftsurkunden der Hifprecht-Sammlung]ena (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1974). See the conversion table in Holscher, Personennamen, 2 f. Texts 44 and 45 are Isin 11, no. 57 is labelled "altbabylonisch". Of texts 12-19 only the date is transliterated. For Ni. 437, see section 4.1.1. The number given by Brinkman, Materials, is 82 tablets and fragments. Inn. 1 he explains that the 16 fragments of 14 N 260 are counted individually, while the fragments of 14 N 249 are not counted. According to J.A. Brinkman (personal communication) text 17 could be a list of garments/textiles; line 25 possibly reads PAP 25 si-sik-tum (see also si-si-ik-ti in text 19). These are the texts that were put in later. They received a number plus a letter (for example, H7a, n7b ). For the Assyrian letters BE 17, 77 and 91, see Wolfram van Soden, "Drei mittelassyrische Briefe aus Nippur," Archivfor Orientforschung 18 (1957-58): 368-71. For comments, see Michaela Weszeli and Michaeljursa, "Mittel-, nicht neubabylonisch," Nouveffes Assyriologiques Breves et Utilitaires (1997): 63-64, and John A. Brinkman, "BM 82651 again," Nouveffes Assyriofogiques Breves et Utilitaires (1997 ): 81.

VAN SOLDT

1044

Nuzi: Qwen and Morrison (eds.), sccNH 2, 387£, EN 9/I, texts 1-3 (Apil-Sin).3I Sepphoris: Beckman, NABU 1997/86, text A (uncertain). 32 Sultantepe: Gurney, STT I, text 45; Brinkman 1976, 242, Q.3.19 (Kg?). Tell Baradan: Kessler 1995, 284f., texts 2 and 3· Tell Imlihiye: Kessler 1982, texts 1-45· Tell Kirbasi: Kessler 1992, one text. Tell Mu~ammad: Al-Ubaid 1983 (Thesis), 30 texts, probably sixteenth century. 33 Ugarit: Lackenbacher, RSOu. 7, texts 40 and 47· Ur: Figulla, UET 5, 259, 515, 874?; Gadd, UET 1, 260; Gurney, UET 7' texts 1-72; 34 1983, 177f., texts 73-83. Uruk: Cavigneaux 1978, pl. 34 (W 22441 ). 35 Zubeidi: Kessler 1985, 74f., 36 texts. Unknown origin: Contenau, TCL 9, texts 47-56; Figulla, CT 43, texts 59, 6o, 94, 10 2; Nies and Keiser, BIN 2, texts 106 and 107; Leemans 1966; 1964, TLB 1, texts 264 and 302; Peiser 1905, 49 texts; 36 Pinches, CT 2, 38b; CT 44, 67-69; CT 45, 37 103; 1v2 R, 34.2; Sassmannshausen, MUN 460-467; Thompson, CT 22, texts 38 247,248 (see Borger 1959-60 ); van Dijk, TIM 1, 72.

Monumental Inscriptions 2.2 There are building inscriptions, possessive inscriptions, and votive inscriptions. The building inscriptions are all written in Sumerian, see Brinkman 1976, 41f. Only the Akkadian texts are mentioned here. 39 The Akkadian inscriptions have been re-edited in Stein 2000.

31

See Alec H. Friedmann, "Toward a Relative Chronology at Nuzi," Studies on the Civilization

and Culture ofNuzi and the Hurrians 2 (1987 ): m f. 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

The nature of this text is not certain, see Brinkman, Materials, 48, n. 119. See Cohen and Singer, "Late Synchronism". For text 73, see UET 5, 259. For texts 74-83, see the last four pages of MBLET. Some texts are dated to Kudur-Enlil, Sagarakti-Surias, or Enlil-nadin-sumi. See the discussion in Brinkman, Materials, 46. According to Sassmannshausen, Beitrage, texts 460-464 come from Nippur. According to page XII of this volume the text was purchased from I.Jamudl. A Middle Babylonian date is not certain. For this reason some of the Babylonian cities, such as Adab, Isin, Kis, Akkad, Borsippa, and Der, are not listed in this overview. See Brinkman, Materials, 44 f. Most of these cities have only produced one or more Sumerian Kurigalzu texts. Note that according to Brinkman, Materials, 44f., an administrative text was found in Adab. See also p. 183, 0.2.7.134 (Ksq). For a Kurigalzu text found at Assur, see Alexa Bartelmus and Aaron Schmitt, "Beutesti.icke a us Babylonien in Assyrien. Uberlegungen zu einer neuen Weihinschrift Kurigalzus I. aus Assur," Zeitschriftfor Assyriologie 104 (2014): 74-90.

MIDDLE BABYLONIAN

1045

Babylon: Paulus 2014, 364f. (Asi/u); 402f. (Ms); Winckler 1887, 19, Stein zooo, 166f., Kb 3 (Asu). Possibly from Babylon is Hunger1968, sS, n0.150. Winckler 1889,156, text 6 (Gandas); 1952-53 (Ms); Weissbach, WVDOG 4, text 240 (Ms), text 3 (uB). Baghdad: Paulus 2014, 441f. (Mai). Bahrain: Andn~ 1989, 170, text 316, and 173, text 321 (BB?). 41 Dilr-Kurigalzu: Mustafa 1947, 19f., 2 inscribed bricks, one of NM (Fig. s/4o); 42 Paul us 2014, 335f., Brinkman 1976,265, U.2.17 (NM); Walker 1980 (Kg n). !sin: Walker and Wilcke 1975-78,100-101, total: 12 texts. Kabnak (Haft Tepe): Herrero 1976, 6 (seal), 7 (Tepti-al]ar). Kalbu (Nimrud): Wiseman 1953, 149, ND 3498 (ss). 43 Larsa: Paulus 2014, 318f. (NM), and 340f. (KuE), Margueron 1972 and Arnaud 1972. Nineveh: Campbell Thompson 1932, 107, Brinkman 1976, 134, ].2.8 (KaE III); Pinches IV R2 12, 1891 (later copy) (KaE n); V R 33 (later copy) (Agumkakrime); Winckler, AOF I, 1897, 516f., Brinkman 1976,96, Da.5.1 (Agum 1). Nippur: 44 Abraham and Gabbai 2013 (Kst);45 Arnaud 1998, zoo f. (KaE); Boese 2010, 71-78 (Ijg); Brinkman and Matthews, NAB u 1990/103, seal (grandson of Kg); Brinkman 1976, 110, E.2.19 (BB), 176, 0.2-4 (Kst), not published; Buccellati and Biggs 1969, text 55 (NM), text 57 (ss); Clayden 2011,106, text 8 (NM?); texts 11-22; Delaporte 1923, 179, texts A. 818-820 (Kg); Hilprecht, BE I/1, texts 41+46 (Kg); ibid. text 43 (Kg); ibid. texts 53,54 (both NM); ibid. texts 59, 61, 62, 138 (KT); ibid. text 64 (KuE); ibid. text 69 (ss); ibid. texts 70-72 (Kst); Hilprecht, BE 1/1, text 75, also Le grain, PBS 15, text 54, see Clayden 2011, 105, text 6 (NM); Hilprecht, BE 1/1, text 76, Clayden 2011,106, text 9 (ss); Hilprecht, BE 1/1, text 78, Clayden 2011,106, text 7 (NM); Hilprecht, BE I /I, text 79, Clayden 2011, 107, text 10 (Kst?); Hilprecht, BE I/z, text 133 and Legrain, PBS 15, text 49 (Kg); Brinkman 1976, 155, L.2.9; Lambert 1969, one text (Kg); Legrain, PBS 13, text 69 (late copy) (NM); Legrain PBS 15, text 52 (NM); ibid., text 53, Clayden 2011, 105, text 5 (NM); Legrain ibid., text 55 (NM); ibid., text 57 (KT); ibid., text 61

40 41 42 43 44 45

See also Wilfred G. Lambert, "The Reading of the God Name dKA.DI," Zeitschriftfor Assyriologie 59 (1g6g): 100-3, and Brinkman, Materials, 254, S.2.3. For this text, see also Andn~, "Written Documents," 74 f. According to Mustafa the findspot was not Diir-Kurigalzu, but two kilometers northwest of this city (p. 19 ). For the findspot, see Brinkman, Materials, 288, V.2.5. For a list of Nippur texts, see Brinkman, Materials, 41, n. so. Only the Akkadian texts are mentioned here. The authors (189 f.) point out that the proposed origin of the text from Nip pur is not certain.

VAN SOLDT

1046

(Kst); ibid., text 59 (ss); ibid., text 6o (KuE); ibid., text 61; (Kst!; ~bid., text 64; (KuE); Paulus 2014, 34gf., Brinkman 1976, 191f., P.2.6.1 (Ku:~; Ibid., 758f., U 4 (Mai?);46 Schneider, NABU 2015/99 (KT); Gassan 1986,187 (ss); von der Osten 1934, 164, seal66o (Kg);47 ibid., 165, seal665 (Kg). Sarpol-e Zohab: Paulus 2014, 455f. (Mai) 49 Sippar:4s Paulus 2014, 314f. (KaE I); Sollberger 1968, 193f. (NM or after). susa47: Paulus 2014, 325 f. (NM); 353£ (ss); 357f. (Kst Iv); 36of. (Kst IV); 366f. (Asu); 369 f. (Ms 50); 384 f. (Ms); 390 f. (Ms); 416 f. (Ms); 421f., (Ms); 425f. (Ms); f. (Mai); 76o f., U 5 (Ms/Mai?); 76zf. 430 f. (Mai); 46of., (Mai); 465f. (Mai); 477 u 6; 766f. u 7 (Mai?); 76gf. U 8 (Kg u?); 782f. U 13 (Ms/Mai?); 816f., U z6; 1 Scheil1gos, 30 (Kg); Scheil1913, 32, no. 2 (ss). 5 Ur: Sollberger, UET 8, pl. 24, text wo (ss). Zubeidi: Kessler 1985, 74 f., seals 6g4, 702. Unknown origin: Boissier 1932, see Sommerfeld 1985, Brinkman 1976, 211, Q.z.s (Kg);52 Borrelli, NABU 2015/98 (Kg); Brinkman 1976,385, text 10 (NM?); Brinkman 1981-1982, 10 seal inscriptions; 53 Delaporte 1923, 179 f., text A. 821 (NM); Dossin 1962,151 (Asu); George cusAs 17 (2011), no. 61, 117-18, 2 texts; Grayson, RIMA 1, 28of., text 28 (ss); 54 Grayson 1990 (Kg); [Harper, ABL 924 (Asu)];ss 56 Herzfeld 1928-29, 8If. (KaE 11); Maul, NABU 1995/74; Mayer 2011, 146 f.; Nies and Keiser, BIN 2,15 (Kg); Paul us 2014, 296£, Brinkman 1976, 146, Kb.2.1 (KJj);

46 47 48 49

so 51 52

See also Barbara Cifola, "The Kudurru Fragment VA 213,'' Annual Review ofthe Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia 8 (1990): 1-2. See the remarks of Brinkman, Materials, 244, Q-5-2J-A. Brinkman points out that 'Sippar' and 'Susa' mark only proximate or secondary origin. For the Sumerian inscriptions of Kurigalzu and Meli-Sipak, see Brinkman, Materials, 45· See also Brinkman, Materials, 247, R.2.2 (Mai). Brinkman, Materials, 287f.: "(presumably booty from Babylonia)". For the possible origin, see Waiter Sommerfeld, "Der Kurigalzu-Text MAH 15922," Archivfor

Orientforschung 32 (1985): u. 53

54 55

56

Two inscriptions are written in Sumerian (texts 27 and 34); in texts 20 and 26 only the (Akkadian) names are spelled syllabically. For corrections, see Wilfred G. Lambert, "Notes on the Cassite-Period Seal Inscriptions from Thebes and Elsewhere," Orientalia 52 (1983): 243f. See the comments in Brinkman, Materials, 289. See Ernst F. Weidner, Die Inschriften Tukulti-Ninurtas 1. und sciner Nachfolger (Graz: im Selbstverlage des Herausgebers, 1959), text 42, and Jaume Llop and Andrew R. George, "Die babylonisch-assyrischen Beziehungen und die innere Lage Assyriens in der Zeit der Auseinanderset zung zwischen Ninurta-tukulti -Assur und Mutakkil-Nusk u nach neuen keilschriftlichen Quellen," Archiv for Oricntforschung 48- 4 9 (2001-2002): 9f. ABL 924 is probably not to be regarded as MB, but a later composition from the first millennium (courtesy of j.A. Brinkman ). The disk was found on Malta. Mayer suggests that the text probably originated in Nippur.

MIDDLE BABYLONIAN

1047

Paulus 2014, 305f. (Kg); ibid., 308f. (Kg 1);57 ibid., 338f. (KaE u); ibid., 449f. (Mai); ibid., 471f. (Mai); ibid., 48of. (Mai); ibid., 485f. (Ena); Khanzadyan, Sarkisyan, and Diakonoff 1983 (uB ), see Stein zooo, 129; Scheil1897, s6; Bohl 1934, 49 (ss); Ungnad, vs 1, text 34 (later copy) (Mai).5s 2.3 Lexical, Religous and Literary Texts Atlila I Dur-Assur: 59 Matous, L. 1961 (Sumer 17: 17-66) (almanac). Assur: Ebeling, KAR 375 (liturgy). Babylon: 60 van Dijk 1971, 43 (bilingual incantation); van Dijk 1987, possibly MB are texts 18, 25, 41, 86, 87, and 97; 61 ibid., 113 (bilingual proverbs), see Alster 1997, 105, no; Lambert 1966 (love lyrics); Limet 1971, So, seal 5.8; Pedersen zoos, ea. 275 (unpublished) texts; 62 Weissbach 1903, 7-8, pl. 1, no. 363 (possession inscription). Bakr Awa: Meinhold 2014, 2 texts, omens and a hemerology. The latter was published in Matous 1961. Bahrain: Andn~-Salvini 1999, 127, text 163 (Ijl]). 64 Dur-Enlile: van Soldt 2015, texts 439-453. 65

Dur-Kurigalzu: Labat 1952, almanac. Failaka: Ferrara 1977, seal; Glassner zoo8,171f., seals 66 3-6,14,15,18, 24,25; 184f., steatite vessels 31-34, 40; 189 f., lapis lazuli vessels 44; 191 f., pottery 46; 67 Potts 1990, 305; Salles 1984, 36, seals 12-25. Larsa: Arnaud 1998, 203.

57 sS 59 6o 61 62 63 64 65 66

67

See Gadd, CT 36,6-7 I I Keiser, BIN 2, 33 (both later copies). For text MSKH Q.2.2, see Sommerfeld, "Kurigalzu-Text," 79, and Stein, Konigsinschriften, 134, Ka 14. The text mentions the building of Ezida in Borsippa. Modern Bakr Awa, see Peter A. Miglus, Ulrike Burger, Rafal A. Fetner, Simone Miihl and Alexander Sollee, "Excavation at Bakr Awa 2010 and 2011," Iraq 75 (2013): 47· Brinkman, Materials, 44f.; Sassmannshausen, Beitriige, 3 n. 16. Text Ss (VAT 17033) is an inscription ofKurigalzu. For text 97, see Andrew R. George, "Babylonian Texts from the Folios ofSidney Smith, Part One," Revue d'assyriologie S2 (1gSS): 151. For the archives, see Pedersen, Archiven und Bibliotheken, n. 1. Brinkman, Materials, 31S, X.2.1. See also Andre-Salvini and Lombard, "La decouverte epigraphique," 166. As explained above the texts come probably from Diir-Enlile, not far from Nippur. For photos of these seals, see Paul Kjaerum, Failaka/Dilmun. The Second Millennium Settlements. Vol. 1:1 The Stamp and Cylinder Seals. Plates and Catalogue Descriptions (Aarhus University Press, 19S3), 162 f. For texts 40 and 41, see also Jesper Eidem, "Cuneiform Inscriptions," in Qal'at al-Bahrain 2. The Central Monumental Buildings, ed. Flemming Hojlund and H. Hellmuth Andersen (Aarhus: Jutland Archaeological Society Publications, 1997b ), 76-So.

VAN SOLDT

1048

Nippur: Alster zoos (Wisdom), 22If.;68 Borger 1971, Marduk Prophecy, Brinkman 6, 197 97 , Dh. 3.2 (Agum n? or Agum kakrime ); Brinkman 1985, bilingual text (BB or later);69 Civil1976, 84 n. 3; 86f. (z texts); id.1983, texts D, F, G,J.; id. MSL ss 1, 89 (liturgical); Clay, BE 14, 4; id., PBS 2/2, 104, 123; dej. Ellis 19 79 , 217 f., texts 4 and 6; van Dijk 1998, hymn; Geller 1985, text C; George zoo 3, z8 f., 4 texts; Goetze, YOS 10, text 2 (report); id., YOS 15, text 97; Cooper 19 78, 9 f. (An.gim); Hilprecht, BED V/1, 48f., CBS 13532 ("Nippur text"); 7 Kilmer 54 19 60 , 278f. (mathematics); Kocher, BAM 4, 394-398 (medicine); Kraus 1985, 21 texts (reports); id.1987, texts 2 and 3 (medical and summa iilu); Krebernik 2001 (prayer); Lambert 1969, 126 ( CBS 13532); Landsberger 1949 (hymn?); Matthews 1992, inscribed seals: 9, 13, zo, 31, 34, 54, 61, 69, So, 89, 155, 164, 188, 189; Michalowski 1998, 65 f.; Neugebauer 1936, 273 f. ("Nippur text"); Peiser 1905, P 92; Peterson, NABU 2009/35 (IJI].); Peterson 2010, hymn; Rutz zon (medical), 2 texts; Sassmannshausen 1997 (22 texts); id. 2002 (7 texts); id. zoo8b: overview of literary texts; Scheil1897, tekst 59;71 Sjoberg 1975 (hymn for Inanna); von Soden and Oelsner 1991 (song for !Star); Sollberger 1968; Sommerfeld 1985; Veldhuis zooo, 24 texts; id. 2003, text 21; Viano 2010, 129

°

(hymn?); id. 2012 (An.gim).

Sippar: Finkel1999, 215f. (incantation). 72 Thebes: Limet 1971, 93, 7.1. Tchoga Pahn: Stolper 1983 (omens). Tchoga Zanbil: Limet 1971,100, seals 7.23, 25-27; 8.19. Ugarit: Arnaud 2007,8, texts 3, 8, 15, z8, 33, 34,42-45,56, 59-61;73 Arnaud zooS, seal inscription; van Soldt 2012, 5 texts. 74

68

See also Miguel Civil, "The Instructions of King Ur-Ninurta: A New Fragment," Aula Orien-

talis 15 (1997 ): 43 f. 69 70

This text is part of the Kuyunjik collection. See also Wilfred G. Lambert and Alan R. Millard, Atra-{zasls. The Babylonian Story of the Flood (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), 40 and 126-7, and Otto Neugebauer, Quellcn

und Studien zur Geschichte der Mathematik, Astronomic und Physik, Abtcilung B: Studien, 71

Band 3 (Berlin: Springer, 1936). For this text, see Anne Draffkorn Kilmer, "An Oration on Babylon," Altorientalisclze For-

sclzungen 18 (1991): 9-22. 72 73 74

The origin of this text is not certain. As Arnaud pointed out, not all of these are certain. These five Middle Babylonian texts are RS 25.141 (Arnaud no. 10 ), 25.427 (no. 38), 25.43IA (no. 37), 26.153 (56), and 26.159 (--),one is also on Arnaud's list (text 56). Many more of the texts in the Lamastu archive show clear signs of Middle Babylonian influence, but many of these were also influenced by Ugaritic scrihal practice, in ductus, syllahary and language. Apparently, the teacher in this building came from Babylonia.

MIDDLE BABYLONIA N

1049

Ur: George 2003, 294f., 1 text; 75 Limet 1971, 111f., seal 9.7; Shaffer and Ludwig, UET 6/3, text 522 (MB?). Zubeidi: Kessler 1985, 74f., seals 694 and 702. Unknown origin: Alster 2007, 29 f., 52 f. (proverbs) ; id. zoos, 56 f., 207 f., pl. 13-15. Black 1983, ballad; Clay, BRM 4, 15 and 16 (omens); van Dijk, TIM 9, 29 (hymn); Frame 1987 (omens); Geller 1992 (ersal].unga); George 2013, 229f., texts 33 and 34 (omens); Goetze, YOS 10, text 63 (omens); Gordon 1939, 15;Jeyes zooo (omens); Lambert1975,223 (seal); id.1979,21f., sealss8-61 ; id., NABU1988/82, 1 seal; Limet 1971, sS f. seals 2.15, 20, 24, 26,27 (27 p.11s); 4.1; 5·9; 76 5·1-7, 9-11, 12 (12 p. 116); 7.2-6, 9-22, 24; 8.8-15, 17, 22, 23 (23 p. 117); 9.1-6, 77 8-1o (8-1o p.118); 10.1; 11.1-2; 12.1; p.115 f., seals 2.27, 5.12; id.1978-79,1 seal.; 78 M0ller 1986, 69, sealS; Moorey and Gurney 1978, 49-51, seal37; 79 Peiser 1905, P 92; Teissier 1984,146f., seals 134-135; Keel-Leu and Teissier 2004, 125f., seals 136-137. 80

3

Middle Babylonia n I (ea. 1550-1375)

Since this period lasted ea. 175 years a further division in Early Middle Babylonian I and Late Middle Babylonia n I is necessary. 3.1 Early Middle BabyIonian I In section 3.1.1 we will examine the texts found in Tell Mul;tamm ad in the Diyala. According to the archaeolog ical levels that have been distinguish ed level I is Early Kassite, and the levels ll and Ill are Late Old Babylonia n. 81 Levels ll and Ill contained 32 administra tive texts that are of interest for our study. According to

75 76 77 78 79

So

81

The texts from Bogazkoy (3o6f.) are not taken into account. Their orthography is quite different from M B. See jean Nougayrol, "Deux h~gendes de sceaux cassites," Revue d'assyriologie 6o (1966): 171. For 9.1-5, see Wilfred G. Lambert, "Objects Inscribed and Uninscribed," Arclzivfor OrientJorsclzung 23 (1970 ): 46-51. For corrections of all four seal legends in this article, see Lambert, "Notes". Seal36 has a Sumerian inscription, seals 38-40 are unepigraphic. For the texts, see Oliver R. Gurney, "Texts from Dur-Kurigalzu," Iraq 11 (1949): 131-49, Oliver R. Gurney, "Further Texts from Dur-Kurigalzu," Sumer 9 (1953): 21-34, and Oliver R. Gurney, The Middle Babylonian Legal and Economic Texts from Ur (London: British School of Archaeology in Iraq, 1983)· Note that seal136 is Henri Limet, Les Legendes des sceaux cassites (Bruxelles: Academie Royale de Belgique, 1971), seal 4.27; for more literature, see Hildi Keel-Leu and Beatrice Teissier, Die vorderasiatisclzen Rollsiegel der Sammlungen BIBEL+ORIE NT der Universitiit Freiburg/Schweiz (Fribourg: Academic Press, 2004), 127. See "Excavations in Iraq, 1979-80," Iraq 43 (1981): 184; "Excavations in Iraq, 1981-82," Iraq 45

..

-----,y&~Pi'"@

VAN SOLDT

1050

itic Sassma nnshau sen 20 oo, 414, more than So names in the texts are non-Sem and most of these are probab ly Kassite. in comThere are several texts from Nippur and Diir-Enlile that have features a kudurru mon with the texts from Tell Mu}:lammad. In section 3.1.2 there is ]u-ri-ia-as -b ... [ name the fragme nt publish ed in Sassma nnshau sen 1994 with dated the in I': 5'. In view of this name and the paleog raphy Sassma nnshau sen nos. 17 Nippur, from texts two text to Burnab urias I or I I. In section 3.1.3 there are ed in and 19 publish ed in Civil1975, 131. In section 3.1.4 there is text 255 publish , Dalley see ed publish 2009 y van Soldt 2015. For the texts of the Sealan d I dynast 82 as well as the contrib ution of M.P. Streck in this volume . 83

Tell Mu}:lammad AIJ: Orthography: The MB aleph sign is not attested , the aleph is expressed by ibid. 15, na-alj-du-ru (na'duru) 92134: 22 "eclipsed", or by hiatus: fra-im-tum, 84 Male names have a person PN; possibly also i-ab-ru 92139: 22 (i"abru ). sign. marker only at the beginn ing of a line, not when they follow another i-tu; passim) occurs name Mimat ion is rare: l-l£-i-q£-sa-am 92719 (11 ): 18 (this ra-am 90616 (level III): 19 "he came back". Apart from these mimati on signs, 92719: CVm signs such as -tum are used, as well as cv signs: es-su la-bi-ru 92725: 23 27 (and passim). In one case a CVm sign is used in a verb: ig-de-ril

3.1.1

u

(gen185). case Phonology: The M B change a> e in verbal forms is not atteste d. There is one only The carry". "I ), nasiaku of vowel contrac tion: na-sa-a-ku 906o8: 10 (from they D-stem attestat ion is li-ba-al-li-tu-ka 90608 (level unknow n): 5 "may ka-an-ku to-ng-: change not keep you in good health"; the sequen ce -nk- does a 90602 92134: 1 a.o., "sealed", and -dd- does not becom e -nd-: i-na-ad-di-in-m 5. 92725:1 a-qar (level Ill): 8 "he will give". Thew is still written : a-bu-w

su Pronouns: A dental conson ant + a third person suffix becom e -ss-: MAS.BI($ibassu) 92135: 12; 92139: 9 (and passim).

82 83

84

Ss

gie 8, ed. Dietz 0. Edzard (1983): 216; N. Karg, "Mu}:lammad, Tall," in Rcallexikon dcr Assyriolo f. 83 Dating, al., et (Berlin: Waiter de Gruyter, 1995), 407; Gasche They possibly belong Chapter 13. See also section 6.1.1. for the oldest texts found in Nuzi. to this period. , "Unpublished The numbers of the Tell Mu}:lammad texts are those in I. Jamil Al-Ubaid ad" (Diss. Muhamm Cuneifor m Texts from Old Babylon ian Period Diyala Region, Tell M.A. Degre, University of Baghdad, 1983). anN-stem of a[uiru, This occurren ce is uncertain . Gasche et al., Dating, 86, n. 349, suggest 's proposal to read Al-Ubaid D-stem. the in attested but as they point out the verb is only atic. problem less is i-du'!!_ru See Gasche et al., Dating, 86, n. 346.

MIDDLE BABYLONIAN

1051

Names: Conform to OB practice names appear usually in the nominative, cf. mnu-ur-de-a-sar-rum a-!Ji fmi-ki-ia-tum 92134:4-5 "Niir-Ea-sarrum brother of Mikiyatum". Verbs: In the present tense verbs I-weak have an extra vowel sign: i-ir-ru-ub 90602 (level Ill): 11 "he will enter"; u-ud-di-su 90606 (level Ill): 32 "he refurbished"; but not i-ti-iq 90602 (n1): 10 "he will exceed (the term)". The frequently attested year name of Babylon contains usbu, see Gasche e.a. 1998, 84f. "(Year X that Babylon) was settled". 86 Verbs n-weak, only one example: di-ku 92721: 33 "he was killed"; verbs 111-weak: na-sa-a-ku 90608 (level unknown): 10 (see phonology) and il-te-qu-u ibid. 22 ''they have taken"; i-!Jeep-pi 90602 (111): 9 "he will break". Terminology: Instead ofMB (sa) qat PN the texts have GIR PN, 90603 (level III): 48,90611 (level unknown): 42f., see Sassmannshausen 2001,456. Irregular spellings: ma!J-!Ji-ir 90610 (level unknown): 19 "he receives"; iz-bi-i-lu 90611 (level unknown): 2, 72 "they carried", an abnormal plene writing, for

which see section 7·5· Conclusion: The Akkadian written in the texts from Tell Mul).ammad is late OB rather than early MB.

A kudurru Text from Ni ppur87 3.1.2 Orthography: Male names do not have a person marker, also not when they occur at the beginning of a line. The MB aleph sign is not attested, the aleph is expressed by tJU: is-si-!Ju-ma (is-si-'u 5 -ma) BagM In: 7', see verbs. Mimation is frequent: ran 1 -ni-i-im BagM 1': 9'; mu-ra-nu-um 11': 1', a.o.; CVm signs 1 such as -tum are used, cf. -lam and -kam BagM Ill': 6', but cf. rnimgir -ru Ill': 1

10 Phonology: There is no case of vowel contraction (see also Orthography). Thew is still written: wa-ar-ka BagM 11': 13'; wa-as-lam Ill': 6'; a-wi-if-damar.utu 111': •

4'· Verbs: There are hardly any verbal forms, see a-li-ik wa-a[r-ki ... ] BagM 11': 8', and the verb III-weak is-si-!Ju-ma (is-si-'u 5 -ma) BagM III: 7' (nasu). Conclusion: The few features that can be gleaned from this text point to the late OB or the early MB period. Following Sassmannhausen's paleographic remarks Burna-Burias I could be a possible candidate.

86 87

For this translation, see also CAD asiibu 3, but cf. Sassmannshausen, Beitriige, 456. The abbreviation BagM refers to Leonhard Sassmannshausen, "Ein ungewohnliches mittelbabylonisches Urkundenfragment aus Nippur," Baghdader Mitteilungen 25 (1994): 44757·

VAN SOLDT

1052

88 Two Administrative Texts from Nippur .1. 3 3 According to Civil text 17 is an administrative text. No transliteration is given. Text no. 19 is a loan contract with seven lines of text. Orthography: there is one newly attested eve attestation: mil (Is) Civil 1g: 4. Male names do not have a person marker, also not when they occur at the beginning of a line. The witnesses are introduced by si-bu, which is also 89 found in later texts, such as Ni. 2207 (NM) and Ni. 12350 (date not preserved). For other attestations, see van Soldt, JAOS 98 (1978), 499· Phonology: there is one case of vowel contraction: ra-ba-sa-dnin.urta Civil 1g: 5 (RabUi-sa-Ninurta ). Nouns: construct state: si-si-ik-ti PN Civil19: 6. Conclusion: The lack of personal determinatives points to an early date. The other features are inconclusive. A Text from Diir-Enlile 3.1.4 Another text that may be relatively old is eusAs 30, text 255. This text possibly belongs to the texts of the First Sealand Dynasty published in Dalley 2009. Orthography: sa[J (KID) eusAs 30, 255: 3 is newly attested. Other eve signs already occur in oB texts. The personal names all follow another word and have no person marker, which may point to the OB tradition. Nouns: the word en-ni-nu, "a type of barley", is attested in oB and sB, including MB literary, see AHw s.v. ennenu. Conclusion: although OB seems possible the number of grammatical features is too low. Late Middle Babylonian I 3.2 From the end of MB 1 we have a few inscriptions from the reigns of Kastiliasu 111 through Kurigalzu 1. Most of these texts are monumental and some are later copies, such as the Agum-kakrime inscription and the inscription ofKurigalzu 1.90 Since the orthography of these texts may have been updated, they will not be used for this grammatical overview.9 1

88 8g go 91

Texts 17 and 19 in Miguel Civil, "Cuneiform Texts," in Excavations at Nippur, Eleventh Season, ed. McGuire Gibson, (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1975), 131. I thankj.A. Brinkman for these two references. See Brinkman, Materials, 97, Dh.3.1, and zog, Q.2.1, respectively. Note, for example, that the Agum-kakrime text uses the signs sA and su, which are first attested under Burna-Burias 11 and Kurigalzu 11, respectively.

MIDDLE BABYLONIAN

1053

That leaves us with an inscription of Kastiliasu III (Kst) from Nippur, 92 two monumental texts ofUlam-Burias (UBI and 2), 93 two texts from Bal,lrain dated to Agum (III), 94 a legal text from Nippur to be dated to Kadasman-ljarbe I (KIJ), 95 an adoption text from Nippur dating to Kurigalzu I9 6 (Kg), a legal text from the reign of Kadasman-ljarbe I or Kadasman-Enlil 1.97 Orthography: There are relatively few eve signs. The personal marker m is used regularly. There are no special signs for the emphatics: qa ( GA) Kst: g; q{ (KI) Kst: w; ta (oA) Kst: 20, UBI: 7; tu (Tu) Kst: Ig, UBI: Io. Mimation is regularly attested before -ma: sa-ni-im-ma Kst: 22; sa-ni-ti-im-ma; Kst: 27. Archaic is the mimation without the suffix -ma: ka-ab-ti_r im, Kst: 3I; CVm signs are rarely used: r su-a 1 -tum Kst: I6; si-bu-tum MSKH no. 23: 4 "witnesses"; fbi-ri-ritum Kg: 2. The ale ph sign is attested: i-'a-ba-tu-ma Kst: 2I "he destroys" (the sign is IJixDINGIR). Phonology: The change a > e in verbs is not attested, cf. u-ma-al-li Kst: g; ipa-( as)-si-tu-ma Kst: Ig, UBI: 6. Sibilant and dental usually result in -l- plus dental, but archaic -st- also occurs: [m ]a-ru-us-ta Kst: 25 Severe". Dental + s of the pronoun gives qf-bi-is-su Kst: 23; sar-ru-us-r su, Kst: 27; there is one attestation of -ms- > -ns-: su-un-su Kst: 20 "his name". Vowel contraction: r l]e7ra7,-a Kst: 6 (l]erd) "to dig" (reading certain); iq-bu-u MSKH no. 23: 5 "they spoke"; 98 an-na-a UBI: 5· Nouns: Construct state: pf-in-gi UBI: I Verbs: In lines 6-I7 Kst uses the asseverative mode lu +preterite. We find this mode in similar texts, such as the Agum-kakrime inscription. 11

92

93 94

95 96

97 g8

According to Kathleen Abraham and Uri Gab bay, "Kastiliasu and the Sumundar Canal: A New Babylonian Royal Inscription," Zeitschriftfor Assyriologie 103 (2013): 184, the Kastiliasu inscription was most probably written during the reign of this king. Stein, Konigsinschriften, 129 f. Beatrice Andre-Salvini and Pierre Lombard, "La decouverte epigraphique de 1995 a Qal'at al-Bahrein: unjalon pour la chronologie de la phase Dilmoun Moyen clans le Golfe arabe," in Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, vol. 27, ed. N.S. Reade and J. Picton (Turnhout: Brepols, 1997 ), 167; Be a trice Andre-Salvini, "Les tablettes cuneiformes de Qal'at al-Bahrei"n," in Bahrein. La civilisation de deux mers, de Dilmoun aTylos, ed. Pierre Lambard (Paris: Institut du Monde Arabe, 1999), 127. The order of the kings is according to J.A. Brinkman (personal communication). Brinkman, Materials, 388, text 18 gives only the date of this tablet. Veysel Donbaz, "Two Documents from the Diverse Collections in Istanbul," Studies on the Civilization and Culture ofNuzi and the Hurrians 2 (1987): 72f., D Ss. For the date, see Brinkman, Materials, 205f., Q.2.n5.168 (probably not Kg. II). Brinkman, Materials, 144, J-5·5· According to Brinkman (personal communication) the date of Kadasman-Enlil 1 would seem to be more likely, but that is as yet unprovable. This text can also belong to the time of Kadasman-Enlil I, see Brinkman, Materials, 144,

J.s.s.

VAN SOLDT

1054

Terminology: [nam.dumu J.ni-su su ba.an.ti Kg: 7 "PN 1 received PN2 in adoption". Irregular spellings: Unusual is [[in az-bi-fl Kst: 13.

Middle Babylonian n (Kadasman- Enlil 1-Kastilias u IV,

4

ca.1375-1225) This period more or less covers the heyday of the Nippur and Diir-Enlile archives, a period that has produced a large number of texts. Since we have ample material for each king we are able to date certain phenomena more precisely than for MB I and MB Ill. The Amarna texts that were written by KadasmanEnlil I and Burna-Burias 11 will be treated in the paragraph on North Babylonia (section 4.2 ). M B I I, Texts from Central Babylonia 4.1 MB 11, Central Babylonia, Kadasman-E nlil I 4.1.1 There are three texts from Nippur that can be dated to Kadasman-Enlil 1. The first is the legal text published in Brinkman 1976, 391, no. 23, but the name can also be read as Kadasman-Ijarbe. 99 There is also the partially published Ni. 437, Brinkman 1976, 387, no. 15 (1.2.22.45 and ].5.3), and the unpublished Ni. 1854 (1.2.22.51 ). The texts provide too few data for a grammatica l overview: 100 Orthography: vcv sign: i/eri (uRu) Ni. 437:10. The names all follow another sign and have m as the personal determinativ e. CVm signs: si-bu-r tum, MSKH

no. 23: 4·

Phonology: Vowel contraction: iq-bu-u MSKH no. 23: 5· Nouns: Construct state: mu-ut-te4 -e te-li-ti Ni. 437: 2 "the deficit of the revenu". MB 11, Central Babylonia, Burna-Buria s 11 4.1.2 During the reign of Burna-Burias 11 we witness a number of new features in the available texts. Remarkable is the high number of eve signs that were added to the syllabary. No less than 40 sign values enriched the existing stock, but part of these may have been added before Burna-Burias' reign. Due to the paucity of texts from the earlier period we are not able to clarify this. Orthography: not all special signs for emphatic consonants are already available. There is one attestation of qa (QA, BE 17, 92: s); qi (KIN) is not attested in Nippur, but there are attestations in Babylon, see North Babylonia, section

99 100

Seen. 97· I thankJ.A. Brinkman for making this text available.

MIDDLE BABYLONIAN

1055

4.2.2; qu (KUM) is attested in unpublished texts.l 01 ZAis used for $a, and ~I for $i. The sign ZUM for $U is not yet attested in Nippur, but there are attestations in North Babylonia (section 4.2.2) and Dilmun (section 4·3·7); ta (nA) and ti (n1) occur, but not ru (see Kadasman-Turgu, section 4.1.s); sa (NiG) occurs (MuN 8: 2o'), su (su) is not attested. As in Late MB I, the names are normally preceded by m (males) and f (females), and their position in the written line is no longer decisive (see sections 3.1 and 3.2 ). However, there are deviations from this general rule, which have been collected in Brinkman 2007. The aleph sign is written more often than before and there are several examples of a> a': na-a'-r[e-e] na-a'-ra-[a-ti] PBS 1/2, 71: 4'-s' (naru); sa-a'-matu-nu BE 17, ss: 4' (samu) "you have (been) bought"; ma-a'-da BE 17, g2: s (madu) "greatly"; Li-il-ta-'-a-Lu BE 17, ss: 3' (salu) "let them interrogate". With the exception of na,ru (< Sumerian nar) these words once had an aleph as their second radical. Mimation signs (CVm) are frequently used at the end of a word, even on verbal forms. There are some archaizing examples of mimation: I[ u]-urn BE 14, 1:13. In verbs: mdingir-i-q{-sa-am BE 14, 7: 36;102 fi-ti-qa-am BE 17, 78: S ''let him come (with me)". Phonology: a > e before e in verbs (i-umlaut) 103 is amply attested: u-mi-is-sima BE 14, 8: 21 "he identified and ( ... )",but u-ma-r as-SU-U 1 MUN 20: 18' "they identified"; U-re-ki-is-su-nu-ti-ma TMH NF S, 6g: 8 "he put them under an obligation". Without the change a> e: DN-mu-dam-mi-iq MUN 26g: 3 "DN treats kindly" a.o. -mk- > -ng-: fu!-se-li-in-ga (Lusellimka) BE 17, g2: 28 "I want to make it up to you"; -dd- > -nd-: i-nam-din TMH NF 66: 23, 6g: 32 "he will give", but a-naad-din-ak-ku TMH NF 67: 20 "I will give to you"; [m ]a?-an-di-du MUN 2gg: 3 "measuring official"; -mt- > -nd-: un-de-si-ru-ni-i BE 17, ss: 19' "(that PN) has sent to me(?)"; -w- > -o/m-, archaic are: a-wi-Lu-tum TMH NF s, 6s: 3 and MUN 8: 10'. See also the name ma-wi-Lum-ba-nu-u MUN 8: 12', 28'(?). Vowel contraction is frequent: sa da-ba-ba an-na-a in-nu-u TMH NF S, 66:22,

101 102 103

Ni.1574= 36, msa-an-qu and mza-ri-qu (BB II), a.o. Courtesy ofJ.A. Brinkman. Note that this same name is also the only name with mimation in the Tell Mu}:lammad texts. For the name, see Holscher, Personennamen, 94· See Wilfred H. van Soldt, Studies in the Akkadian of Ugarit. Dating and Grammar (Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1991), 390f. In Ugarit the i-umlaut is only attested from the reign of AmmiStamru II, but then the attestations tend to be more numerous than in MB itself.

VAN SOLDT

1056

but see mra-bi-a-sa-d[gu.l]a? MUN 26g: g (RabUi-sa-Gula), and DN-is-me-an-

ni MUN 26g: g.104 Nouns: Construct state: qd-ti a-mi-lu-ti TMH NF 6g: 13, 24 "the hand of the people"; pa-an BE 14, 8: g; su-um ibid. 6, 7· Verbs: ul i-ma-gu-r[ u] BE 17, g2: n; i-ra-ag-gu-um BE 14, 8: 25; in-ne-ep-pu-u.S PBS 1 f2 , 82 : 5. These verbs belonged to the ablaut-class in the OB period. The extra vowel of the oB present tense has disappeare d: r ir-ru-bu, TM H NF 5, 6g: n, 23; ir-ri-su PBS 1/2, 82: 7· Conditional clauses: the first attestation s in contracts: nam.lli.u 18.lu i-ljal-l[i-iqma] BE 14, 2:17, "Should the servants flee"; ul it-ta-din-ma TMH NF 5, 67: 21 , "Should he not give (it), ... ". Central Babylonia, Kurigalzu II Orthography: Another 55 new values of signs are attested during this king's reign. Not all special signs for emphatic consonant s are available, qa (QA) is attested (BE 14, 38:10 ), qi (KIN) is not; qu (KUM) occurs regularly (BE 14, 10 R.7', PBS 2/2, 17:5, MUN 86: 22'); ZUM for $U is not yet attested in Nippur; tu (NfG, BE 14, 10: 18), and SU (so, BE 14, 10: 7 a.o.) (TU) is not attested. Both

4.1.3

MB 11,

sa

are attested. The aleph sign is at times replaced by a hiatus spelling: ra-im BE 14, 10: 17, 20: 3; MUN go: 19'. Compare mba-'i-lum BE 14, 10 R.5' with ba-il BE 14,40:29 and mba-i-il-[ ... ] MUN 74: 7· Aleph is used in mbi-i'-si BE 14, 19: 10 and faulty in

is-sa-.N-ra (issaljra), BE 14,15:3.105 Phonology: In some cases e-verbs such as redu have an -a-: u-ra-ad-d[ u-u] MUN 106 133: 6', but cf. il-qe MUN 369:3 and i-leq-qa-am-ma BE 14, 38: 10. There is a rare example of a morpho-p honemic spelling: a-mu-ut-sa BE 14, 40: zo; -wis preserved in the name mki-din-na-wi-ir-sa MUN 31: 20, but cf. mki-din-nami-ir-sa, ibid.: 55· There are still a few exception s to vowel contraction in personal names: mdnanna-is-me-an-ni PBS 8/2, 158: g, and mra-bi-a-sa-dgu.Ia r

PBS 2/2, g: 5,

see section 4.1.2.

Conditional clauses: The conditiona l clause is attested more often than it is in the Burna-Bur ias texts. The verb in the subordina te clause has either the per1 fect or the present plus -ma: ul iPte -qa-am-ma BE 14, 38: 13 "should he not bring (it) here"; PN i-ma-at-ma "should PN die"; PN ... i-qd-ab-bi-ma BE 14,40: 13-17 "should PN say".

104 105

1 o6

Names may for whatever reason keep an older pronunciatio n. See in general Jussi Aro, Studien zur mittelbabylonisclzen Grammatik (Helsinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuude n Seuran Kirjapainon Oy, 1955), 20 f. la-qu-u in M UN 134: 6 should be read su-lu-u (courtesy of j.A. Brinkman ).

MIDDLE BABYLONIAN

1057

The expression qiita I qat PN turru appears here for the first time in texts of which we know the origin: SU u-ta-a-ar BE I4, 35: I3 "he will turn the hand". The expression probably refers to possible claims.I0 7 4.1.4 MB 11, Central Babylonia, Nazi-Maruttas Orthography: there are about 30 new sign values. The sign QA becomes more frequent in the texts. The following signs are used for emphatics: QA - KI KUM, ZA- ~I- zu, 108 DA- DI- TU, besides KU (qu). The CVm signs are still frequently used, although cv signs are now attested more often at the end of a word, compare ifJ-!Ji-su-rnim 1 -ma PBS 2/2, 20: 8 with ifJ-!Ji-su-ni ibid. I2, and is-turn MUN 443: 2 with is-tu BE I4, 39: 8, 42: IS; PBS 8/2, I6I: 4· Another example of mimation is le-q£-im-ma PBS 2/2, 25: 7· Phonology: The name mden.lil-mu-te-kilBE I4, 46:2 could be an example of the change a> e in verbs. A morpho-phonemic spelling is a-mi-lu-ut-su PBS 2/2, 2S:s. Pronouns: the dative and accusative of the suffixes are sometimes confused; ilqa-[ s]u-um-ma is a mistake for ilqa-su-ma, PBS 8/2, I6I: 4· Nouns/Names: Personal names are not always properly declined, for example i-na su mmar-tu-ku BE I4, 86: 3· For qiit(i) PN, see also Kudur-Enlil (section 4·1.7)· In some cases the plural in -e is written plene: u-ga-re-e BE I4, s6a: 26; u-de-e MUN 343: I; eb-le-e ibid. 2; e-bi-!Je-e ibid. 3; sa-am-me-e MUN 346: 2; a!J-!Je-e-su BE I4, 39: I6. See Kudur-Enlil (section 4.I.7) for feminine plurals spelled plene. Construct state: du-ul-li TMH NF s, 29: 8; q£-ib ibid. I3. Verbs: su-$a-ta MUN 4I9: 4, 9, ventive following stative 3sf. Terminology: ki-i su PN BE I4, 79:5 "representative ofPN"; also BE I4, 86:4, case 5· Irregular spellings: !Jfr-gal-u PBS 2/2, 22: I; a-nam-din-na-a-ku BE I4, 4I: 10. 4.I.5 MB 11, Central Babylonia, Kadasman-Turgu Orthography: there are 30 new sign values and there is a new attestation for $U (zuM), KUB 3, 7I: IO. The sign 'fU is used for tu (MUN 395: 5). The number of signs expressing emphatics is almost complete: QA- KI - KUM, ZA- ~I zuM, DA- DI- ru. Apart from these, there are also qa (GA), qu (Ku), $f (zi), $U (zu), and te4 (TE). Phonology: In the name mgal-si-a-sci-dingir BE I4, 99a: 25 vowel contraction did not take place. Nadiinu is sometimes assimilated to -ma, cf. i-ta-di-im-ma BE I4, 4I: I2.

107

108

See CAD taru nf-z'e' and van Soldt, Middle Babylonian, 31 f. After Burna-Burias 11 the next attestation for $U (zuM) in an administrative text is under Kadasman-Turgu. There is one attestation in a kudurru of Kurigalzu 11 (Ku 1, 1: 20 ).

VAN SOLDT

1058

The other features are more or less the same as the ones in texts dated to previous kings. 109 11, Central Babylonia, Kadasman-Enlil 11 Orthography: there are about 10 new sign values. Nouns, eu-de-e MUN 279:3 (cf. eu-di-i in Ur, MBLET 1: R.1, 15). In TMH NF 5, 74 in both nouns and verbal forms overhanging vowels appear: mi-tu-ti erne TMH NF , : 1g-2o, see Aro 1955, 66, and see below, Verbs. Construct state: pa-at 5 74 MUN 313:2. Verbs: There are also several cases of overhanging vowels on stative forms 3sf: lje-pa-ti (bepat+i) TMH NF s, 74: g; mi-ta-ti (mitat+i) TMH NF 5, 74: 13; ba-alta-ti (baltat+i) TM H NF 5, 74: 14, but they do not appear on statives elsewhere: kab-ta-atMUN 313: 2; tu-ur-ratcusAs 30,85:15, 17; tur-rat cusAs 30,87: s. See 4

.1.6

MB

also Nouns, and section 7·3·

Particles: i-na mu-ub PN BE 14, ns: 2 (instead of ina mubbi). 4.1.7

MB 11,

Central Babylonia, Kudur-Enlil

Orthography: there are about 25 new sign values. The aleph sign is sometimes used in the D-stem of verbs 11-weak: u-za-'-i-zu cusAs 30,385:10. Phonology: -dd- and -mt- become frequently -nd-. For -dd-, cf. i-nam-din-su PBS 2/2, 47: 4; $U-Un-du-ri PBS 2/2, 47: 14; man-diJ du, CUSAS 30, 8g: 16; for -mt-, cf. si-in-da (simta) BE 14, ng: g, and f$a-lim-du CUSAS 30, 2g6: g. For -nd, cf. kam-du(b)-bi (bandiilju) BE 14, 123a: 10-11. However, -mt- is still written, cf. tam-tab-bar-an-ni cusAs 30, 18: 4· Original w normally becomes m or 0: ma-mi-tum MUN 241: 8; fa-qar-tum MUN 266: 7; maq-ru CUSAS 30, 202: 4; amat iq-bu-u CUSAS 30, 6: 8; mnam-ri CUSAS 30,101: 23; as-ba-at CUSAS 30,383: 10. Vowel contraction is also normal, but rxx il-q[-a-am 1 -m[ a?] CUSAS 30,102: 1 is an archaism.

Nouns/Names:the plural often appears in plene spelling, til-Le-e BE 14, 123: 7, 13; u-de-e BE 14, 124: n; su-ta-pe-e CUSAS 30, 36: 19; su-ma-a-ti CUSAS 30, 8g: 6; na-alj?-ta-a-ti, ba-aq-na-a-ti CUSAS 30, 380: 2-3. 109

J.A. Brinkman informs me that text A. 1998 (KT) from Assur published by Veysel Donbaz, "A Middle Babylonian Legal Documents Raising Problems in Kassite Chronology," journal ofNear Eastern Studies 41 (1982): 207-12, was found in Babylon as part of the M.S archive. It is a twelfth century forgery and cannot be used for this chapter. For earlier discussions of this text, see John A. Brinkman, "Istanbul A.1gg8, Middle Babylonian Chronology, and the Statistics of the Nip pur Archives," Zeitsclzriftfor Assyriologie 73 ( 1983): 67-74, Leonhard Sassmannshausen, "Zur mesopotamischen Chronologie des z. Jahrtausends," Raglzdadcr Mitteilungen 37 (zoo6): 167, andjohannes Boese, "Kadasman-Enlil, Kadasman-Turgu und die kassitische Chronologie des 14. und 13.]ahrhunderts v. Chr." Altoricntalische Forsclzungen 36 (zoog): 8s-g6.

MIDDLE BABYLONIAN

1059

After su (qat) names are often in the nominative, su mta-ri-bu MUN 167169, 171-172: 3 (and passim); but the genitive occurs as well: su mna-bi-ra-ni MUN 216: 6; i-na su mqu-nu-ni CUSAS 30, 158: 3· Two spellings are irregular: a-da-e-na/ni (=adanu) MUN 21: 17-18; qur-be-et[i] CUSAS 30,386: g (see the comment there). Con"ditional clauses: eup-taq-qar-ma MUN 10:21110 "if the house is claimed"; gud ip-pa-qar-ma TMH NF s, 71: 8 "if the ox is claimed"; ut-tar-ma MUN 10: 23 "if he returns (the price)"; a.sa ul i-te-ri-is cusAs 30,4: 8 "should he not seed the field". Irregular spellings: sa na-da-an-ni CUSAS 30,3: n; is-kun-nu ibid. 22, and i-ta-napa-li M UN 18: 13. The last one has an overhanging vowel, for which see section 7·3· 4.1.8 MB 11, Central Babylonia, Sagarakti-Surias Orthography: there are about 25 new sign values. A name with overhanging vowel is dsa-garak-ti-sur-ia-si TMH NF s, 15: 1g'; dsa-garak-ti-sur-ia 4 -si TMH NF

s, 64:32, also PBS 8/2,163 R.18'. Perhaps the name is declined. Words writ-

ten plene are qa-ab-li-i-ti BE 14, 129: 3; ar-sa-a-ni CUSAS 30, 263: 2, see also Nouns/Names. Mimation: there is one archaizing attestation, mdutu-i-q{-saam PBS 2/2, 48: 17',m in verbal forms mimation signs are only inserted when they are followed by -ma: [i]q-ba-si-im-ma TMH NF 5, 64: 13; u-se-si-im-ma BE 14,127: 5; U$-$a-am-ma BE 14,129:7, and others. Phonology: There are no examples of a > e in verbs; -dd- and -mt- > -nd-, dd-: man-da-ti PBS 2/2, 52: 3; man-di-du CUSAS 30, 204: 17; i-na-am-di-[i]n MUN 29: 8, -mt-: in-da-nu-ma BE 14, 137: 22; sim-da MUN 318: 11', 329: 21; f$alim-r du, CUSAS 30,299: g, a.o., see Kudur-Enlil, phonology. Original w > 0/m: as-bu TMH NF 5, 8:23,13: 17; fma-qar-tum TMH NF 5, 64: 2; maq-rum MUN 291: 3; U$-$a-am-ma BE 14, 129: 7; a-mi-la PBS 2/2, 51: 14; U-ma-str MUN 17: 7; a-mat iq-bu-u CUSAS 30, g: 14, a.o. Pronouns: The first attestation for a dative -ka in a dated text is l[ u-ud-di-na ]kka-mi TMH NF 5, 64: 11 (ss g). Nouns/Names: The trend to use plene spellings in plurals becomes stronger: qin-na-a-ti TMH NF 5, 23: 12, MUN 120: 2, CUSAS 30, 299 R.7, 301: 28; QUra-da-a-r tC MSKH no. 24: 15; $U-lja-re-e MUN 187: 1; at-ta-ra-a-ti MUN 18g: 5;

110

For MUN 10: 19-21, see John A. Brinkman, review of Beitriige zur Verwaltung und Gesellsclza.ft Babyloniens in der Kassitenzeit, by Leonhard Sassmannshausen, journal ofthe American Oriental Society 124 (2004): 28g-go, 298.

111

Note that this name type was written the same way in the Tell Mubammad texts and during BB II.

llil1iilllll.

't·w~e,~t---~ ;·~:r.~t

I

•I

I

VAN SOLDT 1060

rk MUN 326' 24'Li-la-a-ti CUSAS 30, 240: 4; liq-ta-aJ tC CUSAS 30, mus- e -ne-e · , : ; su-ma-a-ti CUSAS 30,263: 8f.; ur-ra-a-[t]f? 390: 1; p{[-la-a-ti CUSAS 30, 1

V

I

241 2 7= 7·

Irregular spellings in nouns: a-na pa-an-ni PN TMH NF s, 64: 4; a-:~R~sa-ni BE , : 8. Verbs: sa na-r dan an_ni ul i-su-ma TMH NF S, 64: 14; sa-gtm BE 14, 14 127 129: 14; i-ra-as-sa-an-nu PBS 2/2, 51: 17; pa-a-ta-q[ (pataqi), MUN 411: 4, a.o., 1

see section 7-4· 4.1.9

MB 11,

Central Babylonia, Kastiliasu IV

Orthography: there are about 10 new sign values. Phonology: examples of a> e: u-d[ e]-p{-rU CUSAS 30,421: 11; U-KIN-ni OIP 97,23: ' (possibly qanu or kunnu); -dd- > -nd-: man-da-ti MVN 373: 7· Original-mt-: 4 na-kam-du MUN 361: 12; e?-di-in-di (dimti) CUSAS 30,332:2. Pronouns: Plural third person: i-nam-di-na-as-su-nu-ti PBS 2/2, ss: 8 (dative). Nouns fNames: Plural: sometimes with extra vowel sign, sak-ru-mas-a-tum TM H 1 NF s,u: 2, CUSAS 30, 226: 2; at-ta-ra-a-ti MUN 194: 3; ni-ra-tum ar-ra-ka-r turn cusAs 30, 421: 1; i-pa-a-tum ibid. 2; up-pu-u ibid. 3; Construct state: rta-kufl-ti rlja -Za-an-ni MUN 286: 2; dul-li e MUN 387: 2, 457: 1'; lji-si-ilj-ti e dingir MUN 388: 2-3; mi-si-ilj-ti MUN 420: 1; nu-ma-at giSapin 1

CUSAS 30,421: 7· Gentilics: alj-la-mu-u TMH NF 5, n: 3, PBS 2/2, s6: 3; kas-su-u TMH NF s, n: 4, PBS 2/2, 56: 4; ak-ka-du-u MUN 114: 2; as-sur-ra-a-a-u MUN 114: 6; kas-si-i MUN 115:3, CUSAS

30,224: 3·

Irregular spellings: su'-u-ta-a-pi-su TMH NF S, 21: 6; sar, BE 14, 14S: 19 "scribe"; qaqu-u MUN 361: 2. 4.2 MB 11, TextsfromNorthBabylonia: Babylon and Diir-Kurigalzu Only the reigns of KaE I, BB 11, KT, and Kst IV have enough data. For the reigns of Kg 11, NM, KaE 11, KuE, and

ss the data are insufficient.

4.2.1 MB 11, North Babylonia, Kadasman-Enlil I Although the number of texts from the reign of Kadasman-Enlil I is limited there is enough material for an overview. I have assumed that the Amarna letters (EA) were written and sent either from Babylon or from Dur-Kurigalzu. There is also a badly damaged kudurru from the time of Kadasman- Enlil I found in Sipparwhich is available in two clay copies. 112 It is not clear which KaE (I or 11) is meant, 113 but Kadasman-Enlil I would seem more probable. 112 113

Paulus, Kudurru-Inschriften, 314 [. See Brinkman, Materials, 136, J.z.Ig.

MIDDLE BABYLONIAN

1061

Orthography: CVm signs are rare: ba-na-tum EA 4= I2; ul-tum EA 4= 6; si-bu-r turn 1 MSKH no. 23: 4· Sign values of emphatic consonants are ta (nA) EA4: IS f., tu (TU) EA 4:43, 46, qa (QA) EA 4: I3, $a (zA) EA 4:34, $i (~I), EA 3: I7, $U (zuM) EA 3: 7, 40. All of these are attested in OB, but ZUM is rare; there are relatively few eve signs; the personal marker m is used everywhere. Mimation is attested before -ma: tu-ul-te-bi-la-am-ma EA 4: 45, a.o.; mimation without -ma is archaic: tu-se-eh-be-la-am EA 3: I2. Phonology: The MB aleph sign occurs regularly: tu-be-'-i-ma; EA 4: IS, the shift a >a' is attested in ma-a'-du-ti EA 3: 10, a.o.; the combination sibilant and dental usually results in -l- plus dental: ul-te-bi-la-ak-ku EA 3: 3I, 34, a.o., but cf. is-tu KaE I u: I; a > e in verbs is so far not attested, cf.li-na-kir KaE I u: 10; ir-tabi EA 3: 8; w > 0/m: a-m[i-lu-ta] EA 3: 30; a-ma-ta EA 4: Io; vowel contraction: an-na-a KaE I u: 8; ba-na-a EA 3: 11; sal.mes ba-na-tum i-ba-as-sa-a EA 4: I2, a.o. Irregular spellings: Unusual spellings in EA 3 and 4 are si-pi-ri-ka EA 3: 25 (see section 7.2 ); si-i-ti EA 3: 28; afJ-!Ju-ta-a (query) EA 4: IS; ka-sa-ma-a EA 4: 2I; U$-$i-id-du-ma EA 3: I7 ($adu ); a-al-ka-am-ma ibid. Ig;114 sa-a ibid. 20 f. MB II, North Babylonia, Burna-Burias u Orthography: Some signs appear to have been attested earlier than in Central Babylonia: qu (KuM) EA 6: I4, I6; EA 7: 54, and passim in North Babylonia. Also, there is a single occurrence of qi/e (KIN) in EA 11 R.32, and one of $U (zuM) in Iraq 11, 8:25 (date and origin unclear, see section 4-4.I). Other newcomers are lam EA IO: 13 and qar, ibid. 17; tab (TAB) EA 8: 21. The mimation follows the same rules as in the texts from Central Babylonia, cf. sa-ni-tuum-ma EA 6: 12;115 i ni-ba-al-ki-ta-am-ma EA g: 21; li-il-pu-tu 4 EA 11 R.1o, I2; la-bi-ru-tum ga-mi-ru-tum EA 11: R.6, and many others. Phonology: for s/s + dental, see ik-ta-al-r da 1 -ku EA 10: 37; ul-tum EA 12: I4, a.o.; for a> e there are no examples with e: u-ka-li-mu-su-nu-ti EA 11: 17, a.o. The shift a > a' is not consistent, we find both a and a': ma-a'-da EA 7: 55, 6o, 11 R.14, 19, and ma-a-da EA g: 16, 11 R.34; also ta-sa-'-al-ma EA 7: 11, and rSa -aal EA 7:28. w > m/0: aq-ra EA 10:16, a-qar-ku ibid. 17, a.o. In Nippur there is a name fma-qar-tum TMH NF s, 64:2, section 4.1.8. 4.2.2

1

114 115

Perhaps the spelling was influenced by the extra vowel in the present (a-al-la-ak ). This is the reading from Otto Schroeder's copy in Die Tontafebz van El-Anzanza (Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs'sche Buchhandlung, 1914), text 3: 12. Anson F. Rainey, The Tell-Anzanza Correspondence. A New Edition of the Cuneifonn Letters from the Site of El-Anzanza Based on Collations of all Extant Tablets (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2015), So, read sa-ni-tunz-nza.

VAN SOLDT

1062

Pronouns: For the suffixes ventive + 2sm dative + 3sf accusative, cf. i-le-qu-ni-ikku-us-si EA 11 obv. 20 (ileqqu-nim-kum-si), "They will bring her to you". Irregular spellings: ul-te-bi-i-lu/la EA 9: 9, 11; su-bi-i-la EA 9: I3, 11 R.6, 8; tu, v[ b '] r ., l l' . , se-be-e-la EA 9: I4; ip-pu-u-su EA 9: 35; U-S e- l - l - U EA n: 23; L-l$-ru-upu EA 11 R.Io, li-i$-ru-u-pu-u-ma ibid. R.I2. For these spellings, see section 7·5· 4.2.3

MB 11, North Babylonia, Kadasman-Turgu

Orthography: new sign values are kara (K.AR) KUB 3, 7I: 4, and ziq (ziG) Iraq 11, 4=41.

Phonology: for -dd-, cf. a-na man-da-ti-su Iraq 11, 4: 37; w > 0/m: Iita-si-pi KUB 3, 7I: 7; Iua-si-pa ibid. 8. 4.2.4

MB 11, North Babylonia, Kastiliasu IV

Orthography: there are four new sign values: s[r (Bu) Sum er 9, 9: 2; ibid.I5: I; p[r (riR) Sumer g, IS: 3; sir (sun) Sumer 9, I6: 20; kip (KIB) Sum er 9, 26: IO. 4·3

M B II,

4·3·I

Texts from South Babylonia: Kirbiisi and Ur 116

MB 11, South Babylonia, Nazi-Maruttas

Orthography: the sign qa (QA) MBLET 76 R.6 is attested in Ur. There are the eve signs man (MAN) and ljat (PA) in Kirbasi: 8. Phonology: a> e: mas-ra-a117 M BLET 76 R.g; Vowel contraction: lje-re-e M B LET 76: g'; i-be-er-ru-u ibid. R.8; qa-na-a ibid. R.6; -dd- > -nd-: i-nam-du-ma ibid. R.5. 4.3.2

MB 11, South Babylonia, Kadasman-Turgu

Orthography: the signs das (uR)

MBLET 79: 2';

nin

(NIN) ibid. 79: 4', and

nun

(NuN) ibid. SI: I, R.4 are first attested at Ur.

4·3·3

MB 11, South Babylonia, Kadasman-Enlil 11

Phonology: W > 0/m, but no a> e: u-mas-si-ir MBLET I: 11. Nouns/Names: Plural: e u-di-i MBLET 1: R.I, 15 (cf. e u-de-e MUN 279: 3; section 4.1.6); construct state: a-na pa-an PN MBLET I R.I5; ra-ab kis-ka-at-te-e MBLET I: 20; sa-la-a-su (saliit-su) MBLET I R.5. Verbs: i-ra-gu-[ um-ma] MBLET 1 R.2; [i]-da-bu-ub-ma MBLET I R.6; i-ta-nap-pal, MBLET I R.6, 8; ir-u-bu-ma (irubiima) MBLET I: 10.

116 11 7

For the reigns of BB 11 and Kg 11 the data are insufficient. This is not a case of i-umlaut, but the form mdru is attested in M B, cf.

BE 17, 24:

8.

MIDDLE BABYLONIAN

1063

4·3·4 MB II, South Babylonia, Kudur-Enlil Orthography: $U (zuM) MBLET 49 R.6, 78:7 (see section 4.1.5, KT), cf. $U-pur-su

(R.6). Phonology: -dd- > -nd-: i-man-da-ad MBLET 49: 12. Conditional sentence: i-na lal ul i-te-ri-is ul it-ta-kt -il-ma ... ul it-ta-din-ma pa-nusu ul i-ba-bal[ ... ] MBLET 49: 5-9 ''If he has not duly sown it, has not proved trustworthy and has not delivered the onions ... , he will not be pardoned". 4·3·5 MB n, South Babylonia, Sagarakti-Surias Orthography: the value bat (BAD) MBLET 63:3, R.7' is attested. Phonology: a> a': ia-r a' 1 -nu-um-ma MBLET 36: 4· Nouns: Plural: tab-Li-ta-ti MBLET 71:3 Verbs: i-rag-gu-um-mi MBLET 36:10, R.2; 14 R.s'; ni-ta-na-pal MBLET 15 R.4. Terminology: mu-qut-ta-a im-qu-ut-ma MBLET 15: 6, "He lodged a claim"; a-p{{ za-ku ru-gu-um-ma-a ul i-su 14 (suM) MBLET 36:7-8 "He is paid, he is quit, he

has no claim". Irregular spellings: [sa]-a-ar-ra-ku MBLET 15: 10 (sarraku); ti-leq-q{ MBLET 15 R.8; i-rag-gu-um-mi MBLET 36: 10, R.2. For overhanging vowels, see section 7·3· 4.3.6 MB 11, South Babylonia, Kastiliasu IV Orthography: there are some newly attested values, ia (1A) MUN 456: 3, MBLET 27 R.7; kat (KAD) MBLET 25 R.18; kat (KAD) MBLET 25: 7· Mimation signs are used: i-ta-nap-pa-lu 4 MBLET 25 R.18. Mimation with -ma: [i]-le-eq-qa-am-ma MBLET 24 R.9'; i-te-eb-ba-am-ma MBLET 25 R.s; il-lam-ma MBLET 27:17. Phonology: a> e: lu-si-li-in-ga (lusellimka) MBLET 20 R.3; ul-te-li-ga (ustellimka) ibid. R.4; U-r lja 1 -mi-is-su MBLET 3:6 (ljamii$u); -mk- > -ng-: lu-si-li-in-ga (lusellimka) MBLET 20 R.3; w > m/0: mu-se-ra-as-su-ma MBLET 20 R.2; -zz- > -nz-: PN pu-un-zu-ur-[ turn] MBLET 27: 4; -dd- > -nd-: a-nam-di-na-ka MBLET 3 R. 7, and 20 R. 6. Pronouns: the dative -ka: a-nam-di-na-ka MBLET 3 R.7, and 20 R.6. Nouns: Construct state: i-na ki-in-si e-bu-ri MBLET 20 R.s. Verbs: i-da-ab-bu-bu MBLET 25 R.6; i-rag-gu-um MBLET 31 R.2. Stative written plene: su-u[ n?-n ]a-a-tu4 CUSAS 30, 120: 3, na-ad-na-a-tu4 ibid. 18. Irregular spellings: ta-si-li-ma-ta I ta-as-li-ma-ta MBLET 20 R.2-3; i-ta-nap-pa-li MBLET 20 R.9; lu-si-li-in-ga (lusellimka) MBLET 20 R.3; ul-te-li-ga (ustellimka) ibid. R.4. Conditional clauses: Perfect: ul i-ta-din-ma MBLET 3 R.n, 24 R.n'; ul i-ta-di-imma MBLET 20 R.8; Present: up-rtaq-qar,-ma MBLET 25 R.15; ip-pa-qar-ma MBLET 33 R.7; (a-p{[) za-ku-u ru-gu-um-ma-a ul i-su-u MBLET 25 R.1; ibid. 31: 10.

VAN SOLD T

1064

Failaka MB II, South Babylonia: Bahrain and . . 437 ns conc erni ng the cune iform mate Due to the scarcety of sources, the conclusio ry. A num ber of texts still need to rial from Bahrain and Failaka are prelimina of the texts are unce rtain . They have be published. Moreover, the dates of mos t of the data com e from the lette rs sent simply been categorized as 'Kassite'. Most Enlil-kidinni, the gove rnor ofN ippu r by Il1-ippasra, the governor ofDi lmun , to texts unde r MB II and not MB 111. (time of BB 11). Because of this I discuss the rules as the texts from elsew here Orthography: the mim ation follows the same u-se-r er-rC-im-ma BE 17, g6 R. 3', (for example tw-ma-ti-im-majeS 6,145: 14); that §>U is alrea dy writ ten with but the num ber of eve signs is limited. Note zuM (Jes 6,145: n), that is earlier than in Nippur. i-la BE 17, g6: 12'. We possibly Phonology: for s/s +dental and a> e, c£ ul-te-ez-b , text 2: 3, whic h poss ibly derives have the shift a > e in um-me-ni Eidem 1997 118 from eithe r ummiinu or ummiiinu. -u-a, but we find here it-tu-u-a-a Pronouns: The suffix1s is normally writt en at-tu to be unde rsto od as -uya. Jes 6,144: 15; la-mu-u-a-aJeS 6,144:13, prob ably 9 20.U Nouns: Construct state, be-lu u-I.J.i-ne JeS 6, 145= are writ ten in regu lar MB, but Gulf Conclusion: In general the texts from the to valu e the diffe rent sources, there are some discrepancies. It is difficult wrot e the texts cam e from. The beca use it is not clear where the scribes who have been writ ten by a Nipp ur(?) lette rs sent from Dilmun to Nippur could scribe who was in the service of the governor.

bly from Date d Tablets of Unknown Origin Pres uma Babylonia120 a-Burias ni21 MB 11, Texts of Unknown Origin, Burn 4.4.1 ]i-is-su-u Iraq 11, 8: s, and there Phonology: there is one instance of a> e, [z1?-m 11, 8 R.4'. is one hiatu s spelling: da-ik-su (dii'iksu) Iraq Nouns: uz-na-su Iraq n, 8 R.26'.122

4-4

118

MB II,

un/ 2, and Leon hard Sassm annsh ausen , "Dilm Both Eidem, "Cuneiform Inscriptions," text Interin " Sicht, ert v.Chr. aus assyr iolog ische r Ba}:train und Babylonien im 15.-14.]ahrhund Asia. Studies in Comm emor ation of E.C.L. west South and South cult~ral Relations between ss, m and Richard H. Spoo r (Oxfo rd: Archa copre Durmg Caspers (1934-1996), ed. Eric Olijda are there ver, Howe ni. ummd < ni 20 o8a), 320, assume that the word should be read ummc logent is an official, the abdu . It seem s more ~o entries of 4 panu of dates, the first recipi anu. The umm an case this in n, perso rtant impo Ical that the second is also an official or an d i-uml aut. original word ummianu beca me umma nu m M B, an umm cm IS the form with nce. refere this for man Brink j.A. CAD U/W, 45b, I thank we have enou gh sourc es. Only kings are menti oned for whose reign Brinkman, Materials, 116, E.2.3 1• The date of text Iraq 11, 8 is not certain, see man). Brink Probably a dual (suggestionj.A. A

119 120 121 122

•

A

••

1065

MIDDLE BABYLO NIAN

MB II, Texts of Unkno wn Origin, Nazi-Maruttas rat (RAD) Orthography: there are two new sign values: tur (TuR) CT 51, 26:4, and

4-4.2

ibid. 4, 6. Phonology: -mt- > -nd-: giSsi-re-en-du CT 51, 24: 1. turned", see Terminology: su PN tur-rat CT 51, 26: 4, "The hand of PN has been section 4.1.3; ki-i su PN, ibid. 8, "representative of PN", see section 4.1.4. MB II, Texts of Unkno wn Origin, Sagarakti-Surias 131: 6; ra!J Orthography: Four new sign values are added: kul (NUMU N) UDBD

4-4·3

(LU:FJ) ibid. 4; sar (sAR) ibid. 4, 13 a.o.; tes (n:E) TCL g, 53: g. 3; sa-'i TCL g, Phonology: the aleph sign occurs in two words, 2 tu-li-'-i TCL g, 50: -a-tu UDBD 137: so: 17· Note the variant s em-sa-t i TCL g, so: 5 and giSin-sa 1.

Nouns: Constr uct state, a-na pa-an PN TCL g, 53: 8. 121:7, "(If) Conditional sentences: ul it-ta-di n-ma TCL g, 54: 10; ul sum-m a UDBD

he does not give".

n, Texts of Unknown Origin, Kastiliasu IV Orthography: pet (E) in i-pet-ti CT 51,37: 8.

4·4·4

MB

20; i-namPhonology: -dd- > -nd-, i-man- da-ad UDBD gs: 13; man-da -ti CT 51, 36: din UDBD, VAT 4920: 15. Nouns: Constr uct state, a-da-ni(- )is-ku-nu UDBD, VAT 4920: 13 1 not give". Conditional clause: ul r it-ta -din-m a UDBD, VAT 4920:18 , "(If) he does MB II,

4·5 4.5.1

123 Texts from the Diyala Region

MB II, Diyala, Sagarakti-Surias

Imlihiye Orthography: cv and eve values: lak (sin) Imlihiye 10: 10; sat (KUR) and 10: R.g 8, g: e Imlihiy 24:2, R.6; $U (zuM) Imlihiye 10 R.n, 14: UE; sa (GAR) n; su (su) Imlihiye 14, upper edge (p. 86).

Pronouns: the pronou n ayu is written ia-a-a-u in Imlihiye g: 13. 4.5.2

MB n, Diyala, Kastiliasu IV

3 "A cubit is her height", am mat is in the absolute state. In similar texts from Babylonia this word is written logographically: 1 kus la-an-su/a.

Terminology: am-ma -at r la-an -Sa Imlihiye 1

123

1:

data. For the texts For the kings that do not figure in this part we have no or insufficient 3.1. section see mad, from Tell Mul}am

VAN SOL DT

1066

Middle Babylonian 111 (Tu kult i-Ni nurt

5

a 1-E nlil -nad in-a l)i,

ea. 1225-1155) MB lii,

5.1

Texts from CentralBabylonia

ylot imp orta nt sour ces for Cen tral Bab From Nippur and Diir-Enlile, our mos 124 nia, ther e are only a few texts. e II cv are regu larly written: and eve values: let (LID), ter (TIR); CVm

an-l jarb MB Ill, Central Babylonia, Kad asm

5.1.1

Orthography: -turn MSK H no. 8:5, -tim ibid.: 6, a.o. (urnrnani) Phonology: vowel contraction, um-rna-ni

MSK H

no. 8:

2;

i-qd-bu-u

no. g: 17. r MSK H no. g: 12. Nouns: construct state: ri-rii:J-tC ku.babba l provide". ing: i-za-an-na-in MSK H no. g: 14 "he shal MSK H

Irregular spell

ma- iddi na sted: ana (Drs) cus As 30, 256: 5; Orthography: The following values are atte 12. The CVm sign s are freq uen tly tuk (TUK ), 256: 7; tukul (TUK UL), 256: 4, , 256: 15, a.o. attested: -lurn, 256: 3; -rum 256: n; -turn MB Ill, Central Babylonia, Ada d-su

5.1.2

a-u~ur MB Ill, Central Babylonia, Adad-sum 4· 30,4 04: 6; s{r (Bu) CUS AS 30,4 04: Orthography: CVC sign, mun (MU N) CUS AS truct state, i-s{r-ti CUSAS 30, 404: 4·

5.1.3

Nouns: cons 5.2 s.2.1

MB Ill,

5·3

MB Ill,

Diir-Kurigalzu TextsfromNorthBabylonia: Baby/on and

I North Babylonia, Mar duk -apl a-id dina 7: 4, 13; m ut (MU D) Iraq 11, 7: 21. Orthography: eve signs, kab (KAB) Iraq n, MB Ill,

Textsfrorn South Babylonia

Not all the kings of this period app ear six kings are attested. 5.3.1

on pub lish ed adm inis trat ive texts. Only

jarb e II MB III, South Babylonia, Kad asm an-l 125 CVm signs are used , also on phy: cv value: tu (Du ) MBL ET 2: 22;

Orthogra atio n befo re -ma is not always writverbs (mai:J-ru MBL ET 34 R.2). The mim -qa-ma MBL ET 2 R.18, but li-qa-nim-ma ten, c£ is-ri-qa-m[ a] MBL ET 2: 14; i-leq MBL ET 2:12.

124 125

, 404 (Asu), and 2so (Ms). va~ Soldt, ~iddle Babylonian, texts 256 (Asi) (Kst 1v). Th1s value Is also attested in MUN 3g8: 1

1067

MIDDL E BABYL ONIAN

MBLE T 2: 19, Phonology: -nC- does not always becom e -cc-, i-di-im -ma (danu) but cf. di-in-su-nu ibid. 22. Nouns: Note the constr uct state dam-ti PN in MBLET 2: g_l26 e in verbs, but the with -a- (Hes s 20~2, ~5f.). In the latter (MS 1) has three, beside a couple of forms a-ma-a-tt MS 1, IV: 40, 59, a.o. and in Mai I 1 the plural is often writt en plene, cf. See section 4.1.7, Aro 1955,28£, and Stein 2000, 74· of archa izing featu res, such as nouns NM 2, MS 1 and Mai I 1 have a numb er 1, VI I: 9, a.o. (Hes s 2012, 82 f.), with mimation: tur-ru-um NM 2, I I: 24; ap-la-am M 123, 125), lack of vowel cona short ened suffix: li-ru-ru-us MS 1, VI: 28 (He ss 2012, 150 siniiti. Note that in MS 1 and traction: na-bi-a-at MS 1, VI: 14, and the pron oun spell ings (MS 1), occu r in the Mai I 1 these archaizing forms, including irregular 151 last part of the text, that of the curses.

s

The Lexical, Religious, and Liter ary Texts

9

here a gram mati cal overview Due to the limited space it is impossible to give an overv iew of the material of the many lexical, religious and literary texts, but e), and in the comp rehen can be found in the third part of the Corpus (see abov ver, many of the texts in the sive overview in Sassmannshausen 2oo8b. Howe ing (van Sold t 1995 and 2012) perip hery were copied as part of the scribal train ian scrib e it is clear from and even when students were trained by a Meso potam many mista kes. Therefore it their products that the foreign apprentices made lonia and to those peripheral is bette r to limit oneself to the texts from Baby ian vorlagen. 152 For these texts that show a close affinity with their Meso potam n from Diir-Enlile (van Soldt reasons I will merely quote one text, an incan tatio a litera ry text, be it with a reli2015, 448). This text has many of the hallmarks of n, the succe ssor of the Old gious purpose. The language is Standard Babylonia the synta x of this text is difBabylonian hymnisch-epische Dialekt. For example, can stand at the beginning ferent from the administrative texts in that the verb e is an archa izing spelling or in the middle of a sentence (lines 3-7, 13,17). Ther of ki-i (see Aro 1955, 97 ). a-wi-l[ u-ti] (line 2), and ki-ma (line 10) is used inste ad in featu res it shou ld probably The text cann ot be dated, but because of certa e featu res are the script, the be placed in the Middle Babylonian period. Thes dutu- s[ i] ), and the second correct use of the cases (except in line 5 sa-ru-ru

150 1 51 1 52

68. For other examples, see Hess, "Untersuchungen," Hess, "Unte rsuchu ngen," wo f. see For the phonological changes in literary texts, archiv es in Ugarit . two on ", graphy See, for example, van Soldt, "Paleo

MIDDLE BABYLON IAN

1081

person suffix -ku instead of -ka. Perhaps di-ma-ta (line 9) contains an anaptycticvowel , which could date the text around 12ooBeE or a bit earlier (see section 7.2). Vowel contracti on occurs once (ta-ra-ti-ka line 6). Mimatio n signs (CVm) are rare (lines 11, 13), and there are only five eve signs: tab (TAB) eusAs 30,448: 3, 6; dir (DIR) line 7; tak (TAG) line 9; taq line 13; $al (NI) line 11. Note that the form ur-ki (line 12) is more at home in Assyria than in Babylonia.

Appendi x 1: The Text Sources in Chronolo gical Order In this table all dated texts in Akkadia n are mention ed with the king during whose reign the documen t was written. Kings with no texts to their name are not mentione d. Kastilias u 11 I ( •.• ) Nippur(?): Abraham and Gab bay 2013. Agum (Ill) ( ... ) Bahrain: Andn~-Salvini and Lombard 1997,167 f.; Andn~-Salvini 1999, 126f. (2 texts dated to Agum). See Sassman nshausen 2006,167. Kadasm an-ijarbe I Nip pur: Brinkma n 1976, 144, J.s.s, see 391, text 23(?). Unknown origin: Paul us 2014,296 f. (later copy, see Brinkma n, NABU 2o1s/18). Kurigalz u I ( ... -137s) Nip pur: Donbaz 1987, D Ss. Kadasma n-Enlil I (1374-1360) Babylon(?): Rainey 201s, EA 2-4. Nippur: Brinkma n 1976, 142f., Ni. 437 (J.s.3); possibly also 144, J.s.s, see 391, text 23(?). Sippar: Paulus 2014, 314f. Burna-B urias 11 (13s9-1333) Babylon(?): Rainey 201s, EA 6-13. Dur-Kurigalzu: Gurney 1949, text 8?. Nippur: Bernhard t, TMH NF s, texts 39, 6s-69; Chiera, PBS 8/2, 162; Clay, BE 14, texts 1-3, 3a, 4-9, 9a; id., PBS 2/2, texts 1, 2; Lutz, PBS 1/2, texts 6o, 153 82 (Enlil-kidinni), 71 (Il1-ippasra); Petschow 1974, text 68; Radau, BE 17, Enlil-kidinni/Illi(li)ya: texts ss, 78, 79, 88, 92, and the Middle Assyrian texts 77 and 91; Sassman nshausen , MUN 1, 6-9, 20, 131, 19S, 256-258, 269, 270,297- 299,312, 323,360, 363,389, 390,403, 417, 421-424; Scheil1897, s8. Unknown origin: Peiser 19os, text 120; Walker, eT 51, 21. 153

Texts of Enlil-kidin nl and 111-ippasra are only dated to Burna-Burias 11.

,·,

I

VAN SOLDT

1082

Kara-l].ardas (1333) Nippur: Brinkman 1971, UM 29-13-635.

Assur: Schroeder, KAV97· Kurigalzu 11 (1332-1308) Dilr-Kurigalzu: Walker 1980, see Brinkman 1976, 245, Q.s.S. Nip pur: Bernhardt, TMH NF s, text 36: Boissien932 , 93 £; Sommerfeld 1985;Is4 Chiera, PBS 8/2,158; Clay, BE 14, 10, n?,ISS12-38, (39), 40, 125?; id., PBS 11/z, _ 8; Delaporte 1923, 179, texts A. 818-820; Hilprecht, BE I/1, texts 41 and 3 1 43; id., text 133 and Legrain, PBS 15, text 49; Lambert 1969; 4 6; ibid., text Nies and Keiser, BIN 2, 15; Paul us 2014, 305 f.; 769 f. U 8 (Kg n?); Sassmannshausen , MUN 2, 22, 30-61, 72-77, 84-95, 132-136, 196, 197, 300, 301, 364-370, 391, 392, 400, 425-428; Scheil1905, 30; von der Osten 1934, texts 66o and 665.

Sultantepe: Gurney, STT I, text 45 (Kg?). Unknown origin: Walker, CT 51, texts 22, 23. Nazi-Mamtt as (1307-1282) Dilr-Kurigalzu: Gurney 1949, text 4; Paul us 2014, 335 f.

Larsa: Paulus 2014, 318 f. Nippur: Bernhardt, TMH

5, texts s, 19, 26, 29, 30, 37, 72; Biggs and Buc156 41, 41a, cellati 1969, text ss; Chiera, PBS 8/2, 161; Clay, BE 14, texts 39?, 42-46, 46a, 47, 48, 48a, 49-56, 56a, 57-80, 8oa, 81-87, 87a, 88; id., PBS 2/2, texts 19-28, 28a, 29-33, 34?, 35, 36; Hilprecht, BE I/1, texts 53, 54 and 75, and Legrain, PBS 15, text 54; Clayden 2011, 105, texts 5 and 6, and 106, text NF

7; Lutz, PBS 1/2, 77?; Legrain, PBS 13, texts 45, 69, So; id., PBS 15, texs 52, 53, and ss; Sassmannsha usen, MUN 62, 63,78-83,96-101,118,121-130,137-147, ISS-I6o,162, 198-2oo,222- 224, 271?, 272,275-277 ,288-290,29 4,296,302306,324,332, 333,337-352 ,374-386, 3931 394, 401, 402, 404-406, 416,419, 429-445; van Soldt 2015, text 1. Sippar: Sollberger 1968, 193f. (NM or after). 157 Sus a: Paul us 2014, 325 f.

Ur: Gurney 1983, text 76.

154 155

For the possible origin, see Sommerfeld, "Kurigalzu-Text," 11. The royal name can be either Kurigalzu or Kudur-Enlil, see Brinkman, Materials, 244f.,

Q.5+ 156 157

See Brinkrnan, Materials, 281, U.2.24.375· For the date, see Brinkman, Materials, 266, U.2.22. For the Sumerian inscriptions of Kurigalzu and Meli-Sipak found at Sippar, see Brinkman, Materials, 45· For Kurigalzu, see also Alexa Bartelmus, "Restoring the Past. A Historical Analysis of the Royal Temple Building Inscriptions from the Kassite Period," KASKAL. Rivista di storia, ambienti e culture del Vicino Oriente Antico 7 ( 2010 ): 143-71 .

MIDDLE BABYLONIAN

1083

Unknown origin: Brinkman 1976,385, text 10 (NM?); Delaporte 1923,179 f., text A. 821; Contenau, TCL 9, text 47; Walker, CT 51,24-26. Kadasman-Enlil 11 (1382BCE)1ss Nippur: Clay, PBS 2/2, text 26.159 Kadasman-Turgu (1281-1264) Babylon: Weidner, KUB 3, 71. Diir-Kurigalzu: Gurney 1949, text 4· Nippur: Bernhardt, TMH NF s, texts 10, 31, 75; Chiera, PBS 8/2, 159; Clay, BE 14, 88-91, 91a, 92-99, 99a, I00-104, 105?-106, 1o6a, 106b, 106c, 107, 108, 1o8a, 109-114, 114a, 114b; id., PBS 2/2, 37-42;160 Hilprecht, BE I/1, texts 59, 61, 62, 138; Legrain, PBS 15, text 57; Brinkman 1976, 155, L.2.9; Sassmannshausen, MUN 3, 11, 23, 64, 65,102,148-150,161,163,201-203,225,307,353,395,446, 447; van Soldt 2015, texts 34, 35, 81,198, 415?. Ur: Gurney UET 7, text 51; 1983, text 79· Unknown origin: Walker, CT 51, 27-35. Kadasman-Enlil 11 (1263-1255)1 61 Diir-Kurigalzu: Gurney 1949, text 12 (foreign sender?). Nippur: Bernhardt, TMH NF s, texts 6, 7, 20, 38, 74; Clay, BE 14, 115-117; id., PBS 2/2, 43; Sassmannshausen, MUN 4, 14, 19?, 24, 66, 103, 151, 164, 165, 204, 205, 226,227, 249, 250, 255, 278, 279,313, 325, 354,415, 448; van Soldt 2015, texts 2, so, 8s-88, 216, 259, 364, 36s, 379, 416. Tell Imlihiye: Kessler 1982, text 8. Ur: Gurney, UET 7, text 1. Unknown origin: Peiser 1905, 108; Sassmannshausen, MUN 462 (Nippur?), 466. Kudur-Enlil (1254-1246) Diir-Kurigalzu: Gurney 1949, text 6. Nippur: Bernhardt, TMH NF s, texts 1-4, 16-18, 28, 71; Clay, BE 14, 117a, 117b, 118-123, 123a, 124; id., PBS 2/2, 44-47; Hilprecht, BE I/1, text 64; Legrain, PBS 13, 71-74; id., PBS 15, text 6o; Sassmannshausen, MUN 10, 12, 16, 18, 21, 25, 26,104,152,166-186,206-220,2 28-248,251-254,259-268,309,3 55,372, 407,450, 459; van Soldt 2015, texts 3-6,10-13,36,51,54-56, 68, 82, 89, 91162-

158 159 160 161 162

For the numbers of the kings called Kadasman-Enlil, seen. 98. See John A. Brinkman, "Mu-us-sa Dates in the Kassite Period," Die Welt des Orients 6 (1971): 153f. (cBs 13100); Boese, "Kadasman-Enlil," 86. The date is not certain. Text 37 was also published as BE 14, w6c; text 38 as BE 14, w6a; text 39 as BE 14, w6b, and text 40 as BE 14, w8a. See Sassmannshausen, "Zur mesopotamischen Chronologie," 167. Note that text go does not have a date. The date of Kudur-Enlil is incorrect.

VAN SOLDT

1084

, , s6- 6o, go,Igi,I99-202,217,236-z3S,26o,26I,27S-2SI, 2go, 2g1, 104 153 1 1 1 zg6-zgS,325-327,366,3So-3S7. Tell Imlihiye: Kessler 1gSz, text 2. Ur: Gurney, UET 7, text 49; MBLET, text 7S.

Zubeidi: Kessler 19S5, 75 f., text 715. Unknown origin: Contenau, TCL g, texts 4S, 49; Peiser 1905, 102, 123, 12S, 132, 134, 135, 13S; Sassmannshausen, MUN 464 (Nippur?), 465. Sagarakti-Surias (1245-1233) 163 Dur-Kurigalzu: Gurney 1949, texts 1, 2. 164 Kal!Ju (Nimrud): Wiseman 1953, 14gf., ND. 349S. Nippur: Bernhardt, TMH NF s, texts S,13,15, 22, 23, 27, 51, 52, 64, 73; Biggs and Buccellati 1g6g, text 57; Brinkman 1976, 3S9 f., texts 21, 24; Chi era, PBS S/2, 163; Clay, BE 14, 126-12S, 12Sa, 129-142; id., PBS z/z, 4S-sz, 93; Dalley 1979, text 6o; Hilprecht, BE 1/1, texts 6g, 76; Clayden 2011, 106, text g. Legrain, PBS 13, texts 75, 7S; id., PBS 15, text 59; Sassmannshausen, MUN 5, 15, 17, 27-29, 67, 6S7, 69-71, 105-113, 119, 120, 153, 154, 1S7, ISg-Igi, 221, 273, 274, zSo-zS4,29I,293,295,310,314-321,326-331,356,3S7,396,397 ,399,408412, 451-455; van Soldt 2015, texts 7-9,14,15, 37, 3S, 52, 57, sS, 6g-7S, S3, 84, 105-11S,16I-164,16g-177 1 203-20S, 21S-223, 239-247, 262-267, 267a, 2832S5, zgg-311, 328-330, 357-362, 367-369, 376, 3SS-403, 41S, 419, 444·

Susa: Scheil, 1913, 32, no. 2. 165 Tell Imlihiye: Kessler 1982, texts g, 10, 14, 24, 26, 30. Ur: Gurney, UET 7, texts 14,15, 36, 63, 71; Sollberger, UET S, pl. 24, text 100. Zubeidi: Kessler 1985, 76, text 717. Unknown origin: Contenau, TCL g, texts so, sz-s6; Grayson 19S7, 2SO f., text zS;166 Peiser 1905, Ss, 87, 8g, gg,101,109, ni,116-nS,121, 124, 125, 131, 137,141; Pinches, CT 44, 68; Sassmannshausen, MUN 460, 461, 463; 167 Scheil18g7, 56, text 133; Bohl1934, 49· Kastiliasu 1v (1232-1225) Dur-Kurigalzu: Gurney 1953, texts 4-13,15,16,20-22,26. Nippur: Bernhardt, TMH NF s, texts 11,12,21,24, 70; Brinkman 1976,176, 0.2.4; Clay, BE 14, 143-145; di., PBS 2/2, 53-56; Hilprecht, BE I/1, texts 70-72; 168 Hilprecht, BE I /I, text 79; Clayden 2011,107, text w; Legrain, PBS 15, text 61;

Following Brinkman, Materials, 303, V.2.10.300. For the finds pot, see Brinkman, Materials, 288, V.2.5. Brinkman, Materials, 287f., V.2.3: "(presumably booty from Babylonia)". See the comments in Brinkman, Materials, 289, V.2.8. Accor~ing to Sassmannshausen, Beitrage, texts 460-464 are possibly from Nippur. See Bnnkman, Materials, 176, 0.2.2-3, and 188, 0.5.2; 0.5.2 could be from the reign of

ss.

MIDDLE BABYLONIAN

1085

Sassmannshaus en, MUN 114-117,188, 192, 193?, 194, 285-287, 292, 311, 322?, 334-336,3s8,3 S9,36I,362,37 2,387,388,398 ,4I3,4I4,420,4 56,4S7;van Soldt 2015, texts 59, 119, 120, 178, 179, 224-226, 248, 249, 268, 331-335, 420, 421; McCown e.a. 1978, 73 and 86, text 23. Sus a: Paul us 2014, 357 f. and 360 f. Tell Imlihiye: Kessler 1982, texts 1, 18, 22, 27-29, 31, 34?. Ur: Gurney, UET 7, texts 3, 20, 24?, 25, 27, 31, 48, 62; MBLET text 83. Unknown origin; Peiser 1905, 95?, 97,133, VAT 4920; Walker, CT 51, 36, 37· Tukulti-Ninurt a I (1225) Nip pur: Brinkman 1976, 386, text 13 (only the date). Enlil-nadin-su mi (1224) Zubeidi: Kessler 1985, 77, text 719. Kadasman-ijar be 11 (1223) Nip pur: Brinkman 1976, 382 f., texts 8 and g. Ur: Gurney, UET 7, texts 2 and 34· Unknown origin: Paul us 2014, 296 f., see Kadasman-ljar be 1. Adad-suma-idd ina (1222-1217) Babylon: Paul us 2014, 364f. (or Adad-suma-u~ur). Nippur: van Soldt 2015, 256. Ur: Gurney, UET 7, texts 21, 22?, 23 Unknown origin: Sassmannshaus en, MUN 467. Adad-suma-u~ur (1216-1187) Babylon: Paulus 2014, 364f. (or Adad-suma-idd ina). Nippur: van Soldt 2015, 404. Sus a: Paul us 2014, 366 f., Brinkman 1976, 91, C.2.6. Ur: Figulla, UET s, 259; Gadd, UET 1, text 26o; Gurney, UET 7' texts 8-11, 30, 33, 35, 37, 41,72; MBLET text 73· Unknown origin: Dossin 1962, 151, texts 1 and 2; [Weidner 1959, text 42, and Harper, ABL 924169 ]; Winckler 1887, 19, see Brinkman 1976, 91, C.2.4, and Stein 2000, 166 f. Meli-Sipak (1186-1172) Babylon: Paul us 2014, 402 f.; Weissbach 1903, text 2; Weidner 1952-53, 24. 170 Nippur: van Soldt 2015, 250. Susa: Paulus 2014, 36gf.;171 384f.; 390f.; 416f.; 421f.; 425f.; 76of. (MS/MAI I?); 782f. (MS/MAI 1?). Ur: Gurney, UET 7, texts 18, 47, 70; MBLET text 77· 169 170 171

See n. 55· See Lambert, "Reading", Stein, Konigsinschriften, 148, and Brinkman, Materials, 254f., S.2.3. See also Brinkman, Materials, 247, R.z.z (Mai), and 255, S.z.6 (Ms).

VAN SOLDT

1086

Marduk-apla-iddina I (1171-1159) Baghdad: Paulus 2014, 441f. Dilr-Kurigalzu: Baqir 1945, pl. 22,3 texts; Gurney 1949, text 7· Nip pur: Paulus 2014, 758 f., U 4 (Mai 1?). Sarpol-e Zahab: Paulus 2014, 455 f. (Mai I). Susa: Paulus 2014, 369f.; 430f.; 46of.; 477f.; 76of. (MS/MAI I?); 766f. (Mai I?); 782f. (MS/Mai 1?). Ur: Gurney, UET 7, text 26. Unknown origin: Brinkman 1976, 379 f., text 3; Paul us 2014, 449 f.; 471 f.; 480 f.; 72 Ungnad, vs 1, text 34 (later copy).l Zababa-suma-iddina (1158) No contemporary records. Enlil-nadin-al)i (1157-1155) Ur: Gurney, UET 7, text 67. Unknown origin: Paul us 2014, 485 f.

Appendix 2: Sign Values Arranged Alphabetically, Kastiliasu III-Enlil-nadin -al)i This part lists the first attestations of sign values, in particular eve, that have been discussed in this chapter. The first attestations are often followed by later occurrences. Since the material is drawn from a restricted corpus it is open to revision. The entries with an asterisk refer to signs whose value is already known from earlier texts, in particular from Old Babylonian. Values that are frequently attested in earlier texts are not listed here. Most of the text references can be found in the Reallexikon der Assyriologie. Others are explained in the list of abbreviations after the bibliography. Kudurru inscriptions have the (abbreviated) names in Paulus 2014. NM 0 indicates that the sign value may be of a later date (Mai I).

a* (ID) only in akitu, MUN 400:3 (Kg 11) am* (A.AN) TMH NF 5, 69:10 (BB 11) ana (DIS) CUSAS 30, 256: 5 (Asi) ana (DIS) (a-na in R.5£) MBLET 30:2 (ASu)

172

ba (ES) OIP 97, 86, 23: 8 (Kst IV) bag(?) (IJU), NM 0 2, 11:4 baf* (BAL) BE 14, 2: 23 (BB II) ban (PAN) MUN 302 ii 3 (NM) bat* (BAD) MBLET 63:3, R.7' (ss) be* (BI) BE 14, gga: 32 (KT)

Perhaps from Borsippa or Babylon, see Brinkman, Materials, 247, R.2.1.

MIDDLE BABYLONIAN

bir (BIR) BE I4, Ig: 26 (Kg 11) bit (E) MUN g: 2I' (BB 11) dam (uD) MuN Igi: 6 (ss) dan* (KAL) BE I4,I9: I6 (Kg 11) dar* (DAR) PBS 2/2, I: 3, 5 (BB 11) das (uR) MBLET 79: 2' (KT) das (DIS) KaE I II: 5; MUN 3Sg: I4' (BB 11)

dis (DIS) BE I4, 34: 5 (Kg 11) duf; (GAB) BE I4, I23a: 11 (KuE) dul (DUL) MUN 349: 2 (NM) dum (TUM) MBLET 24:2 (Kst IV) dur* (DUR) KaE I 11: 6f.; TMH NF 5, I6: 4I, passim in Kudur-Enlil (KuE) dur (Ku) KaE I 11: s; NM 0 2, IV: 35; BE I4, 117b: 2,11S: 2 (KuE) gab (GAB) PBS 2/2,4:6 (Kg 11) gal* (GAL) KaE I I: 4; BE I4, I: 4, 3I (BB 11), passim in ku-ri-gal-zu (Kg 11) gal (IG) PBS 2/2, 3: I (Kg 11) gam ( GAM) BE I4, I23a: I2 (KuE) gar ( GAR) TMH NF 5, 6S: 37', PBS 2/2, I: 2 S (BB 11) garak (KARA) TMH NF 5, IS: Ig' and passim in Sagarakti-Surias (ss) garak5 (NiG) BE I4,I4o: s (ss) gas (BI) BE I4, I2: IO (Kg 11) gfl (LAGAB) PBS 2/2, g: IS (Kg 11) gim* (GIM) BE I4, 22:22,29:4 (Kg 11) gis CUSAS 30, Ss: 5 (KaE 11) gu* (TIK) BE I4, I43: 5 (Kst IV) gub (DU) BE I4, Sg: I2 (KT) f;al* (IjAL) BE I4, 2: I7 (BB 11) l;ap (LAGAB) MUN 72: I2 (Kg 11) f;w; (TAR) BE I4, I43: 5 (Kst IV) /;as (TAR) BE I4, 4I: 3 (NM) /;at (PA) BE I4, I2: 42, 46 (Kg 11) l;ir* (siR) ScheiliSg7, text 266: 7 (BB 11); Ku I, 1: 20 (Kg 11) /;fr* (!jAR) PBS 2/2, 22: I (NM) 1

1087

f;ul (IjUL) MUN 366: 3 (Kg 11) /;up* (IjUB) MUN go: Ig' (Kg 11) ia (1A) MUN 456: 3, MBLET 27 R.7 (Kst IV) ia 4 (NA4 ) TMH NF 5, 36: I (Kg 11) i/eri* (URU) Ni. 437: IO (KaE I); TMH NF 5, 65: 2S (BB 11) kab* (KAB) PBS 2/2,27: IO (NM) kad (GAD) MUN 446: S (KT) kal* (GAL) CUSAS 30, 3S5: S (KuE) kam* (KAM) BE I4, I2: 3, Cf.I7, 29 (Kg 11) kan (KAN) MUN 2I3: 7, 247: 2 (KuE) kan* ( G.AN) JNEs 4I, 207: 39; A. IggS: 39 (KT) kar*MUN 54: I (Kg 11) kara (KAR) TMH NF 5, 66: 27 (BB 11); KUB 3, 7I: 4 (KT) kas (BI) TMH NF 5, 6S: I4' (BB 11) kw; (GAZ) CUSAS 30, I72: 11 (ss) kat (KAD) MBLET 25 R.IS (Kst IV) kat (KAD) MBLET 25:7 (Kst IV) kat4 (KAD4 ) MS I, 111: 29 kib (KIB) MUN 367 R.2 (Kg 11) kil (LAGAB) PBS 2/2,I3: 36 (Kg 11) kin BE I4, 55:4 (NM) kip (KIB) Sumer g, 26: IO (Kst IV) kis (KIS) BE I4, 4I: Ig (NM) kit (KID) BE I4, IO: 17 (Kg 11) kul (NUMUN) UDBD I3I: 6 (ss) kun (KUN) BE I4, I2: 6 (Kg 11) kuns * (M.As) BE I4, sS: 26, MUN 434: 6 (NM)

kur ( G UR) BE I4, 7: 2I (BB 11) kut (TAR) MUN 4I6: 3, 5 (NM) lag (SID) MUN 270:6 (BB 11) la!;* (Luti) BE I4,Ios: 4 (KT); Ms I, v: 47 lak (SID) PBS 2/2, 34: 6 (NM), lmlihiye Io: Io (ss)

,,

I

VAN SOLDT 1088

/am* (LAM) PBS 2/2,1: 4; EA 10:17 (BB II)

fat (KUR) UDBD 135:19 (KuE) /et (LID) MSKH g: 383:2 (KIJ II) f[b (KA.L) BE 14, g: 3, 10 (BB 11) lib (LUtJ) PBS 2/2,18 R.12' (Kg 11)

mur* (tJAR) MUN go: 17' (Kg II) muru (MURU) BE 14, 41: 18 (NM)

(only in king's name) mus* (MUS) TMH NF 5, 68: 32' (BB II)

mut (MUD) CUSAS 30,261: 21f.

lif (LIL) PBS 13, So: 8f. (NM) f[f* (KID) BE 14,19: 26 (Kg II),

muq (MUG) PBS 2/2, 28a: 5 (NM}

cf. OB:

JCS 26, 1974,170:11.

lip (LUL) MS 1, v: 16 f[p TMH NF 5, 37:1 (NM}

(KuE)

na (AG) BE 14, 41a: 14 (NM} nap (NAB) BE 14,10 R.g' (Kg n) nat (KUR) MUN 112 iii 24' (ss)

liq* (uR) BE 14,38:10 (Kg II) lit (LID) BE 14,126:2 (ss)

ne* (NE) MUN 387: 7 (Kst IV} nes (MAN) BE 14, 19:2 (Kg II)

lit (LID) Iraq 11,8 R.2o' (BB n/

nfg (NIG) BE 14, ga: 1 (BB II}

Kg n?)

Lit (LID) MUN 78:4 (NM} fud (DUG) CUSAS 30, 2g6: 15 (KuE) fuf (NAR) TMH NF 5, 68: 12' (BB II)

nik (NIG) BE 14,10:5, niq ibid.15

(Kg n) nfk (NIG) TMH NF 5,1g: 4 (NM} nin* (NIN) MBLET 79: 4' (KT}

Lut (DuG) PBS 2/2,24:7 (NM}

nun*MBLET 51:1, R.4 (KT}

mad* PBS 2/2, 32:3 (NM} malj* (MAtJ) PBS 2/2, 4:2, 7: 1

pag (tJU) CUSAS 30,383: 2f. (KuE)

(Kg n) man (MAN) MUN 389: 14',423: 2 (BB n), Kirbasi: 8 (NM} mar* (MAR) MUN 403:10 (BB II)

pal (BAL) MS 1, v: 16

pak (tJU) CUSAS 30, 250: 10 (MS) pap (PAP) MUN 294:3 (NM}

paq (tJU) MUN 67:18 (ss) par (uD) MUN 92:14 (Kg I}

ma1* PBS 2/2, 7: 7 (Kg n) mat* (KUR) BE 14,12:12 (Kg 11)

pat (PAD) MS 1, VI: 46

mid (BAD) BE 14, 16:3, 11 (Kg 11) mil* (Is) CUSAS 30, 382:21 (KuE)

pes* ( GIR) CUSAS 3 o, 10 7:18 (ss)

mim (SAL) MS 1, II: so m£n (MAN) BE 14,12: 6,18 (Kg 11)

per (BIR) PBS 2/2, 93:3 (ss) pet (E) CT 51,37:8 (not certain) (Kst IV)

pi!* (NE) BE 14,10:14 (Kg II}

m£n (MAN) PBS 2/2, 24:7 (NM} mir* (MIR) MUN 103: 6 (KaE 11) m[s (MES) Mai I 1, VI: 16

pir* (UD) BE 14, 88: 8, 101: 15 (KT)

mit (BAD) A.1gg8: 8,12 (KT)

pu

mub (uGu) BE 14,12:16 (Kg n) muk (MUG) NM 0 2, I: 12; CUSAS 30,

qa* (QA) EA 4: 13 (KaE I); BE 17, 92:5

325:4,387:8 (KuE) mu/* (MUL) TMH NF 5, 68: 8' (BB 11) mun (MUN) CUSAS 30, 404: 6 (Asu)

pir (PiR) Sumer g, 15:3 (Kst IV} pis* (GIR) CUSAS 30,86:9 (KaE 11)

(TuL) Ms 1, v: 12 (BB 11); MUN 271 iii 18; MUN 350: 1; MBLET 76 R.6 (NM}

qab (GAB) MUN 102:7 (KT}; MSKH no. g: 20 (KIJ n)

MIDDLE BABYLONIAN

qaf*TMH NF 5, 37:7 {NM) qap (GAB) MUN 416:34 {NM) qaq (KAK) NM 0 2, Ill: 9 qar* (QAR) EAIO: 17 (BB II); MUN S2: 4 {NM); KuE-Ru 1 R.1o

1089

rib (KAL) MUN 36: 3 (Kg II) rid (MES) Mai I 1, VI: 16 rik (SIM) TMH NF 5,17:6 (KuE) ris (SAG) MUN 56:12 (Kg 11) ruk (SUN) TMH NF 5, S: 25f. (ss)

qat (su) BE 14, 1S: 4 (Kg n) qe (KIN) EA 11 R.32 (BB II) qer* (GIR) MUN 11S: 6,10 {NM)

sag* (SAG) PBS 2/2,5:4 (Kg II) sa/; TMH NF 5, 66: 30 (BB II); NM 2, I:

qer (LAGAB) BE 14,99:65, 99a: 32

sak* (SAG) PBS 2/2,56:2 (Kst IV) sar (SAR) BE 14, 97: 7, CUSAS 30, 19S:

(KT) q{* (KI) BE 14, 2: 15 (BB II); MUN 14S: 22' (KT); TMH NF 5, 20: 2 (KaE), and passim.

qin (KIN) TMH NF 5, 69: 14 (BB n); Iraq 11, S: 1, 5f. (BB n/Kg n?); Mai I 1, IV: 9

qis (KIS) BE 14, 34: 5 (Kg II) qid (KID) Iraq 11, 2: 12 (ss)

qit (KID) CUSAS 30,261:16,23 (KuE) qu* (KUM) EA 6: 14,16; EA 7:54 and passim Babylon (BB n); BE 14, 10 R.7', PBS 2/2, 17: 5, MUN S6: 22' (Kg n); MUN 271 iv: 4 {NM); BE 14, 99: 36 (KT); MUN 249: 6 (KaE n); TMH NF 5,16: 2S, BE 14, 117a: 4, 11S: 27 (KuE) qu[ (NUM UN) BE 14, 143: 3 (Kst IV) qur* (GUR) MUN So: 4 {NM)

qur* (KUR) CUSAS 30, 11S: 3 (ss) qut (TAR) PBS 13, So: 9-10 {NM) rab (RAB) BE 14, 114: 6 (KT) rad (RAD) TMH NF 5, 67:16,30 (BB II) rag (SAL) PBS S/2,159: 13 (KT) raf; (LUIJ) 95: 10, 111: 4 (ss) rak (sAL) CUSAS 30,296:14 (KuE); passim in Sagarakti-Surias rap (RAB) BE 14, 22:15 (Kg n)

rat (RAD) CT 51,26:4, 6 {NM); MUN 107: 21' (ss)

12

4 (KT)

sar6 (zAR) TMH NF 5, 31:1, 5 (KT) sat (KUR) BE 14, 34:14 (Kg n); Imlihiye 24: 2, R.6 (ss)

sik (si G) MUN 6:14 (BB n); MS 1,11: 23

si[ (TAR) MUN 195: 5 (BB II) sim (NAM) MS 1, 1: 23 siq (SIG) CUSAS 30,365:9 (KaE II) sir (SUD) BE 14, 132 R.2o', 24' (ss); Sumer 9, 16: 20 (Kst IV) sfr (Bu) BE 14, 131: 1, 17 (ss); Sumer 9, 9 :2 (Kst IV) su/; 4 (KID) CUSAS 30, S6: 9 (KaE II)

$ab (ERIM) MBLET S R.13. (Asu) $al (NI) TMH NF 5,16:26 (KuE) $ar* (ZAR) TMH NF 5,13: 17 (ss) $C* (~1) BE 14, 117a: 1 (KuE) $i* (~1) EA 3:17 (KaE I); BE 14,2:11, 14; EA 12: 15 (BB II) si/; (SAIJ) TMH NF 5, 3S: 16 (KaE n) s[r (Bu) Sumer 9, 9:2,15:1 (Kst IV) $if (NUN) BE 14,123: 3f. (KuE) $[[* (MI) MUN 417: 16 (in $il-Li) (BB II) $er* (Mus) BE 14, 120 ii 2 (KuE) $ir* (MUS) BE 14, 7: 10 (BB n) $U* (zuM) EA 3: 7, 40 (KaE I); Iraq 11, S: 25 (BB n/Kg n?); Ku 1, I: 20 (Kg n); KUB 3, 71: 10 (KT);

VAN SOLDT

1090

BE 14, n8: 26;173 CUSAS 30, 385:

4 R.6, 78: 7; UDBD 138 5; MBLET 9 R.10' (KuE) $U*MUN 202:6 (KT) sa* (NfG) MUN 8: 20' (BB yr. 7+ ), 404: 4 (BB 11); BE 14,10:18 (Kg 11 yr.1); BE 14, 91a: 29 a.o. (KT)

sa* BE 14,129:14 (ss); Kabnak 1:1. sab (SAB) BE 14,17:5,12 (Kg 11) sad* (KUR) MS 1, v: 12 sak (SAG) PBS 1/2, 6o: 5' (BB 11) sal* (SAL) MUN 9: 20' (BB 11) sam * (U) BE 14, 16: 7; Ku 1, I: 20 (Kg n) sap (SAB) TMH NF 5, 39:5 (BB 11); Ku 1, I: 20 (Kg n) sdr* (sAR) UDBD 131:4, 13 (ss) sat* (KUR) BE 14,19: 8 (Kg 11) sem (SIM) CUSAS 30, 82:13 (KuE)

ser (siR) CUSAS 30, 8: 13 (ss) sib (ME) Ku 1, I: 23 (Kg n); CUSAS 30, 178: 5 (Kst IV) sid (SID) BE 14,112:18 (KT)

sik (SIG) BE 14,139:2 (ss) sif (TAR) BE 14, 19 : 6 9 , MUN 86: 23' (Kg n) sim (SIM) TMH NF 5, 68: 35' (BB 11) sip (ME) TMH NF 5, 69:3 (BB 11) sir BE 14, 103:4, MUN 3:17 (KT)

sir (siR) MUN 54: 6 (Kg II) sit (siD) CUSAS 30, 99: 3 (KuE) su* (su) BE 14, 10: 7, and passim (Kg n); PBS 8/2, 159: 21 (KT), and passim sub (Ru) MUN 89 iv 8', 15' (Kg n) sul (SUL) MUN 416: 22f. {NM)

1 73

sum (suM) MS 1, v: 13 sur* PBS 2/2, 13: 46, MUN 92: 10 (Kg n)

tab* (TAB) KaE I II: 8; EA 8:21 (BB II) tal;* (DAIJ) MUN 195: 5 (BB II) tak (TAG) TMH NF 5, 68: 8' (BB 11) tal* (RI) TCL 9, 48:12-13 (KuE)

tal* (PI) PBS 2/2, 26: 2 {NM); MS 1, V: 56

tap* (TAB) PBS 1/2, 6o: 13' (BB 11) taq (TAG) MUN 10: 21 (KuE) tas (UR) BE 14, 41: 18 {NM) te 9 (TI) Ku 1, I: 17 (Kg n) te[* (BAD) BE 14, 10: 4 (Kg 11)

ten (DIN) Mai I 1, VI: 23 ter (TIR) MSKH no. 9: 8 (KIJ 11) tes (uR) Ms 1, v: 9 tin (DIN) MUN 107: 5 (ss)

tir* (TIR) TMH NF 5, 69: 7, MUN 9: 24' (BB II) tub* (DUB) MUN 93:9 (Kg 11) tu/;* (GAB) BE 14,140:1 (ss) tuk (TUK) MUN 89 iv 5' (Kg 11) tukul* (KU) BE 14, 44: 6, 81: 9 {NM) tup (DUB) MUN 459:1. (KuE) tur* (TUR) CT 51, 26: 4 {NM); CUSAS 30, 87: 5 (KaE 11) tUr* (DuR) passim in KadasmanTurgu (KT)

tur7 (Ku) BE 14, 95: 15 a.o. (KT) ta* (TA) MUN 415: 2 (KaE 11) tab* (TAB) BE 14,44: 7; TCL 9, 47:5 {NM)

te (NE) A. 1998: 18 (KT); MUN 315: 21 (ss)

te/ (TE) BE 14, 107: 4

(KT)

Perhaps also $U,1in TMH NF s, 18:30 (KuE) ('$u'1-{zur1-tunz 1 ), compare cusAs 30, 281: g,

MIDDLE BABYLONIAN

1091

te 5 (o:E) TCL g, 53: g (ss)

{NM}; MUN 109: g, 23, MBLET 36

tu (TU) Ku 1, I: 18 (Kg I/II); MUN 395: 5 (KT); MUN 396: 6 (ss); MBLET

R.5 (ss); CUSAS 30, 256: 27 (Asi)

47= 8 (Ms) tu* (Tu) Kst Ill; EA 4: 46 (KaE I}; MUN 415: 6

(KaE 11); MS 1, IV: 10,

zib (ZIB) MUN 4: 2; MBLET 1 R.10 (KaE n); Mai I 1, 11: 8 z[b (ZIK) MUN 134:13 (Kg 11) zib (cuo) 174 PBS 2/2,17:3 (Kg n) ziq (ziG) TMH NF 5, 39:1 (BB 11); Iraq

42

tu* (ou)

'u 5 (IJU) BagM Ill: 7' (BB I?) ub (sE) BE 14,1:5 (BB II} zak* (ZAG) BE 14,12:25 (Kg 11) za[* (NI) BE 14, 126: 11 (ss)

MUN 398: 1 (Kst IV);

MBLET 2: 22 (KIJ 11); Mai I 1, VI:

18

tu!; (GAB) MS 1, v: 18 tur (TUR) NM 0 2, V: 4 u* (U) MUN 57:3 (Kg n); BE 14, 57:18

11,

4: 41 (KT)

Bibliography175 Abraham, Kathleen, and Uri Gab bay. "Kastiliasu and the Sumundar Canal: A New Babylonian Royal Inscription." Zeitschriftfilr Assyriologie 103 (2013): 183-95. Alster, Bendt. Proverbs ofAncient Sumer, Vol. 1. Bethesda: CDL Press, 1997 Alster, Bendt. Wisdom ofAncient Sumer. Bethesda: CDL Press, zoos. Alster, Bendt. Sumerian Proverbs in the Scheyen Collection. Bethesda: CDL Press, 2007. Al-Ubaid, I. Jamil. "Unpublished Cuneiform Texts from Old Babylonian Period Diyala Region, Tell Muhammad." Diss. M.A. Degre, University of Baghdad, 1983. Andre, Beatrice. "The Written Documents (Early Dilmun period to Tylos period)." In Bahrain National Museum-Archaeological Collections: A Selection of Pre-Islamic Antiquities, edited by Pierre Lombard, and Monique Kervran, 167-75. Bahrain: Directorate of Museum and Heritage, 1989. Andre-Salvini, Beatrice. "Les tablettes cuneiformes de Qal'at al-Bahre'in." In Bahrern. La

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kirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1973. Labat, Rem~. "Un calendrier cassite." Sumer 8 (1952): 17-36. Lambert, Wilfred G. "Divine Love Lyrics from the reign of Abi-Esul)." Mitteilungen des Instituts for Orientforschung 12 (1966-1967 ): 41-56. Lambert, Wilfred G. "The Reading of the God Name dKA.D 1." Zeitschrift for Assyriologie 59 (1g6g): 100-3.

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Near Eastern Studies 8 (1949 ): 273-97 · Leemans, W.F. "Un texte de l'epoque cassite." Revue d'assyriologie 6o (1966): 75-76. Levy, S.J. "A Small Text." Sumer 4 (1948): 132-33. Limet, Henri. Les tegendes des sceaux cassites. Bruxelles: Academie Royale de Belgique, 1971.

Limet, Henri. "Quatre sceaux-cylindres 'cassites'." Archiv for Orientforschung 26 (1978): 96-8.

Llop, Jaume, and Andrew R. George. "Die babylonisch-assyrischen Beziehungen und die innere Lage Assyriens in der Zeit der Auseinandersetzung zwischen Ninurtatukulti-Assur und Mutakkil-Nusku nach neuen keilschriftlichen Quell en." Archivfor

Orientforschung 48-49 (zo01-2002): 1-23. Margueron, Jean-Claude. "Deux Kudurru de Larsa:

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d'assyriologie 66 (1972): 147-61. Matous, Lubor. "L' Almanach de Bakr-Awa." Sumer 17 (1961): n-66. Matthews, Donald M. The Kassite Glyptic ofNippur. Freiburg Schweiz: Universitatsverlag I Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1992. Mayer, Werner R. "Eine babylonische Weihgabe in Malta." Orientalia So (2011): 141-53. McCown, D.E., R.C. Haines, R.D. Biggs, and E. F. Carter. Nip pur I I. The North Temple and

the Sounding E. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1978. Meinhold, Wiebke. http://www.assur.de/Themen/Bakr_Awa/bakr_awa.html Michalowski, Piotr. "Literature as a Source of Lexical Inspiration: Some Notes on a Hymn to the Goddess lnana." In Written on Clay and Stone. Ancient Near Eastern

Studies Presented to Krystyna Szarzynska on the Occasion ofHer Both Birthday, edited by J. Braun, K. Lyczkowska, M. Popko, and P. Steinkeller, 65-74. Warsaw: Agade, 1998.

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Moorey, Peter R.S., and Oliver R. Gurney. "Ancient Near Eastern Cylinder Seals Acquired by the Ashmolean, Oxford 1963-1973." Iraq 40 (1978): 41-60. Mustafa, Mohammed A. "Kassite Figurines. A new group discovered near 'Aqar Quf."

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Nayeem, Muhamme d Abdul. Bahrain, Prehistory and Protohistory of the Arabian Peninsula, vol. 2. Hyderabad: Hyderabad Publishers, 1992. Neugebauer, Otto. Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte der Mathematik, Astronomie und Physik, Abteilung B: Studien, Band 3· Berlin: Springer, 1936. Nougayrol, Jean. "Deux legendes de sceaux cassites." Revue d'assyriologie 6o (1966): 171. Olijdam, Eric. "Nippur and Dilmun in the second half of the fourteenth century BC: a re-evaluatio n of the Ill-ippasra letters." In Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, Vol. 27, edited by N.S. Reade andJ. Picton, 199-203. Turnhout: Brepols, 1997· Oppenheim , A. Leo. "Mesopota mia in the early history of alchemy." Revue d' assyriologie 6o (1966): 29-45. Paulus, Susanne. Die babylonischen Kudurru-Inschriften von der kassitischen his zur frilhneubabylonischen Zeit. Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2014. Pedersen, Olof. Archiven und Bibliotheken in Babylon. Die Tontafeln der Grabung Robert

Koldeweys 1899-1917. Berlin: Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft, zoos. Peiser, Felix Ernst. Urkunden aus der Zeit der dritten babylonischen Dynastie. Berlin: W. Peiser Verlag, 1905. Peterson,Je remiah. "Sumerian Literary Fragments in the University Museum, Philadelphia Ill." Ugarit-Forschungen 42 (2010 ): 573-612. Petschow, Herbert P.H. Mittelbabylonische Rechts- und Wirtschaftsurkunden der Hilprecht-Samm lungjena. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1974. Potts, Daniel T. The Arabian Gulf in Antiquity 1: from prehistory to the fall of the Achaemenid Empire. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990. Rainey, Anson F. The Tell-Amama Correspondence. A New Edition of the Cuneifonn Letters from the Site of El-Amama Based on Collations of all Extant Tablets. Leiden-

Boston: Brill, 2015. Reiner, Erica. "New Cases ofMorphop honemic Spellings." Orientalia 42 (1973): 35-8. Richter, Thomas. "Ein neuer akkadische r Lautwert." Nouvelles Assyriologiques Breves et Utilitaires (1992): 6-7. Rutz, Matthew T. "Threads for Esagil-kin-apli. The Medical Diagnostic-Prognostic Series in Middle Babylonian Nippur." Zeitschriftfilr Assyriologie 101 (zou): 294-308. Salles, Jean-Fran) *tūˀirtum, but the multiinterpretable spelling tí(-i)-ir-tum can best be explained from a Babyloniantype of vowel contraction to tîrtum or têrtum.63 The word for ‘son’ occurs in two forms in oa: the regular form merˀum (< ps *marˀum) and a less frequent form spelled ma-rV (-…), which is reminiscent of Bab mārum. The most straightforward way of explaining its use alongside merˀum is to assume that it is borrowed from Bab. A similar case may be the coexistence of šāp(ā)tum and šīpātum ‘wool’: the latter is the Bab form and may have been adopted in oa as a loan word (cf. section 4.2 sub F5). 3.2.5 Foreign Words of Unknown Provenance A large group of non-native words in Old Assyrian is of unknown provenance, partly due to our lack of knowledge of most neighbouring languages of the period and before, and partly because the vocabulary of trade tends to be “international” and thus to contain relatively many words of non-native origin whose provenance is unknown. Some of these can be assumed to be ‘Wanderwörter’, 63

Leonid Kogan, “Old Assyrian vs. Old Babylonian: the Lexical Dimension,” in The Akkadian Language in its Semitic Context, ed. G. Deutscher and N.J.C. Kouwenberg (Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2006), 212–13, has pointed to a number of oa words which do not occur in Bab but have parallels in West Semitic, such as adrum ‘threshing floor’, ārum ‘hide’, ḫarpum ‘harvest’, ḫuzīrum, ‘pig’, kēna ‘yes’, erubbātum ‘pledge’, makārum ‘to trade’, perdum (an equid), panā′um ‘to turn to’, epattum (a costly garment), kumrum ‘a priest’, and zurzum ‘double pack sack made of goat hair’. However, as Kogan observes, it is difficult to prove that oa borrowed these words from West Semitic: several other scenarios are equally possible.

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words which spread from one place and language to another along with the product they refer to. Typical ‘Wanderwörter’ in Old Assyrian are kutānum (a kind of textile), the metals annăkum ‘tin’, parzillum ‘iron’, and siparrum ‘bronze’, the spices kamūnum ‘cumin’, azapūrum ‘saffron’ (a-za-pu-ru akt 6A, 144: 28), and other traded commodities such as lur(u)mātum ‘pomegranates’, and sisium ‘horse’.

4

Old Assyrian as Part of Akkadian

4.1 The Dialects of Akkadian Apart from Ass, the following Akk dialects are customarily distinguished:64 – the third-millennium dialect of Mari and Tell Beydar, here termed ‘Mari OAkk’ – PSAkk, which is mainly known from personal names contained in Sumerian texts from the period preceding the Sargonic empire (ca. 2600–2350 bce) – SAkk, attested in texts from the Sargonic empire (ca. 2350–2170) – Bab, of which the earliest stage is Ur iii Bab, attested in the few extant Akk texts from the Ur iii period (ca. 2110–2000), followed by Archaic Bab in the Isin-Larsa period (ca. 2000–1900) and the Bab of the time of the First Dynasty of Babylon (ca. 1900–1600), which is generally regarded as the classical form of Bab (and of Akk as a whole). Together with oa, these dialects derive from a common ancestor, Proto-Akk. According to the most widely held view, PAkk and Eblaite constitute the East Semitic branch of Proto-Semitic, whereas all other Semitic languages comprise the West Semitic branch. Since the third-millennium dialects are poorly documented, some of them even very poorly (especially Mari OAkk and PSAkk), so that we have no information on many of their grammatical features, the best approach is to take ‘Classical’ ob as the basis for a comparison with oa and to adduce the other dialects only if pertinent evidence is available. 4.2 The Main Distinctive Features of Old Assyrian The following list enumerates the most salient features in which oa contrasts with other dialects, primarily with ob, but other dialects will be included occasionally, in particular SAkk.65 The list does not pretend to be exhaustive but covers most of the grammar and aspects of the lexicon such as differences in 64 65

For details, see chapters 6 and 7 of this volume. The main grammatical tools for oa are Karl Hecker, Grammatik der Kültepe-Texte (Roma:

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pattern between nouns and differences between prepositions and particles. In sections 4.3 to 4.5, they will be used as the basis for a discussion of the position of oa within Akk and East Semitic. References to specific features are only given if necessary.66 A) Phonological features: A1. Vowel assimilation: a short ă in a penultimate syllable assimilates to the vowel in the next syllable, e.g. Sg Nom karpŭtum ‘clay pot’, Gen karpĕtem, Acc karpătam: ≠ Bab karpătum, karpătim, karpătam; išakkŭnū ‘they will place’ ≠ Bab išakkănū (only Ass) A2. Syncope of ă before r in zakrum ‘man, male’, eprum ‘dust’, šikrum ‘beer’, išrum ‘right, just’, ešrat ‘ten’, etc.: ≠ Bab zikărum, epĕrum, šikărum, išărum, ešĕret, etc. If SAkk a-ša-rí-su (rime 2, 12, E2.1.1.1: 98 and elsewhere) ‘its places’ from ašrum ‘place’ belongs here, SAkk ≈ Bab A3. ps *ˤ and *ˀ merge into ˀ, ps *ḥ and *h > ø or a glide:67 ≠ Bab, where all gutturals > ø; in SAkk, this change is incipient (sa, 119–20) A4. Adjacent a > e after loss of *ˤ and ḥ (*ˀalaqqaḥ > alaqqe): ≠ Bab (eleqqe ‘I will take’) (incipient in SAkk, no a > e attested in Mari OAkk) A5. ps *ḥ/ˤi- > *(ˀ)e- (emārum ‘donkey’, eṣum ‘wood’): ≠ Bab (imērum, iṣum); SAkk unknown A6. i > e before r (uta′′er ‘he gave back’ vs. uka′′il ‘he held’): ≈ Bab and in SAkk letters (sa, 42 and 119) but ≠ SAkk royal inscriptions (sa, 108), so perhaps incipient A7. *ay > ē (ēnum ‘eye’ < *ˤayn-, bētum < *bayt-): ≈ SAkk and Mari OAkk (šēbum ‘witness’),68 ≠ Bab īnum, bītum A8. wa- > u- (urdum < wardum ‘slave’), incipient in oa, complete in ma: ≠ Bab and SAkk A9. -š+š- > -šš- in nouns and verbs plus third person suffix pronouns (lubūššu ‘his garment’, ēriššu ‘I asked him’): ≠ Bab and SAkk, which have -ss- (sa, 144) A10. a > e before r (optional) (mer′um ‘son’ < *mar′um, ka/erānum ‘wine’): sporadic in Bab (gag §9b), ≠ SAkk.

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Pontificium Institutum Biblicum, 1968) and N.J.C. Kouwenberg, A Grammar of Old Assyrian (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2017). See also Kouwenberg, Introduction to Old Assyrian. For the more detailed information about various statements made in this section, see the chapter on Historical Morphology of this volume. The signs ≈ and ≠ indicate that the dialect mentioned agrees and disagrees, respectively, with the pertinent oa feature. See Kouwenberg, “Proto-Semitic Gutturals.” Cf. šè-bu-šu ‘his witnesses’ (mari 1, 80: 20) from šēbum vs. versus ší-mì-šu ‘its price’ (ibid. 7) from šīmum.

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B) Morphological and morphosyntactic features in pronouns: B1. The third person Sg independent subject pronouns šūt and šīt: ≠ šū, šī in ob and SAkk (/sū/, see sa, 148 with n. 7), presumably an Ass innovation69 B2. Dat -ti: ≠ Bab and SAkk -šim in the independent and suffix pronouns, an innovation, cf. Eblaite -ši(m) B3. 1s Acc -ī alongside -anni (iṣbitī and iṣbatanni, ‘he seized me’): ≠ Bab and SAkk70 B4. Acc -kunu, -šunu, etc.: ≠ Bab -kunūti, -šunūti, etc., of which the latter is an innovation incipient in SAkk, which shows both forms (sa, 157) B5. Loss of the dual pronouns: ≈ ob, still preserved in SAkk and Archaic Bab B6. Demonstrative pronouns based on amm-/all- for second and third person deixis: ≠ Bab anVmm- and ull-, of which at least anVmm- is an innovation because of Ebl amm-;71 SAkk unknown B7. Loss of case, gender and number distinctions in the determinative/relative particle ša: ≈ Bab, but ≠ SAkk and Mari OAkk. C) Morphological and morphosyntactic features in nouns and adjectives (see under F for differences in vowel pattern): C1. Acc Pl Masc -ē (predominantly): ≈ SAkk ≠ Bab -ī C2. Construct state PiRaS and PuRaS, e.g., uzan from uznum ‘ear’ and šipar from šiprum ‘messenger’: ≠ Bab (uzun and šipir). However, other PiRS and PuRS nouns have the same construct state form as in Bab, e.g. šulum ‘well-being’ from šulmum and ṣibit ‘seizing’ from ṣibtum. SAkk evidence is equivocal72 C3. Construct state of nouns in the Gen has -ø (ina bēt awīlim), except in fossilized phrases (in(ū)mi, ina šamši ‘on the day that, when’, etc.): ≈ Bab ≈ Mari OAkk (in ì-rí-iš pn ‘on pn’s field’ mari 1, 80: 1), but ≠ SAkk -i (sa, 183) C4. Suffix -uttum: ≠ Bab and SAkk -ūtum (SAkk sar-ru₉(uru)-su ‘his kingship’ rime 2, 99, E2.1.4.3: vi 37).

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The situation is complicated by the occurrence of šūt in Archaic Bab (Whiting, Old Babylonian Letters, 17–18 and 75–76). Šū/šī recurs in ws, so it is plausible that Ass has innovated here, but the source of the new forms is unclear. The 1s Acc -ī looks like an oa innovation, but reflexes of -ī also occur in Modern South Arabian and in Afroasiatic (Tuareg -i/-iyi), see chapter 7, section 5.2.1, of this volume. Amalia Catagnoti, La Grammatica della lingua di Ebla (Firenze: Università di Firenze, 2012), 84. A very early Bab instance of PiRaS may be the royal name Ni-wa-ar-Me-er (rime 2, 234, E2.3.4.1: 1), the name of a ruler of Mari in the Sargonic period which in later texts appears as Nūr-Mer from nūrum (dialectally also nīrum) ‘light’, see Jean-Marie Durand, “La situation historique des šakkanakku: nouvelle approche,” mari 4 (1985): 147–72, esp. 164.

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D) Morphological features of the strong verbs: D1. The 3sf prefix ta-: ≈ SAkk (sa, 195, 197) but ≠ Bab, which largely replaces ta- with the corresponding Masc form iD2. Subj -ni for subordination: ≠ Bab (but -ni is found occasionally in SAkk and alongside -na in Archaic Bab) D3. A different precative conjugation: (G-stem 1s laprus, 3sm. liprus; D-stem 1s luparris, 3sm luparris, vs. Bab luprus, liprus, luparris, liparris; 1p. lu niprus vs. Bab i niprus ≠ SAkk and Bab, as far as we know). It is likely that both oa and SAkk/Bab have innovated, and that the precative got its historical form only after the split between Ass and Bab D4. 1p and 3sf Prec lu: ≠ Bab i (i nillik ‘let us go!’, i tallik ‘let her go’ (the latter archaic and literary); no pertinent forms are attested for SAkk. Ass lu is presumably an innovation through levelling as compared to Bab i, which has no obvious source and is therefore likely to be more original D5. Vetitive ē in all forms: ≠ ay/ē in Bab and SAkk D6. Stat 2sm -āt(i), 2sf -āti (or -ātī?), 1p -āni, 2pf -ātini: ≠ Bab 2sm -āt(a) (but archaic also -āti), 1p -ānu and 2pf -ātina. SAkk unknown, except the noncommittal 2sm lu tu-mu-at ‘be adjured!’ (sab, 53: 10) D7. Stat 3sm with the pattern PaRaS in balaṭ from balāṭum ‘to live’, ḫalaq from ḫalāqum ‘to be lost, to disappear’, ḫašaḫ from ḫašāḫum ‘to need, to want’, na′al from na′ālum ‘to lie down’, and wašab from wašābum ‘to sit down, to stay’: ≠ PaRiS in Bab; SAkk unknown D8. PaRRvS and šaPRvS in the non-prefix forms of the D- and the Š-stems: ≈ Mari OAkk ≠ SAkk and Bab PuRRvS and šuPRvS. The latter forms are an innovation, see avsb, 269–71 D9. PitaRS- in the non-prefix forms of the Gt-stem: ≈ SAkk ≠ Bab PitRvS. The latter form is an innovation, see avsb, 358–59 D10. The generalization of i in the N-stem Pret of the strong verb: 3sm iššikin, 3pm iššiknū ‘he/they were placed’ ≠ Bab iššakin, iššaknū (SAkk: no data but doubtless ≈ Bab). E) Morphological features of weak verbs: E1. In the I/voc verbs, the prefix of the 3sm and the 3p is usually ē-: ēmur: ≠ Bab īmur; SAkk shows both forms E2. In the I/w verbs, the Š-stem always has e after š: Pret ušēbil, ušēṣi, Pres ušebbal, ušeṣṣa: ≠ Bab, which uses both ā (ušābil) and ē (ušēṣi), and ≠ SAkk, which shows ū (ušūbil < *aw), ē (ušēbil) and very rarely ā (ušābil) (sa, 224–25) E3. The N-stem Pret of I/voc verbs is innāmer, Pl innāmerū ‘he/they were seen’, Inf nāmurum: ≠ Bab innămer, innamrū, nanmurum; SAkk unknown. The Bab forms are an innovation (avsb, 550–54)

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E4. The introduction of a in the endingless forms of the t-Perf of the ii/voc verbs: imtuat ‘he has died’, iqtiap ‘he has entrusted’: ≠ Bab imtūt and iqtīp. The oa forms are an innovation by analogy with a in the present, see avsb, 139. SAkk unknown, unless the form ir₁₁-ti-ab quoted in mad 3, 229 in broken context belongs here E5. The D-stem Pret ukaˀˀil, ukaˀˀilū (or ukayyil, ukayyilū?) and strong forms in the whole conjugation except the Pres ukâl (? or ukaˀˀal or ukayyal?), ukallū: ≠ SAkk and Bab ukên (< *ukayyin?), ukīn) E6. The Š-stem of the ii/voc verbs has a Pres ušbīat from biātum ‘to spend the night, to rest’ vs. Bab ušbāt (SAkk unknown) E7. The N-stem Pret of ii/ˀ verbs preserves the original strong form: išši′im, Pl iššīmū < *išša′im, *išša′mū with vowel assimilation: ≠ Bab iššām ‘it was bought’, Pl iššāmū, apparently remodelled on the basis of the G Pres (išâm) or the Stat (šām); SAkk unknown E8. The verb ‘to give’ starts with ta- in the Inf tadānum, Stat tadin, va tadnum and Partc tādinum: ≠ na- in SAkk and Bab73 E9. The Pres of tadānum is iddan ≠ SAkk inaddan and ≠ Bab inaddin. Iddan is an innovation, because the Gtn Pres ittanaddin and the N Pres innaddin presuppose a G Pres with i (like Bab inaddin)74 E10. The Imp of tadānum is din: ≠ SAkk and Bab idin E11. izizzum ‘to stand (up)’: ≠ Bab i/uzuzzum (SAkk unknown); the Š-stem is ušazzaz, ušazziz, etc. ≠ Bab ušzāz, ušzīz; SAkk may side with oa if u-sa-zaza-su₄ (rime 2, 311, E2.0.0.1003: 3′ in broken context) is reliable: ‘he will make him stand’, but more evidence is required. F) Lexical differences in vowel pattern (a selection): F1. Verbs: e.g. balāṭum (a/a) ‘to live, to recover’ (≠ u/u in Bab and SAkk); ḫašāḫum (a/a) ‘to need, to want’ (≠ Bab i/i and a/u); kasā′um (i/i) ‘to bind’ (≠ Bab u/u, later i/i); parādum (i/i) ‘to be(come) worried’ (≠ ob u/u, later also i/i); qarābum (u/u) ‘to come near’ (Bab a/a, later i/i) F2. Different distribution of PaRaS and PiRaS in the imperative of a/a verbs, e.g. tama ‘swear!’ from tamā′um vs. Bab tima F3. Adjectives: e.g. rāqum ‘empty’ (≠ Bab rīqum); marṣum ‘ill, disappointed’, Stat mariṣ (≠ Bab maruṣ); narbum ‘soft’, Fem naribtum (≠ Bab narub);

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All other forms of oa ‘to give’ can be (also) derived from nadānum: present iddan, preterite iddin, t-perfect ittidin, Gtn present ittanaddin, N preterite innidin, etc. Perhaps iddan alongside the preterite iddin arose by analogy with ubbal, ubil and other weak verbs, and with derived stems such as the D-stem uparras—uparris.

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šarium ‘rich’ (≠ Bab šaru); qurbum ‘near’, Stat qurub (≠ Bab qerub); arḫum ‘quick’, Fem araḫtum, Stat araḫ (≠ Bab aruḫ)75 F4. Ordinal numerals use PaRiS for ‘second’ to ‘ninth’, and presumably PaRaS for ‘tenth’: ≠ ob PaRiS for ‘second’, PaRuS for ‘third’ to ‘tenth’ (gag § 70b). However, there are exceptions both ways. For SAkk only a PaRiS form šalištum ‘third’ is known F5. Nouns: e.g. šāptum ‘wool’ (also plural šāpātum and šīpātum) ≠ Bab šīpātum; barkum ‘knee’ ≠ Bab birkum; dašˀum ‘spring’ ≠ Bab dīšum (< *dišˀum); zakrum ‘man, male’ ≠ Bab zikarum; ḫašaḫtum ‘need, requirement’ ≠ Bab ḫišeḫtum; šabartum ‘fragment’ ≠ Bab šibirtum; napaštum ‘life’ ≈ SAkk ≠ Bab napištum; kulūmum ‘lamb’ ≠ Bab kalūmum F6. Preposition: bare and barīti ‘between’ ≈ SAkk barīti ≠ Bab biri and birīt (cf. F4?). G) Noteworthy lexical differences:76 aksuppum ‘threshold’: ≠ Bab askuppum; 2) laššu′um ‘not present’: not in Bab and SAkk; 3) lapātum ‘to write’: ≠ Bab šaṭārum; 4) ina ṣēr ‘on top of, against, owed by’: ≠ SAkk al(e) and Bab eli; 5) ište ‘with, from’: ≈ SAkk and Archaic Bab, ≠ ob (usually replaced with itti); 6) the locative suffix -ākam in adverbs: ≠ Bab -ikīam; 7) the allative suffix -ēšam in adverbs: ≠ Bab -iš (rarely -išam); 8) la as negation in main clauses beside ula: ≈ SAkk, ≠ Bab ul or ula; 9) the conjunction ul ‘or’ (a shortening of ulu or ula): ≠ Bab (where ul is a negation); 10) the temporal conjunction inūmi ‘when’: ≠ Bab inūma ‘when’ and SAkk inu; 11) the irrealis enclitic particle -men: ≠ Bab -man; 12) the enclitic particle -Ba which stresses the urgency of a question (not in Bab and SAkk). 4.3 The Position of Old Assyrian as an Akkadian Dialect The historical relationship between oa and the other dialects should be based on shared innovations, which according to a widely acknowledged principle are the most important criterion for classification. A shared innovation presupposes a period of common development, unlike a shared retention, which does point to a common ancestor but not to a period of common development separate from other dialects. Unfortunately, it is often difficult to determine whether a given feature is an innovation or a retention. As a result, many aspects of classification are based on rather limited and often multi-interpretable evidence.

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For Ass PaRiS and PuRuS corresponding to Bab PaRuS, see avsb, 64–65. See further Kogan, “Old Assyrian vs. Old Babylonian,” 177–214.

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The overview in 4.2. provides strong evidence that Ass constitutes a separate sub-branch of PAkk and developed in isolation from the other known Akk dialects for a considerable period: (1) oa shows several important innovations which are not shared by any other dialect. Three of them are phonological: A1, A2, and A8. Likely innovations in the domain of morphology include B2, C4, D2, D3, D10, E4, E8, and E9. Lexical innovations are G2, G4 and G12. It is true that some other phonological innovations are shared by other dialects, such as A3, A4, A6, A7, and E1, but they are less significant for classification, since they represent fairly general phonological tendencies and are therefore more likely to occur independently in different branches or to be due to areal influence. (2) There are several innovations in the other dialects, which did not affect oa and thus in oa appear as retentions: B4, B6, D8, D9, and E3. (3) All features which oa and SAkk have in common against Bab, and which therefore could be construed as evidence for a special relationship, are shared retentions: B4, C1, D1, D9, and G8. A clear exception is A7 (ay > ē), but this is too general a change to be criterial; a possible exception is E4, but the SAkk evidence is equivocal. For the remaining differences, it is hard to decide whether they are innovations or retentions. Especially problematic are B1, B3, C2, D6, D7, E10, and all cases of F, with the possible exception of part of F3, where PaRiS and PuRuS may be innovative as compared to Bab PaRuS (see avsb, 64–66). Among the dialects distinguished in 4.1, SAkk and Bab share enough innovations to suggest that they had a period of common development in which the other dialects did not take part, so that they form a sub-branch of PAkk. An important argument is also the fact that they developed a common Prec conjugation (D3). This underlines the relatively isolated position of Ass. The few data we have on Mari OAkk and PSAkk suggest that the former represents a separate branch of PAkk, too, whereas the latter may belong together with SAkk and Bab.77 4.4 Old Assyrian versus Old Babylonian During the period that the Ass dialect is actually attested (from the beginning of the second millennium bce, see section 1.2, until ca. 600 bce), Bab is the only other dialect of Akk represented in our sources. In their earliest stage, that of oa (ca. 1900–1700) and ob (ca. 1900–1700), the differences between them

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See chapters 6 and 7 of this volume.

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are superficial, so that there is no reason to doubt that they were mutually comprehensible. However, the differences are also salient enough to make the identification of a given text as either oa or ob quite straightforward. Both dialects are conservative in some respects and innovative in others. Phonologically, oa seems fairly conservative, but this is mainly because it is less innovative than ob. An innovation shared by both dialects is the reduction of the ps guttural consonants (the laryngeals *ˀ and *h, the pharyngeals *ˤ and *ḥ, and the uvular fricative *ġ), which already starts in PSAkk and SAkk. However, this reduction affects ob far more drastically than oa. In ob all gutturals are lost (although the details are complex), and most of the vowel sequences that result from this loss are contracted. In contrast, oa only drops *h and *ḥ, but merges *ˀ and *ˤ into ˀ (A3), so that ˀ is preserved (at least in some positions), whereas *ġ merges with the velar fricative ḫ.78 Moreover, in both dialects the loss of the pharyngeals *ˤ and *ḥ triggers the raising of an adjacent a to e. In oa, this change only affects a, if it is strictly adjacent to the guttural (A4), whereas in Bab e spreads to other instances of a in the word, so that a kind of vowel harmony arises. For instance, an original verb form such as *yilaqqaḥ, Pl *yilaqqaḥū ‘he/they will receive’ appears in oa as ilaqqe, ilaqqeū, but in ob as ileqqe, ileqqû, and a noun such as *ðarˤum ‘seed’ becomes oa zarˀum, but ob zērum. However, oa phonology is more innovative than that of ob in the introduction of vowel assimilation (A1, a feature not shared by any other Akk dialect), the reduction of the semi-vowel w in syllable-initial position (A8) and the lowering of i to e after a pharyngeal consonant (A5). In morphology, both dialects show important innovations, but different ones: the most striking oa innovations include the loss of the dative pronouns with -šim (B2), the subjunctive marker -ni (D2), the introduction of a in the endingless forms of the t-perfect of the ii/voc verbs (E4), the generalization of i in the preterite of the N-stem (D10), and ta- instead of na- in the prefixless forms of the verb tadānum ‘to give’ (E8). Bab innovations include the replacement of the 3sf prefix ta- with the 3sm i- (D1), the accusative suffix pronouns -kunūti, -šunūti, etc., instead of earlier -kunu, -šunu, etc. (B4); the patterns PuRRvS and šuPRvS in the non-prefix forms of the D- and the Š-stems (D8); and PitRvS- for earlier PitaRS- in the non-prefix forms with an ending of the Gt-stem (D9).

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See N.J.C. Kouwenberg, “The Reflexes of the Proto-Semitic Gutturals in Assyrian,” in The Akkadian Language in its Semitic Context, ed. G. Deutscher and N.J.C. Kouwenberg (Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2006).

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For many morphological differences it is not clear which of the two dialects has innovated (see section 4.2 for more details). Lexically, oa and ob show a large degree of similarity as well. According to L. Kogan’s systematic collection of differences in vocabulary,79 less than 50 oa terms which belong to what he calls ‘semantically neutral terms’ do not or only very rarely occur in Bab, and not one of them is particularly frequent. Moreover, there is an equal number of some 50 commercial terms that are specifically oa. This implies that the great majority of lexical items is shared by both dialects. 4.5 Old Assyrian and Eblaite A final issue is the relationship of Ass to Eblaite. Since our knowledge of Eblaite is fragmentary and for many grammatical issues uncertain as a result of its peculiar orthography and its predilection for logographic spelling, we only have information about some of the features that are relevant to the issue. As far as we can tell, none of the Ass innovations listed in 4.2 are shared by Eblaite. This applies to the phonological innovations A1 (vowel assimilation), A7 (ay > ē) and A8 (wa- > u-), and to most innovations that are related to the changes in the guttural consonants (A3, A4, and A5). More importantly, Ebl does not share the most criterial morphological innovations of oa: B2 (dative pronouns with -ti), and D2 (subjunctive -ni). With regard to D3 (the precative conjugation), Ebl differs from both oa and the common paradigm of SAkk and Bab.80 Apparently, all branches of PAkk have developed their own precative conjugation after the split into dialects. Ebl also differs from oa in the form of the 3s independent subject pronouns: where oa has šūt/šīt (whether this is an innovation or not), Ebl seems to have su(w)a, si( y)a or the like, which agrees with the forms that are usually reconstructed for ps (*sūˀa, *sīˀa) and that recur in other Akk dialects as šū/šī. Concerning those features in which Eblaite differs from all Akk dialects, oa invariably sides with Akk against Eblaite:81 (1) Eblaite does not show the Pan-Akk dissimilation of the prefix ma- > na- in roots with a labial radical (gag §31b), e.g. má-ma-du (maˤmadum) ‘support’ corresponding to Akk *nēmadum (> nēmedum in Bab) 79 80

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Kogan, “Old Assyrian vs. Old Babylonian.” See Catagnoti, Grammatica, 133–34. According to Catagnoti, the Ebl Prec forms point to a particle lu, which has coalesced with the Pret, partly according to the Ass and partly according to the Bab paradigm: 3s and 3p lu- and 1s la- for the G-stem, and 3s lu- for the Dstem. However, the interpretation of some of the attested forms seems rather precarious. For more details, see avsb, 21–27; Michael P. Streck, “Eblaite and Old Akkadian,” in The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, ed. Stefan Weninger et al. (Berlin-Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011), 340–52.

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(2) Eblaite preserves a number of ps prepositions that are lost in all branches of Akk, including oa, such as min ‘from’, bayn ‘between’, and sin ‘toward’. (3) Eblaite shows a few phonological innovations that are not shared by any branch of Akk: the reduction of l to y in several environments,82 and s > l before a dental plosive.83 In spite of the obstacles that prevent a more detailed comparison, these features are sufficient to refute any special relationship between oa and Eblaite.

5

From Old Assyrian to Middle Assyrian

The ma dialect, attested from ca. 1400–1000bce, is represented by a small but varied corpus, with an important body of laws and royal decrees, legal and administrative texts, letters, some ritual texts and inventories. The relatively small size of the corpus, the fairly stereotyped nature of many texts and the extensive use of logograms for common nouns and adjectives make our knowledge of this dialect relatively incomplete.84 Nevertheless, ma is of great importance for the grammar of oa, because it employs a more accurate syllabary and orthography (presumably borrowed from mb, see below). It uses distinct signs for several of the voiceless, voiced and glottalic consonants (e.g. ga, ka and qa; du, tu and ṭu), often distinguishes the vowels i and e (e.g. ši versus še), and it optionally indicates consonant gemination. This allows us to observe distinctions which in oa we can only reconstruct, and thus provides a check on these reconstructions.85 It is precisely the difference in orthography that is the most salient contrast between the two stages of Ass. In other respects, there is a great deal of continuity. Broadly speaking, the distinctive features of oa enumerated in 4.2 also apply to ma, insofar as they are attested. The most characteristic features of oa

82 83

84 85

Michael P. Streck, “Eblaite and Old Akkadian,” in The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, ed. Stefan Weninger et al. (Berlin-Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011), 343. Catagnoti, Grammatica, 65–66. This change is unrelated to the change of sibilants and š to l before dental consonants that occurred at least a millennium later in mb and ma (gag § 30g). Streck, “Großes Fach Altorientalistik,” 43, gives an estimate of 2722 ma texts, which is little more than ten percent of the oa corpus. The basic tool for ma is Jacob Jan de Ridder, Descriptive Grammar of Middle Assyrian (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2018). It replaces Walter Mayer, Untersuchungen zur Grammatik des Mittelassyrischen (Kevelaer: Verlag Butzon und Bercker; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag des Erziehungsvereins, 1971).

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that recur in ma include A1, A7, B1, B4, C1, C2, C4, D3, D8, E3, and E8. Among the differences, we can distinguish four types: A) Grammatical features of oa that are lost and/or replaced in ma: – the 1s direct object pronoun -ī (B3), ousted by its alternative -(an)ni – the vetitive (replaced by the prohibitive, as in Bab) – the third person deictic base all- (B6), ousted by the original second person base amm-86 – the enclitic particle -ma as a clause connector – the emphatic question particle -Ba (G12). B) Developments that start in oa and are completed in ma: – the loss of mimation (dgma §238–40) – the decline of the case system – the gradual spread of vowel contraction, especially in verbal forms (dgma §188–97) – the change of word-initial wa- > u- (dgma §176) (A8) – the generalization of the subordinative marker -ni to all subordinate clauses (dgma §659–64) – dative suffix pronouns -aššu, etc. instead of -šum, etc. – the use of the t-perfect as a past tense in affirmative main clauses and the concomitant restriction of the preterite to subordinate and negative clauses (avsb, 153–55). C) ma features that represent new developments: – the change of intervocalic m and n to ˀ (dgma § 233): anaˀīne ‘why?’ < ana mīnim; kī da-ˀa-a-né ‘with force’ < kī danānim – the change s and š to l before a dental (dgma § 220): al-tap-ra ‘I sent’ < aštapram – the appearance of independent dative pronouns with š (kuāša ‘to/for you’, etc.) and a suffix pronoun with š for the 1p: -nāši(n) ‘to/for us’ (dgma § 354– 55).87 – the renewal of the oblique cases of the independent personal pronouns, especially in the plural (gag §41i/j; dgma §354–56) 86 87

See N.J.C. Kouwenberg, “Spatial Deixis in Akkadian,” Zeitschrift für Assyriologie 102 (2012): 70–71. Since there are no traces of such forms in oa and they are different from the contemporary Bab forms (where dative forms with š are standard), the background of these forms is problematic.

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– the 2sm Stat ending -āta for oa -āt(i) (dgma § 516) – the spread of vowel assimilation to t-Perf forms with an ending, such as iqtibi → iqtibiū (oa iqtabiū) and ittumuš → ittumšū (cf. oa imtuqut → imtaqtū) (dgma §149–50) – the high degree of productivity of the participle with -ānum, e.g. dāˀikānum ‘who has killed’ (see avsb, 207–9) – the emergence of udda, tudda ‘I/you know’, etc. instead of oa īde, tīde (which are still used in the ma Laws, either archaizing or a Babylonianism) (dgma §607) – Imps with final -u in the ii/gem verbs (dubbu ‘talk!’, muddu ‘measure!’), for earlier dubub and mudud (in na, this -u also extends to Imps of strong verbs: šuknu ‘place!’, šupru ‘send!’) (dgma §567) – the emergence of the conjunction kī ‘when, after, because’. D) A few features even represent a reversal of an oa development: – the forms of the N-stem Pret with an ending, in which oa has generalized i (D10: iššikin—iššiknū ‘it/they were placed’): ma reinstates the original form iššaknū, which is phonologically regular (dgma § 533) – the use of a in some words where oa shows a secondary e: ila′′e ‘he is able’ for oa ile′′e and mar′u ‘son’ for oa mer′um. Some of these features also occur in mb and point to a convergent development: the loss of mimation, the decline of the case system, the generalization of the t-perfect in main clauses and the restriction of the preterite to subordinate clauses, the change of sibilants and š to l, the use of the conjunction kī, and the 2sm stative ending -āta. This testifies to a regular contact between the speakers of ma and mb. Since Bab was the dominant culture, there can be no doubt that a large part of this convergence is due to Bab influence on ma. Also in general, mb culture has exerted a massive influence on its Ass neighbours, as can be inferred from the introduction of a new syllabary and orthography from Babylonia (see above), and the use of Bab in many areas of culture, scholarship and religion, including the royal inscriptions of the Assyrian kings.

Bibliography Barjamovic, Gojko. A Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 2011. Barjamovic, Gojko, Thomas K. Hertel, and Mogens Trolle Larsen. Ups and Downs at Kanesh. Chronology, History and Society in the Old Assyrian Period. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2012.

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Barjamovic, Gojko. “Contextualizing Tradition. Magic, Literacy and Domestic Life in Old Assyrian Kanesh.” In Texts and Contexts. The Circulation and Transmission of Cuneiform Texts in Social Space, edited by Paul Delnero, and Jacob Lauinger, 48–86. Berlin-Boston: de Gruyter, 2015. Buccellati, Giorgio. The Amorites of the Ur iii Period. Napoli: Istituto Orientale di Napoli, 1966. Catagnoti, Amalia. La grammatica della lingua di Ebla. Firenze: Università di Firenze, 2012. Charpin, Dominique. “Mari und die Assyrer.” In 2000 v. Chr. Politische, wirtschaftliche und kulturelle Entwicklung im Zeichen einer Jahrtausendwende, edited by Jan-Waalke Meyer, and Walter Sommerfeld, 371–82. Saarbrücken: Saarbrücker Druckerei und Verlag, 2004. Charpin, Dominique. Writing, Law, and Kingship in Old Babylonian Mesopotamia. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2010. Deller, Karlheinz. “Zum ana balāṭ-Formular einiger assyrischer Votivinschriften.” Oriens Antiquus 22 (1983): 13–24. Dercksen, Jan Gerrit. The Old Assyrian Copper Trade in Anatolia. Istanbul: Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut, 1996. Dercksen, Jan Gerrit. “Kultureller und wirtschaftlicher Austausch zwischen Assyrern und Anatoliern.” In Brückenland Anatolien? Ursachen, Extensität und Modi des Kulturaustausches zwischen Anatolien und seinen Nachbarn, edited by Hartmut Blum, Betina Feist, Peter Pfälzner, and Anne-M. Witke, 35–44. Tübingen: Attempto Verlag, 2002. Dercksen, Jan Gerrit. “Adad is King! The Sargon Text from Kültepe.” Jaarbericht Ex Oriente Lux 39 (2005): 107–29. Dercksen, Jan Gerrit. “On Anatolian Loanwords in Akkadian Texts from Kültepe.” Zeitschrift für Assyriologie 97 (2007): 26–46. de Ridder, Jacob Jan. “A Late Old Assyrian Sale of a House Plot, kam 10 1.” Nouvelles Assyriologiques Brèves et Utilitaires 2013: 55–57. de Ridder, Jacob Jan. Descriptive Grammar of Middle Assyrian. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2018. Donbaz, Veysel. “Inventory No. 1439.”Nouvelles Assyriologiques Brèves et Utilitaires 2001: 56. Durand, Jean-Marie. “La situation historique des šakkanakku: nouvelle approche.”mari 4 (1985): 147–72. Farber, Walter. “Mannam lušpur ana Enkidu: Some New Thoughts about an Old Motive.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 49 (1990): 299–321. Galter, Hannes D. “Textanalyse assyrischer Königsinschriften: die Puzur-AššurDynastie.” State Archives of Assyria Bulletin 12 (1998): 1–38. Galter, Hannes D. “Textanalyse assyrischer Königsinschriften: der Aufstand des PuzurSîn.” State Archives of Assyria Bulletin 14 (2002–2005): 1–21.

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Garelli, Paul. Les Assyriens en Cappadoce. Paris: Maisonneuve, 1963. Gelb, Ignace J. “A Tablet of Unusual Type from Tell Asmar.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 1 (1942): 219–26. Gelb, Ignace J., and Edmond Sollberger. “The First Legal Document from the Later Old Assyrian Period.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 16 (1957): 163–75. Grayson, Albert Kirk. “Rivalry over Rulership at Aššur. The Puzur-Sîn Inscription.” Annual Review of the Inscriptions of Mesopotamia Project 3 (1985): 9–14. Grayson, Albert Kirk. Assyrian Rulers of the Third and Second Millennia bc (to 1115 bc). Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987. Günbattı, Cahit. “Kültepe’den Akadlı Sargon’a âit bir tablet.” Archivum Anatolicum 3 (1997): 131–55 (with a summary in English). Hasselbach, Rebecca. Sargonic Akkadian. A Historical and Comparative Study of the Syllabic Texts. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2005. Hecker, Karl. Grammatik der Kültepe-Texte. Roma: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum, 1968. Hecker, Karl. “Schultexte vom Kültepe.” In Aspects of Art and Iconography: Anatolia and its Neighbors, Studies in Honor of Nimet Özgüç, edited by Machteld J. Mellink, Edith Porada, and Tahsin Özgüç, 281–91. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 1993. Hecker, Karl. “Zur Herkunft der hethitischen Keilschrift.” In Studies on the Civilization and Culture of Nuzi and the Hurrians 8, edited by David I. Owen, and Gernot Wilhelm, 291–303. Bethesda: cdl Press, 1996. Hertel, Thomas K. Old Assyrian Legal Practices. Law and Dispute in the Ancient Near East. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2013. Hertel, Thomas K. “The Lower Town of Kültepe: Urban Layout and Population.” In Current Research at Kültepe-Kanesh, edited by Levent Atici, Fikri Kolakoǧlu, Gojko Barjamovic, and Andrew Fairbairn, 25–54. Atlanta: Lockwood Press, 2014. Hilgert, Markus. Akkadisch in der Ur iii-Zeit. Münster: Rhema, 2003. Kienast, Burkhart. Das altassyrische Kaufsvertragsrecht. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1984. Kloekhorst, Alwin. Kanišite Hittite. The Earliest Attested Record of Indo-European. Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2019. Kogan, Leonid. “Old Assyrian vs. Old Babylonian: the Lexical Dimension.” In The Akkadian Language in its Semitic Context, edited by G. Deutscher, and N.J.C. Kouwenberg, 177–214. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2006. Kouwenberg, N.J.C. “The Reflexes of the Proto-Semitic Gutturals in Assyrian.” In The Akkadian Language in its Semitic Context, edited by G. Deutscher, and N.J.C. Kouwenberg, 150–76. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2006. Kouwenberg, N.J.C. The Akkadian Verb and its Semitic Background. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2010.

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Kouwenberg, N.J.C. “Spatial Deixis in Akkadian.” Zeitschrift für Assyriologie 102 (2012): 17–75. Kouwenberg, N.J.C. A Grammar of Old Assyrian. Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2017. Kouwenberg, N.J.C. Introduction to Old Assyrian. Münster: Zaphon, 2019. Kryszat, Guido. “Beobachtungen zum Archiv des Iddi(n)-Ištar.” In Veenhof Anniversary Volume, edited by W. van Soldt, J.G. Dercksen, N.J.C. Kouwenberg, and Th.J. Krispijn, 263–73. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2001. Kryszat, Guido. “The Use of Writing among the Anatolians.” In Anatolia and the Jazira During the Old Assyrian Period, edited by Jan Gerrit Dercksen, 231–38. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2008. Landsberger, Benno, and Kemal Balkan. “Die Inschrift des assyrischen Königs Īrişum gefunden in Kültepe 1948.” Belleten 14 (1950): 219–68. Larsen, Mogens Trolle. The Old Assyrian City-State and its Colonies. Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, 1976. Larsen, Mogens Trolle. Ancient Kanesh: A Merchant Colony in Bronze Age Anatolia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015. Lewy, Julius. “Amurritica.” Hebrew Union College Annual 32 (1961): 31–74. Liebermann, Stephen J. The Sumerian Loanwords in Old-Babylonian Akkadian, vol. 1: Prolegomena and Evidence. Missoula, MT: Scholars Press, 1977. Lion, Brigitte. “Literacy and Gender.” In The Oxford Handbook of Cuneiform Culture, edited by Karen Radner, and Eleanor Robson, 90–112. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. Mayer, Walter. Untersuchungen zur Grammatik des Mittelassyrischen. Kevelaer: Verlag Butzon und Bercker; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag des Erziehungsvereins, 1971. McMahon, Augusta. “North Mesopotamia in the Third Millennium bc.” In The Sumerian World, edited by Harriet Crawford, 462–77. London-New York: Routledge, 2013. Melchert, H. Craig. Anatolian Historical Phonology. Amsterdam-Atlanta: Rhodopi, 1994. Michel, Cécile. Old Assyrian Bibliography. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2003. Michel, Cécile. “Old Assyrian Bibliography 1.” Archiv für Orientforschung 51 (2005– 2006): 436–49. Michel, Cécile. “Écrire et compter chez les marchands assyriens du début de iie millénaire av. J.-C.” In Muhibbe Darga Armaǧanı, edited by T. Tarhan, A. Tibet, and E. Konyar, 345–64. Istanbul: Sadberk Hanım Müzesi, 2008. Michel, Cécile. “Les femmes et l’écrit dans les archives paléo-assyriennes.” In Femmes, cultures et sociétés dans les civilisations méditerranéennes et proche-orientales de l’Antiquité, edited by Françoise Briquel-Chatonnet, Saba Farès, Brigitte Lion, and Cécile Michel, 253–72. Paris: De Boccard, 2009.

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Michel, Cécile. “Deux textes atypiques découverts à Kültepe.” Journal of Cuneiform Studies 62 (2010): 71–80. Michel, Cécile. “Old Assyrian Bibliography 2.” Archiv für Orientforschung 52 (2011): 416– 37. Michel, Cécile. “Considerations on the Assyrian Settlement at Kanesh.” In Current Research at Kültepe-Kanesh, edited by Levent Atici, Fikri Kolakoǧlu, Gojko Barjamovic, and Andrew Fairbairn, 69–84. Atlanta: Lockwood Press, 2014. Michel, Cécile. “Old Assyrian Bibliography 3.” Archiv für Orientforschung 53 (2015): 525– 59. Militarev, Alexander, and Leonid Kogan. Semitic Etymological Dictionary, vol. i: Anatomy of Man and Animals. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2000. Özgüç Nimet, and Önhan Tunca. Kültepe-Kaniš. Sealed and Inscribed Clay Bullae. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, 2001. Oppenheim, A. Leo, Erica Reiner, and Martha T. Roth, edited by. The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. 21 volumes. Glückstadt-Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1956–2010. Postgate, Nicholas. Bronze Age Bureaucracy. Writing and the Practice of Government in Assyria. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013. Richter, Thomas. Bibliographisches Glossar des Hurritischen. Harrassowitz: Wiesbaden, 2012. Streck, Michael P. Das amurritische Onomastikon der altbabylonischen Zeit, Band i. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2000. Streck, Michael P. “Die Amurriter der altbabylonischen Zeit im Spiegel des Onomastikons.” In 2000 v. Chr.—Politische, wirtschaftliche und kulturelle Entwicklung im Zeichen einer Jahrtausendwende, edited by Jan-Waalke Meyer, and Walter Sommerfeld, 313–55. Saarbrücken: Saarbrücker Druckerei und Verlag, 2004. Streck, Michael P. “Großes Fach Altorientalistik: Der Umfang des keilschriftlichen Textkorpus.” Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient Gesellschaft 142 (2010): 35–58. Streck, Michael P. “Eblaite and Old Akkadian.” In The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, edited by Stefan Weninger, in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, and Janet C.E. Watson, 340–59. Berlin-Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011. Teissier, Beatrice. Sealing and Seals on Texts from Kültepe Kārum Level 2. Istanbul: Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut, 1994. Thureau-Dangin, François. Textes cunéiformes xiv: Tablettes cappadociennes, 2me série. Paris: Geuthner, 1928. Ulshöfer, Andrea M. Die altassyrischen Privaturkunden. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1995. Veenhof, Klaas R. Aspects of Old Assyrian Trade and its Terminology. Leiden: Brill, 1972. Veenhof, Klaas R. “A Deed of Manumission and Adoption from the Later Old Assyrian

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Period.” In Zikir šumim. Assyriological Studies Presented to F.R. Kraus on the Occasion of his Seventieth Birthday, edited by Govert van Driel, Theo J. Krispijn, Marten Stol, and Klaas R. Veenhof, 359–85. Leiden: Brill, 1982. Veenhof, Klaas R. “The Old Assyrian Merchants and Their Relations with the Native Population of Anatolia.” In Mesopotamien und seine Nachbarn, edited by Hans-Jörg Nissen, and Johannes Renger, 147–60. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1982. Veenhof, Klaas R. “‘In Accordance with the Words of the Stele’: Evidence for Old Assyrian Legislation.” Chicago Kent Law Review 70/4 (1995): 1717–44. Veenhof, Klaas R. The Old Assyrian List of Year Eponyms from Karum Kanish and its Chronological Implications. Ankara: Turkish Historical Society, 2003. Veenhof, Klaas R. “The Old Assyrian Period.” In Mesopotamia. The Old Assyrian Period, edited by Markus Wäfler, 15–264. Fribourg: Academic Press, and Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2008. Veenhof, Klaas R. “Across the Euphrates.” In Anatolia and the Jazira During the Old Assyrian Period, edited by Jan Gerrit Dercksen, 3–29. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2008. Veenhof, Klaas R. “New Mesopotamian Treaties from the Second Millennium bc from kārum Kaneš and Tell Leilan (Šehna).” Zeitschrift für Altorientalische und Biblische Rechtsgeschichte 19 (2013): 23–57. von Soden, Wolfram. Akkadisches Handwörterbuch. Unter Benutzung des lexikalischen Nachlasses von Bruno Meissner (1868–1947). 3 volumes. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1959–1981. von Soden, Wolfram, unter Mitarbeit von Werner Mayer. Grundriss der akkadischen Grammatik. Roma: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum, 19953. Whiting Jr., Robert M. Old Babylonian Letters from Tell-Asmar. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1987. Wilhelm, Gernot. “Hurrians in the Kültepe Texts.” In Anatolia and the Jazira During the Old Assyrian Period, edited by Jan Gerrit Dercksen, 181–94. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2008.

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CHAPTER 16

Middle Assyrian Stefanjakob

1

Middle Assyrian

1.1 Date The beginning of the Middle Assyrian period is generally dated around 1500 BCE. 1 But the oldest precisely datable sources with Middle Assyrian features are actually royal inscriptions from the first half of the fifteenth century. Everyday texts in Middle Assyrian only start with the reign of Assur-nerari n (14241418 BCE ). 2 A comprehensive documentation, however, comprising administrative documents 3 and private archives, as well as royal inscriptions of different kinds is not available until the thirteenth century onwards, with a focus on the reigns ofTukulti-Ninurta I (1233-1197 BCE) and Tiglath-pilesen (1115-1076 BCE). After this time, sources from private or administrative contexts run dry. In any case, one can see that the transition to the following Neo-Assyrian era can be understood as a slow process. Until the reign of Adad-nerari n (gn8g1BCE), royal inscriptions with clear Middle Assyrian features were very common (see section 2.1.1 ). From the historical point of view the kings at that time are rightly considered as Neo-Assyrian rulers. Regarding the language and the characteristic style of cuneiform signs, however, the Middle Assyrian convention reaches far into the Neo-Assyrian period. Significant changes which lead away from Middle Assyrian can be observed only from goo BCE onwards.

Provenance It is clear from the distribution of archives containing texts in the Middle Assyrian dialect that most of them have been found in places where the adminis-

1.2

Wolfram von Soden, Grundriss der akkadischen Grammatik (Roma: Pontificium lnstitutum Biblicum, 19953 ), 4; Waiter Mayer, Untersuchungen zur Grammatik des Mittelassyrischen (N eukirchen-Vluyn: Butzon und Bercker Kevelaer, 1971), 1. 2 Claudio Saporetti, Gli eponimi medio-assiri (Malibu: Undena Publications 1979), 29-32. These archives extend to the fourteenth century (ibid., 33-56). 3 The term "administrative document" is always understood here to designate a text from the state administration. In contrast, we use "private document" to refer to those texts that do not directly concern state affairs and that originate archaeologically from private contexts. 1

©

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I

DOI:IO.II63/9789004445215_017

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1138 4 tration of the Assyrian kingdom was etablish ed at the relevan t time. There ) are a few exceptions, namely from Anatolia (Bogazkoy), Babylon ia (Nippur and Egypt (Tell el-Amarna). These texts, however, are nearly exclusively letters, most of them belong to the genre of the royal corresp ondence . As far as Egypt is concerned, we also have the private inscript ion of a chief vizier by the name of Ibassi-ilu.s It appears therefore likely that Middle Assyria n as a spoken language was rather limited to the sphere of influenc e of the Assyria n realm. The greatest number of texts came from the Assyrian capital Assur and the 6 of neighbouring residence Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta. Conside ring that a large part the inner city of Assur has not yet been fully explore d because the German excavators had to limit themselves to test-tren ches ("Suchgraben") at regular to intervals, it is estimate d that only 10 °/o of existing texts have been unearth ed

this date. 7 Added to this are further cities within the Assyrian heartlan d up to the Eastem Tigris region. These include: Nineveh (mod. Kuyunjik), Sibanib a (mod. Tell Billa), Tell Rimah (ancient Karana?/Qattuna?), Adman nu (mod. Tell (Ali), and Idu (mod. Sa tu Qala ). In the western part of the realm Dtu-Ka tlimmu (mod. Tell Se}]. I:Iamad) has to be stated in the first place. This is followed by ljarbe (mod. Tell Chuera), Assukanni (mod. Tell Fekheriyeh), Tell Sabi Abyad, and Tell Fray. All together, these sites have not even yielded one and a half thousan d texts and fragments. Nevertheless the docume nts from the western provinc es reveal of highly interesting information about the structur e and the adminst ration l historica l essentia the Middle Assyrian empire and provide, last but not least, data from that period. 1.3

Centre and Periphery

With regard to linguistic differences between the capital and the provinc es we find different results, depending on text genres. The adminis trative language of the public sector is characterized by distinct uniformity. There is some evidence that the Assyrian administration worked towards repressi ng local scribal 8 traditions in favour of its own routine. In addition , personn el was sent from Lake Van (RIMA 2, 4 This includes inscriptions from the Tigris springs and the region north of 16). A.o.87.15BC) (Toronto5 C£ A. Kirk Grayson, Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Millennium BC 1 ( 1114-859 tomb" (RIMA c pharaoni a in Buffalo-London: University of Toronto Press, 1991), 112, "found ...

2. A.o.8g.2oo2 ). sov, 1gg 7), 81-go. 6 Olof Pedersen, Katalog der beschrifteten Objekte aus Assur (Saarbriic ken: y Press, 2013), 327. Universit e Cambridg e: (Cambridg cy 7 John N. Postgate, Bronze Age Bureaucra the Land of Mari' of 'Kings The Period: Assyrian Middle the in Power "Local 8 Daisuke Shibata, of Power in the Symbols and ation, Represent ion, Organizat in Region" Habur Middle in the

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the capital to support the 'Assyrization" of regions which came under Assyrian influence. Local dialects sometimes become evident when texts are created for purposes other than for the use within the everyday administrati ve life. Here, the inscriptions of a local ruler from Tell Bderi are an instructive example. 9 It is interesting to note, however, that some deviations from the dialect of the capital concern several phenomena that are actually prominent features of the Neo-Assyrian language.IO This includes some unusual spellings with an additional vowel at the end of a verb form that occur in texts from areas beyond the immediate vicinity of the capital Assur. Whereas the first two tables contain examples from the archive ofUrad-Serii'a,U thus referring to the rural regions north of Assur, the third one has been taken from an inscription of Assur-ketta-H~sir (n), a ruler of the kingdom of Mari, 12 i.e. from an area to the west of the Assyrian heartland: vowel a tadnata (instead of tadnat) "(one tablet) has been given"13 usaddana (instead of usaddan) "he shall collect" 14 se$uhta (instead of se$uht) "(a tablet) has been issued"15 vowel i e$$idi (instead of e$$id) uballiti (instead of uballit) iddini (instead of iddin)

"he shall reap" 16 "he will maintain" (his household )17 "he will give" 18

vowel u lil askunu (instead of lil askun) "I really established" 19 lemurilma (instead of lemurma) "he shall see" 20

Ancient Near East. Proceedings ofthe 54th Rencontre Assyriologique Intemationale at Wilrzburg 20-25]uly 2008, ed. Gernot Wilhelm (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2012 ), 113. 9 1o

11 12 13 14 1S 16 17

18 19 20

Cf. below section 3.2. n. 27. Cf. Stefan M. Maul, Die Inschriften von Tall Bderi (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1992 ), 18; Wilfred. H. van Soldt et al., "Satu Qala: A preliminary report on the seasons 20I0-20u," Anatolica 39 (2013): 21s. Postgate, The archive of Urad-Seriia and hisfamily. A Middle Assyrian household in government service (Roma: Herder Editrice e Libreria, 1988). Shibata, "Local Power". Postgate, Urad-Seriia, no. 27:14. Postgate, Urad-Seriia, no. 27=JS· Postgate, Urad-Seriia, no. 42:11. Postgate, Urad-Seriia, no. 20:12. Postgate, Urad-Seriia, no. ss: S· Postgate, Urad-Seriia, no. sG:s (and passim in the same text). Maul, Tall Bderi, 24:8. Maul, Tall Bdcri, 26:13.

jAKOB 1140

This phenomenon is well known as a typical feature of the Neo-Assyrian language.zi It should therefore not be completely excluded that in the long term some colloquial features from peripherical environmen ts influenced the language of the heartland rather than the other way round. Linguistic Characteristics Some of the features of Middle Assyrian are not limited to the Assyrian realm, but are shared by other contemporary Akkadian dialects. This includes the omission of the final-m of the mimation, or the correct use of case endings.zz On the other hand, significant differences can be detected at multiple levels. Some of the key elements are summarised here in a very short overview:

1.4

ending gen. sg. and obl. pl.: -e23

gen. sg. !Jafime obl. pl. bit nupiiriite

"granary" "work house, ergasterion"

prefix 3· sg. verbs prim. ': e-

eppas

"he performs"

24 /s/ or /z/ > I before dentals

"fattening feed" kurustu > kurultu mazzastu( m) > maz- "position" zaltu mazzaztu(m )

/sb/ > /sb/

usbu (< wsb)

''they are staying"

initial /w I > /u/

waklu( m) > uklu

"overseer"

21 22

23

See Karlheinz Deller, "Lautlehre des Neuassyrischen" (PhD diss., University of Vienna, 1959), 20-40. For NA, cf. chapter 22 of this volume. There are only few exceptions: In royal inscriptions the nominative or genitive is sometimes used instead of the accusative. In everyday texts we find the accusative where the genitive/dativ is expected, namely in expressions like ana emitta "to the right", cf. Rollig, Land- und Viehwirtschaft am Unteren Ijabiir in mittelassyrische r Zcit (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, zooS), 191. The frequent occurence of the ending -ti instead of -te in royal inscriptions is due to the strong influence of the Babylonian dialect on that genre, cf. Michael P. Streck, "Die groEe Inschrift Tukulti-Ninurtas 1. Philologische und historische Studien," Die Welt des Orients 37 (2007): 155·

24

Literary texts do not always follow this rule; see the expected spelling ma-ru-ul-ta.

RIMA 1,

A.o.76.2:51 nza-ru-us-ta instead of

MIDDLE ASSYRIAN

1141

intervocalic /w I written /b I or /'I awatum > abutu awilum > a,ilu

''word" "man"

/1/ > /n/

kannamare < kal+na- "early in the mornmare?ZS ing"

/qt/ > /qt/

iqtibi > iqtibi

"he has spoken"

s> ~ before a and u (nasa)u)

inassCu ittw;u

"they lift" "they have lifted"

/mt/ > /md/

am-da-l;a-a$

"I have beaten"

/in/ > /i' I

binti > btti

"daughter"

no contraction before ending:

qalitu, pl. qa-li-a-te "parched grain" qadutu pl. qa-du-a-tu "a kind of bread" gen. karu,e "of the barley heap"

1.5 Interaction with Other Languages It is clear that the administration pursued the objective of establishing the official Middle Assyrian in the conquered regions. At present it is hard to say whether and to what extent the Assyrian language was able to exert influence over the surrounding countryside beyond the provincial centres, but it is reasonable to assume that the duration oflanguage contact had an important role to play. In the Western part of the realm which was conquered in many struggles throughout the thirteenth century BCE the royal administration began to create a network of institutions which communicated in Assyrian among each other. Thus the first step was taken towards an Assyrization of that region. Large numbers of workforces were obtained, inter alia, from the city of Assur. But large settlements of Assyrian native speakers from the heartland probably did not exist anymore after climate conditions within the jezirah had deteriorated. As a consequence of the successive abandonment of the western provinces after the end of the thirteenth century, Assyrian institutions retreated to the heartland, so that there was no lasting influence on the local

25

Cf. Jacob ]an de Ridder, A Descriptive Grammar of Middle Assyrian (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2018), 332-33.

JAKOB

1142

the retenti on population in the long run. Ultimately, it should be realize d that ent to estabtime of the Assyrian administration's structures was far from suffici a language words, lish its own language all over the conqu ered land. In other shift from local languages to Assyrian did not happe n. Tigris region. A different pictur e is provided by the situati on of the Easter n period of time On the one hand, language contac t had taken place over a longer rs also inhabin that area- not least because of the fact that Assyrian speake drawn under ited that region.2 6 Although various cities or regions had been nt langua ge was Babylonian influence for some time, no fundam entally differe no significant established. Consequently, in the city of Idu (mod. Satu Qala) arises to what variances were found so far. On the other hand, the questi on ge of the conextent local languages could have infiltrated Assyrian, the langua querors. fact, a series Especially adoptions from Hurrian are to be expect ed here. In ay texts. These of Hurrian loan words can be found in Middle Assyrian everyd e/innu( m) allabb < refer to offices and professions as well as to re alia: alalzennu u < lzuradi (miller), hab;ublu < tzalzubli (comm andan t of a tzal$U unit), lzurad worker), ndent (soldier), kukkubu < kukkubi (jug), silulzlu > sil(l)ulzlu (depe 27 are the loans umzarlzu < unzaralzlze (native, homebred). Of particu lar intere st 28 from the agricultural sector. thirtee nth The time horizo n of these texts, however, lies generally in the 1 (I353uballit Assurcentur y BCE, i.e. long after the victory over Arrapl].a by menti oned have I3I8BCE). It must thus be left open so far wheth er the terms of the conresult a as actually found their way into Assyrian linguistic usage . It should also quest or wheth er they had already been used in Assyria before ofMitt anian not be forgotten at this point thatAssur-uballit had ended a phase this period, domin ation over the Assyrians that lasted about 70 years. During of administraHurrian loans could very well have reache d Assyria via the level tion. nce of HurHowever, it should be noted that there was no structu ral influe lar. The same is rian on the Assyrian language, no Hurrian lexemes in particu nship with true for West-Semitic, even if there was a close econo mic relatio 2 case at least, we the Levant and certainly frequent linguistic contacts. 9 In one

26 27

28

29

Evidence (Atlanta : Society of Maynar d P. Maidma n, Nuzi Texts and Their Uses as Historical Biblical Literatu re, 2010 ), 15. chen (Wiesb aden: HarrassoSee Thomas Richter, Bibliographisches Glossar des Hurritis witz, 2012 ), s.v.v. See de Ridder, Grammar, 224, § 317. Untcrsuclzungen (LeidenCf. Stefanja kob, Mittelassyrische Verwaltung und Sozialstruktur.

MIDDLE ASSYRIAN

1143

can identify a loanword from the Luwian language, namely the term susiinu ~~horse trainer" from iissus=anni, literally ''associated to the horse". 30 The group ofSumerian loanwords, however, is far more important. This includes common words like isinnu (< EZEN) ~~festival", kisallu (< KISAL) ~~forecourt" or subuppiitu, subuppiitu boots" (< kusSUtJUBme5).31 11

2

The Middle Assyrian Corpus

As we have seen above, the amount of texts from the Middle Assyrian era is rather low, compared to the text corpora from other periods in Ancient Near Eastern history. Nevertheless, the situation has dramatically changed to the better in recent decades. In 1971, when W. Mayer released his Middle Assyrian grammar, not more than approximately 6oo published texts were available for analysis. 32 Since then the publication of Middle Assyrian tablets from various collections of museums has reached an advanced stage. Hundreds of administrative documents and literary compositions which have been identified in recent years are envisaged to be published in several series. 33 In addition, there are numerous new volumes and papers dealing with texts from the Assyrian provinces between the Ijabiir and Balll]. rivers, and currently from the Eastern Tigris region. Middle Assyrian texts reflect many aspects of life. These include official inscriptions of the king's military deeds and building projects (palaces and temples as a matter of priority), literary works of different kinds, administrative records, every day texts from institutional and private contexts (letters, sulmiinu texts, 34 work contracts, lists, inventories), as well as private matters (records of family's activity: loans, purchase documents concerning fields, for example, notes and receipts).

30

Boston: Brill, 2003), 284-86; id. Die mittelassyrischen Texte aus Tell Chuera in NordostSyrien (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2oog), 59-62; 68-6g. This analysis was presented by Frank Starke; see the discussion inJakob, Untersuchungen, 220.

31 32 33

34

Jacob J. de Ridder, A Descriptive Grammar of Middle Assyrian (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2017 ), 179 f. Mayer, Untersuchungen, 3· The corpus of literary texts from Assur is being published successively under the series Keilschriftttexte aus Assur literarischen Inhalts (KAL), Wiesbaden, 2007-. The newly discovered administrative documents from this stock shall be subject of separate studies. See Postgate, Urad- Seriia, xiii-xvi.

~-

JAKOB

1144

In general, there are two types of text collections to be discussed within the research community. On the one hand, we see "archives", containing everyday texts (i.e. documents from the royal administration, private documents). On the other hand, there are "libraries" where literary compositions are kept (i.e. belles lettres, official inscriptions of Assyrian kings, epics and religious texts of different kinds). Such a definition seems appropriate in the first instance. But in practice, the situation is more complex, as will be shown below. Literary Texts The question of the most appropriate concept of"literature" has been answered differently throughout Ancient Mesopotamian research history. R. Borger used the term Keilschriftliteraturen ("cuneiform literatures") to describe all available cuneiform documents. In contrast to this, later scholars such as D.O. Edzard and W. Rollig tried to refine the definition of "literary texts". According to Rollig, for instance, Akkadian Literature-including the Middle Assyrian one-should be defined in such a way that the texts in question are to be distinguished from everyday documents, as well as from lexical lists, omens, mathematical or astronomical texts. 35 We suggest, however, another classification based primarily on the "Sitz im Le ben", i.e. the setting of a text, within the stream of tradition. In this sense, the following categories represent the group of Middle Assyrian lit-

2.1

erary texts: - royal inscriptions, epics and other texts from the vicinity of the king's court -

myths hymns and prayers rituals incantations omen texts grammatical and lexical texts mathematical and astronomical texts It seems appropriate to begin with the genre of royal inscriptions which is attested almost for the whole era of Middle Assyrian kings. Inspite of the stereotyped nature of these texts, we can see significant changes in the diction and the linguistic expression. The first written evidence of typical Middle Assyrian forms in royal inscriptions originates from the reign of of Puzur-Assur 111 (around ISOOBCE).36 At

35

Dietz Otto Edzard, "Literatur," in Reallexikon der Assyriologie 7, ed. Dietz Otto Edzard (Berlin: Waiter de Gruyter, 1987-1990 ), 35; Rollig, Land- und Viehwirtschaft, 48. RIMA 1, A.o.6u:n und A.o.61.2:7 ru-ba-u.

MIDDLE ASSYRIAN

1145

the same time, features of older language stages can be found, 37 so that these inscriptions clearly represent a transition phase from Old Assyrian. 38 The use of Middle Babylonian forms also reveals that there must have been additional influences from abroad. This situation has actually continued for the entire Middle Assyrian period, i.e. the Assyrian scribes have never established Assyrian as the exclusive language of royal inscriptions, even in times of political and military dominance. Royal Inscriptions and Other Texts from the Vicinity of the King's Court For a long time, from Assur-nerari I (before 1500BCE) to Eriba-Adad I (138o1354BCE), the inscriptions of Assyrian kings were usually rather short. 39 They comprised the name and titles of the ruler, or sometimes the mention of construction projects. Inscriptions from the time of Assur-uballit (1353-1318BcE) generally appear more elaborated without fundamental differences in both form and content. It was not until Arik-den-ili (1307-I2g6BCE) , however, that reports on military campaigns were incorporated in royal inscriptions. This aspect was becoming ever more important during the thirteenth and twelfth centuries BCE. The narrations about the king's victories were increasing in volume whereby particular attention was paid to the refinement of the written style. It is certainly no coincidence that these developments were linked to a major political change in Assyria. The reign of Assur-uballit I can be considered as the great turning point. With the end of the Mittanian oppression and the subsequent policy of territorial expansion, leading to a claim for recognition as a "great king", the Assyrian ruler tried to establish himself on the international diplomatic stage. The continual pursuit of a demonstration of the new-found prestige virtually required sooner or later new expressions and linguistic devices. In this respect, the inscriptions of the thirteenth century were the first highlight within a long-term process. Based on the relatively good evidence of royal inscriptions from the Middle Assyrian capitals the reports of victories and conquests on the one hand or the lack of them in other phases on the other hand may give in fact an indication of the political situation in Assyria. With this in mind the low number 2.1.1

37 38

39

RIMA I,

A.o.61.1:7 mu-us-fa-[im; A.o.61.2:6 as-su-ri-tim.

The general period of upheaval, however, had started already before. Thus, an invention like the "address to a later prince", in connection to a curse or blessing is attested for the first time under the rule of Assur-nerari 1, the predecessor of Puzur-Assur Ill (RIMA I, A.o.6o.4:8). RIMA I, A.o.6o-A.0.72.

JAKO B

1146

(11g6-1193BCE) and Mutakkil-Nusku of inscriptions betw een Assur-nadin-apli but shou ld be seen as an eloq uent (1133 BCE) was certainly not only by chance, e days. This phas e cam e to an end sign of the decline of Assyrian power in thos the thro ne. He calle d hims elf the whenAssur-resa-i:si I (1132-1115BCE) asce nded 40 and tried to cont inue on the old "avenger of Assyria" (mut er gimi l kurAssur) note d that the men tion of military road to success. Nevertheless, it should be secti on of a buil ding insc ripti on on achi evem ents is limited to the intro duct ory

clay cone fragments from Nineveh. ent of this genr e at the beginIt is therefore surprising to see the deve lopm r, Tiglath-pileser I (1114-1076 BCE). ning of the reign of the imm edia te successo real annals. Them es, trea ted within For the first time, royal inscriptions cont ain , were deal t with in a mor e detailed the list of titles so far, directly or indirectly : the king's conc ern for the reconman ner now. These include the following people; the addi ton of new lands struc tion and prosperity of his land and 41 vated land. However, ther e was and people to Assyria; the expansion of culti impo rtati on and plan ting of exotic a whole series of new topics, namely the wild anim als whic h were brou ght to trees; the gathering of flocks and herds of als. 42 Assyria; the hunt ing and killing of wild anim ser I mark ed the begi nnin g of a In this respect, the inscriptions ofTiglath-pile estab lishe d in thos e days turn ed out new era. The narrative structures that were up to the time s of Assu r-da n 11 (934to be formative for the centuries to come, lti:-Ninurta 11 (8go -884 BCE ) and, 912BCE), Adad-nerari: 11 (gn-8g1BCE), Tuku is also of inter est that som e Middle finally, Ashurnasirpal n (883-85gBcE). It l insc ripti ons duri ng this period.43 Assyrian epigraphic features survived in roya specific linguistic pecu larit ies of the Besides the shap e of signs we can see that like, for exam ple, the chan ge from Middle Assyrian/Middle Babylonian time to lt44 are still vivid. s cam e into bein g in whic h the Alongside the official inscriptions, royal epic are in man y ways relat ed to the king hims elf also plays the leading role. They The earli est know n Mid dle Assyrian royal narratives of military achievements. rari 1 (1295-1264BCE). The text deals royal epic stem s from the reign of Adad-ne the king of Babylonia. It start s with with the conflict betw een that king and

st

40 41 42 43

44

RIMA 1, A.o.86.1:8. Grayson, Asryrian Rulers, 6. Grayson, Asryrian Rulers, 6. At nued until the reign of Ashu rnasi rpal 11. The use of Middle Assyrian sign forms conti ones ional tradit to next d existe forms New that time, we can see a period of transi tion. ssyrian). = Middle-Assyrian; 7a "ti" Neo-A (see, for instan ce, KAH 2, 94:7a "ba"; 6b "su" n 1.4. passim (Ashu rnasi rpal 11); cf. abov e sectio See al-ta-kan in RIMA 2, A.o.101.1 i 94 and

MIDDLE ASSYRIAN

1147

a hymnal preface, a praise to the king. Then, we can track the preparation for battle. First, the two opponents restrict themselves to exchanging messages. A particular interest here is, in our context, the historical review given by Adadnerarl. The accusations containted therein relate to serious offences of the Babylonians from the past to present. However, the concept of the "breaker of an oath" (etiq miimiti) appears as a key aspect. The struggle against Babylonia is the completion of his father's deeds that ultimately remained incomplete. The same line of argumentation can be traced in the Epic of TukultiNinurta I (1233-1197BCE), grand son of Adad-nerarl 1. Again, it is a Babylonian king (by the name of Kastiliasu IV) who has transgressed contractual obligations as an etiq miimlti. But he seems nowhere near being the only evildoer of his dynasty. Tukulti-Ninurta stresses that the inherited perfidy of the Babylonians had already begun at the time of Kurigalzu (II) who had sinned against Assyria by violating the treaty with Assur-uballit. Each generation is highlighted separately, one after the other. The Assyrian king is keen to emphasize that the wrongs of the Babylonians have continued from king to king, from past times until now. Finally, Kastiliasu appears to be little more than the last descendant of a ragged house long bereft of dignity. It is obvious that there is a clear connection between these two epics, both ideologically and linguistically. The authors remain anonymous so far, but we can take it for certain that they came from the close vicinity of the king. Furthermore, it should not be excluded that they were part of the royal family or the socio-economic elite in general, and there is reason to believe that these were the same people who had designed and written official inscriptions. A close relationship between these texts and the epics, however, cannot be denied. This can be observed in particular in the Tukulti-Ninurta Epic. Even though the story focuses on the conflict between Assyria and Babylonia, including the dirty and dark deeds of the Babylonian king, as we have seen, there are sections where Tukulti-Ninurta is praised for his victories over, for instance, nomadic groups or the princes and kings of all enemy countries: pd ilten kullat qutl useskin [ ... a!Jl]am£ sap$ilte u kurRapiqu useknis gimra [ ... m] iitiiti gunni rube sakkanaki miiliki utemme!J 45

45

BM 121033 rev. 13'-14', cf. Peter Machinist, "The Epic ofTukulti-Ninurta I" (PhD diss., Yale

University, 1978), 124. The lacunae in the main fragment "N from Nineveh can now be filled by a fragment from Assur (vAT 10722+12178, to be published in the series KAL).

-,-JAKOB

1148

He brought under one comman d the Qutu (nomads ), [... ] resistant [A Jrameans and the land Rapiqu as a whole [... e ]nemy countries , the masses 46 of princes, governors (and) counselors he seized. The connection to the conflict with the Babylonian king does not evolve at first sight. One would expect a sentence detailing the backgrou nd to the conflict in a royal inscription, for example in an introduct ory section including a list of the king's military achievements. Then again, it is proven by many other passages of the work that the poetic diction stands out in contrast to more standard reports about warfare and building projects. Although Middle Babylonian is the predomin ant dialect, there are not only a few ordinary Middle Assyrian word forms as is the case with royal inscriptio ns. In fact, the Assyrian scribe pays particula r attention to terms which occur rarely if at all elsewhere, particularly in everyday texts. 47 One can clearly sense the effort to create a highly literate language which is built on both Assyrian and Babyloni an influences. The Tukulti-Ninurta Epic is unquestio nably the most importan t Middle Assyrian epic text so far. But other smaller fragments, such as the reports about 48 different campaigns ofTiglath-pileser 1 or the hymn about Ashurnas irpal 149 as a 'hunter' show the flourishing of the genre in the Middle Assyrian period. All these narration s are characterised in that the main character, the king, does not speak himself. Rather, there is a narrator who is standing complete ly outside, depicting the great deeds of the monarch in the third person singular. Apart from narratives which refer to historically determin able rulers there is a text from Assur telling of Alulu, the first mythical king on earth who had reigned for 36,ooo years. 5° The state of preservat ion does not allow a complete analysis of that text, but we can say, however, that the dialect used is mainly Babylonian with some Assyrian words and forms.

46

47

48

49

so

3s. It is worth noting that the verb forms u5e5kin, useknis and utemmeb can be both 1s and in person third the of use the with accordance in chosen been has The translation above sections, building and narratives military with s inscription royal In epic. the of parts other however, the same forms shall be understood as a first person. E.g. namungatu "stiffuess, tenseness" (CAD N/II, 253); sagu "to trouble(?)" (CADS, 27). A Freydank, MARV v, no. So; Victor Hurowitz and Joan Goodnick Westenhol z, "LKA 63: of journal campaign," manu Mu~ru-Qu I's ser heroic poem in celebration of Tiglath-pile Cuneiform Studies 42 (1990 ): 1-49. Eckart Frahm, Historische und historisch-literarische Texte (Wiesbade n: Harrassowitz, 2009), 77· Frahm, Historische, 74·

MIDDLE ASSYRIAN

1149

Interestingly, there are apparently no forerunners of the Middle Assyrian historical epics in the early second millennium. Similarly, in the case of Babylonia, royal narratives did not appear until the end of the Old-Babylonian period. 5 1 Whether and how far the literature of the southern neighbour might have influenced the Assyrian tradition cannot be decided at present. Such a connection is excluded in the case of those texts that are written exclusively in Assyrian. In addition to the aforementioned narratives from the time of Tiglath-pileser I and Ashurnasirpal I several other texts are to be named here, the so-called ''treaty" of Adad-nerarl I with the Babylonian king Kadasman-Turgu 52 as well as the chronicles of Assyrian kings and their deeds. 53 Into this category also belongs the "harem edicts", a collection of royal decrees from Assur-uballit to Tiglath-pileser I, i.e. from the fourteenth to the eleventh century BCE.54 This text contains, in chronological order, one individual section for each king. The main topic is the behaviour demanded of the women who are living into the harem and the eunuchs who have access to that area. Furthermore, we learn from the harem edicts which officials are responsible for training and supervision of court attendants. Particular mention is to be made of the "palace adnministrator" (sa mu!J!Ji ekalle), the "palace herald" (nagir ekalle ), the "chief supervisor" (rab zariqe) and the "physician of the Inner Quarters" (asu sa betanu ). 55 It is worth noting that the regulations of this collection are not restricted to the inner area of the palace, but also concern the behaviour of the harem's women, for instance, whenever they travel abroad together with the king. Apart from these texts from the direct vicinity of the court, there are several others concerning public interests in different ways. Special attention should be given to a number of tablets with law provisions of different issue, excavated in As sur. 56 It is common to refer to the numbering of the first edition, so we are talking here about tablet A, B, C+G, D, E, F, K, L, M, Nand 0. 57 They are usually treated together as a collection, even though the archaeological context

51 52 53 54 55 56 57

The earliest example of this is the epic of Zimri-Lim, v. Michael Guichard, L'epopee de Zimri-Lim (Paris: SEPOA, 2014). Frahm, Historische, no. 65 (side a 3' qar-ru-bu; 7' id-di-nu-ni; 13' u-se-bi-Lu-su-ni). Frahm, Historische, no. 59-61. Erich Weidner, "Hof- und Harems-Erlasse assyrischer Konige aus dem 2. jahrtausend v. Chr.," Archivfor Orientforschung 17 (1954-56): 257-93. Stefanjakob, "Economy, Society, and Daily Life in gthe Middle Assyrian Period," in A Companion toAssyria, ed. Eckart Frahm (Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley Blackwell, 2017), 148. Martha T. Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor (Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press, 1995), 154-94. Erich Weidner, "Das Alter der mittelassyrischen Gesetze," Archiv for Orientforschung 12

]AKOB

1150

complex. The first two tablets of the individual tablets and fragments is more to the easte rn corn er of the (A and B) were found in the debris of a gate next ym Saggi'u, i.e. to the reign of Anu-Adad temple. Tablet A is dated to the epon 58 st exclusively with wom en as Ninurta-apil-ekur (n81-n6g BCE ). It deals almo given to blasphemy, assault, victims or as defendants. Particular focus has been abort ion. All in all, we learn sexual offenses, homicide, veiling, witchcraft and girl or wom an in the society a lot of the rights and obligations of an individual to her family of origin and to of the Middle Assyrian period, both in relation relate to the inher itanc e law, her husband's family. The provisions of table t B private fields. purch ase and sale of real estate and irrigation on ents from diffe rent places fragm The remaining texts are more or less small g them (C+G) was found in in the city area of Assur. The best preserved amon Assur. It treat s in particular the courtyard of the temple of the supre me god, ts D-0 are difficult to undercases of infringement of property rights. The table nisable, the topic s are, for stand due to the state of conservation. Whe re recog ents and false accusation. instance, theft, deception, maritime traffic accid grou p of texts whic h docA completely different genre is represented by a of the king" (sa mubbe umen t formulas for ointment, partly for the "head du) that at least one copy sarre).5 9 It is clear from the eponym date (Sunu-qar lti-Ninurta I. 60 Obviously, was written in the first decade of the reign of Tuku what was said by the perthe Assyrian scribe took dictation and wrote down near the end of the text: ina fume maker. This is proven by the following line rpted acco rding to the oral piTappilti-Belat-ekalle, muraqqtte naslja ~~(text) exce le perfu me maker" (KAR 220 comm unica tion by Tappiitl-Belat-ekalle, the fema this form with in the Ancient kol. iv g'). These formulas are currently uniqu e in inolo gy used pose s various Mesopotamian text corpus. Thus, the peculiar term 61 unde niabl e that it is entirely problems for mode m readers. Nevertheless it is given circu msta nces. writt en in Assyrian, as we would expect unde r the

ss

59 6o 61

(KAV193) in Weidn ers's list are actually (1937-1939): 47· Note that tablets H (KAV144) and] not legal texts, but rituals as we know nowadays. Eponymen van Tukultf-Ninurta I. bis TuSee Helm ut Freydank, Assyrische jahresbeamte. The view which used to prevail, i.e. kultf-apil-esarra I (Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2016), 30. library of Tiglat h-pile ser (cf. Roth, led that the collection was conne cted with the so-cal te. obsole Law Collections, 154), is therefore Jakob, Untersuchungen, 483.

Rollig, Land- und Viehwirtschaft, 4· l term. The literal mean ing is "washing" In this context, massutu, for instance, is a centra in Middle Assyrian or Babylonian texts (CAD M/II, 328), but the lack of further references secon d examp le is the verb tabiiku "to complicates the interp retatio n in these texts. A It is used here to design ate a longer ngs). pour liquids" (cf. CAD T, 1, for the variety of meani

MIDDLE ASSYRIAN

1151

Finally, reference should be made to several fragments from a collection of directives concerning the training of horses for chariots. These texts describe in detail the diet and the times of moving around or reposing. They are written in a pure Middle Assyrian dialect by a horse trainer (susanu) named [ ]-keni.6 2 Thus, it seems like the author was an Assyrian and, therefore, the training skills were available in the Middle Assyrian army. Myths The mythological narratives from the Middle Assyrian era form part of the "stream of tradition" as it is known to us from earlier periods in Babylonia or the Neo-Assyrian time respectively. Among them, "!Star's Decent to Hades" is the best preserved one. On a linguistic point of view, the Middle Assyrian Assur recension is close to the later one from the first millennium Nineveh, despite small variants. It should nevertheless be stated that the older version is firstly more detailed in several places, 63 secondly there are Assyrian forms instead of Babylonian ones. 64 The poem begins with the descent of !Star, goddess of love and war, into the Netherworld. Passing the seven gates of Hades she is required to take off her clothes by and by (a symbol of the loss of power). In this state Istar faces Ereskigal, the queen of the Netherworld, who is enraged about her presence and refuses to let her return to earth. Through the intervention of Ea, god of wisdom, !Star is finally allowed to leave the Netherworld, but only on the condition that her lover Dumuzi would go there instead. In this regard the Middle Assyrian version corresponds exactly to the Neo-Assyrian one. The differences are concealed in the details. Thus, the first millennium text reads in I. n "over the door and the bolt dust has settled". And the earlier recension adds: "over the door beam a deathly silence has sunk". After I. 23 the sentence "Hold it, my lady, do not knock it down!" is followed by the additional phrase Wait inside, 2.1.2

11

work process in the preparation of ointments. Thus, the phrase ina erblsu tabakika "when you pour out for the fourth time" is followed by a comprehensive description of a procedure where the different phases of preparation are mentioned (boiling water in special vessels, adding herbs, leaving the mixture to stand overnight etc.), see Erich Ebeling, "Mittelassyrische Rezepte zur Herstellung van wohlriechenden Salben," Orientalia 17 (1948): 301:28. 62 63 64

Erich Ebeling, Bruchstilcke einer mittelassyrischen Vorschriftensammlungfo r die Akklimatisierung van Wagenpferden (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1951), 13. Rykle Borger, Babylonisch-assyrische Lesestilcke. 2., neubearbeitete Aujlage (Roma: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum, 1979 ), 96 (e.g. Ass. obv. 10, 16; rev. 36-37 ). Borger, Lesestilcke, 98: Ass. obv. 39 pi-ta-as-se ( ) Nin obv. 37 pi-ta-as-si; Ass. obv. 41 ip-taas-se ( ) Nin obv. 39 ip-ta-as-si.

JAKOB

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the door will be opened".65 Overall, we can say that the Neo-Assyrian compilers have striven to streamlining the text of the myth, creating a more concise version in this way. Another standard piece of Mesopo tamian literatur e which can be found 66 in the Middle Assyrian text corpus is the narratio n of Etana, the "shepherd of who ascends to heaven" on an eagle. He was a Sumeria n antedilu vian king Kish and requeste d the Plant of Birth for his childless wife. He failed in his attempt , just before reaching his destination, and fell down to earth. The Middle Assyrian fragments do not differ significantly in their languag e from the Neo-Assyrian tablets, but a detailed linguistic analysis is impossi ble due to the conditio ns of preservation. These small remains, however, show that the Epic of Etana was well-known to Middle Assyrian scholars. Only recently, a Middle Assyrian version of "Atraml].asis", a creation myth 67 from the early second millennium, could be identified. The fragmen t in question consists of 17lines, dealing with the creation of man by the goddess Beletili. For this purpose, she takes fourteen pieces of clay, seven to the left and seven to the right, and by doing so she creates men and women. The diction of this Middle Assyrian fragment is much closer to the Neo-Assyrian version than to d the Old Babylonian one. Proof of this is the fact that, inter alia, the preserve 68

verb forms are Assyrian without exception. There is also a group of fragments from the area of love poetry, namely 69 "duets" between gods and goddesses. They are a particul ar kind among the Middle Assyrian religious texts, in some respects similar to Babylon ian forerun70 ners from the first half of the second millenn ium onwards. These fragments resemble each other in their characteristic style and script. Thus, it seems likely that they were originally part of the same tablet. The languag e is Middle Baby71 lonian with occasional Assyrian forms. One male and one female person are having an erotic dialogue, praising their qualities, the palace as their home and

6s 66

Resurrection Translation by Pirjo Lapinkivi, The Neo-Assyrian Myth of !Star's Descent and (Helsinki: Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project, 2010 ), 29. rian Text CorJamie R. Novotny, The Standard Babylonian Etana Epic (Helsinki: Neo-Assy pus Project, 2001), 51. (unpublis hed). In parts a duplicate of K3399 +3934 (Neo-Assyrian); see Wilfred ), 6o f. G. Lambert and Alan R. Millard, Atra-!Jasis (Winona Lake: Eisenbrau ns, 1999 (see ibid.); version E.g. VAT 11044:9' and 10' reads taskun vs. iskun in the Old Babyloni an

VAT 11044

68

69 70

further examples are 1. s' ta-ma-nu and 1. 6' tam-nu-u. 2018), 77-82. Stefanjak ob, Ritualanweisungen und Gebete III (Wiesbad en: Harrassow itz, 10 (1988): gica Sumerolo Acta ," Lovesongs of Catalogue ary See Irvin L. Finkel, "A Fragment 17. E.g. Jakob, Ritualanweisungen, no. 33 rev. iii 10' ... tus-ra-be.

MIDDLE ASSYRIAN

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the city of Assur. The narrator used a poetic language, enriched with metaphors from the plant realm such as those similarly present in the Song of Songs. 72 Hymns and Prayers There are many ways to express the human search for contact with the divine sphere; be it out of gratitude, for instance, or in relation to a kind of penitential psalm. Texts that stand out in this category are those in which Assyrian rulers directly address a god or goddess. 73 A bilingual (Sumerian-Akkadian) prayer of Tukulti-Ninurta 174 is the first one of this type. It is usually dated to the late phase of the king's reign. The complaint about the disloyalty of all lands to the Assyrian supreme god, Assur, seems to fit perfectly into a time when Assyrian power faded. In fact, the contrast to the Epic of Tukulti-Ninurta could not be bigger: 2.1.3

kip pat lemutti miitiitu iilka Assur mitl;aris lamiisuma reya multeser niseka sa tabbu pu [l;ru ... ]

the lands of one accord have surrounded your city Assur with a noose of evil, all [of them] have come to hate the shepherd whom you named, who administers your people (translation by B. Foster) 75 The context in which this psalm came into being is not entirely clear to us. In other cases we know more about the ((Sitz im Leben" of royal prayers. This is particularly true of the so far little documented period in the second half of the eleventh century, i.e. from Samsi-Adad IV (1053-IOSOBCE) and his immediate successors Ashurnasirpal I (1049-1031BCE) and Shalmaneser n (1o3oI019BCE).76 There the goddess !Star plays a central role. It can be assumed that a causal connection existed between the prayer and the royal rites of the New Year's Festival. It is of special interest here that the same text was used unmodified across at least two generations. Only the name of the king has been replaced. 77

72

73 74 75 76 77

E.g. Jaka b, Ritualanweisungen, no. 33 rev. iii n'-12' ki illur sa $Cri sub [ilte ... sa] !star sa simiini "like a fresh blooming illuru-flower of the desert, the ear ... of the goddess !Star at the maturity time". See Jakob, Ritualanweisungen, 17-35. KAR 128 & 129, see Benjamin Foster, Before the Muses (Bethesda: CDL Press, zoos), 318-23. Foster, Before the Muses, 319. Jakob, Ritualanweisungen, 17-21. See Jakob, Ritualanweisungen, zoaS'.

]AKOB 1154

Incantations ous types of inca ntat ions can be found. In the body of Middle Assyrian texts vari in the Babylonian dialect, but also disThose tablets are pred omi nant ly writ ten As far as we can judg e e.g. on the play num erou s characteristics of Assyrian. are mai nly from the peri od between basis of thei r archaeological context, they

2.1.4

78

. the thirt eent h and eleventh century BCE ther apeu tic proc edur es. In the belief and ls Inca ntat ions accompanied ritua and misf ortu ne coul d be caus ed by of Ancient Near Eastern people, diseases the appe aran ce of cert ain anim als or a various external causes. These included 79 e a wra thfu l deit y or a "ban" (mamftu) disaster indi cate d by earthquakes. Sinc been the source of evil, the repertoire imp osed by the gods might also have inte nde d to app ease the deity or of inca ntat ions comprises those that were be cons ulte d whe n one felt haun ted release the ban. A magic expert could also 80 by the influence of witchcraft. r have a pure Assyrian background. Some incantations and rituals from Assu 81 of the spirit of the dead . The sun-god One example is a ritual for the defense are men tion ed in the con text of variSamas and the mythical king Gilgames (sebtu) and a liba tion bowl (maqqu). ous actions involving an incense burn er rian ones. The sam e is the case with a The word endings are exclusively Assy the supr eme god Assur in the Assyrian ritual that takes place in the temple of n acto r of the ritual activity is performcapital. 82 The "priest" (sangu) as the mai of thes e days he perf orm s libations ing several rites for at least three days. One with the statu e of the god. The whole of beer while approaching the pedestal cult involving the god Assur and his ritual process is integrated into the state . It is thus evid ent that the tradition representative on earth, the Assyrian king language is con sequ entl y from the of this ritual is purely Assyrian, and the ons of that peri od, the ritua l literature same origin. Unlike with royal inscripti ted relevance in time and space. is inte nded for internal use only, of limi

Omen Texts enni um BCE ther e was a lively interDuring the second half of the second mill ng Assyrian scholars.s3 The literary est in divinatory texts from Babylonia amo 2.1.5

78 79 So 81 82

83

sbaden: n and Middle As.syrian Incan tatio ns (Wie Elyze Zomer, Corpus ofMiddle Babylonia Harrassowitz, 2018), 146-5 3. Harrashreibungen und Gebete 1 (Wie sbad en: Stefan Maul and Rita StrauB, Ritualbesc ke). sowitz, 2011 ), no. 1 (birds); no. 9 (eart hqua s, 147. See the overview in Zomer, Incantation Jakob, Ritualanweisungen, 55· Jakob, Ritualanweisungen, 57· HeeBel, Divinatorische Texte, 1 ff.

MIDDLE ASSYRIAN

1155

works of the southern neighbour were adopted and the Assyrians acquired the local knowledge of divination, in at least one case this acquisition took place by force, namely by plundering cuneiform tablets as part of the booty of war. 84 This also explains why the language of the omen texts in Middle Assyrian script is closer to the Babylonian origin than to the Assyrian dialect. Grammatical and Lexical Texts Since the very beginning of cuneiform culture lexical texts were an important tool for the hand of prospective scribes. That was not different during the Middle Assyrian period. We have evidence of examples of the most common lexical genres: among them Ur5-ra = l].ubullu, vocabulary Sh A, lists of gods, and various types of bilingual texts. 85 The language used, however, is Akkadian with few distinct Middle Assyrian features.86 2.1.6

2.1.7 Mathematical and Astronomical Texts Within the so-called "library of Tiglath-pileser" texts with mathematical and astronomical content can also be found. They reflect, however, Babylonian traditions rather than Assyrian innovations. 87 With regard to the language used the same applies here as to the grammatical and lexical texts.

Fables and Contest Literature "The Tamarisk and the Palm" refers to a debate between these two trees about their superiority. On the one hand, the text follows the pattern of older Sumerian fables, but it is written in Middle Assyrian dialect on the other hand. 88 "The fable of the fox" does not have explicit Sumerian roots. As we know from a colophon, this composition was originally quite extensive, but only a few fragments have survived. This includes at least two pieces from the Middle Assyrian period. 89 The main characters are firstly two wild animals, the fox and the wolf, and secondly the dog as the trusty guardian of the man's flocks. It is very clear 2.1.8

84 85 86 87

88 89

Machinist, "Epic ofTukulti-Ninurta," 128f., 367f. See Niek Veldhuis, History of the Cuneifonn Lexical Tradition (Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2014), 324ff. Veldhuis, History, 330-32. Mathematical: A 20+VAT 9734, see Otto Neugebauer, Mathematische Keilschrifttexte I (Berlin: Springer, 1935), 46f.; astronomical: KAV 218 "Astrolabe B", inter alia a bilingual menology and a commentary on fixed stars from the twelfth century BCE (eponym year of Ikkaru; see Freydank, jahresbeamte, 151 ). VAT 10102, see Wilfred G. Lambert, Babylonian Wisdom Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960 ), 158-61. VAT 13836, VAT 10349, VAT lll93 (Lambert, Wisdom, 192-98).

JAKOB

1156

ition to the dog, that in the beginning fox and wolf are friends, standi ng in oppos clog's boastthe s praise but on the reverse of VAT 13836 it is told how the wolf subseq uently ing about his might in a humbl e and flattering manne r. The fox which has wolf) the (i.e. brings a list of accusations against his (former) friend with a speech of obviously switched sides. The preserved part of the fable ends the dog. down to Finally, is is to be still pointe d out that also proverbs have come al (Sumerianus from Middle Assyrian times. The text in questi on is bilingu dialect,90 an Akkadian) withou t any clear indication of a distinctive Assyri

Everyday Texts one hand and This category includes texts from the state admin istrati on on the it should latter, the texts from private houses on the other hand. Especially for "private" and be underl ined that often no clear separa tion is made betwe en connections close are "state". In many cases, it can be demon strated that there ts. This may be to the "palace" (i.e. the royal administration) in private contex his family as an of er due to the activity of either the archive's owner or a memb nt kinds.91 It official or as a supplier of raw materials or end produ cts of differe ve documents is therefore not very unusual that one can also find admin istrati concerning state activities in private archives. dependWe can differentiate several types of admin istrativ e docum ents, inventories ing on the intend ed purpose. There are brief notes, memo randa, texts tended and other lists of different kinds as well as letters. Most of these as in the litto be highly formalized. The language used is actually the same nt. It is obvious erary genres, but the meaning of certain terms can be differe y at the latest. that a specialist jargon began to emerge in the thirtee nth centur is largely the Thus, the use of tuppu "tablet" and naspertu "written docum ent" ki$irtu "binding same as in earlier (also Babylonian) periods, where as the term l administrative document" is restricted to Assyrian contexts reflecting a specia to a special procedure. That noun derives from the root k$r "to bind" and refers ction with the type of tablet concerning legal responsibilities, mainly in conne example, the 92 for transfer of commodities. Within the royal admin istrati on, the responcorresponding verb ka$Ciru was used to denote the person who took 93 example ting sibility for the factual accuracy of a procedure. Anoth er interes

2.2

go 91 92 93

.-:

10251 (Lambert, Wisdom, 225ff.). Olof Pederse n, Archives KAJ wg; KAJ 133 (Postgate, Urad-Seriia, 68-6g; 150-51); see also , 1985), gz; 114; u8; 122. Wiksell & st Almqvi a: (Uppsal I Part Assur. of City and Libraries in the For detailed informa tion see Postgate, Bureaucracy, 70-73. ungstexte I (Berlin: AkaHelm ut Freydank, Mittelassyrische Rechtsurkunden und Verwalt

VAT

MIDDLE ASSYRIAN

1157

is the verb Lapatu D with the meaning ''to write, to record". This usage is obviously restricted to Old and Middle Assyrian. Evidence for the latter period, to be more precise, only comes from a letter of the vizier Babu-al].a-iddina (second half of the thirteenth century BCE) 94 and an administrative document from nearly the same time, unearthed in the West of the Assyrian realm. 95 In numerous other cases we also can observe that certain specific terms slightly change their meaning in administrative contexts. The most instructive examples are listed here:9 6 $abatu "to seize": receiving of a binding document after completion of an administrative procedure (e.g. fulfilling of a contract for work or service). Laqa,u "to take away (objects, persons etc.)": general term for the use of items or personnel by the administration. - kasasu "to exact services for a debt or fine": mobilisation of personnel based on special conditions. - nasii)u "to lift, to take": acquisition and transfer of military units. - sakanu "to place something for a particular purpose": the verb is used in the context of the accommodation of foreign craftsmen, possibly prisoners of war. This is a way to express where these people are accommodated. !Jarranu "military campaign": against the opinion of the dictionaries, the Middle Assyrian use of this term seems to have been slightly different from older periods. It didn't refer necessarily to a military campaign of the king, but rather to a raid, conducted by smaller military units. 97 - panisu( nu) ka)Julu "to escort": this term is missing in the dictionaries so far. In texts from the Western provinces it refers to a person or group that is escorting travellers or diplomats during their journey on the territory of the Assyrian realm.

demie-Verlag, 1976), no. 73:15; see also John N. Postgate, review of Mittelassyrische Rechtsurkunden und Verwaltungstexte I, by Helm ut Freydank, Bibliotheca Orienta/is 37 (1980 ): 94 95 96 97

70. CAD L, 91 s.v. c).

Jakob, Tell Chuera, Ss. Cf.Jakob, Tell Chuera, 23-25, for further examples. Especially worthy of mention is the adminstrative document KAJ 103 ( c£ CAD Ij, n2; AHw, 327 s.v. 6). There it is stated that the mayor of Assur has issued rations for "14 $iibe kassi'e bubte sa Kardunias sa 2 barriiniite". This passage has often been interpreted as a proof of the two military campaigns of Tukulti-Ninurta 1 against Babylonia. Even though these campaigns really took place, KAJ 103 rather reflects the activity of two military units, see Stefan Jakob, "Diplomaten in Assur-Alltag oder Anzeichen fiir eine internationale Krise?" in Assur und sein Umland !m Andenken an die ersten Ausgraber van Assur, eds. Peter A. Miglus andjoaquin Ma Cordoba (Madrid: UAM Ed., 2007), 106. Thus the correct translation is "14 Kassite captives from two raids".

jAKOB

1158

Occasionally, we find quotations of oral communica tion in administrative documents. The most important terms are: "after statement (from); at the behest (of)" - ana sipirte

- tema sakiinu "to instruct" "to receive an instruction" - tema laqii'u An important group within this context is formed by letters of officials and courtiers.98 The majority of the Middle Assyrian letters date back to the thirteenth century BCE, whereby more than half of them have been unearthed 99 outside of the Assyrian heartland. The introductory section of these documents is standardised as follows: ana PN1 qibfma umma PNz "to PN1 speak! Thus speaks PN 2 ". If a subordinate addresses a superior, he adds another sentence by which he expresses his loyalty: ultaka"in ana diniin belija attalak "I prostrate myself. I am at the disposal of my lord", often supplemente d by a remark like the following one: [an ]a sarre 100 u ekalle sulmu "The king and the palace are all well". Letters are interesting, notably because the dialect which is used there is 101 assumed to be close to the contemporary spoken language. Many quotations of direct speech are to be found. In addition, there are references to written conversation. In this context, present perfect is used as standard and past tense to express anteriority. Two further types of text must also be mentioned here. First, there are the Middle Assyrian royal edicts, mainly from the reign ofTukult1-Ninurta I (12341197BCE).102 A typical introduction reads as follows: MARV (I) 17:1-6103

"From the month of Sa-sarn1te, eleventh day 2) lfme 1Ninu'iiye, mar Assur-iddin in the eponym year of Ninu'aye, son of Assur-iddin

1) istu itiSa-sarriite, U4.n.KAM

98 99 100 101

102

For an introduction to the subject see Eva Cancik-Kirschb aum, Die mittelassyrisch en Briefe aus Tall Se& Jfamad (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1996), 49-71. Cancik-Kirschbaum, Tall Se& lfamad, 49· BATSH 4/1, n:s (Cancik-Kirsch baum, Tall Se& lfamad, 154). A concise overview of the Middle Assyrian correspondenc e is offered by Jaume Llop, "Middle Assyrian Letters: a New Survey," Aula Orientalis 30 ( 2012 ): 289-306; see also de Ridder, Grammar, 436-39. John N. Postgate, "Middle-Assyrian to Neo-Assyrian: The Nature of the Shift," in As0frien im Wandel der Zeiten, eds. Hartmut Waetzoldt and Harald Hauptmann (Heidelberg: Heidelberger Orientverlag, 1997), 161-64. Helm ut Freydank, "Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta als Agrarprovinz," Altorientalisch e Forschungen 36 (2009): 71f.

MIDDLE ASSYRIAN

3) 4) s) 6)

1159

Tukult£-Ninurta, uklu mar Sulmanu-asared, uklu mar Adad-nerar£, ukluma riksa irkus

Tukulti-Ninurta, overseer the son of Shalmaneser, overseer, the son of Adad-neniri, overseer issued a decree."

First among the addressees are high officials of the royal administration. In many cases, such a decree can be considered as a written warning, so to speak, but also the recording of an act of favour, for instance a debt cancellation at the behest of the king. 104 Secondly, we would like to focus on two related text types. First of all, there are a number of official protocols from the Assyrian capital Assur. These are summaries of statements from suspects and witnesses in legal proceedings involving the king himself. 105 Neither should we forget the Solemn declaration" of Assur-iddin, an official of king Tukulti-Ninurta.I 06 It deals with the case of a suspected unauthorised use of royal property and personnel, namely of deportees from the Ijurri and Na'iri lands and from the land of Katmul].l].u. The declaration opens with the words: Assur-iddin, mar Urad-ilane ana pani sarre akia iqtibi CAssur-iddin, son of Urad-ilane, has spoken as follows in the king's presence"). At the end of the document Assur-iddin has to declare that he would have provoked the king to anger if he had done as presented in the previous lines ( ... Assur-iddin napsate sa sarre belisu izztar Assur-iddin has been guilty of treason (lit.: has hated the life of the king, his lord)"). 11

1

11

2.3 Middle Assyrian Personal Names Many name forms that we see in Middle Assyrian sources are also known from contemporary Babylonian texts. A large number of names refer to a god or goddess.107 Deserving particular mention are those containing the supreme god of the Assyrian pantheon, Assur. 108 Aside from this, the circle of the great gods occurred, in particular Adad, Sin, Samas, Ellil, Ninurta, Nabu and Ea, as well

104 105

1 o6

107

MARV IV 151, cf. Helm ut Freydank, "bitql batiiqu 'Abschneidungen abschneiden'," Altorien-

talische Forschungen 24 (1997): 105-8. The best preserved example is KAV 217. This tablet can be dated back to the end of the twelfth century or the beginning of the eleventh century BCE; see Helmut Freydank, "KAV 217, Protokoll iiber eine Staatsaktion?" Zeitschriftfor Assyriologie 82 (1992): 221-32. Freydank, "Agrarprovinz," 69. Claudio Saporetti, Onomastica medio-assira (Roma: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum, 1970 ), 177-200.

108

E.g. Assur-alik-pani "Assur is going in front of me" (Saporetti, Onomastica, 102-3); Assurbel-ilane "Assur, lord of the gods" (ibid., 107).

]AKOB

1160

may reflect, for as the goddesses !Star, Gula, Belat-ekalle, Serii'a. Such a name 109 a request,no or a example, a general statem ent about a god's interfer ence, 111 reference to the naming of the child. nian Starting in the fourtee nth century BCE, there is eviden ce of the Babylo middle god Marduk. Special mentio n must be made of Salman u. From the lly especia r popula e of the thirtee nth century BCE, this god obviously becam 112 within the royal family and its entourage. n Anothe r type of name is represe nted by those which refer to the Assyria demonking. This is by no means limited to the circle of (high) officials, as 13 strated by an administrative docum ent from Assur.I In In some cases the name of a city or a region is part of a person al name. Katthe provincial capital Diir-Katlimmu on the Upper Ijabiir river, a certain .l].u Katmul] mul].l].ayu was an official of the crown. His name refers to the land of 114 region. to the north of the Assyrian heartland. This was probab ly his native Assyrithe It is not excluded that the original name was a differe nt one, and it more ans in Diir-Katlimmu were not able to pronou nce it, or they consid ered of name A ). import ant to point out his place of origin (cf. the painter "El Greco" s origin. this type must not necessarily be, however, an indicat ion of the family' 115 Assurof son ", Thus, we know a Ninu'ayu, literally "the one from Nineveh iddin,116 and, consequently, grandn ephew of king Tukult i-Ninur ta 1. indiThe next type of name gives an insight into individ ual family situatio ns, 117 father,ns cating the birth of a younger brother, or the untime ly death of the eristics charact l physica only to name a few. Nor should it be forgotten that or Salimtu could be the origin of a name, as in the case of Kuri'u "the short one", n female Assyria certain "the black girl".119 Finally it has to be pointed out that s, for names do not follow any of the above- mentio ned pattern s. This include

109 110 111 112

113

114

Assur-musallim "Assur is granting success" (Saporetti, Onomast ica, ica, 396). Sin-apla-u~ur "Sin, take care of the heir" (Saporet ti, Onomast 179 ). Ber-nadi n-sumesu "Ber has given his name" (Saporetti, Onomast ica, ngen zur Stadt DfuBeziehu seine und u') Karen Radner, "Der Gott Salmanu ('Sulman 41ff. Katlimmu," Die Welt des Orients 29 (1998): a herdsma n in the One bearer of the name of U~ur-bel-sarre ("Bel, protect the king") was 365). hungen, Untersuc (Jakob, Assur vicinity of hen und mittelasCf. Khaled Nashef, Die Orts- und Gewassernamen der mittelba bylonisc 128.)

syrischen Zeit (Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1992), 167. Saporetti, Onomastica, 349· 116 Jakob, Tell Chuera, 17-18. 431-32). Samas-al].a-iddina "Samas gave me a brother" (Saporetti, Onomast ica, 117 24). ica, Onomast ti, (Saporet father" the know not do "I 118 Aba-la-ide 119 Jakob, Tell Chuera, 166; 167.

115

MIDDLE ASSYRIAN

1161

example Ina-same-sarrat "In the sky she is queen" and Ana-ruqi-alsiSi "Over the distance I called her by name."I20 As a consequence of the deportation policy during the second half of the thirteenth century, many Non-Assyrian ethnic groups were settled within the Assyrian heartland. The Hurrians for instance, brought with them their own traditions of naming and they often retained many of them. This also applies to other ethnic groups, such as Elamite people which are attested in administrative documents from the Western province Jjanigalbat,l21 The influemce of these groups on the name assignment of the autochthonous Assyrians can however not be proven.

3

Writing in Middle Assyrian Society

3.1 Writing Materials Middle Assyrian text documents were written on a variety of materials. First amongst these is clay which offers perfect conditions for everyday use, mainly in administrative contexts, because it is equally easy available, malleable and reusable, either for memoranda, work contracts or settlement of accounts. Besides this, clay is the material of choice for official inscriptions (bricks, tablets and prisms ). 122 The range of inscribed objects also includes stone slabs and tablets, 123 prisms, obelisks and stelae,124 as well as altars, amulets, door sockets, 125 vessels,126 knobs 127 and stone sarcophagus, 128 as well as metal plates and other

120 121 122

123 124

125 126 127 128

jakob, Tell Chuera, 165; 164. jakob, Tell Chuera, 97-103. In royal construction projects (palaces, temples) bricks with (stamped) inscriptions that provide information about the builder were used (Pedersen, Katalog, 160 ff. ). During the reign ofTiglath-Pileser 1 clay prisms came into fashion (ibid., 152 ff. ). In addition, there are inscriptions on knobs (ibid., 13off., 216) and jars made of clay (ibid., nsb and passim). Pedersen, Katalog, 33ff., 63ff.; 215f. Pedersen, Katalog, 57ff. The concept of stelae in a very special and unique form can be observed in the Asyrian capital Assur. The so-called "Stelenreihe" consists of several rows of narrow stelae: Most of their surface is left raw except a title block where a king, a royal official, or a member of the royal family is only mentioned by name (with or without filiation) and title, see Waiter Andrae, Die Stelenreilzen in Assur (Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1913). Pedersen, Katalog, sff. Pedersen, Katalog, 16ff. Pedersen, Katalog, 23f. Pedersen, Katalog, 52.

JAKOB

1162

metal objects_I29 All these writing surfaces have one thing in commo n: their durability. Official inscriptions, votive inscriptions etc. were not created only for the moment. On the contrary, they should be preserv ed for future generations. The value of administrative documents, treaties or private docume nts a was more limited in time, but it could also be desirable that they persist over certain period until they are no longer being used. On the other hand, textual evidence suggests that Middle Assyrian scribes used writing surfaces in administrative contexts where the script was not meant to last for a longer period of time. So we read in an adminis trative document from the second half of the thirteen th century that the annual accounts of a temple administration in the city of Assur had been prepare d on the basis 30 of so-called "le'u documents of the fatteners".l It is very likely that this relates to wooden writing-boards. There is no archaeological evidenc e from the Middle Assyrian period, but a Neo-Assyrian writing board from Nimrud might give us an idea of their appearance. 131 We could therefore imagine two wooden panels connect ed by hinges in the manner of a diptych. Both opposit e inner sides had a recessed surface filled with a wax-like substan ce. Such a writing board can principally be inscribed in the same way as a cuneifo rm tablet, but it offers the opportu nity to add supplements or to make modific ations of the text over a longer period. At present it is impossible to estimate to what extent these le'u docume nts were used. Nevertheless we must expect that a not inconsiderable part of the regular docume ntation was made in this way. The Middle Assyria n Syllabary The correct reproduction of a language that is fixed in cuneifo rm writing is based on a deep understanding of how close the written word is to the factual circumstances. The very nature of cuneiform writing to be potentia lly imprecise at particular points confronts modern scholars with various problems. On the other hand, the multiple levels of meaning of certain signs and the option to express a syllable in different ways can be a criterion in identifYing genres of texts when only fragments are available. With regard to the inventory of signs, however, there is only a minor difference between literary texts and administrative docume nts. The administration

3.2

129 130 131

Pedersen, Katalog, 2 ff. g to the {e'uMARV 2 19:28-29 Sa ptfe'iine sa ntqe sa Sa kuru{ti'e sa imta&nln i "accordin

377). document s of the fatteners which they have received" (see Jakob, Untersuch ungen, 17 Iraq Nimrud," from oard writing-b ivory the of Margaret Howard, "Technical descriptio n (1955): 14-20.

MIDDLE ASSYRIAN

1163

usually gave preference to unsophisticated sign forms (these are those with a low index number in modern sign lists). A closer look into the relevant archives suggests that only 200 signs were regularly used by the scribes.l 32 Hence one can find signs in royal inscriptions that were uncommon in administrative documents of that time, at least with the respective reading. They account for 13.8 °/o of all signs used. When other literary works from the environment of the royal court are taken into consideration (e.g. TukultiNinurta Epic = TNE, prayer of Tukulti-Ninurta = KAR 128), this value can be easily increased (see Table 16.1). Phonetic values that are not very common in administrative documents of the same period as the examples quoted in Table 16.1 can also be found in several other texts from the vicinity of the royal court. TABLE 16.1

MA

syllable values limited to literary texts (mainly royal inscriptions)

dr-ni dr ddb/p ddb-da-su-nu ddb-du ddb-de-e ddp-na 1Ka-dds-ma-burdas ia-ds e-pe-es esls 15 re-es15 esls-re-et tar-gi gi4 4 -gi4 a-gur-ri gur mi-it-gur-ta-su kas6 kas6 -ia-ri kat sik-kat k(H/k£l li-kel-mu-su-ma ti-k£l-ka kir6 mu-ne-kir6

132

RIMA 1, A.o.75.8:26' RIMA 1, A.0.7S·8:30 RIMA 1, A.0.77.1:68 RIMA 2, A.o.87.1 ii 67 TNE col. iii 4 RIMA 2. A.o.89.7 iii 7 RIMA 1, A.0.75·1:17 RIMA 2, A.o.89.7 iv 13 RIMA 1, A.o.76.n:s' RIMA 1, A.o.78.5:7o RIMA 2, A.o.87.1 iii 34 RIMA 2, A.o.87.1 vi 19 KAR128:22 RIMA 2, A.o.89.7 iii 9 RIMA 2, A.o.87.1 iii 18 RIMA 1, A.o.76.2:51 TNE col. iv 22' RIMA 1, A.o. 76.9:23 RIMA 2. A.o.89.10:6

Arik-den-ili Arik-den- ili Shalmaneser I Tiglath-pileser I Tukulti-Ninurta 1 Assur-bel-kala Arik-den-ili Assur-bel-kala Adad-nerari I Tukulti-Ninurta I Tiglath-pileser I Tiglath-pileser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Assur-bel-kala Tiglath-pileser I Adad-nerari I Tukulti-Ninurta I Adad-nerari I Assur-bel-kala

Cf. Cancik-Kirschbaum, Tall Se/; lfamad, 73-87; Jakob, Tell Chuera, 27-40. Ambiguous spellings were avoided as far as possible. The playful use of signs is contrary to the practice of standardized administration.

JAKOB

1164

TABLE 16.1

mi

MA syllable values limited to

lu-lu-mi-i mi-i$-ri su-mi

literary texts (mainly royal inscriptions) (cont.)

RIMA 1, A.o. 76.1:4 RIMA 1, A.o.76.15.24 RIMA 1, A.o.76.n:26' RIMA 1, A.o.86.4:8

mi-ni [a[z-l]a-mi-i in-nem-mi-id-ma dap-nfs niS u-sek-nfs par5 ap-par5-kul ap-pul puL purl3 te-pur13-zi e-pus pus qdl-la qdl ak-s{r s{r suk-ki suk is-silk mu-sa-re-ia sa lzu-sa-alz-tza sa-an-gu-u sa-ak-ni

m~m

RIMA 1, A.0.77.1:6g VAT 10722

obv. 16' (TNE,

unpubl.) TNE kol iv 40' RIMA 1, A.0.77·1:66 TNE kol vi 14' KAR 128 rev. 20 RIMA 2, A.o.87.1 ii 35 RIMA 1, A.o.78.g:21' RIMA 2, A.o.8g.3:1o' RIMA 2.A.o.8g.7 V 2 RIMA 1,

A.o.76.g:14

RIMA 1, A.0.77.1:126 TNE

kol. V 42'

RIMA 1, A.0.75.27 RIMA 1, A.0.75.2:10 RIMA 1, A.o.76.1:18 RIMA 1,

A.0.77.1:1

RIMA 1, A.o.86.1:1

se sek

sa-k{n-ki i-se-me mu-sek-n{s u-sek-ni-su

su

LUGAL-su

sud tes

u4-mi-su-ma ak-sud tes-li-ti

RIMA 1, A.o.78.1:g

21 A.0.78.n:8 RIMA I, RIMA I, A.o.78.I8:26 RIMA I, A.o.86.I:7 RIMA I, A.0.75.I:73 RIMA I, A.o.78.I iv 40

RIMA 1, A.o.78.15

A.o.78.n:38 A.0.77.1:152 I, RIMA

RIMA I,

Adad-nerarl 1 Adad-nerarl 1 Adad-nerarl 1 Assur-resa-!Si 1 Shalmanese r I Tukulti-Nin urta I Tukulti-Nin urta I Shalmanese r I Tukulti-Nin urta I Tukulti-Nin urta I Tiglath-piles er 1 Tukulti-Nin urta I Assur-bel-ka la Assur-bel-ka la Adad-nerarl I Shalmanese r I Tukulti-Nin urta I Arik-den-ili Arik-den-ili Adad-nerarl I Shalmanese r I Assur-resa-!Si I Tukulti-Nin urta I Tukultl-N in urta I Tukulti-Nin urta I Tukulti-Ninu rta I Assur-resa-iSi I Arik-den-ili Tukulti-Ninu rta I Tukulti-Nin urta I Shalmanese r I

MIDDLE ASSYRIAN

1165

One of the most important examples are the so-called Middle Assyrian laws.I3 3 The surviving text presumably dates back to the twelfth century, 134 but it seems more likely to be a copy of a somewhat older original.l 35 An indication of this is the use of certain significant signs. Thus ril is no longer attested after the fourteenth century.I3 6 The values mi, qu and tu 4 can be frequently found in private documents from As sur from before 1300 B c E, but they play only a minor role in the following period, outside of literary works. In administrative texts from provincial towns beyond the immediate vicinity of the capital, however, they are in use for quite some time, with varying intensity and distribution.l 37 Only pi and us are still used across genres after the fourteenth century, but then mostly in certain traditional termsP 8 It is thus clear that the Middle Assyrian laws, considering the dating of the manuscript, follow partially archaic scribal conventions. From this, however, it is not possible to derive any fixed rules for official texts from the sphere of the royal court. This can be observed, for example, in the "harem edicts" already mentioned above (see section 2.1.1 ). The oldest preserved regulations refer to the fourteenth century, but do not show relevant particularities regarding the syllabary.l39 One should however note the rare spelling but in lu-bul-ta-sa "her clothing" within a decree of Tukulti-Ninurta 1. It is probably no coincidence that the value is used again in the very same word in the Middle Assyrian Coronation Ritual from the same period as that decree just mentioned. 140 A document from the twelfth century, whose script is very similar to the harem edicts and that certainly originates from the royal chancellery, is KAV 217.l41 That tablet contains testimonies in legal cases and the following royal decisions, thus providing quotations from everyday language. This results in a proximity to administrative documents in terms of content and terminology. It should be noted that the syllabary also shows no peculiarities.

133 I34 135 136 137 138 I39 140 141

Claudio Saporetti, Cybemetica Mesopotamica. Graphemic Categorization Volume Two: The MiddleAssyrian Laws (Malibu: Undena Publications, I984), 83-85. Helmut Freydank, Assyrische]ahresbeamte, 31. Roth, Law Collections, I54· Tablets A-B in particular show orthographic features that refer back to the oB period, see de Ridder, Grammar, 24 § 33; I49-50 § 225. de Ridder, Grammar, 57· de Ridder, Grammar, 84-85; I3I; 57· de Ridder, Grammar, I27 (tup-pi "tablet"); I45 (i. g. ir-ku-us "he decreed"). ErnstWeidner, "Hof- und Harems-Erlasse", 274:45. Hanspeter Schaudig, Staatsrituale, Festbeschreibungen und Texte zum assyrischen Kult (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2020 ), Text Nr. I, Vs. I I7' and IS' lu-bul-ta; lu-[ bUL]-ta. Freydank, "KAv 217".

]AKOB 1166

century, when the activWe can therefore conclude that after the fourt eenth us in texts, there was a high ities of state administration beca me evide nt to Assyrian syllabary, with the degree of cross-genre conformity in the Middle one can obse rve that tablets exception of the royal inscriptions. Nevertheless, of the Assyrian heart land are from private archives or from the peripheral edge ings that devia te from the the most likely to conta in some archaisms and spell time or, in othe r words, to be conte mpor ary administrative standards of that 42 more conservative.l r that was once the propWith in the archive from a private house in Assu private and administrative erty of a certain Urad-Serii'a and his family both writt en in the conventional docu ment s have been found. Most of them are ing u-sa-da(TA)-na (I. IS). manner. No. 27, a private debt note shows the spell us with a parti cular problem, Several other texts from the same archive prese nt ing be 6/bi (PI) in the Middle that is the existence or non-existence of the spell know n from administrative Assyrian period. It is abou t a term which is well ring spellings in no. 56 of documents, usually written Elja-si-me. Several diffe 143 an "adm inistr ative sphere the Urad-Serii'a archive suggested that there was 144 A coun terar gume nt to this is of the granary" (pitti ljafime) in some cases. ss:s whic h uses an initial p, the occurrence of the spelling pi-it ba-si-me in no. ructus of pittu "administrative but does not correspond to the usual casus const /bi, in favour of bit ljasime.l45 sphere". Here it seems reasonable to transcribe be 6 ver, is other wise unattested, An "administrative sphere of the granary", howe n of a simil ar combination but we have to recognize that there is the attes tatio 146 The spell ing exact ly correin the same archive, referring to the pi-ti uruGN . s.147 So, the b vs. p problem is sponds with those relating to specific individual 148 not be ruled out that we are not really a "superficial discussion". It should

143

). See, for example, de Ridder, Grammar, 57 ( s.v. (turn) [zasfme versus pi-te bas[me in ll. 7. 11• pit-te reads 49 43, 38, 56:2, no. erua, Urad-S Postgate,

144

instru ments of bureaucracy," AltorientalisJohn N. Postgate, "Middle Assyrian tablets: the

142

13, 22.

145

che Forschungen 13 (1986): 27-28. le Assyrian bit basimi," Zeitsclzriftfiir See de Ridder, Grammar, 129 f. Amir Harrak, "Midd the surrou nding s of Mosul, until the Assyriologie 79 (1989): 61-72, has pointe d out that in

agricu ltural estate s, know n in Syriac and ninete enth century, there was a constr uction on which was used for the storag e of grain. If Arabic dialects of North ern Iraq as bet l/baSim/ii, actual ly indica te here a buildi ng rather would ancien t terminology is reflected there, this ". sphere ive than an "administrat 146 Postgate, Urad-Serila, no. 36:n. 147 Postgate, Urad-Serila, no. 49:9; 62:6. ein 'i-Modus' im Mittel assyri schen ?" Nouvelles 148 Waiter Farber, "vs 19, 47, *bit baslmi und

Assyriologiques Breves et Utilitaires (1990 ): 93·

MIDDLE ASSYRIAN

1167

faced with a possible indication of a characteristic feature of the scribe's linguistic background. In a number of cases, the conventional spelling of individual signs does not result in grammatically correct forms. Attempts have been made to solve this problem by creating additional spellings of the cvcv type.I 49 Having investigated the matter, it was established that the majority of references comes from private contexts and refers to a shortening of the syllable before the final -u of the subjunctive, or the omission of the subjunctive as such. Evidence can be found almost exclusively in letters, that means from the sphere of oral communication, and in private documents. One might ask whether the differences are due to hearing defects during dictation or whether the characteristics of the speaker or a certain negligence in language expression is mirrored here. It seems appropriate to avoid normalisation and to maintain traditional spellings instead. For instance, in a private legal document from the end of the fifteenth century BCE the personal name Atanal)-ili occurs twice: once in I. 24, written as 1A-ta-na-a[z-DINGIR and once as 1AD-na-a[z-DINGIR in I. 3.l50 This seems rather an error by the scribe in dictation than the only evidence of a suspected spelling "ata".I 51 The same may be true in other cases where unusual forms can be proven. 152 Finally, some characteristic orthographic features have to be pointed out that occur often in Middle Assyrian sources. First, there is the ligature of two consecutive signs. The connection i+na is also known from Upper Mesopotamian manuscripts from beyond the Assyrian heartland, 153 the ligature Ca+a can be found in, for instance, la+a "not" and kib-ra+a-te "regions". It should also be mentioned that the semivowel j is usually realised as /aa/,154 only in rare cases it is written /ia/. 3·3

Literacy in Middle Assyrian Society

In Ancient Near Eastern society the access to skills in reading and writing was rather limited. The cuneiform script required intensive study of the numerous

149 150

Mayer, Untersuchungen, 7-11. Ninel B. Jankowska, "The Middle Assyrian Legal Document VD I So, 71 again," Orient alia 36

151 152

Mayer, Untersuchungen, g. KAV g6:12; KAV 194:16 (letters); see Helmut Freydank and Claudio Saporetti, Biibu-aljaiddina. Die Texte (Roma: Herder Editrice e Libreria, 1g8g), s.v.; KAJ 6:23; KAJ 53:7; KAJ 88:14; KAJ 114:17; KAJ 157:5; KAJ 163:25 (private documents); cfMayer, Untersuchungen, 11. Cf. Daniel Schwemer, Akkadisclze Rituale aus lfattusa (Heidelberg: Winter, 1998), 24. The author of the Tukulti-Ninurta Epic uses the spelling ka-ia-a-na in col. iii 7' and passim besides ka-a-a-na in col. v 25.

(1967): 334·

153 154

JAKO B

1168

n of texts is prim arily in the signs and their polyvalance. Thus, the prod uctio hand of professional scribes. r sarre. Marduk-nadin-al]l]e Among them is the scribe of the king, the tupsa 55 llit (1353-1318BcE).l Born in held this office during the reign of Assur-uba capital, and we can assu me that Babylonia, he mad e a career in the Assyrian natio nal corre spon denc e of the it was him, who was responsible for the inter from the Middle Assyrian period king. Up to now, three further office-holders 56 Sut1'u.l Desp ite their prom inen t can be named: Ninurta-uballissu, Rib atu and g conditions, daily work routine position, almost nothing is known abou t livin or workspace. of literary texts that NinurtaIt can be seen, for instance, in colophons r's profe ssion as a scribe. At the uballissu had three sons who chose their fathe e scribe" (tupsarru $ebru ). This mom ent of writing they are designated as a "littl text, but one of his broth ers is one was responsible for the correctness of the 57 hims elf is only men tione d in the docu men ted as a reviewer.1 The king's scribe in the service of the monarch. filiation. We learn nothing abou t his activities 158 tione d above. The same is true for the othe r tupsar sarre men coul d inclu de the position as Wha t one may assume is that this profession elf speaks, wher eas the actual an editor of royal inscriptions. Here the king hims nd his own work. This also applies auth or remains anonymous and retreats behi the official narra tives abou t milito the royal epics which are closely related to tary campaigns and building projects. (bari'u) who also could exerThere are othe r professionals like the "diviner" preta tion of omin ous signs in cise their activities at the king's court. The inter ly impo rtant for the continuity heaven and on earth was considered as high ly sepa rated from the scribes of of kingship. 159 These scholars must be clear xts, orga nized in grou ps with a the state administration in institutional conte ledge of litera ry works is nor"foreman" (rabtu). In their everyday life the know

ar in Assur," in Studie s in Ancie nt Near EastFrans A.M. Wiggermann, "A Babylonian Schol n Stol on the Occassion of His 6sth Birthday, em World View and Society Presented to Marti esda: c DL Press, 2008 ), 203-3 4. ed. by Robartus Johan nes van der Spek, (Beth ta-uballissu (So), Ribat u (83), Sutl'u (g8). 156 Jakob, Untersuchungen, 244-4 6: Ninur n: Butzon und assyrische Kolophone (Neuk irchen -Vluy 157 See Herm ann Hunger, Babylonische und Bercker Kevelaer, 1968), 30. the same perso n as the king's exorc idst (asipu ) of 158 Ribiitu ist most problably the same sion; profes g scribe and memb er of a healin name , that mean s that he was both perso nal Bagh," Ribate des Assur-suml-a~bat, Sohn cf. Karlheinz Deller, "Das Siegel des Schreibers 143. : (1982) 13 lungen dader Mittei dcr Erde im Alten Orient. Zeiclzen des Jlimm cls und 159 Stefan M. Maul, Die Wahrsagekunst . (Munich: Beck, 2013), especially 315-23

155

MIDDLE ASSYRIAN

1169

mally not required. Rather, other competences are requested. Middle Assyrian administrative documents show a high degree of standardisation where layout and form is concerned. Thus a cursory glance at the tablet is sufficient to establish whether it is a settlement document, a memorandum or a work contract. This is the case at least in the period between the thirteenth and eleventh century for which original tablets are available. It is reasonable to suppose that proper skills were taught at a central institution. The "house of tablets" (bet tuppate) is worth considering as such a training school. 160 But at present, the written sources do not allow secure statements in this matter. Some administration documents have peculiar misspellings. The cuneiform signs of these tablets are written in a very careless manner, or they have obvious mistakes that cannot be readily explained by simple negligence.I 61 In these cases, officials may have written the text by themselves, in a situation where no trained scribe was available. This should not lead to the conclusion, however, that there were at least basic concepts of writing on clay at all levels of the administration. The "unorthodox" spellings, as shown above (section 3.2 ), which come almost without exception from private or provinciaP 62 contexts, and do not occur at all in the state administration, are another-indirect-reference to the fact that the scribes of royal institutions were undergoing a special training with the aim of mastering the standardised layout of administrative documents and letters. Individual scribes of private documents who ignore fundamental conventions, presumably did not have the same curriculum. Unfortunately, we only have their names in lists of witnesses at the end of the documents. The origin of their skills remains hidden to us.

160 161

162

Jakob, Untersuchungen, 255. The writer ofT 93-7 from Tell Sabi Abyad, for instance, used several times incorrecctly the sign !Ji instead of i[z in the verb form li-!Ji-lu-$U, see Frans A.M. Wiggermann, "Agriculture in the Northern Balikh Valley: The Case of Middle Assyrian Tell Sabi Abyad," in Rainfall and Agriculture in Northem Mesopotamia, ed. R.M. Jas (Leiden: Nederlands Institute for the Near East, 2ooo ), 209 f. In TC H 92.G.187 from Tell Chuera/l)arbe (Jakob, Tell Chuera, 94 and pl. 23) the final syllable -iu was written in such a way that it can be confused with -$i. In addition, the script may appear to be unskillful and imprecise. Even though the family archive of Urad-Seru'a was unearthed in a house in Assur, the texts in question refer to activities in the region ofNineveh where tablets may have been written by local scribes.

JAKOB 1170

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Dell er, Karlheinz. "Das Siegel des Schreibers Assur-sumi:-a~bat,

Sohn des Ri:bate." Bagh-

dader Mitteilungen 13 (1982): 143-54.

redatti per annullare Dell er, Karlheinz, and Claudio Saporetti. "Docum enti medio- assiri un preced ente contratto." Oriens Antiquus 9 (1970 ): 29-59. wohlri echend en Salben." Ebeling, Erich. "Mittelassyrische Rezepte zur Herstel lung von

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(Forts.)." Orientalia 18 (1949): 404-18 . mmlung for die AkkliEbeling, Erich. Bruchstiicke einer mittelassyrischen Vorschriftensa matisierung von Wagenpferden. Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1951. ssyrisc hen?" Nouvelles Farber, Waiter. ''vs 19, 47, *bit !Jasimi und ein 'i-Modus' im Mittela Assyriologiques Breves et Utilitaires (1990 ): 92-94. 7, edited by Dietz 0. EdEdzard, Dietz Otto. "Literatur." In Reallexikon der Assyriologie zard, 35-48. Berlin: Waiter de Gruyter, 1987-19 90. Sumerologica 10 (1g88): Finkel, Irving L. "A Fragmentary Catalogue of Lovesongs." Acta q-18.

l of Cuneiform Studies 7 Finkelstein, Jacob. J. "Cuneiform Texts from Tell Billa." journa (1953): 11-176.

Foster, Benjamin. Before the Muses. Bethesda: CDL Press, zoos. den: Harrassowitz, Frahm, Eckart. Historische und historisch-Literarische Texte. Wiesba 2009.

tungstexte (MARV) r. Freydank, Helmut. Mittelassyrische Rechtsurkunden und Verwal Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1976. Zeitschriftfor AssyrioloFreydank, Helmut. "KAV 217, Protokoll iiber eine Staatsa ktion?" gie 82 (1992): 221-32. eiden'." Altorientalische Freydank, Helmut. "bitqi bataqu 'Absch neidun gen abschn Forschungen 24 (1997): 105-14.

ntalische ForschunFreydank, Helmut. "Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta als Agrarprovinz." Altorie gen 36 (zoo9): 16-84. tungstexte Freydank, Helmut. Mittelassyrische Rechtsurkunden und Verwal Saarbriicken: SDV, 2004.

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Freydank, Helmut. Assyrischejahresbeamte. Eponymen van Tukulti-Ninurta 1. bis Tukultt-apil-esarra I. Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2016. Freydank, Helmut, and Saporetti, Claudio. Babu-alja-iddina. Die Texte. Roma: Herder Editrice e Libreria, 1989. Grayson, A. Kirk. Assyrian Rulers of the Early First Millennium BC I (m4-859BC). Toronto-Buffalo-London: University of Toronto Press, 1991. Guichard, Michael. L'epopee de Zimri-Lim. Paris: SEPOA, 2014. Harrak, Amir. "Middle Assyrian bit b-asimi". Zeitschriftfor Assyriologie 79 (1989): 6172. HeeBel, Nils P. Divinatorische Texte I. Terrestrische, teratologische, physiognomische und oneiromantische Omina. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2007. Howard, Margaret. "Technical description of the ivory writing-board from Nimrud." Iraq 17 (1955): 14-20. Hunger, Hermann. Babylonische und assyrische Kolophone. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Butzon und Bercker Kevelaer, 1968.

Hurowitz, Victor, and Joan Goodnick Westenholz. tion of Tiglath-pileser I's

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42 (1990): 1-49. Jakob, Stefan. Mittelassyrische Venvaltung und Sozialstruktur. Untersuchungen. LeidenBoston: Brill, 2003. Jakob, Stefan. "Diplomaten in Assur-Alltag oder Anzeichen fur eine internationale Krise?" In Assur und sein Umland. !m Andenken an die ersten Ausgriiber van Assur, edited by Peter A. Miglus, and Joaquin Ma Cordoba, 103-14. Madrid:

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2007. Jakob, Stefan. Die mittelassyrischen Texte aus Tell Chuera in Nordost-Syrien. Mit einem Beitrag van Daniela I.]anisch-jakob. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2009. Jakob, Stefan. "The Middle Assyrian Period (14th Century to nth Century BCE)." In A Companion to Assyria, edited by Eckart Frahm, 117-42. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley

Blackwell, 2017. Jakob, Stefan. "Economy, Society, and Daily Life in the Middle Assyrian Period." In A Companion to Assyria, edited by Eckart Frahm, 143-60. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley

Blackwell, 2017. Jakob, Stefan. Ritualanweisungen und Gebete III. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2018. Jankowska, Nine! B. "The Middle Assyrian Legal Document VDI 8o, 71 again." Orientalia 36 (1967): 334-35· Lambert, Wilfred G. Babylonian Wisdom Literature. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1960. Lambert, Wilfred G., and Alan R. Millard. Atra-b-asis. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1999· Lapinkivi, Pirjo. The Neo-Assyrian Myth of !star's Descent and Resurrection. Helsinki: Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project, 2010.

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Llop, Jaume. "Middle Assyrian Letters: a New Survey." Aula Orientalis 30 (2012): 2 8 9306.

Machinist, Peter. "The Epic ofTukulti-Nin urta 1." PhD diss., Yale University, 1978. Maidman, Maynard P. Nuzi Texts and Their Uses as Historical Evidence. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2010. Maul, Stefan M. Die Jnschriften van Tall Bderi. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1992. Maul, Stefan M. Die Wahrsagekunst im Alten Orient. Zeichen des Himmels und der Erde. Munich: Beck, 2013. Maul, Stefan, and Rita StrauK Ritualbeschreibungen und Gebete I. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2011. Mayer, Waiter. Untersuchungen zur Grammatik des Mittelassyrischen. NeukirchenVluyn: Butzon und Bercker Kevelaer, 1971. Nashef, Khaled. Die Orts- und Gewiissernamen der mittelbabylonischen und mittelas-

syrischen Zeit. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1992. Neugebauer, Otto. Mathematische Keilschrifttexte I. Berlin: Springer, 1935. Novotny,Jamie R. The StandardBabylonian Etana Epic. Helsinki: Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project, 2001. Pedersen, Olof. Archives and Libraries in the City of Assur. Part I. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1985. Pedersen, Olo£ Katalog der beschrifteten Objekte aus Assur. Saarbri.icken: snv, 1997·

Pedersen, Olof. Archives and Libraries in the Ancient Near East 1500-300 B.C. Bethesda: c DL Press, 1998. Postgate, John N. Review of Mittelassyrische Rechtsurkunden und Venvaltungstexte (MARV) I, by Helmut Freydank. Bibliotheca Orientalis 37 (1980 ): 67-70. Postgate, John N. "Middle Assyrian tablets: the instruments of bureaucracy." Altorien-

talische Forschungen 13 (1986): 10-39. Postgate, John N. The archive of Urad-Seriia and his family. A Middle Assyrian household in government service. Roma: Herder Editrice e Libreria, 1988. Postgate,John N. "Middle-Assyrian to Neo-Assyrian: The Nature of the Shift." In Assyrien

im Wandel der Zeiten, edited by Hartmut Waetzoldt, and Harald Hauptmann, 15968. Heidelberg: Heidelberger Orientverlag, 1997.

Postgate, John N. Bronze Age Bureaucracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.

Radner, Karen. "Der Gott Salmanu ('Sulmanu') und seine Beziehungen zur Stadt DurKatlimmu." Die Welt des Orients 29 (1998): 33-51. de Ridder,Jacob J. A Descriptive Grammar ofMiddle Assyrian. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2018.

Richter, Thomas. Bibliographisches Glossar des Hurritischen. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2012.

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Rollig, Wolfgang. Land- und Viehwirtschaft am Unteren Jjabur in mittelassyrischer Zeit. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2008. Roth, Martha T. Law Collections from Mesopotam ia and Asia Minor. Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press, 1995. Saggs, Henry W.F. "The Tell al Rimah Tablets 1965:' Iraq 30 (1968): 154-74. Saporetti, Claudio. Onomastica medio-assira. Roma: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum, 1970.

Saporetti, Claudio. Gli eponimi medio-assiri. Malibu: Undena Publication s 1979. Saporetti, Claudio. Cybemetica Mesopotamica. Graphemic Categorization Volume Two: The Middle Assyrian Laws. Malibu: Undena Publications, 1984. Schaudig, Hanspeter. Staatsrituale, Festbeschreibungen und Texte zum assyrischen Kult. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2020. Schwemer, Daniel. Akkadische Rituale a us Jjattusa. Heidelberg: Winter, 1998. Shibata, Daisuke. "Local Power in the Middle Assyrian Period: The 'Kings of the Land of Mari' in the Middle Habur Region." In Organization, Representation, and Symbols of Power in the Ancient Near East. Proceedings ofthe 54th RencontreAssyriologique Internationale at Wilrzburg 20-25]uly 2oo8, edited by Gernot Wilhelm, 489-505. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2012.

Shibata, Daisuke. "The Local Scribal Tradition in the land of Ma.ri and Assyrian State Scribal Practice: Paleographical Cgaracteristics of Middle Assyrian Documents from Tell Taban." In Cultures and Societies in the Middle Euphrates and Habur Areas in the Second Millennium BC-I, edited by Shigeo Yamada, and Daisuke Shibata, 99-118. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz 2016. van Soldt, Wilfred H. et al., "Satu Qala: A preliminary report on the seasons 2010-2011." Anatolica XXXIX (2013): 197-239. von Soden, Wolfram, unter Mitarbeit von Werner Mayer. Grundriss der akkadischen Grammatik. Roma: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum, 19953 • Streck, Michael P. "Die groEe InschriftTukulti:-Ninurtas 1. Philologische und historische

Studien." Die Welt des Orients 37 (2007 ): 145-65. Veldhuis, Niek. History of the Cuneiform Lexical Tradition. Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2014. Weidner, Erich. "Das Alter der mittelassyrischen Gesetze." Archivfor Orientforschung 12 (1937-39): 46-54·

Weidner, Erich. "Die Bibliothek Tiglatpilesers

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Orientforschung 16 (1952-

53): 197-215.

Weidner, Erich. "Hof- und Harems-Erlasse assyrischer Konige a us dem 2. Jahrtausen d v. Chr." Archivfor Orientforschung 17 (1954-56): 257-93. Wiggermann, Frans A.M. "Agriculture in the Northern Balikh Valley: The Case of Middle Assyrian Tell Sabi Abyad." In Rainfall and Agriculture in Northern Mesopotamia, edited by R.M. Jas, 171-231. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten 2000.

JAIm is found in texts of the Syro-Hittite tradition (e.g. mus-sur, "he will be free", Emar 6/3177:21'). Also evident is the partial lack of differentiation (or the confusion) between voicless, voiced and emphatic consonants in the same set,141 a feature shared with what is called "Hurro-Akkadian" (see section 4.4). Mimation, in general, tends to be preserved only as a fossilized writing or historical spelling

136

137

138

139 140 141

Stefano Seminara, L'accadico di Emar (Roma: Universita degli Studi di Roma "La Sapienza", 1998), 326-28. The indexes to the texts quoted in this book can be found in Josue ]. Justel and Barbara Solans, "L'accadico di Emar by S. Seminara: an 'Index of texts' and Other Resources," Ugarit-Forschungen 48 ( 2017 ): 273-362. For other, more specific studies on the Akkadian of Emar, see paragraph 6 "Lenguas y epigrafia" in the bibliography compiled by Faist,Justel, Sakal and Vita, "Bibliografia de los estudios de Emar (8)". Stefano Seminara, L'accadico di Emar, 326-28. Even so, for the arrival of this tradition in Emar he proposes (ibid., 327) the sixteenth century BCE as the terminus ante quem and the period of the archives of Mari as the terminus post quem. The Emarite linguistic material was compiled and studied in Pentiuc, West Semitic Vocabulary. See also Vita, "Language Contact," 377-80, with previous bibliography. The personal names were studied by Regine Pruzsinszky, Die Personennamen der Texte aus Emar (Bethesda: CDL Press, 2003). On the possible reasons for this circumstance see Vita, "Language Contact," 380-82. Seminara, L'accadico di Emar, 470-75. Seminara, L'accadico di Emar, 211.

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im, "from this day", in formulaic contexts (e.g. Syrian tradit ion is-tu U4-mi an-nian-ni-i, Emar 6/ 3 Emar 6/ 3 34:1, as against Syro-Hittite tradit ion is-tu U4-mi 181:1). prono un has the The nominative of the 3sm of the indep enden t perso nal The first form is . allomorphs sii (Babylonian form) and silt (Assyrian form) for direct speech, and always found in umma sii( -ma ), the introd uctory formu la 142 ent spelling ni-e-nu the secon d acts as a copula in nomin al clauses. The frequ Bab. ninu). In general, for the 1p suggests that it is the Assyrian form nenu (vs the feminine. Genfor the 3pm form sunu is used both for the mascu line and betwe en genitive, erally speaking, there is a lack of morphological distin ction igm of the gen.-ace. dative and accusative; as in Middle Babylonian, the parad -, e.g. zsm kasa, 3sf tends to converge in the dative (that is, with the conso nant-s the 1S exhibits sasi, 3Pm sasunu ). Regarding the prono minal suffixes in the gen., one only, -ya. As hapa clear tende ncy to the reduction of the allom orph -£to in Akkad ian is only pens in periph eral Akkadian, the 3sf morph eme -si, which the suffix -sa. The dual used for the ace., is extend ed to the gen., partly replac ing . The 3pf. suffix -sina prono un probably occurs in the two forms -sin£ and -suma ace., the form -sunu occurs rarely, often replaced by the masc. form -sunu. In the an Assyrianism or (as against the more frequent form -sun uti) could be either an extens ion of the gen. to the ace. system does exhibit In nouns, case endings are generally kept, althou gh the be expre ssed by using some instability.143 Consequently, the ace. endin g can of e.g. bitu, "house" one of the three vowels -a, -i, -u, which mean s that the ace. of each scribe). Simiappea rs as E-ta, E-ti or E-tu 4 (depe nding on the habits endin g in -u or -a. As larly, alongside the gen. in -i there are quite a few forms the mascu line plural for number, just like in other peripheral Akkadian dialects, ives. In the formation somet imes ends in -iitu, belonging to the plural of adject along side traditional of the status constructus witho ut prono minal suffixes, the locallanguage,I44 Akkadian forms, and certainly due to the influe nce of g as in the status endin forms occur in which the nome n regens has the same 63:27 ), ace. [tu ]p-pa rectus, e.g. nom. KISIB -ku PN, "the seal of PN" (TmE g1a good parallels in has feature that [m]PN , "the tablet of PN" (TmE gza 11:37), a ues in forms of the the Akkadian of Ugarit (section 4.3). This tende ncy contin "his heart" (Emar -su, status constr uctus with prono minal suffixes, e.g. sA-bu this appare nt anoma ly is based on Semina ra, L'accadico di Emar, 239: "My explan ation of an". its formulaic charact er in the Emarit e way of using Akkadi possibl e influen ce of the local the to s ascribe 300, Emar, di ico L'accad ra, 143 Which Semina spoken language. 144 Cf. Pentiuc, West Semitic Vocabulary, 245-46 .

142

AKKADIAN IN SYRIA AND CANAAN

1239

6/3 9:31.109). Conspicuous in genitival constructions (especially in the SyroHittite tradition) is the construction nomen regens-pron. suffix+ sa+ nomen rectum, e.g. a-na DUMU.MI-sa sa FPN, "as a daughter of FPN" (Emar 6/3 216:6), widespread especially in peripheral Akkadian.l 45 As for the verb, the frequent use of tV- forms in the verbal prefix of the 3sf may have been preferred (as in Ugarit) due to its similarity with the corresponding prefix in the locallanguage.l46 Perhaps once again due to local influence,I47 the dual is used in both traditions, but not consistently: when there are two subjects, the verb may agree in the dual, singular or plural. In the system of tenses, unlike other peripheralAkkadian dialects, the stative shows no sign of interference between the Akkadian stative and the Northwest Semitic perfective.148 The alternation between verbs in the preterit and in the perfect in the same syntactic context is not modal but temporal. 149 In general terms, the preterit expresses earlier or collateral actions that are secondary in respect of the time when the main action is set, although there are also quite a number of exceptions. 150 The ventive is governed more by rules than by the meaning of the verb. This means that its position is always in front of certain pronominal suffixes but is omitted before others, in this way simplifying and reducing the functional eclecticism of the Akkadian ventive.l 51 The ending -u of the subordination marker is used in free alternation with 0, probably due to the influence of the local language. On the other hand, and unlike standard Akkadian, the prohibitive is formed not only by means of the particle La + present, but also with the particles uL and Lu La, although all three forms are semantically and functionally equivalent. As in other peripheral Akkadian dialects, in Emar there is confusion between the G and D conjugations, while N is unproductive: it does not occur very often, exhibits morphological anomalies (e.g. preterit ipparas instead of ipparis ), is used more as a reflexive than as a passive, etc.

146 147

A construction that Seminara, L'accadico di Emar, 325, considers to be "a common feature (a sort of isogloss) of all North-West Akkadian, which must have had local developments that differed from one region to another". See Pentiuc, West Semitic Vocabulary, 246-48. See the examples ofthe dual in verbal forms with Akkadianized patterns in Pentiuc, West

148 149 150 151

Semitic Vocabulary, 246-47. Seminara, L'accadico di Emar, 362-65. Seminara, L'accadico di Emar, 369. Seminara, L'accadico di Emar, 369. Seminara, L'accadico di Emar, 387 and 389.

145

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Akkadian of Unlike other types of periph eral Akkadian of that time, the placing the of Emar tends (with some exceptions) to keep to the Akkad ian rule 152 logical coordination verb in final positio n in a sentence. On the other hand, 153 by means of the enclitic conjun ction -ma is quite rare. Ugarit 4·3 a direct impact In Ugarit, the Mesop otamia n traditi on of writin g cuneif orm had red to use prefer s Scribe texts. on several aspects of the alphabetic Ugaritic ge, and, as a clay tablets to write alphabetic texts 'in Ugaritic, the local langua orm signs, which were result, the alphab etic symbols came to look like cuneif 154 As m . Akka d'1an, texts d' Akk . a 1an. also used for writing down some texts m 155 h the archives of in the alphab etic script ran from left to right. Even thoug h centur y BCE Ugarit date betwe en the fourteenth centur y and the early twelft in the use of the (section 2.3), these traits derive from a centur ies-old traditi on 156 Mesop otamia n cuneiform script and of the Akkad ian langua ge. 157 and WilFor the Akkadian of Ugarit the gramm ars by John Huehn ergard fred H. van Soldt158 are available. Middle BabyThe Akkadian dialect ofUgarit can be classified as belong ing to an elements, Assyri lonian, with features inherited from Old Babylonian, some unique to this influences from Hurrian and Ugaritic, and other feature s that are al situapolitic the to dialect.l 59 These linguistic influences are directly linked larly strong tion at each historical moment. Thus, Hurria n influen ce was particu power. great a was i in the first period of the archives of Ugarit, when Mittan a stronger influAfter the defeat of Mittani, the rise of Assyria broug ht about Ugarit.l60 at used ian ence of both Assyrian and Babylonian on the Akkad

Seminar a, L'accadico di Emar, 592. Seminar a, L'accadico di Emar, 547· See chapter 4 in the present volume. alphabe t". Except for a few instance s of texts written in the so-calle d "short in about 1765BCE Ugarit, to Mari A journey such as the one made by king Zimri-Lim of ; Singer, "A 387-412 1986: 18, gen orschun (Pierre Villard, "Un roi de Mari Ugarit," Ugarit-F rable flow conside a ed generat have y certainl must , Political History," 616-18), for example courts. royal both of corresp ondence between 157 John Huehne rgard, TheAkk adian ofUgari t. 158 van Soldt, Studies in the Akkadia n of Ugarit. a limited degree the Akk. dialect of 159 Huehne rgard, The Akkadia n ofUgari t, 271-84, 224 ("to WPA dialects (though obviously all like Ugarit may be conside red a pidginiz ed languag e, )"); Wilfred H. van Soldt, dialects izing Canaan n, not to as great an extent as in the souther ed. Wilfred G.E. Watson Studies, Ugaritic of ok Handbo in "The Syllabic Akkadia n Texts," 42. 1999), Brill, : -Boston (Leiden and Nicolas Wyatt H. van Soldt, "The Akkadian of 160 van Soldt, Studies in the Akkadia n ofUgari t, 522-23; Wilfred

152 153 154 155 156

a

AKKADIAN IN SYRIA AND CANAAN

1241

Mimation is not used regularly at the end of a word and, as in Emar, it is only indicated explicitly in certain fixed phrases (e.g. is-tu U4 -mi an-ni( -i)-im, "from this day").l 61 With a few exceptions, initial w does not appear in non-canonical texts, whereas the representation of intervocalic w oscillates between the use of the sign PI for wv and a spelling with m-signs (e.g. a-wa-temes, "words", PRU 3 162 107 :1g, but a-ma-temes, Ug 5 28 r.5'). In some cases, the gen.-ace. anaphoric pronoun is written su-wa-ti (as in Assyrian ).163 Just as in other types of peripheral Akkadian, when a root-final dental or sibilant is in contact with the -s of third person pronominal suffixes, it is not usually represented by the expected phonetic realization -ss- (e.g. IU.mu-ut-sa, "her husband", PRU 3 64:21.26 164 ). The treatment of s before dentals is not consistent165 (e.g. is-tu occurs more often for writing the preposition istu, but there are also examples of ul-tu ),166 As in Emar, and in general, in "Hurro-Akkadian", the signs for voiced, voiceless and emphatic stops are used indiscriminately, although this feature is less pronounced than in other more northern dialects of Akkadian.167 In pronouns, the gen. suffix of the 1cs is usually -ia. 168 In the 3sf, alongside the form -sa, some non-standard forms are also used (-s- after dentals/sibilants, -snot after dentals/sibilants, -sa for ace. and -si for gen.) that reflect the reduction of allomorphism, due in part to the interference of the linguistic substrate.I69 Nouns and adjectives tend to be declined correctly, but there are quite a few incorrect examples (e.g. ace. sg. GAL-tu, "large", Ug 5 28 r.18'; in bound forms

161

Ugarit: Lexicographical Aspects," Studi Epigrafici e Linguistici 12 (1995): 208-9; van Soldt, "The Syllabic Akkadian Texts," 45· On the other hand, as could only be expected, Akkadian also left an imprint on the Ugaritic lexicon; see in detail Wilfred G.E. Watson, Lexical Studies in Ugaritic (Sabadell-Barcelona: Editorial Ausa, 2007), 65-118. Huehnergard, TheAkkadian ofUgarit, 99-100; van Soldt, Studies in theAkkadian ofUgarit, 409.

162 163 164 165 166

Huehnergard, TheAkkadian ofUgarit, 100-1 and 109-10; van Soldt, Studies in theAkkadian of Ugarit, 389. Huehnergard, The Akkadian of Ugarit, 100-1 and 109; van Soldt, Studies in the Akkadian of Ugarit, 399· On this form and spelling see the comments by Huehnergard, TheAkkadian ofUgarit, 103. See also van Soldt, Studies in the Akkadian of Ugarit, 387. Huehnergard, TheAkkadian ofUgarit, m-12. Huehnergard, The Akkadian of Ugarit, 186-87; van Soldt, Studies in the Akkadian of Ugarit, 385.

167 168 169

Huehnergard, The Akkadian of Ugarit, 33-35, 281. Huehnergard, The Akkadian of Ugarit, 125: -[ is normally used only in the vocative forms of belu and abu; van Soldt, Studies in the Akkadian of Ugarit, 401. Discussion in Huehnergard, The Akkadian of Ugarit, 129; van Soldt, Studies in the Akkadian of Ugarit, 403-4.

1242

V ITA

e.g. E-tu PN, PRU 3 51:18.1g).170 The masc. pl. has endings -il and-[, but they are 4 171 less common than the endings -iltu/-ilti peculiar to the adjective. In Ugaritic nouns, the Ugaritic endings -ilma and -ima are also found (e.g. ia-${-ru-ma, "pot172 ters", PRU 3 195b B i 12; bound forms -il and -1). In most cases, and in line with the usage in Emar, for example, the noun retains a case-ending in bound forms, almost always with the correct vowel (e.g. ni-id-nu LUGAL, "gift of the 173 king", PRU 3 6sba4; a-na ni-id-ni FPN, "as FPN's gift", PRU 3 szag). This feature also occurs frequently in sg. bound forms before suffixes (e.g. pa-ku-su-nu, "their pilku-service", PRU 3 141:7)P4 while some forms are pure Ugaritic (e.g. IU.ija-ma/am-ru-u = rJam(a)ru-hu, "his apprentice", PRU 6 79:11.13).l 75 In the verb, the marker of the 3fs almost always has the prefix t-; in G it appears as ti- and (more often) as ta-, but both forms never appear together in the same text.I7 6 The prefix na- of the 1cp is also found once, probably due to the influence of the local substrate. 177 In the 3pm, the endings -il and -ilni (plural ventive in Akkadian) seem to be interchangeable (see below). 178 The forms of the preterit and the perfect are also practically interchangeable, although there is a tendency to use either one or the other in specific circumstances, with certain verbsP 9 The future is sometimes expressed by the preterite, a feature probably to be ascribed to Ugaritic influence. 180 The function of the Akkadian

170

Huehnergard, The Akkadian of Ugarit, 143-45; van Soldt, Studies in the Akkadian of Ugarit,

171

412-17. Huehnergard, The Akkadian of Ugarit, 145-46; van Soldt, Studies in the Akkadian of Ugarit,

173

426-28. Huehnergard, TheAkkadian ofUgarit, 147-48; van Soldt, Studies in the Akkadian ofUgarit, 427-28. See also John Huehnergard, Ugaritic Vocabulary in Syllabic Transcription (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, zooS), 296-97; Josef Trapper, Ugaritische Grammatik. Zweite, stark ilberarbeitete und erweiterte Aujlage (MUnster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2012 ), 293-94. Huehnergard, The Akkadian of Ugarit, 149-52; van Soldt, Studies in the Akkadian of Ugarit,

17 4

417-25. Huehnergard, The Akkadian of Ugarit, 152-54. Cf. also H uehnergard, Ugaritic Vocabulary,

172

175 176

177 178 179 180

296-97· For syll. -u = Ugaritic -hu see also Huehnergard, Ugaritic Vocabulary, 293; Trapper, Ugaritische Grammatik, 214, 221. Huehnergard, The Akkadian of Ugarit, 159; van Soldt, Studies in the Akkadian of Ugarit, 431: "Texts from the reigns ofNiqmaddu II and Niqmepa' only have ta-, whereas those from the reign of'Ammittamru II have either ta- or ti-, the latter mostly before a syllable containing -a-, in accordance with Earth's law". Huehnergard, TheAkkadian ofUgarit, 159; van Soldt, Studies in the Akkadian ofUgarit, 432. Huehnergard, The Akkadian of Ugarit, 160. Cf. Huehnergard, TheAkkadian ofUgarit, 249-55; cf also van Soldt, Studies in theAkkadian of Ugarit, 506. van Soldt, Studies in the Akkadian of Ugarit, 496, 501.

AKKADIAN IN SYRIA AND CANAAN

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ventive as marking the 1cs dative is replaced in Ugarit by the ace. suffix (-anni/vninni, which also includes the morphem e of the ventive ). In letters, it marks the direction towards a certain point close to the speaker and the direction towards the addressee, whereas in legal texts it seems to be meaningless,ISI The subordination marker -u is hardly ever used. 18 2 Possibly due to the Ugaritic substrate , some verbal forms that never occur in D in standard Akkadian are found in the Akkadian of Ugarit (e.g. li-ra-bi-i$-SU, ''may he inundate him", PRU 3 76a:g.13). 183 Some forms inN are Ugaritic words or have a Ugaritic morphol ogy (e.g. suffix-conjugation na-ap-ta- ru = naptaru, "they have exchanged(?)", PRU 3, 8ga:s). 184 In terms of syntax,l 85 the word order in clauses is more flexible than in standard Akkadian and the verb is seldom placed at the end. 186 Instances where syntax follows the order subject-v erb-obje ct-indire ct object (instead of the habitual Babylonian order subject-o bject-ind irect object-ve rb) may generally be explained by the direct influence of Ugaritic.I 87 Even so, the word order in verbal clauses varies between letters and legal texts, although the reason for this is not clear; letters show a clear preferenc e for verb-final clauses, whereas the legal texts present much greater variation.188 As in Emar, the enclitic particle -ma does not seem to be function as a coordina ting conjunct ion. 18 9 As we have seen, the influence of Ugaritic on the morpholo gy and grammar oftheAkk adian ofUgarit is evident at various levels, 190 but it also obvious in the 181

182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190

Huehnergard, TheAkkadi an ofUgarit, 168: "Indeed, the only discernible distinction in the use of the two endings -ii and -iini is that the latter is not attested before pronomina l suffixes ... It seems likely, therefore, that the scribes considered ii and -iini to be variant markers of plurality; if so, we may view the free alternation of the two endings as a reduction of allomorphism, i.e., loss of the ventive- non ventive contrast". Huehnergard, TheAkkadi an ofUgarit, 169. Huehnergard, TheAkkadi an ofUgarit, 173. Huehnergard, TheAkkadi an ofUgarit, 175. The verbal forms with Ugaritic morphology are collected in Huehnergard, Ugaritic Vocabulary, 319-25. See also Florence Malbran-Labat, "Elements de la structure du discours clans l' akkadien d' Ugarit," GLECS 31 (1995): 87-106 + 83-85. van Soldt, Studies in the Akkadian of Ugarit, 477-81, 485, 518. See in detail Huehnergard, The Akkadian of Ugarit, 217-24; van Soldt, Studies in the Akkadian of Ugarit, 475-90, 518. Although the sequences S-0-V-A and S-V-0(-A) predomina te; analysis and detailed discussion in Huehnergard, TheAkkadi an ofUgarit, 218-24. Huehnergard, The Akkadian of Ugarit, 203-4, 241; van Soldt, Studies in the Akkadian of Ugarit, 512,514-15 (where he discusses possible similarities with the use of -m in Ugaritic). van Soldt, "The Syllabic Akkadian Texts," 45 and 44: "Ugaritic influence, already strong at the beginning of the historic period, becomes stronger as time passes ... In the older texts the Ugaritic influence is mainly noticeable in syntax, but gradually it also becomes

.. VITA

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lexicon.I9I The impact ofUgaritic is particularly noticeable in texts used in daily life, especially in legal and economic documents. In legal texts, the local linguistic background is noticeable in the use of specialized vocabulary-au gmented by the Syro-Babylonian legal tradition and by local technical terms-and in 192 verbal morphology, using mixed verbal forms. The influence of Ugaritic is 193 even stronger, at all levels, in the logo-syllabic administrative texts.

Hurro-Akkadian Broadly speaking, the Akkadian of Alala}J belongs to the tradition of Babylonian Akkadian: of Old Babylonian in the tablets from level VII and of Middle Babylonian in those from level IV. 194 It also shares a considerable number of the elements that define the Akkadian of Ugarit and Emar and, to a certain 195 extent, also reflects the influence of the local NWS language, an influence

4-4

stronger in morphology". See also van Soldt, Studies in the Akkadian of Ugarit, so6-7. Huehnergard, TheAkkadian ofUgarit, 280-81, summarizes the traits of Akkadian in Ugarit which may have a Ugaritic foundation; on this see also Michael P. Streck, "Babylonian and Assyrian," in The Semitic Languages. An International Handbook, ed. Stefan Weninger et al. 191

192 193

(Berlin-Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011), 377· In the glossary of Ugaritic words in logo-syllabic texts compiled by Huehnergard, Ugaritic Vocabulary, 103-89, there are approximately 290 entries found in all genres of Akkadian texts. See also van Soldt, "The Akkadian of Ugarit: Lexicographical Aspects," 211-12; Vita, "Language Contact," 384-86. On this matter, see the detailed analysis by Malbran-Labat, "Langues et ecritures Ouga-

a

rit," 78-87. To the extent that it may be claimed that in most of these documents and despite the script used, the language transcribed was not Akkadian but Ugaritic; see Malbran-Labat, "Langues et ecritures Ougarit," 96; Carole Roche, "Language and Script in the Akkadian Economic Texts from Ras Shamra," in Society and Administration in Ancient Ugarit, ed. Wilfred H. van Soldt (Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2010 ), 119. George Giacumakis, TheAkkadian of Alalab (The Hague-Paris: Mouton, 1970, 17); Daniel

a

194

Arnaud, "Le dialecte d' Alalah: un examen preliminaire," Aula Orientalis 16 (1998): 147-48. Although the possibility poses questions (cf. Mark Weed en, Hittite Logograms and Hittite Scholarship, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2011, 65-70; Mark Weeden, "Hittite Scribal Culture and Syria: Palaeography and Cuneiform Transmission," in Cultures and Societies in the Mid-

dle Euphrates and Ha bur Areas in the Second Millennium BC I. Scribal Education and Scribal Traditions, ed. Shigeo Yamada and Daisuke Shibata, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2016, 16o),

195

!, !

the ductus of Akkadian texts from level VII of Alalab is a serious candidate for the source of Hittite cuneiform, see Theo van den Hout, "The Ductus of the Alalal) Texts and the origin ofHittite Cuneiform," in Palaeography and Scribal Practices in Syro-Palestine andAnatolia in the Late Bronze Age, ed. Elena Devecchi (Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2012), 147-70; on this see also chapter 19 (section 1), this volume. An aspect explored by Arnaud, "Le dialecte d' Alalah", 143-86. Even so, the Akkadian of Alalab requires new, up-to-date research, the grammar by Giacumakis, The Akkadian of Alalab, needs to be completely revised. However, that research would also have to depend,

AKKADIAN IN SYRIA AND CANAAN

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that in the case of the Inscription of Idrimi shows interesting similarities with Canaano-Akkadian.196 However, perhaps the most striking aspect of the Akkadian of Alalal]. is the influence of the local Hurrian substrate_I9 7 In fact, the Hurrians formed one of the most important civilizations of the Ancient Near East, expanding from the region of the Lower Zab (east of the Tigris) as far as north Syria and south-east Anatolia.198 Texts in Hurrian increased and spread significantly, especially throughout the whole second half of the second millennium, its maximum expansion corresponding to the zenith of the kingdom of Mittani, in about the fourteenth century BCE.l 99 The deep differences in language between Akkadian and Hurrian prevented the Hurrian scribes from being able to adopt the Akkadian syllabary directly, instead having to make a series of adaptations that indicate careful forethought regarding the problems (phonetic and others) involved. 200 The result was the development of a variant of Akkadian that was strongly influenced by Hurrian on several levels (phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon) and is called "Hurro-Akkadian",201 to a large extent, on a new edition of the corpus of the Akkadian of Alalab, a task that, so far, has been only partially completed; on this see the comments by Eva von Dassow, "Genres of Texts and Archives of Tablets," Orientalistische Literaturzeitung no (2015): 189-90. 196 On this see the study by McConaughy Medill, "The Idrimi Statue Inscription," 243-59; cf. ibid., zs6: "although the ISI [= Idrimi Statue Inscription] comes from a site dominated by Hurro-Akkadian texts, its non-standard verb forms are not Hurro-Akkadian. Instead, the scribe's use of calqued perfects, hybrid perfects, and hybrid imperfects suggests that the code of the inscription should be connected with Canaano-Akkadian, although the differences between the Canaano-Akkadian code and the code of the ISI-most notably the presence or absence of West Semitic borrowings and differing conventions for the writing of the hybrid imperfects-show that a distinction should be drawn between them". 197 Similarly, Jussi Aro, "Remarks on the Language of the Alalakh Texts," Archiv for Orientforschung 17 (1954-1956): 365, had already concluded that "On the whole the language of Alalakh texts may be characterized as Mitanni Akkadian". See also the Hurrian elements identified by Giacumakis, The Akkadian ofAlalalj, e.g. 32, 45-46. For a critical evaluation of both these contributions see Ignacio Marquez Rowe, "Notes on the Hurro-Akkadian of Alalab in the Mid-Second Millennium B. C. E.," Israel Oriental Studies, 18 (1998): 63. On Hurrian loanwords in Akkadian see also chapter 9 (section 3.3), this volume. 198 Mauro Giorgieri, "Diffusion et caracteristiques de la culture ecrite d' origine hourrite dans le Proche-Orient asiatique et a Ougarit," in Les ecritures mises aujour sur le site antique d'Ougarit (Syrie) et leur dechiffremcnt, ed. Pierre Bordreuil et al. (Paris: Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 2013), 157-85. 199 Mauro Giorgieri, "Bedeutung und Stellung der 'Mittanischen' Kultur im Rahmen der Kulturgeschichte Vorderasiens," in Motivation und Mechanismen des Kulturkontaktes in der Spiitcn Bronzczcit, ed. Doris Prachel (Vicchio, Florence: LoGisma editore, zoos), 77-101. 200 Giorgieri, "Bedeutung und Stellung," 89-91; Wilfred H. van Soldt, "The Adaptation of the Cuneiform Script to Foreign Languages," in The Idea of Writing: Play and Complexity, ed. A. de Voogt and I.L. Finkel (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2010 ), u7-22. 201 In this regard see the definition of"Hurro-Akkadian" by Mauro Giorgieri, "Bedeutung und Stellung," 93·

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. 202 Nuz1,. 203 AI ala~h an d Qatna. f M' . . observable especially m the archives o 1ttam, of AkkaThomas Richter summarises the general charact eristics of this type and voiced ss, voicele dian as follows: a) the appare nt arbitrary nature of writing subjectempha tic consonants; b) the occasional interch ange in the sequen ce as in well as verb finite the object and in the use of the prefixes and suffixes of d) conaffixing accusative suffixes; c) mistakes in the use of cases for nouns; ive fusion betwee n masculine and feminine, especially in the use of possess 204 d" " t' d ll . suffixes; e) the presence o f wh at IS ea e resump IVe u, an . inIn Alala]J it is evident that the process of Hurriti zation becom es more , Dassow von tense from level vu to level IV, a process that, in the words of Eva by polit"should ... be viewed as primarily a process of accultu ration, spurred e and languag the ical developments ... the local popula tion was assimilating raculture of its Hurrian members. This process intensi fied with the incorpo 205 ment develop this tion of Alala]J into the Mittani Empire". The texts reflect of Hurin, for example, an increase in the numbe r of Hurria n person al names, the with ions profess for rian words, in the use of Hurrian suffixes (e.g. names 206 in aspects of Hurrian suffix -ub(u)li, also used with non-Hu rrian terms), to transglosses n Hurria of use gramm ar and syntax, as well as the occasional 207 Likewise, and probably late words written logographically or in Akkadian.

(Neukirchen-Vluyn: Hans-Pe ter Adler, Das Akkadische des Konigs Tusratta von Mitanni Verlag Butzon & Bercker Kevelaer, 1976). von Nuzi (Neukirchen-Vluyn: 203 Gernot Wilhelm, Untersuchungen zum Hurro-Akkadischen ," 376-77 (summar y of Assyrian and ian "Babylon Streck, ); 1970 Kevelaer, Butzon & Bercker, Nuzi). of n Akkadia the on Hurrian from nce interfere grammat ical Syrien," in Motivation und 204 Thomas Richter, "Hurriter und Hurritisc h im bronzeze itlichen Prachel (Vicchio, FloDoris Mechanismen des Kulturkontaktes in der Spiiten Bronzezeit, ed. of Akkadian can type this of ion rence: LoGisma editore, zoos), 162. Even so, the descript Syria ReconAge Bronze Late from kkadian be slightly modified (cf. Juan Oliva, "Hurro-A can be approach another or 143) 2016: 34, s Orientali Aula sidered: Qatna TT1 and Al.T. 297," of Local raphy Akkadog or Dialects, n Akkadia ral "Periphe Dassow, von proposed (cf. Eva onale. VoL 1, Part 2: Languages?" in Proceedings ofthe 53e Rencontre Assyriologique Intemati Eisenbra uns, 2010, Lake: Language in the Ancient Near East, ed. Leonid Kogan et al. Winona and Qatna repAlalal), Nuzi, of gas: "It may be hypothes ized ... that the 'Hurro-A kkadian' resents the Akkadography of Hurrian"). Draffkor n demonst rated, there 205 von Dassow, State and Society, 76, adding (ibid.) that "As ized) and non-Hurrian(ized) Hurrian( between iation different social was evidently no n". populatio Alalal)'s of s member Juan Oliva, "Consideraciones 206 von Dassow, State and Society, 73-74. For level VII see also 19-32. (1999): 16 Veleia sobre el hibridism o hurro-se mitico en Alalah VII," study by Eva von Dasthe see glosses, of use the 207 von Dassow, State and Society, 74-75. On aphy and Scribal Palaeogr in Texts," IV Alalal; the of e Languag sow, "Gloss Marking and the stine and Anatolia in the Late Bronze Age, ed. Elena Devecchi (Leiden:

202

Practices in Syro-Pale

AKKADIAN IN SYRIA AND CANAAN

1247

due to the ergative system of Hurrian, in Alalab an object often has the case of the subject. 208 Also attributable to Hurrian influence is the occasional lack of agreement in cases of antecedent and pronoun (e.g. the use of the fern. plural independent pronoun siniiti and of the suffixed -sina referring to a man and a woman),2° 9 the use of object-subject-verb word order (e.g. PN1 PNz a-na a-busu i-pu-us, "PN 2 has adopted PN1 as his father", AlT 16:2-3) 210 or the prevalent use of the permansive. 211 These elements indicate that Hurrian was, along with the local West Semitic language, one of the main languages of Alalal]. IV.212

208 209 210 211

212

Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten 2012), 201-16; cf. ibid., 212: "At Alalal) during the 15th century, the mark: was not specialized for marking glosses or other words extrinsic to the language of writing, though as a mark of emphasis it could be used this way. This particular usage subsequently became generalized in Syro-Canaanite scribal practice", ibid., 213: "they did not use : as a linguistic signal". Ignacio Marquez Rowe, "Notes on the Hurro-Akkadian of Alalal)," 72. Marquez Rowe, "Notes on the Hurro-Akkadian of Alalal)," 73· Marquez Rowe, "Notes on the Hurro-Akkadian of Alalal)," 70-71. Marquez Rowe, "Notes on the Hurro-Akkadian of Alalal)," 75· On the possibility that some of these characteristics could be explained as the influence of the local West Semitic substrate, see the discussion in ibid., 70 and 77; van Dassow, State and Society, 74 n. 183 and 75 n.185. van Dassow, State and Society, 75; van Dassow, "Gloss Marking", 204: "most of the tablets found at Alalal) were written by local scribes who would appear, on the basis of the Hurrian features of the texts they produced, to have been native speakers of Hurrian". In State and Society, 76, she considers that the scribes of Alalal) IV had read these texts "not in Hurrianized Akkadian, but in Hurrian", a conclusion that she modifies slightly in "Gloss Marking", 204: "While I do not believe the evidence shows that a Hurro-Akkadian language existed, except as an artifact of writing, neither am I certain that the scribes of Alalal) IV uniformly understood what they wrote in Hurrian-or even that they necessarily understood themselves to be writing in any particular language"; further on, ibid., 214, she notes that the scribes "mixed Hurrian and Akkadian vocabulary and grammar, though without consistently producing hybrid Hurro-Akkadian forms. Were they writing texts in Hurrianized Akkadian, then, or writing Hurrian by means of Akkadography?". Referring to the function of glosses in the texts from level IV, she concludes (ibid., 215) that "rather than functioning in the first instance to represent language, writing and the written text serve as an intermediary for recording or conveying information to be interpreted in (a) language. On this theory, the scribes of Alalal) IV did not habitually use :to mark words extrinsic to the language of writing, because they did not conceptualize writing as a means to represent language per se and, accordingly, they did not differentiate Hurrian and Akkadian in their writing".

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The process of interact ion between Akkadian and Hurrian is considerably closer and deeper in the case of five letters found in Qatna, in 2002, written 213 in the second half of the fourteen th century. These letters were not written at Qatna itself, but in the areas between Alalab and Qatna known as Ni'a and n frame code Nuhasse.214 In these texts almost every sentenc e in the Akkadia 215 co~tains some Hurrian traits-f ound in a general ratio of 5 to 1. This evident predom inance of Akkadian over Hurrian suggests that Akkadi an is most likely the matrix code of framing, whereas Hurrian corresp onds to the embedd ed code. The evidence strongly suggests that this type of Hurro-A kkadian can be viewed as a semi-advanced mixed language, even more than as exhibite d by the texts from Nuzi and Alala}J. 216 When they appear overtly, such (still secondary) Hurrian element s are typically verbal, i.e. inflected verbs (e.g. usu-nu-ti is-tu qahands ti KURna-ak-ri_su-nu: e}J-lu-sa -ap, ~~And I have saved [two idols] from the 10

213

adminisApart from the letters, this archive includes other genres such as juridical and also the see letters these On Qatna. trative texts that can be considered as indigenou s to "On the Oliva, Juan Syria"; Age Bronze Late studies by Juan Oliva, "Hurro-Akkadian from UgaritTT1," Letter Qatna the of Hurrian the Reading Order of Shuppiluliuma in Syria. en Akkadisch zum und hen Hurritisc "Zum Oliva, Juan 299-319; en 46 (2015):

Forschung

48 (2 017 ): des Qatna-Briefes TT2 mit historischer Einzelauswertung," Ugarit-Forschungen Blick," neuem unter 391-411, and Juan Oliva, "Der Hurro-akkadische Brief TT3 a us Qatna

Ugarit-Forschungen 49 (2018): 251-59.

214 215

Syria. These four polities formed a continuum of Hurrianiz ed principal ities in northern Civithe on Studies Remarks," ry Prelimina Age. Bronze Thomas Richter, "Qatna in the Late des Texte "Die Richter, Thomas 114; (zoos): 15 Hurrians the and ofNuzi Culture

lization and

risclzen Idadda-Archivs," in Das Archiv des Idadda. Die Keilschrifttexte aus den deutsch-sy Lange Ausgrabungen 2001-2003 im Konigspalastvon Qatna, by Thomas Richter and Sarah

216

l

l.

(Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2012), 30. in this For more details concerning the viewpoint, analysis and conclusio ns presented ablo andJuan-P Andrason r Alexande see Qatna in paragraph concerning the letters found Periphon Light "New ki, Baranows J. Krzysztof Instead, 308-16. ," Vita, "Contact Languages lische eral Akkadian from Qatna: Texts between Language and Writing System," Altorienta ns: "the conclusio different and e perspectiv another presents 22-35, (2018): 45 en Forschung dian") is illucharacterization of these document s as written in Akkadian (or "H urro-Akka doubts serious cast tions considera l sory. A closer perusal of the originals and additiona indication an simply not are features these on their 'Akkadian' language ... In my opinion, that the of a low level of linguistic competen ce in the scribes. Their combinat ion shows and words Akkadian of s sequence using letters the of message the encode scribes tried to " (ibid., 24); Akkadian in read be would that text coherent a g composin than rather phrases attested consequently, "given that the primary setting of the formation of linguistic usages acquisilanguage second on based in the Qatna texts was scribal education, explanati ons exhibits texts these of stratum Akkadian "The tion framework are to be favored" (ibid., 28); repertoire of features typical of second language learners' interlangu age, such as limited constiHurrian to recourse the context, this In ns. innovatio lexical or standard phrases 34 ). (ibid., language" target Akkadian the of e knowledg limited the of remedy a tutes

AKKADIAN IN SYRIA AND CANAAN

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of their enemies", TT 2:19-21). 217 From the qualitative perspective, the frame also seems to be provided by the Akkadian system. For example, the grammatical core of the sentence (e.g. the first verb, pronouns, conjunctions and word order) is Akkadian, which thus constitutes the matrix for the insertion of the Hurrian element (e.g. the second verb ). 218 Additionally, Hurrian is found in glosses that translate Akkadian nominal phrases, prepositional phrases or verbal forms (e.g. Ui-na-an-na 1/;a-an-nu-ut-ti it-ti NAM.RA.MES: sa 10-ri-ni-ra i-ti-iq, "and just then Ijannutti passed by with the booty: booty", TT 2:36-38).219 The third type of Hurrian trait corresponds to mixed Hurro-Akkadian verbal forms. Although superficially all the components of these constructions are Akkadian (i.e. both the stem of the verb and the suffixed subject marker), such formations seem to be bilingual hybrids: it is the deep structure of these composites that mirrors the structure of the Hurrian verb. In these instances, the language shift marker (i.e. the gloss sign) is not present.22o 4·5 /jw;or, Canaano-Akkadian The texts from the Middle Bronze Age found in Ija~or belong to the Old Babylonian tradition of Akkadian and, in fact, show close relationship with the Old Babylonian archive ofMari (section 2.5). However, the Akkadian that they use shows signs of development from canonical Old Babylonian as well as elements that could be due to the influence of locallanguage. 221 Mimation, for example, is used erratically, e.g. nom. LVGAL-um, ~~king" (Hazor 2a, liver model)2 22 and ace. su-ma-am, ~~a name" (Hazor 3f:4, liver model), 223 whereas mimation is 217

218

Thomas Richter, "Das 'Archiv des Idanda'. Bericht i.iber Inschriftenfunde der Grabungskampagne 2002 in MiSrife/Qatna," Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft zu Berlin 135 (2003): 175; Giorgieri, "Bedeutung und Stellung," 96; Richter, "Die Texte des Idadda-Archivs," 48-49; Andrason and Vita, "Contact Languages," 310. Sometimes, however, the order can be inverted and it is the Hurrian verb that precedes the Akkadian verb (see example TT 3:30-31 in Richter, "Die Texte des Idadda-Archivs," 38, 46, 57)·

219 220

Thomas Richter, "Die Texte des Idadda-Archivs," 49· See Richter, "Qatna in the Late Bronze Age," 112; Andrason and Vita, "Contact Languages,"

221

See the evaluation previously made by William W. Hallo and Hayim Tadmor, "A Lawsuit from Hazor," Israel Exploration]oumal27 (1977 ): 10, concerning the text Hazor 5 (a lawsuit): "The command of classical Old Babylonian grammar and orthography is good, with only one or two possible lapses or signs of West Semitic influence". See also Anson F. Rainey, Canaanite in the A mama Tablets. A Linguistic Analysis of the Mixed Dialect Used by the Scribesfrom Canaan. Vol. I I. MorplzosyntacticAnalysis ofthe Verbal System (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 1996), 29. Horowitz, Oshima and Sanders, Cuneiform in Canaan, 65. Horowitz, Oshima and Sanders, Cuneiform in Canaan, 66. Mimation is also consistent in Hazor s:8 (court record), r u'-ra-am se-ra-am sa di-na-am (cf. I. 3 di-nam ).

311-12.

222 223

1250

VITA

224 absent from Hazor 17b-d (also a liver model). The influence of the local NWs language is evident, for example, in the feminine gender ascribed to URU, "city" in URU DINGIR.MES -sa i-tu-ru-ni, "The city, its gods will return there" (Hazor g)zzs or the construct form di-n a PN, "the lawsuit of PN" (Hazor 5:7 ), where the 3 226 noun preserves the vowel of the case-ending, as would also happen later (as

we have seen) in other types of peripheral Akkadian. The Syro-Palestinian Amarna letters provide evidence for the considerably increased influence of the local NWS language on written Akkadian during the fourteenth century BCE in over sixty places in Syrian kingdoms in the Middle Orontes, in Amurm, the Beqa', southern Syria, Phoenicia, and Canaan (section a very heterogeneo us corpus in terms of political history, 2 •5 ).227 It is, therefore, but also very fragmented in respect of language. With some exceptions, these are small corpora that, taken as a whole, were written by over one hundred different scribeszzs and which, as far as possible, are preferably to be studied individually.zzg However, these corpora share enough linguistic features to form, as 230 In general, the language a whole, what has been called "Canaano-Akkadian". used in these letters is Akkadian based on an ancient Babylonian dialect,Z31 but they were written by autochthono us Syro-Palesti nian scribes, whose mother tongue was a NWS language that is quite often reflected in the Akkadian they

224 225

226

227 228 229

230

231

Horowitz, Oshima and Sanders, Cuneiform in Canaan, 86. Horowitz, Oshima and Sanders, Cuneiform in Canaan, 66. Possibly the spelling id-dan! in Hazor 3f:4 may also be due to the influence of the local language, cf. ibid.: "Note the apparent Assyrian form iddan rather than Babylonian inaddin. This might in fact be the present-future form in the local language". Hallo and Tadmor, "A Lawsuit from Hazor," g, consider that "Another 'provincialism' may underlie the curious form of the construct state di-na (for expected di-in )";however, as we have seen, this type of the construct is found later in the Akkadian texts from Emar and Ugarit. See the table in Vita, Canaanite Scribes, 124-8. Vita, Canaanite Scribes, 140. SeejosefTropp er andjuan-Pablo Vita, Das Kanaano-Akka dische der Amamazeit (UgaritVerlag, Munster 2010), 25, for the corresponding bibliography of the principal linguistic studies on the corpora from Byblos, Gezer, Jerusalem, Tyre, Ashqelon, Akko, Megiddo, Sichem, and Amurru. Essential studies: Anson F. Rainey, Canaanite in the Amama Tablets. A Linguistic Analysis of the Mixed Dialect Used by the Scribes from Canaan. 4 vols. (Leiden-Boston : Brill, 1996); Shlomo lzre'el, Canaano-Akkadian (Mi.inchen: LINCOM Europa, zoos); Trapper and Vita, Das Kanaano-Akkadische; Krzysztof J. Baranowski, The Verb in the A mama letters from Canaan (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2016). Anson F. Rainey, Canaanite in the Am am a Tablets. A Linguistic Analysis ofthe Mixed Dialect Used by the Scribes from Canaan. Vol. II. Morphosyntact ic Analysis of the Verbal System (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 1996), 17-32.

AKKADIAN IN SYRIA AND CANAAN

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use, whether morphologically, syntactically or lexically. Consequently, Anson F. Rainey describes the language used in these letters as a hybrid made up of three layers: 232 1) basic Old Babylonian, 2) local modifications, and 3) purely Northwest Semitic elements. As well as Old Babylonian, the letters also use (sometimes jointly) the Middle Babylonian and Middle Assyrian dialects.233 The "local modifications" would be expressions that are neither Babylonian nor Canaanite, but reflect Canaano-Akkadian mixed forms. The purely NWS features present in the letters reflect the oldest linguistic characteristics of the Canaanite family. Thus, NWS languages or local dialects appear in two main forms in this hybrid language: 1) Canaanite lexemes may appear in the middle of a sentence either independently or acting as glosses, translating a preceding word or phrase (e.g. iR-ka a-nu-ki [ws /'anoki/], "I am your servant", EA 287:66; SAG.DU-nu: ru-su-nu [ws /rosu-nii/] i-na qa-te-ka, and our head is in your hand", EA 264:18); 234 2) more frequently, however, the local language is apparent through forms which hybridise Canaanite and Akkadian elements, particularly frequent in the verbal system. Generally, scribes took a verbal base attested to in Akkadian and combined it with Canaanite prefixes and suffixes; in the resulting form, Canaanite affixes predominated in terms of expressing time and aspect, the Akkadian verbal base being of little relevance in that sense 235 (e.g. da-agla-ti7 ki-ia-am da-ag-la-ti7 ki-ia-am la-a na-mi-ir, 1 looked this way, and I looked that way, and there was no light", EA 292:8-10 ).236

u

11

u

232

233 234

235

236

u

11

Anson F. Rainey, "The Hybrid Language Written by Canaanite Scribes in the 14th Century BCE," in Proceedings of the 53e Rencontre Assyriologique Intemationale. VoL 1, Part 2: Language in the Ancient Near East, ed. Leonid Kogan et al. (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2010 ), 852. Rainey, "The Hybrid Language," 853. According to Rainey, ibid., Sss, this hybrid language "was a real dialect alongside Middle Babylonian and Middle Assyrian". This glosses could incorporate-or not-a so-called "gloss-wedge" or "Glossenkeil". On the phenomenon of codeswitching in the Canaanite glosses existing in these letters see Shlomo Izre'el, "The Amama Glosses: Who Wrote What for Whom?" Israel Oriental Studies 15 (1995): 101-22; Agustinus Gianto, "Amama Lexicography: The Glosses in the Byblos Letters," Studi Epigrafici e Linguistici 12 (1995): 65-73; Trapper and Vita, Das KanaanoAkkadische, 26-27; Alexander Andrason and Juan-Pablo Vita, "From Glosses to the Linguistic Nature of Canaano-Akkadian," Folia Orientalia 51 (2014): 155-75. On NWS lexemes in lexical texts from the thirteenth century BCE in Aphek and Ashkelon see above section 3·5· See in detail Rainey Canaanite in the Amama Tablets. Vol. II; Izre'el, Canaano-Akkadian; Baranowski, The Verb in the A mama letters. Also, amongst others, von Dassow, "Canaanite in Cuneiform," 644-47; Tropper and Vita, Das Kanaano-Akkadische. Akk. dagalu "to look"; qatl-ati: (qatl+a+ti:), cf. Rainey Canaanite in the Amama Tablets. Vol. II, 285; Tropper and Vita, Das Kanaano-Akkadische, 70-71.

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As a result, Canaano-Akkadian is the product of the coexiste nce and interaction of two Semitic languages and does not constitu te a cohesive linguistic system.237 It is an example of the situatio n where two differen t linguistic systems interacted, producing a novel gramma tical organiz ation, and is thus typically analysed within a language-contact framework. Yet, the exact linguistic nature of this language has been the subject of quite varied proposa ls and continues to be debated.238 This morpho syntacti c phenom enon seems to go back to at least the fifteenth century BCE, as shown by the letters ofTaana k (section to some extent, by the Idrimi Statue Inscript ion (section 4-4);24o 2 . 5)239 and, however it seems to disappear completely in the thirteen th century, as shown, 41 for example, by the letters from Sidon and Beirut found in Ugarit.2 The historical events that resulted in the destruc tion of kingdom s such as Ugarit, Emar and Ijattusa in the twelfth century BCE also meant that Mesopotamian cuneiform writing was no longer valued in the western periphery and

237

238

239 240 241

"The CanIzre'el, Canaano-Akkadian, 3, appropria tely describes the situation as follows: depencally geographi be may Variation variation. inherent by Akk texts are characterized traimported on also but cities, different of tradition scribal the on depend dent. It may traditions scribal upon t dependen is variation ic Geograph ... ones local variant or ditions ce of a letand scribal education. By and large, there is correlatio n between the provenan remote more the Canaan in travels ter and its linguistic structure. The farther south one verCanaanite the to becomes it closer the and becomes a CanAkk text from Akkadian, nacular of that region". and releRegarding the various proposals oflinguist ic classifica tion of Canaano- Akkadian Andra20-24; e, Akkadisch KanaanoDas Vita, and Trapper detail in see hy, vant bibliograp "Amama Gianto, son and Vita, "From Glosses," 155-75. More significan t studies: Agustinu s ed. Karel van Akkadian as a Contact Language," in Languages and Cultures in Contact, e in "Canaanit Dassow, van 123-32; ), Lerberghe and Gabriela Voet (Leuven: Peeters, 2000 Press, Illinois of y Universit (Urbana: Hebrew of Cuneiform"; Seth L. Sanders, The Invention n: Linguistics 2009 ); Rainey, "The Hybrid Language"; Shlomo Izre'el, "Canaano -Akkadia rd on Huehnerga John to Presented Papers Nature. and Language in and Sociolinguistics," (Chicago: Pat-El Na'ama and h llasselbac Rebecca ed. Birthday, 6oth His of the Occasion ki, The Verb in The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2012 ), 171-218; Baranows

the Amama letters, 36-61. "Contact LanRainey Canaanite in the Amama Tablets. Vol. II, 31-32; Andrason and Vita, guages," 323 and 328. McConaughy Medill, "The Idrimi Statue Inscription". du Bronze On this see Daniel Amaud, "Le jargon epistolair e de Sidon la fin de I' age Arnaud Daniel recent," in Etudes ougaritiques I. Travaux 1985-1995, ed. Margueri te Yon and Akka"The Vita, uan-Pablo (Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 2001), 291-322;j Akkadian in Papers Lisani: Bel in Age," dian of the King of Beirut in the Late Bronze Linguistics Presented to John Huehnergard on the Occasion of His Retirement, ed. Rebecca in press. Hasselbach-Andee and Na'ama Pat-El (Pennsylvania State Universit y Press, 2021),

a

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the end of Akkadian as a lingua franca on such a large scale as in previous centuries. In the following centuries, Mesopotamian cuneiform writing and Akkadian continued to be essential tools for communication in the Ancient Near East, but they shared the stage with scripts such as the linear alphabets and languages such as Aramaic. 242

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kampagne zooz in Misrife/Qatna." Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft zu Berlin13s (zoo3): 167-88. Richter, Thomas. "Hurriter und Hurritisch im bronzezeitlichen Syrien." In Motivation und Mechanismen des Kulturkontaktes in der Spaten Bronzezeit, edited by Doris Prachel, 14s-78. Vicchio, Firenze: LoGisma editore, zoos. Richter, Thomas. "Qatna in the Late Bronze Age. Preliminary Remarks:' Studies on the Civilization and Culture ofNuzi and the Hurrians 1S (zoos): 10g-z6. Richter, Thomas. "Die Texte des Idadda-Archivs." In Das Archiv des Idadda. Die Keilschrifttexte aus den deutsch-syrischen Ausgrabungen 2001-2003 im Konigspalast von Qatna, by Thomas Richter, and Sarah Lange, z7-13z. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, z01z. Richter, Thomas, and Sarah Lange. Das Archiv des Idadda. Die Keilschrifttexte aus den deutsch-syrischen Ausgrabungen 2001-2003 im Konigspalast von Qatna. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, zo12. Roche, Carole. "Jeux de mats, jeux de signes en Ougarit ou de }'influence des textes lexicaux sur les scribes de peripherie." In D'Ougarit ajerusalem. Recueil d'etudes epigraphiques et archeologiques offert a Pierre Bordreuil, edited by Carole Roche, zos-14. Paris: De Boccard, zoo8. Roche, Carole. "Language and Script in the Akkadian Economic Texts from Ras Shamra." In Society and Administration in Ancient Ugarit, edited by Wilfred H. van Soldt, 107-zz. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, zo10. Roche-Hawley, Carole. "Scribes, Houses and Neighborhoods at Ugarit." Ugarit-Forschungen 44 (z013): 413-44. Roche-Hawley, Carole. "Etude epigraphique des manuscrits des listes LU I d'Emar." In Scribes et erudits dans l'orbite de Babylone, edited by Carole Roche-Hawley, and Robert Hawley, s3-117. Paris: De Boccard, z01z. Roche-Hawley, Carole. "On the Palaeographic 'Syllabary N in the Late Bronze Age." In Palaeography and Scribal Practices in Syro-Palestine and Anatolia in the Late Bronze Age, edited by Elena Devecchi, 1z7-46. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, zo1z. Roche-Hawley, Carole. "Mesopotamian Cuneiform at Ugarit: Learning versus Using." In Devins et lettres dans l'orbite de Babylone, edited by Carole Roche-Hawley, and Robert Hawley, sg-8o. Paris: De Boccard, 2o1s. Roche-Hawley, Carole, and Robert Hawley. "An Essay on Scribal Families, Tradition, and Innovation in Thirteenth-Century Ugarit." In Beyond Hatti. A Tribute to Gary Beckman, edited by Billiejean Collins, and Piotr Michalowski, z41-64. Atlanta: Lockwood Press, z013. Rougemont, Franc;oise, and Juan-Pablo Vita. "Palais et archives: organisation administrative des palais clans le monde mycenien et a Ougarit." In Palais sans archives, archives sans palais. Palais, archives et territoires en Orient et en Egee, Topoi Suppl. 16, edited by Franc;oise Rougemont. In press.

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Sanders, Seth 1. The Invention of Hebrew. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009. Scheucher, To bias Simon. "The Transmissional and Functional Context of the Lexical Lists from ijattusa and from the Contemporan eous Traditions in Late-Bronze-Age Syria." PhD diss., Leiden University, 2012. https:// openaccess.le idenuniv.nl/ha ndle /1887/19986 Seminara, Stefano. L'accadico di Emar. Roma: Universita degli Studi di Roma "La Sapienza", 1998. Singer, Itamar. "A Political History ofUgarit." In Handbook ofUgaritic Studies, edited by Wilfred G.E. Watson, and Nicolas Wyatt, 603-733. Leiden-Bosto n: Brill, 1999. Streck, Michael. P. "Babylonian and Assyrian." In The Semitic Languages. An International Handbook, edited by Stefan Weninger, in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, andjanet C.E. Watson, 359-96. Berlin-Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011. Tadmor, Hayim. "A Lexicographical Text from Hazor." Israel Exploration journal 27 (1977): 98-102.

Torrecilla, Eduardo. Late Bronze Age Ekalte: Chronoloff)" Society, and Religion ofa Middle Euphrates Town. Saarbriicken: Scholar's Press, 2014. Torrecilla, Eduardo. "Divine Names in the Tall Hadidi/Azu Texts." KASKAL 14 (2017): 114.

Torrecilla, Eduardo, and Yoram Cohen. "A Mittani Letter Order from Azu (HAD 8) and its Implications for the Chronology and History of the Middle Euphrates Region in the Late Bronze Age." Revue d'assyriologie 112 (2018): 149-58. Trapper, Josef. Ugaritische Grammatik. Zweite, stark iiberarbeitete und erweiterte Auf

!age. Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2012. Tropper,Josef, andJuan-Pabl o Vita. Das Kanaano-Akkadische der Amamazeit. Mi.inster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2010. van den Ho ut, Theo. "The Ductus of the Alalal] Texts and the origin of Hittite Cuneiform." In Palaeography and Scribal Practices in Syro-Palestine and Anatolia in the Late Bronze Age, edited by Elena Devecchi, 147-70. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2012. van der Toom, Karel. "Cuneiform Documents from Syria-Palestine. Texts, Scribes, and Schools." Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palastina-Vereins u6 (2ooo ): 97-113. van Soldt, Wilfred H. "The Akkadian ofUgarit: Lexicographic al Aspects." Studi Epigrafici

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van Soldt, Wilfred H. "The Ugarit Version of Syllabary A." In Studies in Ancient Near Eastern World View and Society. Presented to Marten Stol on the Occasion of his 6sth Birthday, edited by Robartus Johannes van der Spek, 255-75. Bethesda: CDL Press, zooS. van Soldt, Wilfred H. "The Adaptation of the Cuneiform Script to Foreign Languages."

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van Soldt, Wilfred H. "The Palaeography of Two Ugarit Archives." In Theory and Practice of Knowledge Transfer. Studies in School Education in the Ancient Near East and Beyond, edited byW.S. van Egmond, and W.H. van Soldt,171-82. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2012. van Soldt, Wilfred H. "The Extent of Literacy in Syria and Palestine during the Second Millennium B. c. E." In Time and History in the Ancient Near East, edited by Lluis Feliu, jaume Llop, Adelina Millet Alba, andjoaquin San martin, 19-31. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2013. van Soldt, Wilfred H., "School and Scribal Tradition in Ugarit." In Cultures and Societies in the Middle Euphrates and Habur Areas in the Second Millennium BC I. Scribal Edu-

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a

Forschungen 39 (2012): 278-86. Vita, Juan-Pablo. Canaanite Scribes in the Amarna Letters. Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2o15. Vita, Juan-Pablo. "Language Contact between Akkadian and Northwest Semitic Languages in Syria-Palestine in the Late Bronze Age." In Semitic Language in Contact, edited by Aaron M. Butts, 375-404. Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2015. Vita, Juan-Pablo. "Akkadian as a Lingua Franca." In A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Languages, edited by Rebecca Hasselbach-Ande e, 357-72. Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell, 2020. Vita, Juan-Pablo. "The Akkadian of the King of Beirut in the Late Bronze Age." In Bel

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phy and Scribal Practices in Syro-Palestine and Anatolia in the Late Bronze Age, edited by Elena Devecchi, 201-16. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2012. von Dassow, Eva. "Genres of Texts and Archives of Tablets." Orientalistische Literaturzeitung no (2015): 177-go.

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von Dassow, Eva. "Diri and Sa at Alalah." Nouvelles Assyriologiques Breves et Utilitaires 2017: 94-96.

Vukosavovic, Filip. "The Laws of Hazor and the ANE Parallels." Revue d' assyriologie 108 (2014): 41-44·

Watson, Wilfred G.E. Lexical Studies in Ugaritic. Sabadell-Barcelona: Editorial Ausa, 2007.

Weeden, Mark. Hittite Logograms and Hittite Scholarship. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2011.

Weeden, Mark. "Hittite Scribal Culture and Syria: Palaeography and Cuneiform Transmission." In Cultures and Societies in the Middle Euphrates and Habur Areas in the Second Millennium BC I. Scribal Education and Scribal Traditions, edited by Shigeo Yamada, and Daisuke Shibata, 157-91. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2016. Wegner, Ilse. Einfohrung in die hurritische Sprache. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2007 2 • Weippert, Manfred. "Keilschrift in Kanaan. Mesopotamis che Keilschrift und akkadische Sprache im 2. und 1. Jahrtausend v. Chr. in PaH.istina." In Sprachen in Palii.stina im 2. Und 1.]ahrtausend v. Chr., edited by Ulrich Hiibner, and Herbert Niehr, 27-74. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2017. Wilhelm, Gernot. Untersuchungen zum Hurro-Akkadischen von Nuzi. NeukirchenVluyn: Kevelaer, Butzon & Bercker, 1970. Wiseman, Donald J. The Alalakh Tablets. London: The British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara, 1953. Zeeb, Frank. Die Palastwirtschaft in Altsyrien nach den spii.taltbabylonischen Getreidelieferlisten aus Alala& (Schicht vn). Miinster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2001.

.. CHAPTER 19

Akkadian and the Hittites Gary Bee km an

The Akkadian Language at ljattusa

1

Akkadian was of great importance for the administration of the Hittite empire of the Late Bronze Age, 1 although it is unlikely that many native Anatolians could speak or write the language fluently. This Mesopotamian language was used by the Hittite monarch and his bureaucracy in part internally for prestige purposes (e.g., Nos. z-6 below), but was essential for generating documents employed in the governance of subjugated regions in Syria and for correspond2

ing with foreign rulers located outside of Anatolia. Akkadian had been in use earlier in the region, specifically in the trading stations of the Old Assyrian mercantile network of the Middle Bronze Age,3 utilized in letters, family documents, and business records primarily by the Mesopotamian merchants themselves but also by a number of natives.4 However, the hiatus that lay between the demise of this commercial system (c.1720 BCE) and the rise ofthe Hittite state in the mid-seventeenth century-a period marked by continuous warfare among the polities of centralAnatoliasaw the complete disappearance from the area of the language as well as of the cuneiform script. As a result, neither the Akkadian "dialect" nor the writing sys-

1

2

Recorded Hittite history began in the closing century of the Middle Bronze Age, but the great bulk of available records are from the Late Bronze, and it is only in this later period that the state can be called an "empire." For Akkadian as a lingua franca in the Late Bronze Age, see Wilfred H. van Soldt, "Akkadian as a Diplomatic Language," in The Semitic Languages. An International Handbook, ed. Stefan Weninger et al. (Berlin-Boston: de Gruyter Mouton, 2011), 405-15. Much of the diplomatic material generated by Hittite chancellery has been translated in Gary Beckman, Hittite Diplo-

matic Texts (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 19992 ). 3 On Old Assyrian see the chapter 15 in this volume. 4 See Cecile Michel, "The Private Archives from KaniS Belonging to Anatolians," Altorientalische Forschungen (zon): 94-115, and Klaas R. Veenhof, "Seven Debt-Notes of Anatolians from Ancient Kanesh," in At The Dawn ofHistory. Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Honourof]N. Postgate, ed. Yagmur Heffron, Adam Stone and Martin Worthington (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2017 ),

665-84.

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I

DOI:IO.ll63/97H9004445215 _020

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tern displayed by any document from ljatti bears a close resemblance to that of the Old Assyrian period. Writing was reintroduced into Anatolia only when the newly consolidated Hittite state required it as a tool for carrying out its ever more complex activities. This reception apparently took place during the reign of Ijattusili I (late seventeenth century), the earliest Hittite king for whom any texts have been preserved. 5 The precise source of the borrowing remains a matter of debate, but most authorities believe that the variety of cuneiform that ultimately gave rise to the Old Hittite script was introduced from North Syrian Alalal; or another site in its region. 6 However, I believe that we are chasing a chimera in seeking a single point of origin for cuneiform in Late Bronze Age Anatolia, for there is no reason to think that the script was introduced to Ijatti once and for all by a single scribe or scribal school on a particular occasion. 7 The two very earliest texts, both Akkadian in language, seem to have been written by scribes impressed into service on the spot in southeastern Anatolia. The letter of Ijattusili I to Tunip-Tessub (No. 1 below) was probably retrieved illegally in modern times from the latter's residence city, Tikunani, which is to be sought somewhere in the vicinity of modern Mardin. 8 And while it was excavated by Winckler at Bogazkoy, the Siege ofUrsu Text (No. 2, CTH 7) has been shown byX-rayfluorescence analysis of its fabric to have likely also been created in the Upper Euphrates region. 9

5 The relationship to the Hittite dynasty of Anitta, who ruled in the city of Kussar during the final years of the Assyrian presence and a tablet copy of whose display inscription(s) was recovered in the Hittite archives ( CTH 1, translation Gary Beckman, "The Anita Text," in The Ancient Near East, ed. Mark W. Chavalas, Oxford: Blackwell, 2006, 216-19), is uncertain. See Amir Gilan, Fomzen und Inhalte althethitischer historischer Literatur (Heidelberg: UniversitatsverlagWinter, 2015), 200-1. 6 See Theo van den Hout, "The Ductus of the Alalal) VII Texts and the Origin of Hittite Cuneiform," in Palaeography and Scribal Practices in Syro-Palestine and Anatolia in the Late Bronze Age, ed. Elena Devecchi (Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2012), 147-70, and Mark Weeden, "Hittite Scribal Culture and Syria: Palaeography and Cuneiform Tradition," in Cultures and Societies in the Middle Euphrates and Habur Areas in the Second Millennium-!. Scribal Education and Scribal Traditions, ed. Daisuke Shibata and Shigeo Yamada (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2016), 157-91. 7 See already van den Ho ut, "The Ductus of the Alalal) VI I Texts," 165. 8 Dominique Charpin, "Tigunanum et I' horizon geographique des archives de Mari," Nouvelles Assyriologiques Breves et Utilitaires 2ooo: 63-64. 9 Yuval Goren, Hans Mommsen and jbrg Klinger, "Non-destructive Provenance Study of Cuneiform Tablets using Portable X-ray Flouresence (pXRF)," journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2on): 694.

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c th e 10rmer h 10 K f city Perhaps it was brought to Hattusa ram ussar w en V

vv

V

became the capital. Over the following decades and centuries additional practitione rs of writing hailing from Syria as well as Assyria and Babylonia brought- or in some instances reintrodu ced-to Ijattusa the sign forms characteri stic of the New Script and Late New Script. 11 In their teaching, these "guest professors"I2 will have followed the pedagogical practices of their homeland s, which customarily involved the copying by students of previously prepared texts. Through this process both the original language of the teachers and the literary genres of Mesopotamia became familiar to the pupils-he re Anatolians.13 Indeed, the visiting experts sometimes brought along tablets from Babylonia or Assyria, presumably for use in this mode of instruction . This is the best explanation for the discovery in their archives of such material of no utilitarian value to the Hittites as a Middle Assyrian timu list (CTH 817) and a Kassite royal

1o

11

12

13

For the possible location of this earlier Hittite political center, see Gojko Barjamovic, A Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period (Copenhagen : Carsten Niebuhr Institute of Ancient Near Eastern Studies, 2011), 143-50. See Theo van den Hout, "A Century of Hittite Text Dating and the Origins of the Hittite Cuneiform Script," Incontri Linguistic£ 32 (2009): 11-36, and Mark Weeden, "AssyroMittanian or Middle Assyrian?" in Palaeography and Scribal Practices in Syro-Palestine and Anatolia in the Late Bronze Age, ed. Elena Devecchi (Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2012), 229-51, for the developmen t of the Hittite cuneiform script. These foreign specialists are attested sporadically at ljattusa and other Hittite sites, recognizable by their Akkadian personal names; see Gary Beckman, "Mesopotamians and Mesopotamian Learning at ljattusa," journal of Cuneiform Studies 35 (1983): 97-114. Mark Weeden, "State Correspondence in the Hittite World," in State Correspondence in the Ancient World· From New Kingdom Egypt to the Roman Empire, ed. Karen Radner (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 46, suggests that these monikers may have been noms de plume adopted by braggart native scribes, but this will certainly not have been the case in all instances. Someone had to import the tablets written in a Mesopotami an hand to ljattusa. See Gernot Wilhelm, "Zur babylonisch-assyrischen Schultraditio n in ljattusa," in Uluslararast1. HititolojiKongresiBildirleri (19-21 Temmuz 1990) r;orum: 83-93 (~orum: Hitit Festivali Komitesi Ba§kanligi, 1990 ); Leonhard Sassmannsh ausen, "Babylonische Schriftkultur des 2.Jahrtausen ds V. Chr. in den Nachbarliindern und im ostlichen Mittelmeerraum," Aula Orientalis 26 (zooS): 263-93;]eane tte C. Fincke, "The School Curricula from Ijattusa, Emar, and Ugarit: A Comparison" in Theory and Practice of Knowledge Transfer: Studies in School Education in the Ancient Near East and Beyond, ed. WS. van Egmond and Wilfred H. van Soldt (Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2012), Ss101.

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inscription.l4 Other tablets may be recognized by their clay matrix and/or their script as imports from the south. 15 Given this type of education provided its authors, Hittite written literature owed much to Mesopotamian models, primarily Akkadian rather than Sumerian.16 For example, certain Hittite prayers to the Sun-goddess lean heavily on Akkadian forerunners, 17 and elements of the Gilgames epic are found at ljattusa in two Akkadian versions as well as in Hurrian- and Hittite-language adaptations.18 What we may characterize as Mesopotamian scholarship and science are present in bothAkkadian -and sometimes Sumerian-orig inals ( CTH Soo-13) as well as in Hittite translation.I 9 Attested are reference works on lexicography

14 15 16

17

18

19

Wilfred G. Lambert, Babylonian Creation Myths (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2013), 268. This was pointed out to me by Robert Biggs, who has had considerable experience handling Mesopotamian scholarly material from Bogazki::iy. Jorg Klinger, "Literarische sumerische Texte a us den hethitischen Archiven a us tiberlieferungsgeschichtlicher Sicht. Teil 1.," in Palaeography and Scribal Practices in Syro-Palestine andAnatolia in the Late Bronze Age, ed. Elena Devecchi (Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2012), 79-93; Gary Beckman, "Hittite Literature," in From an Antique Land: An Introduction to Ancient Near Eastern Literature, ed. Carl S. Ehrlich (Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefield, 2009), 215-54; id., "Under the Spell of Babylon: Mesopotamian Influence on the Religion of the Hittites," in Cultures in Contact: From Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean in the Second Millennium B. c., ed.Joan Aruz, Sarah B. Graff and Yelena Rakic (New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2013), 284-97. Hans G. Gtiterbock, "The Composition of Hittite Prayers to the Sun," journal of the American Oriental Society 78 (1958): 237-45; Christopher Metcalf, "New Parallels in Hittite and Sumerian Praise of the Sun," Die Welt des Orients 41 (zou): 168-76; id., The Gods Rich in Praise. Early Greek and Mesopotamian Religious Poetry (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 79-103; Charles W. Steitler, The Solar Deities ofBronze Age Anatolia. Studies in Texts of the Early Hittite Kingdom (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2017), 371-76; cf. Alfonso Archi, "Die Adad-Hymne ins Hethitische tibersetzt," Orientalia 52 (1983): 20-30. Ji::irg Klinger, "Die hethitische Rezeption mesopotamischer Literatur und die Uberlieferung des Gilgames-Epos in Jjattusa," in Motivation undMechanismen des Kulturkontaktes in der Spaten Bronzezeit, ed. Doris Prechel (Florence: LoGisma, zoos), 103-27; Gary Beckman, "Gilgamesh in Jjatti," in Hittite Studies in Honor ofHarry A. Hoffner,jr. on the Occasion ofHis 6sth Birthday, ed. Gary Beckman, Richard H. Beal and John Gregory McMahon (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2003), 37-57; id., The Hittite Gilgamesh. Edition, Translation and Commentary (Atlanta: Lockwood Press, 2019). In general see Re ne La bat, "Le rayonnement de la langue et de I' ecriture akkadiennes au deuxieme millenaire avant notre ere," Syria 39 (1g6z): 1-27; Kaspar K. Riemschneider, Die akkadischen und hethitischen Omentexte aus Bogazkoy (Dresden: Verlag der Technischen UniversWit, 2004); Volkert Haas, Hethitische Orakel, Vorzeichen undAbwehrstrateg ien (Berlin: Waiter de Gruyter, zooS); and Matthew T. Rutz, "Mesopotamian Scholarship in Jjattusa and the Sammeltafel Ku B 4·53.'' journal ofthe American Oriental Society 132 ( 2012 ): 171-88.

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( CTH zgg- 3og),2o medic ine ( CTH 8o8),

21 extispicy ( CTH 547-57 ), 22 the interpre-

23 ), the decoding tation of various omino us terrestrial pheno mena ( CT H 536-4 5 (CTH 542 ),24 of the meani ng of pattern s made by oil when poure d into water 26 ). Some of hemerologies (CTH 546), 25 and astron omy/a strolog y ( CTH 531-35 as we can tell, these practices were not actually emplo yed in ljatti, as far ed there but the impor ted techni que of extispicy was intens ively practic oracle,27 of types if as part of a binary system incorp orating several other

20

21

22 23

itische Vokabular KBo I 44 + Heinric h Otten and Wolfram von Soden, Das akkadisch-heth Fincke, "Neue Erkenntnisse C. e Jeanett 1968); witz, Harrasso KBo XIII 1 (Wiesbaden: Otto ferung diagnostischer Uberlie zur und SA.GIG rie Omense tischen zur 21. Tafel der Diagnos To bias Simon Scheucher, Omente xte in Hattusa," Bibliotheca Orientalis 68 (2on): 472-76; h in the Study of Researc "Errors and Mistakes: The Narrow Limits of Orality-Literacy and Practice Theory in ," ljattusa t Ancien Ancient Culture s-the Case of Lexical Lists from Beyond, ed. and East Near Ancient the in on ofKnowledge Transfer: Studies in School Educati het Nabije voor t Instituu nds Nederla : (Leiden Soldt van W.S. van Egmond and Wilfred H. Oosten, 2012), 137-46. us Bogazkoy," Archiv for OriFranz Kocher, "Ein akkadischer medizin ischer Schtiler text a an Medical Text entforschung 16 (19s2-s3): 47-s6; Federico Giusfredi, "The Akkadi "KUB 4, so: Ein Fincke, C. eanette ): 49-63;] KUB 37.1," Altorientalische Forschungen 39 (2012 ogiques Breves Assyriol es Nouvell ," ljattusa us medizin ischer Text tiber Augenk rankhei ten a

et Utilitaires 2010: 11-12. owitz, 2013). An De Vos, Die Lebennodelle aus Bogazkoy (Wiesba den: Harrass ittite Counterparts," Hurro-H their and Texts immeru summa an "Akkadi Harry. A. Hoffner, William W. Hallo, ed. Mark in The Tablet and the ScrolL Near Eastern Studies in Ho nor of Press, 1993), n6-19;Yoram CDL da: E. Cohen, Daniel C. Snell and David B. Weisberg (Bethes immeru and summa alu summa The Emar: from ljattusa and

Cohen, "Akkadian Omens l Hurrian and Hittite Omens; ' Zeitschrift for Assyriologie 97 ( 2007 ): 233-s1; id., "Paralle Altorientalische Omens," an Akkadi onding Corresp and summa izbu Omens from Hattusa

Forschungen 44 (2017): 9-18.

24

2S

: An Investigation of the Netanel Anor and Yoram Cohen, "The Oil Omens from Hattusa journal ofNear Eastition," History and Transmission of a Babylonian Divinat ion Compos em Studies 77 (2018): 19s-2o6. ischer Omentexte: Die Jeanette C. Fincke, "Zu den hethitis chen Uberset zungen babylon ed Egeo-Anatolici Micenei Studi 3s," I I VI B KU in Omina Kalenda rischen und astrologischen (cni S46), Teil I: tiattusa aus logien Hemero chen akkadis den 46 (2004): 21s-41; id., "Zu das 'Reinige n seines GewanEine Hemerologie fiir das 'Rufen von Klagen' (sigu sasu) und Cuneiform Studies 61 (2oog): des' (ffahat-su ubbubu): KUB 4, 46 (+) KUB 43, 1," journal of lll-2S·

26

27

Orientforschung 1 (1923 ): sErnst Weidner, "Astrologische Texte a us Boghazkoi," Archivfor oi," Revue d'Assyriologie Boghazk de n akkadie ique 6; Marcel Leibovici, "Un texte astrolog Bogazkoy," in A Scienfrom Omens Moon al "Bilingu ck, Gtiterbo so (19s6): 11-21; Hans G. Maria de J. Ellis and Leichty, Erie ed. Sachs, m Abraha of Memory in Studies tific Humanist. 161-73. Pamela Gerardi (Philade lphia: The University Museum , 1988), Beckma n, T.R. Bryce and Eric For a concise descript ion of Hittite oracle practice , see Gary re, 2011), 183. H. Cline, TheAhhiyawa Texts (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literatu

AKKADIAN AND THE HITTITES

1271

as shown by a large body of reports recording the results of such consultations ( CTH 561-70 ).

28

Particularly interesting is the fact that the instructional clay liver models from the Hittite capital reflect a Mesopotamian tradition free of Hurrian influence,29 in sharp contrast to the extispicy compendia and diviner's reports from Ijattusa, which are replete with Hurrian technical terms.30 A relatively small number of Mesopotamian rituals (CTH Soo-813)31 and incantations 32 made their way to ljattusa. Babylonian elements were also taken over into Hittite rites, on occasion transposed in their entirety. 33 At other times the southern tradition supplied particular components of a ritual, such as Akkadian-language incantations to be spoken as part of a ceremony otherwise framed in Hittite. 34

2

11

Bogazkoy Akkadian"

Describing the Akkadian language of the texts produced at Bogazkoy presents particular challenges. 35 First, we can hardly include in our corpus all texts 28

29 30 31

32 33

34

35

Annelies Kammenhuber, Drake/praxis, Triiume und Vorzeichenschau bei den Hethitem (Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 1976); Alfonso Archi, "Hethitische Mantik und ihre Beziehungen zur mesopotamischen Mantik," in Mesopotamien und seine Nachbam, ed. Hans-Jorg Nissen andjohannes Renger (Berlin: Dietrich ReimerVerlag, 1982), 279-93. De Vos, Die Lebermodelle, 98-wo. See also Gary Beckman, review of Die Lebermodelle aus Bogazkoy, by An De Vos, journal of the American Oriental Society 137 (2017 ): 601-3. See my translation of KUB 5.6++ in Gary Beckman et al., The Ahhiyawa Texts, 183-209. Daniel Schwemer, Akkadische Rituale aus /jattusa. Die Sammeltafel KBo XXXVI 29 und verwandte Fragmente (Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 1998); id., "Ein akkadischer Liebeszauber a us ljattusa," Zeitschriftfor Assyriologie 94 (2004): 59-79; Waiter Farber, "Das Piippchen und derTotengeist (KBo 36,29 II 8-53 u. Dupl.)," Zeitschriftfor Assyriologie 91 (2001): 253-63. Elyze Zomer, Corpus ofMiddle Babylonian and Middle Assyrian Incantations (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2018), Nos. 155-278. As in Gary Beckman, "A Hittite Ritual for Depression (CTH 432 ),"in Tabu/aria Hethaeorum: Hethitologische Beitriige. Silvin Kosak zwn 65. Geburtstag, ed. Detlev Groddek and Marina Zorman (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2007), 69-81. Rita Strauss, "Elemente mesopotamischer Ritualistik in hethitischen Texten. Das 'Samul)aRitual' CTH 480," in Briickenland Anatolien? Ursachen, Extensitiit und Modi des Kulturaustausches zwischen Anatolien und seinen Nachbam, ed. Hartmut Blum, Betina I. Faist, Peter Pfalzner and Anne-Maria \Vittke (Tiibingen: Attempto Verlag, 2002), 323-38; Gary Beckman, The babilili-Ritualfrom Hattusa (CTH 718) (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2014). Previous studies include Re ne La bat, L' akkadien de Boghaz-koi (Bordeaux: Librairie Delmas, 1932);j.W. Durham, "Studies in Bogazkoy Akkadian" (PhD diss., Harvard University, 1976); and Lisa Wilhelmi, The Akkadian of Bogazkoy (PhD diss., SOAS, University of London, 2on) (not seen).

.. BECKMAN

1272

written in this language found at the Hittite capital. Much of the material, as we have seen, consists of scholarly and religious texts importe d from SyroMesopotamia to the south and cannot be conside red to be product s of Hittite scribes, even if in some instances Anatolian student s may have recopied them. Other compositions, such as Ramesses' version of the parity treaty with ijattusil i Ill ( CTH g1),36 were also clearly drafted elsewhere, in foreign scribal 37 schools with their own traditions, and sent to l)atti. Such compos itions have not been included in the following discussion. Secondly, since almost none of the relevant tablets from Bogazkoy bear the name of the scribe who wrote them, we cannot identify the individual ultimately responsible for the composition of any docume nt. Finally, "guest professors" kept arriving at the Hittite court through out the history of the state, 38 bringing along the latest scribal practices of their homela nds, so their influence on their Hittite students will have differed over time. Indeed, we must consider the possibility that in some cases the foreign experts might have been drafted by the Hittite government to compose texts themselves. Therefore, in the study that follows I have identifie d Akkadian-language documents definitely generated by the Hittite chancellery, assumin g for the sake of argume nt that they were all inscribed by native Hittite s-or at the very least that an Anatolian was involved in their compos ition. Note that most of the records dealing with the governance of Syria found at Ugarit have not been taken into account, 39 since it yet remains unclear just which texts were pro-

36

37

38

39

ljattusili m. Edited by Elmar Edel, Der Vertrag zwischen Ramses II. von Agypten und and language Egyptianthe of on comparis a For 1997). von ljatti (Berlin: Gebr. Mann, Egyptian of influence the of tion considera and text the to witnesses Akkadian-language the Hittite on the Akkadian of the treaty, see Anthony J. Spalinger, "Conside rations on See 299-358. ): Treaty between Egypt and Hatti," Studien zur altagyptischen Kultur 9 (1981 lag, Ugarit-Ver : (Munster also Matthias Muller, Akkadisch in Keilschrifttexten aus Agypten 2010) and his contributi on to this volume (chapter 20 ). status in For the procedure behind the concluding of treaties between rulers of equal of the ent Developm the and Treaties "Hittite Beckman, Gary the Late Bronze Age, see Jan Chrised. swerke, Geschicht mistischen deuterono Die in Tradition," Treaty Cuneiform de Gruyter, tian Gertz, Doris Prechel, Konrad Schmid and Markus Witte (Berlin: Waiter 2006), 289. of AkkaIt is likely that it was this repeated infusion of knowledg e by native speakers "errors" more ever ting accumula from Bogazkoy at dian that prevented the texts written from Letters Amama the in Verb The ki, Baranows Krzysztof by over time, as described composed tablets Amarna those for 40-43, 2016), ns, Eisenbrau Lake: Canaan (Winona in Canaan. his analysis In this I differ from Durham, "Studies in Bogazkoy," 6g-86, who includes in that the Note Ugarit. at found ation all of the records of the Hittite imperial administr

--AKKADIAN AND THE HITTITES

1273

duced in the scriptorium of the imperial viceroy, the king of KarkemiS,4o and which might have been sent directly from the court of the Great King in ljattusa.41

Schema for Presentation of Data42

3 I.

11.

Ill.

40

41

42 43

Layout Tablet format a. Word space 43 b. Script Distinction of voiced/voiceless signs a. Rare sign usage b. Sound changes Dental cluster dissimilation (nasalization) a.

(GAG

b.

m>n

c. d. e. f.

st > ft (GAG § 30g) Loss or retention of w (GAG § 21d) sfor s44 Loss or retention of mimation (GAG § 1goa)

§ 32b)

studies by H.J.M. van Deventer, "More Missing Pieces-Notes on a Few Akkadian Texts from }j.atti,"joumalfor Semitics 12 ( 2003): 172-96, and by H.J.M. van Deventer and P.J.J. van Huyssteen, "The Orthography and Phonology of the Akkadian Texts from }j.atti Found at Ugarit," journal for Semitics 4 (1992 ): 35-50, also ignore this possible complicating factor in describing the language of the Akkadian texts from "}j.atti." Even if a tablet found at Ugarit was impressed with the seal of the Great King (e.g., RS 17-159 = CTH 107, with the sealing of Tudl)aliya IV), it cannot be ruled out that this instrument was available in Karkemis for the production of imperial letters and re scripts in the name of the supreme ruler. Or, during the reign of Muwattalli 11, from Tarl)untassa. As observed by Erich Neu, "Hethiterund Hethitisch in Ugarit," in Ugarit. Ein ostmediterranes Kulturzentrum imAlten Orient. Band I. Ugarit und seine altorientalische Umwelt, ed. M. Dietrich and 0. Loretz (Munster: Ugarit-Verlag), 129, answering this question remains an important topic for future research. On the Akkadian used in tablets definitely or probably written at Karkemis, see John Huehnergard, "The Akkadian Dialects of Carchemish and Ugarit," PhD diss., Harvard University, 1979, Part 1. The examples cited in the descriptive summaries below are not always exhaustive. Standard Akkadian scribal usage did not insert space between individual words (GAG § 7b ), but the texts produced at }j.attusa introduced this practice, presumably influenced by this convention in Hittite-language documents (Harry. A. Hoffner and H. Craig Melchert, A Grammar of the Hittite Language, \Vinona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2008, 10, §1.5).

44

Cf.John Huehnergard, TlzeAkkadian ofUgarit (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989), m-14.

.... BECKM AN

1274

IV.

Gramm ar and morphology Tense preferred for past narrat ion (GAG §So f) a. b. Tense with summa !'-verb with initial a-/e-/ic.

v.

Lexemes 45 undu, "now; when" a. Quotative umma b. Quotative mii46 c. Quotative suffix -mi/e d. 47 Indefinite morph eme -me e. 48 Irrealis suffix -maku £

VI. Assyrianisms VII. Hittite Influence VI I. Miscellaneous

4 1.

45

46 47 48

49

so 51

Texts49 Salvini, Letter from ljattus ili I to Tunip-Tessub ofTiku nani. Editions: Mirjo m," Studi "Una lettera di ljattus ili I relativa alla spediz ione contro ljal].l].u of King Prism Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici 34 (1995): 61-So; id., The Ijabiru Tunip- Tessup of Tikunani (Roma: Istituti editora li e poligrafici interna sevenlate tion: zionali, 1996), 107-14. Date of composition and inscrip Ia. singleteenth century. Provenance: Upper Tigris region. Features: voiceand voiced of n colum n tablet. Ib. no word space. IIa. differe ntiatio te and less signs usual. 50 IIIf. incons istent mimat ion. IVa. both preteri MisVIII. 27). (l. t perfec t used for past. Ivb. summa followed by presen 51 (ll. g, 13), mala cellaneous: Mari-like features: Lu a-i-La-at (awilat) (zsm) ba-as-ba-tzi (zsm subj.) (l. 19 ). Konigs Tusratta van Mitanni Of Hurrian origin; see Hans-Pe ter Adler, Das Akkadische des Richter, BibliographiThomas and 338-39, 72, 1976), Bercker, & (Kevelaer: Verlag Butzon sches Glossar des Hurritischen (Wiesbaden: Harrass owitz, 2012 ), 492. ar of Middle Assyrian (WiesAn Assyrianism; see Jacob Jan de Ridder, Descriptive Gramm baden: Harrassowitz, 2018), 531-33, § § 735-38. ard, Akkadian ofUgarit, Of Hurrian origin; see Adler, Das Akkadische, 82-86, and H uehnerg 282. Orientalia 25 (1956): 6-8; Of Hurrian origin; see Ephraim A. Speiser, "Nuzi Marginalia," ch," Zeitschrift.fiir AssyriEinarvo n Schuler, "Zur Partikel -maku in barbaris iertem Akkadis ologie 53 (1958): 185-92, and Adler, Das Akkadische, 88-91, 298. For a conveni ent summary, see Table 19.1. Buti-TA-bu-ub (l. 32). See And re Fin et, L' accadien des lettres de Mari ( Bruxelles: Palais §63b.

des Academ ies, 1956), 167,

AKKADIAN AND THE HITTITES

2.

3·

4·

52

53 54

1275

Bilingual Annals of Ijattusili I, KBo 10.1 (CTH 4; also Hittite version on separate tablets). Editions: Fiorella Imparati and Claudio Saporetti, "L'autobiografia di Ijattusili 1," Studi Classici e Orientali 14 (1965): 40-85; H. Craig Melchert, "The Acts of Hattusili 1," journal of Near Eastern Studies 37 (1978): 1-22. Date of composition: oH. Date of inscription: NH. Provenance: Ijattusa (Biiyiikkale K). Features: Ia. single-column tablet. Ib. word space. na. general indifference to distinction between voiced and voiceless signs. nb. rare sign usage: uRuTf(IJ.I)-is-!Ji-ni-ya (obv. g). IIIf. inconsistent mimation. IVa. both preterite and perfect used for past. VII. Hittite influence: calque SIGs.lji.A after Hittite assault, ''with goods/possessions" (obv. 10 ). VII. Hittite influence: word space. VIII. Miscellaneous: two scribes, the second of whom inscribed rev.1-12 with Assyrian(?) signs; many errors; Marilike features: ir-tu-up aliikam/itabbula (obv. 14, 28), da-wa-da-su( -nu) adu-uk ( obv. 16, 33). Bilingual Succession Edict ofljattusili 1. KUB 1.16 + KUB 40.65 (CTH 6). Edition: Ferdinand Sommer and Adam Falkenstein, Die hethitisch-akkadische Bilingue des ljattusili I. (Labarna n.) (Munich: Verlag der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1938). Date of composition: OH. Date of inscription: NH. Provenance: Ijattusa. Features: Ia. two-column tablet. Ib. word space. IIa. some indifference to distinction between voiced and voiceless signs. nb. rare sign usage: te(NE)-en (i 18). IIIf. inconsistent mimation. IVa. both preterite and perfect used for past. VII. Hittite influence: word space. VIII. Miscellaneous: Mari-like features: ar-tu-up u-,-u-risu (u)Jrisu) (i 4). The Siege ofUrsu. KBo 1.11 (CTH 7). Editions: Gary Beckman, "The Siege of Ursu Text (cTH 7) and Old Hittite Historiography," journal of Cuneiform Studies 47 (1995): 23-34; Arnir Gilan, Formen und Inhalte althethitischer historischer Literatur (Heidelberg: Universitatsverlag Winter, 2015), 27895· Date of composition: oH. Date of inscription: oH. Provenance: Ijattusa. Origin: Upper Tigris region(?). 52 Features: Ia. single-column tablet. Ib. no word space. IIa. differentiation of voiced and voiceless signs usual. 5 3 nb. rare sign usage: i-na-ta(IJ.I)-lu ( obv.' 23'), i-na-ta(IJ.I)-al-ma (obv.' 30'). IIIe. s fors: ik-sA-ma ( obv.' 16'), li-i!J-su-us (obv.' 28'), nu-sA-ra-ar ( obv.' 31'). IIIf. inconsistent mimation: e.g., ta-!Ja-za-am (rev.' 20 ), ta-!Ja-za (rev.' 10 ). IVa. both preterite and perfect used for past. IVb. summa followed by present (obv.' 22', rev.' 32) and perfect (rev.' 31). 54 vd. quotative -mi/e( -e) (obv.' 24'). Goren, Mommsen and Klinger, "Non-destructive Provenance," 694. But ut-ta-GA-ar (rev.' 23). Preterite ta-ak-mi-is (rev.' 12) in a contrary-to-fact condition.

BECKMAN

1276

VII. Hittite influence: word space; calque mamma qaqqarsu li$bat after Hittite kuissa pedan epdu "let each take his place!" (obv.l 17'); ku-la-u-tam after 55 Hittite kulessar, "hesitation" (rev.! 13, 18); Hittite text (rev.! 14-15). VIII. Miscellaneous: Mari-like features: em-qe-et (2sm) (obv.! 25'), ne-ti (obv.! 5

.

6.

31'). Royal Land Donations (cTH 221-22). 56 Edition: Christel Riister and Gernot Wilhelm, Landschenkungsurkunden hethitischer Konige (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2012 ). 57 Date of composition: oH, M H. Date ofinscription: oH, MH. Provenance: ljattusa. 58 Features: Ia. single-column tablets. Ib. intermittent word space, more regular in later texts. na. usual differentiation of voiced and voiceless signs. 111f. occasional loss of mimation. IVa. oB sequence of tenses: e.g., PNN itbu-ma itti PN itta$batu (No. 3, obv. 6-g). VII. Hittite influence: word space; calque nasum ... nadiinum after Hittite sara da- ... verb (passim), Hittite technical terms for measures and landscape features, increasingly frequent use of Hittite grammatical forms: e.g., NA4!Juwasiyaz anda nilqe, "we have taken (a field) on this side of the stone monument" (No. 7, obv.15), culminating in No. 91, which is entirely in Hittite up until the formulaic concluding paragraphs in Akkadian (rev.

AKKA

7·

8.

46-55). Bilingual Proclamation of Telipinu.59 KUB 3.85++ ( CTH 19, Hittite version on separate tablets). Edition: Inge Hoffmann, Der Erlafl Telipinus (Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 1984 ). Date of composition: oH. Date of inscription: NH. Provenance: Ijattusa. Features: Ia. two-column tablet. Ib. word space. 11a. general indifference to distinction between voiced and voiceless signs. 111e. s fors: Is-!Ju-ru (KUB 3.89 i 7'). 111f. inconsistent mimation. IVa. prefers perfect as past tense. VII. Hittite influence: word space; levelling of gender distinction: [f{larapsil]i qadu DUMU.MES-su (KUB 3.8g i

n').

55

56

57

58 59

See Gary Beckman, "The Siege of Ursu Text (CTH 7) and Old Hittite Historiography," journal of Cuneiform Studies 47 (1995): 29. Included under this rubric are a few eccentric texts, which, however share the physical format and the sealing practices of the property grants: No. 1 is a marriage-adoption and No. 3 a legal case. These outliers also involve the transfer of real estate under royal authority. On the language of the records in this group, see Christel Ri.ister and Gemot Wilhelm, Landschenkungsurkunden hethitischer Konige (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2012 ), 7273· See Riister and Wilhelm, Landschenkungsurkunden, 25-27, for archaeological context and place of original publication. Note that No. 1 was found at inand1k and No. 21 at Tarsus. Practically no complete sentences are present in the Akkadian version; the Hittite text is far better preserved.

6o 61

1.KKADIAN AND THE HITTITES

7,

:.

1277

Bilingual Treaty ofTelipinu with ISputa{lsu of Kizzuwatna. KUB 4.76 ( + ?) KUB 31.82 ( CTH 21, Hittite version on separate tablets). 60 Edition: Giuseppe F. Del Monte, IINote sui trattati fra ljattusa e Kizzuwatna," OriensAntiquus 20 (1981): 203-21. Date of composition: MH. Date of inscription: MH. Provenance: ljattusa. Features: ra. single-column tablet(?). rb. word space. rra. usual differentiation of voiced and voiceless signs. rrra. dental cluster dissimilation: i-na-an-din (KUB 31.82: g', 14', 16', 19', 22'). rrrf. regular mimation. rvc. r' verb: i-ir-ru-bu (KUB 4.76: 3', g'), i-ip-p[ u-su] (KUB 31.82: 19'). VIr. Hittite influence: word space. Bilingual Treaty of Tud{laliya rr with Sunassura of Kizzuwatna. KBo 1.5 and dupls. 61 ( CTH 41, 62 Hittite version on separate tablet). Edition: Ernst Weidner, Politische Dokumente aus Kleinasien. Die Staatsvertriige in akkadischer Sprache aus demArchiv van Boghazkoi (Leipzig:J.C. Hinrichs, 1923), 88-111. Date of composition: early NH. Date of inscription: early NH. Provenance: ljattusa. Features: ra. two-column tablet. Ib. word space. rra. general indifference to distinction between voiced and voiceless signs. IIIa. dental cluster dissimilation: e.g., i-na-an-di-nu-su (ii 14), i-ma-an-dadu (iv 41). rrid. loss of w: um-te-'-er (i 13), a-wa-ti ~ a-ma[ -ti] (iv 34). IIIe. s fors: e.g., ri-ik-sA-am ... ir-ku-su (i 4), Is-bu-ur (i 7). IIIf. inconsistent mimation. Ivc. I' verb: e.g., i-ir-ri-is (ii 44), a-al-La-ak (iii s), e-ep-pu-us (iii 16). Iva. both preterite and perfect used for past. rvb. summa followed by present (i 26-27, 6o, 62-63, ii 5, 7-8,16-17, etc.). vd. quotative -mi/e (i 14). ve. indefinite morpheme -me (passim). vf. irrealis particle -maku (iv 14). vr. Assyrianisms: third person verbal prefix e-: 63 e-ep-pu-us (iii 16), e-ebtl (i 33), e-eb-bu-tu-nim (i 22). VII. Hittite influence: word space; calques summa after Hittite man 64 (i 8), bu))u after Hittite sanb-, Seek (revenge)" (ii n); levelling of gender distinction: mat vRvJsuwa el-'-e-su (i 10 ). 65 vrrr. Miscellaneous: gloss: EGIRar-g a -nu-urn (i 6). 11

Both versions are very fragmentary. Remarks consider only the primary manuscript-in this group always the earliest-since it is most likely to reflect the original text. With 269 lines, almost all at least partially preserved, this is the longest known Akkadianlanguage text composed by the Hittites. However, KBo 1.10+ (No. 20 below), with 166longer lines, may contain more text. See de Ridder, Descriptive Grammar, 345, § 507. Cf. AHw, 1273. Curiously, a peculiarity of the peripheral Akkadian written in Amurru is the construal of matu "land" as masculine. See Shlomo Izre'el, Amurru Akkadian: A Linguistic Study (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1991), vol. 1, wg.

BECKMAN

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Treaty of Suppiluliuma I with PaddatiSsu of Kizzuwatna. KUB 34.1++ (CTH 26). Edition: G.R. Meyer, "Zwei neue Kizzuwatna-Vertdige," Mitteilungen des Jnstituts for Orientforschung 1 (1953): 108-24. Date of composition: early NH. Date of inscription: NH. Provenance: ljattusa. Features: Ia. single-column tablet. Ib. word space. na. some indifference to distinction between voiced and voiceless signs. nb. rare sign usage: ir-te-,-un(IJu) (l. 8'). nia. dental cluster dissimilation: i-na-an-din (ll. 31', 32', 35', 36', 3g', 2 40'). IIId. retention of w: u-wa-ab-ba-tu-su (ll. 32', 36') U-Wa-a-er (l. 42'); IIIe. s fors: ip-pa-al-la-AS (naplusu) (ll. 6', 14', 16'), u-sa-As-k{-ru (z/sakaru) (ll. 10•, 2 g'). n1f. regular mimation. 66 IVa. OB sequence of tenses. IVb. summa followed by present (ll. 6', 7', etc.). IVc. 1' verb: i-ip-pu-us (12'), i-irru-ub (l.17', 34'), i-il-la-ak (l. 33'). vd. quotative -mile (7', 22'). ve. indefinite morpheme -me (ll. g', 28'). vn. Hittite influence: word space; calques ana 67 qaqqadim naplusu after Hittite oarsana suwai- (ll. 6', 14', 16'), dumqum after Hittite assu- "goods/possessions" (ll. 17', 1g', 24', 26'); VIII. Miscellaneous: be-U-su (ll. 6', etc.); masc.nom.sg. independent pronoun su-u-tu

g.

10.

(l. 14').68 Letter from Suppiluliuma I to Niqmaddu of Ugarit. RS 17.132 (CTH 45).69 Edition: Jean Nougayrol, Le palais royal d' Ugarit. Vol IV: Textes accadiens des archives sud (Paris: Klincksieck, 1956), 35-37. Date of composition and inscription: early NH. Provenance: Ugarit. Features: Ia. single-column tablet. 1b. word space. na. some indifference to distinction between voiced and voiceless signs. nb. rare sign usage: nakx(NAGA)-ru (l. 26). Ilia. dental cluster dissimilation: mNi-iq-ma-an-du (ll. 5, etc.), i-na-an-di-na-akku (l. 52). IIIC. st > lt: only ul-tu (l. 7). IIId.loss of w: un-da-as-si-ru (l. 24), u-ma-sar-ru (l. 31), a-ma-teMES (ll. 15, 2g); IIIe. s fors: SA-la-ma (l. 20) sa-la-ma (l. 23). IIIf. mimation only when protected, e.g., sar-ru-um-ma (l. 17 ). IVa. both preterite and perfect used for past. 1vb. summa followed by present (ll. 15-17, 30-31, 35-37). ve. indefinite morpheme -me (l. 26). VI. Assyrianisms: ta-pa-lab-su-nu (ll. 5, 32 ), ta-na-$ar-si-na (l. 16), i-la-qesu-nu (l. 44), ta-la-,-e-su-nu (l. 46). 70 VII. Hittite influence: word space. VIII. Miscellaneous: doubling of final root consonant: u-ma-sar-ru (l. 31), i-na-

kir-ru (l. 45). But sa-ra-q[ (11. 33', 37'), ri-it-ti (1. 43'). See Hans G. Gtiterbock and E. Hamp, "Hittite suwaya-," Revue hittite et asianique 58 (1956): 22-24.

68 6g

su-u

But (11. 16', 21'). Since Nos. 10-12 date to before the establishment of the viceregal seat at KarkemiS, they have been included here. But ip-pu-us-su-nu-ti (1. 27 ).

-

--AKKADIAN AND THE HITTITES

1L

12 .

13.

14.

71 72

1279

Treaty of Suppiluliuma I with Niqmaddu of Ugarit (CTH 46). 71 Edition: Jean Nougayrol, Le palais royal d' Ugarit, 48-52. Date of composition: early NH. Date of inscription: early NH. Provenance: Ugarit. Features: Ia. singlecolumn tablet. 1b. word space. Ila. usual differentiation of voiced and voiceless signs. Ilia. dental cluster dissimilation: mNi-iq-ma-an-du (obv. 9, etc.). IIIc. st > lt: only ul-tu ( obv. 4) - istu (obv. s). 111f. no mimation; IVa. both preterite and perfect used for past. vc. quotative ma (obv. n, 12,14). VI. Assyrianisms: a-ba-teMEs (obv. 27, rev. 16'), uk-te-bi-it-su-nu ( obv. 23), quotative ma (above); Hittite influence: word space; calque illak-ma ... ispura-ma after Hittite serial construction 72 ( obv. g-10 ). VIII. Miscellaneous: aberrant use of verbal pronominal suffixes: U-$a-a!J-!Ji-tu-sa (ace.) (obv. 6), i-qi-is-su-nu-ti (dat.) (obv. 21). EdictofSuppiluliumai Establishing the Tribute Due from Ugarit. RS 17.227 and dupls. (cTH 47). Edition: Jean Nougayrol, Le palais royal d'Ugarit, 40-44. Date of composition: early N H. Date of inscription: early N H. Provenance: Ugarit. Features: Ia. single-column tablet. Ib. word space. Ila. usual differentiation of voiced and voiceless signs. 11b. rare sign usage: U-$aa!Jx(ui:J.)-!Ja-tu-su-ma (I. g), !Jusx(TAR)-ma-na/ni (ll. 24, etc.). Ilia. dental cluster dissimilation: mNi-iq-ma-an-du (obv. 5, etc.); Ill C. st > lt: only ul-tu (l. w.). 111d.loss of w: a-ma-teMEs (ll. 48, 52). 111f. no mimation. Iva. both preterite and perfect used for past. vc. quotative ma (I. 20 ). vd. quotative -mi/e (l. n). VI. Assyrianism: quotative ma (above). VII. Hittite influence: word space. Bilingual Treaty of Suppiluliuma I with Aziru of Amurru. KUB 3.7++ and dupls. (CTH 49, Hittite version on separate tablet). Edition: Giuseppe F. Del Monte, Il trattato fra Mursili n di ljattusa e Niqmepa' di Ugarit (Roma: Istituto per l'Oriente C.A. Nallino, 1986), n8-27. Date of composition: early N H. Date ofinscription: early N H. Provenance: Ijattusa. Features: Ia. single-column tablet. Ib. word space. Ilia. some indifference to distinction between voiced and voiceless signs. IIIb. m > n dissimilation: in-ta-at-!Ja-a$ (obv.n'). 11 If. no mimation. Ivb. summa followed by present (obv.n',15', 22'-23', 27'). VI. Assyrianisms: lu-!Jal-li-qu-su-nu (3P) (rev.16'), negative la in all contexts (passim). VII. Hittite irifluence: word space. VIII. Miscellaneous: rather fragmentary. Bilingual Treaty of Suppiluliuma I with Sattiwazza of Mittani. KBo 1.1 and dupls. (CTH 51, Hittite version on separate tablet). Edition: Weidner, PoliNeu, "Hethiter und Hethitisch," 125-26, observes that this tablet does not show a Bogazkoy ductus. See Hoffner and Melchert, A Grammar, 324-29, §§ 24.31-42.

.

--1

BECKMAN

1280

tische Dokumente, 2-35. Date of composition: early N H. Date ofinscription: earlyNH. Provenance: ljattusa. Features: Ia. single-column tablet. Ib. word space. ua. general indifference to distinction between voiced and voiceless signs. ub. rare sign usage: rfk(zuM)-sd (obv. 2), um-te-es-sir(EZEN)-sunu-ti (obv. 23). 111c. st > lt: ul-tar-ra-a[z (obv. 5, 10 ), al-ta-kan-su (obv. 40 ), u[-te-b£l-su-nu-ti (obv. 53), u-tu (obv. 47). IIId.loss of W: U-ma-'-ar (rev. 35). 111e. s fors: ri-ik-si (rev. 58'). 73 111f. mimation only when protected, e.g., e-eb-ba-ra-am-ma (obv. g). IVa. prefers perfect as past tense. IVb. summa followed by present (obv. g, rev. 38, 5g-6o ). IVc. 1' verb: e-eb-ba-ra-amma (obv. g), e-ep-pu-su (obv. 70), i-ip-pu-us (rev.12'). va. undu (obv. 2). ve. indefinite morpheme -me (obv. 15, 37 ). vf. quotative -mile (obv. 8, g, 35). VI. Assyrianisms: third person verbal prefix e-: e-ep-pu-su (obv. 70 ), e-eppu-su-nu-mi (obv. 8); el-te-qe-su-nu (obv. 36), li-i$-$11-ru-ku-nu (rev. 72 ). vn. Hittite influence: word space; calques saki after Hittite ki kuit (obv. 6), bu"u after Hittite san[z- (obv. 54). VI 11. Miscellaneous: doubling of final root con15.

73 74

sonant: i-sa-ad-da-ad-du-ku-nu-si (rev. 61'). Bilingual Treaty of Sattiwazza of Mittani with Suppiluliuma 1. KBo 1. 3 + KUB 3.17 (CTH 52, Hittite version on separate tablet). Edition: Weidner, Politische Dokumente, 36-57. Date of composition: early NH. Date of inscription: early NH. Provenance: Ijattusa. Features: Ia. single-column tablet. Ib. word space. ua. general indifference to distinction between voiced and voiceless signs. ub. rare sign usage: LUGAL.E.NE ( obv. 3), ugtam(TIM)-mi-ir (obv. 3, 11, 12, 13), SUM-din (obv. 10 ), e-PI-ri (obv. n), u-sebilx(BAL)-su-nu (obv. 13), us-tam(TIM)-[zi-ir (obv. 16), a[-te-si20 (zE) (obv. 18),/i-MUT-ta (obv. 30 ), LIL-[i-ik (rev. 56'). Ilia. dental cluster dissimilation: na-an-ku-ri-su (makkuru) (obv. 3), i-na-din-nu (obv. 7). 111b. m> n dissimilation: na-an-ku-ri-su (obv. 3), i-ma-an-gus-ru (obv. 4g ). I IIC. st > [t: a/-ta-ljiit (obv.17), el-te-te-em-me (obv. 23), ni-il-ta-par-su-nu-ti (obv. 38). 111d.loss of w: lu-me-'-er (obv. 30 ). I'verb: e-ep-pu-us-ka-mi (obv. 24). 74 111e. vestigial mimation: p[-ir-'-am (rev. 46), ma-mi-ta an-na-a-am (rev. 54'). IVa. prefers perfect as past tense. IVb. summa followed by present ( obv. 38-3g, rev. 35, 44, 52,53-54). va. undu (obv. 31). vb. quotative umma (obv. 27, placed oddly, or "thus"?). vd. quotative -mile (obv. 24). ve. indefinite morpheme -me (obv. 10 ). vf. irrealis particle -maku (obv. 17 ). VI. Assyrianisms: third person verbal prefix e-: el-ta-ta-al-an-ni (obv. 12 ), el-te-pat-su-nu-ti (obv. 37 ); iz-za-qap-su-nu (obv. g), U-se-bi/x-su-nu u-ut-te-b£l-su-nu (obv. 13). VII.

But ri-ik-sf (rev. s). But e-pu-uS' (obv. 30 ).

....,..........

AKKADIAN AND THE HITTITES

1281

Hittite influence: word space. VIII. Miscellaneous: doubling of final root consonant: i-na-din-nu (obv. 7), nu-!Jal-li-iq-qu (obv. 44); aberrant use of verbal pronominal suffixes: ni-il-ta-par-su-nu-ti (dat.) (obv. 38), i-sa-addd-ad-ku-nu-si (ace.) (rev. 27'), li-i$-$U-ru-ku-nu-si (ace.) (rev. 36'). 6. Letter from Suppiluliuma I to Pharaoh Amenophis III. EA 41 ( CTH 153). 1 Editions: Hugo Winckler, Der Thontafe!fund van el-Amama (Berlin: W Spemann 188g), 15; William L. Moran, The Amarna Letters (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 114-15; Anson F. Rainey, The ElAmarna Correspondence: A New Edition of the Cuneiform Letters from the Site ofEl-Amarna Based on Collations ofAll Extant Tablets (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2015 ), 358-sg, 1386-87. Date ofcomposition and inscription: early N H. Provenance: el-Amarna. Features: Ia. single-column tablet. rh. word space. na. general indifference to distinction between voiced and voiceless signs. nb. rare sign usage: [ta-b ]a-SAIJ (I. 34'). IIIc. st > lt: ul-te-ba-ak-ku (I. 38'). IIIe. mimation only when protected, e.g., gab-ba-am-ma (l. 13), su-u-upra-am-ma (I. 37'). rva. both preterite and perfect used for past. rvb. summa followed by present (ll. 33'-34'). va. undu (I. 14). vd. quotative -mi/e (I. g). ve. indefinite morpheme -me (ll.1o,17,36'). VI. Assyrianisms: third person verbal prefix e-: e-ri-su (sg. subj.) (I. 8); negation la in main clause (I. 10 ). 75 VII. Hittite influence: word space. 17. Letter from Hittite Prince Ziti to Pharaoh Amenophis 111. EA 44· Edition: vs 11, 16; Moran, Amarna Letters, 117; Rainey, The El-Amarna Correspondence, 368-6g, 1388. Date of composition and inscription: early NH. Provenance: el-Amarna. Features: ra. single-column tablet. rh. word space. IIa. general indifference to distinction between voiced and voiceless signs. IIIC. st > lt: ul-te-b{[ (l.13). Hie. no mimation. IVa. both preterite and perfect used for past. ve. indefinite morpheme -me (ll. g, 27 ). VI 1. Hittite influence: word space. VIII. Miscellaneous: be-{{ for gen. (ll. 1, s); a-bi-ya for nom. (I. 27); pleonastic ana ak-ka-a-sa (I. 11). 18. Treaty with Lab'u and the Citizens of Tunip. KBo 19.59 + KUB 3.16 ( +) KUB 3.21 ( +) KBo 28.122. ( CTH 135). Edition: Weidner, Politische Dokumente, 126-47. Date of composition: early N H. Date ofinscription: early N H. Provenance: Ijattusa (Tempel 1). Features: 76 ra. single-column tablet. rh. word space. 1Ia. general indifference to distinction between voiced and voiceless signs. nb. rare sign usage: NIM-ta!J-!Ja-a$ (B rev. 3'), tu-pa-az-ZAR-su (A rev. 23'). IIIa. dental cluster dissimilation: a-na-an-din-su-nu (B rev. 26').

75 76

But ul (i 12). Citations here refer to the line numbering in Weidner's edition.

... 1282

BECKMAN

IIId. retention of w: tu-wa-as-sar-su-nu (A rev. 18'), a-wa-tumltamlta (A rev. 8', 1g', B rev. 8', g'). 111f. inconsistent mimation. IVa. prefers perfect as past tense. IVb. summa followed by present. IVC. I> verb: i-if-[a-ak (A rev. mor21 '). vd. quotative -mile (A obv. 19', rev. 27', 28', zg'). ve. indefinite pheme -me (A rev. 19', B rev. n'); VI. Assyrianisms: a-na-an-din-su-nu (B rev. 26'), [u-us-sur-mi (or first person?) (A rev. 28'); VII. Hittite influence: word space. VIII. Miscellaneous: su-wa-a-ti (A rev. 17', B obv.I4')- sa-a-su I

g.

(A obv. 10', rev. 25'). Letters from Ijattusili 111 and/or Pudul)epa to Pharaoh Ramesses u. ( CTH 1s1- 70 ).77 Edition: Elmar Edel, Die iigyptisch-hethitische Korrespondenz aus Boghazkoi in babylonischer und hethitischer Sprache (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1994). Date of composition and inscription: NH. Provenance: Ijattusa. Features: Ia. single-column tablets. Ib. word space. na. general indifference to distinction between voiced and voiceless signs. nb. rare sign usage: tas(As)- (passim), pu-ub- 5 C)-ra-am-ma (No. 67, obv. 4'). IIIa. dental cluster dissimilation: a-na-an-din (No. 53, obv. 20', No.1o2, rev. 6'). 111b. m> n dissimilation: un-te-)-da-ku (madu D, IS stative) (No. 101,

l. 7)· IIIC. st > lt: il-te-es-su-u (No. 53, obv. 12'), al-ta-kdn (No. sS, I. s'), ultu (No. 59, l. 6'), tal-tap-ra (No. 66, obv. 3'). IIId. loss of w: a-ma-ta 5(un) (No. 53, obv. 4'). 111f. mimation only when protected, e.g., pu-ub 5 -ra-am-ma (No. 67, obv. 4'). IVa. both preterite and perfect used for past. va. undu (No. 34, l. 2'). vb. quotative umma (No. 53, obv. 14'). vc quotative mii (No. 34, l. 3', No. 53, obv. n', No. 103, l. 3'). vd. quotative -mile (No. 67, rev. 6, 7). ve. indefinite morpheme -me (No. 66, obv. z'). VI. Assyrianisms: 3S independent prn. su-ut (No. 45, l. 4', No. sg, l. g', No.I02, rev.10', N0.103, l. 4'); 78 quotative mii (above). VII. Hittite influence: word space. VIII. Miscellaneous: te-e-ep-pu-sa (No. 66, obv. s'). 20.

Letter from Ijattusili 111 to Kadasman-Enli l 11 of Babylonia. KBo 1.10 + KUB 3· 72 ( CTH 172 ). Edition: Albertine Hagenbuchner, Die Korrespondenz der Hethiter (Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 1989 ), vol. 2, 281-300. Date of composition: NH. Date of inscription: NH. Provenance: Ijattusa. Features: Ia. single-column tablet. Ib. word space. na. usual differentiation of voiced

77

Most of the thirteen letters here are very fragmentary, some preserving little beyond the epistolary address and blessing, so that the sample is not particularly satisfactory. For editions of the other side of the conversation-from Egypt to ljatti-see Elmar Edel, Die iigyptisch-hethitische Korrespondenz aus Boghazkoi in babylonisclzer und hcthitischer Sprache (Opladen:WestdeutscherVerlag, 1994), and Mi.iller, Akkadisclz, 415-54. But su-u (No. 53, obv. 18').

AKKADIAN AND THE HITTITES

1283

and voiceless signs. 79 ub. rare sign usage: te(tn)-ma (rev. g), be-t{-i (rev. 23), i-gam(KAM)-ma-ra (rev. sg), sum(SUM)-ma (obv. 81, rev. 21), as-sum (rev. 26), ni-tu 4 (TUM)-ru (obv. 57),lil-su-u (obv. 20 ). Ilia. dental cluster dissimilation: i-na-an-din (obv. 45). IIIb. m> n dissimilation: in-te-si (obv.12 ). IIIC. st > ft: ni-il-ta-ka-an ( obv. g), af-ta-par (obv. 13), ul-tar-,-ih (rev. 56), ul-tu (rev. 71, 72), na-pu-ul-ta (rev. 15). IIId. loss of w: a-ma-tu ( obv. 16), 4 a-ma-su (obv. 35), etc. IIIf. mimation only when protected, e.g., sa-na-aam-ma (rev. 8o ). IVa. both preterite and perfect used for past. IVb. summa followed by present. IVc. I' verb: a-al-la-ka (obv. 32), a-al-lak (obv. 62),so e-ep-pu-us-ma (rev. 58). va. undu (obv. 7, rev. 42). vb. quotative umma (passim). vc. quotative ma (obv. 25). vd. quotative -mi/e (obv. 62, 63, rev. 27). vf. irrealis -maku (obv. 43, rev. 41. 44, 48). VI. Assyrianisms: subj. i-pu-su-nini-ma (obv. n ); tu-sa-an-na-qa- an-na-si (ace.) (obv. 24) (or simple error?); quotative ma (above). VII. Hittite influence: word space; calques mi-na-a ki-i (obv. 25) and mi-nu-u a-ma-tu4 ki-i ( obv. 37-38) after Hittite ki kuit. VIII. Miscellaneous: aberrant use of verbal pronominal suffixes: al-tap-raas-su-nu-ti (dat.) (obv. 28). 21. Letter from ljattusili III to Adad-nerari of Assyria. KBo 1.14. (CTH 173). Edition: Clelia Mora and Mauro Giorgieri, Le lettere tra i re ittiti e i re assiri ritrovate a ljattusa (Padua: SARGON, 2004), 57-75. Date of composition: NH. Date of inscription: NH. Provenance: ljattusa. Features: Ia. single-column tablet. Ib. word space. Ila. usual differentiation of voiced and voiceless signs. ub. rare sign usage: tas(A.s)-pu-ra-an-ni (obv. 2o'), igam(KAM)-ma-ru (obv. 23'). IIIC. st > ft: uf-tu (obv. 7'), if-ta-nap-pa-ra (obv. 8'), me-re-ef-ti (rev.13'). IIId.loss of w: a-ha-at (obv.n'), a-ha-ti (reV.12',14'). Illf. mimation only when protected, e.g., su-up-ra-am-ma (obv. 17'). IVa. both preterite and perfect used for past. vc. quotative ma (obv. 25', rev. 17'). VI. Assyrianisms: 81 a-ha-at, a-ha-ti (above); negative la in all contexts (passim); infinitive e-pa-si ( obv. 26'); 82 third person verbal prefix e-: e-eppu-su (obv. 22'); subj. as-pu-ra-ak-ku-ni (rev.n'); quotative ma (above). VII. Hittite influence: word space.

79 8o 81

82

But a-ka-as-sa-da(TA) (obv. 15). Butil-la-ku (obv. 62), etc. See already Albrecht Goetze, Kizzuwatna and the Problem of Hittite Geography (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1940 ), 32 n. 128; for a fuller list see Clelia Mora and Mauro Giorgieri, Le lettcre tra ire ittiti e ire assiri ritrovate a ljattusa (Padua: SARGON, 2004), 68. But e-pe-si (obv. 21').

..... BECKMAN

1284

Conclusion

5

Although the Akkadian of these twenty-one compositions in general resembles Middle Babylonian (note especially rubrics Ilia, IIIc, IIId, and IIIf, and see GAG § ),83 examination of their particular features as charted in Table 1g.1 does 190 not allow us to recognize even a somewhat coherent "Bogazkoy dialect,"84 similar to that established by Izre'el, Amurru Akkadian, for the Amarna texts from Amurru. There are, however, a number of notable commonalities: Except for the very earliest texts, word space is usual, and in all compositions that employ the conditional summa, that subordinator is followed by a verb in the present tense. As usual in Middle Babylonian, the perfect comes to be the preferred tense in past contexts (GAG §So f), although this is by no means obligatory at Bogazkoy. Hittite influence is found-in some cases only in the use of word spacefrom the very beginning, which strongly suggests the participation of native Anatolians in the drafting of the records. Assyrianisms begin to appear only from the time of Suppiluliuma I (mid fourteenth century), and Hurrian borrowings (viz., undu, -me, and -maku) commence around the same time, that is, when the Hittites had (re-)established their political dominance in areas for85 merly under the aegis of Hurrian-speaking Mittani. Surprising is the rather frequent non-confusion of voiced and voiceless stops (Nos. 1, 4, s, 7, n, 12, 20, 21), usually recognized as the hallmark of "Bogazkoy Akkadian,"86 as well as the sporadic retention of full mimation (Nos. 5, 87 7, g) and of w (Nos. g, 18). 83 84

85

86 87

Cf. also the contribution ofWilfred H. van Soldt to this volume (chapter 14 ). The situation is similar to that which H uehnergard, Akkadian of Ugarit, 271, describes for the Akkadian texts from Ugarit: [T]he grammar of the Akkadian texts written at Ugarit is something of a palimpsest. While the underlying matrix of the grammar is essentially Middle Babylonian, there are relict Old Babylonian features, Assyrian features, and many features that do not conform to the normative grammar of any Mesopotamian dialect. See also Huehnergard's discussion of the common features of W(est) P(eripheral) A(kkadian) (Huehnergard, Akkadian ofUgarit, 271-83). Shlomo Izre'el, review of TheAkkadian of Ugarit, by John Huehnergard, Bibliotheca Orientalis 49 (1992): 172, criticizes the use of WPA to designate the forms of Akkadian in use by non-native speakers in Syrian and Anatolian peripheral centers of the second millennium, but I think the term can be accepted if we simply remove Nuzi from the included sites. See Wolfram von Soden, "Assyriasmen im Akkadischen von Ugarit und das Problem der Verwaltungssprache im Mitannireich," Ugarit-Forschungen u (1979): 745-51, on the role of this Hurrian polity in the development ofwrA. See, for example, Labat, L'akkadien, 25. In this instance, this could be due to the formulaic character of the Akkadian portions of these records.

TA

Te

Ill

Ill

Ill

IIl

IIl

IIl

JV1

va vb VC

vd ve

v£

VI.

VI

AKKADIAN AND THE HITTITES

TABLE 19. 1

1285

Overview of most significant features 2

Text Word space X IIa. Voiced/voiceless distinction ma. Dental cluster dissimilation m b. m >n me. st > lt88 m d. Retention of w me. s fors !!If. Retention of Mimation IVC. I' with initial a-/e-/iva. undu vb. umma 89 VC. m a vd. -mile ve. -me vf. -maku Assyrianisms V I. VII. Hittite Influence

I b.

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X X

X X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

No preserved Akkadian-language texts from ijatti date to after the reign of ijattusili III and Pudul;;tepa, which is striking given that the greatest concentration of datable of Hittite-language texts is from the time of their son and successor Tudl;;taliya rv. But that this situation is at least partly due to the accident of discovery is shown by a letter recovered at Ugarit sent by an Assyrian king (probablyTukulti-Ninurta r), in which it is stated thatTudl;;taliyahad dispatched a messenger to the Assyrian court bearing two diplomatic communications on tablets, which would certainly have been written in Akkadian. 90

88 8g go

X

X

X X

X

X

X X

X

X X

X

X

X

X X

X

X X

X

X

X X

X

Not noted are Nos. 10, n, and 12, which show only ultu. Not including letter headings. RS 34.164 = Pierre Bordreuil (ed.), Une bibliotheque au sud de la ville: les textes de la 34 e campagne (1973) (Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations, 19g1), go-wo, No. 46, obv. 21-23. The edition is by Sylvie Lackenbache r.

..... BECKMAN

1286

Bibliography Adler, Hans-Peter. Das Akkadische des Konigs Tusratta van Mitanni. Kevelaer: Verlag Butzon & Bercker, 1976. Anor, Netanel, and Yoram Cohen. "The Oil Omens from Hattusa: An Investigation of the History and Transmission of a Babylonian Divination Composition." journal of

Near Eastern Studies 77 (2018): 195-206. Archi, Alfonso. "Hethitische Mantik und ihre Beziehungen zur mesopotamischen Mantik." In Mesopotamien und seine Nachbarn, edited by Hans-Jorg Nissen, andjohannes Renger, 279-93. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag, 1982. Archi, Alfonso. "Die Adad-Hymne ins Hethitische iibersetzt." Orientalia 52 (1983): 20 _ 30. Baranowski, Krzysztof. The Verb in the Amarna Letters from Canaan. Winona Lake:

Eisenbrauns, 2016. Barjamovic, Gojko. A Historical Geography ofAnatolia in the OldAssyrian Colony Period. Copenhagen: Carsten Niebuhr Institute of Ancient Near Eastern Studies, 2011. Beckman, Gary. "Mesopotamians and Mesopotamian Learning at Ijattusa." journal of

Cuneiform Studies 35 (1983): 97-114. Beckman, Gary. "The Siege ofUrsu Text ( CTH 7) and Old Hittite Historiography."journal

of Cuneiform Studies 47 (1995): 23-34. 2

Beckman, Gary. Hittite Diplomatic Texts. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1999 • Beckman, Gary. "Gilgamesh in Ijatti." In Hittite Studies in Ho nor of Harry A. Hoffner,jr. on the Occasion ofHis 6sth Birthday, edited by Gary Beckman, Richard H. Beal, and John Gregory McMahon, 37-57. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2003. Beckman, Gary. "Hittite Treaties and the Development of the Cuneiform Treaty Tradition." In Die deuteronomistischen Geschichtswerke, edited by Jan Christian Gertz, Doris Prechel, Konrad Schmid and Markus Witte, 280-301. Berlin: Waiter de Gruyter, 2006.

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Beckman, Gary. "A Hittite Ritual for Depression ( CTH 432 )." In Tabularia Hethaeorum: Hethitologische Beitrage. Silvin Kosak zum 65. Geburtstag, edited by Detlev Groddek, and Marina Zorman, 69-81. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2007. Beckman, Gary. "Hittite Literature." In From an Antique Land: An Introduction to Ancient Near Eastern Literature, edited by Carl S. Ehrlich, 215-54. Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefield, 2009. Beckman, Gary. "Under the Spell of Babylon: Mesopotamian Influence on the Religion of the Hittites." In Cultures in Contact: From Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean in the Second Millennium B. C., edited by Joan Aruz, Sarah B. Graff and Yelena Rakic, 284-97. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2013.

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Del Monte, Giuseppe F. Il trattato fra Mursili II di Ijattusa e Niqmepa' di Ugarit. Roma: Istituto per l'Oriente C.A. Nallino, 1986. de Ridder, Jacob Jan. Descriptive Grammar of Middle Assyrian. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2018. De Vas, An. Die Lebermodelle aus Bogazkoy. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2013. Durham,J.W. "Studies in Bogazkoy Akkadian." PhD diss., Harvard University, 1976. Edel, Elmar. Die iigyptisch~hethitische Korrespondenz aus Boghazkoi in babylonischer

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11

8-53 u. Dupl.)."

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Eine Hemerologie fiir das 'Rufen van Klagen' (sigu sasu) und das 'Reinigen seines Gewandes' ($abtit-su ubbubu): KUB 4, 46 ( +) KUB 43, 1."]oumal of Cuneiform Studies 61 (2009): 111-25.

Fincke,Jeanette C. "KUB 4, so: Ein medizinischerText iiber Augenkrankheiten aus IJattusa." Nouvelles Assyriologiques Breves et Utilitaires 2010: 11-12. Fincke, Jeanette C. "Neue Erkenntnisse zur 21. Tafel der Diagnostischen Omenserie

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Fin et, Andre. L' accadien des lettres de Mari. Bruxelles: Palais des Academies, 1956. Gilan, Amir. Formerz und Inhalte althethitischer historischer Literatur. Heidelberg: UniversWitsverlag Winter, 2015. Giusfredi, Federico. "The Akkadian Medical Text KUB 37.1." Altorientalische Forschun-

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s-6. Wilhelm, Gernot. "Zur babylonisch-assyrischen Schultradition in ljattusa." In Uluslararast 1. Hititoloji Kongresi Bildirleri (19-21 Temmuz 1990) c;orum: 83-93. S," Assur 1/1 (1974): 2, 4 n.13. Luukko, Variation, 75· Luukko, Variation, 75-76; Hameen-Antilla, Grammar, 10. Hameen-Antilla, Grammar, 10.

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na-$a-at) ( < *nas'at, stative 3sf). 99 The solution advocated at present by various scholars is to consider that the emphatic phoneme /~/was post-glottalized [(t)s'], perhaps already in an earlier stage of developme nt than MA or NA.wo Nasals: typically NA (but already occurring in MA)IOI is the shift [m] > ['] (or> [0]) in intervocalic position, e.g. in (Bab.)*a[zame/is > a-[za-IA-is /a-[za-is/ a-[ze-is/ a-[zi-si etc., *damiq > de-e-iq /de-e-qe etc.; di-at I di-ia-ti-ia as plural of *dimtu.l 02 Similarly intervocalic is the shift [n] > ['] (or> [0]), esp. in forms of VDNN: thus the stative da-an, da-a-na, etc. In a largely Aramaic environme nt (NW Mesopotam ia), the DN *Sin is often realized as (Se-'e) (alphabeti c or s': see e.g. PNA 1001a). Common to both Assyrian and Babylonian is the dissimilation of initial m> n in presence of a labial (b, p) or of a further m (e.g., *markabtu "chariot" > narkabtu ). Semivowels and aleph: from MA onward, initial w disappears in the main, although initial wa > u (e.g. *wardu > urdu ). Intervocalic *w mostly appears as b (e.g. *awatu(m ) > abutu), otherwise it is used as a glide, allophone of['] or [0], and written with (u) I (u), never with (Pr) as in other varieties of AkkadianJ03 In NA, unlike NB, there is no allophone /w/ for [m]: thus, attested cases should preferably be filed under Babylonianisms. Also y disappears as an independe nt phoneme in NA, and similarly functions as an allophone of['] or [0]. As for the glottal stop aleph, 104 the sign (V') or ('V) may be written or left unmarked, with two allophones, ['] or [:] (lengtheni ng of the preceding/following vowel), depending on the case (see assimilation, below). Possible Aramaic influences are not to be discounted in this entire phonological sector.

s

99 1 oo

101 102 103 104

Parpola, "Alleged". See Rain er M. Voigt, "A note on the Alleged Middle/Neo-Assyrian Sound Changes,( *s,) ~ ss ($),"journal of Near Eastern Studies 45 (1986): 53-57; N.J.C. Kouwenberg, "Evidence for Post-glottalized Consonants in Assyrian," journal of Cuneiform Studies 55 (2003): 75-86; Streck, "Babylonian and Assyrian," 371. See also Martin Worthington, "Some New Patterns in Neo-Assyrian Orthography and Phonology Discernible in Nouns with Monosyllabic Stems," journal of Near Eastern Studies 69 ( 2010 ): 187. See now also for MA, Jacob Jan de Ridder, A Descriptive Grammar ofMiddle Assyrian (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2018 ), n8-19, 420-21. See chapter 16 of this volume. Many examples are given in de Ridder, Grammar, 155-56. Luukko, Variation, 74· Hiimeen-Antilla, Grammar, 11-12. Identified as hamza in Hiimeen-Antilla, Grammar, passim. As well known, since the second millennium BCE,' represented the sole remaining guttural of the original four (two laryngeals and two pharyngeals) of the Proto- or Common Semitic system. As noted by N.J.C. Kouwenberg, "Akkadian in General," in The Semitic Languages. An International Handbook, ed. Stefan Weninger et al. (Berlin-Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011), 337-38, the complexity in the expression of the glides w and y and of the , constitutes a point of great uncertainty for the relevant reconstructio n of Akkadian phonology and morphology.

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Consonants in contact: assimilations with the following consonant may occur in NA, either in a regressive () direction. They are mainly of phonological nature, more rarely of morphophonem ic interest. Regressive assimilation occurs often with sibilants, yielding (ss). See e.g.l+s, e.g. i-sa/sa-su-me (for *ina salsi iime); m+s, te-su-nu (temu, see already partial assimilation fe-en-sujsu-nu); n+ S, lis-siq (-JNSQ); ill+$, n+ $, U-Sa-$U-U, also partial u-sa-an-$U-U (v'Mf/ S), li$-$Ur (v'N~R). M presents regressive assimilation with plosives, sometimes partially with m > n, e.g. in-qut-u-ni, or else totally taqut, i-tu-qut (v'M QT ). M assimilates regressively also with velar fricatives i-bu-w; i-talj-ru, i-ta-bar-su (v'MtJR), i-ba-$u-uni (v'Mti~). The corresponding assimilations with [n] occur mainly as regular features in the N stems of verbs. Before a consonant, aleph (') may be written out, or may give rise to the redoubling of

the consonant: cf. is-sa-a,-lu- su, i-sa-al-lu (both v's,L). For progressive assimilation, see e.g. the morphophonem ic case of the sibilants s, $, z, with the t- infix of the perfect> (ss), e.g. issubur; ($$),e.g. i$$abat; (zz), e.g. izzakar. In final position, non-redoubled writings of (ss) occur with feminine or plural nouns in the nominative/acc usative before the pronominal suffix-su: e.g. a-nu-su ( *aniitu+su ), dan-na-su (*dannutu+su ), or after sibilants, e.g. mu-ru-us-su ( *mur$U+su ), but also with partial assimilation (preservation of the dental, etc.) e.g. nap-sat-su.l05 After a consonant, aleph (') may be assimilated, e.g. b+, > bb, e.g. rab-bi, ~ /a/, in short and unstresssed open syllable before a stressed /u/ or /ii/, e.g. ba-bul-li (*bubullu), ma-,u-tu/ te/ti (*mu,unt u/mu,uttu ), a-nu-tu (*uniitu).I 0 9 Assimila tion and not in conjugations. The rules of NA grammar specify that, in final weak verbs, the last radical (usually -i) normally assimilates to the following subjunctive and ventive plural forms, but it is not assimilated in simple plural forms and in the ventive singular. Thus, we find e.g. iqbuni, but i-ba-ki-u and i-qab-bi-a. However, there are various exception to this situation.ll 0

1oS

109

been perhaps more vulnerable to phonetic change than words conforming to a standard morphological pattern and possessing a parent verb". See Hiimeen-Antilla, Grammar, 30; Streck, "Babylonian and Assyrian," 388. As noted in Luukko, Variation, 9s-96, n. 304, "the Neo-Assyrian vowel harmony is an assimilatory process that takes place between the second to last and the last vowel only, and ... any additional morpheme , such as the subjunctive, may correspondingly "confuse" the stress of the whole word and cause dissimilation". For a grammatically conditione d case of this shift, see Kalle Fabritius, "Vowel Dissimilation as a Marker of Plurality in Neo-Assyrian," journal of Cuneiform Studies 47 (199s): SI-SS·

110

See Luukko, Variation, 88-93. The behaviour of so-called "iqbUnim forms" in NA has been

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Stress and length: lexical stress is on the first long syllable, countin g back-

in wards from the penultim ate (but no further back than the antepen ultimate , case of pronom inal suffixes, etc., e.g. pil-ka-su-u-nu, SAAXV156: Rev. g). The plural-u in verbal forms is (differently from OA and MA) not stressed and became shorten ed. Stress on the last syllable is attested sporadically, in some of the 111

interrogatives (ata, ale) and in individual words (e.g. uma, age). Interrogative intonati on, with a rising pitch on the last syllable of a word, may cause the lengthe ning of this syllabl e-altho ugh this is not always evident in the plene writing of verbal forms. If the last syllable was a closed syllable ending in a consona nt, an anaptyc tic vowel is added. e.g. (prec. Is with interr.) la-as-de-e-re ina si-a-ri, "Should I array them tomorrow?", SAAXIII 95: 14-Rev.1; im-ma-ti u-sa-an-$U-U, ''When can they do it?" (-JM'$' S). For the perfect tense, in question s, requirin g a yes/no answer, see e.g, ak-tal-su-u, "Could I hold him back?" (-JKL'), SAA V147: Rev.g.

Morphology 7.2 The main features setting NA apart from Babylon ian and/or from the precedof ing historic al phases of Assyrian will be discusse d here, with a small number relevan t examples. Pronoun s112 7.2.1 Independent Personal Pronouns 7.2.1.1 The indepen dent persona l pronoun s in the nomina tive corresp ond to the forms already attested in OA and MA, with the exceptio ns of the 3sm su, siitu as and the 3sf si, s£tf.l13 The shorter variants of the 3s are variousl y used, (a) 114 (b) as a verbal a copula, e.g. LU.par-ri-$U su-u, "he is a traitor", SAA v 210: 17, predicat e, e.g. G IS.MA si-i la-bir-tu, "there is an old boat", SAA v 237:7, (c) as subject, "he", sum-ma su-u i-da-an a-na-ku la-din-ni, "If he is going to give, then I too will give", SAA I 128: R. 12-13. The longer variants (sutu, siti) are used in various cases, i.e. (a) before endings -ni, -ma; (b) as deictic, "this, that", e.g. su-u-tu PN ma-ri-$i, SAA v 52: r. 8-g, "this PN is sick"; (c) also as a copula, e.g. ma-a LU: mannu su-u-tu, "who is this man?", SAA I 238: 6; (d) to denote a change in subject

111 112 113 114

between Babyrecently taken up by Martin Worthing ton, "A new phonolog ical difference lonian and (Neo-)Assyrian," Zeitschriftfilr Assyriologie 100 (2010 ): 86-108. Hameen-A ntilla, Grammar, 28. van Buylaere, Hameen-A ntilla, Grammar, 43-49; Luukko, Variation, 133-36; Luukko and "Languages," 323-26. For variant writings, see Luukko, Variation, 133. Streck, 0 See already Karlheinz Deller, "L LUL = L('parrif;u und Ll'sarru", and most recently "Babylonian and Assyrian," 380.

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(translatable as "but ... "); (e) as subject llhe", e.g. ina IGI d.uru su-tu i-da-bu-ub, llhe pleads his case before Samas", SAA III 34:36. In the oblique case, a single series (used as accusative and dative) is marked by endings in -s, largely resembling the MA dative: sg. (a )yasi-kasa 1 *kasisasu I sasa, pi. nasi-kanasunu, kasunu/ *kalinasina-sunasunu, sasunul sinasina. The IS (a-alia( -a )-si) almost always lacks the preposition (e.g. sulmu yasi, 1am well", SAA I 1:1, said by the king), but see an-ni-ia-si, tO me", SAAX 194: 11

11

R.l4.

Independent Possessive Pronouns They are rarer in MA and NA than in OA. 115 They may be used as attributes or independently. The NA series is sg. iyu (f. iyatu), ikku, *issu, pi. innu, ikkanu, issanu. Most frequent is the 1s/p: see e.g. ia-u mi-i-nu lji-it-ta-a-a, What is my sin?", SAA XVI 34= 16; G IS.MA si-i ia-a-tu, I~ boat of mine", SAA I 94:6, a-bu-tu innu-u si-i, this is a matter of ours (=which concerns us)", SAAX 84:14-15. Possession is more often marked by pronominal suffixes attached to nouns, of genitival value Cmy lord", his house", etc.). The NA series is quite similar to that of previous varieties of Assyrian: sg. -i/-(y)a, 11 6 -kal-ki, -sulsa, pi. -ni, -kunul-kina, -sunulsina. A second set of pronominal suffixes is, instead, appended to verbal forms, and (differently from OA and MA) it cumulates an accusative and lldative" value, i.e. with direct and indirect objects. The forms are (sg.) -(an )ni, -( ak)ka/-( ak)ki, -( as)su/-( as)si, (pi.)-( an )nasi,-( ak)kunul-( ak)kina, -( as)sunul-( as)sina. 7.2.1.2

11

11

11

Deictic Pronouns NA has (b )anniu, this", and ammiu, that". The declension follows that of adjectives (f. sg. -ltu, m. pi. -iite, f. pi. -ate). 7.2.1.3

11

11

Determinative Pronoun The determinative pronoun is sa, usually indeclinable in all of Assyrian. It is followed by the genitive and in the meaning the one of" is used to form compound words, defining a status or even (with possible additions of the pron. suff. -su) a professional characteristic: see e.g. L u sa ziqni, lithe bearded", a class of courtiers (in opposition to lleunuch"), LU sa pan denati, 0verseer of judgments, president of a lawcourt", LU sa endi-su, incense man". Quite often, sa is used to replace the genitive of the construct state nomen rectum, e.g. ma$$artu 7.2.1.4

11

11

11

115 116

See Luukko and van Buylaere, "Languages," 325, Tab. 17.2, for the comparison of forms. Allomorphs after consonants or after vowels: see Hiimeen-Antilla, Grammar, 49·

PALES

1378

sa sarri "the guard of the king". Finally, sa fulfils the function of relative pronoun, "who/whom, which, that, what", introduc ing relative clauses with verbs in the subjunctive. Interrogative Pronoun 7.2.1.5 They are mannu(m) "who?" and m£nu(m) "what?", declinab le for case, but not for number or gender, e.g. a-na man-ni i-ba-as-si MUN ki-i ia-si LUGAL e-pu-us, "To whom, indeed, has the king done a favor as to me?", SAA X 39: R. 4-6. Case, gender, and number are instead observed by the interroga tive adjective aY.Yu (also in MA), which may give rise to subordin ate clauses, with sa and the verbal subjunctive, e.g. ai-)u sa-a-ru sa i-di-ba-ka-an-ni, "Which wind has risen against you?",

SAA IX 1:

i 6'.

Indefinite Pronouns 7.2.1.6 The NA indefinite pronoun s is memmeni, both for "anybody," and "anything", which stand for "no body" and "nothing" when negated. The indefinite collective pronoun is (am )mar (sa) "all that; everyone who." The noun ramiinu "(one )self" with pronomi nal suffixes is used as a reflexive pronoun , e.g., 10 ANSE A.sA ra-man-i-su-nu, "10 homers of arable land, their own (property)", SAA xr 201: I

g.

Adverbs 7.2.2 Many new adverbs appear in NA, and they are mostly lexicalized. Constructed 117 with the tradition al adverbial ending -is are adannis (< *an( a )+dann+is), "much, very", aljii)is, "together, mutually", arljis, "quickly", illidis, "(the day) after tomorrow", issenis, "together; also, in addition" (e.g. nap-tan qa-ti is-se-nis tuqar-rab, "(and) at the same time, you offer the 'hand meal"', SAA xx 31: R. 4), 118 qinnis, "backwards", saddaqdis (< *sattu+VQDM+is), "last year". Other forma119 tions: piqtatti, "perhaps", N-su, "N times", qiitii + pron. suff., "personally", ude + suff., "alone". As derived from demonstratives, akanni, "now", often with the prepositi on adu "until" (e.g. a-da-kan-ni), ammiika, "there", ammesa, "thither",

(b )anniika, "here", (b )annesa, "hither", annilri(g ), "now".

117 118

119

Very often attested, and specifically NA: Kalinin and Loesov, "Lexical Sondergut," 39· The etymological interpretat ion of saddaqdis is given in Hameen-A ntilla, Grammar, 56. This adverb is technically formed by a rare residual occurrence of the dual (HameenAntilla, Grammar, 77).

NEO-ASSYRIAN

1379

Temporal andModalAdverbsi20 uma, "now", umumma, ''today", isstari, "tomorrow", innamari, "in the morning", ittimali, "yesterday", sa/ina nubatte, "in the evening", ana badi, "in the evening", a/iljljur, "later, still, else", ana pani, "forwards", ina paniti, "before", urketi, "later", ina birit, "occasionally", bis, "then, afterwards", kettu, "really", ippitti, "accordingly", kayyamanu, "continuously", issassume, "in the past", ljarammama, "later", issu ljaramme, "recently", udini, "(not) yet", aljula, "on the other side", ma,da, "much", tura, "once more, again", ana kalle, "posthaste", ana mala, "altogether", issuri, "maybe", battataya, "side by side". 7.2.2.1

Interrogative Adverbs (ay)yaka, "where?", (ana) ayyesa, "whither?", ata, "why?"/ ammeni, "why?"I2I ale, "here?'', ake, "how?", immati, "when?", k£ma$i, "how much? how many?".I22 7.2.2.2

7.2.3 Prepositions Two typologies may be distinguished: ( 1) simple prepositions, taking no suffix, e.g., adi/u, "until" (of time and space)", ak£ or k£, "as, like", basi, "in order to", ana, "to", and ina, "in", which, while clearly distinct in form and function, show some overlaps,I2 3 the ablative-locational issu, "from"(*< istu in Oakk, Bab.), and the comitative isse, "with" (cf. * itti in Oakk, Bab. ), which on the other hand-while often confused, also because written with the same logogram, TA/TA(*)-have been clearly distinguished of late, 124 sub, "concerning"; (2) with pronominal suffixes, or in compound formations, with nouns in prepositional use: bat(te/a)batte, "around" (with ina/issu), balat, "with-

120

121

Notice that many of the following are formed by unstressed or weakly stressed preposition, such as ana and ina, which are linked to a following word, or merge with the latter as proclitics: see Luukko, Variation, 115-17. Other cases, involving actual changes in consecutive words, represent external sandhi: see ibid., 118-21. Lexically, some of these adverbs (and their related prepositions) represent "a brand-new repertoire of everyday function words, i.e. those encoding various meanings related to grammar" (Kalinin and Loesov, "Lexical Sondergut," 42 ). Following Kalinin and Loesov, "Lexical Sondergut," 39, ata, the newer item for "why?" is often attested (163 cases) against two dozen cases of ammeni, deriving from OA and MA.

122

123

124

See Bradley J. Parker, "The Real and the Irreal: the Multiple Meanings of ma$i in NeoAssyrian," State Archives ofAssyria Bulletin n (1997 ): 37-54. Wimeen-Antilla, Grammar, 69. Olga I. Vinnichenko, "On the prepositions issu and isse in Neo-Assyrian," Orientalia 85 (2016): 149-75·

FALES

1380

out" (with ana), birte, "between, among" (with ina), det/dat, "after" (with 125 ina/ana irti, ina/ana), ina idi, "at the side of", ina siddi, "alongside", "toward", ina/ana/issu libbi, "in, until, from"-and ina libbi also as adverb, "within, there"-, ina/ana/adi/iss u muljlji, ''about, concerning" etc., ina/ ana/adi/issu pan, "in front, to, before, from, because of", piit/ina put, "opposite", pitti, "according to." (cf. adverb ippitti), ina/issu qab( as )si (< *VQBL), "in/from the middle of ... ", ina/ana qanni, "to the outside of ... , among", ina/issu qat, "at the disposal of ... , from the possession of ... ", sapal, ina/issu sapal, "under, from under". The pronoun sa with adjacent negation (sa la) is prepositional in use: "without". Nouns 7.2.4 The NA nouns are marked for gender, number and case; they differ only slightly-essent ially through reduction in typologies-fro m their OA and MA forerunners. There are only two genders, like in all Akkadian: most masculine nouns are unmarked, while most feminine nouns present the allomorph -(a)t, with variants in -ut or -et. The declension is as follows. Masc.: Sg. Subject case ("nominative"): -u, Direct Object case ("accusative"): -u (vs. -am/-a OA; MA, Bab.), Indirect Object case ("genitive/oblique") -i; PI. Subject case -ani, -ati, -uti, -£ /-e;12 6 no marker for Oblique plural. Fern.: Sg. Nominative -(u)tu, Accusative(u)tu (cf. OA/MA -(a)tam/ -( a)ta), Oblique -(i)ti; PI. Subject case -ati; no marker for Oblique plural. A nota accusativi with ana is also attested, as a device to avoid confusions of objects in the clause. 127 A particular infix of nouns before case/number endings is -an, of intensifying meaning: e.g. dan-na-ta-a-nu ma-$a-ta-a-nu su-u, "truly, he is a powerful (and) influential man!" SAA XVI 63, Rev. 19. The gentilic ending (nisbe) is -a-a, to be pronounced -aya or -af.1 28 The feminine gentilic is -£tu, pl. -ayate.I29

125 126

127 128

129

Mikko Luukko, "Idiomatic meanings of siddu in Neo-Assyrian," State Archives of Assyria Bulletin 11 (1997): 31-36. Also, rarely, -anu: Parpola, Letters, 168. Some words have variant plural endings: e.g. mukil appate and mukll appani (Luukko, Variation, 137-38). The logogram MES may be used to strengthen or else substitute syllabic plural forms (ibid., 138-39), e.g. e-gir-te.MES. In general, however, the lengthening of the final vowel in the plural (as in older forms of Assyrian) is not frequent (Hameen-Antilla, Grammar, 78). Hameen-Antilla, Grammar, 77; Luukko, Variation, 169-70. Resp. Deller, "Lautlehre," 86; Parpola, Letters, 152. For the use of the NA nisbe in a number of different applications to (foreign/indigenous) peoples, see most recently Fales, "Composition and Structure". Hameen-Antilla, Grammar, 84.

NEO-ASSYRIA N

1381

Numbers in nouns are basically limited to sg. and pl., with the Common Semitic dual (elsewhere in Akkadian reserved for natural body parts) usually substituted by the plural, save in set expressions. States. The tripartite system of states in the Akkadian noun (status rectus, status absolutus and status constmctus) is maintained, with the status absolutus with no case endings marking the use of numerals (see below), and the status constmctus very often substituted by the status rectus+ the relative pronoun sa followed by a genitive. Definiteness is not marked by an article or similar, as elsewhere in Akkadian. The numeral "one" (see below) may be used for indefiniteness, as well as the independen t personal pronouns of the third person, su, si (see some examples above), while the longer forms of the same (siltu, stti) may lend a connotation of definiteness. 7.2.5 Adjectives Adjectives normally agree with the nouns they modify in case, gender and number. Declension is similar to that of nouns, save for masc. pl. endings. Specifically, NA has only one plural adjectival ending here, -ilti, against a double series (nominative and oblique case) in the older Assyrian dialects. 13o

Numerals Numbers are commonly written with numerals in NA texts. Exceptions are issen, one", f. isset; sitta, two", esrat, ten", bit, 10o", limi, IOoo". Ordinal numbers are inflected and may bear plural forms. Fractions are most often used to denote economic interest rates or weight standards, and are formed by numbers followed by varying suffixes. 131 7.2.6

11

11

11

11

11

7.2.7 Verbs The verb in NA is based on the common Semi tic-and specifically Akkadiancharacteristics of a skeleton of mainly triliteral (also quadriliteral) consonantal roots, correspondi ng to individually clear albeit somewhat flexible general meanings, which are modifiable by internal vowel patterns and other formal devices toward specific sub-templates Cisterns" or COnjugations"), relevant to secondary semantic areas or nuances. Upon this basic structure-w hich may be phonetically modified in presence of one or more Weak" radicals (', y, n, w)-the individuatio n of the active/passive protagonists of the action Clper11

11

130 131

Luukko and van Buylaere, "Languages," 328. Hameen-Antill a, Grammar, 86; Postgate, Fifty Neo-Assyrian, 63.

FALES

1382

TABLE 22.2

Sing. 3m 3f/2m 2f lC Pl. 3m 3f 2C lC

conjugate d forms to mark person, gender, and number NA

G and N-stems

D and S stems

i--.f-0

uJ--0

ta- -.f- 0

tu_-.f-0

taJ-i

tu--.f- i

a- -.f-0

u- -.f--0

i--.f-u

u--.f--u

i--!-a

u--!--a

ta--!- a niJ-0

tu--!- a nu--.f-- 0

sons", gender, number, through prefixes /suffixes), the indicati on of the tempor ral/aspe ctual aspects of the same Ctenses") and the express ion of particula "modal" variations, are inserte d-in a particularly rich overall complex of flexive nature.l3 2 7.2.7.1

Verbal Stems

The system of verbal stems is formed proceed ing from the basic triconsonantal stem (G[rund stamm ]), from which further stems-y ielding seconda ry meanings deriving from the G-stem -may be formed through modifications to the root (D[ oppelun gsstamm ], with reduplic ation of the middle radical, of "intensive" or "factitive" meaning), or through prefixes (Sand N, denotin g the consonantal bases of such prefixes, resp. of "causative" and "passive" meaning with regard to G).13 3 As outcom e of specific opposit ions with Babylonian, and further of the diachronic develop ment of Assyrian itself, NA present s the conjugated forms to mark person, gender, and number shown in Table 22.2, applied to the present, preterite and perfect tenses. A seconda ry set of Akkadian verbal stems, with a single-t - infix and basically reflexive meaning, has disappeared in NA. A new tt-expan ded D stem (Dtt) has partly taken over this meaning, with defective forms resembl ing the normal Dt

132 133

rg, The For the general characteri stics of the Akkadian verbal system, cf. N.J.C. Kouwenbe 2010 ). ns, Eisenbrau Lake: (Winona nd Backgrou Semitic Its and Verb Akkadian solutions In NA, the use of theN-stem for the passive of the G stem is very limited, other of D. lieu in used y being used (Hameen-Antilla, Grammar, 88). The Sstem i frequentl

NEO-ASSYRIAN

1383

134

stem. See e.g. uk-ta-at-ti-mu (VKTM Perf.), SAA x 226: Rev. 3, u-sa-ta-malj-uni (VSM IJ Pres. ), SAA II 6: 282. A Gtt stem is only attested for the verb alaku, "to go", e.g. i-ta-at-ku, SAA v 32: n (Perf., 3pm ),135 7.2.7.2 Tenses The verbal system distinguishes five finite tenses, Pres.( ent ), Pret.( erite ), Perf.( ect), Imp.( erative) and Stat(ive ). The Pres. describes present or future actions/processes: the doubling of the middle radical is its characteristic (isappar, "he sends/will send").I 36 The Pret. expresses punctual, completed actions (i-spur, "he sent"). In MA and NA the Pret. was replaced by the Perf. in positive main clauses, and only regularly used in negative clauses (e.g. summa issakan summa la iskun, "Whether it occurs, or whether it does not occur", SAAX 294:16), subordinate clauses, and questions with interrogative word; it forms the base of the precative and cohortative moods. 137 The Perf. has an infixedt(a) after the first radical (i-ssapar < *istapar); it denotes past time in positive main clauses, but also present time in coincidence clauses (when the action is felt to be contemporaneous/earlier than the statement), e.g. ilma annilri(g) assapra(kka), "Now I am wliting to you" (i.e. I have written, but not yet sent, the letter).I 38 The Imp. is used for positive commands (only 2s and 2p ), e.g. supur, "Send!". The Stat. has a nominal base, normally of adjectival type, with a pronominal ending to mark the subject. It expresses a state/situation in the past, present, or future, depending on the context; with transitive verbs, the Stat. can be active or passive in sense. The NA conjugation is: Singular 3m -0 (e.g mari$, "he is/was/will be sick"), 3f-at, 2m -aka, 2f -aki, 1c -ak(u);139 Plural 3m -u; 3f -a; 2m -akunu, 2f-*-akina, 1c -ani.

134 135 136 137 138

139

Luukko, Variation, 145. On this paradigm, see Simo Parpola, "Likalka ittatakku: Two Notes on the Morphology of the Verb aliiku in Neo-Assyrian," Studia Orientalia 55 (1984): 185-209. For the Pres. as denoting the past in connection with (ki) udlni, "already, yet", and for aspectual nuances due to Aramaic influence, see Hiimeen-Antilla, Grammar, 111. The reappearance of the Pret. for the positive past tense in late NA legal documents is noted by Postgate, "Middle Assyrian to Neo-Assyrian", 162-63. This type of perf. is very frequent in NA letters (Luukko, Variation, 163). For epistolary verbal usage in Akkadian, see Dennis Pardee and Robert M. Whiting, "Aspects of Epistolary Verbal Usage in Ugaritic and Akkadian," Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research so (1987): 1-31; according to Kalinin and Loesov, "Lexical Sondergut," 42, the real NA innovation in the "epistolary perfect" lies essentially in the presence of the shifter time adverbials umii annurig, which makes for its "deeper adaptation" on what was essentially a Babylonianism in MA/NA. Cf. Luukko, Variation, 151, for three different Stat.1s forms attested in NA: -aku, -ak, and -a.

FALES

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7.2.7.3 Moods Moods are formed with the use of the Pret. or the Pres. tenses. Negative commands (prohibitives) are expressed by lu la with second person forms, although lu is not mandatory here, e.g.la tapallalj, "Fear not!" (SAA IX, passim). Instead, lu la with third or first person and the Pres. is used in negative wishes, i.e. as a vetitive, e.g. tu la amuat, "May I not die!", SAAXVI, 31: R. 5; 127: Rev.18. The precative (with the Pret., but also the Stat.) expresses requests or commands in the first and third person (sg./pl. ), even future intentions, e.g.lallik, "I shall go". The subjunctive in NA is less a mood than an enclitic morpheme (combined, -(u) ... ni, with the latter at the end of the verbal form, after possible suffixes) to mark the conclusion of a subordinate clause. The ventive (-a( m) 1-ni( m)) derives from an original1s dative suffix, which however developed into a modal morpheme to express action (mainly motion) in the direction of the speaker or addressee (thus, with alaku, the addition of the ventive may change the meaning from "to go" to "to come"). 7.2.7.4 Non-finite Forms Non-finite forms of the verb are the Inf.( initive ), the active Part.( iciple ), and the Verbal Adj.( ective ). The Inf. can be used as a substantive, e.g. adi raba samsi, "to the setting of the sun", SAA x 185: Rev. 18. When used as a verb, its object may precede it asyndetically, e.g. atta tuda umati sa iskaru emadu etarbani, "Do you know, that the days of imposing the iskaru-dues have arrived?", SAAXIX 154: Rev. 1-3. The active Part. derives exclusively from verbs of action and is often lexicalized, translateable as a gerund or as an active clause, e.g. $ab it tuppi, "the one taking (or: making out) the tablet". The verbal adjective, or gerundive, denotes a state or situation in the past, present, or future (e.g., $ab tu "seized").14 0 7·3 Notes on Syntax The order of the parts of a clause in NA is either Subject-Object-Predicate (soP) or Object-Subject-Predicate (asP); the OSP order is used to emphasize a topic. The distinction between subject (nominative) and object (accusative) disappears in NA due to the merging of both cases in the singular; thus subject and object are mainly determined by word order or context unless the preposition ana is used as nota accusativi. Temporal and clause adverbs occur at the beginning of a clause, e.g. issuri sarru beli iqabbi, "Perhaps the king my lord will say", but other adverbs are placed at the end for emphasis, e.g. ma$$artu dan-

140

Cf. Luukko and van Buylaere, "Languages," 332.

NEO-ASSYRIAN

1385

nat adannis, "the surveillance is very strong", SAA v 21: w.I 4 I In interrogatives, ata, "why?", is at the beginning of a clause, whereas ale/£ and ayyaka, "where?" appear at the end, e.g. re!Jti siseka ali, "Where are the rest of your horses?", sAA v 224:12-13.

The different clause types have different rules for verb tenses: in NA the Pres., Perf., and Stat. (both past and present) are employed in positive main clauses, while the Pres., Pret., and Stat. are used in negative main clauses. Aside from these main clauses, we find various types of subordinate clauses: relative clauses (introduced by sa), conditional clauses (with summa/kima), temporal (introduced by various adverbs, "when", "before", "after", "until"), interrogative clauses (see above), direct quotations (where NA uses ma for the second and third persons, but muk/nuk for the first), indirect quotations (with the subjunctive ending-( u) ... ni subordinated to their preceding main clause), and (short) exclamations (e.g. ilani sa sarri beli, "by the gods of the king my lord!", SAA I 179: Rev. 3-4142). 7·4 Lexicon The specific lexical patrimony of NA has been investigated anew most recently, due to the present-day availability of reliable editions and lexical tools, yielding a total of 409 words unique to this dialect of which 216 ( = 52,8 °/o.) are hapax legomena.l43 The degree of entrenchment of such lexical innovations in the language may be gauged by various means: (a) replacement of previous well-attested words (e.g. issu, "woman, wife" for OA awlltum, and doubtfully MA assutu( m)) (b) presence of new verbs, together With their derived substantives I adjectives (e.g. !Jalapu, "to milk" > !Jilpu, "milking"); (c) particularly productive lexical patterns, such as the verbal adjectives parsu, parrusu, saprusu, and naprusu; (d) entirely new lexical sub-repertoires, such as that of everyday function words (from uma, "now", to tura, "again" to bet, ''where", "when", etc.), which have no semantically comparable cognates in Akkadian. 144 I

141 142 143 144

Hiimeen-Antilla, Grammar, n6. Hiimeen-Antilla, Grammar, 117-33 passim; Luukko and van Buylaere, "Languages," 332. Kalinin and Loesov, "Lexical Sondergut," 38. Brief but precise overviews of the NA lexicon are usefully provided in specific indexes at the end of each volume of the SAA series. Kalinin and Loesov, "Lexical Sondergut," 40-42.

FALES

1386

Bibliography Abraham, Kathleen, and Michael Sokoloff. "Aramaic Loanwords in Akkadian-A Reassessmen t of the Proposals." Archivfor Orieniforschung (2on): 22-76. Ahmad, A.Y. "The Archive of Assur-matu-t aqqin Found in the New Town of Assur and Dated Mainly by Post-canonical Eponyms." Al-Rafidan 17 (1996): 207-88. Bagg, Ariel M. Die Orts- und Gewassernamen der neuassyrischen Zeit, Teil1: Die Levante. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig ReichertVerlag, 2007. Bagg, Ariel M. Die Orts- und Gewassernamen der neuassyrische n Zeit, Teil2, Heft 1: Zentralassyrien und benachbarte Gebiete, Agypten und die arabische Halbinsel. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 2017. Bagg, Ariel M. Die Orts- und Gewassernamen der neuassyrischen Zeit, Teil2, Heft 2: Zentralassyrien und benachbarte Gebiete, Agypten und die arabische Halbinsel. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 2017. Bagg, Ariel M. Die Orts- und Gewassernamen der neuassyrischen Zeit, Teil3, Heft 1: Babylonien, Urartu und die ostlichen Gebiete. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 2020. Bagg, Ariel M. Die Orts- und Gewassernamen der neuassyrisclzen Zeit, Teil3, Heft 2: Babylonien, Urartu und die ostlichen Gebiete. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 2020.

Beaulieu, Paul-Alain. "Official and Vernacular Languages: the Shifting Sands oflmperial and Cultural Identities in First-Millennium B.C. Mesopotamia." In Margins of Writing, Origins of Cultures, edited by Seth L. Sanders, 187-216. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2006. Beckman, Gary. Review of Assur-Gott, Stadt und Land: 5· International es Colloquium des Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft, 18.-21. Februar 2004 in Berlin, by Johannes Renger ed., journal of the American Oriental Society 132, 2012, 167-68. Cherry, Zack. "Aramaic Loanwords in Neo-Assyrian 90o-6oo B. c." PhD diss., Uppsala

Universitet, 2017. Curtis,John. "The British Museum Excavations at Nineveh." In Nineveh, the Great City: Symbol of Beauty and Power, edited by Lucas P. Petit, and Daniele Morandi Bonacossi, 69-73. Leiden: Museum of Antiquities, 2017. Dalley, Stephanie. "Neo-Assyrian Tablets from Til Barsib." Abr-Nalzrain 3 (1996-1997): 66-99· Dell er, Karlheinz. "Zur sprachlichen Einordnung der Inschriften Assurna~irpal 11. (883859)." Orientalia 26 (1957): 144-56. Deller, Karlheinz. "Assyrisches Sprachgut bei Tukulti-Ninurta 11. (888-884)." Orientalia 26 (1957): 268-72.

Deller, Karlheinz. "Lautlehre des Neuassyrischen. Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades an der philosophisch e Fakultat der Universitat Wien." PhD diss., Universitat Wien, 1959.

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Parpola, Simo. "Assyrian Library Records." journal of Near Eastern Studies 42 (1983): 129.

Parpola, Simo. "Likalka ittatakku: Two Notes on the Morphology of the Verb alaku in Neo-Assyrian." Studia Orientalia 55 (1984): 185-209. Parpola, Simo. "The royal archives of Nineveh." In Cuneiform Archives and Libraries, edited by Klaas R. Veenhof, 223-36. Leiden-Istanbul: NINO, 1986. Parpola, Simo. "The Man Without a Scribe and the Question of Literacy in the Assyrian Empire." In Ana sad£ Labnani lii allik. Beitriige zu altorientalischen und mittelmeerischen Kulturen. Festschrift for W. Rollig, edited by Beate Pongratz-Leisten,

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CHAPTER 23

(Early) Neo-Babylonian Christian W Hess

Overview

1

Babylonian in the first millennium Bc E remains one of the most poorly studied dialects of Akkadian.I Diachronic and synchronic variation, the degree of language contact and influence, and even basic problems of orthograp hy still lack in-depth studies. The following offers a synthesis of current research on NeoBabylonian (NB), understood as a rough division from the beginning of the first 2 millennium to the middle of the fifth century BCE. The descriptio n will focus on Early NB material from the eighth and seventh centuries BCE until the end of the Assyrian domination of Babylonia.

Periodizat ion

2

Both the upper and lower boundaries of NB, and thus the distinction from both Middle and Late Babylonian (MB/LB), have been subject to various interpretations.3 A clearer distinction can be drawn between the Babylonian of the outgoing Isin 11 period and that reflected in the letters from eighth century Nippur. Texts from both the later Kassite period and the subsequen t Isin 11 period already show individual features characteristic oflater NB, including early possible attestations for the collapse of case endings (nominati ve and accusative singular) and phonological features such as the assimilation /mk/ > /nk/ > /ng/. 4 As a whole, however, most characteristic features of Early NB, including

1

2

The only complete grammar, which focuses entirely on the Babylonian letters from Nineveh, is provided in the unpublished dissertation of Nancy Woodington , "A Grammar of the NeoBabylonian Letters of the Kuyunjik Collection" (Phd. diss., Yale, 1982). For a slightly different definition and demarcation of NB / LB, see chapter 24 in the present

volume. 3 See the recent discussion injohannes Hackl, "Zur Sprachsituat ion im Babylonien des ersten Jahrtausend s v. Chr," in Mchrsprachigkeit, ed. Sebastian Fink, Martin Lang, and Manfred Schretter (Munster: Zaphon, 2018), 210-12, as well as chapter 24 in the present volume. Fen4 See Jussi Aro, Studien zur mittelbabylonischen Grammatik (Helsinki: Societas Orientalis nica, 1955), 39·

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(EARLY) NEO-BABYLONIAN

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the disintegration of the case system, consistent evidence for the loss of final vowels of enclitic pronouns, new paradigms in verbal stems, and changes in the lexicon, emerge as a system only after the end of the second millennium. The transition from NB to LB is more problematic. Various approaches, often heavily dependent on historical rather than strictly linguistic considerations, name the end of Assyrian domination in 6z6 BCE, the fall of the NeoBabylonian dynasty in 539, or the sharp drop in texts following the suppression of the Babylonian revolts against Xerxes I in 484. More recent works abandon the distinction between the two phases entirely in favor of a gradual dialect continuum covering the entire first millennium, with characteristic features assigned to individual regions, generic corpora, or scribal circles. 5 Superficially, the language remains quite stable, and there is certainly no reason to see a sharp linguistic break anywhere throughout this period. Any diachronic distinction is thus often a matter of degree. The increased tendency towards vocalic indifference and morphographemic or Akkadographic writings, apocope of short, final vowels, the collapse of the case system, la-prefixes of the 3sf, the re-analysis and development of the pronominal system, morphosyntax of the verb, and the syntax of subordinate clauses are already largely in place in the early texts from the eighth to the seventh centuries. Differential objectmarking with ana, the use of the plural morpheme -rya, and, with one possible exception, modal use of the short-form prefix conjugation iprus, seem so far to be unattested earlier than the late seventh-early sixth century. Aramaic loanwords in the earlier lexicon are limited, Greek and Persian loans unattested. Attention to individual archives and text groupings will certainly help to differentiate developments further. Viewed in aggregate, however, the features noted support an approximate and pragmatic linguistic grouping of the texts from the beginning of the first millennium to roughly the middle of the fifth century BCE as Neo-Babylonian, with the texts up to the end of the seventh century separated as Early NB.

3

Sources

The sources for Early NB from ea. 750-626 BCE are dwarfed by the corpus from both the preceding Kassite period and the following long sixth century. The largest corpus of letters, ea. 1009 in total, derives from the official correspon5 Michael P. Streck, "Akkadisch," in Sprachen desAlten Orients, ed. Michael P. Streck (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2007 ), 46 n. 20, followed by Hackl, "Zur Sprachsituation," 221.

1398

HESS

dence with the Assyrian court, as Babylonia was tied into the communicative network of the Assyrian state. This network, nascent in the "Nimrud Letters" from Kall].u (sAA 19) under Tiglath-pileser III, was firmly established in south6 ern Mesopotamia by the time of Esarhaddon. Geographically, most letters come from a few areas and centers, with larger groups from Babylon, Borsippa, Nippur, and Uruk. Other regions are also represented, including the area of the Aramean Gambiilu and the Sealand. The diverse senders include scholars, both in Babylonia and those active in the Assyrian capital, priests, local officials, minor dignitaries, agents of Assyria active in Babylonia, and collectives such as representative assemblies. Many letters from the Assyrian kings to the Babylonians, preserved as copies at Nineveh, are written in NB as well, some in Assyrian script. As a linguistic source, this corresponde nce is largely dominated by the exigencies of communicat ion with the royal court: quotidian affairs are more poorly represented. The communicative context thus contrasts with the administrative epistolography which forms the bulk ofletters from the sixth century. 7 The largest group ofletters found in Babylonia is represented by 8 the so-called "Governor's Archive" from Nip pur, dated to ea. 755-732 BCE. The assignment of the group as a whole to a governor of Nippur is unlikely, but the letters heavily feature contacts with Aramean and Chaldean tribes in the surrounding region, often concerned with affairs of trade. The group is heterogeneous in style and origin, and the paleography points to at least three distinct origins or scribal traditions. 9 While a scattering of dockets and tags inscribed in Babylonian script was found at Kall].u and Diir-Sarrukln in Assyria, roughly 677, mostly dated, eco10 nomic and legal texts, partly still unpublished, come from Babylonia proper.

6

7

8

9 10

Karen Radner, "A State Communicatio n Network," in State Correspondence in the Ancient World, ed. Karen Radner (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014 ), 78; the majority ofletters are published in the series State Archives ofAssyria. Radner, "A State Communicatio n Network," 64-93; see the comparison with later corpora in Yuval Levavi, Administrative Epistolography in the Formative Phase of the NeoBabylonian Empire (Munster: Zaphon, 2018), 213-27. Steven W. Cole, The Early Neo-Babylonian Governor's Archive from Nippur (Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1996); Michaeljursa, Neo-Babylonian Legal and Administrative Documents (Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, zoos), no, classifies the texts as an institutional archive. Cole, The Early Neo-Babylonian Governor's Archive, g. See Frederick Mario Fales, "Babylonian Slave-Documents in the State Archives of Assyria," State Archives of Assyria Bulletin 2 (1g88): 41-57, on the texts from Assyria. Dated economic texts are catalogued in John A. Brinkman and Douglas A. Kennedy, "Documentary Evidence for the Economic Base of Early Neo-Babylonian Society: A Survey of Dated Babylonian Economic Texts, 721-626 B.C.," journal of Cuneiform Studies 35 (1983): 1-go, and

(EARLY) NEO-BABYLONIAN

1399

Geographically, the largest groups stem from Babylon (ea. 165), Borsippa (ea. 54), Dilbat (ea. 39), Sip par (ea. 30 ), Kis (ea. 8, including Ijursagkalama), and Marad (1) in northern Babylonia; Nippur (ea. 83) in central Babylonia; and Uruk (ea. 88) and Ur (ea. 21) in the South.U Smaller settlements are attested mostly in the date formulae of individual tablets as the location of specific transactions. These texts can only partly be assigned to more or less coherent archival groups. Five larger private (reconstructed) archives predate the end of Assyrian dominion: the archive of Bel-usallim, descendant of Le'ea (Babylon; 719628BCE/Samas-sumu-ukln 8-Kandalanu 20), which contains mostly debt notes for silver; the archive of Marduk-sapik-zeri, son of Erlba-Marduk and descendant of Egibi (Dilbat?; 701- ea. 626 Bc E); the archive of the Samsea Family (Uruk; 700-593BCE); and the archive of Musezib-Marduk, son of Kiribtu and descendant of Sin- na~ir (Uruk?; 678-633 Bc E). 12 The last group exemplifies both the problem of archival reconstruction and the range of private activities in the period. Over half of the land purchases indicate that Musezib-Marduk was based in Uruk. Though Babylonia as a whole was politically fragmented, the date formulae of other texts register transactions across the region, at Nul].sanlti near Uruk (1), Alu-sa-I~~ur-Adad (1) and Saplya (2) in Blt-Amukani, Ur (2), Babylon (s), and Borsippa (1). With the exception of the archive of the Samsea Family, these archives all end shortly before 626BCE. The incorporation of early texts within archives of later periods provides continuity across the accession of Nabopolassar. At least one distinct dossier from the "Early" Ebabbar-archive consists of documents from the last years of Assyrian rule up to Nebukadnezzar 11 2o.l 3 The Ezida Temple ofBorsippa also yields at least five reconstructed archives extending back to the period before Nabopolassar: Eailutu-bani (fromAssur-nadin-sumi to Kandalanu); KudurranuA (Ashurbanipal

11 12 13

John A. Brinkman and Douglas A. Kennedy, "Documentary Evidence for the Economic Base of Early Neo-Babylonian Society, Part 11: A Survey of Babylonian Texts 626-605 B.c.," journal of Cuneiform Studies 38 (1986): 172-244 (with corrections and additions to part 1). Early texts assigned to individual archives are included in Jursa, Neo-Babylonian Legal and Administrative Documents; cf. also the digitized catalogue of the on-going NaBuCCo Project (http://nabucco.arts.kuleuven.be/). See the geographical and chronological overview in John P. Nielsen, Sons and Descendants (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2on), 6-7. Grant Frame, The Archive of Musezib-Marduk (Dresden: ISLET, 2013), 2-6; cf. ibid. 4 n. 12, on smaller private archives of the period. Rocio Da Riva, Der Ebabbar-Tempel van Sippar infriihneubabylonischer Zeit (64o-s8o v. Chr.) (Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2002), 2.

HESS

1400

to Darius 1); Kudurranu B (possibly dating back to Sargon n?); and Bane-sa-iliya (Esh 4 -Nbk 17 )_14 The texts retained within these later collections are limited in scope and type, many related to land purchases or other title deeds. Together, they highlight how much evidence is unavailable. Royal or overtly political archives are poorly represented. Otherwise institutio nal archives from before 626 are equally rare. One notable exception is the so-called "M organ archive", a temple archive dated from year 10 of Nabu-suma-iskun to year 14 of Nabonassar, possibly of a Nanaya temple near Uruk.l

5

Dialect Geography

4

While there is no firm evidence for the view that NB had already been largely replaced by Aramaic or other West Semitic languages during this period, numerou s sources emphasize Babylonia as a heterogeneous, multilingual region. Sennacherib's campaign to Babylonia encounte red many Arabs, Arameans, and Chaldeans among the populati on of Uruk, Nippur, KiS, and IJursagkalama (OIP 2, 25: 39-41 and 54: 52). A letter from Enlil-bani, governor of Nippur, to Ashurbanipal (sAA 18, 192: 6') speaks of the city's "many tongues" (lisanati madati). 16 Arameans are first attested in Babylonia in the eleventh century, Chaldeans first in 878 BCE, and by this time both formed integral parts of the demographic and linguistic landscape: the latter group provided several kings during the period. Other individuals are identified by onomastics or explicit ethnonym s as Arabian, Egyptian, Kassite, or Elamite. Available sources for NB dialect geography, however, skew heavily towards a few scribal circles (non-mobile, older, urban males) from select urban centers, while minor settlements, the surrounding rural areas, and most social classes are either indirectly represen ted or completely unattested. Neo-Babylonian in Urban Centers The available sources were sketched above. Grammatical distinctions among individual regions of Babylonia within NB are largely negligible, confined to 4.1

14 15

16

Caroline Waerzeggers, The Ezida Temple of Borsippa (Leiden: Nederland s Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2010 ), 15-17 and 281 n. 968. Jursa, Neo-Babylonian Legal and Administrative Documents, 150, who also suggests TCL 12, Tiglath1-3 as the remains of another, early institution al archive, dated to the reign of pileser 111. See the overview of population groups in Grant Frame, Babylonia 689-627 B. C. (Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 1992), 32-51.

(EARLY) NEO-BABYLONIAN

1401

the idiosyncratic use of individual words or phrasesP The distribution of NB in relation to Aramaic and other West Semitic languages is difficult to determine. Direct evidence for the use of alphabetic writing in cities is limited. Aside from the "Assur Ostracon" (KAI 233), a letter written from Uruk by the Assyrian official Bel-etir (Aram. bltr), alphabetic writing is limited to three epigraphs on legal texts: YBC 7166 from Uruk (Ashurbanipal12/1v/22); 8o-B-4 from Babylon (Samas-sumu-ukin 14/vn/Is); and BRM 1, 22 from Babylonia (Nabu-mukin-zeri 26/III/04).!8 The earliest possible evidence for early Arabian (or "Dispersed Oasis North Arabian") from Babylonia proper is provided by a single, inscribed brick from the Enunmal]. in Ur.l 9 A more widespread practice of alphabetic writing on perishable materials, not reflected in the preserved record, is widely presumed. Compared to contemporary Assyria, however, the general absence of epigraphs and dockets is noteworthy.zo An evaluation of the relationship of Early NB with other languages thus depends largely on indirect evidence. West Semitic personal names, however, are also limited, particularly in comparison with later periods. 21 An examina-

17

See the preliminary remarks in Jursa, Neo-Babylonian Legal and Administrative Documents, 45-48; Hackl, "Zur Sprachsituation," 211 n. g.

18

Aramaic epigraphs are catalogued injoachim Oelsner, "Aramaische Beischriften aufneuund spatbabylonischen Tontafeln," Die Welt des Orients 36 (zoo6): 27-71, Akkadian-Aramaic correspondences in Michael P. Streck, "Late Babylonian in Aramaic Epigraphs on Cuneiform Tablets," in Wandering Arameans, ed. Angelika Berlejung et al. (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2017), 169-94. BRM 1, 22 is re-edited in Eckart Frahm andjoachim Oelsner, "BRM 1, 22 (MLC 1805)-Die Obernahme einer Bi.irgschaft betreffend," Nouvelles Assyriologiques Breves et Utilitaires zooS: 13-15. An overview of previous literature on KAI 233 is presented in Frederick Mario Fales, "New Light on Assyro-Aramaic Interference," in CAMSEMUD 2007: Proceedings of the 13th Italian Meeting ofA.fro-Asiatic Linguistics, Held at Udine, May 21st-24th, 2007, ed. Frederick Mario Fales and Giulia Francesca Grassi (Padova: S.A.R.G.O.N., zow ), 189-204. See Michael C.A. MacDonald, "Reflections on the Linguistic Map of Pre-Islamic Arabia," Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 11 (zooo ): z8-7g; Benjamin Sass, Studia Alphabetica (Freiburg: Universitatsverlag, 1991), 40. The brick (U 7815) was found beneath the layers assigned to Nebuchadnezzar's restoration of the temple, and may be later than the period

19

20

21

of interest here. As noted by Michaeljursa, "Ein Beamter flucht auf Aramaisch," in Leggo! Studies Presented to Frederick Mario Fales on the Occasion ofHis 6sth Birthday, ed. Giovanni B. Lanfranchi et al. (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2012), 381 n. g, the attestation of a sepiru in the accession year of Nabopolassar suggests that the office was already well established in earlier periods. John P. Nielsen, Personal Names in Early Neo-Babylonian Legal and Administrative Tablets, 747-626 B. c. E. (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2015 ); cf. the analysis of the West Semitic onomasticon in Ran Zadok, "The Onomastics of the Chaldean, Aramean, and Arabian Tribes in Babylonia during the First Millennium," in Arameans, Chaldeans, and Arabs in Babylo-

1402

HESS

tion of the onomastics from the Nippur region, not necessarily representative of Babylonia as a whole, suggests a total of 78 °/o Akkadian names, compared to a total of 2 5 o;o Akkadian and 22 °/o ambiguous, either Akkadian or West Semitic, in the Murasu-texts from the fifth century. The language of names certainly need not correlate with the primary language of the bearers: only 15 individuals identified as "Chaldeans" also bore West Semitic personal names, the remainder are Babylonian.22 The figures do, however, suggest a continued, strong public identification with Akkadian within the contexts from which the majority of texts derive. The trend can hesitantly be connected with another prominent feature of NB demography: the continued development, particularly in the northern cities of Babylon, Borsippa, Dilbat, Kis, and Sip par, of nominally stable kin groups, marked by family names, which formed the "urban bourgeoisie" centered around traditional temple centers. 23

Neo-Babylonian and the Surrounding Countryside General settlement patterns outside the centers suggests a low-point in (settled) population density throughout Babylonia, particularly in the early centuries of the first millennium. 24 Despite the dearth of sources from outside these centers, there is little justification for a sharp, conceptual separation of urban and rural language areas. Economic ties extended well outside individual cities, as highlighted by the phrase "of the city and the steppe" (e.g. ZA 101, 139: 8) to refer to the sum of possessions at stake in legal texts, and the use, if not direct control, by the Ebabbar temple of Sip par of agrarian lands and pasturage outside the city's borders in Lal].iru, along the masennu-canal, and on the Nar-Sumandar. 25 In Nippur, Arameans and Chaldeans regularly delivered wool to the city, and Arameans served as seasonal or occasional la borers to supplement the local workforce, while the rab biti of Lal].iru was also involved in affairs in Sippar, Cutha, Ijursagkalama, and Dilbat. 26 4.2

22

23 24 25 26

nia and Palestine in the First Millennium B. c., ed. Angelika Berlejung and Michael P. Streck (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2013), 261-336. A diachronic evaluation of the Nippur region is presented in Kai Uimmerhirt, "Die Bevolkerung van Nip pur in neu- und spatbabylonischer Zeit," in Babylonien und seine Nachbam in neu- und spatbabylonischer Zeit, ed. Manfred Krebernik et al. (MUnster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2014), 113-34. Zadok, "The Onomastics of the Chaldean, Aramean, and Arabian Tribes," 265; cf. Frame, Babylonia, 33 f. on the "socio-cultural implications" of the designation "Akkadian" during the seventh century. See the summary results on kin groups in Nielsen, Sons and Descendants, 221-95. See the brief overview of survey data in Frame, Babylonia, 20-21, with references to earlier analyses. Da Riva, Ebabbar-Tempel, 61. See the summary on the Nippur region in Kai Lammerhirt, "Die BevOlkerung van Nip-

(EARLY) NEO-BABYL ONIAN

1403

Chaldean areas can be grouped along the five known "houses" or tribes. The three major houses were Blt-Dakkiiri, concentrated along the Euphrates in the region just south of Babylon, from Borsippa to Marad and Diir-Ladlni; BltAmukani, likely the largest group, with territory stretching from around Nip pur to Uruk; followed by Blt-Yakln in the areas south and east of Uruk. The latter, which also included the traditional centers of Larsa, Eridu, Kissik, and Kullab, extended into and was partly co-extensive with the marshes of the Sealand. Adjacent to Blt-Dakkiiri were the areas ofBit-Sa'alli, while the area ofB!t-Sllani near Larak and Nippur was later largely annexed by Blt-Amukani.27 The territory of the latter also included one of the few settlements east of the Euphrates connected to the Arabian tribes of the Kedarite confederacy, Diir-mlJ-A+A-it.28 While both the term "houses" (bit-PN) and the designation of "heads" of the individual Chaldean groups as ra,sani suggest a (strong or weak) tribal organization, the areas were mostly settled and maintaine d their own, subsidiary settlemen t networks: Sennacherib's claim of having conquered 88 walled cities and 8zo villages of the Chaldeans is enough to contradict any firmly nomadic bias. 29 Long-term shifts in settlement s are more poorly represented, though there is some evidence of instability. Saplya is attested as a major center of BltAmukani under Nabu-mukln-zeri (731-729BCE), but later texts from between 68g-627 make no mention of the role. What net demographic effect violent disruptions such as warfare and episodes of mass deportations to and from Babylonia may have had remains largely unclear. 30 Though there is no substantia l linguistic difference between Chaldean and Aramean names, references in Assyrian and Babylonian sources consistently differentiate between Chaldeans and Arameans. 31 The areas assigned to the latter were at least partly co-terminous, particularly in the south. At least 41

27

28 29

30

31

pur in neu- und spatbabylon ischer Zeit," 113-34; further Da Riva, Ebabbar-Tempel, 83, on Lal)lru. Overview in Frame, Babylonia, 36-43; Frederick Mario Fales, "Moving around Babylon," in Babylon: Wisscnskultu r in Orient und Okzident, ed. Eva Cancik-Kirschbaum et al. (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2011), 91-112. Zadok, "The Onomastics of the Chaldean, Aramean, and Arabian Tribes," 317. OIP 2, 54: so; on the possible interpretatio n of "Sutean" as a reference to more mobile elements of West Semitic population groups see Frederick Mario Fales, "Ethnicity in the Assyrian Empire: A View from the Nisbe, (I I I)," in At the Dawn ofHistory, Volume 1, ed. Yagmur Heffron, Adam Stone, and Martin Worthington (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2017 ), 158 with n.n6. See the convenient overview of deportations affecting Babylonia in Bustenay Oded, Mass Deportations and Deportees in the Neo-Assyrian Empire (Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert, 1979), 30-32. Zadok, "The Onomastics of the Chaldean, Aramean, and Arabian Tribes," 265.

··~

HESS

1404

individual groups or tribes are explicitly designated as "Aramean" in Assyrian and Babylonian sources; another 40 may be identified as Aramean based on onomastics.32 Major groups include the Gambiilu in the area between Ur and the Uqnu river (the Kariin and its delta), and the Puqudu, concentrated in the region from the vicinity of Uruk to the borderlands of Elam, with ties as far as Nippur. The organization of these groups seems to have been more fragmented than the Chaldeans. Absent direct evidence of spoken or written language, the presumption that Aramaic or more generally West Semitic was the dominant language within these areas remains conjectural. Based on this presumption, however, the areas east of the Tigris up to the Elamite borderlands, the southern marshlands, and the Euphrates banks seem mostly dominated by West Semitic. The same can be said to varying degrees of the surrounding hinterlands of individual cities. Accepting the notorious difficulty in extrapolating dialect areas from available urban sources, the general picture of NB dialect geography is one of slow regression from the Babylonian countryside to larger, urban centers.

5

Orthography, Phonetics, and Phonology

A major obstacle to the understanding ofN eo-Babylonian grammar is the interpretation of contemporary cuneiform orthography. Writing is frequently historical or Akkadographic, and seldom represents an attempt at faithful phonetic or even phonemic reproduction of the language. Though the reconstruction of the phonetic repertoire and the basic morphology depends on the interpretation of orthographic details, much remains uncertain. To express this uncertainty, the following discussion will distinguish a direct transliteration from an (anachronistic) transcription which retains case-vowels and other endings as written. 33 Suggested broad phonemic reconstructions are given between slashes, orthography between angled brackets.

32

33

Michael P. Streck, "Outlook: Aramaeans outside of Syria. 2. Babylonia," in The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria, ed. Herbert Niehr (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2014), 297-318; Holger Gzella, A Cultural History of Aramaic from the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2015), 104-56. Jursa, Neo-Babylonian Legal and Administrative Documents, 3 n. 15. Any narrow phonetic transcription is unfounded.

(EARLY) NEO-BABYL ONIAN

1405

5.1 Syllabary and Orthography Aside from a marked increase in the use of (C( onsonant)V( owel)C)-signs, the NB syllabary introduces relatively few new sign values. The historical use of (CVm)-signs for word-final mimation leads to their use as simple jcv/-values: la i-na7 (NAM)-atJ-tJi-is-ma for lii inatJtJis-ma "may he not come back" SAA17, 155 rev. 3; SES-kai 6 (KAM) for atJilka ''your brother" OIP 114, 63:2. Instead, the most salient characteri stic of NB orthograph y is a variable degree of alphabetization, the trend towards undifferen tiated expression of vocalic quality in syllabic (cv) and (eve) signs: a-nam-dan(KAL) (ora-nam-dfn) for /anandin/ "I give" ABL 795 rev. 14; or the imperative r $a 1 -bft(BAD) "seize" in r af-kam 1 -ma qaq-qar r $a 1 -b{t "come and seize the land!" OIP 114, 91:18-19. 34 This usage partly continues developments already observed in the second millennium, but the general tendency also leads to several innovative correlates. Firstly, the vocalic quality of eve-signs can be explicitly marked through the addition of a cv or vc-sign as a phonetic complement: ta-kasas_sa-du "(before) it arrives" OIP 114, 39: 19. Secondly, both the sign sequences ((C)vccv) and ( cv-cv) can indicate a closed syllable /eve/, as in u-sadda_ba-bu for /usadbabii / "they cause to claim" (BM 118969: 22; 3P Pres S-Stem);35 i-mi-lik-us 1 for /imlikiis/ "they advised him" er 54, 520 rev. 1 (in fragmentary context); or ... gimir ki ta-ga-mu-ru te-te-ti-ri "after you incurred the expenses (of the prebend) (/tagmuru /) you paid them off (/tetetir/)" ZA 101, 139: 5· In both cases, the sequence ( cv) serves to indicate the consonant alone. 36 Though some of these writings, such as lu-sam-tJi-i-ri for /lusaml].ir/ "should I receive?" OIP 114, 92:32, might be explained by the addition of an 'echo vowel', the vocalic quality is not predictable. The u-vowel in tup-pi Eab-tu sa na-pa-$U u e-pe-su /tuppi bit abt sa napa~ u epes/ BM 118964: 1 (Frame, Musezib-Marduk, 72 Nr. 1: 1) can readily be explained as a scribal citation form. The same explanation cannot hold for sa be-U-i-nu for /sa bel:i:n/ "of our lord" OIP 114, 92: 36 or lul-ma-ad-du /lulmad/ "I would learn" OIP 114, 30: 9. 37 Conversely, vowels are sometimes not indicated in writing at all, as in ma-tJir-nu "receiver/buyer (of

34

35 36 37

Streck, Michael P. "Keilschrift und Alphabet," in Hieroglyplzen, Alplzabete, Sclzriftreformen: Studien zu Multiliteralismus, Sclzri.ftweclzsel und Orthographienneuregelung, ed. Dorte Borchers et al. (Gottingen: Seminar fiir Agyptologie und Koptologie, 2001), 77-97; cf. the older descriptions in James Philip Hyatt, The Treatment of Final Vowels in Early NeoBabylonian (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1941), 56, andj.M.C.T. de Vaan, "Ich bin eine Schwertkling e des Konigs", (Kevelaer: Butzon & Bercker, 1995), 94-96. See Frame, Archive of Musezib-Mar duk, 102, on the variant u-sad-ba-bu in the duplicate BM n8975: 22. Cf. also i-ku-nu-uk-m a /iknuk-ma/ BM n3928: 13 (dubsaq, 107 Nr.1: 13). See GAG§ 18c-d on "Sprossvokale und dgl."The rules given in Hyatt, The Treatment ofFinal

HESS

1406 the field)" for lmal].ininl TMH

2l3, 14: 4. 38 The same pattern underlies several

39

instances of broken spellings. This vocalic indifference is paired with a second general trend: the increased 40 use of morphographemic and Akkadographic writings. Suffixes or enclitics are often written with disregard to syllable structure ('broken' orthography): (a-man-gur-u) 1amangurul ( subordinative) sAA 18, sS: 4; or ( is-lim-as-su-nu-tu) lislimassuniitl OIP 114, 1: 17.41 To the same class belongs the written reduplication of consonants, such as im-mar-ru for limmarul "he sees" (3s Pres amaru + Subordinativ) CTMMA 3, 6: 7; rC-nam-din-nu for linandiniil (3p Pres) "they will give" CTMMA 3, 8: 6; or pa-qir-a-ni Frame, Musezib-Marduk, 130 Nr. 14: 20 and Jupa-qir-ra-nu Frame, Musezib-Marduk, 189 Nr. 24: 21, both for lpaqiranl

"claimant".42 A final notable feature is the use of the sign a) It Ie)Iu) to mark both long and short vowels explicitly: id-di-nu-u) ABL 1320 rev. 4 for liddiniil "they gave"; as-

bu-u) ABL 1457:9 for lasbiil; or SU-U) CT 54,319:8 for the third person pronoun.43 The use is also word-internal, including cases where an ' would be etymologically unjustified: ya)nu lyanul "there is not ... "; il-ta-a)-tu CT 54, 493: 7 /iltatul; or u-se-e)-i-du-us fiir

lusediisl ABL 281

rev. 26. 44 The usage occurs alongside

plene writings: cf. ru-gum-ma-a) Frame, Musezib-Marduk, 127 Nr. 13: 17, with

38

39 40 41 42

43 44

Vowels, 56, for "classical" usage or repetition of preceding vowels still want statistical validation. See Francis Joannes, Archives de Borsippa (Geneve: Librairie Droz, 1989), 170, and cf. mabir-an A.SA in I. 4 of the same text; but cf. the remarks in S. Zawadzki, Garments of the Gods (Fribourg: Academic Press, 2006), 167 n. 535, on the possibility of introducing (cvcv)-values for cases such as ziqu(ziG)-ra-tu 4 ; /ziqqurat/ (BM 63670:7), analogous to rama(ram )-ni-ia in CT 54, 243: 5· See examples in Woodington, "Grammar," 21. On the term see I.J. Gelb, "A Note on Morphographemics,'' in Melanges Marcel Cohen, ed. D. Cohen (Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, 1970 ), 73-77. Woodington, "Grammar," 17: "In root-final position, a broken writing is the sign for morpheme boundary, and in many cases also for length ... " The explanation as morphographemic spelling seems at present preferable to the suggestion in N.J.C. Kouwenberg, The Akkadian Verb and its Semitic Background (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2010 ), 221, to interpret the graphic gemination as indicative of "a shift of stress one syllable to the right ... " (cf. GAG § 83d). The presence in texts outside the correspondence with Assyria contradicts the interpretation in de Vaan, "!eh bin eine Schwertklinge des Konigs", 108 as necessary Assyrianisms. Woodington, "Grammar," 15. GAG§ 7e; additional examples in Woodington, "Grammar," 15. See Michael P. Streck, "Babylonian and Assyrian," in The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, ed. Stefan Weninger et al. (Berlin-Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011 ), 384; Kouwenberg, Tlze Akkadian Verb, 570.

(EARLY) NEO-BABYLONIA N

1407

variant ru-gum-ma-a in the duplicate AO 10318: 17 or with ru-gum-ma-a Frame, Musezib-Marduk, 122 Nr. 12: 16, all for rugumma. 5.2

Phonetics

The phonetics of NB are difficult to pinpoint with any precision. NB largely retains the phonemic inventory of twenty consonants from OB and MB. A major exception is the loss of phonemic /w/, following the MB loss of initial /w/ and the change of intervocalic /w/ to /m/. (m)-signs were used to write the bilabial voiced fricative /w/, including foreign names, as in E-A-muk-a-nu ABL 1135: 8 for Aramaic )wkn (KAI 233= 5). 45 Conversely, Aramaic (w) is used to represent historical Akkadian /m/, as in Swdn for the personal name Sum-iddin in the same text (KAI 233: 21 ). The same use may underlie the orthography su-ma-atu4 (alongside the logographic rebus-writing Mumes) for the pronoun swit(u) in [ina] kanak kangi su-ma-a-tu 4 "at the sealing of this tablet" BM n8g64: 25 (Frame, Musezib-Marduk, 73: 25). The writings suggest that /m/ and /w/ represented allophanic variants, though it is difficult to generalize a widespread loss of phonetic /m/. 46 Following the deaffrication of sibilants by the end of the second millennium, NB most clearly conforms to the evidence for (s) as If/ and (s) as (non-affricate) /s/. 4 7 This interpretation is supported by external evidence as well, including cuneiform writings of West Semitic names and West Semitic transcriptions of

45

46

47

GAG § 21d. See the overview of forms in R. Zadok, "Onomastics," 269; K. Lawson Younger, A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities (Atlanta: SBL Press, 2016), 676. See also su-ma-a-ti BM 118968:30 (Frame, Musezib-Marduk, 120:30 ). A similar form may underlie the erasure in su-( (x-) )a-ti BM 118984: 22 (Frame, MusezibMarduk, n6: 22): according to the copy, the erased sign may have begun with two horizontals. See the attestations for the formula listed in David I. Owen and Kazuko Watanabe, "Eine neubabylonische Gartenkaufurkund e mit Fliichen aus dem Akzessionsjahr Asarhaddons," Oriens Antiquus 22 (1983): 44-47. For later spellings of II-in£ verbs with (ma) (wa 6 ) see Kathleen Abraham and Michael Sokoloff, "Aramaic Loanwords in Akkadian," Arclzivfor Orientforschung 52 (2011 ): 37 n. 293. On the forms in the Assur Ostracon KAI 233, see most recently Frederick Mario Fales, "New Light on Assyro-Aramaic Interference," 194 n. 28; further examples, mostly from later texts, are collected in Streck, "Late Babylonian in Aramaic Epigraphs," 182-83. C£ already the Middle Babylonian da-a u sar-ka for /dama u sarka/ "blood and pus" AOAT 51,422 MS 6 ii' 5'· Arguments based on the later Graeco-Babyloniaca (e.g. LC(U(X~ for Samas or Na~o[ u]ptuav for Nabu-remanni) are presented in Ebbe Egede Knudsen, "Akkadian in Greek Orthography," Orientalia Suecana 38-39 (1989-1990 ): 71-80. Simo Parpola, "The Alleged Middle/Neo-Assyrian Irregular Verb *na~~ and the Assyrian Sound Change S > S," Assur 1 (1974 ): 4 n. 13; cf. Cole, Governor's Archive, w, on occasional variation of (s) for (s).

HESS

1408

Akkadian names from the same period. 48 Possible evidence for the spirantization of (unvoiced) stops is rare and largely ambiguous: he-el pa-bas for bel 111 pabat OIP 114, 11g: 5 (equated to Sumerian en.nam); man-de-rsc in the loanword mandetu oiP 114, 72: 16. There is no evidence to support a generalized 49 spirantization analogous to (later) Northwest Semitic. Indirect, phonological evidence might hesitantly be drawn for a pharyngealized realization of the emphatic consonants$, t, and q (~). 50 Even if sporadic writings such as iq-[t]ibi SAA1g, 138 rev. 2 (Dummuqu/Cu tha, writing to Tiglath-pileser 111) are classed as Assyrianisms, they contradict the historical incompatibility of two emphatic consonants within a root seen as evidence for ejectives and suggest the extension of the feature across segments.

Phonology 5·3 groups evince both historical and innovative orthographies side by text Most side: sa-fim-ti (ABL 6g8: g) beside sa-fim-di (with mt > md) ( CT 54, 12 rev. 15) and sa-fi-in-du (ABL 747 rev. 8); similarly is-ta-kan (ABL 137: 7) alongside as-tu51 ru (CT 54,186: g) and il-ta-kan (ABL 1455 rev.11) and al-tu-ru (ABL 530: 11). As a general trend, however, NB continues a number of phonological traits from MB. Partial assimilation is attested in the shift /mt/ > /md/ > /nd/, as in in-da-barsu-nu-ti /indal].arsuniit/ SAA 18, 158: 18; in-da-bar OIP 114, 57: 23 (both maoaru "to receive"); si-in-di-su /sindiSu/ SAA17, 83 rev. 3 (from simtu "fate"). The partial, regressive assimilation of /st/ >/It/ is a regular feature, as in al-tap-ra /altapra/ "I sent" OIP 114, 3g: 21 or mal-ta-ru /mal tar/ "text, writing" SAA 18, 17g: 4· Exceptions are rare, and often confined to regular writings of particular words, as 52 in me-res-ti for merestu "consignment" (OIP 114, 3g: 7). The partial, regressive assimilation of /m/ > /n/ before sibilants is also regular, as in (te-en-sa) /tensa/

48

49

so

51

52

See the summary discussion in Leonid Kogan, "Proto-Semitic Phonetics and Phonology," in The Semitic Languages, ed. Stefan Weninger et al. (Berlin-Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011), 77; cf. the Aramaic writings in Streck, "Late Babylonian in Cuneiform Orthography," 184-85. The comparison is anachronistic; see Holger Gzella, "Imperial Aramaic," in The Semitic Languages; An International Handbook, ed. Stefan Weninger et al. (Berlin-Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011), s8o, on the dating of spirantization of bgdkpt-consonant s in Ara-

maic. But cf. Michael P. Streck, "Akkadian and Aramaic Language Contact," in The Semitic Languages, ed. Stefan Weninger et al. (Berlin-Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011), 420, on the dissimilation of emphatics in loanwords. Woodington, "Grammar," 13f. Patterns within distinct text groups are often more regular: see the forms listed in de Vaan, "!eh bin eine Schwertklinge des Konigs", 94-gG, from the letters of Bel-ibni. See the attestations in Cole, Governor's Archive, 342, all written with the eve-sign res.

(EARLY) NEO-BABYLONIAN

1409

"report about it" (from temu "report") SAA 17, ll5: 13, as is the partial, regressive assimilation of voiceless to preceding voiced stops or liquids: t(~-en-rga, it sulum-rga, "your news or your greeting" OIP ll4, 104:6-7 (older*temka usufumka); ra-man-gu "yourself" OIP n4, 106: 14 (/ramang/?). The homorganic dissimilation of voiced, geminate stops (/mb/ < /bb/; /nd/ < /dd/; /ng/ < /gg/) is regular as well: im-be-e-ma "he named" ZA 101, 133: n; a-nam-din "I will give" SAA 18, 76 rev. 8 (/anandin/); i-man-gur-ma "he receives" /imangur-ma/ SAA 18,56: n. Other features from MB are only sporadically attested or starkly regressive. Most notable is the lack of consistent e-coloring in D- and S-stems, i.e. partial raising of /a/ vowels before /i/ in the following syllable: u-mas-sir /umassir/ OIP ll4, 16: 5; [u-sak-sid /lusaksid/ SAA17, go: 7; ruq,-ta-at-tu-r U1 OIP ll4, g3: 15 (3p Perf D-Stem). 53 Even if many examples pertain to potentially uncertain vowel quality in (eve )-writings, direct evidence for e-coloring is rare: r tu 1-Un-des-r siru1 OIP ll4, 23: 34; u-!Je-ep-pe SAA 17, 102: 4· At the same time, NB witnesses an extension of e-coloring to verbs such as meselu "to equal", seme!Ju "to mix, join", lebenu "to prostrate", or ne!Jesu "to go, come back", as in ta-ne-e!J-!Ji-is-m[ a] OIP n4, 1g: 5· The same extension might also explain rarer forms such as be-suu (sAA 17, 22 rev. 12) alongside basu (ABL g47 rev. 4) or $e-el-ti (sAA 17, 63: g) alongside $alti (ABL 1380: 13). 54 Isolated examples also attest to the alternation of a and u in the vicinity of the liquids /r/ and /1/ and to a change from /r/ to /s/ before the unvoiced stops /t/ and /k/: as-ta-kas "I bound" from* /artakas/ ABL 1387 rev. 13. 55 Both changes are still largely unexplained.

6

Morphology

One of the most prominent features of NB is the general apocope of short, final vowels. Following the M B loss of mimation and nunation, this loss affects, to varying degrees, the morphology of the NB case system, endings of the enclitic and independent pronouns, the morphology of 111-weak verbs, and, more rarely, the subordinative ending -u, and the ventive.

53 54

55

See the most recent discussion in Kouwenberg, Akkadian Verb, 534-37. Combined, the two sets seem to support the interpretation of e-coloring in the D- and Sstems as a morphosyntactic rather than strictly phonological process, argued in Kouwenberg, The Akkadian Verb, 529 and 535· Cole, Govemor's Archive, w; Streck, "Late Babylonian in Aramaic Epigraphs," 185 sub 5·

-HESS

1410

Nominal Morphology The complete loss of mimatio n and nunation and the apocope of final short vowels also lead to a re-structuring of the case system. Case in the singular 56 status rectus is no longer morphologically marked. In the plural, the masc. nom. ending -u is largely replaced by the oblique -i, -anu by -ani; the -ut- plural of adjectives collapses to -uti, the fern. pl. -atu and -ati to -ati. The development of contracte d vowels is more ambiguous, as apocope also begins to affect ending of the long vowels. The £-ending of the nom./obl. pl., the contracte d nom./acc. sg., and the contracted-£- ending of the gen. sg./obl. pl. are more regularly, but not always, retained, as in Iukf-zu-zimes sa Btt-Dakkuri "the grooms of

6.1

-u-

57 Bit-Dakkiiri" SAA 17, 22:14. In writing, loss of case endings collides with both orthogra phic attempts at historicizing case marking and the inability of the still fundamentally syllabic script to indicate particular syllable structures. Nouns in the singular can be written without indication of a final vowel, as in the nominative e-muq (!emiiq/) sa Bit-Yakin SAA 17, 22: 12. In stems ending in a single final consonant, the resulting form is relatively straightforward. More problem atic are nominal stems in which the complete loss of case would result in a final consonant cluster. The loss of case in feminine nouns such as sipirtu, for example, could potentially result in either /sipirt/ or /sipirta/ as an intermed iate form, with 58 ultra-short vowel ambiguously expressed in writing. One hypothetical, but by no means certain, reconstruction suggests that nouns ending in a geminate stem either reduce the gemination or add an ultra-sho rt vowel dul(la) (< dullu ), stems ending in a final consonan t + the feminine suffix -t yield a final consonant cluster (sipirt < sipirtu), while monosyllabic stems ending in two final

56

57

58

See the overview in Streck, "Babylonian and Assyrian," 385; Michael P. Streck, "Die Kasusflexion im Status rectus des Neu- und Spatbabylo nischen," in Babylonien und seine Nach75· bam in neu- und spiitbabylonischer Zeit: Wissenscha.ftliches Kolloquium aus Anlass des al. et Krebernik Manfred ed. 2007, Miirz 3· und 2. a, ]en Geburtstag s van ]oachim Oelsner, 247-88. 2014), ag, (Munster: Ugarit-Verl On conservative retention of case endings with I I I-weak roots Martin Worthingto n, "i-baEast, as-su-u vs. i-ba-as-su from Old to Neo-Babylonian," in Languages in the Ancient Near of examples early Clear ed. Leonid Kogan et al. (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2010 ), 6gs-g6. Language Aramaic and "Akkadian the Aramaic plural-rya (< -aY.Ya) are lacking: cf. Streck, Contact," 420; Abraham and Sokoloff, "Aramaic Loanwords in Akkadian," 32 n. 18g. See already the remarks injussi Aro, "Der Abfall der kurzen Auslautvok ale im Spatbabylonischen und seine Einwirkung auf die Formenlehre," Studia Orientalia 46 (1975): u-zo, and summarize d in Jursa, Neo-Babylonian Legal and Administra tive Documents , 3 n. 15, Zeitschrift nischen," Johannes Hackl, "Zur Funktion von (i)binna im Neu- und Spatbabylo "Babyfor Assyriologie 102 (2012 ): 109-10. A possible reconstruc tion is suggested in Streck, lonian and Assyrian," 385.

(EARLY) NEO-BABYLONIAN

TABLE 23.1

Sg.

PI.

3m 3f 2m 2f 1C 3m 3f 2m 2f 1C

1411

Overview of enclitic pronouns in Neo-Babylonian

Genitive

Accusative

-su -sa, -si -ka, -ku -ki -i, -ya (-aya) -sunu -sina, -sini -kunu, -kuni

-su, -s -si -ka -ki -anni/u, -inni, -ni -sunutu/ i, -sunu -sinati -kunusi/u

---

---

---

-ni, -nu, -na

-nasu/i/a, -nsi

-annasu/i

Dative

-assu, -nissu ---

-akka, -nikka ---a, -ni -assunutu/i, -nissunutu/a ---

-akkunusi/u

consonants insert a vowel identical with the first, as in sirik ( < sirku) or sulum (< sulmu ). In the latter case, the historical status rectus and the status constructus forms would coincide. 6.2 Pronouns Changes in the case system coincide with a re-analysis of the pronominal system, in part affected by the same apocope of short vowels, but also by a reanalysis of etymological accusatives as dative forms attached to the ventive as a linking morpheme (see Table 23.1). 59 The 3sm ace. -su contrasts with 3sm dat. -assu, as 3pm ace. -sunutu/i contrasts with 3pm dative -assunutu/i: lu-se-bi-lakka "I would send it to you" OIP 114, 2:34 (/lusebilakk(a)/). Exceptions are forms of 1c, where -annasu/ i and -nasu/ i are both used indiscriminately. Writings of individual enclitic pronouns may again be Akkadographic, with (su)/(su), for example, used as a standard writing for the enclitic pronoun of the 3sm, irrespective of phonetic form. By analogy, the enclitic pronoun of the 1sc gen. -i is partially replaced by a form -aya or -aya, as in be-la-a "my lord" SAA 10,179:3 (/belaya/). 60 The form -ya is also extended by analogy to singular

59 6o

Kouwenberg, The Akkadian Verb, 238-40. Woodington, "Grammar," 32; Streck, "Babylonian and Assyrian," 386. The same linking vowel seems to underlie a form -iin(i) for the 1p, though possible attestations are rare: [... ] EN-a-ni La i-sak-kan "may our lord not place" eT 54,554 rev. s, with anaptyctic vowel (/belan la iSakkan/?). Vowels are more often preserved in the construct state before enclitic pronouns; see Aro, "Der Abfall der kurzen Auslautvokale," 13, based on later material.

HE ss

1412

forms of abu "father" and a!Ju "brother", that is, abuya and a!Juya instead of abi "my father" and a!Ji"my brother". 61 Etymologically unmotivated variation in the orthography of the final vowel, as in -ku or -ka for the gen. 2sm, suggests a loss of the final vowel only partly reflected in writing, as in ra-m[ an ]-gu "yourself" OIP 114,30:22 (lramiing /?).The same applies to the enclitic genitive 1cp -ni, written either -ni, -nu, or -na, which suggests a development to an underlying form -n, as in SEsmes_u-nu "our brothers" OIP 114, 1: 16 for /al)l)iin/ or sEs-u-nu at-ta "our brother" ZA 101, 139: 4 for /al)iin/. Only the apocopated form of the ace. 3sm is regularly shortened also in writing: ki-i ib-ba-ku-us "since he is leading him away" /ki ibbakus/ OIP 114,86: g; orLUGAL ik-te-lis "my lord detained him" /sarr1 iktelis/ OIP 114,20:30. The loss may also explain several examples for the apparent use of feminine forms for masculine and vice versa: be-[{ lis-pu-ras-si "let my lord send him to me" OIP 114, 16:9 (llispurass/?); or lu-uk-li-si "I would detain him" OIP 114, 16:11 (lluklis/). Independent and anaphoric pronouns mostly continue older forms. The nom. 3sm is usually written with a plene vowel Or ': SU-U) CT 54, 319, 8 or SUU BM 118983:10 (Frame, Musezib-Marduk, 168:10 ). The most important change is the development of the form for the 1c. 62 Early letters use the form ninu/i (/n1n/): ni-l-nu OIP 114, 18: 7; ni-i-ni OIP 114, 103: 26. Letters from the end of the eighth century onwards increasingly use the suppletive anini (lan1n/?), which eventually supplants the earlier form almost entirely: a-ni-ni SAA 17, 75:13. Proximal ("this") and distal ("that") deixis are indicated by the pronouns annu and ullu: tuppiinu annutu "these tablets" 0 I P 114, 71: 11; ulluti ki ismu after those (others) heard (it)" SAA 17, 21:18. However, annu is increasingly replaced by the particle aga, for the most part indeclinable: ultu mu!J!Ji ilmu aga "from this day" OIP 114,59:22. Feminine forms are rare: !Jarriinu agat "this campaign" ABL 539 rev. s. The combination of aga and annu also yields the declined form agannu, with the same meaning: $iibi agannut[ u] "these troops" SAA 17, 156 rev. 4· A similar compound is found in the development of the adverb a!Julla "on the other side" (ana a!Julla SAA 17, 156 rev. 16; from a!Ju and ullu ), akanna "now, here" (SAA 17, 1: 6; likely aki and an nu), or akannaka ~~here" (SAA 17, 1: 7 ). 63 Exam44

61 62

GAG§ 65i. The form is discussed in detail in Paul-Alain Beaulieu, "Aspects of Aramaic and Babylonian Linguistic Interaction in First Millennium BC Iraq," journal of Language Contact 6

(2013): 364. 63

Michael P. Streck, "Innovations in the Neo-Babylonian Lexicon," in Languages in the Ancient Near East, ed. Leonid Kogan et al. (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2010 ), 648, suggests a derivation from Aramaic hak and Akkadian annu, but see the remarks in Abraham and Sokoloff, "Aramaic Loanwords in Akkadian," 25, who note that the attestation in the second millennium likely precludes an Aramaic etymolo6ry.

(EARLY) NEO-BABYLONIA N

1413

pies for the anaphoric pronouns suatu/i are rare and again largely confined to formulaic expressions: ina kanak kangi suati ''at the sealing of this document" JCS 62, 97: 17; or nominative(!) btt suati ul nadin-ma "this house has not been sold (given)" Frame, Musezib-Marduk, 73 Nr. 1: 23. The use of the possessive pronoun attu- continues MB usage, with the addition of an enclitic pronoun to indicate person, gender, and number: ... f;abitani at-tu-ka tamkar mar Babil "the marauders are yours, the merchant is a citizen of Babylon" o JP 114, 28: - ; 7 9 at-tu-ku sunu "they are yours" OIP 114,35:8. 6.3 Verbal Morphology The basic morphology of the NB verb continues older forms. While prefixes and long vowels in the suffixes remain stable, the apocope of short final vowels also affects individual endings. The writing -nu instead of -ni for the ventive suggests again an underlying form -n: ma-la if;-tab-tu-nu "as many as they have taken captive" /mala il].tabtiin/ OIP 114, 19: 11. 64 Similarly, the final vowel in the ending -aku for the 1sc stative often remains unexpressed: f;ab-tak /l].abtak/ "I was robbed" OIP 114, 35: 12. 65 At least in earlier letters, however, the subordinative -u is often indicated in writing. 66 A prominent change in the basic conjugation is the frequent use of the prefix ta- alongside MB i- for the 3sf in the prefix conjugations, as in Neo-Assyrian: esttu ina biritenu la tassakkin "let no trouble arise between us" o I P 114, 75: 29-30; mati tassal;f;al"the land will be pierced through" ABL 1106: 23; ... alakti ana panisunu ul tallak "no one will come to them" SAA 18, 175 rev. 13-14. Counter-examp les with older £-prefix are found as well, as in the omen report of Bel-usezib: mat lemnu anna izabbil"the land will bear this evil" SAA 10,132: 8. 67 Two processes of leveling also affect the prefixes of the prefix conjugations of e-verbs in the G-stem and of the precative-prefix in the D- and S-stem. In the first case, e-verbs generally show an /a/-vowel in the prefix for the 2sm and fern. and in the 1sc: ta-p[ et-te] for tapette (instead of tepette) "you will open" OIP 114, 39:9-18; and ki-i as-mu_ru, for ki asmu (instead of esmu) "as I heard" OIP 114, 29:5 and 83:8. In the second case, the precative of the third person in the D- and S-stem appears as lu- instead of li-: DUMumes msak-nu be-[[ lu-ba-a,-i-ma "may 64 65 66

67

Kouwenberg, The Akkadian Verb, 233; Woodington, "Grammar," 109 f. Cf. the form rma&-rak, in the list of verb forms in the exercise tablet OIP 114, n8 i 39', 1sc stative /mal)rak/. Early attestations for the loss of the subordinative in the Nippur letters are gathered in Worthington, "i-ba-as-su-u vs. i-ba-as-su," 68s-86; cf. Hackl, "Zur Sprachsituation," 229 n. 68, for an interpretation as orthographic convention. Woodington, "Grammar," 263, explains the form by "contamination of gender from the object", but see below.

HESS

1414

my lord search for the sons of Saknu" OIP 114, 5: 15 (/mar! Saknu beliluba"ima/); Lu-sak-sid-du for /lusaksidu / "they shall let arrive" eT 54, 62 Vs. 11. Weak Verbs 6.3.1 More generalized features of weak verbs include the regular forms in verbs 1-w without vowel syncope: lusibil "they shall sit" SAA 18, 28 rev. 6; ilridilni "(after) they went down" SAA 18, 202:10 (from asiibu "sit" and aradu "go down, descend", respectively).68 The loss of final vowels also affects the 111-weak verbs. Variant writings suggest that the final root vowel seems to be lost in final position, as in al-te-mu for /altem/ "I heard" OIP 114, 14: 4, though it is regularly retained preceding an additional enclitic, as in lu-us-me-e-ma /lusme-ma / SAA 17, 53 rev. 22

1 •

The verb nadanu "to give" in particular develops a new paradigm in NB. While the verb for the most part inflects as in older periods, several new forms appear. 69 The assimilation of /d/ with following /n/ to /nn/ yields the imperative /inna/ alongside older /idna/ and the perfect ittannil for older ittadnil: it-tan-nu "they gave" OIP 114, 41: 13; at-tan-na- si OIP 114, 109: 12; in1 na-a "give!" SAA 10, 180: 14; but rid -na-ni or idnani ''give me" OIP 114, 56: 22. Present tense forms with enclitic pronouns also increasingly syncopate the 1 /in/ in the last root syllable: ul i-nam-din-as_r SU for /inandinas su/ "he will not give to him" OIP 114,89: 17; but ta-nam-da-as-su for /tanandas su/ "you will give to him" OIP 114, 86: 27. Most remarkable is the developm ent of a new suppletive form for the imperative, (i)binna, alongside inna: bi-na-a-nu "give me" OIP 114, 8:11 (lbinnan/? ); bi-in-na-an-na-su-ma "give us (silver)" ZA 101, 139: 6 70 (BM 113929: 6; /binnanmH u-ma/). A derivation from the Akkadian imperative inna and a shortened form of the Aramaic imperative *(h)ib (fromyhb) is plausible. Derived Stems 6.3.2 A major characteristic of the verbal paradigm is the sharp reduction in derived stems, including the D-, S-, and N-stems. 71 Both the Gt-stem in passive or reciprocal function and the Dt- and St-stems disappear almost completel y and are

68 6g 70

71

Kouwenberg, The Akkadian Verb, 451-52. See GAG§ 102h-l; Woodington, "Grammar," 124-26. Etymology and meaning are discussed in Abraham and Sokoloff, "Aramaic Loanwords in Akkadian," 36 No. g6, and Hackl, "Zur Funktion von (i)binna im Neu- und Spatbabylonischen," 100-14. Kouwenberg, The Akkadian Verb, 293; see Woodington , "Grammar," 81 for a rough statistic.

{EARLY) NEO-BABYLONIAN

1415

largely replaced by adverbials such as (ana) avamis "together": ... ultu ... ana avamis nilliku "after ... we went together" OIP 114, 12: 7-13.72 Exceptions are rare, and mostly confined to a limited, lexicalized set of verbs such as Dt to pabaru "to be assembled" or Dt eseru "to be confined". 73 The decline also affects iterative stems (Gtn, Dtn, Stn, Ntn ), of which only the present tense regularly remains in (partial) use: see ltanappal "he will repay (twelvefold)" as part of the legal formula in Frame, Musezib-Marduk, 73 Nr.1: 24. 74 The same applies to lexicalized nominal forms of derived stems, such as muntalku "counselor" ABL 1286 rev. w; multabtu "survivor" (ABL 1342: g); situltu "deliberation" (ABL 138 7: w ); and pi/utqudu (ABL 521: 26).

7

Morphosyntax

The description of morphosyntactic characteristics of NB can focus on two features: the proleptic genitive construction and patterns of expression for tense, aspect, and mood. 7.1 Genitive Construction Despite the loss of case endings, both the synthetic genitive construction with construct state and the analytic construction with the relative particle sa remain in use. Asyndetic relative clauses following a construct state are also rarely attested, mostly in formulaic passages oflegal texts: ... kasap imburu "(he will repay twelvefold) the silver which he received" Frame, Musezib-Marduk, go: 26. From the analytic genitive, NB also derives a proleptic construction with an anticipatory enclitic pronoun: PN1 marsu sa PN2 : Bel-etir marsu sa lba SAA 18, 180 rev.13'-14'. 75 Though the construction is characteristic of NB, its use is sharply restricted, confined almost entirely to filiations.

72

73 74 75

Cf. Kouwenberg, The Akkadian Verb, 366, on Late Babylonian a-ba-mes il-te-te-mu-u "they listen to one another" RA 25, 58 Nr. 8, 7, with pleonastic adverb; cf. Woodington, "Grammar," n4f. for further examples with frozen verbal nouns. Kouwenberg, The Akkadian Verb, 385. Kouwenberg, TlzeAkkadian Verb, 255. The construction is attested continuously since at least the !sin II period: S£n-kabti-iliini miirsu sa Samas-sumu-lesir in AOAT SI, s88 MSZ 3 ii l-2 (= BBSt 12 ii l-2); cf. already GAG § 138j on possible OB examples (Mari).

HESS

1416

Tense, Aspect, and Mood The use of the present tense iparras in NB largely conforms with that of older dialects.76 The past tense is mostly expressed through the perfect iptaras in declarative main clauses. The earlier preterite iprus remains the main tense for past action in subordinate clauses and in negated main clauses: ... dibbima!Jrnti 7.2

... sarru u[ isme "the king has not heard the earlier reports ... " SAA 17, 22: 7-8; ulluti ki ismu ana kutalli itte!Jsu "after the others heard it (ismu, 3pm Pret), they withdrew (ittelzsu, 3pm Perf)"; alz!Junu asar illiku ul islimassunutu "Wherever our brothers went (illiku, 3pm Pret ), things did not go well for them (ul islim, 77 NEG ul + islim 3sm Pret)" OIP 114,1: 16f. More difficult to trace is early evidence for modal uses of the preterite in main clauses. One possible example may be found in a legal text dated to the 18th year of Ashurbanipa l: binnannasu-ma ni-ku[Lu give us (silver) so that we may eat" ZA 101, 139: 6, perhaps /binnannasuma nikul/. The stative continues to be unmarked for tense. The use of predicate adjectives in the nominative is also common: lzassi u putqudu atta llyou are wise and circumspect" eT 54, 22 rev. 40. 78 Nominal statives are relatively rare: see 11

muskeneku 1 am a commoner" ABL 1059: 6. 11

8

Syntax

Throughout the period, basic, unmarked word order remains predominantly Subject-Obj ect-Verb in both declarative main sentences and in relative clauses, with prepositional phrases preceding verbs from the eighth to the third centuries BCE.79 The syntax of complex clauses is heavily affected by the grammaticalizati on and functional extension of several subordinatin g conjunctions, most notably kt When, because, since", but also adi Until" (and adi la), assa llbecause", and ultu Since, after". In addition, NB develops or reinforces anumber of compound conjunctions, developed from a combination of prepositions or prepositiona l phrases and the relative particle sa, including temporal ki 80 sa llwhen, as" and um(u) sa "when" or causal adi mulzlzi sa because". The 11

11

11

11

76 77

78

79 So

A detailed study of the verbal system of later texts is presented in Michael P. Streck, Zalzl und Zeit (Groningen: Styx Publications, 1995). Exceptions to these patterns are found in the formulaic language of administrative documents, which partly continue to use the preterite iprus in main clauses; see the summary in Kouwenberg, The Akkadian Verb, 154. Kouwenberg, TheAkkadian Verb, 166-67 with n. 21. Hackl, "Zur Sprachsituation," 214. See the brief overview in Woodington, "Grammar," 272-73. The syntax oflater letters is ana-

(EARLY) NEO-BABYLONIAN

1417

extended use of particles to introduce subordinate clauses leads to the abandonment of several older constructions, including infinitive constructions in similar function. 81 8.1

Subordinate Clauses

The particle ki gradually replaces older inuma "when" and kima "as, like" in numerous functions: ... ki kurummatu ibassu gabbi asemmu-ma ... "When provisions become available, I will hear all ... " OIP 114, 97: 25-27; 82 ki anniti sarru itepsusarru liqbi "When the king has done (this), may the king say ... " SAA17,22 rev. 17-18; adi mul;l;i min£ ki altanapparakkam-ma la tasemmanu "Why, whenever I write to you, do you not listen to me?" OIP 114,11:4-6. The construction with the relative particle (ki sa) is more rarely attested: Assur-bel-taqqin ki sa ismu "When Assur-bel-taqqin heard (this)" SAA 18, 170 rev. 4· The particle ki also replaces summa to mark conditionals: ki ... marsu sa Zabini sip at igzuzu "if the son of Zahinu has shorn the wool" OIP 114, 46:10-12. Conditional clauses introduced by summa, written DIS, are rare, and limited almost entirely to omens quoted in reports of scholars to the king: summa (DIS) misf;u sutu iskun iskunma "if a flash appears and appears (again) in the south ... " SAA 10, 111: 5· In contrast to this general function of ki as a subordinator, other subordinating conjunctions are more specific. Both adi and ultu, and their derivatives, are strictly temporal, indicating action subsequent to (adi) and prior or simultaneous to (ultu) the main clause, respectively: adi la emuq illakuni "as long as the forces do not arrive" SAA 17,22 rev. 2; ... ultu itbamma ultuBabil inqutu ''after he left and fell away from Babylon" SAA 18,183 rev. s'-6'. 8.2 Object Clauses Already in the early texts, the functional expansion of ki to that of a general subordinator includes its use to mark object clauses: sarru beliul ide kiuqnu iluni "Does the king, my lord, not know that the lapis lazuli has arrived?" ABL 1240: 18'. More rarely, the relative particle sa serves in the same function: sarru ide sa lu ma'da mar$ak "The king knows, that I am very sick" ABL 327: 5· Related to this is the bleaching of the particle umma from a quotative particle, introducing direct speech, to a complementizer, with a shift in deixis from the speaker to the hearer: altem umma $abeya sa l;alqu [al; ]uya iptatarsunutu "I have heard

81 82

lyzed inJ ohannes Hackl, Der subordinierte Satz in den spiitbabylonischen Briefen (Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2007). Guy Deutscher, Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000 ), 103. See Deutscher, Syntactic Change, no.

HESS

1418

that my brother has released the people of mine who had been lost" OIP 114, 24: u-13 . With verbs of saying or speaking, this latter constructi on partly replaces 83 the constn1ction with kf or kfma.

The Neo-Baby lonian Lexicon

g

84 The number of certain loanwords from Aramaic in Early NB is small. More common are developm ents within the Akkadian lexicon itself, which procede along several lines. Semantic narrowing leads to the replaceme nt of older fibu "witness" with mukinnu (1 11 mu-kin-nu CTMMA 3, s: 4); older sinnistu "woman" with amlltu; or the shift of qallu "small; of low standing" to mean "slave" (alongside older ardu); eteru "to pay" (older "to save"); and nasu "to take" (older "to lift"). Widening can be observed in the developm ent of dullu "effort, labor" to the more general meaning "labor, work", replacing older sipru "work", and the uncommo n use of tanidu "send", largely replaced by either saparu or silbulu (abalu S). A prominen t example of semantic bleaching can be observed already in the earlier texts in the adjective babbanu ''good". Formally a partially reduplicated form of banu "good" with comparati ve meaning, babbanu comes to replace the original form: argamannu babbanu "good (quality) purple wool" 0 I P 114, 1:

10

38-39.

Sociolingu istics and Variation

Despite inconsistencies in orthography and the diversity of material available, it is possible to sketch at least roughly several patterns of variation both within 85 Considering the NB and in its relationsh ip to other languages and varieties. on-going debate on the degree of Aramaic influence and the changing status of NB as a spoken language in Babylonia during the first millennium, it

S3 S4

Ss

Deutscher, Syntactic Change, S2-S4 and uS. See the overview in Streck, "Innovations in the Neo-Babylonian Lexicon," 647-60, and Streck, "Akkadisch," 6S; cf. the re-evaluation of Aramaic loanwords in Abraham and Sokoloff, "Aramaic Loanwords in Akkadian," 22-76, on which, see below. Woodington, "Grammar," 2, explicitly understands the language of the Nineveh letters as "High Neo-Babylonian", distinct from spoken NB. As noted by Frederick Mario Fales, "Idiolects and Identities in the Neo-Assyrian Epistolary Corpus," in Official Epistolography and the Language(s) of Power, ed. Stefan Prochazka et al. (Wien: Verlag der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaf ten, 2015), 91-gg, the language of letters does not even necessarily reflect the language of the sender, but of the scribe or scribes employed.

(EARLY) NEO-BABYLONIAN

1419

seems preferable to focus on patterns of language use rather than on presumed primary spoken languages. This view suggests a range of intermediate varieties instead of a sharp distinction between high and low. Two bilingual relationships stand at both ends of the scale. 86 At one end, traditional Sumerian remains in use within the confines of scribal bilingualism as a language of cuitic practice and scribal education: Sumerian monumental inscriptions, mostly formulaic, are attested up to the reign of Assur-etel-ilani (RIMB B.6.35. 4 ). At the other end of the scale is West Semitic, mostly Aramaic, directly attested in the period only in a few inscriptions and in personal names. There is little evidence in Early NB for bilingual, intentional code-switching as opposed to isolated interference. 87 Since the Late Bronze Age, Babylonian dialects were also supplemented by Standard Babylonian (s B) as a native or endoglossic, non-vernacular register of literary texts. The relationship with NB is comparable to an unstable diglossia in which SB functions as a transmitted prestige variety. Closely related are two types of admixture in the NB letters. The first is the use of archaic or archaizing forms, partly derived from SB, particularly in letters written by scholars or educated professionals. The second is the use of Assyrianisms in the Babylonian correspondence with the Neo-Assyrian court. Assyrianisms and Archaizing Baby Ionian The regular correspondence with the Assyrian court, the presence of Assyrian scribes and scholars in Babylonia, and the installation of loyal officials all underpin the occasional use of Assyrian forms in otherwise NB letters. 88 Assyrian influence can be seen in the introductory formulas of several letters (SAA 17, 73; SAA 17, go), in the use of idiomatic phrases such as piitu nasu tO take responsibility" (e.g. SAA 17, 93: 13; SAA 18, 86 rev. 18-1g), as well as in individual words 10.1

11

86

87

88

See Hackl, "Zur Sprachsituation," 224, for an application of (bilingual) diglossia to Babylonian (as High Variety) and Aramaic (as Low Variety); a sketch of the languages and varieties used in Babylonia in the first millennium is also given in Rocio Da Riva, "Assyrians and Assyrian Influence in Babylonia," in From Source to History, ed. Salvatore Gaspa et al. (Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2014), 113-14. On the problem of the spread of Aramaic literary traditions, developed as a parallel prestige variety, see the summary in Gzella, A Cultural History ofAramaic, 153. See Jursa, "Ein Beamter flucht auf Aramaisch," 380, and Hackl, "Zur Sprachsituation," 222, for later examples of code-switching between Babylonian and Aramaic. See the analysis in Martin Worthington, "Dialect Admixture of Babylonian and Assyrian in SAA VII 1, x, XII, XVII, and XVIII," Iraq 68 ( 2006 ): 59-84. A summary of Assyrian influence in later inscriptions is given in Da Riva, "Assyrians and Assyrian Influence in Babylonia," 99-125.

HESS

1420

and forms. Common are the use of the prepositio nal phrase in a mufJfJi "regarding, concerning" instead of the NB prepositio n assa/u (e.g. SAA 17, 93: 6; SAA 17, gg: rev. 7') and the Assyrian enclitic pronoun 1sc -i instead of NB ya or -aya following a genitive (e.g. SAA 17, 93 rev. s; sAA 18, 20: 4'). Several letters which cite direct quotations by the Assyrian king also use the Assyrian quotative ma instead of NB umma (e.g. SAA 18, 6o rev. 15; SAA 18, sS: g). Examples of such Assyrianisms in Babylonia n are rarer than correspon ding Babylonianisms in contempo rary Assyrian. Individual cases might be identified as Assyrian interference or as quotations from preceding, presumab ly Assyrian letters. Other forms are concentra ted in the letters of particular individual s or individual 89 scribes, where their use is highly marked for rhetorical effect. The use of archaizing forms similarly marks a shift in tone to a more formal or scholarly register. The use is most prominen t in quotation s from divinatory texts, which retain the language of the model. The occasiona l use of the prefix i- for the 3sf (instead of ta-) might be explained in this way: miit lemnu anna izabbi[ "the land will bear this evil" SAA 10, 132:8 (/mat lemen anna izabbil/). Prayers, blessings, and imprecatio ns likewise often retain older forms, such as the precative li- in the D- and S-stems instead of NB lu-: lisatrissu "may (the god Marduk) make him stretch out (his hands to his servants)" SAA 18, 24 rev. 6; sunsu (MU-su) lifJalliqu "may (the gods) destroy his name!" SAA 18,24 rev. I. The relevant forms thus often coincide with those used in literary texts. Standard Babylonia n 10.2 The language of all Akkadian literary texts from the Late Bronze Age to the end of the first millennium is generally subsumed under the term Standard Babylonian (German jungbabylonisch). 90 In the widest sense, these texts include all monumen tal inscriptions, divination texts, epics, hymns, incantatio ns, and scholarly texts, including chronicles and commenta ries. With the exception of monumen tal inscriptions, including kudurrus, the number of Babylonian literary manuscrip ts securely dated to the tenth-sev enth centuries is, however, comparati velysmall. 91 It is questionab le to what degree, if at all, SB was codified

8g

go

91

de Vaan, "!eh bin eine Schwcrtklinge des Konigs", 233, suggests that the scribe responsible for these letters be identified as an Assyrian. See the brief discussion in Christian W Hess, "Standard Babylonian," in A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Languages, ed. Rebecca Hasselbach (Hoboken: Wiley Blackwell, 2020), 473-88, with a focus on SB in the later second millennium. See the overview in Benjamin R. Foster, Akkadian Literature of the Late Period (Miin· ster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2007). The Babylonian texts from Nineveh are catalogued injeanette C. Fincke, "The Babylonian Texts ofNineveh," Arclzivfor Oricntforsch ung so (2003-2004): lll-49·

(EARLY) NEO-BABYLONIAN

1421

either in the scribal curriculum or as a result of a more or less stable transmission of standardized texts. Though a comprehensive study is so far lacking, the language displays enormous diversity both among compositions and among individual manuscripts. 92 The following section thus limits itself to a few general tendencies. Any unity in SB is defined primarily by its alterity, a contrast to contemporary NB, generated by the retention or recreation of archaic or archaizing forms. A second unifying feature within SB is often suggested in Old Babylonian as a prestigious target of emulation. 93 Many features of the phonology, morphology, and morphosyntax contrast prominently with NB. The phonology regularly shows forms with -sD- instead of -ID-. SB also not only preserves many of the older derived stem-forms from both older dialects (Gt-, St-, and Dt-stems) and older literary languages (sn-stem), but expands their use. Other archaizing forms serve as stylistic features of individual texts. Construct states in -u and the historicallocative -u(m) and terminative -is, which feature prominently in some oB literature, are attested often in the Creation Epic Enuma ells, seldom in Gilgames. Compared to OB and particularly OB literature, however, the literary languages seem to have undergone a process of koineization since the beginning of the Late Bronze Age, defined by a diffusion of features across genres and a leveling of individual forms from various stages and dialects. As in NB, the case system of the texts is generally unstable, with no distinction of short case endings in the singular and a spread of the oblique form -i in the plural: patterns vary greatly from manuscript to manuscript and composition to composition. 94 The pronominal system of literary texts largely conforms toMB and NB usage, with the historical (contracted) dative sasu (3sm independent pronoun) and sasunu (3pm) used for both direct and indirect objects. Enclitic forms were also subjected to considerable leveling in comparison with the piu-

92

93 94

A selective grammar of the royal inscriptions until the end of the Assyrian domination is presented in Peter Stein, Die mittel- und neubabylonischen Konigsinschriften his zum Ende der Assyrerherrschaft (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, zooo ); of the inscriptions of Nabonidus in Hanspeter Schaudig, Die Insclzriften Nabonids van Babylon und Kyros' des Groflen (Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2001), 81-314; see also the general overview in Rocio Da Riva, The Neo-Babylonian Royal Inscriptions: An Introduction (Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, zooS), 76-g1. Brigitte R.M. Groneberg, Syntax, Morplwlogie und Stil derjungbabylonischen "hymnischen" Literatur (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1987) studies select features in SB hymns. Stefan M. Maul, "Altertum in Mesopotamien," in Die Gegenwart des Altertums, ed. Dieter Kuhn and Helga Stahl (Heidelberg: Edition Forum, 2001), ng. See Martin Worthington, Principles of Akkadian Textual Criticism (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2012 ), 200-4.

HESS

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rality of forms attested in OB. Apocopated forms -s for the 3sm gen. or acc./dat. were highly marked in older periods, but coincide with several forms used in NB following the loss of short, final vowels. The same applies to the lack of e-vowels in the D- and S-stems: the feature in literary texts is archaizing with respect to MB, but consistent with the a-vowels in NB. Together, the features and distribution of forms in SB suggest a non-discrete continuum of dialect and standard rather than a sharp (and imperfect) emulation of OB.

Language Contact and Bilingualism 10.3 Isolated interference s attest to Aramaic influence in NB already in the early texts. A letter from Bir-Iltames to Tikianu concerning affairs in B1t-Amukani includes the unique hybrid form natantassu "you gave to him" OIP 114, 81: 27, composed of the 2sm Aramaic perfect *natanta and the Babylonian 3sm dat. -ass( u). The particle la is used to negate an indicative main clause in la illikuni "they did not come" OIP 114,15:12, in a letter from Bir-Salmi to Adumma regarding relations with the Arameans. While such examples can be ascribed to interference of scribes working in a West Semitic environmen t, the longterm language shift from Akkadian to Aramaic as the dominant spoken language of Babylonia has also opened most changes observed in the language 95 to scrutiny as possible reflections of language contact. All postulated examples are problematic to some degree and depend heavily on the chronology of the forms in both Akkadian and older Aramaic. Direct influence of Aramaic can most plausibly be argued for developmen ts in cuneiform orthography and the hybrid imperative (i)binna. 96 The vocalic indifference which underlies the "alphabetization" of cuneiform is to some degree already structurally embedded in the cuneiform writing system in the third and second millennia, including numerous eve-signs and signs such as IA (ia/ii/ie/iul), Alj (ab/ib/eb/ub), and the '-sign (a'/t/e'/ul 97 Both the degree and extent of such usage in Early NB, however, suggests at least indirect alphabetic influence. Possible influence is also reflected in the developmen t of "free word order", that is, unmarked vso alongside sov. However, this change in word order is not a general feature of

95

96 97

Comprehensive discussions go back to E.S. Rimalt, "Wechselbezie hungen zwischen dem Aramaischen und de m Neubabylonischen," Wiener Zeitschrift for die Kunde des Morgenlandes 39 (1932): 99-122; see the more recent overviews in Beaulieu, "Aspects of Aramaic and Babylonian Linguistic Interaction," 358-78, and Michael P. Streck, "Akkadian and Aramaic Language Contact," 416-24. Beaulieu, "Aspects of Aramaic and Babylonian Linguistic Interaction," 364. Woodington, Grammar, 15. A parallel with the West Semitic use of the '-sign to indicate vocalic length was drawn by Julius Lewy, "Apropos of the Akkadian numerals is-ti-a-na and is-tf-na," Archiv Orientalni 17 (1949 ): 114 n. 35·

(EARLY) NEO-BABYLONIAN

1423

before the fifth century and is certainly not representative of the earlier texts. 98 A final example of possible grammatical influence is the extension of the domain of the relative particle sa to mark final clauses.99 More problematic are the suppletive form of the 1c pronoun aninu/ i "we" and the ta-prefix for 3sf. Both align NB with similar forms in Aramaic. It remains possible that the 'a-prefix in Aramaic 1p 'iinaf:zna triggered a similar development in NB, though an independent analogous formation to NB 1s aniiku seems equally likely. 100 Similar problems arise with the development of the nota accusativi, that is, differential object marking with objects of strong transitive verbs. Aramaic texts from Assyria from the seventh century offer at least two, partly problematic examples.l 01 As opposed to Neo-Assyrian, however, there are no clear examples for the phenomenon in earlier NB texts_IOZ The use, however, of the preposition ana instead of la, the use of ana as a topic marker ("as for ... "), and the use of ana to mark objects of other verbs in earlier Babylonian, including semu "to hear" (with ana: "to listen to"), all support an internal (or at least internally conditioned) development as well. 103 Direct borrowing from Aramaic is also unlikely in the development of the proleptic genitive and the modal use of iprus-forms. As noted above, the proleptic genitive is already attested in Babylonian towards the end of the second millennium and is used consistently, but in restricted contexts in texts from the eighth-seventh centuries.I04 Since the construction is also attested in Aramaic in areas for which no contact with Akkadian can be suggested, it is likely that they represent independent developments. The modal use of the short-form prefix conjugation iprus is in turn uncommon at all stages of Babylonian in the first millennium. NB

98 99 100 101

102

103

104

Hackl, "Zur Sprachsituation," 224. Hackl, Der subordinierte Satz, 421. Beaulieu, "Aspects of Aramaic and Babylonian Linguistic Interaction," 364. See Volker Hug, Altaramiiische Grammatik der Texte des 7· und 6.jhs. v. Chr. (Heidelberg: Heidelberger Orientverlag, 1993), 71, and cf. Gzella, "Imperial Aramaic," 582, on syntactic/semantic constraints in Aramaic. See, however, the later Bel-suma-iddina apil-su sa Pattu ina bud libblsu ana Zabimi ... ilqi "B., Sohn van P., hat ... Zabina genommen" (vs 6, 188, 1 ff.) as well as the locus classicus Dar. Bisutun 29: alla sa muiku aduku ana Gumata "... although I killed Gaumata". See the earlier attestations listed in Christian W. Hess, "Oblique Core Arguments in Akkadian," in Proceedings of the 53e Rencontre Assyriologique Intemationale, VoL 1, Part 2, ed. Leonid Kogan et al. (Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2010 ), 729-49; the relevance of attestations listed, for example, in Levavi, Administrative Epistolography, sos, for ana "as Ace." with kariibu is thus limited. See Na'ama Pat-El, Studies in the Historical Syntax ofAramaic (Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2012 ), 127-28, on the relationship of the proleptic genitive in Aramaic and Akkadian.

1424

HESS

Aramaic influence is again possible, but the relegation of iprus-forms to subor1 ws ·· dinate functions seems to have p1aye d a more decisive ro e. The clearest influence ofWest Semitic on first millenniu m Akkadian is found in the lexicon. 10 6 Critical re-evaluat ions have reduced the number of possible Aramaic loanwords in first millennium Akkadian from ea. 28o loanwords to ea. 8o. Confined to Early NB, this number is reduced even further to about 14 or 15, only some of which are attested with any regularity. One of the earliest possible loans is kinistu "assembly (of priests)," first attested in a kudurru from the 8th year of Nabu-suma-iSkun (ea. 768): ... kinisti rab u $eiJer silt Ezida mala basu "the assembly, large and small, of the Ezida-temple, as many as there are" AOAT 51, 686 iv s-6 (=vs 1, 36 iv s-6). Possibly a loan, and the most common, is the prepositio n la, used either alone or in the compound prepositio n la pan exclusively in separative meaning "from": ... 1Jad£s la pan tamkiiri lussam-ma "I will gladly convey (her) from the merchant" OIP 114, 82: 27-28; u ardika u Mat Akkade la qiitika itelu "both your servants and the land of Akkade have slipped 107 from your hand" SAA17, 22 rev. 23-14. Another root which early found its way into the NB lexicon is seperu "to write (alphabeti c texts)", though the derived 108 forms sepiru and sipru occur only slightly later in NB. Other words belong to specific semantic domains. Two words belonging to the sphere of military activities are gudildu "troop" or "force" and IJCiilu (a kind of military force): gududu sa Bit-Yakin "troops of B1t-Yakin" OIP 114, 18: 4 and gudildiinil SAA 10, 111 rev.15, where the term is contrasted with emilqu as a designatio n for the whole army; IuiJi-ia( -a )-lu ABL 272 rev. 3; AB L 520: 7. 109 Both designate particular contingents of the military, in part levied from Aramean or Chaldean tribes.

As argued in Streck, Zahl und Zeit, 245-47, summarized in Streck, "Akkadian and Aramaic Language Contact," 421. 106 Abraham and Sokoloff, "Aramaic Loanwords in Akkadian," 22-76; for older discussions, see the relevant entries there. 107 But cf. the skeptical remarks in Abraham and Sokoloff, "Aramaic Loanwords in Akkadian," 38 No. 114. An internal motivation is, however, difficult to find, and the proposed Aramaic etymology seems at present preferable. The same difficulty applies to several other cases ofloans, such as the verb seta "to neglect", attested in la taselli "don't be negligent" SAA 17, 2 rev. 6: see Streck, "Akkadian and Aramaic Language Contact," 420. 108 See Michael Jursa, "Ein Beamter flucht auf Aramaisch," 381 n. 9, on the earliest attestation for a sepiru in NB sources in BM 49656, dated to the accession year of Nabopolassar; and cf. the study ofYigal Bloch, Alphabet Scribes in the Land of Cuneiform (Piscatawny, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2018). 109 Cf. ki-na-al-ta as a designation of workers in RIMB 2 S.1002.2 iii 13, an inscription of 1 Ninurta-kudurrl-u~ur from Sul)u on the Middle Euphrates, followed by the h gu-du-du sd "Ara1 Sokoloff, and Abraham century). "a-ra-mu "Aramean troops" in iii 14 (mid-eighth but ~ayl, be should form Aramaic the that note 92 No. 35 maic Loanwords in Akkadian,"

105

(EARLY) NEO-BABYLONIAN

1425

Other loanwords are more restricted in use and distribution.no The verb labamu "to take food and drink, eat," with etymologically restored laryngeal *1:z vs. Akkadian cognate lemu, appears in a letter concerning Arameans in Uruk loyal to the Chaldean Merodach-Baladan: kt mala ameluti sa tab tu sa mar Yak in ilbimu "as many people as have eaten the salt of the son ofYakin" sAA 17, 140 rev. s'-7'· The noun tulluma,u "liar, cheater", connected with Syriac taloma "denier" and tfam "to oppress, wrong", is securely attested once in a letter from Belibni, citing the objections of the Assyrian king concerning the Elamites: sunu tulluma,u "they are deceivers" ABL 281 rev. 4.m Several more common loans suggest a path of transmission. The word mandetu "information" occurs twice in the letters of Bel-ibni, in ABL 520: 4 ( mandet sa Atmanu nasiku sa Mananu "information concerningAtmanu, chief ofMananu") and inABL 794:6 ( ... mandet 7[ sa] madakti sa sarri beliya "report on the camp of the king, my lord"), once in a letter from Sin-ibni of Ur concerning the Sealand (ABL 1395: 11 ), and once in a letter concerning the Aramean Guriimu (SAA18,170 rev. s). The earliest attestation in NB stems from eighth-century Nippur (man-de_rsC; OIP 114, 72: 16) in a letter from Salmanu-eris concerning affairs with both Uruk and Ijindanu on the Middle Euphrates.U 2 Both the small number of certain loans in Akkadian and the uncertainty in the direction of influence in several cases have led to the search for more robust models of language contact. The most fruitful direction so far depends on notions of convergence, in which long-term contact either accelerated internal developments or promoted the development of shared features.n 3

110 111

112

113

note 111 /;a-a-a-[ames in AfO 8-9, 194:15, with reference to soldiers of Samas-sumu-ukin subdued by Ashurbanipal. Beaulieu, "Aspects of Aramaic and Babylonian Linguistic Interaction," 372-74. CAD T, 125, with further reference to NB CT 54, 94 rev. s' (uncertain) and CT 54, 276 rev. 2 (corrected to sulummU?) as well as the NA oracle ameliitu tullumii "mankind is deceitful" SAA 9, 2 ii 17'. See the references in Abraham and Sokoloff, "Aramaic Loanwords in Akkadian," 40. The origin of the letter is uncertain. Cole, Governor's Archive, 159, notes the mention of Anu and !Star in the introductory blessing, paralleled in ABL 781 (sAA 17, 136) and ABL 1095 (sAA 17, 137), both apparently from Uruk. As noted in Karen Radner, "Der Gott Salmanu ('Sulmanu') und seine Beziehung zur Stadt Diir-Katlimmu," Die Welt des Orients 29 (1998): 40 n. 47, however, the sender, Salmanu-eriS, would represent the only attestation for the deity Salmanu in the Babylonian onomasticon of the first millennium, and may be identified as Assyrian instead: all other attestations for the personal name Salmanu-eriS (PNA P-S, 1078) derive from Diir-Katlimmu/Magdala. Beaulieu, "Aspects of Aramaic and Babylonian Linguistic Interaction," 375; Hack!, "Zur Sprachsituation," 228.

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Bibliography Abraham, Kathleen, and Michael Sokoloff. "Aramaic Loanwords in Akkadian-A Reassessment of the Proposals." Archivfor Orientforschung 52 (zon): 22-76. Aro,Jussi. "Der Abfall der kurzen Auslautvokale im Spatbabylonischen und seine Einwirkung auf die Formenlehre." Studia Orientalia 46 (1975): n-zo. Aro, Jussi. Studien zur mittelbabylonischen Grammatik. Helsinki: Societas Orientalis Fennica, 1955. Beaulieu, Paul-Alain. "Aspects of Aramaic and Babylonian Linguistic Interaction in First Millennium BC Iraq." journal of Language Contact 6 ( 2013): 358-78. Bloch, Yigal. Alphabet Scribes in the Land of Cuneiform: Sepiru Professionals in Mesopotamia in the Neo-Babylonian andAchaemenid Periods. Piscatawny, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2018. Brinkman,John A., and Douglas A. Kennedy. "Documentary Evidence for the Economic Base of Early Neo-Babylonian Society: A Survey of Dated Babylonian Economic

Texts, 721-6z6B.c."journalofCuneiform Studies 35 (1983): 1-90. Brinkman,John A., and Douglas A. Kennedy. "Documentary Evidence for the Economic Base of Early Neo-Babylonian Society, Part n: A Survey of Babylonian Texts 6z66osB.c."journal of Cuneiform Studies 38 (1986): 172-244.

Cole, Steven W. The Early Neo-Babylonian Governor's Archivefrom Nip pur. Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1996. Da Riva, Rodo. "Assyrians and Assyrian Influence in Babylonia." In From Source to History: Studies on Ancient Near Eastern Worlds and Beyond Dedicated to Giovanni Battista Lanfranchi on the Occasion ofHis 6sth Birthday on]une 23, 2014, edited by Salvatore Gaspa, Alessandro Grecco, Daniele Morandi Bonacossi, Simonetta Ponchia,

and Robert Rollinger, 99-125. Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2014. Da Riva, Rodo. Der Ebabbar-Tempel von Sip par in frilhneubabylonischer Zeit (64o-s8o v. Chr.). Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, zooz. Da Riva, Rodo. The Neo-Babylonian Royal Inscriptions: An Introduction. Mi.inster: UgaritVerlag, zooS. Deutscher, Guy. Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation. Oxford: Oxford University Press, zooo.

de Vaan, J.M.C.T. ''!eh bin eine Schwertklinge des Konigs." Die Sprache des Bel-ibni. Kevelaer: Butzon & Bercker, 1995. Fales, Frederick Mario. "Babylonian Slave-Documents in the State Archives of Assyria." State Archives ofAssyria Bulletin 2 (1988): 41-57.

Fales, Frederick Mario. "Ethnicity in the Assyrian Empire: A View from the Nisbe, (m)." In At the Dawn of History: Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Honour of]N. Postgate, Volume 1, edited by Yagmur Heffron, Adam Stone, and Martin Worthington, 133-77. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2017.

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Fales, Frederick Mario. "Idiolects and Identities in the Neo-Assyrian Epistolary Corpus." In Official Epistolography and the Language( s) ofPower: Proceedings of the First

Jntemational Conference of the Research Network Imperium & Officium. Comparative Studies in Ancient Bureaucracy and Officialdom, University ofVienna, 10-12 November 2010, edited by Stephan Prochazka, Lucian Reinfandt, and Sven Tost, 91- . Wien: Verlag der 6sterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2015.

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Fales, Frederick Mario. "Moving around Babylon: On the Aramean and Chaldean Presence in Southern Mesopotamia." In Babylon: Wissenskuftur in Orient und Okzident, edited by Eva Cancik-Kirschbaum, Margarete van Ess, andjoachim Marzahn, 91-112. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2011. Fales, Frederick Mario. "New Light on Assyro-Aramaic Interference: The Assur Ostracon." In CAMSEMUD 2007: Proceedings of the 13th Italian Meeting ofAfro-Asiatic Lin-

guistics, Held at Udine, May 21st-24th 2007, edited by Frederick Mario Fales, and Giulia Francesca Grassi, 189-204. Padova: S.A.R.G.O.N., 2010. Fincke,Jeanette C. "The Babylonian Texts ofNineveh: Report on the British Museum's

Ashurbanipal Library Project." Archivfor Orientforschung so (2003-2004 ): 111-49. Foster, Benjamin R. Akkadian Literature ofthe Late Period. Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2007. Frahm, Eckart, and Joachim Oelsner. "BRM 1, 22 (MLC 18os)-Die Obernahme einer Burgschaft betreffend." Nouvelles Assyriologiques Breves et Utilitaires 2oo8: 13-15. Frame, Grant. The Archive of Musezib-Marduk, Son of Kiribtu and Descendant of S£n-

nii$ir: A Landowner and Property Developer at Uruk in the Seventh Century BC. Dresden: Islet, 2013. Frame, Grant. Babylonia 689-627 B. c.: A Political History. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 1992 [Reprint Leiden 2007 ]. Groneberg, Brigitte R.M. Syntax, Morphologie und Stil der jungbabylonischen ((hymnis-

chen" Literatur. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1987. Gzella, Holger. A Cultural History ofAramaicfrom the Beginnings to the Advent of/slam. Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2015. Gzella, Holger. "Imperial Aramaic." In The Semitic Languages: An Intemational Handbook, edited by Stefan Weninger, in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, andjanet C.E. Watson, 574-86. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011. Hackl, Johannes. Der subordinierte Satz in den spiitbabylonischen Briefen. Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2007. Hackl, Johannes. "Zur Funktion von (i)binna im Neu- und Spatbabylonischen." Zeitschriftfor Assyriologie 102 (2012): 100-14. Hackl,Johannes. "Zur Sprachsituation im Babylonien des erstenjahrtausends v.Chr. Ein Beitrag zur Sprachgeschichte des jungeren Akkadischen." In Mehrsprachigkeit: Vom

Alten Orient bis zum Esperanto, edited by Sebastian Fink, Martin Lang, and Manfred Schretter, 209-38. Munster: Zaphon, 2018. He ss, Christian W. "Oblique Core Arguments in Akkadian." In Proceedings ofthe 53e Ren-

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in the Ancient Near East, contre Assyriologique Internationale, VoL 1, Part 2: Language

, and Serguei Tishchenko, edited by Leonid Kogan, Natalia Koslova, Sergey Loesov 729-49 . Winon a Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2010. to Ancient Near Eastern LanHess, Christ ian W. "Standard Babylonian." In A Companion Blackwell, 2020. guages, edited by Rebecca Hasselbach, 473-88 . Hobok en: Wiley und 6. ]hs. v. Chr. Heidelberg: Hug, Volker. Altaramiiische Grammatik der Texte des 7· Heidel berger Orientverlag, 1993· Neo-Babylonian. New Haven: Hyatt, James Philip. The Treatment ofFinal Vowels in Early Yale University Press, 1941. a-bani. Etude d'un Lot d' archives Joanne s, Francis. Archives de Borsippa: Lafamille Ea-ilut Librairie Droz, 1989. familiales en Babylonie du VIIIe au ve siecle av.j-C. Geneve: betsch reiber in der spatbabyJursa, Michael. "Ein Beamt er flucht auf Aramaisch: Alpha in der babylo nische n Verlonisc hen Epistolographie und die Rolle des Arama ischen s Presented to Frederick waltun g des sechst en Jahrhu nderts v. Chr." In Leggo! Studie Giova nni B. Lanfranchi, Mario Pales on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday, edited by etta Ponch ia, 379-97 . WiesDaniele Moran di Bonacossi, Cinzia Pappi, and Simon baden : Harrassowitz, 2012.

Typology, Con-

e Documents: Jursa, Michael. Neo-Babylonian Legal and Administrativ tents, and Archives. Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, zoos. In The Semitic Languages: An Kogan, Leonid. "Proto-Semitic Phone tics and Phonology." oratio n with Geoffrey International Handbook, edited by Stefan Weninger, in collab Berlin: De Gruyte r Mouton, Khan, Micha el P. Streck, andJa net C.E. Watson, 54-151. 2011.

round. Winon a Lake: EisenKouwenberg, N.J.C. The Akkadian Verb and its Semitic Backg brauns , 2010. Evidence of Sound Change in Knudsen, Ebbe Egede. "Akkadian in Greek Orthography: a 38-39 (1989-1990 ): 71an Ancie nt Traditional Pronunciation." Orientalia Suecan 8o. und spatba byloni scher Zeit." Uimm erhirt, Kai. "Die Bevolkerung von Nippu r in neuscher Zeit: WissenschaftIn Babylonien und seine Nachbarn in neu- und spdtbabyloni

Oelsner,jena, 2. und3. Liches Kolloquium aus Anlass des 75· Geburtstags von]oachim er: Ugarit-Verlag, 2014. Mdrz 2007, edited by Manfred Krebernik et al., 113-34. Munst From Their Origins to the End of Lawson Younger, K. A Political History of the Arameans:

i !

Their Polities. Atlanta: SBL Press, 2016. tive Phase of the Neo-BabyloLevavi, Yuval. Administrative Epistolography in the Forma nian Empire. Munster: Zapho n, 2018. na and is-ti-na." Archiv OrienLewy, Julius. "Apropos of the Akkad ian numer als is-ti-atalni 17 (1949 ): 110-23.

Map of Pre-Islamic Arabia." MacDonald, Michael C.A. "Reflections on the Linguistic Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 11 (zooo): 28-79.

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Maul, Stefan M. "Altertum in Mesopotamien." In Die Gegenwart des Altertums: Formen und Funktionen des Altertumsbezugs in den Hochkulturen der Alten Welt, edited by

Dieter Kuhn, and Helga Stahl, 117-24. Heidelberg: Edition Forum, 20o1. Nielsen, John P. Personal Names in Early Neo-Babylonian Legal and Administrative Tablets, 747-626 B.C.E. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2015. Nielsen, John P. Sons and Descendants: A Social History ofKin Groups and Family Names in the Early Neo-Babylonian Period, 747-626BC. Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2011.

Oded, Bustenay. Mass Deportations and Deportees in the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert, 1979. Oelsner, Joachim. "Aramaische Beischriften auf neu- und spatbabylonischen Tontafeln." Die Welt des Orients 36 (2oo6): 27-71. Owen, David 1., and Kazuko Watanabe. "Eine neubabylonische Gartenkaufurkunde mit Fli.ichen aus dem Akzessionsjahr Asarhaddons." OriensAntiquus 22 (1983): 37-48. Parpola, Simo. "The Alleged Middle/Neo-Assyrian Irregular Verb *na$$ and the Assyrian Sound ChangeS> S." Assur 1 (1974): 1-10. Pat-El, Na'ama. Studies in the Historical Syntax of Aramaic. Piscataway: Gorgias Press, 2012.

Radner, Karen. "Der Gott Salmanu ('Sulmanu') und seine Beziehung zur Stadt DiirKatlimmu." Die Welt des Orients 29 (1998): 33-51. Radner, Karen. "A State Communication Network: The State Correspondence of the Neo-Assyrian Empire." In State Correspondence in the Ancient World: From New Kingdom Egypt to the Roman Empire, edited by Karen Radner, 64-93. Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 2014. Rimalt, E.S. "Wechselbeziehungen zwischen dem Aramaischen und dem Neubabylonischen." Wiener Zeitschriftfilr die Kunde des Morgenlandes 39 (1932): 99-122. Sass, Benjamin. Studia Alphabetica: On the Origin and Early History of the Northwest Semitic, South Semitic, and Greek Alphabets. Freiburg: Universitatsverlag, 1991.

Schaudig, Hanspeter. Die Inschriften Nabonids von Babylon und Kyros' des Groflen samt den in ihrem Umfeld entstandenen Tendenzschriften. Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2001.

Stein, Peter. Die mittel- und neubabylonischen Konigsinschriften his zum Ende der Assyrerherrschaft: Grammatische Untersuchungen. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2000.

Streck, Michael P. "Akkadian and Aramaic Language Contact." In The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook, edited by Stefan Weninger, in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, andjanet C.E. Watson, 416-24. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011. Streck, Michael P. "Akkadisch." In Sprachen des Alten Orients, edited by Michael P. 3

Streck, 44-79. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2007 • Streck, Michael P. "Outlook: Aramaeans outside of Syria. 2. Babylonia." In The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria, edited by Herbert Niehr, 297-318. Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2014.

Streck, Michael P. "Babylonian and Assyrian." In The Semitic Languages: An Interna-

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oratio n with Geoffrey Khan, tional Handbook, edited by Stefan Weninger, in collab : De Gruyt er Mouton, 2ou. Michael P. Streck, andja net C.E. Watson, 359-9 6. Berlin ian Lexicon." In Languages in the Streck, Michael P. "Innovations in the Neo-Babylon Assyri ologiq ue Internationale, Ancie nt Near East: Proceedings of the 53e Rencontre Eisen braun s, 2010. edited by Leonid Kogan et al., 647-6 0. Wino na Lake: des Neu- und SpatbabylonisStreck, Michael P. "Die Kasusflexion im Status rectus spdtba bylon ischer Zeit: Wischen." In Babylonien und seine Nachbarn in neu- und tstags vonjo achim Oelsner,]ena, senschaftliches Kolloquium aus Anlas s des 75· Gebur et al., 247-8 8. Munster: Ugarit2. und 3· Marz 2007, edited by Manfred Krebe rnik Verlag, 2014. Hieroglyphen, Alpha bete, SchriftreStreck, Michael P. "Keilschrift und Alphabet." In und Orthographienneuregelung, forme n: Studie n zu Multiliteralismus, Schriftwechsel ar fiir Agyptologie und Kopedited by Dorte Borchers et al., 77-97 . Gottingen: Semin tologie, 2001. aphs on Cunei form Tablets." In Streck, Michael P. "Late Babylonian in Aramaic Epigr l and Archaeological PerspecWandering Arame ans: Aram eans Outside Syria. Textua , and Andre as Schiile, 169-94. tives, edited by Angelika Berlejung, Aren M. Maeir Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2017. ralia und des Verbalsystems im Streck, Michael P. Zahl und Zeit: Gram matik der Nume 1995. Spatbabylonischen. Groningen: Styx Publications, Priesthood, Cult, Archives. Leiden: Waerzeggers, Caroline. The Ezida Temple ofBor sippa: Neder lands Institu ut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2010. abylonian Letters of the Kuyunjik Woodington, Nancy Ruth. "A Gram mar of the Neo-B Collection." Phd. diss., Yale, 1982. onian and Assyrian in SAA VIII, x, Worthington, Martin. "Dialect Admixture of Babyl XII, XVII, and XVIII." Iraq 68 (2006): 59-84 . Old to Neo-Babylonian." In ProWorthington, Martin. "i-ba-as-su-u vs. i-ba-as-su from ationale, VoL 1, Part 2: Language in ceedings of the 53e Rencontre Assyriologique Intern a Koslova, Sergey Loesov, and the Ancie nt Near East, edited by Leonid Kogan, Natali s, 2010. Serguei Tishchenko, 661-706. Wino na Lake: Eisenbraun Berlin: De Gruyter, 2012. sm. l Critici Worthington, Martin. Principles ofAkkad ian Textua ean, and Arabi an Tribes in BabyZadok, Ran. "The Onomastics of the Chaldean, Aram eans, and Arabs in Babylonia lonia during the First Millennium." In Arame ans, Chald Angelika Berlejung, and Michael and Palestine in the First Millennium B. c., edited by P. Streck, 261-336. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2013. Textile Indus try and the Pantheon Zawadzki, Stefan. Garments of the Gods: Studies on the e. Fribourg: Academic Press, ofSipp ar according to the Texts from the Ebabbar Archiv 2006.

CHAPTER 24

Late Babylonian johannes Hack!

Terminology, Chronology, Geographical Distribut ion and Text Genres*

1

First millenni um BCE Babylonian is commonly divided into Neo-Babylonian (hereafter NB, ea. Iooo-6oo BCE) and Late Babylonian (hereafter LB, from ea. 6oo B c E until the end of the cuneiform tradition within the legal and admin1 istrative sphere, i.e., ea. goBCE). The boundary between the two stages, however, is predicate d on political history (i.e., the end of the Assyrian domina3 tion over Babylonia)Z more than it is on linguistic realities. It was thus suggested to refrain from subdivisions into historical forms and to use the term Neo-Babylonian for the entire period, optionally by adding the names of the 4 archives or corpora in question for clarification. In the following sections, I have maintain ed the distinctio n between NB and LB in order to illustrate the 5 pronounc ed homogen eity of Babylonian before and after ea. 6ooBCE. On a synchronous level, there are no traces of dialectal variation in LB. This is in

from * My work on this topic has been supported by a Fellowship for Postdoctoral Researchers sa, MichaelJur to indebted am I Germany. Bonn, in Foundation Humboldt von the Alexander ; Matthew W. Stolper and Michael P. Streck for factual information, discussion and suggestions related issues on to Holger Gzella and MartinJoa chim Kiimmel for directing me to literature texts to this topic; to the Trustees of the British Museum for permission to cite unpublishe d mine. is errors for lity from the British Museum's collections. Responsibi (Winona 1 Most recently N.J.C. Kouwenberg, The Akkadian Verb and Its Semitic Background n Gramakkadische der Grundriss Soden, von Wolfram citing 15-16, ), 2010 s, Lake: Eisenbraun 3 matik (Roma: Pontificium Institutum Biblicum, 1995 ), 3 § 2g/h. Late 2 Other models emphasize the Persian conquest of Babylonia or the beginning of the Achaemen id period. Ein 3 Johannes Hackl, "Zur Sprachsitu ation im Babylonien des ersten Jahrtausen ds v. Chr. OriVomAlten igkeit. Mehrsprach in n," Akkadische jiingeren des hichte Beitrag zur Sprachgesc ent bis zum Esperanto, ed. Sebastian Fink, Martin Lang and Manfred Schretter (Munster: Zaphon, 2018), 211. (Darmstadt: 4 Michael P. Streck, "Akkadisch," in Sprachen desAlten Orients, ed. Michael P. Streck 3 20. n. 46 Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2007 ), since 5 Note that textual references dating from the 'long sixth century' are given without date, period. this from comes the bulk of the material

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DOI:IO.ll63/ 9789004445 215_025

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line with the notion that (written) Babylonian had undergone the process of koineization early on in the first millennium BCE, if not earlier. 6 The terminological issues notwithstanding, LB is the language of archival texts written in Babylonia, i.e., letters, legal and administrative documents, court records, as well as other texts originating in the day-to-day affairs of archive holders or the administration of institutional households. By contrast, the contemporary royal inscriptions and literary texts 7 are written in Standard Babylonian (hereafter SB ). 8 The diachronic and geographical distribution of the material is uneven. The beginning of the first millennium BCE is only scarcely documented by a small number of scattered finds. The earliest large groups of texts, i.e., archives in the loose Assyriological sense of the word, date from the eighth century BCE and include the important early Neo-Babylonian letter archive from Nippur (n3letters). 9 The corpus dating to the period from the late eighth century BCE to the rise of the Chaldean dynasty after 6z6BCE, including the Babylonian letters sent to the Assyrian court in Nineveh, comprises ea. 1,6oo letters, legal and administrative records.I 0 The bulk of the material, however, comes from the 'long sixth century', i.e., the late seventh, the sixth and early fifth centuries BCE, the beginning of which also marks the transition to the LB period, according to the conventional periodization models (see above): currently, ea. 1g,ooo texts are available for research and tens of thousands more await publication.U Later in the first millennium BCE, the Babylo-

6 7

8

g

10 11

Hackl, "Zur Sprachsituation," 211 9 • For a slightly different definition and demarcation of NB I LB, see chapter 23 in the present volume. The basic bibliography is conveniently summarised in Michael P. Streck, "Babylonian and Assyrian," in The Semitic Languages. An International Handbook, ed. Weninger et al. (Berlin-Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, zon), 381. This does not apply to the Astronomical Diaries (historical sections) and Chronicles which display an admixture of LB and SB. On cross-genre imprints within the Akkadian textual record, that is, the transference of linguistic items peculiar to one or the other genre (sB > LB and vice versa), see preliminarily Johannes Hackl and Joachim Oelsner, "The Descendants of the Sin-leqe-unnini during the Late Achaemenid and Early Hellenistic Periods-a Family of Priests, Scribes and Scholars and Their Archival and Learned Texts," in Scholars, Priests, and Temples-Babylonian and Egyptian Science in Context, ed. Mathieu Ossendrijver (Berlin), 2021. On the Behistun inscription see below. Published in Steven W. Cole, Nip pur IV. The Early Neo-Babylonian Governor's Archivefrom Nippur (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996). Edited in the SAA series, particularly in the volumes 17, 18, 21 and 22. For a general overview see Michaeljursa, Neo-Babylonian Legal and Administrative Documents: Typology, Contents and Archives (Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, zoos). Michael P. Streck, "GroBes Fach Altorientalistik: Der Umfang des keilschriftlichen Textkorpus," Mitteilungcn der Deutschen Orient-Gesellscha.ft 142 (2010 ): 48, gives an estimation of ea. 47,500 texts with a total of 3,46o,ooo words.

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nian language is presumed to be much less used than it had been previously, mostly because Aramaic continuously gained ground and had established itself as an administrative (and literary?) 12 language; this is reflected in the documentation from the second half of the first millennium BCE, which, while still considerable, is far more limited than that of the preceding centuries (ea. , 4 200 texts). The urban elites of the old Babylonian cities, however, seem to have maintained Babylonian as a means to signify identity and social stratification within the ambit of the age-old temple households. This, in turn, appears to have countered the gradual supplanting of Babylonian by Aramaic for some time. 13 The question as to when Babylonian ceased to be a spoken language is difficult to answer, but an analysis of the extant textual material and the socio-linguistic situation in Babylonia hints towards the end of the second century BCE. 14 As a learned language, however, it survived into the first centuries CE, as is demonstrated by a handful of astronomical texts15 and the GraecoBabyloniaca (dating within the period of ea. soBCE to socE).l6 Babylonian scribes were commonly trained within the family17 or received their training

12

13 14

15

16

17

See Jerrold Cooper, "Redundancy Reconsidered: Reflections on David Brown's Thesis," in The Disappearance of Writing Systems. Perspectives on Literacy and Communication, ed. John D. Baines,John Bennet and Stephen Houston (London: Equinox, 2008), 106. Hackl, "Zur Sprachsituation," 230-31. See Hackl, "Zur Sprachsituation," 232-33; Johannes Hackl, "Language Death and Dying Reconsidered: The Role of Late Babylonian as a Vernacular Language," in The Neo-Babylonian Workshop of the 53rd Rencontre Assyriologique Intemationale (Moskau/Petersburg), ed. Leonid Kogan (Dresden: Islet-Verlag), in press; Aage Westenholz, "The Graeco-Babyloniaca Once Again," Zeitschriftfor Assyriologie 97 (2007): 293; this is argued in greater detail by the author in chapter 25, this volume. Abraham Sachs, "The Latest Datable Cuneiform Tablets," in Kramer Anniversary Volume. Cuneiform Studies in Honor of Samuel Noah Kramer, ed. Barry L. Eichler (Kevelaer: Butzon & Becker; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1976), 379-98, and Hermann Hunger and Teije deJong, "Almanac W22340a from Uruk: The latest datable cuneiform Tablet," Zeitschriftfor Assyriologie 104 (2014): 182-94. See, in general, MarkhamJ. Geller, "The Last Wedge," Zeitschrift for Assyriologie 87 (1997 ): 43-95, David Brown, "Increasingly Redundant: the Growing Obsolescence of the Cuneiform Script in Babylonia from 539BC," in The Disappearance of Writing Systems. Perspectives on Literacy and Communication, ed. John D. Baines, John Bennet and Stephen Houston (London: Equinox, zooS), 73-101, and Cooper, "Redundancy Reconsidered". The label refers to a set of texts with Akkadian and Sumerian cuneiform on one side and a transliteration of these texts written in Greek letters on the other. See Geller, "The Last Wedge"; Westenholz, "Graeco-Babyloniaca"; and chapters 5 and 25, this volume. Michael Jursa, "Cuneiform Writing in Neo-Babylonian Temple Communities," in The Oxford Handbook ofCuneifonn Culture, ed. Karen Radner and Eleanor Robson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, zon), 191.

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at 'schools'.I8 The latter were probably situated at the Babylonian temples, the centres of educatio n and literacy in Mesopotamia. In addition to temple and freelance scribes, there was a class of 'semi-professional' scribes within the private entrepren eurial sphere who, judging from the frequency of scribal mistakes, complete d their educatio n at a relatively low level. A full grammatical description of LB, as well as of first millenni um Babylonian in general, is still a desideratum. More recent studies on the verbal system, 19 orthography and subordinate clauses are Streck (1995 and 2001) and Hackl (2oo 7 ).2o Other aspects are treated in a series of articles; references are given below. Woodington (1982) 21 is a comprehensive treatmen t of the language of the NB letters from Nineveh which is also of great importan ce for the understanding of the LB material.

22

Writing and Phonolog y

2

23

The cuneiform writing system employed to write LB (and NB; on the issues involved see below) reflects the same inventory of consona nt phoneme s as the reconstru cted for Middle Babylonian (MB): the unvoiced laryngeal bilvelars /g/ and /k/, the sibilants /z/ and /s/, the dentals /d/ and /t/, the 24 abials /b/ and /p/, the palatovelar /s/, the emphatic consona nts contrast-

r/,

18 19

20

21

22 23

24

See, in general, Petra D. Gesche, Schuluntem 'cht in Babylonien im erstenjahr tausend v. Clzr. (Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2ooo ). Streck Michael P., Zahl und Zeit. Grammatik der Numeralia und des Verbalsystems im Spatin babylonischen (Groningen: Styx, 1995); Michael P. Streck, "Keilschrift und Alphabet," und sel Schriftwech lismus, Multilitera zu Studien men: Schriftrefor Alphabete, en, Hieroglyph Orthographieneuregelungen, ed. Dorte Borchers, Frank Kammerze ll and Stefan Weninger (Gottingen: WidmaierVerlag, 2001), 77-97. Johannes Hackl, Der subordinierte Satz in den spatbabylonischen Briefen (Munster: UgaritVerlag, 2007 ). Nancy R. Woodington, "A Grammar of the Neo-Babylonian Letters of the Kuyunjik Collection" (PhD diss., Yale University, 1982). If not indicated otherwise, the references to Woodingto n, "A Grammar", cited below also apply to LB. Given the uncertainti es of the writing system discussed in this section, I will refrain from normalisin g the examples presented here, with the exception of single lemmata and short phrases; for didactic purposes, final short vowels are restored in the grammatically 'correct' form, if not indicated otherwise. On the suppositio n that /s/ was in fact realized as a lateral affricate [c], see Michael P. Streck, "Sibilants in the Old Babylonian Texts of Hammurap i and of the Governors in Qattunan," in The Akkadian Language in its Semitic Context. Studies in the Akkadian of the Third and Second Millenium BC, ed. Guy Deutscher and N.J.C. Kouwenberg (Lei-

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ing with the unvoiced velar /k/, sibilant /s/ and dental /t/, i.e., /q/, 1~1 (presumably pronounced [ 1 ~ ]) and /t/, as well as the velar fricative /b/, the lateral approximant /1/, the dental trill /r/, 25 the nasals /n/ and /m/ (dental and bilabial, respectively), and the glides /y/ and /w/ (palatal and bilabial, respectively). The laryngeal /h/ and the pharyngeal fricatives /'/ and /1}./ are lost in Akkadian, but encountered in non-Babylonian proper names and loanwords.z6 Vowel phonemes are: /a/, /e/, /i/, /u/, /a/, /e/, /1/, /fi/, /a/, /e/, /i/ and /u.f.Z7 The phonological status of /e/, /e/ and /e/ is weak, as they are secondary phonemes, mainly occurring as conditioned variants of /a/, /a/, /a/ and /i/, /1/, /1/, respectively.28 Most sound changes are well known from earlier stages of the language: - The elision of /w/ in word-initial position. 29 - The assimilation of /n/ to the immediately following consonants. 3D - The assimilation of the reflexive marker -t- to the first radical of verbs primae /s/, /~/ and /z/ (* /w~talli/ > /W~$alli/ "I prayed"), as well as /d/ and /t/ (* /idtagal/ > /iddagal/ ''he saw"). - The reciprocal assimilation of /mk/ and /mt/, resulting in- /ng/ (/temka/ > /tenga/ "your order") and /nd/ (/imtaf:Jar/ > /inda!Jar/ "he received"), 31 as

25

26

den: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2006), 241 and 243-45 (but see Leonid Kogan, "Proto-Semitic Phonetics and Phonology," in The Semitic Languages. An Intemational Handbook, ed. Stefan Weninger et al., Berlin-Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011, 71). Sound changes involving /r/ (see below), however, hint at a different phonation, i.e., as a voiced strident apico-alveolar fricative trill [r ], cf. MichaelJursa, "Betten, Kopfpolster und 'Kiihlschdinke'," in Festschrift for Burklzart Kienast, ed. Gebhard J. Selz (Munster: UgaritVerlag, 2003), 236 and n. 27. On the rendering of these (and other) consonants in cuneiform, see Ran Zadok, On West Semites in Babylonia during the Chaldean and Achaemenian Periods. An Onomastic Study (Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, 1977), 243-47; on the use of M signs to represent syllable boundaries, see MatthewW. Stolper, "Late Achaemenid Texts from Dilbat," Iraq 54 (1992): 139·

27

28 29

30 31

On the shift /u/ >/of in the Graeco-Babyloniaca, see Westenholz, "Graeco-Babyloniaca," 283-84, and, in general, Aage Westenholz, "The Phoneme /of in Akkadian," Zeitschri.ftfi-1-r Assyriologie 81 (1991): 10-19. Kogan, "Proto-Semitic," 119, with references to earlier literature. Intervocalic /w/ is preserved, but written with M signs. This is borne out by Aramaic epigraphs (also referred to as endorsements) on cuneiform tablets (e.g., 'wt, see Ran Zadok, "The Representation of Foreigners in Neo- and Late-Babylonian Legal Documents (Eighth through Second Centuries B. C. E.," injudah and thejudeans in the Neo-Babylonian Period, ed. Oded Lipschits andJoseph Blenkinsopp, Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2003, 562

no. 79, for cuneiform a-mat "word, matter"). But note, e.g., Iimui/ ( < *I idniil) "give!". A notable exception is vs 6 28g: 9 /amtabarsu/ > /attebersu/ (at-te-eb-ru-us) "I have received from him". Further instances of assimilation and dissimilation involving /m/ and /n/ can be found in Woodington, "A Grammar," 23-24.

HACKL

1436

well as of stem-final dentals and suffix-initial /s/, resulting in /ss/ (* /miiratsu/ > /miirassu/ his daughter"). 32 - The dissimilation of the long, or ~~geminate", voiced consonants /dd/, /gg/ and /bbj,33 resulting in /nd/, /ng/ and /mb/ (linaddin/ > /inandin/, /imaggur/ > fimangur/ and ftaqabba/ > /taqamba/ [Yos 21122: 6 ta-qam-ba-a']). - The shift /s/ > /l/ before dental occlusives (I iktasda/ > Iiktalda/ "he achieved"), but also before /s/ and /z/ (lissi/ > /ilsi/ llhe shouted").34 - The otherwise lost mimation of the ventive suffixes /-a/ (< /-ami) and 1-ni/ ( < /-niml) resurfaces when adding a pronominal suffix, and assimilates to the immediately following consonant ('" /aspuramsu/ > /aspurassul). - As in NB, etymological/m/ is weakened to /w I in intervocalic (e.g., in the PN /Nabu-rewanni / [< * /Nab u-remanni/] )35 and post-vocalic word-final position,36 and apparently also in word-internal cv syllables (e.g., YOS 3 183: 16 Lu-se-e-ma for /Lu8we-ma/ [< /Lusme-mal] 1 will hear and").37 Sporadic phenomena of sound change include: - The shift /n/ > t I (e.g, BaM 5 289- 292 no. 17: IV 28 Iiresst I [ < Iiressin/] "they (lit. he) will perform the prebendary service" ).38 - The shift /z/ > t I in stem-final position (e.g.,JNE S 48 284-285: 9/uSazza'/ [< /usazzazl] he will register"). 11

11

11

32

33

34 35 36

37

The same type of sound change may also occur wjth /ss/ and /ns/, e.g., /ressunu/ > /ressunu/ "their h ead" and /iddin5u/ > /iddissu/ "he gave h im"; stem-final /m/ before suffixinitial /s/ is usually preserved, but note, e.g., BM 29407= 12 /ukattissu/ (< /ukattimsu!) "he covered him" and Nbn. 697= 2. s /sunsu/ (< /sumsu!) "his name". Including the three-stage development /nb / > /bb / > /mb /, eg., EvM 6: 10 /ibbe-ma/ and Dar. 321: 13 Iimbe-ma/ (< *I inbe-ma!) "he declared". Also worth noting are three-stage developments before the fern. suffix -t- like * /zt/ > /st/ > /It/: */manzaztu/ > /manzastu/ > /manzaltu/ "position; temple service". This is corroborated by the accompanying Aramaic epigraph: Nbwrwn (see Zadok, "The Representation," 562 no. 66). Mostly written with M signs or(') (e.g., BRM 2 31: 12 ri-i'-u-tu < /rimiitu/ "gift" [early second century BCE]). In post-vocalic word-final position, this yields diphthongs that are in some cases contracted, e.g., /kiiw/ > /ku / "instead of" (written ku-um and ku-u, respectively). Alternatively, followjng the renderings in the Graeco-Babyloniaca (see n. 37), this /w/ could have simply disappeared in these instances (!kiiw/ >/kill). It is worth noting that at least by the time the Graeco-Babyloniaca were drafted (ea. SOBCE-socE), this /w/ disappears in contact wjth /o/ (o n which see n. 27) and /u/ (see Westenholz, "Graeco-Babyloniaca," 284- 85, with further sound changes involving /m/ >

38

/w!) .

Note furthermore : Camb. 117= 7 Iisa' I (< Iisan/< Iisanni!) "he will seal (the roof)", vos 3172: 7 /ispurii'inni/ "they wrote to me" and BRM 1 g8: g /ya'/ (< /yan/ < /yanu!) "there is not" (early second century BCE; the duplicate CM 12 7 reads ia-a-nu). The phenomenon is also attested in Middle (hereafter MA) and eo-Assyrian (hereafter NA).

-

LATE BABY LONIA N

1437

_ The shift /r/ > /8/ befor e /k/ and /t/ (lpisku/ and /sipistu/ as oppo sed to more frequ ent /pirku/ and /sipirtul), but also in interv ocalic position (e.g., JCS 2 8 53 no. 48: 1/episii)itu/, the fern. sg. of /epiriinu/ "sand-coloured").39 - The shift /$$/ > /r$/ (e.g., /muka$$itu/ > /muk ar$itu/ "a vessel to keep drinking wate r etc. cool"), 40 as well as /r8/ > /ss/ (e.g., /usarsadu/ > /usassadu/ "[whom] I furni shed" ) .41 - The very rare shift /qt/ > /qt/ (e.g., BaM Beih. 2 no. 113:2 0 /iqteribuni/ "they appro ache d" [seco nd centu ry BCE J).42 - The assim ilatio n of stem-final /l/ to suffix-initia l /8/ (e.g., SbB 1 24: 32 flii ippalsu/ > /la ippassu/ "do not answ er him").43 Sandhi is infre quen tly reflected in the writing syste m, e.g., o E CT 10 180: 11 ak-kuu-su for /ana kusu/ "inst ead of it", SbB 110: 16 al-laga-a for /alla aga_f "beyond this" and CT 22 193 = SbB 119: 23 a-na ugu-ia-a-a -lu for /ana mubbi ayyiili/ "(to pray) for help". The fact that cune iform writi ng tends to retain historical spellings of previous perio ds is felt parti cular ly keenly in LB on acco unt of far-reaching phon ological chan ges, resul ting in a mark ed discrepanc y betw een writing and phonetic reality. This deve lopm ent is furth er enha nced by the tende ncy of putti ng more emph asis on the exac t rende ring of cons onan t phon emes . 44 This, in turn, often affects the corre ct repre senta tion of vowe ls. The main characteristics can be summ arise d as follows: 45 - Both the sign sequ ence s cv-cv and (c)vccv are employed to repre sent closed syllables /eve/, e.g., CT 22149 : 32liziz-ziz for /lizziz/ "he may stand". 46 - eve and less often cv or vc signs are indifferent to the quality of the vowel, e.g., YOS 21177 = SbB 2 130: 10 sa-kan for /sakin / "placed" and CT 22 38: n7' [ni-i]$-$a-ba-it for /ni$$abat/ "we pressed (the grape s)". 39

40 41

42

43

44 45

46

It is not clear wheth er the altern ating use of (r) and (s) is a reflex of anoth er conso nant, gra phical ly repres ented by signs for similar sound s, or simply a matte r of scribal conservatism . Jursa, "Betten," 235-3 6. Johan nes Hackl, "Irreal e Satze in den spB Briefe n," Wiener Zeitschriftfor die Kunde des Morgenlandes 98 (2oo8): 86- 87. Again, this pheno meno n is also atteste d in M A . The same proces s also occurs in Old Babylonian (hereafter OB), e.g., YOS 10 14: 4 · Presu mably owed to the influe nce of the Arama ic alphab etic script (Streck, "Keilschrift und Alphabet," 87-90 ). Streck, "Ke ilschri ft und Alphabet"; Streck, "Babyl onian and Assyrian," 383-8 4. On the unlike ly assum ption that these spellin gs reflect epenth etic vowels, see the discussio n in Streck, "Keilschrift und Alpha bet," 78 and n. 13. But note the consis tent use of epenth etic vowels to break up conso nant cluster s involving /l/ and /n/ in the transliteratio ns of the Akkad ian cuneif orm of the Graeco -Babyloniaca (Weste nholz, "GraecoBabylon iaca," 285).

HACKL

1438

_ eve and sometimes vc signs can be accompanie d by 'phonetic complements' in the form of cv signs, e.g., YOS 21123 = SbB 2 162: 8 at-ta-babak-su for /iitabaksu/ (or /attabaksul) "I brought it" and SbB 1 41: 12 iqqa_ba-a, for /iqba/ "he said". - Vowels (short and long) may not be represented in writing, e.g., CT 22 147 = SbB 1104: 6 ab-ku for /abbak(a)/ "I bring" and 145: 7' a-na ab-lu for /ana abiil(i)/ "for the drying out". Morphograp hemic writings47 are widely used, e.g., OECT 12 AB 252 = SbB 1 128: r 9 ' I-DIN-as-su for /innassu/ "give him" and eT 22 6s: 19 Ilj-TE-LIQ-u, for

/ibtelqu/ "they (m.) fled". - The realisation of vowels (short and long) in word-final position can be marked with the aleph sign, e.g., YOS 3 17: 36 ta-ab-ta-at-ta-a, for /tabtatclf (or /tabtatta/?) "you (pi.) made a mistake" and IMT 34: 6 ni-re-e, for /nire/ (rather than /nir,el) "let us pasture (the flocks)" (fifth century BCE). The diachronic reconstructi on of phonological changes in this period, most notably the dropping of short word-final vowels, is considerably hampered by these orthographic features, as well as by the overall shortcoming s of the cuneiform syllabary. Writings of the type YOS 3 67: 29 at-tan-na-as for /attannas(s)/ < /attannassu ri gave it" or BE 9 57: slu-us for /lus(s)/ < /lussi/ "I will lift" (fifth century BCE) and the more or less random notation of short final vowels (e.g., TCL 9 121: 15 a-na si-pir-tu4 for /ana sipirtil) strongly suggest that the latter were dropped in most instances in the spoken language (thus Isipirt 1). The dating of the underlying development, however, is difficult to pinpoint, since it is masked by the constraints of the syllabary as well as by historical writings. A case in point is the subordinative marker -u which continued to be written with great regularity.48

3

Morphology

Independen t Personal Pronouns The nominative forms of the independen t personal pronouns are used as subjects of verbless clauses, or to reinforce the subject in verbal ones, always preceding the verb; occasionally, they are employed instead of the corresponding 3.1

47

48

On the term, see Ignacej. Gelb, "A Note on Morphographe mics," in Melanges Ma reel Cohen, ed. David Cohen (The Hague: Mouton, 1970), 73-77. Hackl, Der subordiniertc Satz, 145-46; Johannes Hack!, review of Oaths and Curses. A Study in Neo- and Late Babylonian Legal Formulary, by Malgorzata Sandowicz, Archivfor Oricnt-

Jorschung 54, in press.

LATE BABYLONIAN

1439

forms for the oblique cases (see below) to express the object49 or serve as a copula (see below): /amiku/ "I"; /attii/ "you (m.sg.)"; /attl/ "you (f.sg.)"; /su/ "he";so /si/ "she";51 /ninu/ and younger /aninu/ "we";52 /attunu/ "you (m.pl.)"; * /attina/ "you (f.pl.)"; /sunu/ "they (m.)"; 53 /sinal "they (f.)". 54 Compared to earlier stages of the language, the corresponding forms for the oblique cases are markedly less productive; the distinction between the etymological gen.-ace. and dative forms is only preserved in the singular: /yati/ and /yasi/ ''(to) me"; /kasi/ "(to) you (m. and f.sg.)"; /sczti/ (< /switi/) and /sasi/ "him" and "her"; /nasi/ "(to) us"; /kasunu/ "(to) you (m.pl.)"; * /kasina/ "(to) you (f.pl.)"; /sasunu/ "(to) them (m.pl.)"; /sasina/ "(to) them (f.pl)". The gen.-ace. forms sometimes interchange with the dative forms, hence they, too, can be preceded by the preposition /ana/ to express the indirect object. 3.2

Deictic Demonstratives

The proximal deictic demonstratives ("this") follow the nouns they modify: /aga/ and /ii/ 55 are used for the singular and plural of both genders;S6 older /annul (m.sg.), /annitu/ (f.sg.), /annutu/ (m.pl.) and /annatu/ (f.pl.) are no longer productive in the 'long sixth century', but re-appear in larger numbers in the second century BCE, at the latest; rare /agannutu/ (m.pl.) and /agannatu/ (f.pl.) result from a conflation of /aga/ and /annu/. 57 The same applies to their distal counterparts ("that"): rare /agiisu/ (m.sg.); /agiisiya/ (f.sg.); /agiisunu/ (m.pl.); and the widely used anaphoric pronoun (nominative/oblique cases): /su/ and /suiiti/ (m.sg.); /sl/ and /suiiti/ (f.sg.); /sunu/ and /suiiti/ (very rarely fsunutil) (m.pl.); /sinal and /suiiti/ (f.pl.); older /ullu/ (m.sg.); /ullitu/ (f.sg.); /ullutu/ (m.pl.); /ullatu/ (f.pl.), on the other hand, is no longer productive.

49

so 51 52 53 54 55 56 57

The forms of the 3.sg. and pl. are, in fact, anaphoric pronouns (von Soden, Grundriss, 40 §41b). Rare by-form: /issu/, only used predicatively, see A. Leo Oppenheim, "Deux notes de lexicographie accadienne," Orientalia 9 (1940 ): 221-22. Rare by-forms: /fit/ and /isfi/, the latter is only used predicatively. Paul-Alain Beaulieu, "Aspects of Aramaic and Babylonian Linguistic Interaction in First Millennium BC Iraq," journal of Language Contact 6 (2013): 362-65. Rare by-form: /issunu/, also only used predicatively. Rare by-form: /issini/, also only used predicatively. Usually written a, or a4 ; unlike /ago_f, it cannot stand alone and serve as a pronoun. But note the rare by-form /agati/ for the f.sg. and f.pl. The sg. is not productive (Woodington, "A Grammar," 44-45).

HACKL

1440

The Relative Marker sa 3·3 The indeclinable relative marker is used to express genitival periphrasis ('A of B') and to introduce relative, complement and adverbial clauses (see below).

sa

Interrogative Pronouns 3·4 The interrogative pronouns exhibit the typical distinction between animate and inanimate in Akkadian: /mannu/ "who"; /minu/ ''what". Other interrogatives include: /mind/ or /minam-ma/ "why': alongside /ana min£/ and contracted /ammen£/; rare /ekiinu/ or /ekd/ "where"; /ayyu/ (m.sg.) "which", /ayyituf (f.sg.), fayyutu/ (m. pi.) and fayatu/ (f.pl.), still infrequently found in NB, are no longer productive and can be considered archaisms. Indefinite Pronouns 3·5 The indefinite pronouns are /mamma/ "whoever, anyone" and /mimma/ "whatever, anything", as well as rare /manna'u/ "each", presumably to be connected with Aramaic /man hu/ "who is?". 58 Formation ofNouns and Adjectives 3.6 The formation of nouns and adjectives is based on the shared Semitic root and pattern system (nonconcatenat ive morphology); LB exhibits the same basic pattern of nominal inflection as MB and NB. However, the merging and loss of original case-endings, 5 9 the onset of which can be traced back to the end of the second millennium BCE, 60 led to the gradual simplification of the whole 61 inflectional system, as illustrated in Table 24.1. Reflexes of the archaic and otherwise unproductive locative are preserved in fossilized forms (e.g., libbu "adjacent to"). In the singular, the loss of these endings may also result in other phono62 logical changes in shape of the nouns and adjectives. For bases ending in a single consonant, the apocopated form is simply the base (!beluf > /bell); if the base ends in a doubled consonant, the doubling is either simplified, or an epenthetic vowel is added (!libbu/ > /lib/ or /libba!); bases ending in a sin-

58 59 6o 61

62

Written man-na-u and man-na-u, respectively (Hackl, Der subordinierte Satz, 29 n. 124). This is to be considered partly a result of the dropping of short final vowels (see above). Von Sod en, Grundriss, § 63e. Detailed analysis of the inflectional system appears in Michael P. Streck, "Die Kasusflexion im Status rectus des Neu- und Spatbabylonischen," in Babylonien und seine Naclzbam in neu- und spiitbabylonisclzer Zeit. Wissensclzaftliclzes Kolloquium aus Anlass des 75· Geburt· stags von]oaclzim Oelsner. ]ena, 2. und 3· Miirz 2007, ed. Manfred Krebernik and Hans Neumann (Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2014), 247-88. See the table in Streck, "Die Kasusflexion," 286.

LATE BABYLONIAN

TABLE 24.1

1441

Nominal inflection in diachronic perspective

Singular short vowels Singular contracted vowels Plural masculine Plural in -an Plural in -ut Plural in -at

Nom. Gen. Ace. Nom. Gen. Ace. Nom. Oblique Nom. Oblique Nom. Oblique Nom. Oblique

1st stage

znd stage

Final stage

/-u/ /-i/ /-a/ 1-u/ 1-£/ 1-a/ /-u/ 1-l/ /-iinu/ /-ani I /-utu/ /-uti/ /-iitu/ I-ati/

1-u/ /-i/ 1-u/ 1-u/

-o

/-£/

1-u/ /-e/ /-e/ l-ane/ l-ane/ 1-uti/ 1-uti/ /-iiti/ /-iiti/

(1-u/? >) -o -o

1-u/ 1-u/? and/-£/ 1-u/ /-e/ 1-e/ /-iin/ /-an/ I-ut I I-ut I /-at 1 /-at 1

BASED ON THE TABLE IN STRECK 2014, 285

gle consonant and the feminine infix -t- have final two-consonant clusters in the apocopated form (lsipirtu/ > /sipirtl); and bases of the type pars, pirs and purs have the shape paras, piris and purus (lkaspu/ > /kasap/, /sirku/ > /sirik/ and /sulmu/ > /suluml). As a consequence, the formal distinction between the free form (status rectus) and the bound form (status constructus) disappears in these instances. However, in this context it is noteworthy that the construct chain (with the nomen regens in the construct state) is no longer the standard way to express genitival relation. 63 Rather, the most common construction for expressing the genitival relation in NB, and even more so in LB, is periphrasis with sa (see above); exceptions include frozen forms and compounds, both of which are mostly written logographically. 3·7

Pronominal Su.ffixes

Pronominal suffixes occur with nouns in the construct state to indicate a relationship ofpossession. 64 Attached to the particle /attu-/, they form an indepen-

63 64

Woodington, "A Grammar," 214. On verbal pronominal suffixes, see below.

1442

HACKL

dent possessive pronoun. Occurrences of proleptic suffixes (before the relative marker /sal) are abundant but almost exclusively restricted to the name formula /mar( u)su sa PN I "son of PN". Their sharp rise in use in NB and LB is often considered an Aramaism.65 Depending on gender, number, case and the shape of the base, suffixes are either added directly to the construct state, or have a linking vowel which often affects the vowel pattern of the bound form:66 /-a/ (replacing older /-i/) 67 and 1-ya/ (after gen.) "my"; 1-ka/ or 1-ku/ ''your (m.sg.)"; 1-ki/ "your (f.sg.)"; 1-su/ "his"; /-sa/ or 1-su/ "her"; /-ani/ or /-ani/ (replacing older /-nil) "we"; 1-kunu/ "your (m. pi.)";* 1-kina/ "your (f. pi.)"; /-sunu/ "their (m.pl.)"; /-sinal or 1-sini/ "their (f.pl.)". Again, the variation in word-final vowels can be regarded as purely orthographic and results from the general loss of final short vowels in LB (and NB; see above). A case in point are alternating renderings of the 3.f.sg. ((sa) as against (su) ), suggesting an apocopated form /-s(a)/ which is formally identical with that for the m.sg. Numbers Numbers are almost invariably rendered (semi-)logographically, but syllabic writings do occur; 68 'one' and 'two' are adjectives (as are ordinals), the other cardinals nouns. The use of chiastic concord for the numbers 'three' to 'nineteen' common in earlier stages of the language (and elsewhere in Semitic) is no longer followed in LB (and NB). Hence, the gender of numbers is congruent with that of the item counted. 69 3.8

Prepositions Numerous prepositions, among which compounds with /libbu/, /muljlju/ and /panu/ have become widespread, express spatial and temporal relations or mark various semantic roles. They govern substantives and some of them also pronominal suffixes (e.g., /elat/ and /itti/; all compound prepositions), which are attached to them. In addition to nouns put in the construct state and combined with existing prepositions, newly formed prepositions include: /alla/ (< Iana la/) "beyond" and Iilla/ (< Iina la!) "without", with negation "only, nothing

3·9

65

66 67 68 6g

E.g., van Soden, Grundriss, 193 § 183k. But see Stephen A. Kaufman, The Akkadian Influences on Aramaic (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974), 131-32, and most recently Na'ama Pat-El, Studies in the Historical Syntax of Aramaic (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2012 ), 32, both of whom argue for an intra-linguistic development. The modifications before suffixes are basically those found in M Band NB. The nouns /abu/ and /abu/ constitute exceptions in that they exhibit the forms /abilya/ 'my father' and /abilya/ "my brother" (van Soden, Grundriss, 86 § 6si). E.g., Streck, Zahl und Zeit, 9 I § 12, 19 I § zo and 22 I § 25. Woodington, "A Grammar," 198, and Streck, Zahl und Zeit, 26-39 1 §§ 29-31.

LATE BABYLONIAN

1443

but"; /alldnu-/ (< /alla/ +/-an!) and /illdnu-1 (< /illa/ +/-an!), only with suffixes, e.g., eT 22 144: 23 /illdnussu/ "without it"; 70 /sa la/ ''without"; /ittalju/ (< /ina talje/, from the sixth century BCE on) "adjacent to"; /mald/(itu/ "after";71 and the rare Aramaism /La/, used either alone (replacing /ana/ and final) or in the compound /Lapan/ "before, (away) from". 72 Very rarely, /ana/ is also employed as direct object marker (nota accusativi, i.e., to reinforce the accusative as /la/ in Aramaic). 3.10

Conjunctions

Conjunctions serve to express connections between words, sentences, phrases and clauses: Coordinators like /u/ "and" (in some contexts, also "furthermore, as well"), /u/ "or" (also Ilu/ and /u k£ /;copulative coordinators are /u ... u/ "both ... and", as well as ILu ... Lu/ and Ik£ ... u k£ /,both "either ... or") and the enclitic particle /-ma/ 73 join items of equal syntactic importance; subordinators (including complementizers like /k£/ and younger /sa/ "that") introduce adverbial and complement clauses and join independent and dependent clauses. Particularly noteworthy is the juxtaposition of original /k£ I "when" (in preverbal position) and prepositional /kl/ "if";74 the increasing use of /sa/ to introduce final and consecutive clauses and to form secondary subordinators (e.g., /akl sa/ "as", Iina Libbi sa/ "because"); and the use of Ik£ I to reinforce wh-complementizers.7s Oaths (see below) are either introduced by /k£ ad£/ (positive promissory) or prepositional Ik£ I alone (all other types). 3.11 Discourse Markers Common discourse markers include /yanu/ "if not", /amur/ lit. "look", /enna/ and /adu/, both lit. "now", as well as compounds thereof, including /in(ni)gd/ (< /enna agd/, from the fourth century BCE on). The particle /umma/ (very rarely also /mal) serves as a quotative marker, either indicating the content of speech 70

71

72 73 74

75

Also note the exceptional use of the preposition Ibalul "without" in VDI 1955l4 no. 8: 13 (second century BCE) which is otherwise unattested in LB archival texts. Likewise, the older preposition lelil (instead of common lina mubbil) is found very rarely in LB. The term is also construed as an adverb or adjective (see MichaelJursa, "malDitu 'nach', 'nachher' in spatbabylonischen Urkunden und Briefen," Nouvelles Assyriologiques Breves et Utilitaires 2012: 102-3, and Johannes Hackl, "A New Attestation of the Term malDitu," Nouvelles Assyriologiques Breves et Utilitaires 2016: 87-88). Note furthermore UET 4 36: 1314 ki-i mal-DI-tu 4 itisig4 ina l[ib-bi], it-ta-sab-bu-u ... "if they live in (the house) after month m ... " and the occurrences in WZKM 108, 75, Nr. 13: 3· g. The etymology remains obscure. As far as can be judged, the compound Ilaqtitl "from" is restricted to NB. Attached to the end of any finite verb or, very rarely, other predicate. Hackl, Der subordinierte Satz, 22-27. Hackl, Der subordinierte Satz, 26 and n. m.

r 1444

HACKL

or thought, or serving related functions.7 6 The frozen form Iihassu/, technic ally the 3.m.pl. presen t form of /hasu/ "to exist", functio ns as an existen ce marker,77 1yanu/ as its negative counterpart. 78 Together with prepos itional phrases bearing pronom inal suffixes, they express the notion of (non-) possess ion (e.g., 1in a paniyayanu/ "I do not have"); the verb /isu/ "to have", on the other hand, and the corresp onding ingressive, /rasu/ "acquire", are (almos t) exclusively limited to stock phrases.79

Adverb s Most adverbs in Akkadian can be associated with nomina l and adjectiv al bases, prepos itions and pronouns. LB (as is NB) is charac terized by the numbe r of (newly formed) prepositional phrases and by the possibl e crossov ers in the functio n of these phrases, as not only are they used instead of simple prepositions (see above), but also as adverbs (e.g., Iana mubbi/ "for, against it, in this respect" and Iin a lib hi/ "therein, therefore"). Adverbs with locative - and terminative-adverbial endings (e.g., Ielenum/ "above" and Ibantis I "quickly") gradually disapp ear in LB. LB exhibits the usual distinc tion in the use of the two negatio ns full and /la/; deviations from the otherw ise clearly defined , and mutual ly exclusive, ranges of use are encoun tered in wh-que stions (!la/ may be replace d by /ul/ in LB) and in indepe ndent declarative clauses (lull is very rarely replace d by Ila/ in LB 80 ). 3.12

Verbs 3.13.1 Differences and Innovations Verbs in LB, includi ng the conjugated verbal adjective (stative ), follow the usual verbal inflection system of Akkadian. Significant differences and innovat ions are these: 3.13

76 77

Guy Deutscher, Syntactic Change in Akkadian . The Evolution of Sententi al Complementation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000 ), 82-84. Hackl, Der subordinierte Satz, 76 n. 28o; from the late fifth century BCE on, the verb /taru/, a calque of Aramaic /hawii/ "to be, to become", appears infreque ntly in this function, see Michael Jursa, "sa taturru, nochmals," Nouvelles Assyriologiques Breves et Utilitaires 2001:

100-1. 78

79 So

Rare variants of /yanu/ are /la ibassi/ and, in the Late Period, the Aramais m ful itur/ (see n. 77), e.g., OECT 9 38:19 ul i-tur bar-ru-ru "there is to be no complai nt" (late third century BCE). On the affirmative particle /ibassi/ (or, in question s, /ibassil) , see M.Jursa apud Caraline Waerzeggers, "On the initiation of Babylonian priests," Zeitschri .ftfor Altorientalische und Biblische Rechtsgeschichte 14 (2oo8): 29. In LB, the notion of possession can also be expressed by the verb /dagiilu/ lit. "to look" in the stative. Possibly influenc ed by Aramaic (Hackl, Der subordinierte Satz, 147-48).

LATE BABYLON IAN

1445

- As in NB, the /i-f prefix of the 3.f.sg. is replaced by the prefix fta-/ (MB /ipar-

ras/ > NB/LB /taparras/).

- D and S precative s of the 3.sg. and pi. have the prefix flu- f81 which yields ambiguit y in some instances due to conflation with first person forms. - The particle /if of the cohortati ve (1.pl.) is dropped (MB /i niprus/ > NB/LB [also NA] /niprus/). 82 - The vetitive is fully replaced by the prohibitive.83 - The verb /nadanu/ "to give" has the Akkado-Aramaic suppletive forms f(i)binna/ "give me" and /(i)binniini/ "give us", 84 as well as apocopated present, preterite and precative forms before pronomin al suffixes (linandassu/ < *I inandin-assu/ and Iiddakka/ < *I iddin-akka/), the latter of which are already found in NB. - The verb Iizuzzu/ (or /usuzzul) "to stand" exhibits an alternation of sand z in some forms and follows the vowel pattern of the regular D and Sstems (e.g., the G stative usuz "he stands"), 85 with the exception of the 3.m.pl. present form (/izzizzi1/ "they stand" instead of expected * /izzazzu/).86 - The tendency to choose analytic over synthetic structures to express reciprocity and reflexivity (by using adverbs ), 87 resulting in an almost complete loss of the Gt and Dt stems. 88 81 82

83 84 Ss 86

Instead of /li-1 which is still found in NB, albeit infrequently (usually in formal contexts, see Woodingto n, "A Grammar," 102). A possible exception is found in Grant Frame, "Two Sixth Century Court Documents from Uruk in the Collection of the Princeton Theological Seminary," in Zwischen Karawane und Orientexpress. Streifzuge durch jahrtausen de orientalischer Geschichte und Kultur. Festschrift for Hannes Gaiter, ed. Johannes GieEauf (Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2017 ), 112 (PTS 2348): 1S, reading i ni-id-du-uk, presumably for /i nidiik/ (or /i nidduk/?) lit. "let us kill (the date palm)". Hackl, Der subordinie rte Satz, 147. Johannes Hackl, "Zur Funktion von (i)binna im Neu- und Spatbabylonischen," Zeitschrift for Assyriologie 102 (2012): 100-14. Again, these forms are already found in NB. Michael P. Streck, review of Uruk. Urkunden aus Privathiiusem. Die Wohnlziiuser westlich des Eanna- Tempelbereiclzs. Tell 1: Die Archive der Sohne des Bel-u.Sallim, des Nabfl-usall im und des Bel-supe-m ubur, by Karlheinz Kessler, Zeitsclzriftfor Assyriologie 83 (1993): z8o-8z. For additional occurrence s see Michaela Weszeli, "Zur Buchfiihrung in Babylonien oder erneut zu usazzaz( m a) ... inamdin," Wiener Zeitschriftfor die Kunde des Morgenlandes 9S (zoos): 373-74.

87

E.g. fabiimis/ "each other, together" and /ramiinu/ or /ramannu/ "self", see Michael P. Streck, Die akkadische n Verbalstamme mit ta-Injix (Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 2003), 96-

88

Streck, Die akkadische n Verbalstiimme, 91; the Gtn and Dtn stems have likewise largely fallen out of use, Woodington, "A Grammar," 88-89, and Kouwenberg, The Akkadian Verb,

98.

421-22.

1446

HACKL

Tenses 3.13.2 The present (iparras) is used as elsewhere in Akkadian, the perfect (iptaras) as in MB and NB with only minor changes (see below). The usage of the preterite (iprus), on the other hand, displays significant differences vis-a-vis MB and, to a markedly lesser extent, NB, 89 all of which are at first restricted to epistolary sources; only from the second century BCE on, they gradually begin to appear in legal records, too. In positive main clauses denoting actions in the past, it is replaced by the perfect, whereas in negative ones, as well as in whquestions and subordinate clauses (both positive and negative), it remains in use throughout the entire period. In some subordinate clauses, the preterite is also used to mark anteriority in the future, alongside the more common perfect.9° Rather infrequently, it denotes positive commands and wishes in declarative sentences.91 In combination with the particle Ilu/, it rarely serves to 92 express the irrealis mood, a function already attested in NB. Earlier exceptions to the complementary use of the preterite and perfect are discussed in Streck (2001).93 Many examples occur in the documents of Judean exiles and West Semites in Babylonia. 94 Beyond stereotyped clauses and stock phrases (e.g., in quotations of direct speech in dialogue documents), and just as in contemporary letters, the perfect replaces the preterite to denote events in the past, e.g., CUSAS 28 31: 12-15 sal.anse ... ina SU11 PN PNz i-ta-bak (instead of /ibukl) "PN2 took the female donkey ... from PN". The most straightforward explanation of this observation is that the (Babylonian) scribes of these documents were rather poorly trained. This impression finds support in the high incidence of scribal errors and unorthodox spellings. Taken together, then, the scribes' limited proficiency in written LB must have served as a catalyst to enhance the process of diffusion of vernacular features into the formal language of contracts. The particular use of the perfect in (some of) these documents is thus

8g go 91 92 93

94

\

A detailed analysis appears in Streck, Zahl und Zeit, 120-47 11 § § 18-31. Hackl, Der subordinierte Satz, 84 and 91-94; see also the table in Streck, Zalzl und Zeit, 25556 11 Appendix 1. Streck, Zahl und Zeit, 127-28 I I § 25a. Hackl, "Irreale Satze". Streck, "Keilschrift und Alphabet," 149-53 11 § 33b-d. See also Johannes Hackl, "Babylonian scribal practices in rural contexts: A linguistic survey of the Documents of Judean exiles and West Semites in Babylonia (cusAS 28 and BaAr 6)," in U'cmdering Arameans. TheArameans outside ofSyria, ed. Angelika Berlejung, Aren M. Maeir and Andreas Schuele (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2017), 137-38. A large part of these documents is now published in CUSAS 28; many more will appear in BaAr 6 (see Hackl, "Babylonian scribal practices," 126 and n. 6, for further references). They date from the period 572-477 BCE.

LATE BABYLONIAN

1447

not due to the effects of interaction with non-native speakers, but results from the differences between written and spoken language.95 Subordinative and Pronominal Suffixes The subordinative /-u/ and the ventive suffixes /-a/ and 1-ni/ (with pronominal suffix also 1->inni/ [< *1-nim-ni/]) are mostly represented in writing, even though the former two are affected by the general tendency of dropping short final vowels (see above). Pronominal suffixes attached to finite verb forms mark pronominal direct or indirect objects. In contrast to earlier periods, LB (and NB) have generalized a single set of forms for both accusative and dative pronominal suffixes (rare by-forms, however, do occur). The latter are normally, but not necessarily, preceded by the ventive, as is more or less the case with the accusative pronominal suffixes; hence, their meaning must be inferred from the context: /-ni/ "me";96 1-ka/ "(to) you (m.sg.)"; 1-ki/ "(to) you (f.sg.)"; /-su/ "(to) him"; /-si/ "(to) her", frequently written (su), suggesting an apocopated form /-se)/ which is formally identical with that for the m.sg.; /-nasi/ "(to) us"; 1-kunusi/ (rare by-forms: 1-kunuti/, 1-kakinusi/ and 1-kasunuti/) "(to) you (m. pl.)"; */-kiniisi/ "(to) you (f.pl.)"; 1-sunuti/ "(to) them (m.pl.)"; 97 1-sinati/ "(to) them (f.pl.)". As a rule, verbs no longer take both a dative and an accusative suffix; 98 this is compensated for by analytic structures involving independent personal pronouns or pronominal suffixes that are attached to prepositional phrases. 3.13.3

4

Syntax and Morphosyntax

In verbal sentences, the basic word order is sov in LB (as elsewhere in nonliterary Akkadian), with occasional direct object fronting for topicalization. In verbless sentences, the subject also stands at the beginning, unless it is an independent personal pronoun, in which case it stands at the end. From the second century BCE on, LB word order appears to have been less rigid, as the order of constituents may be rearranged in several ways (e.g., vso ); most notably, prepositional phrases often occur clause-finally, e.g., BaM Beih. 2 113: 23-25 at-tu-nu en-na a-ga-a qi-ri-ba-a a-na mufJ-fJi ad-su sa a-ni-ni a-su-us-su ni-ip-pu-us "now, 95 96 97 98

Hackl, "Babylonian scribal practices," 136-38. The dative is expressed by the ventive suffixes /-a/ and 1-ni/. Rare by-form: 1-sunu/. Exceptions occur with the ventive/first person dative suffix: /iltaprakka/ (< * /iltapar-amkal) "he has sent you to me"; and very rarly with other suffixes, e.g., CT 22 224 =SbB 1 99: 19 /asapparkis(si) J (written a-sap-par-ki-is) "I will send her to you (f.sg.)".

HACKL

1448

treatm ent" (secyou yourself approa ch his father so that we may take care of his en subject and ond centur y BCE). 99 Agreement in numbe r and gende r betwe and genitipredicate is consistent. The typical constr uct chain is obsole scent . Nouns used as val relations are expressed peri phrastically with Isa I (see above) (see above). direct objects are very rarely preced ed by the object marke r /ana/ , as is the copula Indep enden t person al prono uns may be used optionally as a 2 202: 7-g PN case in NA and NB (and elsewhere in Semitic), e.g., CT 22155 = SbB er with Togeth r". sa a-kan- na-ku- nu ses-u-a su-u "PN who is there is my brothe , e.g., AJSL 16 (non-conjugated) verbal adjectives, they rarely replace the stative "the earlier ) /etrat/ d of 75 no. 19: 16-18 u-U-ti igi-tu4 ... e-tir-tu4 si-i-tu4 (instea in NB, and even promissory note is paid". The use of subordinate compl ement s res100 and infistructu more so in LB, is increased at the expense of parata ctic of which have nite constr uction s governed by various prepositions, the latter 101 LB (and NB) in as practically disapp eared in LB. A case in point are oaths, ntally, they also they are invariably expressed in a hypotactic manner. Incide 102 oath (i.e., the an of exhibit a special grammar. As a rule, the main clause sworn duties) is invocation of divine displeasure if the oath taker fails in their se (promispromi or oath) omitted, while the actual statem ent of fact (assertory uced by /k£/ and sory oath) is conveyed by means of a conditional clause introd inversion from an s dictate Ik£ ad£ I, respectively. The nature of this construction 103 e.g., YOS 313:21 -22 d+en u d+ag positive to negative statem ents and viceversa, has done anything ki-i mim-m a sa pir-ki ina lib-hi i-pu-su "By Bel and Nabu, if he done nothing fraudulent there, (may I be cursed)"> "By Bel and Nabu, he has fraudu lent there".

5

Lexicon

tic changes The inventory oflexems of LB (and NB) exhibits a pletho ra of seman ofBabylonian. and lexical innovations that distinguish them from earlier forms

99

100 101

102

103

requires further invesSee, preliminarily, Hackl, "Zur Sprachsituation," 212-21; the matter tigation. nicrte Satz, 140-41. Deutscher, Syntactic Change, 184-86, and Hackl, Der subordi a-sap-par-ki-is "if I go, I will a-ga-a a a-la-ki-i ina 18-19 But see, e.g., CT 22 224 = SbB 1 99: you". to send her Oaths and Curses. A Study Hackl, Der subordinierte Satz, 73-81, and Malgorz ata Sandow icz, erlag, 2012 ), 37-38, and in Neo- and Late Babylonian Legal Formulary (MUnster: Ugarit-V passim (compa re Hackl, review of Oaths and Curses). adi f is an exceptio n to this But note that the positive promiss ory oath introdu ced by fkl rule.

LATE BABYLONIAN

1449

In addition, there are several words that are restricted to either NB or LB (e.g., layyul "which" and llequl "take" are no longer used in LB).l04 However, as can be expected, the lexicon does not lend itself to draw a clear-cut distinction between NB and LB, as several of the "older" words continue in use throughout the larger part of the sixth century BCE (e.g., Ibantis I "quickly"),IOS The principles (generation mechanisms) and results encountered most frequently can be summarised as follows: 106 narrowing, e.g., Iameluttul "slaves (collective)" (< "people"); widening, e.g., lnaspartul "instruction" ( < message"); metaphor, e.g., lnasakul llto impose" ( < llto throw"); metonymy, e.g., lnikkassul assets" (< · · e.g., lb abb anu"I goo d" ( < * very goo d"); compounding, e.g., account ") ; meiOsis, lbele piqnetil Commissioners"; borrowing from Aramaic 107 and, to a markedly lesser extent, from Old Iranian, Arabic, Greek and Sumerian,l 0 8 These importations into LB (and NB) fall into two groups: non-integrated words, e.g., lbayl(u) 1 Catalan rajola ~~brick" (with metathesis).I23 gisru "bridge", gusuru ~~beam" (Sum. gis.ur) >Aramaic gisra and gasura ~~beam, bridge" > Andalusi Arabic jasr llbridge, beam" > Spanish jacena, Catalan jasser/na llbeam".l 24 kabiibu uta burn, char"> Aramaic D kabbeb uta char", kabbiibii burning, charring of meat" 125 > Arabic kabab llroasted meat" > Turkish kebap > German Kebab, English kebab, kabob (especially in shish kebab < Turkish §i§ keba11

bt).I26

Francke, 1994), which presents fewer words than does Corriente, but arranges them in part by semantic field, and focuses more on phonological details; he also, as the title indicates, includes Italian words derived from Arabic. Arabic words in Italian, as well as other Romance languages, are also presented in the earlier, more discursive work by Giovan Battista Pellegrini, Gli arabismi nelle lingue neolatine con speciale riguardo all'Italia (Brescia: Paideia, 1972). Still earlier, and broader in scope, is the classic work of Karl Lokotsch, Etymologisches Worterbuch der europiiischen (gemwnischen, romanischen und slavischen) Wart er orientalischen Ursprungs (Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 1927). For Arabic words in French, see Walther von Wartburg, Franzosisches etymologisches Worterbuch: Eine Darstellung des galloromanischen Sprachschatzes, Vol. 19: Orientalia (Easel: Zbinden, 1967 ). I have also consulted the old work of Henri Lammens, Remarques sur les mots franrais derives deL' arabe (Beyrouth: Imprimerie Catholique, 1890) and Hassane Makki's more recent but somewhat uncritical Dictionnaire des arabismes (Paris: Geuthner, zoos). For German, in addition to Lokotsch, there is the delightful monograph by Enno Littmann, Morgenliindische Worter im Deutschen (Tiibingen: J.C.B. Mohr-Paul Siebeck, 19242 ), and the recent, careful study of Raja Tazi, Arabismen im Deutschen: Lexikalische Tranferenzen vom Arabischen ins Deutsche (Berlin-New York: W. de Gruyter, 1998).

123 124 12S

126

For English, in addition to my own researches, we may mention Garland Cannon, The Arabic Contributions to the English Language: A Historical Dictionary (with the collaboration of Alan S. Kaye. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1994), which is however not always reliable, as noted by Ame Ambrose in his review in Wiener Zeitschriftfor die Kunde des Morgenlandes Ss (199s): 296-98. Corriente, Dictionary, 413-14; Kiesler, Worterbuch, 221-22, no. 139· Corriente, Dictionary, 334; Kiesler, Worterbuch, 193-94, no. 89. Kaufman, Akkadian Influences, does not list Aramaic kabbeb as an Akk. loan; since the root is not attested otheiWise in Semitic with the meaning "to char", however, a loan seems likely; so also E. Salonen, "Loan Words," 12. See Lokotsch, Worterbuch, 77 no. 972, for other European loans of Turkish kebap. Levantine Arabic kubba "ground meat with bulgur and spices", whence, e.g., English kibbelz, is either a backformation from kabab or the more common word kubba "ball, meatball" with a semantic development influenced by kabab.

1506

HUEH NERG ARD

ic alkib rft >Spa nish a( l)crebite kibrttu "sulfur" >Ara maic kibrita > Anda lusi Arab 127 t also >Tur kish kibrit >Albaand Portu guese alcrevite "sulfur". Arab ic kibrt h".128 nian kibrit, Rom anian chibrit, Italia n chibrit "matc astt/t /Sa > Medi eval Latin (see 12 marb a/usu 9 > Aram aic/S yriac > Arab ic marq gues e m areas( s )ita "marcasecti on g, abov e) > Span ish, Catal an, and Portu 131 Fren ch marcassite,I32 Gersite",130 Italia n marc asite (earl ier marc assita ), 133 man Markasit, English marcasite. miks and maks , whic h probably miks u "tax" >Ara maic miks a > Classical Arab ic on the harve st of unirrigated > Anda lusi Arab ic alma ks >Spa nish alma ja "tax lands in Murcia". 134 ical Arab ic miski n > Andalusi musk enu "com mone r" > Aram aic miske n > Class Cata lan mesqu{, Portuguese Arab ic misk{n >Spa nish mezq uino and misqu ino, 135 (earl y 14th centu ry; mischimesq uinho "mea n, petty"; c£ Italia n mesc hino 136 Fren ch mesq uin. 137 no in Dant e "servant"); Rom anian mesc hin, lusi Arab ic assuq > Spanish suqu "street, mark et" > Aram aic suq( a) > Anda and xoco "souk", Portuguese azog ue and zoco "market", Catal an assoc, ~oc, 138 cf. English and Fren ch souk.I39 a~ougue "butc her's shop, market"; verba l adjec tive $Uppu "thick, $Uppu "to press, rub down (esp. horses)", with $ippti/$uppa "carded wool" comp acted (of textiles)" proba bly > Aram aic a in many Euro pean lanand $ippata "mat "> Arabic $Ujfa (>Tu rkish ) >sof guages.140

Corrie nte, Dictionary, go. mi, 67. Lokotsch, Worterbuch, 93 no. 1171; Pellegrini, Arabis See above, n. 119. rbuch, 232-33, no. 159. 130 Corrie nte, Dictionary, 366; Kiesler, Worte 159. no. , 232-33 131 Kiesler, Worterbuch, Arveiller, Adden da au FEW XIX (Orientalia), ed. 132 Wartb urg, Worterbuch, 120-21; Raym ond 0. Max Pfister (Tiibingen: Max Niemeyer, 1999), 369-7 ch, Worterbuch, wg no. 1374. Lokots also See . 122-23 men, Arabis Tazi, 133 134 Corrie nte, Dictionary, 141. rbuch, 240-41, no. 173. 135 Corriente, Dictionary, 378; Kiesler, Worte . no.173 , 240-41 136 Kiesler, Worterbuch, ch, Worterbuch, 118 no. 1470; Makki, Dictionnaire, 137 Wartburg, Worterbuch, 19.127-28; Lokots 78-79· 138 Corriente, Dictionary, 25. 139 Makki, Dictionnaire, 107-8. · Wartb urg, Worterbuch, 1g.161; Lammens, Remar 140 See Lokotsch, Worterbuch, 153 no. 1935; of source Arabic men, 220-21. While the ques, 224; Makki, Dictionnaire, 106; Tazi, Arabis ized, the ultima te origin of the word in recogn been long has ges langua sofa in Europ ean from my etymo logy in Ameri can Heritage Akkad ian has not been noted previously (apart Dictionary, 2077b ).

127 128 129

THE LEGACY OF AKKADIAN

1507

sa resi "courtier, eunuch"> Aramaic srisii >Arabic saris, saris ''impotent"> Spanish sarasa, Portuguese sarar;a "effeminate",l4I tamkaru "merchant" > Aramaic taggarii > classical Arabic tiijir and thence tijara "commerce" (see section 7) > Andalusi Arabic attijara > Spanish atijara "ware, price, reward".l 42 tuppu "tablet" (Sum. dub) in Iranian *dipivahanam "document house" > Middle Persian diwiin (see section 3) >Arabic diwiin >Turkish divan 143 >French divan, Spanish divan, Catalan divan, Portuguese divii( o) "divan", German Diwan, English divan; 144 also > Spanish aduana, Catalan duana, duana "customs house", 145 Italian dog ana, dovana "customs (office)", French douaneJ46 ussu "foundation" (cf. Sum. us 8 ) > Aramaic ?ussii > Classical Arabic ?ass, ?uss, pl. al-?isiis > Andalusi Arabic alasas, Spanish alizace, Catalan alasset, Portuguese alice( r )ce "foundation( s )",14 7

Akkadian in Greek (and from Greek into the Languages of Europe)

11

It was noted above (section 2) that a small number of Akkadian words appear in Mycenean Greek: kitu "flax, linen" (Sum. gada) as ki-to, classical "linen, tunic", 14 8 and samassammil "sesame" as (pl.) sa-sa-ma, classical cr/;r:JCY.f.J.OV. The former of these, via Phoenician-Punic ktn, was borrowed into Latin as tunica

xrrwv

(with metathesis). Both the Greek and the Latin forms in turn yielded forms in

141 142 143

Maria del Carmen Hidalgo-Chacon Diaz, "El origen semitico de la palabra sarasa," Aula Orientalis 31 (2013): 173-79; my thanks to Enriquejimenez for this reference. Corriente, Dictionary, 207. On the reflexes of divan in European languages see also Pellegrini, Arabismi, 104-5, 42425.

144 145 146 147

148

See also Lokotsch, Worterbuch, 42 no. 526. Corriente, Dictionary, 279; Kiesler, Worterbuclz, 172, no. 53· See the detailed discussion in Wartburg, Worterbuch, 19-40-41 and in Arveiller, Addenda, 83-89; further, Kiesler, Worterbuch, 172, no. 53· Corriente, Dictionary, 45; Kiesler, Worterbuch, 143, no. 8. Other possible Akkadian sources of European words via Arabic are pa{ziiru in Spanish aifar and aifahar "pottery", from Andalusi Arabic aifab{uir (Corriente, Dictionary, 104; Kiesler, Worterbuch, 175-76, no. 57), if the Arabic goes back to Akkadian (but see above, n. so); and perhaps sikkatu "nail, peg" > Aramaic > Arabic as-sikkiit "the nails" > Spanish and Portuguese acicate "spur" (so Kiesler, Worterbuch, 292-93 no. 265), but the Arabic derivation of the latter is rejected by Corriente (Dictionary, 22). For bibliography on the Greek forms, see Robert S.P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2010 ), 2.1635.

HUEHN ERGAR D

Tl

1508

( ous ), chiton, and tunic. And mode rn Europ ean languages such as English chitin149 the many derivatives from cnjcraJ.lOV, of course, we have Latin sesam um, and 50 of the latter in mode rn languages.I ic;151 it is often diffiClassical Greek attest s several dozen loans from Semit ic langu age was the cult, however, to determ ine with any precis ion which Semit y phone tic indicators; source of any given loan into Greek. There are occas ionall so) was likely borrowed thus, for example, Greek xpucr6~ "gold" (Myce nean ku-ruHebre w fziiru$ rather from a langu age in which "gold" was prono unced as in 152 are good candi dates for than as in Akkad ian !Jurii$u. The following, however, :153 Akkad ian loans into Greek (in additi on to cnJCTCXJ.lOV and xtrwv)

149

150 151

al names, see, e.g., Helmut On Sesamum, sesameus, sesamoides in scientific (Latin) botanic n (Hamburg: Nikol, nname Pjlanze chen botanis der uch Genaust, Etymologisches Worterb 20053 ), 580-81. ary, 434· For the Ibero-Romance derivatives, see Corriente, Diction studies are Heinric h Lewy, Die See most recently Ros6l, Lehnworter. Import ant earlier er, 1895. Reprin t Hildesheim: Gaertn R. : semitischen Fremdworter im Griechischen (Berlin anciens emprunts semitiques plus les sur hes Georg Olms, 2004); Emilia Masson, Recherc in establi shing whether a nt inhere ties difficul The ). 1967 en grec (Paris: C. Klincksieck, are well illustra ted by the diverword is a loanword, and if so the source of the loan, s; Lewy (admit tedly often uncritgent numbe rs of Semitic loans posited by these scholar just over So (excluding the ical) lists several hundre d, Masson just over 40, and Ros6l review of Ros6l by Jerker helpful the See Semitic names of the letters of the alphab et). nmawr.edu/zo13/2013-n mcr.bry http://b 54 Blomqvist, Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2013.11. -54.html, accessed 17 January 2014. : Hjalma r Frisk, GriechisGreek etymological dictionaries also note loans from Semitic 70 ); Pierre Chantraine, ches etymologisches Worterbuch (Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 1962-19 Nouvelle edition avec mats, la langue grecque: Histoire des

Dictionnaire etymologique de

152 153

supple ment (Paris: Klincksieck, 1999); Beekes, Dictionary. Rosol, Lehnworter, 109-11. Greek loans from Akkadian: Rosol, Lehnworter, proposes a numbe r of other possible "bar, bolt"; Kaufman, Akkadian medelu Akk. from s perhap pp. 68-69: f.Lciv8CiAo~ "bolt", mandalos] could hardly be Influences, 72, conversely, states that "The Greek word [scil. derived from the Akkadian." sikinnu "fishing net"; unlikely, pp. 82-84: cray~v>J "large fishing net", perhap s from Akk. 42gb). S/z, since sikinnu occurs only in lexical texts (CAD sulpu "stalk; flute (or other pp. 85-86: cr.:V..my~ "war-trumpet", perhap s from either Akk. Words, 282); if the Greek Semitic Hoch, (citing "flute" Sib c reed instrum ent)" or Ugariti langua ge seems the more is indeed from Semitic, Ugaritic or anothe r Northw est Semitic likely source. an) origins for various Greek, A numbe r of (generally implausible) Akkadian (or Sumeri articles by Paul Haupt, e.g., short several in Latin, and modern words were propos ed Society 28 (1907 ): 108-n; id., l Orienta an Americ the of l "The Etymology of Cabinet," ]ouma Notes 33 (1918): 432-34; id., ge Langua Modem " 'Barrel', and 'Tun' "The Sumeri an Origin of "English 'coop' = Assyrian 'quppu'," ibid.: 434·

n

1509

THE LEGACY OF AKKADIAN

ga$$U ~~gypsum" (Akl yvtj;o~ llgypsum";154 Greek to Latin gypsum, and thence to various modern languages such as Italian gesso, German Gips, English gypsum; also into Andalusi Arabic jabs> Spanish aljez, Catalan algeps plaster", and perhaps Portuguese giz.155 gidlu String (of garlic)" > &A.yt~ and yiA.yt~ llgarlic", via a pre-Greek intermedi11

11

ary.I56 elippu boat" perhaps> A.ip.f3o~ boat". 157 kalu ((lamentation-priest" (cf. Sum. gala) > ya.Uo~ (a priest of Cybele ),158 kuddimmu (Assyrian) llcress" perhaps> xapoap.ov (a cress)";159 from the Greek is Latin cardamomum and then modern terms such as English cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum; also used to refer to various species of the genus 11

11

11

Amomum). manu talent" > p.va. mina";160 Greek to Latin mina, and thence to modern lan11

11

guages.161

154

Rosol, Lehnworter, 34-35, notes that there are no other examples of Semitic$ reflected in Greek loans as lj;; that yu!J;or is a loan from Semitic is generally acknowledged, how-

ever. Corriente, Dictionary, 120; Kiesler, Worterbuch, 194-95, no. 91. G.J. Kroonen, "On the Etymology of Greek &Aytr and ytAytr 'garlic': An Akkadian Loanword in Pre-Greek," journal of Indo-European Studies 40 (2012 ): 289-99. 157 The word ?el(l)pii in Syriac and other Aramaic dialects is generally also considered an Akkadian loan; Kaufman, Akkadian Influences, 48, however, suggests that "perhaps it is an old culture word." In either case, if the Greek is related, as suggested by Rosol, Lehnworter, 59-60, the phonology of the Greek (mb vacp&a and naphth a in Latin and modern 163 it is possible, pean languages,I 62 naft in Middle and Moder n Persian; term_164 though it seems less likely, that *napt- is a commo n Semitic xa&ap6~ qataru, D qutturu "to fumigate" and/or qutaru "fumigant" probab ly> lly, eventua (and, "clear, pure", xa&afpw "to purify", and xa&apf16~ ''purification" 65 moder n words such as English catharsis ).1 66 similiigo samidu "(a type of groats)" > CJ£f1{5aA.t~ "fine flour".l Latin simila and ,I67 may be borrow ed from Greek or directly from a Semitic langua ge (Punic?) 16S From . (smida) Syriac into since Akkadi an samidu was also loaned , e.g., From Latin are derived forms such as English semolina, Germa n Semmel, etc. 162 16 3

164 165 166

167

For modern languages, see Lokotsch, Worterbuch, 1Z4 no. 153S. ,"' journal of the See already Paul Haupt, "The Babylon ian Origin of the Term 'naphtha Greek vcirp&a is 6o. rter, Fremdwo , American Oriental Society 37 (1917): z1; also Zimmern ter. The Greek Lehnwor Ros6l, or es, Recherch Masson, not discusse d in Lewy, Fremdworter, z.zg4, and ch, Worterbu Frisk, 73S, aire, Dictionn ntraine, etymolog ical dictiona ries-Cha opean Indo-Eur an which for naft, Persian from vciq;&a derive z.1oooy, Beekes, Dictionar *nabIranian Old ed etymolog y is suggested, viz., *nebh- "cloud, vapor", yielding an unattest In naft. Persian Modern and da, cognate with Avestan napta- "damp", and then Middle im ter Lehnwor n iranische und indischen a thorough recent treatmen t, Manfred Brust, Die tat Innsbruck, Griechischen (Innsbru ck: Institut fiir Sprache n und Literatu ren der Universi the source of be cannot naptu Akk. that grounds ical zoos), 471-77, argues on phonolog the Persian. But from derive must Greek the that and vdq;&a Greek or naft either Persian "damp". Further, when it seems unlikely that crude petroleu m would be singled out as the source of naphas it is recalled that Babylonia was renowne d in the ancient world gy 10, zoo4: 437), Assyriolo der on tha (as noted, e.g., by Marten Stol, "Petroleum," Reallexik nce. And coincide for close too becomes tu nap the similarit y of the Iranian forms to Akk. BabyloOld in already attested is and n, formatio Semitic since naptu is a perfectly good Salonen, that curious thus is (It d. loanwor a is it that suspect to nian, there is no reason of unknow n origin.") "Loan Words," u, believed that "Naptu is in Akkadia n a foreign word phonetic ally modibut More likely, then, Akk. naptu was indeed borrowe d into Iranian, to determine possible not probably fied slightly by folk etymology. As for Greek vdq;&a, it is source or Semitic iary intermed an through whether the Akkadia n word entered Greek 1S. Worter, iindische Morgenl through Iranian. Cf. Littmann , latter considered an Note, e.g., Syriac neptii (and nappiitii "lantern") and Arabic naft. (the 147). atz," "Wortsch Schall, by Akkadia n loan Term" (B.A. Honors William Bibee, "Ka&ap6~: The Semitic Origin of a Greek Purificat ion Thesis, The University of Texas at Austin, zooS). rschung sS (1930 ): z8Heinrich Lewy, "Etymologien," Zeitschrift for vergleichende Sprachfo accepted ; so also generally is n derivatio this Sg-go, ter, zg. As noted by Ros6l, Lehnwor the source for was word "Greek the that addition in notes who Beekes, Dictionary, z.13zo, "wheat"." )dali n semi( ian] Georg[ Meillet, DictionChantrai ne, Dictionnaire, gg6; cf. the note of Alfred Ernout and Antoine 4 [ 2001] ), 6z6a: "Sans doute 19S5 ck, de la langue la tine (Paris: Klincksie

naire etymologique

16S

mot emprunt e sous l' Empire, en me me temps que le produit." difficulties if Aramaic Kaufman, Akkadian Influences, go with n. 304, notes phonolo gical

THE LEGACY OF AKKADIAN

1511

Aramaic the word passed into Arabic as samid (and samio), and Andalusi Arabic assam[d yielded Spanish acemite "semolina".l 69 Also into Turkish as simit "pretzel"> Romanian simit, Italian simit "specie di dolce".I7o su?alu "(cough with) phlegm" perhaps> ~fa).ov "spittle, saliva"; M. Geller calls this "the only example of a possible Akkadian etymology for a Greek disease name."171

12

Akkadian in Other Languages

A few Akkadian words ultimately found their way into Armenian, most not directly but via Urartian, Iranian, Aramaic, or Greek. Fairly secure examples include aguf "brick" (agurru ), knik{ ''seal" (Akk. kaniku ), mak{s "customs" (miksu), p{oxem "change" (pu!J!Ju). 172 Turkish words that are originally Akkadian (or Sumerian), such as divan, kebap, kibrit, Nisan, and simit, have been noted above in sections 1, 3, 10, and 11.

13

"New" Akkadian Words

A few Akkadian words have entered modem languages directly as the result of Assyriological scholarship. The best-known example is undoubtedly ziq( q )urratu (from zaqaru "to raise, build high"), first attested, e.g., in English as

169 170 171 172

samida is a loan from Akkadian rather than cognate. However, the Ugaritic form cited there is no longer considered to be related, and only Akkadian provides a plausible etymology for the noun. Corriente, Dictionary, 18; Kiesler, Worterbuch, 330. Lokotsch, Worterbuch, 144 no. 1814; Pellegrino, Arabismi, 68. Markham J. Geller, "East Meets West: Early Greek and Babylonian Diagnosis," Archiv for Orientforschung 48-49 (2ooo-2oo1): sS. Note also navt' "naphtha", from Iranian; see above, n. 163. Other shared vocabulary, such as Akk. salluru and Armenian sa/or "medlar, plum", probably entered the two languages from a third source. Many other alleged Akkadian words in Armenian have been proposed; see, however, the more sober evaluations of G.B. Djahukian, "Akkadian Loan Words in Armenian," Annual of Armenian Linguistics 3 (1982): 1-12; Igor M. Diakonoff, "Ancient Near Eastern Substrata in Armenian," Annual ofArmenian Linguistics 3 (1982): 13-18;john A. C. Greppin, "'Akkadian' Loan Words in Armenian," Annual of Armenian Linguistics 10 (1989): 73-84; id., "The Survival of AncientAnatolian and Mesopotamian Vocabulary until the Present," journal ofNear Eastern Studies so (1991): 203-7.

~

HUEHNE RGARD

ziggurat in 1877 (according to the Oxford English Dictionary). Others such as Jshtar173 and Enlil, 174 and, of course, Akkadi an.

are names,

Appen dix: Words of Uncert ain Akkad ian Origin words in Akkadian loans have been propos ed as the sources of many other le sugplausib various languages. The following list contain s some of the more an origin gestions; even in some of these, however, the probab ility of an Akkadi 5 noted_I7 is is not great, and in several instanc es a more likely source Aramaic abaru "lead" and anaku "tin" are said to be the sources of, e.g., Arabic ?ab( b )ar( a), Arabic ?abar "lead" and Hebrew ?iinak, Syriac ?anka, that orter Kultunv be may ?anuk, Classical Ethiopic na?ak "tin". But these also entered at least some of these languages separat ely (e.g., for "tin" note Sanskrit naga).176 the source apsu (Sum. abzu) is fondly conside red by many Assyriologists to be such as words n moder of thus of Greek C1.(3urJrJO~ and late Latin abyssus, and privative abyss, abysmal. But C1.(3urJrJO~ has a good Greek etymology, viz., the a- plus (3urJrJ6~ (an infrequ ent variant of (3u&6~) "bottom", i.e., "bottomless". as Araazupiru has been suggested as the source of words for "saffron", such gy bic zaifara n; but the editors of CAD note that"( t ]he traditio nal etymolo the or -plant (saffron) is not suppor ted by the use made of either the azupiru azupiru-like plants." 177

173 17 4

See also above, n. 153. "Tin and Lead: The See A. Salonen, "Substrat- und Kulturworter," 5-6; Benno Landsberger, 285-96; Helmut (1965): 24 Studies Eastern Near of journal ," Vocables Two Adventu re of des 12. Urkunde n Freydank, "Fernhan del und Warenpr eise nach einer mittelas syrische Honour in Studies East: Near Jahrhun derts v.u.Z.," in Societies and Languag es of the Ancient Miiller, "Gold, Silber ofl.M. Diakono ff (Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 1982), 64-75; Manfred des 2.jahrtausends Halfte zweiten der wahrend tamien und Blei als Wertmes ser in Mesopo v.u.Z.," ibid., 270-78. 177 CAD A/2, 531a.

175 176

I

I

the form /Star that is Semitic *)a8tar- is probably of Indo-Eu ropean origin ( *lz2 ster-); but n. Akkadia course of is s language modem now known in many ation of Semitic *?ilOn the Semitic etymology of Enlil, actually Illil < *?il-?il-, i.e., reduplic the Evolution Tracing : "god", see Piotr Steinkeller, "On Rulers, Priests and Sacred Marriage ed. Kazuko East, Near Ancient of Early Sumeria n Kingship," in Priests and Officials in the 36. n. 114 1999), Watanab e (Heidelberg: Universitatsverlag C. Winter,

I

THE LEGACY OF AKKADIAN

1513

barraqtu "(a gem)" is cited as a possible source of Greek O"f.Uipay5o~, whence Medieval Latin esmeralda and modem European words such as English emeraldP 8 Also suggested as the origin of O"fJ.&.pay5o~ is Sanskrit marak( a )ta-, but the latter too may be a loan from Semitic, given the plausible Semitic etymology, viz., the root b-r-q "to flash, lightning"P9 More problematic is the fact that Akk. barraqtu appears only in Neo-Babylonian. The word also appears in West Semitic, as in Hebrew biireqet and Syriac biirqii; thus another Semitic language may be the source of the Akkadian, Greek, and Indic terms. epattum "(a costly garment)", attested only in Old Assyrian, with plural epiidiitum, is sometimes suggested as the source of Hebrew ?epod "ephod, priest's garment" and Ugaritic lpd.l 80 The words may be cognate, however. guljlu "bdellium" or "antimony" is commonly cited as the source ofWest Semitic *ku~l (e.g., Syriac ku~lii, Arabic ku~l, Classical Ethiopic kwa~l) and denominal verbs meaning llto paint the eyes" (the same languages, and Hebrew); Arabic al-ku~l, as is well known, is in turn the source of Medieval Latin alcohof.lBI But guljlu is not a common word and is attested only from Standard Babylonian; further, it probably denoted bdellium", 182 and thus a significant semantic change must also be posited to connect it with the West Semitic terms. Akk. guljlu may, however, have been the source of Sanskrit guggulu llbdelli um."183 ljarilbum Carob", attested from Old Akkadian, is obviously connected with Aramaic ~arrubii and Arabic ljarrilb with the same meaning, but whether the West Semitic terms are loans from Akkadian or cognate is difficult to ascertain. Note also, of course, European borrowings of the Arabic, such as Medieval Latin carrubium, English carob. 11

11

178 179 180

181 182 183

See Chantraine, Dictionnaire, 1062; Frisk, Worterbuch, 2.747; Beekes, Dictionary, 2.1365-66. So Manfred Mayrhofer, Etymologisches Worterbuch des Altindoarischen (Heidelberg: C. Winter, 1992-2001 ), 3.389. The connection with Hebrew ?epod is considered "rather doubtful" by Cecile Michel and Klaas R. Veenhof, "The Textiles Traded by the Assyrians in Anatolia (19th-18th centuries BC)," in Textile Terminologies in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean from the Third to the First Millennia BC, eds. Cecile Michel and Marie-Louise Nosch (Oxford: Oxbow, 2010 ), 232. For Ugaritic lpd, see Gregorio del Olmo Lete and Joaquin San martin, A Dictionary of the Ugaritic Language in the Alphabetic Tradition, translated and edited by Wilfred G.E. Watson (Leiden-Boston: Brill, 2015 3 ), 85-86. Stotz, Handbuch, 62o; Latham, "Arabic (1)," 44· Daniel T. Potts et al., "Gul].lu and Guggulu," Wiener Zeitschriftfor die Kunde des Morgenlandes 86 (Festschrift Bans Hirsch, 1996): 291-305. Ibid.

!'

HUEHNE RGARD

1514

hassinnu ~~ax" is related to Aramaic terms such as Hatran /:z$)ln? and Syriac has. , ~lnii and to Arabic lja$fn and Classical Ethiopic ljw;($ )in, all meaning :~~". But it is not clear that the West Semitic terms are borrow ed from Akkadian·' they may be cognates (but the different shapes suggest otherwi se) or, more 184 likely, reflexes of an ancient Kultunvort. Greek &~fvr; may be a loan from Semitic,1B5 but not necessarily from Akkadian. (y)aspu ~]asper" is related to Hebrew yas(a )pe, Syr. yaspe, Arabic yasb.IB6 The unusual phoneti c shape of the Akkadian word, however, indicate s that it is not the source of the other Semitic terms or, accordingly, of Greek lao7nr, 187 whence Latin iaspis, English jasper, etc. kamilnu CUmin(?)", is attested from Old Akkadia n on. Similar words appear in other Semitic languages: Ugaritic and Phoenic ian kmn, Hebrew kammon, Arabic kammiln. Sumerian, too, has gamun, attested in Ur 111 and Old Babylonian texts.1BB Mycenian Greekku-mi-no (pi. ku-mi-na) and Greekxu,uc89 vov may derive from a Semitic source.l Since cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) Asia,"I9o it ~~is believed to be indigen ous to the Mediter ranean and Western is not necessarily a strictly Akkadian (or Sumeria n) word originally. Forms such as English cumin, derived from Arabic or Greek, appear in many modern languages.l 91 killlu Crown" may be the source of Aramaic kalif( a), whence Arabic ?ikllf.l92Jt is equally possible that the Akkadian and the Aramai c are cognate, however.I93 kuppu eel" or ~~(an eel-like fish)" has been suggested as the source of Greek as English xwf3c6~ ugudgeon", whence Latin gob ius and modem words such 44

44

44

184 185

186 187 188

189 190 191 192 193

Akkadian Salonen, "Substrat- und Kulturworter," 8-9; id., Agricultura, 150-55; Kaufman, "ax". garzen Hebrew as such terms are related also Influences, 54· Presumably that the Ros6l, Lehnworter, 21-23. Note, however, Beekes, Dictionary, 1.111: "I propose Latin ascia, also Note " language. Anatolian an from loans are words Greek and Semitic perhaps from acsia via metathesi s, and Germanic words such as English ax. Arabic yasb entered Spanish as alioj "marble"; Corriente, Dictionary, 132.

See Ros6l, Lehnworter, 40. University Ake Sjoberg, Erle Leichty, and Steve Tinney, The Sumerian Dictionary of the dex. /epsd1/in upenn.edu .museum. http://psd nia, Pennsylva of University the Museum of html, s.v., accessed 21 May 2015. , suggesting Ros61, Lehnworter, 55-56. Beekes, Dictionary, 1.802-3, however, is uncertain " Aegaean). the (or Anatolia "from that both Greek and Semitic could have the word of University London: (ChicagoWorld the of Spices Ben-Erik van Wyk, Culinary Herbs & 126. 2013), Gardens, Botanic Royal Chicago Press-Kew: See, e.g., Lokotsch, Worterbuch, 84 no. 1046. , 94· From Arabic ?iklll, Medieval Latin and Spanish alecrim; Corriente , Dictionary Kaufman, Akkadian Influences, 63-64.

THE LEGACY OF AKKADIAN

1515

gobyJ94 Since eels (or the like) are so unlike gudgeons and gobies (small, spiny-finned fish), however, the Akkadian and Greek are probably unrelated. kupru "pitch", either the source of, or cognate with, Hebrew koper, Syriac kuprii, Arabic kujr. 195 kuribu "(a protective deity)" has long been compared with both Hebrew karllb "cherub" and Greek ypvtj; "gryphon".l96 But since the latter words do not have the same vowel pattern as the Akkadian word (puris, thus a diminutive?), they are probably not loans. (It is perhaps also worth noting that kuribu is relatively late-Standard Babylonian and Neo-Assyrian-and not very common.) ladiru "(a legume)" is very likely related to A.&Supo~ "(a fodder legume)", as suggested by M. Stol;197 but it is unclear whether one is borrowed from the other, or whether both reflect a Wandelwort. The Greek A.&Supo~ served as the basis for a scientific genus name, Lathyrus,l 98 and has also entered modern languages in forms such as English lathyrism (a disease of humans and animals caused by eating legumes of that genus). puglu "radish", attested from Old Akkadian, is probably cognate with Aramaic puglii and Arabic fujl, but the latter may instead be loans of the Akkadian.I99 qanu "reed" is connected with similar words elsewhere in Semitic, such as Hebrew qiine; it seems likely that the words are cognates, reflecting a ProtoSemitic form *qanaw-, but it has also been suggested that the other Semitic

194

195 196

197

198 199

Wolfram van Sod en, Bibel und alter Orient: Altorientalische Beitriige zum Alten Testament, ed. Hans-Peter Miiller (Berlin-New York: Waiter de Gruyter, 1985), 76-77. Beekes, Dictionary, 1.812, cites the same proposal in Edzard J. Furnee, Die wichtigsten konsonantischen Erscheinungen des Vorgriechischen (1972), 328, although Beekes himself prefers to see xw(3t6~ as more likely "a loan from a Mediterranean language." Mankowski, Loanwords, 71-72. The literature on this is extensive. As noted by Frans A.M. Wiggerman, "Mischwesen. A," Reallexikon der Assyriologie 8 (1994): 243, kuribu is probably "griffin", and is not to be connected with kariibu "to bless" (though his suggestion to connect it with Semitic *giirib"raven" is also unlikely). For Greek ypvlfJ, see inter alia, Rosol, Lehnworter, 32-34; Beekes, Dictionary, 1.289 (s.v. ypun6~). Marten Stol, "Beans, Peas, Lentils and Vetches in Akkadian Texts," Bulletin of Sumerian Agriculture 2 (1985): 132. See also J. Nicholas Postgate, "Some Vegetables in the Assyrian Sources," Bulletin of Sumerian Agriculture 3 (1987 ): 95-96; further, Eva Christiane CancikKirschbaum, Die mittelassyrischen Briefe aus Tall Seb-lfamad (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1996), 101-2, on elmes(t)u, probably "chick pea (Cicer arietinum)", as the likely Assyrian equivalent of Babylonian ladiru. Genaust, Worterbuch, 329. So, e.g., Corriente, Dictionary, 305, with reference to Portuguese fugel "(old name of the radish)".

HUE HNERGAR D

1516

terms were borrowed from Akkadian. Greek xavva and xavwv are both loans from Semitic (and thus, perhaps, ultimatel y from Akkadian);zoo these yielded Latin canna and canon, and a host of modern words, such as English

cane, canister, canon, cannoli, canyon. qunna/ubu, attested only in Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian, may denote hemp or cannabis,zm and is no doubt related to similar terms in Semitic such 202 But the as Syriac qannapa and Arabic qu/innab and to Greek xavvaf3t~. original source of the plant (Cannabis sativa L.) and thus, probably, of all of 203 these terms, is greatly debated. quppu "(a basket or chest)" is related to Aramaic qupp(at)a, Arabic quff(a) "basket'' (Iraqi guffa), and it has been suggested that these are borrowed from Akkadian.20 4 The terms are probably cognate, however, reflecting a ProtoSemitic term, *qupp(at)-. 205 Greek x6rptvo~ "large basket", if it is a loan from 207 Semitic, 20 6 need not have been borrowed from Akkadian . $arpu "refined (of silver)'' is the verbal adjective of $arapu "to refine (metals)"; in Middle Assyrian, $arpu also simply denotes "silver", while the form $Urpu in a few Late Bronze peripher alAkkad ian texts (Alalal), Qatna, Ugarit) also means "silver". It is possible that $arpu or a related form is the source of Sabaic $rj "silver"; 208 but since the root *$-r-p "to smelt, refine" is corn-

200 201

202

Masson, Recherches, 47; Rosol, Lehnworter, 44-45, 45-46; cf. Beekes, Dictionary, 1.636: "From Babylonian-Assyrian." Von Soden in AHw (g28) simply glossed "Hanf", while the editors of CAD Q (306) were less confident, glossing only"( an aromatic)", though suggesting, in the discussion section, "[p ]ossibly the seed or flower of hemp (Cannabis)." From Greek are derived, e.g., Latin cannabis and Germanic *hanapa- (whence English

hemp, etc.). 203

204

205

See Elisabeth J.W. Barber, Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages with Special Reference to the Aegean (Princeton , NJ: Prince ton University Press, 1991), especially pp. 36-38, "The Archaeolinguistics of Hemp";Jam es P. Mallory and Douglas Q. Adams, Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (London: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997),

266-67. My thanks to Patrick Taylor for these references. E.g., Corriente, Dictionary, Ss (on Portuguese alcofa "wicker basket"), who says that Akk. quppu is "of Sum. origin." If that were the case, then clearly qupp- elsewhere in Semitic would be borrowed from Akkadian; but quppu is not a Sumerian loan. So Kaufman, Akkadian Influences, 86. Kaufman notes, however, that the meaning "collection box", attested in several Aramaic dialects, is probably due to Akkadian influence.

206 207

Thus Rosol, Lehnworter, 52-53. Greek x6cptvo~ was borrowed into Latin as cophinus, whence English coffin and coffer, Ger-

zo8

So Zimmern, Fremdworter, 59· Arabic $arif "silver" is perhaps from Sabaic or another Ancient South Arabian language.

manKoffer.

THE LEGACY OF AKKADIAN

1517

mon Semitic, it is equally possible that a similar semantic development yielded a word for "silver" independently in both languages. Related occupational nouns are found in several Semitic languages: Biblical Hebrew $6rep "smelter, refiner, gold- or silversmith", Syriac $arriipii and Arabic $arraf and $ayraf(i) "money-changer" and, probably, Neo-Assyrian $arriipu "goldsmith";209 again, none of these need be loans. These forms, including Akl 1078, 1080, 1081 Kurigalzu I I 1052ng1, 1056, 1057n108, 1073, 1078+m48, 1082+mss, 1147 Kuzzubtu 492n71 La'um 1188, 1189 Lab'u 1281 Ui-nibas-ilu 498 Laodice 1466n31 La-qlpu 498n112, ms Le'ea 1399 Ubiir-nias 498 Lipitestar 48n6o, 1028, 1029 Lucian 103+n5 Lugalanda 666 Lugal-Ane 405 Lugalkiginedudu s6m146 Lugalra 524 Lugal-usumgal s66m6s, 568+m71, 637 Lugalzagesi s6o, s61 +lll46, s8sn212, 666 Lu-ul]-iS-an 562 Lumma 526n41 Mad-gimil-Samas 494 Mananaya 995 Ma-an-ba-lum-dDa -gan 181 Manistusu 542, 544n92, 556, 557, 562,568, 572+m84, 58g, 631 Maniya 752n2o8 Marduk-apla-iddin a I 1066, 1068, 1075, 1079, 1086 Marduk-nadin-al]l ]e 1168 Marduk-na~ir

994 Marduk-sapik-zeri 1399 Mar-esre 168n78 Masum u88, 1189, ug2, 1993n83 Mati-ilu 751n201, 1364 Meli-Sipak 1046n49, 1067, 1069, 1075,1078, 1080, 1082lll57' 1085 Merodach-Baladan 457n366, 1425 Mesag 288m31, 524, 625n310, 638 Mesilim 526ll41, 527ll43, 548 Menippos (Mina-epus) 103n5 Mlna-epus: see Menippos

INDEX OF PERSONAL NAMES

1537

Minam-epus-ili n86 Missu?a 181 Mukallim 500 Murasu 1402 Mursili 1 1039 Musallim soo Musallimu 5oom23 dMUS.EREN.ESSANA.DINGIR Musezib-Marduk 1399 Musteser-Marduk 496mm Mutakkil-Nusku 496m01 Mut-Bisir n88, n89 Muti-baSti 480 Muwattalli 11 1273n41

Nidnat-Sin 4g3 Nidnusa 492 Nimer-Sin u8gn6 4 Ninu'aye 1158, n6o Ninurta-apil-ekur u 50 Ninurta-kudurri-u~ur

1330

Nabonassar 1400 Nabopalassar 232 Nabu-al].u-iddin 500 Nabu-dayyanu (Nbwdyn) 149m44 Nabu-ka"in-aplu 498 Nabu-mukin-zeri 1401, 1403 Nabu-musetiq-uddu 500 Nabu-remanni (Nabu-rewanni, see also Ncx~o[ u ]ptucxv) 1407n46, 1436 Nabu-rewanni (Nbwrwn): see Nabu-remanni Ncx~o[ u]ptucxv (see also Nabu-remanni) 1407ll46 Nabu-suma-iSkun 1400,1424 Nabu-upal].l].ir soo Nadin 500 NalJ.-ili 500 Nanna-iS-me-an-ni 1056 Naql'a 482n28 Na-ra-am-dEN.ZU 405, 599 Naram-Sin 56, 405, 543, 544n92, 554, 555, 557, 558m36, 562n150, 567n68, 616,619, 632,633ll326,636,637,665,784n375· 1316n4, 1328n66 Na~ir 500 Na~iru 5oom23 Nazi-Maruttas 1057, 1062,1065,1073, 1074, 1078, 1082 Nazumu 8om454, 866n703 Nbwdyn: see Nabu-dayyanu Nbwrwn (Nabu-rewanni): see Naburewanni Nebukadnezzar 11 1366, 1399, 1401m9 Nergal-al].a-iddin 499nu8 Nergal-usezib 500

1424mog Ninurta-lukin 488n52, 497 Ninurta-ra'im-zeri 500 Ninurta-uballissu n68+ms6 Niqmaddu 11 1242m76, 1278, 1279 Niqudu soo Ni-wa-ar-Me-er 1122n72 NI-zi 666 Nu-pi-l-lum 562m51 Nu-ur-DINGIR 595n241 Nu-ur-ma-ti-su 595n241 Nur-Sin n78n7 Nur-Mer n22n72 Nur-Samas 10o6nsg PaddatiSsu 1278 Papanikri 94 Pa-sa/sa-al].-DINGIR 629 Philip 111 Arrhidaios 1468n42 Pi-li-li 562m51 Pilsa-11 799n446 Pudul].epa 1282, 1285, 1294 Pul]l]uru 500 PU.SA-pi-li 562ni51 Pusu-ken m3 Puzri 799n446 Puzur-Assur uo4n4, nog Puzur-Assur m 1144, 1145n38 Puzur-Insusinak 1328n66, 1339 Puzur-Suen mo Qaqqadanum 499m2o Quradum s8g Ra'im-zeri soo Ra-bi-a-sa-dgu.la 1056 Rabia-sa-Ninurta 1052 Rabiat-awat-Sin 495 Ral]imesu 1469n48 Ramesses 11 1282, 1294 Rap'anu 1219n3g, 1226n71 Rasapabu 1219n39 Remanni-Bel 49on63 Remut 49on63

1538

Rlbatu n68+m56 +m58 Rim-Sin 231, 347n216 Rim us 23on8, 544ng2, 556, 562m48, 564, 572m84, 585n214 Saggi'u 1150 Salmanu-eriS 1425+nn2 Sam1dum 492 Sammeta r 1191, 1192+n79 Samsi-Addu 347+n216, 348+n217, 1000, 1002ll49, 1015, 1110, 1187, n88, 1189, 1190, 1197, 1198, ngg, 1202 Samsu-di tana 1182 Samsu-iluna 1003, 10o6n5g, 1010, 1022, 1023, 1029 Samu 492 Sargon 56, 23on8, 482, 515, 533, 543, 544ng2, 545.547ll99.554.555.556,557.559, 56o, 561, 562+m4g, 563,564,565,568, 572m84, 589, 631, 636, 665, 666, 1030, 1107, 1110, 1115, 1194ll8g, 1372, 1482 Sargon 11 1353n25, 1354n34, 1356, 1357n3g, 1358+n45, 1359n46, 1364+n5g, 1365+n6o+n61+n62, 1400 Sasiya 499n117 Sar-ru-i-li 585 Semiramis 1483n7 Sennache rib 482n28, 1353n25, 136on5o, 1365n61 Shalmane ser I n63, 1164 Shalmane ser I I ll53 Shalman eserv (Ululayu) 482,1357 SI.A-a 525 Sime-bal ar-huhpak 1328n66 Simmas 1483n7 Simut-wartas 1330n79 Sin-al]l]e-er1ba 495 Sin-apla-u~ur u6onno Sln-ibni 1425 Sin-iddinam 1231 Sin-iddina-apla 496ng7 Sin-muballit 25, 1003, 1004, 1010 Sln-na$ir 49, 1399 Sln-ra'im-Drim 494 Sln-sar-ill 494n86 Sln-sar-matim 494n86 Sln-sarra-iSkun 1353n25 Sln-risa-rema 498 Siruktuh 1328n66

INDEX OF PERSONA L NAMES

Strabo 103 Sueyya lll3,lll4 Su4 -ma-DINGIR 629 Su4 -ma-$a-ba 629 Sumu-ab um 1005+n56, 120m129 Sumu-el 1005 Sumu-epul] n8g Sutl'u n68+ m 56 Salimtu n6o Silli-Samas 347+n216, 348, 349 Sagarakti-Surias 1044n35, 1059, 1063, 1065, 1074,1084,1087,1089 Saknu 1414 Salim-al)um nog Salittu 492 Samas-al]a-iddina n6om17 Samas-ittiya 497 Samas-sadi-ill 495 Samas-sumu-uk1n 1399, 1401, 1425mog Samas-tillassu ngo Samk/l]a t g65m402 Samsea 1399 Samsi-Addu I 1002n4g, 1015, mo Sams1-Adad IV 1153 Sangu-Ninurta 59 Sangu-Samas 59 Sarkalisarri 555 Sarru-k1n: see Sargon Sarruwa 1218, 1233nn2 Sat-Assur 488n49 Sat-Ea 17gnm Sat-Nanaya 1026 Sattiwazza 1279, 1280 Selebum 4gon62 Sepraru 1001 Sibtu 48m23 Si-da-da 493n8o Sikkum 492 Silhaha 1328n65, 1329 Siqlum 492 Su-Anim 488n49 Su-da-da 493n8o Su-dEn-lil 534n68 Suilisu 573, 625ll309+n310 Su-IStar 17gmn Sukkukum 492 Su-Kubam 493

INDEX OF PERSONAL NAMES

1539

Sii-Kiibim 493 Sii-Kiibum 493 Sulgi 38n3, 481,1197, 1198, 1320n24, 1321 Sulgi-simtl 481 Suma 1372 Sumaia 1372 s/Su-Ma-ma 629, 630 Sum-iddin (Swdn) 1407 Sumigri 619, 629, 630 Summa-Nabu 498 Sunassura 1277 Sunu-qardii 1150 Suppiluliuma I 1218, 1278, 1279, 1280, 1281, 1284 Sii-Sin 488n49 Sii-Suen-lii-mal)ar 481 Sutruk-Nahhunte 1316n4, 1330n77, 1333n99 Siizubu 500 Swdn: see Sum-iddin Taklak-ana-bel 497 Tappiiti-Belat-ekalle 1150 TaqiS-Gula 495n92 Taram-gag! 481 Taram-Uram 481 Tarmilu 666 Telipinu 1276, 1277 Temti-agun 1328n66, 1330+n76, 1338 Temti-halki 1336m14 Tepti-ahar 1045, 1330 Terik-sarriissu 496, 497 Tiglath-pileser: see Tukultl-apil-esarra Tiglath-pileser I 4, 439, 1137, 1146+n48, 1149, 1150n58, 1155, 116m122, 1163, 1164 Tiglath-pileser Ill 1364, 1398, 1408 Tikianu 1422 Till-Abnu 1201m26 Ti-pi-a-ku[l](Gu[L]) 562ni51, 564 Tir 666 Tlriit 756n24o Tis-Ulme 12oom22 Tudl)aliya 11 1277 Tudl]aliya 111. (1v) 1294 Tudl]aliya IV 1273n4o, 1285 Tukulti-apil-esarra 1482 Tukulti-Ninurta 1 1039, 1066, 1074, 1085, 1137,1147, 1150, 1153, 1157n97, 1158, 1159, 1163, 1165 Tukulti-Ninurta II 1146

Tu-kul-tum 590 Tu-li-id-da-oam 591 Tunip-Tessub 11 97 , 1267 Turam-ili 52 5 Tii~i-damqat 48o Tusratta 22 Tab-sar-ill

soo

Tiibl 745n167,786o383,8730729 Tiibi-Sum 7860381 Tab'ilu

77, So, 86-8g, 91, 92, g8+mo7

0-As-tar 53 oo 54 Ulam-Burias 1053 Uliilayu: see Shalmaneser v Umml-taba 488049 Untas-Napirisa 1317, 1331+o8g, 1332, 1333097. 1339 Urad-ilaoe 1159 Urad-Serii'a 1139, 1166, 116gm62 Uraoum 1191+075, 1192 Ur-dAs-tar 534068 Urdanum 1109029 Ur-Naose s63m54, 666 Ur-NingiSzida m2039 Ur-Niomar m2039 Ursa 405 Urtenu 1219039, 1221, 1226o68 URUKAgioa 666 Ur-Utu 38n4, 49, so, 51 U~ur-bel-sarre 116om13 U~ur-pl-sarrim 48m26 U~ur-sa-Assur 497 Wa-a-a-l]a-a 498 Ward-illsu 164

Yal]duo-Lim 1008, wog, 1196 Yaklo 1425 Yakrub-El 1183036 Yakiin-Di:r 1001 Yanul]-Samar 1181 Yapal]um 1182031 Yapl]ur-lim 1001028 Yaqqim-Addu 347+0216, 348 Yasmal]-Addu 348n217, 481023, 482n28, woo, 1031, 1181, n82030, 1187, n88, n8g+o64, ngo, 1191, ug8

INDEX OF PERSONA L NAMES

1540

Yassi'-Dan 745m69, 145ni77, 76mz6o, 8s4n667,8 72n72o Yatal;um 1182n31 Yatar-Asdum 1182 Yattin-Dagan 1181 Yatur-Mer u83n36 Yibriyum 873n729 Yirbay-l)ikir 786n381 Yir}:laq-Damu 746m77, 854n667, 872n720 YiSma"-?ilum 149 Zababa-s uma-iddi na Zabaya 1029

1086

Zabinu Zakutu Zarriqum 1109n27 Zaziya 1001 Zimranum 1189, 1190+ n69 Zimri-Lim 347+n216, 481+n26, 1030, 1149ll51, 1192, 1193+ n86, 1194n89, ng6, 1199, 12oon118+m22, 124oms6 3tcrou9po~: see Zi-u-sufa Ziti 1281 Zi-u-sufa (3tcrou9po~) 419 Zumbu 492 Zuzu 491

Index of Divine Names 996, 997· 1030, 1159· 116on11o, 133In89, 149m44

INDEX OF DIVINE NAMES

1542

Samas (see also l:cxucx~, Samsu) 66, 106n21, m, 162n5o, 481+n24, 484, 494,495,497, 532, 552nll7, 668, 673n23, 716, 74ln146, 752,792,818n563,825+n587,889,goo, 1030, 1154> 1159· 1160ni17, 1181, 1322, 1377· 1407n46 Samsu (see also Samas) Sattakuhan 1324 Seru'a 1159, 1491n44 Subarum 1201m26 TiSpak

11

42

162n5o, u81

Ur-Manzat 1324 Utu 1030, 1231 Yakrub-El 1183n36 Yammu 1183 Yaral]. u81, 1183 Yatur-Mer u83n36 YHWH 751n203 Zababa 548mo4 Zabina 1423nl02 Zi-la-su 968ni439

Index of Geographical Names (other than Assyria, Babylonia, Mesopotamia, Sum er, Syria) Abarsal 66sns, 79011404, 79211413, 861 Adab 524,5261141,530,539,547, 558m37, 56~62511309,63911346,994,999,101~

10441139 Admannu 1138 Akhetaten (see also Tell el-Amarna) 1224 Akkad(um) 482,514, 5471199,10441139,1107, 1193, 19941189, 119811112, 1318 Akko 125011229 Alal].tum (see also Alalab) 1178117 Alalab 446, 450, 451, 452, 456, 502, 994, 1002, 1016, 1018, 1178117, 1216-218, 1222, 1232-1233, 1236, 1244+m94+m9s. 12451248 (passim), 1267, 1516 Alasiya 1221 +1145 Aleppo 831132, 86, 664, 1002, 1016, 1017, 1032, 1217lll9 Ali~ar Hi::iyi.ik: see Amkuwa Al-Sarrakl: see lri-Sagrig Alu-sa-I~~ur-Adad 1399 Amanus 96 Amkuwa mo Amouq 1178 Amran 1041n9 Amurru(m) 923,1030, 1177112, 1222, 1224, 1250+11229, 12771165, 1279· 1284 A11at 1031 A11atolia 40, 52, 149, 408m81, 1103+112, 1104, 1108, 1112, 1116, 1117, 1118, 1138, 1213, 1225, 1245. 1266, 1267, 1361 A11darig 1001 A11san

1317115+117, 1318mo, 1323, 1325, 1326nss. 1329+n7o+n73 A11zan 13331197 A11ubanini 1338mzz Aphek 940, 1222, 1223, 1233, 1234, 125m234 Apum 1001, 1201m26 Armanum 406+m7o, 665 Arpad 1364 Arrapl]a 40, 1142 Ashqelo11 1223, 125011229 Assur 52, ssmoo, 4881149, 525, 555, woo, 10441139. 1047. 1058ni09, 1082, 1103, no4, 1108, 1112, 1114, 1117, 1118+n6o, 1119,

1137-1174 (=chapter 16), 120111126, 1355+1136, 1360+1150+1152, 136msz, 13621152, 13671174, 1401, 140711 45 Aslakka 1199 As11akkum (see also Chagar Bazar) 1180

1001,

Assuka11ni (see also Tell Fekheriye) Atlila 1047

1138

Awa11 40811182, 132m3o, 13281166, 133811122 Azu 1216 Babylon 5, 53, 55, 5811116, 103, 105, 149, 232, 528, 993. 994. 997. 999. 1003, 1004, 1005, 1018, 1021, 1029, 1039, 1040, 1041, 1045, 1047, 1051, 1054, w6o, 1066, 1081, 1083, 1085, 1120, 1178, 1319, 1363, 1366, 1398, 1399. 1401, 1402, 1403, 1413, 1417, 1469,1483 Baghdad 1045, 1086 Bahrain 1040,1042,1045,1047,1053,1064, 1081 Bakr Awa 1042, 1047+1159, 1068 Balawat: see Imgur-Ellil Ba-ra-al)-sumki 587 Bassetki: see Mardama11 Behistu11 (see also Bisutu11) 1432118, 1451 +11118, 1452 Beirut 1221, 1252+11241 Ba-ti-ri/riki s8611216 Beqa' 1224, 1250, 1294 Bisutu11 (see also Behistu11) 22 Blt-Adad-eriba 1362 Blt-Amuka11i 1399, 1403, 1422 Blt-Dakkiiri 1403, 1410 Blt-Sa'alli 1403 Blt-Sila11i 1403 Blt-Yaki11 1403, 1410, 1424 Bogazkoy (see also Jjattusa) 452,453, 455· 46o, 10491175, 1108, 1138, 1267, 12691115, 1271, 1272+1138, 12791171,1284, 1294 Borsippa 232, 10441139, 10471158, 108611172, 137411107, 1398, 1399· 1402, 1403, 14651131 Bur-mar'i11a 1362, 13631154 Buru11dum 1000

1544

Ii ,i

INDEX OF GEOGRAPHIC AL NAMES

Busa 793n416 Byblos 23, 1221, 1223, 1250n229 Canaan

22,1213, 1214+n3, 1215n3, 1221-1225

(passim), 1229, 1231, 1233-1236 (passim), 1250, 1252+n237, 1272n38 Chagar Bazar (see also Asnakkum) 1001, n8o, 525, s6s, 996, 1000, 1032, 1180 Chamchamal 1042, 1068, 1069, 1075 Choga Gavaneh 1323, 1325, 1363n55 Cutha 543,1402, 1408 Dabis 1191 Damascus 1223 Deh-e-No 1329n7o, 1331, 1332+n92 Dilbat 994, 999, 1004, 1031, 1399, 1402 Dilmun 1040, 1055, 1064, 1091 Dummuqu 1408 Dur-Abiesuh 47n57, n82 Dur-Enlile 2039, 2042+n27, 2046+n6s, 1050, 1052, 1054, 1066, 1072, 1075> 1076, 1080 Dur-Katlimmu 1138, n6o, 1362, 1364,1366, 1367n74, 1425lll12 Our Kurigalzu 1040, 1041ll11, 1401+ m8, 1045+TI42, 1047, w6o, 1066, 1081, 1082, 1083, 1084, 1086 Dur-Ladini 1403 Dur-Sarrukin 3, 1359, 136onso, 1362, 1365, 1398 Dur-mU-A+A-it 1403 Dur-Untas 1332 Ebla (see also Tell Mardlq)

19-20, 4m26, 42n26, 69, 71, 72, 185, 383, 384, 494n83, 501, 513-663 ( = chapter 11: passim), 664-989 ( = chapter 12), 994, 1002 Egypt 22, 52, 1138, 1213, 1221, 1223, 1224, 1225, 1282n77, 1293-1315 (=chapter 20 ), 136m52, 1491 Egrikoy 1363 Ekallatum 481, woo Ekalte 1216, 1225n67, 1229n8s Elam 461, 554,555,587, 1002,1032, 1040, 1071, 1316-1343 (=chapter 21), 1404 Elephantine 1467 Emar 21, 22, sz+ n8s, 452, 502, 758n249, 922n909, 934ni046, 938n1092, 941m123, 994, 1000, 1031, 1042, 1069,

1070, 1071, 1075· 1194ll91, 1215-1216, 2019, 1225n67, 1229-1231, 1232, 1233, 1234· 1236+lll31, 1237-1240,1241,1242, 1243· 1244, 1250ll226, 1252, 1319 Eres: see Tell Abu Salabib Eridu 1403 Erzen 1362 Esnunna 4om8, 171, 231, 347n216, 348,399, 525, 534n69, 557, 558m36, 615n285, 616n290, 625n310, 633, 994, woo, 1003, 1004, 1006, 1022,1027,1029,1031, 1105n8, 1112+ll39, 118m27, 1193,1196, 1326 Failaka 1040, 1042, 1047, 1064 Falluja: see Pallukat Fara

66n4, 136, 483n31, 514, 524, 526, 527, 528,530,549ll1 07,617,637.640 ,666, 66 9, 675, 1177

Gambulu 1398, 1404 Garsana 43, 483n31, 524 Gasur (see also Nuzi) 525, 543, 553ni23, 581, 596, 634, 1108 Gaziantep 1363 Gazru: see Gezer Gezer 1250n229, 1363 Giricano 1347n2 Girnavaz: see Nabula Girsu 68, 524, 527, 530,-539, 547, 548mo3, 561,562n148.5 68,637,638,639 ,64o, 675n32, 759n253 Gotvand 133on8o Guzana 136m52, 1362, 1363n54, 1364 Gazlra 549 Haft Tepe (see also Kabnak) 1042,1045, 1071, 1317, 132m27, 1325, 1327, 1332+ng6 Hammam et-Turkman 525 Harradum 995, woo, 1018 Harugu 8om455 IJarran 1362, 1365, 1482 lJibur woo, 100m38, was, 1007-1018 (passim), 1027, 1030, 1032 tiana 130, 1031, 1193n86 IJanigalbat 1161 IJarbe 130, 1193n86, 1138, 1169m61 IJa~or 995,1002,1016, 1032, 1177, 1222+n51+ n52+ ll55> 1233> 1234, 1236, 1249

INDE X OF GEO GRA PHIC AL NAM ES

1545 Ijatti

1213, 1219, 1221, 1224, 1267, 1270, 1272, 12S2n77, 12S5 Ijattu sa (see also Boga zkoy) noS, 1222n ss, 1226n68, 1229, 1252, 1266-1292 ( =chapter 19), 1294, 1295, 1319 Ijind anu 1425 Ijurri 1159 Ijursa gkala ma 995, 1399, 1400, 1402 Ijuzir lna (see also Sulta ntepe ) ssmo o, 1362 Iarmu ti

665 1001, n77n 5, 1200 Idu n3S, n42 Ilan~ura 1001, 1014 Imgur-Ellil 1362, 1364 Irisagrig 483n31 Ida-Mara~

Isin

524, 530, 533, 539, 562m 4S, 995, 997, 999· 1004, 100S, 102S, 102g, 1031, 1045. noS, 1112, n2o, 1396 Isqa 1001 Israel 1002, 1017, 1032 Jebel Bishri 1177 Jemd et Nasr 514 Jerus alem 1250n229, 1358+n43 Jezira h n41, 1362, 1363 Ka bnak (see also Haft Tepe) 1040, 1042, 1045, 1071, 1075, 1090, 1317, 131Smo, 1325+n4S Kal]at 1001 Kall]u (see also Nimr ud) 3,104 5, 10S4, 1357, 136o+ nso, 1364+ nsg, 1367n74, 136g+nS1, 137ongS KA-Ma-an-is-tu-suki 539 Kamid el-Loz (see also Kum idu) 1223, 1294 Kanes (see also Ktilte pe) 40, 1103, 1104, nog, 1113, n14, 1116 Karana 1001, 1138 Kar-Assurna~irapli

KarkemiS

1362 1002, 10oS, 1016,1017,1032,

1195ngS, 1221+n44, 1273+n4o+n41, 127Sn6g, 1362 Kar-T ukult i-Nin urta 113S Kasr 104m g Katmul]l]u usg, u6o Kayseri 1363 Kazane Hoyii k 995, 1000, 1362 Khorsabad: see Dur-S arruk ln

Kissik

1403

Kisurra Kis

524, 995, 999, 1005, 10 1 3 son74, 51, 55, 379n6S, 522, 525, 526n41, 5 27· 52Sll30, 529, 531, 532, 533+n63, 534ll35,535ll70,S40,S42,S43+n88, 544, 545, 546+n97+n99, 547n48, 55 2• 553lll23· 554ni27, sss, 557, 563+ mss, 564 +m62, s6s, s8m2o3, 596, 61snz8s, 618, 623n3o6, 66s+ns, 671m6, 759n253, 995, 999, 1004, 1031, 1044ll39, ll52, 1399, 1400, 1402

Kizzu watna 94, 1221, 1277, 1278 Kullab 1403 Kulla nia/K unulu a 2363, 2369 Kiiltepe (see also Kanes) 1103, nos, 1106, noS, m3, m4 Kumi du (see also Kamid el-Loz) 1222,1223 Kunti llet Ajrud 751n203 Kurda 1001 Kussar 1267n5 Kutalla 995, 999 Kutha 56 Kuyunjik (see also Nineveh) 1048n69, 1138, 1353I125, 1360 Lagaba 995, 999 Lagas 524, 666, 66Sn11, 995, 999, 1004, wos, l013I176, 1031, 1316I13 Lal}lru 1402, 1403n26 Larak 232, 1403 Larsa 4omS, 47n57, 231, 347n216, 995, 997, 99S, 999, 1004, 1005, IOU, 1013n76, 1029, 1031, 1045, 1047, 1082, noS, n12, n2o, 1403 Levant 1040, 1142, 1359, 1363 Liyan 133onSs Lullubi 1330m22 Luristan 1330 Luxor 1467 Magdala 1425m12 Malta 1046ns6 Malyan 1326nss Mana nu 1425 Mara d 6om259, 995, 999, 1399, 1403 MAR-As-tar 529n50 Mard aman 12oo+m22 Mard in 1267,1362

INDEX OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES

1546 Mari

15, 19, 22, 68, 148, 149, 185, 205, 232,260,275,278,352,409,436, 501,520,525,531,533,545>547> 552,588, 66s, 667+mo, 671,674, 779, 995, 997, gg8, woo, 1001,1002, 1004, 1007, 1008, wog, 1016, 1027, 1029, 1031, 1070, 1120, 1121, 1122, 1123, 1126, 1177-1212 ( = chapter 17 ), 1213, 1222, 1233· 1249> 1274, 1275· 1276,

1324 Mari 1139 Maskan-sapir 999 Megiddo 1222, 1223, 1234, 1235, 1250n229 Melul].l].a 516n7, 1198 Meskene Qadime: see Emar Me-Turran gg6, woo Mittani 1213,1217,1224, 1225n67, 1240, 1245+nl97> 1246, 1279· 1280, 1284 Mugdan (see also Pugdan) 525, 543+n88, 547,558n136,575,617,618,621-632 (passim), 634, 637 Mukis g6, 1216, 1218n31 Na'iri 1159 Nabada (see also Tell Beydar)

525, 531, 533,

552 Nabula 1362 Nagar 525, 66g Nal].ur 10om2g Nar-Sumandar 1402 Nebi Yunus 1360 Nemed-Laguda 232 Nenas 8om455 Nerebtum gg6, woo, 1004,1031 Nimrud (see also Kall].u) 1045, 1084, n62, 136on5o, 1364n5g, 1398 Nineveh (see also Kuyunjik) 3, 4, 55moo, 996, woo, 1045,1138, 1146, 1147n45, 1151, n6o, n69m62, 1350, 1355+n36, 136o+n5o, 1364,1365, 1367n74, 136gn81, 1370, 1372, 13g6m, 1398, 1418n85, 1420llgl, 1432, 1434 Ninua-Nineveh 1360 Nippur (see also Nuffar) 42,44-49, so, 51, 53, 54n91, n8, 232, 495n88, 502, 525, 527, 530,531, 533+ll63, 536-539, 543,544+ll92,547+ngg,552,S56,5s7, 560-565 (passim), 567+m68, 572, 573·585,632,633,637,675,996,gg9,

1028, 1031, 1039-1102 (=chapter 14), 1138, 1182, ngsn97, 1227, 1396, 1398, 1399· 1400, 1402, 1403, 1404, 1425, 1432, 1502 Nuffar (see also Nippur) 1502 Nul].asse 1222, 1248 Nul].saniti 1399 Nusaybin 996, woo Nuzi (see also Gasur) 14, 22, 25, 446,450, 451, 452, 455> 456, 502, 1044, 1068, 1075, noS, 1225n67, 1246, 1248, 1284n84 Palestine 1002, 1017, 1032, 1363 Palliikat 1502 Phoenicia 1224, 1250 Pugdan (see also Mugdan) 618, 619 Puqiidu 1404 PuzriS-Dagan 525 Qa'a 1001 Qades 1221 Qal'at al-Hadi 996, woo Qal'at Shirgat: see Assur Qatna 436, 452, 456, 996, 1002, 1016, 1017, 1032, 1177+ns, 1221-1222, 1246+n2o4, 1248+ll213+ll216, 1516 Qattara 1001 Qattuna(n) (see also Karana)

1138

Rahaq 748n249 Rapiqu 1148 Ras Ibn Hani 1219, 1220U40, 1226n68 Rasm et-Tanjara 1363 Ras Shamra (see also Ugarit) 75-101 (= chapter 4), 453, 1219, 1220, 1295 Razama 1001 Rima}:! 436, 452, 996, 998, woo, 1032, 1138, 1362 Saggaratum 1031, 1191n75 Sam'al 1363 Samaria: see Samirina Samarra 514, 555 Samirina 1363 Sarpol-e Zohab 1046 Satu Qala: see Idu Sealand 232, 996, 999+n11, 1018, 1019, 1050, 1052, 1398, 1403, 1425 Sepphoris 1044

INDEX OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES

1547 Shechem gg6, 1002, 1017, 1250n229 Shemshara (see also Susarra) n8o Sherif Khan: see Tarbi~u Sidon 1221, 1252 Silver Mountains 665 Simaski 132m3o, 1328, 1329 Singar-Tall 'Afar 10oom5 Sippar

38n4+n5, 47,49-50, 51, 55, 59, 232, 480ni7, 48I+n24, 525,543. 58g+n226, 634· gg6, gg8, ggg, 1004, 1011, 1031, 1046,1048, 1060, 1081, 1082+ni57. 1228, 1374n107, 1399· 1402 Sippar Amnanum 1228 Si-si-ilki 558m36 Suryi/Suryum 1031, 1193+n86, 1424mog Sultantepe (see also Ijuzirina) 1044, 1082, 1362, 1363n54 7, 14, 22, 51, 461, 462n381, 526,565, 996, 1001,1002, 1017-1018, 1019-1020,1082, 1084, 1085, 1086, 1316-1343 (=chapter 21) Susiana 1316, 1317, 1323, 1330, 1338 Susa

Saduppum

996, 10oo+m3, 1011, 1012+n75• 1031 Sapiya 1399, 1403 Saza'ena 1223 Sehna (see also Tell Leilan) 42,525, n8om7 Sibaniba 1138, 1362 Sidarin 8730729 Subat-Enlil (see also Tell Leilan) 996,998, 1000, u8om7 Suduryum 1001 Suna 1001 Suruppag: see Fara Susam1 (see also Shemshara) 996, gg8, 1000, 1001, 1015, 1027, 1032, u8o Taanach 502, 1222, 1223 Tagrltii.nu: see Tikrit Talryayum 1000 Tarbi~u 136on5o, 1362 Tarryuntassa 1221, 1273041 Tarmanni 1001 Tarsus 1276n58, 1363 Tarzi: see Tarsus

Tchoga Pahn

1048, 1330

Tchoga Zanbil 104s Tel Hadid 1363 Tell 'Atchana: see Alalah Tell 'Ali: see Admannu Tell Abu Salabiry

66+n4, 513 _66 3 (==chaptern: passim), 666, 668m2, 66 , 5 , 9 74 675 Tell Agrab 525, 534n6 9, 547 Tell Al)mar 1362, 1363n54 Tell al-Rima}:l 436, 452, 996, 998, 1000, 1032, 1138,1362 Tell al-Wilayah 524 Tell Asryara: see Terqa Tell Baqaq 1362 Tell Baradan 1044 Tell Bderi 1139 Tell Beydar (see also Nabada)

148,525,531, 533. 550llll4, 667, 676 Tell Bi'a: see Tuttul Tell Billa: see Sibaniba Tell Brak: see Nagar Tell Chuera: see Ijarbe Tell Dhiba'i 996n4, 1000 Tell ed-Der 1031 Tell Egraineh 996, 999 Tell el-Amarna (Akhetaten) 1138,1224 Tell el-MiSrifeh: see Qatna Tell el-Qeda}:l: see Ija~or Tell Fekheriyeh (see also Assukanni) 1138, 1364057 Tell Fray 1138 Tell Hadidi: see Azu Tell Halaf: see Guzana Tell Hawa 996, 1000 Tell J:Iarmal: see Saduppum Tell Ijariri: see Mari Tell Imlihiye 1044, 1083, 1084, 1085 Tell !San Mizyad 525 Tell Kirbasi 1040, 1044 Tell Leilii.n (see also Seryna, Subat-Enlil) 42, 525, 1000, noS, n8om7, 1192n8z Tell Mardiry: see Ebla Tell Masaikh: see Kar-Assurna~irapli Tell Mozan: see Urkes Tell Mu}:lammad 996, 1000, 103901, 1044, 1049· 1050+083, 1051,10550102, 1059lllll, 1072, 1077, 1091 Tell Munbaqa: see Ekalte Tell Rimah: see Karana

INDEX OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES

1548 Tell Sabi Abyad

~ l!

I I

;I

I

1138, 1169m61

Tell Seb'e 997, woo Tell Shiukh Fawqani: see Bur-mar'ina Tell Sulaima 525, s8zn204, 586nz16, s88n221, 633 Tell Sel]. l:Jamad: see Diir-Katlimmu Tell Sisin 997, woo Tell Taya 997, woo Tell Tayinat: see Kullania/Kunulua Tell Taban 1070m34 Tell Yell].i 997, woo, 1031 Terqa 997, woo, 1004, 1018, 1031, 1180m7, 1183n36, 1191n75 Thebes 1048, 1467 Tigunanum/Tikunani 1197,1267,1274 Tikrlt 1502+m13 Til-Barsip/Tarbusib: see Tell AJ:tmar Ti( lj 1)-iS-l].i-ni-ya 1275 Tuliil Khattab 997, woo Tunip 1218n31, 1281 Turkey 1103, 1294, 1363+n54, 1495 Tusl].an 1356n38, 1358n42, 1362, 1363n54, 1364 436+n259, 526, 66sns, 997, woo, 1004, 1009-1010, 1032, 1180m7, 1200nl19 Tutub 525,527,547,566, 633, 997, woo,

Tuttul

Tyre

1004 1221, 1250n229, 1358n44

Ubaid 524 Ugarit (see also Ras Shamra) 22, 52, 67,75101 ( = chapter 4 ), 502, 520, 848n653, 922n909, 938mo92, 1044, 1048, wssmo3, 1069, 1070+n135, 1071,1075, 1076, 1197> 1219-1221, 1223, 1225-1229, 1231,1232, 1233> 1236+nl34, 1238, 1239> 1240-1244> 1250ll226, 1252, 1272+ll39> 1273n4o, 1278, 1279, 1284n84, 1285, 1295, 1319, 1516 Ugunam 799n446 Umm al-Aqarib 524

Umm al-Hafriyat szsnzSs Umm el-Jir: see Mugdan Umma 42n28, 525,539, 550n114, 561, s6zn148,s67,638,640,666,997>999, 1005, 1316n3 Upper Land 665 Upper Mesopotamia 347n216, woo, 100In34+ll36, 1014,1015, 1017, 1027, 1032, 1184, 1189, 1200 Ur 47,48-49, so, 51, 55,522,525, 526n4o, 527,530,539,547,561,666,997,999, 1013ll76, 1031, 1040, 1044, 1046, 1049, 1074-1077 (passim), 1082-1086 (passim), m9, 1197, u98, 1232, 1316n3, 1399, 1401, 1404, 1425 Urartu 1364 Urkes sz6,553n123 Ursu 1267, 1275 Uruk 38ns, 5In79> ss, 57> 59> 67niO, 77> 83, Ss, 94, ws, 232, 420, 422, 489n53, 514, 518+m6, 519, 520, 521, 525-528 (passim), 529nso, 530, 532, 544, 552, 561, s6z, s6s, sss, 669, 997,999, 1044, 1228, 1398, 1399> 1400, 1401, 1403, 1404, 1425, 1468n39+n4o+n43, 1469nso, 1502 Usnatu 1221 Uzarlulu: see Tell Dhiba'i Wadi Tar!;ar wooms Warka: see Uruk Yamhad

1177n5, 1216, 1217

Zabala(m) 42n28, 525 Zagros 517,542, 1001,1316,1317,1323 Zallul].an 1001 Zalmaqum woo, 1014 Zamal].u: see Tell al-Rima}:l Zincirli: see Sam'al Ziyaret Tepe: see Tusl].an Zubeidi 1044, 1046, 1049, 1084, 1085

Index of Subjects Absolute state: see States Accent 73· 164, 423, 496, 574ll188, 587n219, 714n91, 714n91+n96, 788n397, 1026, 1297, 137m88, 1375+mo8, 1376, 1379lll20, 1406n42, 1502ll113 Actancy 234, 246, 247 Actionality (see also Aspect) Atelic processes 239,243, 246, 247,255, 256+n73+n74, 257, 278mo8, 291, 295, 296,315,324 ,338+n203 Properties 235, 246, 247, 248, 250,252, 255· 286, 307, 360 States 235, 246, 247, 248, 250, 252, 254, 255,256,261 ,287,307 Telic processes 234, 236, 239, 243, 246+n58,247 ,250,255+n7 o,256+n73+ n74, 257+n76, 26o+n82, 261, 262,263, 264, 278+mo8, 289m13, 291,295,296, 297, 299, 305,315, 320, 324, 338+n203, 1306 Adverbs (see also Clauses) 160, 161, 173,178, 181,190,201n 192,238,239, 242,255, 26~29~340,40~40~430,587n21~

758n247, 763n266, 843, 855n671, 856+n768, nu, 1125, 1298, 1303, 1304, 1307,1335,1378, 1379+ll120, 1383m38, 1384, 1385, 1415, 1444, 1445 Adjectives Adjectival interrogative pronoun 181 Attributive 132, 133, 140, 143 Deverbal 151, 154, 165, 197 Inflection 165, 1440 Nisbe 119, 154, 165n63, 169, 138o+m28 Patterns 165+n65, 166 Strengthened 166 Verbal adjective

132, 133, 141, 187, 191, 195, 197, 198, 199, 206, 207+n2o6, 209, 213, 215, 245, 492n73, 773n310, 8o8n501, 1027,1384, 1385, 1444, 1448, 1506, 1516 Affixes (see also Circumfixes, Suffixes, Verb: Prefix conjugation) 151, 153n15, 154n19, 166, 233. 591, 592, 772, 1251, 1450nii4, 162n14 Agentivity 234, 236, 246, 26m83, 272, 278, 305, 316, 317, 318, 319ll178, 320, 332, 333· 346, 347· 87o+n712, 873n731

Agglutinative Agriculture

67, 415 , 123 6, 131 6m 21, 347n216, 411, 425, 446, m6,

1142, 1166m4s. 1316, 132Sns3. 1481, 1493 Alimentation 44 6 Allomorphism 201, 742, 743. 744, 791, 832, 833, 835, 874n737, 1238, 1241, 1243 ms1, 1377n116, 1380 Alphabet (see also Writing) 70 , 72 , 441, 13S4n34· 1470, 1508 Alphabetizat ion 1405, 142 2 Aramaic script 71, 72, 104, 1253, 1354, 1356, 1357. 1372, 1373. 1401,1422, 1424, 1438n44, 1449. 1450 Cuneiform alphabetic 67, 75-101 (= chapter 4), 122on4o, 1229, 1236m31, 124o+mss Greek 67,102-125 (=chapters) Latin 150 Analogy

135, 139, 152, 153, 158n38, 159, 164, 165, 174, 175, 195m77, 197, 205, 212, 216, 260, 33omg1, sSg, 611, 622, 676, 7o6n82, 1124+n74. 1300, 14ll Anatomy 424 Animals

21, 44, 209, 266, 38on86, 424, 435, 477ll1, 491, 492, 520, 672, 1146, 1154. nss. 1326, 1449. 1515 Apprenticesh ip 37-65 (= chapter 2) Archaisms (see also Pronouns, Writing) 66, 132, 138, 141, 344n2o6, 345. 375· 387,437•487+n48,488n49,496,739, 1008, 1010, 1023, 1024,1026, 1027, 1055· 1058, 1059, 1072, 1073, 1078, 1079, 1080, mo, 1131, n66, n86, ngsng6, 1419, 1420, 1421, 1422, 1440, 1449ll104, 1452 Architecture 105, 1492 Archives 19, sonn, sS, 59· 149. 336, 48m26, 483+n31, 515, 524, 525,533. 53Sn70, 536, 537· 538, 539, 557, 573+m8s, 619, 62Sll309+ll310,632,633,634,637,638, 664 +n2, 66s, 666,667,994,995,1039, 1040n3, 104Ill9, 1043ll23, 1047n62, 1048ll74· 1054· 10S8ll109, 1068, 106g, 1070lll35· 108oms2, no4+ns, m3n43, ll37+ll2, ll39· ll44· ns6, ll63, n66, n6gm62, n7g, n82, n83, n87, ng2n82,

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

1550 Archives (cont.) 1193, 1198, 1204, 1205, 1213n2, 1214, 1215, 1216, 1217, 1218, 1219, 1221, 1222, 1224+n61+n63, 1225, 1226n71, 1227,1228,1229, 1237n137, 1240, 1246, 1248n213, 1249, 1267n5, 1268,1294, 1324, 1347+n2, 1348, 1352, 1353n28, 1360, 136m52, 1362, 1363, 1364, 1365, 1366, 1368, 1370, 1397, 1398+n8, 1399+mo+m 2, 14oom5, 1431,1432, 1469n48, 1488 Areal features 139 Article (see also Nouns: Definiteness ) 134, 161, 85m658, 1303, 1381 Artifacts 447 Aspect (see also Actionality) 132,187, 192+m62, 228, 234m9, 235, 244n5o, 246, 286, 290, 445, 886, 1251, 1382, 1383n136, 1415, 1416 Aorist 5, 188, 189, 192 Durativity 11+n7o, 13n81, 131, 141, 143, 191, 498 Punctuality 11+n7o, 12+n81, 246+n58, 247, 250, 261, 262+n85, 263, 264, 269,271,276 ,278,295,296 ,3o5,320, 1383 Asseverative : see Moods: Injunctive Assyrian hieroglyphs 1354n34 Assyrianism s 1015, 1238, 1274n46, 1279 Assyrianizat ion 1139, 1141 Astrology: see Scientific texts Astronomy: see Scientific texts Asymmetry

47

Babel-Bible controversy 10n64 Earth's Law 9, 185+ n134, 194, 775n318 Bilingualism (see also Language contact) 44, 47, 49, 520, 64o, 1364n57, 1419,1422, 1464, 1465 Birds 21, 669, 1154n79, 1232 Borrowings: see Vocabulary: Loanwords 21, 44, 420, 424, 454, 456, 457n366, 460, lll5, 1232, 1493· 1494. 1508ni49.

Botany

1512 Bricks

21, 699, 703, 734, 735, 832, 921, 935, 133m88, 1332n96, 1401+m9, 1488, 1501, 1505,1511

Building 39,426,1040 ,1044, 1047n58.107 7, 1078,1115, 1143, 1146, 1148+n46, 1166m45, 1168, 1218, 1232, 1332, 1370

I~

no6 Business (see also Merchants, Trade) 427, no6, 1266, 1449, 1468

Bullae

401,

21 Case system 7, 15n94, 118, 120, 141, 142n37, 155, 156+ n26, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 16 4, 165, 167, 169, 179, 181, 182, 201, 491, 520, 832, 836, 848, 849, 854, 917, 1122, 11 3o,

Carts

1131, 1140, 1238, 1242, 1247· 1250, 1297. 1298, 1300, 1303, 1304, 1306, 1322, 1324, 1328, 1330, 1375· 1377· 1378, 1380, 1381, 1396, 1397,1404, 1409, 1410+n57, 14 11, 1415, 1421, 1440, 1442, 1462m4, 1463 Absolute 1186 Accusative (see also Transitivity: Direct object, Nota accusativi) 7, 135, 138, 143. 149. 155· 156, 160, 163, 170, 171, 173· 174. 175· J76, 179. 180, 181, 323, 324, 333, 423, 611, 674, 675, 696, 728, 729, 738m35, 740+ m4z, 741, 749m92, 755, 756n240, 758, 759n250+n25 3, 760,762, 763+n266+n z67, 764, 765n276,767 +n286,768,7 70,772, 791n410, 792n410, 846+n648, 848,849, 967ni426, 1005, 1016, 1025, 1026, 1057. 1062, 1122, 1127, 1140n22, 1186, 1238, 1241, 1246, 1297. 1298, 1300, 1301, 1336, 1374. 1377· 1380, 1384, 1396, 1410, 1411, 1422, 1441, 1443. 1447 Dative 138, 143, 170, 171, 174, 751n203, 758, 795, 1238, 1377, 1439, 1447n96 Genitive 7, 84, 142n37, 143, 160,162,163, 164, 170, 171, 173, 175, 176, 178, 228m, 419n207,422 ,492,493·494 ,675,676, 678,759n253 ·767n284,84 6,848,849, 850, 1008, 1140+ n22, 1186, 1238, 1241, 1297, 1298, 1300, 1302, 1303, 1304, 1334, 1377· 1380, 1381, 1415, 1420, 1423+ni04, 1487n25 Locative 15n94, 16o+n45, 498, 857n675, 1023, 1025, 1026, 1300, 1334· 1421, 1440, 1444 Loss of case

118, 120, 1122, 1410, 1415,

1462ni4 Nominative 7, 15n94, 135, 16o+n45, 163, 172, 423, 593n236, 678, 771n303, 1140n22, 1186, 1297, 1300, 1374, 1380, 1381, 1384, 1396, 1410

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

1551

Nota genitivi 409 Oblique 152, 155, 156, 157, 159, 165, 171, 173· 174· 176, 177· 179· 593n236, 673, 759. S4o, S41, S45, S5o, 1013, 1073,1130, 1297, 129S, 1377· 13SO, 13S1, 1410, 1421, 1439. 1441 Terminative 16o, 49S+m11, S54, S57n675, 1007' 1024, 1334. 1421, 1444 Centre and periphery 113S Chariots 21, 1151 Circumfixes (see also Affixes) 1S3 Circumflex 73 Classification (linguistic; see also Wave model) 15+Dl02, 16+m04, 19,129146 (=chapter 6), 14S+n4, 516, 521D31, 523, 5S4, 1125, 1126, 1252n23S, 1463 Clauses (see also Word order) Adjectival 1309 Adverbial 297,340, 1311, 1440,1443 Circumstantial 6, 134mS, 1025, 1311 Cleft sentences 1307, 130S, 1310 Complement 239, 243, 1311, 1443 Conditional 7n36, 23, 172, 234, 236, 2S2, 2S3, 319, 330, 340n204, 345n2oS, 352, 777· 7S2n363, 7S3n369, SS7, S97· 1014, 1022+nS4, 1023nS4, 1056, 1059, 1063, 1065, 1067, 1073· 1074. 1075· 12S4, 1312, 13S5, 1417, 144S Declarative 233, 234, 1416, 1444, 1446, 1450,1452 Final 1014, 1423, 1443 Negative (see Moods: Negation, Prohibitive) Nominal 132n10, 4S9, 494, 123S, 1249, 1307 Non-verbal 23, 1204, 1307 Object 1417 Relative 134mS, 140, 142+n3S, 17S, 239+n36, 241, 243, 297, 29S, 300,303, 76Sn2S9, 773n310, 796n432+ n433, 797n43S, 1014, 1302, 1307, 1309, 1310, 1311, 137S, 13S5, 1415, 1416, 1440 Subordinate clauses (see also Subordinative) S, 13nS2, 23, 134mS, 13S, 1S9, 193, 202, 204, S9S, 1014, 1056, no5nS, n3o, 1131, 1305, 1309, 1312, 1324, 137S, 13S3. 13S4, 13S5, 1397· 1416, 1417, 1434. 1446, 1450,1452

Cognates: see Vocabulary Cohortative: see Moods Colophons 40, 57. sS, 6o, 6S, 106 + 23, 532, 535, 674n2S, 116S Conjunctions: see Word order Consonants (see also Phonology) '3-5 1003 Affricate 417, 419, 420, 6o6tn266, 6o , 7 6oS+ 267, 6o9, 610, 611n273. 614, 615+112S7+n288, 616+n2S9, 671, 683, 6S6, 1013, 1015, 1407, 14341124 Aleph 6, 841139, 376n47, 1050, 1051, 1053, 1055, 1056, 1058, 1061, 1065, 1067, 106 9, 1070, 1071, 1072, 1073. 1078, 1079. 1373. 1374. 143S Alveolar 419, 57S, 609, 610, 61111273. 1296, 1371, 1372, 14351125 Apical 576, 609 Aspirate 119, 41S, 419 Bilabial 576, 57S, 579, 580, 592, 1371, 1407' 1434. 1435 Cluster 120, 164, 194, 614112S4, 1273. 1277, 127S. 1279. 12So, 12S1, 12S2, 1283, 12Ss, 1372,1410 Coronal

55711135, sS6, 595n242, 604,

6o?,6oS,6o9,61o+11270,62~6291132~

1296 Dental 417, 570, 579, sSo, 581, 5S911225, 590, 599, 610, 614, 671, 6Ss, 686, 734, 1013, 1014, 1015, 1016, 1050, 1053. 1061, 1064, 1070, 1071, 1072, 1079. 1129+n83, 1130, 1237· 1241, 1273· 1277· 1278, 1279· 12So, 1281, 1282, 1283, 1285, 1374+11105, 1434. 1435. 1436 Dorsal 574, 575, 578, 581, 597, 599, 609, 620 Doubling 120, 4951191, 127S, 1280, 1281, 1334. 1383, 1440 Emphatic 69, 119, 1411135, 142, 417, 612n277· 682, 689, 6g8, 92711962, 1054. 1056, 1061, 1073, 1130,1203, 1237· 1241, 1246, 1371, 1372, 1373· 1374· 1408, 1434. 1435.1502 Epiglottal 6om258, 6o2, 62511311, 1296, 1301 Fricative 5S1, 55711135, 586, 597, 59511242, 601, 602+11260, 604+n264, 60S11264+1126s,6o6+11266,6o7,6o8, 6og, 610+11270, 612, 613+11282, 614,

~

I INDEX OF SUBJECTS

1552 Fricative (cont.) 615+n287+n288, 616n288, 625n311, 629n321, 1127,1196, 1302, 1407, 143s+n2s Geminated 79, 151, 158, 215, 422, 423, 44Sn298, 679, 706, 714,717, 8o3n464, 866n704, 1298, 1300 Glottal 84n39, 573, 574, 575, 576, sSo, 581,583, 596, 597, 598,599, 6oo, 6o1n259,602+ n26o,6o3,604, 6o8, 620, 622, 625+n311, 627n317, 630, 634, 693ns8, 824, 1296, 1371, 1373 Guttural 139,142,149, 151, 573m87, 628n319, 673n21, 717, 724,730, 731, 818ns62,82o,8 22,824 Homorganic 417,419,590, 614n284, 615n288, 615n288, 616n288, 1111, m2, 1409 Interdental 179m11, 420, 674, 677, 682, 689,692 Labial 417, 421, 431n248, 596, 671,681, 733m22, 735, 1128, 1373, 1485m6 Laminal 609 Laryngeal 607, 6oS, 615n288, 628n319, 1127, 1373lll04, 1425, 1434, 1435· 1489 Lateral 557n135, 573, 586, 595n242, 604, 6o6+n265+n26 6, 607, 6o8n267, 612, 615+n287+n288, 616+n288, 629n321, 683, 6Ss, 686, 1372, 1434n24, 1435 Liquid _ 576, 698, 1409 L-reduction 668m3, 676, 677, 698n72, 704,705, 706+n84, 714, 952m262 Merging 420, 612, 613, 617,187, 1384, 1440 Nasal 156, 421, 576, 578, 6o4n264, 874n737 112731 1296, 1301, 1302, 1371, 1373, 1435, 1489+n36, 1490n36 Obstruent 1296, 1297 Palatal 192, 574, 575, 578, sSo, 581, 582, 597,599,6o7,6 o9,61o,612,61 3,62o, 676, 677, 704, 706+n82, 1371, 1435 Pharyngeal 573,57S,s96,s9 7,6o1+n259, 6o2, 604, 625, 627+n317, 628+n319, 630, 634,1127, 1373lll04, 1408, 1435 Plosive 119, 581, 590, 6o2, 6nn273, 616n288, 1129, 1371, 1372, 1374 Sibilant Ss, 120, 141, 168, 210, 211, 212, 213n230, 23mn, 378n6o, 38m88+n93, 384,417,418,420,435n255,573+n18~

s86,604,6osn2 64,606n26S,60 9, 610, 706n82, 9o8n821, 935n1048,

946n1184, 1053, 1061, 1072, 1129n83, 1131, 1241, 1372, 1374· 1407, 1408, 1434, 1435 Sonorant 371n22, 575, 576, 578, sSo, 599, 6oS, 621, 677, 939m11o Stops 151, 417, 418,419, 582, 590, 6o4n264, 6osn264, 607, 6oS, 6nn273, 640n349, 671,1241, 1284, 1408,1409 Uvular 120, 611n273, 628n319, 1127 Velar 151,417, 421, 578, 580, 581,582,583, 589, 590, 596, 611n273, 628n319, 671, 676, 695, 716n95, 944n1154, 1127,1371, 1374, 1434, 1435 Vibrant 1371 Voiced 69, 37m2o, 417,418, 419, 589n225, 596,597, 601, 6o2n26o, 6o3, 607, 6oS, 615, 677,1005, 1020, 1129, 1237,1241, 1246, 1273, 1274, 1275, 1276, 1277, 1278, 1279, 1280, 1281, 1282, 1283, 1284, 1285, 1322, 1371, 1372, 14071 1409, 1435n25, 1436, 1502+lll10 Voiceless 69, 179n111, 376n46, 378n6o, 417, 418,419, 589n225, 599, 6o2n26o, 603, 612, 615+n288, 674, 677, 682, 1129, 1237, 1241,1246, 1273, 1274, 1275· 1276, 1277, 1278, 1279, 1280, 1281, 1282, 1283, 1284, 1285, 1322, 1371, 1372, 1408, 1409, 1434, 1435, 1502 Weak 69, 71, 72, 151, 158, 159 Construct state: see States Containers 21, m5, m7, 1367n75 Cult (see also Liturgy, Religion) 94,106,107, 428, 1154, 1327, 1463, 1466n31, 1470 Cuneiform writing: see \Vriting Cypro-Minoan script 1220 Date-palm 21, 1231 Dead language 104n8, 106,150, 1199+n114, 1459-1477 (=chapter 25) Decipherment 3-34 (=chapter 1), 76, 77, 78, 94, 129, 1452, 1482, 1483, 1481 Deixis (see also Pronouns) 178, 180, 2o8n210, 229n5, 237, 238, 240+n39, 286, 37lll23, 372n31, 374044, 398, 8930784, 1122, 1130, 1376, 1377· 1412, 1417, 1439 Demography 517, 533, 1402 Determinatives 68, 73, 478, 482n29, 499, 670, 1054, nu, 1326, 134806, 147lll62

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

1553 Diachrony (see also Synchrony)

16, 41,

51, 151, 1g2, 2oomg1, 230, 2go, 360, 367, 36g, 374,375, g6lll44, 415,416, 417, 4gsn88, 513, 533, 572, 5g2n234, 6to,6g4,6g8,737·738,73g,7s7n242, 76gn2g3, 8t6nsst, 83g, 86sn7o2, 886, 8go, goo, g2on88g, g22ngog, g6sm402, g66lll412, 137lll88, 1382, 13g6, 1397, 1402n21, 1432, 1438, 1441 Dialect geography

231mt, 265, 567m68,

s6gm73, 595, 618, 63o, 632, 635, 637n340, 641, 1010, 1012, 1400, 1404 Diathesis: see Voice Dictionaries

3-34 ( = chapten)

Digitalization

24

Diglossia 11ggmt7, 1419+n86, 1464n23 Diminutives 153n2o Diplomacy

Discourse markers

1443

Anti-witchcraft series Extispicy

79, go, g6

57, 301, 1230, 1270, 1271,

1366+n70 Hamspicy Hemerology

1047, 1228, 1270 1321

Magical texts 45n44, 75, 86, 87, 88, go, 91, gg, 1231, 1322 54, ssmoo, 58, 1047,1048, 104g,

1144, 1218, 1230, 1231, 1271, 1320, 1321, 1417, 1487 Physiognomic

1231, 1321

1366+n70

D-stem

Family-tree models: see Classification Fish and fishing 21, 389 Food preparation Footwear 22

425

Furniture

21

Garments

425,447, 1043n27

Gemination (see also Reduplication)

1321

216,374n44,422,423,44Sn298,677, 679+n42, 706, 714, 717, 802, 803+n464, 815n547, 866n704, mo, 1111, 112g, 12g8, 1300, 1406n42, 1409, 1410, 1436 Gender (see also Numerals) 152n11, 155, 176, 17g, 181, 182, 183, 186, 195, 2o3, 1277, 12g7, 1298, 1334, 1378, 1380, 1381, 1382, 1413, 1439, 1442, 1448, 1453 Confusion

1032

23, 135, 137, 165, 166, 183, 188m46,

t8g, 191lll61, 192, 200, 204, 205-207,

m3, 1246

Levelling 1276, 1277 Polarity 16g

210, 213, 214,216, 337,340,341, 342,343,

Genetic model: see Classification Glossaries 6

344,38on86,4gG,sg1,82sn585,826,

Glosses (see also Writing: Gloss-wedges)

836, 1003, 1008, 1015+n7g, 1027, 1050, 1058, 1123, 1124 + 74, 123g, 1243, 1382, 140g, 1445 Dt-stem (see also D-stem, Voice: Passive) 204, 213-215, 322, 324, 407lll78, 1421, 1445, 1463m7 Dtn-stem (see also D-stem)

12n74,

23, 71, 72, 7g, 83, 84, 151, 157n3s, 158, 16m47, 164, t6sn6s, 166, 177mo6, 187+m46, 188, 189, 190, 19I+m61,

233, 353, 479, 832, 1122, 1250, 1276,

ug6moo, 1352n22, 1365,

Teratomantic Doors 21 Dragomans

Exorcism 57, 58, 59, 317, 431, 1168m58, 1320, 1486,1496

1g2+m62, 1g3, 204+DI99, 205,206,207, 208+n214, 2IO+n221, 214, 215+n234,

1365

Hepatoscopy

Prophecy

1014, 1125, 1130, 1240, 1243, 1304, 1397, 1406, 140g, 1411, 1412, 1413, 1414, 1415, 1420, 1421, 1443 Erasure 53, 131g, 1407 n 45 Ergativity 1236, 1247

1213

Divination 4Sn44, 57, 270,391, 436,1155, 1202, 1321, 1366, 1420

Omens

Egyptian hieroglyphs 3, 70, 1220, 13S4n34 Elamitization 1317, 1332 Emesal 106, 415, 421 Enclitics 74o, 746m71, 759, 764, 814n542,

46+n4g, 48, 5lll7g, 54, 55lll00, 414, 416, 426n224, 729nns, 1231, 1234, 1235, 1246, 1247n207+n212, 1249, 125I+n234, 1500 Graeco-Babyloniaca

67+n9, 102-125 ( =

chapter 5), 1407n46, 1433, 1435n27, 215, 216

1436n36+n37· 1468

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

1554 Grammars (Akkadian) 3-34 (=chapter 1) Grammaticaliz ation 180,190,194,195, 197, 199, 208, 211, 1416, 1496n69 G-stem 165, 182, 183, 187, 194n174, 198, 200, 204, 105, 106, 107, 210, 211, 212, 215, 216, 233. 323, 330, 333· 336, 340n204, 341, 1123, 1239· 1382, 1413 Gt-stem (see also G-stem) 23, 165, 204, 212-213, 214, 215, 216, 1123, 1414, 1445· 1463n17 Gtn-stem (see also G-stem) 192, 214, 215216, 338, 340n204, 341, 342, 343. 361, 790, 8o2, 8os, 819, 825, 83o, 1013, 1124, 1415 Habituality 235+n22+n23, 295 Hendiadys 23n142, 404 Hexapla uS Horses 453, 455, 1143, 1151, 1365 Household utensils 21, 425, 619, 1432, 1433, 1466n33 Hurritization 1246 Hurro-Akkadia n 451, 1195,1236,1237,1241, 1244-1249 Hymno-epic dialect 13, 1024, 1080 Imperative: see Moods Infinitive 23,137, 16on45, 183, 187,198,205, 206, 207, 213, 214, 215, 229n3, 340, 732, 733,749n192,8 02,804,80S,808 ,810, 811, 813, 815, 826, 1027, 1300, 1301, 1305, 1384,1417 Injunctive: see Moods Innovations 16+m04, 54, 130, 131+n7, 134, 137· 138, 139· 143. 148, 178, 306, 366, 372,37S.382,4 10,487,48S,ss4 .s6s, s66,s67,s6S,s6 9,618,632,633 n326, 634n330, 635. 636+n33s+n336 , 671, 1003, 1004, 1006, 1008, 1010, 1026, 1125, 1126, 1127, 1128, 1129, 1155. 1248n216, 1317, 1338, 1385, 1444. 1448, 1451, 1462 Interferences: see Language contact Interjections 208, 352, 398 Interlanguage 484n33, 1248n216, 1293, 1305 Interlinear translations 46, 51n79 Intonation 137m88, 1376, 1487 Isoglosses: see Vocabulary Iterativity 133, 143

I

L

Judaism wn64 Jussive: see Moods

karum Koine

1103, 1114, 1116 1003, 1421, 1432

Landscape 425, 436 Language contact (see also Bilingualism, Languages) 121, 122, 138, 139, 140, 144, 513, 515, 516, 517, 52lll31, 54lll81, 542, 637, 8s8n678, 908,909, 940n112o, wog, 1010, 1014, 1113, 1141, 1441, 1236, 1238 + 143. 1239· 1241, 1242, 1243. 1244. 1245. 1246n203, 1247n211, 1250 + 225, 1252, 1274· 1275· 1276, 1277· 1278, 1279· 1280, 1281, 1282, 1283, 1284, 1297' 1304, 1305, 1307, 1309, 1331, 137lll88, 1372, 1373· 1383n136, 1396, 1418, 1419, 1420, 1422, 1425, 1424, 1450 + 114, 1452, 1461, 1464, 1486 Languages (other than Akkadian, Babylonian, Assyrian, Eblaite, Sumerian; see also Bilingualism, Interlanguages , Language contact, Semitic language family, Sprachbund) Afroasiatic (see also Hamito-Semiti c) 147+n2, 154, 159, 172+n89, 178,181,183, 185, 186, 187, 189, 190, 193n166, 194,195, 197, 198m85, 204, 205,207, 2o8n2n, 209, 210, 211, 382, 1122n7o Amharic 378n6o, 394, 395, 400n152, 90m8o1, 1503 Ammonite 135 Amorite 19, 134,479, 483+n32, 487, 515, 516+n7, 1002, wo6+n59, 1009+n71, 1010, 1014, 1026, 1030-1032, 1118, 11771212 ( = chapter 17 ), 1214 Ancient North Arabian (see also Hasaitic, Hismaic, Safaitic, Taymanitic, Thamudic) 134 Ancient South Arabian 1482n3, 1498, 1503, 1516n2o8 Aradhin 1496 Aramaic (see also Syriac) 21, 6o, 102, 104, 120, 121, 122, 129, 130, 134. 135, 139, 140, 147, 154+ll23, 186, 198, 360ll231, 370, 388-389, 390, 391, 392, 393· 410+n94. 412, 422, 437-444. 445, 1203, 1253, 1348, 1354, 1355+n37,

r

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

1555 1356, 1357+039, 1358+043+044, 1359, 1364, 1368, 1369, 1371, 1372, 1373, 1397, 1400,1401, 1404, 1407, 1418+n84, 1419+n86+n87, 1422,1423, 1424,1433, 1435n29, 1445, 1449, 1450, 1451, 1459+n3, 1460,1461,1462, 1463, 1464, 1466,1467, 1468,1470, 1482+n3, 1484, 1489-1496, 1497· 1498, 1499, 1500, 1501, 1502, 1503, 15ll

Arabic

9+n52, 129+n2, 132, 134, 139, 147,

154· 156n27, 158, 159, 161, 162, 166, 171, 172, 173, 176, 177, 178, 180, 185, 186, 188, 190, 191, 193+m68, 194, 195, 196, 198, 199, 200,201,202,203,204,205,206,207, 210,212, 214,370, 375· 390-393,397, 422, 444-445, 742, 779, 841, 846, 853, 910, 915-916, 1451, 1482+n3, 1499-1502, 1503, 1504+lll22, 1505, 1506, 1507,1512, 1513, 1514, 1515, 1516, 1517, 1518 Armenian Avestan

15n + m72 1518

187+lll46, 188, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 199, 201, 204lll99. 215, 216, 285, 382, 388, 395lll41, 513, 514, 515, 548+mo3, 552, 555, 572, 665, 685, 759, 783, 857 , 866, 895, n2o, n21, 12o4 Edomite 135 Egyptian

10, 147n2, 171-188, 176, 181, 187,

197+m84, 198, 205, 209, 382mo2, 459460, 737lll31, 747, 1272n36, 1297, 1298, 1300+n30, 1301-1312, 1354. 1493n54 Elamite

3, 4, 37, 461-462, 483, 516n7,

534, 1002, ll19+ n8o, 1032, 1071, 1075, n97, n98, 1316m, 1317+n5+n6+n7, 1318, 1322, 1323, 1326+n55, 1328, 132 9, 133 o, 1331, 1332, 1333n96+moo, 1337. 1338, 1339. 1355. 1451, 1452, 1482n3 Emarite

1215, 1235, 1236m31, 1237+m38

English

1462, 1482+n3, 1493n54, 1497n76,

1498, 1505, 1506, 1507, 1508+m53,

Babylonian Talmudic Berber

130, 131, 132+n8, 133, 134, 143. 148, 156, 159, 162, 163, 164, 165, 172, 174. 176, 179,

1489, 1490

147n2, 178, 186, 188, 190, 192, 197,

198+m85, 205,208, 737m31 Canaanite (see also Canaano-Akkadian) 19, 134,135,388, 393lll32, 779, 887+n771,

1509, 1510, 1511, 1513, 1514+m85, 1515, 1516+n202+n207, 1518 Epigraphic North Arabian (see also Ancient North Arabian)

134

Epigraphic South Arabian (see also Old

913+n833· 914n844, 1203, 1214, 1235·

South Arabian)

1236lll31, 125l+n234. 1252n237

393.396n146,858n678,866n7o5,893, 911n829

Canaano-Akkadian

779, 913, 914n84o,

928n972, 934, n95, 1236, 1245+ mg6, 1249. 1250, 1251, 1252+ n238 Catalan

704, 1505, 1506, 1507, 1509

Chadic

147n2, 190, 205, 210

Central Semitic

133, 134, 187m87, 188,

18g, 190, 193, 366m, 369n7, 375, 393, 397, 856, 910, 12o2m32, 1203 Classical Ethiopic

131, 132, 1498n81, 1503,

1512, 1513, 1514, 1518+n217+n218 Common Semitic

10,370,388,397,

1373ni04, 1381, 1483, 1485+m6+m7, 1486n2o, 1509m6o, 1510 Coptic

459, 460

Cushitic

140, 147n2, 174+n96, 178,186,

190, 193, 197, 205, 208+n211, 209, 210 Calla

1495

Ethiopian (Semitic)

161, 188, 207, 210, 392,

129,131,133,134,139,

140, 191m61, 208, 209, 366m, 371, 393, 400lll55, 737m31 French

416n204, 1484m3, 1493n54,

1505lll22, 1506, 1507

Ge~ez

133, 143, 147, 154, 156, 157, 158,

161, 163, 168, 169, 178, 180, 181, 186, 187, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 199, 200lll91, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 212, 214, 216, 366-4 76 ( = chapter 9: passim), 371, 375, 664-989 (=chapter 12: passim) German

13n82, 360, 1202, 1505+m22,

1506, 1507, 1509, 1516n207 Germanic

1516nzo2, 1517

Greek (ancient; see also Mycenean Greek)

Dadanitic

134

24, 102-125 ( = chapter 5). 412, 414, 419,

Dumaitic

134

456, 463, 1397· 1449· 1451, 1468, 1470,

East Semitic

16, 41, 129, 130, 131, 132 + 8,

133. 134, 143, 148, 388, 395lll41, 513, 514,

1482, 1484m3, 1485m7, 1487, 1507-1511, 1510, 1513, 1514, 1515, 1516, 1517, 1518

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

1556 Gutian 1032 Hadramitic (see also Old South Arabian) 134, 1498n82 Hamito-Sem itic (see also Afroasiatic) 147n2 Hasaitic 134 Hatran 1491+n44, 1514 Hattic 1469, 1486+n2o Hebrew 3, 5, 11, 12+n72, 19, 21, 120,122, 129, 130, 132, 134· 135· 147· 154· 156, 160, 162+n51, 166, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 178, 181, 185, 186, 188, 191, 193, 194, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 206, 207, 210, 212, 214, 216, 366-476 (=chapter 9: passim), 371n26,375· 397.422,435 ,664-989 ( = chapter 12: passim), 674, 737n132, 739, 748, 843, 868n707, 890, 913,1184, 1372, 1482, 1484, 1485, 1486m8, 1490n37, 1496-1498, 1512, 1513, 1514. 1515, 1517, 1518 Hismaic 134 Hittite 37, 96n97, 453, 484, 672, m7, 1214, 1215n4, 1217n19, 1220, 1236n134, 12661292 ( = chapten9 ), 1469, 1482, 1486, 1487, 1489, 1517 Hurrian (see also Subarean) 77, So, 84n39,85n42 ,87+n55.96n 97·446-452, 456,483,487 , 516+n7+n9, 1002, 1032, 1115, 1117, 1142, 1195, 1196, 1197, 1200, 1214, 1215n4, 1220, 1227, 1228, 1236+m34, 1240, 1245+n197, 1246, 1247+n212, 1248, 1249+n217, 1269, 1271, 1284,1469, 1482n3, 1486 Iranian (see also Persian) 456-459, 931nl008, 1354. 1449. 1451, 1488-1489, 1507' 1510nl63, 1511 Italian 1484m3, 1504, 1505n122, 1506, 1507, 1509, 1511, 1518 Jibbali (see also Modern South Arabian) 169, 369n9, 394,395,397 ,432, 1503 Kassite 453-455, 1050, 1214 Latin 24, 18m123, 414, 416n204, 1459m, 1461, 1484m3, 1485m7, 1503-1504, 1506, 1507, 15o8+m53, 1509, 1510, 1512, 1513, 1514, 1516, 1518 Luwian 487,1143, 1355+n36, 1469 Mandaic 443n289, 440, 442, 443, 1489, 1490, 1494, 1495n65

Mehri (see also Modern South Arabian) 133, 134n17, 169, 175n100, 184, 187, 208, 209, 366-476 (=chapter 9: passim), 1503 Minaic (see also Old South Arabian) 134, 1498n82 Moabite 135 Modem South Arabian (see also Jibbali, Mehri, Soqotri) 133, 134, 139, 169, 175+nlOO, 184+n131, 187+n145+m 46, 188m46, 2o6+n2o5, 208, 210, 212, 366m, 369n7, 371+n2o, 393, 395n141, 396m46, 737n131, 1122n7o, 1503 Mycenean Greek (Linear B; see also Greek) 1485m7, 1487, 1507,1508 North Arabian 134, 438n269, 444, 445 North Semitic 19, 129, 130 North-West Semitic 19, 21, 369, 401m58, 439+ n271, 910, 912, 913, 1179, 1234, 1244, 1250, 1251 + 234 Old South Arabian (see also Hadramitic, Minaic, Qatabanic, Sabaic) 129, 134, 139 Omotic 147 Persian (see also Iranian) 3+m, 412,456, 459, 1339, 1397, 1451n118, 1452, 1482n3, 1488, 1507, 1510+n163 Phoenician 129, 135, 371n23, 404m68, 913, 1372, 1485n17, 1507,1514 Portuguese 1504n122, 1506, 1507+n147, 1509, 1515n199, 1516n204, 1518 Proto-Akkad ian 14, 143,147, 148,149, 250, 155. 156, 157· 170, 173· 174. 175. 177· 199, 360, 399, 514, 534n69, 550n112, ll20, 1126, 1128 Proto-East Semitic 147,149,156,157, 187, 190 Proto-Semiti c 9, 12, 14, 119, 147, 148, 152,153, 156+n26, 157, 158, 162,165, 166, 167,168,172, 173· 174. 175· 176, 177· 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 184n131, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 193+m68, 194, 197, 198, 199, 200, 202, 204, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 214, 216, 366476 (=chapter 9: passim), 571, 6o6, 664-989 (=chapter 12: passim), m9, ll20, 1121, 1127, 1128, 1129, 1484, 1515, 1516

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

1557 Proto-West Semitic

366-476 (=chapter 9: passim), 664-989 ( = chapten2:

1240,1242, 1243+m9o, 1244+lll9I+lll93,

passim)

148s, 1486, 1490n37, 1493n54, 1513, 1514, 1517

Punic

1507, 1510, 1517n212

Urartian

Qaraqosh 1495 Qatabanic (see also Old South Arabian) 134, 176, 212, 1498n82 Romanian

1506, 1511

Sabaic (see also Old South Arabian)

134,

158,169, 174+n95, 176, 210, 212,366476 (=chapter 9: passim), 857n678, 858n678, 1498, 1516 Safaitic

Vedic

West Semitic

Sanskrit

3, 1488n32, 1512, 1513

Slavonic

1517

Sogdian

1489

147-227 (=chapter 7=

passim), 366-476 (=chapter 9: passim), 664-989 (= chapter 12: passim), 1122+n69, 1142, 1194n87, 1251, 1358 Leather 39n11, 147m62, 1472 n6 4 Legal documents Decrees 1366

134

37, 1236, 1469, 1511

455, 456

1129, 1150, 1159, 116s, 1336, 13 6 , 4

Kudurrus 462n382, 1039-1102 (= chapter 14), 1316n4, 1420, 1424

169, 187, 209, 366-476 (=chapter 9:

Law codes 998, 1022, 1023+n84, 1028, 1077, 1333lll02 Model contracts 45, so

passim), 791n407, 815n547

Royal edicts

Soqotri (see also Modern South Arabian)

Spanish

704, 1482, 1504+m22, 1505, 1506,

1507+lll47· 1509, 1511, 1518 Subarean (see also Hurrian)

516n7, 517,

539, 1032, 1118n6o, 1197+mo8, 1198, 1199+n114, 1200+nu8, 1201 Sutean

1032, u86

Syriac (see also Aramaic)

168,181,366-

476 (=chapter 9: passim), 913, 914, 915, 928, 941, 967, n66m45, 1425, 1485, 1492n46, 1493, 1504, 1506, 1510, 1512, 1513, 1514, 1515, 1516, 1517 Taymanitic 134 Thamudic Tigre

134

372n29, 377n56, 378n62, 395, 398,

1503 Tigrinya 1503

372n29, 377n55+n58, 394,395,

1482, 1488, 1504, 1505+m26,

1506, 1507, 1511, 1517n210 Tiare 1496 Ugaritic

Treaties

667, 861, 1106, no8, 1147, 1149,

1162, 1192n82, 1218+n31, 1272+n36+n37, 1277, 1278, 1279· 1280, 1281, 1294, 1328n66, 1364, 1365, 1366, 1369 Lingua franca (see also Language contact) 52, Go, 1213, 1253, 1266n2, 1466, 1485, 1489,1496 Linguistic typology 140, 1463 Linguistic universals 233 Lists (see also Textual genres) Acrographic lists

47, 672

Bilingual lexical lists

42n26, 43, 47,

48+n6o, 54,105, 430n238, 668,669,

Tuareg 175+moo, 181, 189, 198m85, ll22n70 Turkish

998, 1022, 1023, m48,

1158, 1165, 1275, 1279, 1333lll02, 1364, 1366

19, 67,75-101 (=chapter 4),

134, 156, 160, 162+n51, 163, 167, 168, 169, 172, 174, 176+mo2, 18onu5, 184m31, 174n95, 185, 188, 200, 201, 207+n2o8, 210, 212, 366-476 (=chapter 9: passim; cf. 385-388), 422,664-989 (=chapten2: passim), 1014, 1203, 1214, 1219, 122o+n4o, 1228, 1229, 1235, 1236m31,

670, 673, 999· 1029n96, nss, 1231, 1233n118, 1355 God lists 54, 56, 57, 1319 Lexical lists 37-65 ( =chapter 2), 105, 414, 416, 438, 518, 527, 668, 910, 1024, 1032, 1144, 1197, 1230, 1231, 1234, 13181319 Numerical lists

56

List of body parts 45 List of geographical names 552lll17 List of legal terms 45 Lists of names 42 Lists of personal names 479· 1318, 1319

529, 542,

42n28, 48, s6,

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

1558

List of professional names (see also Professions)

45· 529, 540, 552n117, 669,

676 Metrologicallists 56 Thematic lexical lists 44, 47, so, 54, 56, 57· 518, 1220, 1318 Unilinguallists 54, 669, 1230, 1231 Word lists 42, 54, 56, 1228 Literacy 39> 40, 41, ss6m33> 557> 1112,1113, 1167, 1234, 1352, 1434 Literature 7, 44, 47ns6+n57, 48, 49, 5In79, 53+n89, 54n91, ss+ moo, s6, 57· 66, 67, 68, 88, 89, 103+n7, 105,107, 16o, 171, 201, 212, 23on6, 231, 232, 326m86, 399, 4osm69, 410m91, 423, 436, 438, 443.444n295,445,487,488nso, 498mo9, 519, 527, 530,531, 532, 535, 548mo4, 668, 675, 705, 737n131, 804, 910, 994, 998, 999, 1027,1029, 1030, 1040, 1047,1048,1052,1080,1107, 1140n24, 1143+ n33· 1144. 1154· 1156, 1162, 1163, 1164, n6s, 1168, 1216+ m3, 1228, 1229, 1230, 1231, 1232, 1268, 1294· 1317, 1318, 1320, 1321, 1339, 136onso, 1365, 1366, 1419, 1420, 1421, 1422, 1432, 1467, 1468 Bilingual literary compositions

48, 53,

1029+n97 Epics 23, 24, 57,388,493, 965m402, 998, 1024, 1027, 1030, 1107, 1115, 1144, 1146, 1147, 1148+n46, 1149+n51, 1152,1153, 1163, u67n154, 1168, 1223, 1228 + 81, 1231, 1234, 1269, 1420, 1421 Fables and Contest Literature 1155 Lamentations 49+n65, son73, 57, s8n116+n117, 998,1030 Love literature 999, 1047, 1152, 1467 Myths 532, 552+m17, 1144,1151, 1152, 1321+n26 Proverbs 53, 443n294, 1030, 1047,1049, us6, 1187, 1235lll29, 1318, 1320 Wisdom literature 999, 1030, 1048, 1235lll29 Liturgy (see also Cult, Religion) 45n44, 1048, 1460, 1468,1472 Hymns 42, 66, 98, 106n21, 436, 548mo4, 668, 673n23, 716, 741m46, 752, 825, 900, 998, 1022,1024, 1025, 1027,1030, 1048, 1049> 1144, 1147· 1148, 1153· 1197· 1198,

1218, 1228, 1232+mo9, 1318, 1320+n24, 1420, 142lll92, 1467 Prayers 42, 48, ssmoo, 92, 94n94, 998, 1030, 1048, 1144, 1153· 1163, 1228, 1269, 1420 Rituals 86, 91, 94, 96n98, 106, 667, 705, 706, 715, 716, 735. 8oon452, 836, 849. 862, 865, 878, 882, 892, 900, 1129, 1144, 115ons7, 1154, 1165, 1216+m3, 1271,1322, 1366, 1367n72 Votive texts 6o, 519, 526n41, 531, 533. 534n69, 537, 675, 1040, 1044, 1077,1078, 1162 Loanwords: see Vocabulary Ma~dar

198, 207+n207, 214, 1298,1300, 1301,

1493ll54 Mathematics: see Scientific texts Measures (see also Metrology) 68,429,449, 545, 1226n68, 1227n77, 1276, 1492 Medicine: see Scientific texts Merchants (see also Business, Trade) 40, 149· 397· 400, 401, 417, 423+n213, 530, 66sns, 1103, 1104+n5, 1105, 1007, noS, 1112, 1113+n43, 1114, 1116n49, 1128, 1266, 1496,1507 Messengers 1182n31, 1198 Metallurgy 40 Metaphor 40, 47, 412, 1153,1449 Metrology (see also Measures) 40,567 Migrations 533, 544, 1178 Mimation: see Nouns Minerals 425 Moods (see also Tenses) Asseverative 706, 768n291, 776n329, 777, 798, 8o5n482, 811, 813, 824, 826, 1053 Cohortative

201, 202, 345n209, 1324,

1383, 1445 Imperative 151, 182, 183, 184, 187, 189, 193, 194, 199, 200, 202, 205, 206, 208, 210, 212, 213, 214, 215, 332, 342, 345n209, 443, 493, 497+mo6, 733,788,789,813,820, 825, 1027, 1124, 1300, 1383, 1405, 1414, 1422 Injunctive

199, 233, 254, 289+n134, 340,

345 + 208, 346 + 213, 349· 351, 353· 354· 3ss.3s6,3s8,3s9,361 Jussive 140, 189, 192,+m62, 193, 202,

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

1559 205,206, 207, 210 + 221, 213, 214, 216, 345n209, 7910407 Negation (see also Prohibitive)

200,239,

243, 254, 290, 340, 345+n2o7, 346n213, 351, 409, 498, 706, 778n341, 7810362, 799· 821, 823, 1006, 1007, 1014, 1022n84, ll25, ll30, 1279, 1283, 1304, 1305, 13ll, 1335 , 13so, 1383, 1384, 1385, 1442, 1444 , 1446, 1448, 1452 Precative

137, 140, 149, 187, 199, 200,

345n209,497.706,789,790,798, 8os, 829, 1003, 1013, 1027, 1123, n26, u28+ n8o, 1300, 1312, 1376, 1383, 1384, 1413, 1420, 1445 Prohibitive (see also Negation)

Deadjectival nouns

1s 3 162, 1023 n8 , 4 1303, 1381 Denominal derivation 1s 3, 1s , , 4 213 374n40 Descriptive nouns 1ss Definiteness

187,199,

200,345n209,351n222,497,706,776, ll30, 1239, 1384, 1445 Vetitive

187,199, 200, 345n209, 497, 791, ll23, 1384, 1445 Ventive 12, 23, 143, 161,187,201, 202, 204,

Deverbal derivation 198,213

1s 1, 1s 3, 16s, 182, 187,

Ethnonyms u83, 1400 Gentilics (see also Adjectives: Nisbe) 499, 1060, 1380 Inanimate

1S4, 276, 304, 323 , 324, 332 , 767, 770, 771, 772, 1440

Mimation

156, 161-163, 494 , 767n 28s, 832, 836n625, 837, 848, 8so, 8sm6s8,

917, 1019, 1050, 1051, IOS3, wss, ws7, wsg, 1061, 1063, 1064, 1066, 1067, 1070, 1071, 1072, 1073, 1074, 1078, 1079, w8o, 1081, 1130, 1140, 1203, 1237, 1241, 1249, 1273, 128s, 1322, 1324, 1326, 1330, 1334, 1405, 1409, 1410, 1436

229n5, 240, 241042, 257n76, 299, 315,

Nomen rectum (see also States)

317, 318, 361, 495· 639, 772n306, 791797· 1057, 1062, 1073, 1239, 1242, 1243,

848, 849, 8so, 8sm6s8, 1239, 1379 Nomen regens (see also States) 1238, 1239,1441

1324, 1334· 1375· 1384, 1409, 14ll, 1413, 1436, 1437+ng6+n98 Morphological innovations

130, 131+n7, 137,

138, 143, 1128 Morphosyntax

228-365 (=chapter 8), 1397, 1415, 1421, 1447

Nominal Morphology

84s,

152, 832, 1410

Noun patterns 20m38, 2S, 1s3m7, 1S4 Nunation 1s6, 161-162, 168, 177mo6, 832, 836, 838, 1409, 1410 Primary nouns

1S2, 1s3m4, 1s7, 403,

732 Names

*qVtl-type nouns 134

Personal names: see Personal names Prosopography

49, 503, 1350 Toponyms (see also Lists: Geographical names) 44, 536, 542, 543, 1181 +n28, 1183, 1203m36, 1204 Natural phenomena 425 Negation: see Moods Nisbe: see Adjectives, Nouns: Gentilics Nomadism

515, 1147, 1184, 1185, 1189+n63,

1403 Nouns (see also Cases, Gender, Number, States) m/weak roots Abstract

159

154, 448n317+n321 + 322,

Unity nouns 154 N-stem (see also Voice: Passive)

16s, 204,

206, 207-210, 211, 216, 233, 238, 246, 256, 322+lll83, 323, 330mgo, 331-333· 334mg8, 335, 376n46, 831, 1123, 1124, 1127, ll31, 1239, 1374, 1382+lll33· 1414, 1453 Ntn-stem (see also N-stem)

215, 216,331,

1415 Number 155, 182 Broken plurals 1s7, 1s8, 159 Dual 134, 141, 1s6, 1S7 + 33, 1s8, 162+ nso+ ll51,+ll52+llS3, 167, 168, 170, 174, 175, 176+lll03, 179, 180ll11S, 183, 184+lll32, 190, 581, 633ll328, 638, 672, 727, 744·

449n328,452n355 Animate 154, 283,323, 324, 767, 770, 1440

779• 838, 839· 843· 849· 1007, wo8, wog, 1010, 1024, uogn28, 1122, 1139, 1239,

Si-consonantal

1334,1381

156, 158

1560

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

Irregular Plurals 157 Plural 133, 134, 135, 142, 152, 155, 156, 157, 1SS, 159· 160, 161, 162, 163, 165, 170, 176, 177, 180, 1S3, 191, 205, 206, 215, 216, 229, 338, 339· 340, 341, 342, 343. 344· 361, 593n236, 63S, 672, wsS, 1059, 1073, 1074· 1079· IOSo, ll11, 123S, 1239. 1242, 1295, 1297, 129S, 1300, 1375, 1376, 13So, 13S1, 1397· 1410, 1421, 1439· 1441, 1450 Pluralia tantum 159+n39, 843+n64o Singular 141, 157, 15S, 161, 163, 164, 181, 1S3,63S Numerals Cardinals 152,167-169 Derived 152, 169 Distributive 169+n82 Gender polarity 169 Multiplicative 169 + S2 Numerical expressions 449 Ordinals 152, 169, 1125, 1381, 1442 Nunation: see Nouns Officials 448, 567, 633, 669, 1020, n49, usS, 1159. n6o, 1169, 1294. 1326, 1327, 1330, 1337, 1365, 1398,1419, 1464, 1468n3S Ointment nso, nsm61 Old Testament 10n64, 4Som8, 665, S4Sn653, 1367n72, 1482 Onomastics: see Personal names Orality so, 518, 1196moo Pan-Babylonism

10n63

Parchment 39m1, 104, 413, 1356, 1357n39, 1369, 146S+n4o Participle: see Verb: Participles Pausa 202, 1005, 1077 Perfect: see Tenses Permansive: see Stative Personal names (see also Lists: Lists of personal names) 20, 44, 45n44, so, 51, s6, 103, 129, 136, 139, 148, 164, 17m87, 179DI11, 477-510 (=chapter 10 ), 513663 ( = chapter n ), 674, 675, 676, woo,10o1, 1022,1026,1030+n99· l031,1057,1073,1104n4,1110,1115+n47. 1120, 1159. 1181, 1183, 1186, 1193. 1204, 1228, 1246, 1268m2, 1313, 1318, 1319, 1326, 1339, 1356n38, 136S, 1401, 1402, 1419

Phonology (see also Consonants, Vowels) Ablaut 643, 1003, 1056 Allophone 70, 8sn42, 119, s86, 587,593. 595, 6o2n26o, 603, 604, 612, 613, 615, 616, 6Ss, 686, 1372, 1373, 1374, 1375, 14o 7 Assimilation 121, 142, 152, 157, 172, 182, 207, 216+n236, 371n22, 404n167, 416, 422, 530lll13, 581, sS3, 592+n234. 593n236, 603, 604, 611, 613, 614, 676, 677, 734, 73S, 791+n410, 817, 834n622, S49. 1026, 1057· 1069, 107S, 11osn8,1109, 1110, 1121, 1124, 1127, 112S, 1131, 1203, 1296, 1300, 1301, 1302, 1374. 1375· 1396, 1408, 1409, 1414, 1435+n31, 1436, 1437 Auslaut 371n24, 769n293, 7S5, 848, 849 Canaanite shift 135 Dissimilation 135, 142, 19S, 207, 37m22, 3Sm93, 697n6S, 963m3S6, 1005, 1020, 1078, 112S, 1203, 1273· 1277, 1278, 1279· 12So, 1281, 12S2, 12S3, 12Ss, 1373. 1375+ m oS, 14oSnso, 1409, 1435n31, 1436 Fortition 6oS, 615 Geers's law

141D35, 142, 697, 1203

Homophony 423, 4S4n33, 570+n174, 1322 Lenition 119, 6oS, 615 Lowering 593, 616n28S, 1127 Monophthongization 73, 176, 730, 1449 Nasalization 1273, 1489n36, 1490n36 Phonetic complement 119n52, 42m2og, ss8m37, 673, 8S2, 1405, 1438 Phonograms 513-663 ( = chapter 11, passim), 671 Reduction 550 + 113, 573, 575, 576, 583, 597,6o2,624,62S,626,627,62S,63o, 634. 733. 849. 1127, 1129 Secondary phoneme 70, 1435 Syncope 142, 152, 164, 165, 196m79, 732,733·784,7Ssn377.78S,So2,So3, S15n547, S35, 1121, 1414, 1502m13 Umlaut 594, 1003, 1006, 1055+mo3, 1062m17, 1064n11S *'l /* 7 > 7 1121

a > a' 1055, 1061, 1063, 1069, 1072, 1073 a> e 1003, 1006, 1050, 1053, 1055, 1057, 1059. 1060, 1061, 1062, 1063, 1064, 1067, 1070, 1071, 1073, 1074· 1075· 1078, 1079· 1080, 1121

a > 6 ( = Canaanite shift) a > u before ii 733n119

135

INDE X OF SUB JECT S

1561 aw > 6 730 *aw > ii* 156

nd< dd

*ay> e 137· g11n82g *ay> I 137

ng < gg 1409 -nk- > -ng- 1050

b vs. p prob lem 1166 bb > mb 1436 -bm- >-mm - 1067, 1075, 1079 -dd- > -md- 1070, 1073, 1078, 1079 -dd- and -mt- 1058, 1059, 1074 -dd- > -nd- 1050, 1055. 1058, 1059. 1060, 1062, 1063, 1065, 106g , 1071, 1073, 1074, 1075· 1079· 1436 d + n > nn 1414 Dent al + 3rd p. suff. > -ssdt > dd 1435

1050 , 1436

dt > tt 1435 gg > ng 1436 *}:1/*h > 0 1121 *}:1/"i- > *C)e-

-e < -a.1"j

1121

159

i-a/a >a 1011, 1012, 1019 i-a > 1005 i > e 1121 1/e-a /a >a 1012

e

I/ e-a/ a > e in> i'

1011,

ll9sn g6

1141

l > n 1141 l + s >ss 1437 *F, *67 , *1s 7 > ~ 142 *mC >cc 734, 1436 m> 0 1373 m/n > 7 I130, 1373 -m- + denta l 1071 m >n

735m 26, 1273, 1279, 1280, 1282, 1283, 1285, 1373, 1374

m >w 1436 *ma- > na- shift 735 mb < bb 1409 -md- > -nd- 1069 , 1075 -mk- > -ng-ms- > -ns-

1055, 1063, 1073, 1074, 1435 1053

mt > md n41, 1408 mt > md > nd 1408, 1435 -mt- > -nd- 734· 1055· 1058, 1059· 1065, 1073, 1074. 1075 -mt- > -nt- 1069, 1075 n > o 1373 n >' 1436 -ne- >-cc -

1067, 10Gg, 1074, 1435

n >r

135

qt > qt 1141, 1437 r> s 1437 rs >ss 1437

*s, *i, *e > s 142 *s • 12 1 >s 75. 276, 1277, 1278, 128o, 128

st >ss

1435

~~

> r~

1437

~t > ~~

1435

5

s/s/z + denta l> l

1014, 1015, 1016, 1053. 1061, 1064, 1070, 1071, 1079. ll29+ll83, 1140, 1237. 1241, 1273. 1436 s > s 1141, 1372 s > ~ 1141 sb > sb ll40 St > }t

685, 782n366, 1019, 1053, 1071, 1072, 1073· 1146, 1273.1278, 1279. 1280, 1281, 1283, 1285 *ts > s 142 *-t-SV > -t 5V

751

*lt/, */s/, *Is/> one phon eme wo8 /u/ >/of 1435n27 -v:c- > -vc 1074, 1075, 1076 V> V: 1077 -w- > -0/m- 1055· 1059· 1061, 1062, 1063, 1067, w6g, 1071, 1072, 1073, 1075, 1237, 1241, 1273. 1277. 1278, 1279. 1280, 1282, 1283, 1407, 1435n2g w- > 0- 1241, 1273, 1407, 1435 w > y I # _ 134, 94Inll23, wog w > b/' 1141, 1373 wa- > u- 1121, 1128, 1130, 1373 z >) 1436 zt > zz 1435 -zz- > -nz 1063, 1074 Physiology 424 Pidgi n 1240n159. 1359 Plant s: see Botan y Pleon asm 1281, 1415n72 Politics 428 Preca tive: see Mood s Prepo sition s 8, 121, 160, 167n72, 312, 317, 318, 405, 408ni79· 409,412, 444· 493· 497· 49 8, 5oo, 531, 549, 551, 857-883, wo8, 1010, 1025, llll, 1121, ll25, 1129, 1237· 1241, 1249· 1301, 1302, 1303, 1304, 1305,

~I

1562

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

Prepositions (cont.)

1306, 1308, 1309, 1312,

1335· 1337· 1377· 1378, 1379-1380, 1384, 1416, 1420,1423, 1424, 1439· 1442-1443. 1444. 1447· 1448,1450, 1453· 1490 Present: see Tenses Preterite: see Tenses Prisms 44, s68+m71, 1161+m22, 1222n53, 1233 Proclitic 121, 181, 200, 1379m2o Professions (see also Lists: List of professional names) 57, 6o, 426,448,477, 479n11, 491,492, 499nl22, s68, 1115, 1116, 1142, 1168, 1246, 1327, 1337n11g, 1358n42, 1368, 1377· 1419, 1492, 1494 Prohibitive: see Moods Pronouns (see also Deixis, Suffixes) Anaphoric 171,180, 740n144, 741 + 147, 1241, 1412, 1413, 1439+ n49 Archaizing 1078 Demonstrative 16m47, 178, 180, 1122, 1303, 1304, 1439 Determinative (see also infra Relative) 178-180, 488n4g, 611, 1007, wog, 1010, 1018, 1025, 1026, 1115, 1122, 1377-1378 Indefinite 180, 181+m23, 371n23, 770772, 1378, 1440 Independent personal 135, 139, 143, 152, 170-174· 175· 176, 180, 195. 211, 673· 676, 736-742, 759. 1004, 1006, 1007,1012, 1016, 1025, 1130, 1238, 1247· 1278, 1310, 1376-1377· 1381, 1409, 1421, 1438-1439· 1447. 1448, 1450, 1452 Interrogative 180-182, 498, 767-770, 1308, 1312, 1378, 1385, 1440 Oblique pronouns 173, 176, 759, 760 Possessive 161n47, 173, 176-177, 494, 759-760, 1008, 1322, 1334. 1377· 1413, 1442 Relative (see also supra Determinative) 372n31, 611, 6g4, 761-767 Suffix pronouns: see Suffixes Prosopography: see Names, Personal Names Proto language 130, 131 Quotations Indirect 1311, 1385 Direct 404, 411, 1014, 1158, 1238, 1274, 1275· 1277· 1278, 1279· 1280, 1281, 1282, 1283, 1417, 1420, 1443. 1446

Racing 453 Radicals 151, 152m3, 182 Rebus principle: see Spellings Reduplication (see also Gemination)

5,

159+n3g, 166, 181+m23, 2og, 367n2, 491, 534,672,673n24,736,8o2,856,1278, 1280, 1281, 1374· 1382, 1406, 1418, 1440, 148g, 1512nl74 Religion (see also Cult, Liturgy) 428, m6, 1468,1481 Retentions 131, 132, 134, 137, 138, 175, 186m43, 366+m, 367,368,369,375, 1004, 1125, 1126, 1273· 1278, 1282, 1284, 1285, 1410n57, 1421 Root: see Verb Scientific texts (see also Divination) 994 Astrology 1270, 1365, 1366, 1368n8o, 1471 Astronomy 103n7, 107, 1144, 1155+n87, 1270, 1268, 1432n8, 1433, 1468, 1469+ nso, 147I+n57 Mathematics 40m7, 45n44, 53, 402, 429, 66g, ggg, 1024, 1048, 1144. 1155. 1317, 1318, 1319, 1320 Medicine 39, 57, 58, 1048, 1231, 1270, 1322, 1468n41 +n43, 1494 School (see also Scientific texts, Tablets, Textual genres, Writing) 37-65 ( = chapter 2)

bet tuppiite 1169 Curriculum 37-65 ( = chapter 2 ), 105, 479, 540, 552, 1114, u6g, 1225, 1227, 1228, 1229, 123o+ngs, 1236m31, 1317, 1318, 1421,1468 dub-sar 46n47. s68 dub-sar-tur 49 e-dub-ba-a 49 "Guest professors" (see also infra Teachers) 1268, 1272 Junior Scribe 49, 52n85, 56, 58, 59, 6o, 1168 le'u (see also infra Writing boards) 1335, 1348ns School texts 37-65 ( = chapter 2 ), 1107, uo8, 1114, 1217mg, 122o+n4o, 1225, 1268, 1317, 1318, 1321n33, 1338, 1468n42 Scribes 37-65 ( = chapter 2 ), go, 566, s88, 620, I02g, 1064, 1068, w6g, 1080,

INDE X OF SUBJ ECTS

1563

1114, n48, 1150, u68, 1169, 1183, u88, 1179, 1192 • ll9S+ng3+ng8, ng8n112, n9o, n92, 1196, 1205, 1218, 1229, 1232, nggnn4+n117 1267,1272, 1354, 1486m8 Sprachbund (see also Languages) 202, Stude nts 37-65 ( = chap ter 2 ), 105, 106, 487n46 479, 1080, 1228, 1231, 1268, 1272, 1320, 1469 States (see also Nouns) Stylus 56, 66, 104, 1369 Status absolutus 16 , 16 , 6 , , Tablets: see Table ts 3 7 1 8 674 856 , 1065, 1375,1381 Teachers (see also supra "Guest proStatus constructus 8, 156, 159. 161, 162, fessors", infra Teach ing) 37-65 ( = 163• 16 1 4• 69, 179, 493, 494, 587, 638, 674, chap ter 2), 1319, 1048n74 845, 846, 848, 84g, 853, 881, 10o8, 102 , Teaching (see also supra Teachers) 374 1025,1052-1074 (passim),1122,1238, 65 (=ch apter 2), 1225,1226,1229,1230, 1239, 1298, 1328, 1375, 1377,1381, 14ll, 1233· 1318, 1320 1415, 1441, 1442 tupsar sarre n68 Status indeterminatus 161 tupsarru us, lll4,m s+n4 8,149 ID44 Status rectus 155, 161, 162, 163, 168, 638, umnu1nu 58 836, 839. 1238, 1381, 1410, 1411, 1441 Writing board s (see also supra le'u and Stative 5, 8, 132+mo,141,187,195-198, 203, infra Tablets) 39m1, 66, n62, 1348ns, 206, 209, 213, 215, 496,497, 784, 802, 1369, 1472n64 8o8, 828, 1006, 1007, wog, 1024,1027, Writing mate rials (see also infra Tablets, 1058,1 073, 1123, 1124, 1125, ll31, 1239. supra Writi ng board s) 66,u6 1-n6 2 1299. 1302, 1305, 1372, 1373· 1383, 1384, Seals 53,415,530,558,1045, 1046, 1047, 1385, 1413, 1416, 1444. 1448 1048, 1049, 1114, 1178, ll93n83, 1222n54, Status absolutus: see States 1238, 1273n40, 1367, 1511 Status constructus: see States Sea Peoples 1219 Status indeterminatus: see States Segolization 120 Status rectus: see States Semitic langu age family (see also Languages ) Stems: seeD-stem, Dt-stem, G-stem, Gt-stem, 16, 129-146 ( = chap ter 6), 147n2 Gtn-stem, N-stem, Ntn-stem, S-stem, SDSentential comp leme ntatio n 23 stem, St-stem, Stn-stem (Shared) morp holog ical innov ation s Subjunctions: see Word order 16+DI04, 130, 131+n7,137, 138,139,143, Subjunctive: see Subordinative 1125,1128 Subordinative (see also Clauses: Subordinate Shared reten tions 131, 132, 134, 186m43, clauses) 134, 138,141, 18g, 193, 202, 1125 6om257, 1004, 1007, wog+n71, 1013, shewa 121n67 1026, 1123, 1130, 1239. 1243· 1284, 1300, Singer 49, so, 490n61 1409, 1413, 1417,1438,1443,1447 Social categories 448 Substrate: see Language contact Sociolinguistics s88, 1451, 1460, 1463, 1466 Suffixes (see also Affixes, Nisbe, Pronouns) Spellings Compound 160 Broken spellings 677, 678, 719, 723, 726, Directional 160, 172, 173, 174 731, 820, 822, 824, 1334, 1406 Possessive (see also infra Suffix Pronouns) cv-cv -spell ings 72 135. 494· 1008, 1246, 1301, 1302, 1303, 1442 Irregular 1051, 1054, 1057, 1059, 1060, Suffix Pronouns 135, 138, 143, 149, 170, 1061,1062, 1063, 1067, 1069, 1070, 1071, 174-176, 186, 614, 675· 742-759· 759· 1074, 1079, 1080, 1139, u69 7gi+n 4w, 832, 851,1005, 1016, 1077, Plene spellings 72, 422n211, 676, 1059, 1412 1105n8, 1113, 1121, 1122, 1127, 1128, 1130, Rebus spellings 67, 427n228, 557 1238, 1239· 1241, 1246, 1279· 1281, 1283, Spoken language 140, 414, 488+ nso, 518, 1376, 1377> 1378, 1379· 1441-1442, 1444. 862, 1020n81, 1021+ 1182, 1138, 1158, 1445,1447

1564

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

Suffixing 153+ni9, 154-155 Sumerian question 522 Swadesh wordlist 366, 367, 375, 376, 382, 385, 388, 390, 403, 409, 412, 413 Synchrony (see also Diachrony) 41, 51,230, 239. 247· 361, 414, 415, sz6, 1396, 1431 Syntax: see Word order S-stem

135, 141, 165, 166, 183, 204, zo6, 210ZIZ, 213, 216, 322, 337 1 346, 496, 1003, 1006, 1019, 1027, 1123, 1124, 1127, 1301, I382+lll33 1 1409 1 1413,1420, 1422, 1445,

1490 SO-stem (see also s-stem) 204lll99· 1421 St-stem (see also s-stem) zo4, 213, 214, z89ni37, 322, 334, 1414 Stn-stem (see also s-stem) 215, 216 Tablets (see also School, Textual genres, Writing) 567ni66,6I8,63 1,637,638 Layout 1169, 1273, 1366, 1369 Lentils 43, 44, 48, 51, 53, 1319 Pillow-shaped tablets 53+n89 Portrait format tablets 53, 91, 92 Rectangular tablets 1367+n73, 1369 Square-shaped tablets s6 Student-teache r tablets 44, sm7g

tuppum

1011,ms+n48 Technology ms Tenses (see also Moods, Stative) Perfect 9, 10, 13n8z, 133+ni4, 135, 143, 187,192, 1g4-1g5, 1g6, 234, 236-243, 248, 256-283 (passim), zgo, 326, 330, 333,360,4g6,7 8I-783,808,8I8 ,8z3, Szs, 8z6, 8z8, 1013, 1019, 10zan8z, 1022, 1056, 1063, 1067, 1073, 1074. 1075· 1124n73· 1127, 1130, 1131, 123g, 1242,1274-1284 (passim), 1299,1300, 1328, 1335. 1372, 1374. 1382, 1416, 1446, 1452 Present 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 6g, 71, 78, go, 91, 93, 95, 96, 133, 134, 141, 187-1g3, zzS-365 (=chapter 8), 813-830 (passim), 1022, 1023, 1025, 1052, 1057· 1074· 1075. 1076, 1125, 1241, I276-1z86 (passim), 1zgg, 1300, 1301, 1307, 1313, 1384, 1385, 1386, 1387, 1417,1418, 1447. 1448 Preterite 5, 8, 10, 11, 13n81 +nSz, 140, 141, 151, 182, 183, 187, 1go, 192, 1g3,

'

I

194, 1g5, 199, 200, 202, 205, 206, 207, 209, ZIO+nzzi, 213, 214,215,216, zzS365 (=chapter 8), 493, 496, 497, 8os, 81z-831 (passim), 1013, 1019, 1021, 1220, 1053· 1067, 1074· 1123, 1124, 1127, 1130, 1131, 1242, 1274. 1275, 1277, 1278, 1279, 1281, 128z, 1283, 1299, 13oo, 1382, 1383, 1384, 13Ss, 1416, 1445 , 1446, 1450 Textiles 447, 1103, nn, ms Textual genres (see also Divination, Legal documents, Literature, Liturgy, Lists, School, Scientific texts) Administrative texts 3g, 40, 43, 66, 68, 231, 232,420, Sig, 527, 531,533.536, 537.sss,s66,6I S,667,763,874 ·994, 1002, 1010, 1018, 1021, 1022, 1023, 1024, 1028, 1040, 1041, 104g, 1052, 1066, 1072, 1077, 1078, 1079, 1080, noS, 1129, 1143, ns6-n6g (passim), 1216-1222 (passim), 1244· 1248nZI3, 1317, 1318, 1325, 1326, 1328, 1338, 1358, 1363-1369 (passim), 1432, 1469 Annals 1146, 1275 Bilingual grammatical paradigms Commentaries 40, s8n118, 1420

48

Decad 45+04~48 Divination: see Divination Eponym lists H04+ns, 1106 Excerpts

44, 56, 57, 670, 1zzzns4, 1228,

1233 Funerary texts

ggg, 1323+n38 Incantations 42, 48, 54, 56, 57, 58, 84, Ss, 86, go, g1, g2, 94, 96, g8, 106, 231, 436, 668, 705, 716, g99. 1030, 1041, 1047. 1048, 1080, 1107, 1115, 1144· ll54· 1200, 1218, 1228, 1230, 1231, 1232, 1271, 1420,

1470 Inscriptions

3, 22, 23, 24, 48, 53, 56, 67, 104, 105, 149. 171, 230, 38g, 405, 406, 407,414,438,4 45.46o,4s6,s13 -663(= chapter 11), 665, 675, 1023, 1029, 1040, 1044, 1052, 1077, 107g, II04, 1107-lllO

(passim), 1112, II3I, 1137, 1139, 1143-1148 (passim), 1154, 1161-1164 (passim), 1168, 1317, 1318, 1328-1233 (passim), 1338, 1352, 1419, 1420, 1421llg2, 1432, 1452, I4gO Legal documents: see Legal documents

INDEX OF SUBJEC TS

1565 Letters 7· 39· 40, so, SI, s6, 66, 68, 107, 228-36s (=chapt er 8), 404, 406, 407, 4 86,SI4,S S8,6I8,6 67,993-1 03 9(= chapter 13), 1060, 1064, 1069, 1070, 1073· 1076, 1106, 1129, 1138, 1143. 11S6, n58, n67, 1169, B79m6, 1187, 1194, ll9Sn93· 1204, 1216, 1217, 1218, 12201224 (passim) , 1234,1243, 1248+n216, 12SO, 12SI, 12S2, 1266, 1281, 1282, 1294. 129S· 1313, 1317, 1318, 1321, 1323-I32S, 1326, 13SO, 13S3+ll2S, 13s4n32, 13S5• 13s8, 1364, 136sn6o+ n61, 1367+n73, 1368, 1397· 1398, 1419, 1420, 1432, 1434. 1486 Lexical texts: see Lists Literary texts: see Literatur e Liturgica l texts: see Liturgy Sammelt afeln

ss6, s6o

Tetrad 4S. 48 Tools 1493 Topograp hy 447 Toponym ns: see Names Trade (see also Business , Merchan ts) 427, s3o, S42, 1103, 1104, 1106, 1107, 1112, 1113, 1114, 11IS, 1116, 1119, 1120, 1200, 1219, 1222, 1266, 1339. 1398 Transcri ption 72, 73, ISO, 420 Transitiv ity (see also Verb: Transitiv e) Direct object (see also infra Nota accusativ i) 2s6, 322,323, 324,1023 , 1130, 1302, 1306, 1380, 1443· 1447· 14SO, 14S3 Indirect object

1023, 1243, 1302, 1306, 1380,1439 In transitivi ty: see Verb: Intransit ive Nota accusativ i (see also supra Direct object, Case system: Accusati ve) 173+n93, 409m88 , 1380, 138s, 1423, 1443 Translati ons 46, 49. Slll79· s6o, 561, 1269, 1323, 1331, 13S8 Translato rs: see Dragom ans Translite ration 72, 73 Tribes 445, 1032, 1178, 1398, 1403, 1404, 1424 Typological parallels (see also Universa ls) 131,140 Universals (see also Typolog ical parallels ) 140,233

Ventive: see Moods Verb (see also Actionality, Aspect, Moods, Stems, Suffixes, Tenses, Transitivity, Voice, Weak verbs) Adjectival verbs 2 , 47 357 Aktionsa rten 11 Class I Class 11 Class 111 Class IV Classv Class VI

247-255 255-264 264-269 269-271 271-278 278-280

Denomin al verbs 153, 211, 1492n48, 1494, 1495, 1498+n83 Energicu s 201, 202 e-verbs ws6, 1413 Futurum exactum 243n47, 28on116, 319 Habitual ity 191, 235+n22+nz3, 253, 257, 258,262, 263,264, 269,271, 293·294. 295, 296, 302, 305, 309, 312, 314, 320, 338,340, 342 Inchoativ e 207,250, 253,259, 292,293, 307,309, 323,354 Intransiti ve (see also Transitivity) 199, 2os, 207, 211,243, 261,264, 290, 295, 296, 312, 314, 315, 318, 325, 332, 333, 341, 3S9.434 Participle s 154, 169, 187, 191, 194, 198, 199, 205, 206, 207, 213, 215, 494. 496, 497· 500, 8o6, 810, 813, 816, 819, 820, 822, 1124, 1131, 1300+n30, 1495 Past Habitual 293, 294, 314 Pluractio nality 338, 340 Prefix conjugat ion 183, 184+ni31+n132, 185, !86, 187, 188, 193. 194· 201, 203, 206, 207, 210, 212, 213, 233. 247. 248, 250, 2S4-2S5· 290,291, 293,299, 306,307, S75· 630, 638, 772-781, 1382, 1397· 1413, 1423 Primae /s/, M. /z/ 1435 Property verbs 247, 291, 307, 354 Quadrira dical 208, 211, 381n93, 831 Root-and -pattern system 4, 151, 153, 165, 172,182 Static verbs 234, 235, 243, 247, 260, 277, 291, 307, 308, 323,338,346, 357· 360 Suffix conjugat ion 187, 194n173, 195, 196, 197,212,23 3,247·24 8,z5o,z54 .z6o,

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

1566 Suffix conjugation (cont.)

280,287, 2g1,

2g7.307,308,340,353·784,785,1243 Transitive (see also Transitivity) 1gg, 205,207,243,256,261,270,271,278, 280,282,2go,2g5,2g6,2g7,305,306, 315, 320-326 (passim), 331, 341, 1383, 1423 Verbum dicendi 236 Verbal Adjective: see Adjectives Vetitive: see Moods Vocabulary (see also Swadesh wordlist) 366-476 (=chapter g) Hybrid words 451, 118m25, 1247n212, 124g, 1251, 1422 Internal dimension 366 Isoglosses 130, 132, 133, 134, 137, 138, 36g, 370,385,3g0,3g3.3g7,635·77g Loanwords (see also Language contact) 10, 21, 25, 121, 13g, 15g, 366-476 ( = chapter g), 516, 518, 522, 523, 530, 533,

Diphthong 73, 137, 142,156, 422+n210, 677, 678n38, 1436, 146g Dissimilation 1375 e-coloring 731, g2on88g, g52m262, 14og Epenthetic vowels 164, 1g4, 587, 1437n46, 1440 Hiatus 422, 740, 1050, 1056, 1064, 1070, 1078, 107g Length 84, 118, 120, 142, 151, 164, 165, 166, 203, 422, 573, s86, 676, 1406, 1410, 14 n, 1441,1442 Matres lectionis 83, 84 Overhanging vowels 1051, 1058, 105g, 1060, 1063, 1070, 1071, 1073, 1074. 1075. 1076 Root vowel 182,185, 187, 1g3, 1g4, 1414 Round vowels 11g Secondary vowels 122 Semi-vowels

12m67, 151, 422, 573-583

(passim), 5g6-620 (passim), 603, 622,

553,633,637,63g,go7,g1o,ggg,1014, 1028,1030, lll5-lllg (passim), 1142,

630, 1127, n67, 1371, 1435 Stem vowel 182,187, 18g, 1g2, 1g7, 2og,

1143. 1184, 1200, 1284, 1354· 1372, 13g7, 1418, 1423, 1424, 1425, 1435· 144g, 1450, 1452, 1461, 1462, 1484m2, 1485, 1486,

212, 214, 217, 1073· 1300 Unrounded 11g

1513 Wanderworter mg, 1120, 1484 Voice Active 256, 271,278, 2go, 2g5, 2g7, 305, 320, 321, 322, 333· 355· 1381, 1383, 1384 Passive (see also N-stem) 182, 205, 207, 213, 214, 228-365 (=chapter 8), 123g, 12g8, 1301, 1302, 1381, 1382, 1383, 1414, 1450,1453 Vowels (see also Phonology, Spellings) Allophones

70, 85n42, 586,587, 5g5,

6o2n26o,6o~6o4,61~616,68~686,

1372, 1373. 1374. 1375 Anaptyctic vowels 120, 1070, 1071, 1074, 1075, 1076, 107g, 1081, 1376, 141m6o Apocope 13g7, 14og, 1410, 1411, 1412, 1413, 1440, 1441, 1442, 1445. 1447 Assimilation 152, 157,416, 1105n8, 11og, 1110, 1121, 1124, 1127, 1128, 1131, 1375 Contraction 158, 15g, 177, 1gg, 1006,1008, 1024, 1025, 1050, 1051, 1052, 1053. 1054. 1055.1056,1057.1058,1061, 1062, 1066, 1072, 1073, 1074, 107g, 1080, 1081, 1116, 111g, 1130, 1410, 1441

Vocalic eduction 733 Vowel contraction 158, 15g, 177, 1gg, 1050, 1052, 1053· 1054. 1055. 1056, 1058, 1061, 1062, 1066, 1072, 107g, 1081, 1116, 111g, 1130 Vowel harmony 168, 561, 586, 5g3, 1006, 1026, 1127, 1375 Vowel signs 70, 72, 84, 57g, 824,1111 Vowel syncope 152, 165, 1g6m7g, 732, 784, 788, 802, 803, 835, 1414 Wave model (see also Classification)

16,

138, 13g Weak verbs If 1003, 1140, 1274, 1277, 1278, 1280, 1282, 1283 !/guttural 818 I-weak 1051, 1073 I/n 208 I/y 827 I-vocalis 1123 I/w 183, 631, 825, 1015, 1019, 1027, 1123, 1414 I-weak 1051, 1073 uf 1124

INDEX OF SUBJECTS

II/gem 2oSn214, 1131 II/guttural S2o II-vocalis 1003, 1124, 1127 II/y 406n171 II/W S27 m/' 1003 m/guttural S22 m-vocalis 1003 Weapons 22, 425, 1223n5S, 1332n93 Women 375, 4Sm21+ n24, 4S6, 1020, mo, 1150, 1113, 1149· 1150, 1152, 1200ni24, 1202ni30, 1247 Word order (see also Clauses, Subordinative) Conjunctions 23, 172, 402, 405, 531, S9o900, 1125, 1131, 1240, 1243. 1246, 1249. 1304, 1309, 1335· 1416, 1417. 1443. 1450, 1452n129, 1490 Coordination Sgo-goo, 1240, 1309, 1311, 1331 Enclitic particles 202, 204, 740, 764, 1014, 1125, 1130, 1240, 1243. 1443 OSV SS6, 13S4 ovs ss5 sov 139· 140, 141, 143. 521, SS3, SS?, 1243. 1304, 13S4, 1416, 1422, 1447· 1453 Subjunctions (see Clauses: Subordinate clauses, Subordinative) svo SS4, 1243+mSS, 1247,1304, 1305 Topicalization SSg, 1307, 1447 vso 139· 140, 141, 143· SS3, 1422, 1447· 1490 vas SS5 waw of apodosis SS7, Sg7 Writing (see also Alphabet, Determinatives, Phonology, School, Spellings, Tablets) Akkadograms 672-676, SS9, Sgo, Sgs, 1397. 1404, 1406, 1411

1567 Archaizing script

344n2o6, mo Cuneiform writing 66-74 ( =chapter 3) Ductus 24, 552, s66m6s, 618, 631,

104Sn74> 1071, 1244n194. 1279n71, 1319, 1321n27, 134S, 1353+n2S, 1366 Erasures 53, 1407n45 Gloss-wedges (see also Glosses) 125In234 Handwriting 38, m3 Invention 518 Logographic writing

19, 67, 6S, S7, 89, 4S4n37. 559. 637· 744.1196, 1236n134. 1247. 1319, 1320, 1322, 1326, 1327, 132S, 1330, 1441, 1442 Morphographemic writings 1397, 1406+n42, 1438 naspertu 1156 Orientation 66 Orthography 71-72, 11S-122, 414,422, ss7, 632, 674, 676-679,730,1011,1012, 101S, 107,1023,1050-1079 (passim), nog, 1014, 1029, 1129, 1196, 1372, 1374, 1404, 1405, 1412, 141S Person marker 1050, 1051, 1052, 1053, 1054. 1061, 106S, 1071, 1072, 1075 Sandhi 1379n120, 1437 Scribal errors 38, 242, 243, 246n213, 284m21, sss, 617, 639, S34n62o, m3, 1167, 1272n38, 1275· 1283, 1297· 1304, 1322, 1446, 146S Sumerograms 671-672, 802, 1021 Syllabic writing 67, 6S, 69, S57, 1235, 1442 Winkelhaken 563 Word divider 66, S3n31, no5nS, 1m Word space 1273-12S5 (passim)

Index of Texts Cited 90602 (Tell Mu}:lammad) 1050 8 10 1051 11 90603 (Tell Mu}:lammad): 48 1051 90606 (Tell Mu}:lammad): 32 1051 90608 (Tell Mu}:lammad) 1050 5 1050,1051 10 1051 22 90610 (Tell Mu}:lammad): 19 1051 90611 (Tell Mu}:lammad) 1051,1077 2 1051 42f. 1051, 1077 72 90616 (Tell Mu}:lammad): 19 1050 92134 (Tell Mu}:lammad) 1050 1051 1050 1050 22 92135 (Tell Mu}:lammad): 12 1050 92139 (Tell Mu}:lammad) 1050 9 1050 22 92719 (Tell Mu}:lammad) 1050 18 1050 27 92721 (Tell Mu}:lammad): 33 1051 92725 (Tell Mu}:lammad) 15 1050 23 1050 14 N 249 (Nippur) 1043n26 14 N 260 (Nippur) 1043n26 33· CRRA 61:4 iv 19 638n343 8o-B-4 (Babylon) Ao3-R10o1+ (Alalal]) A 20+VAT 9734

1401 1232+lll04 nssn87

A.109 (Deir ez-Zor Museum) 1201,1202

ll99 1199nn6 14 A.250 (Deir ez-Zor Museum) 2 33

275 A.361 iii 13'-17' (Deir ez-Zor Museum) 1193n86 A.489 (Deir ez-Zor Museum) 1198nn2 A.981: 34-41 (Deir ez-Zor Museum) 1191076 A.1025 (Deir ez-Zor Museum) 275 13 333n194 27 A.1289+ (Deir ez-Zor Museum) 348 270 248 ii 8 A.1998 (Deir ez-Zor Museum) 1041, 1058mo9, 1087, 1088,1090 A.2216 (Deir ez-Zor Museum) 1200lll22 A.2583 (Deir ez-Zor Museum) 1202lll31 A.2730 (Deir ez-Zor Museum) is-8 ii 6

253 33-36 1177ns 33-38 A.276o (FM 1, 10; Deir ez-Zor Museum) 1177ns A.2801 (Deir ez-Zor Museum) 1182n31 A.2993+ (Deir ez-Zor Museum) 260 10ff. 259f. 40f. A.2995+: 24f. (Deir ez-Zor Museum) 254 A.3823 (Deir ez-Zor Museum) 118g+n64,1198nn2 1188+n60 5"-12" AA (see Behistun Inscription) 45, 46, 47, 57 Aa List 232 ABAW30 245 2off. 344

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1569 2I AbB 124: 7f. AbB I26 6ff. 13 AbB 131:8 AbB 136: 8f. AbB 146: 2g AbB 1 4g: 17-21 AbB I83: 11 AbB I 84: 25 ff. AbB I go: 10 f. AbB I wg: 30' f. AbB II22 4 25-28 AbB 1 I34: 4 ff. AbB II40: I8 ff. AbB2I Ig AbB 2 s: 3ff. AbB 2 24: 9 ff. AbB 2 26: 4-I2

344 352 253 254n6g 332 2S8,33g 284 277 330nigi 252 240 263

257 269 68 327 330 338 102I 245 330n191 268

AbB 2 sS: 4 ff. AbB 2 59 : 9 f.

327 326

AbB 2 67: I6 ff. AbB 2 68:23

330 330nig1 330nig1 282

AbB 2 92: IS-I9 AbB 2 94:9 AbB 2108: 8-12 AbB 2 no: 24 f. AbB 2 m: 12 f. AbB 2n6: 24ff. AbB 2I22: 22 AbB 2 I5I: 20-25 AbB 2IS2: 19 AbB 2 I6o: 7 f. AbB 2 162: 27-30 AbB 2 241 ll

I6 AbB 3 6:21

AbB334:28 AbB 3 48: 2g-33 AbB 34g 12 18-21

270

242, 25I 328 282 353 263 282 242 1005 252 436 280 265 1005 1005 259

244 245 244 28I 282 282nn8

AbB 3 51 sf. 20 AbB3 74 IS-I8 28f. AbB 3 gi: 7' f.

236n26 266

AbB 2 33:19 AbB243:2o AbB 2 54:16 AbB 2 56: I8-22

AbB 2 70: I3 AbB 2 74: I2 AbB 2 87: 6 ff.

AbB 3 I6/I7: 13 AbB 3 26:6

AbB46: 4-7 AbB48: 4-8 AbB 411 3-7 24f. AbB 4 I3: 7-10 AbB 4Ig: 5 AbB 4 20: 6-n AbB43g:2o AbB 4 42: 6' ff. AbB 4 43: I6' ff. AbB 4 SI: 20-25 AbB457:s-8 AbB 469 7ff. wff. AbB 4 7g: I4-26 AbB482:4-7 AbB 4m: 11 AbB 4115: n-I4 AbB 4I34: 22

276 284 237 237 33I 257 327 254 327 280 330 328 2g8m48 272 355 273 273 257 323 32g 328 355 273 10I2

AbB SI-57 AbB 5 141 AbB 5, 14I

9g4

13 16 AbB 6 3I: I6 AbB 648:5-g AbB 6 64: I6f. AbB 6106: 7f. AbB 6wg: 8-I4

wo6n62 wo6n62

AbB 4I49: 10 AbB 6I94: 25f. AbB 6 214: I2 ff. AbB 6 219: 14f. AbB 7 g: 10-13

240 266 263 272 266 280 248 328 328 274

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1570 AbB 710 AbB 7 15: 6-13 AbB 7 29: nff. AbB 7 33: 17f.

233 1013 265 272lll03

AbB 7 55 4 18 19 AbB 7 6o: 7f. AbB 7 62: 7f. AbB 7 76:5 AbB 7 78: 8 ff. AbB 7 92: 22 ff. AbB 7 106: 19 ff. AbB 7123:20 AbB 7144: 14ff. AbB 7151: 7' ff. AbB 7 152: 3' f. AbB 7 161: 2-5 AbB 7 184: 1-4 AbB 8 23: 12 f. AbB 8 24: 17-20 AbB 8 77:23 AbB 8 81: 10ff. AbB 8 82:5 AbB 8 8g:10f.

237 356 237 281 251 273lll04 249 339 283 1012 276 277 330 325 330 354 329 268 272lll03 274 282

AbB 8 132: 4-10 AbB 9 13: 6 ff. AbB 9 15: 22 ff.

277 240 248

AbB 9 42: 9 ff. AbB 9 48: 16-19 AbB 9 49: 28 f. AbB 9 50:23 AbB 9 113: 9 ff. AbB 9117: 7f. AbB 9 16o: 20 ff.

276 266

AbB 9 195: 11 ff. AbB 9196:3-12 AbB 9 2o6: 6, 9 AbB g 2og: 9 AbB 9 210:7 AbB 9 213:10 AbB 9 214:22 AbB 9 215:18 AbB 9 218 AbB g, 218 20 28 AbB9 228 11f.

267 71 341 354 274 274 274 1006 1006 1006 1006 1005 1006

16-20 28 AbB 9 228 AbB 9 229 AbB 9 230:15 AbB 9 236: 9 f.

352 1012 1005ll57 1005ll57 260 1005

AbB 9 238 4f. 7f. AbB 9 241-242

1005 1005

AbB 9 246 AbB g 250-267 AbB 9 251:6 AbB 9 253 AbB g, 253

1005ll57 1005ll57 1005

5 9 19 AbB 9 256:7 AbB 10 1: 13-16 AbB10 4 14f. 16ff.

1005ll57

1005 1005 1005 1006 263 250 255

34ff. AbB 10 g:24f. AbB 1015: nf.

353 1023

AbB 1019: 7f. AbB 10 56: 7 ff. AbB 10 73: 10f.

329

AbB 10169 16 16ff.

249 355 282 285 273

AbB 10177:16-19 AbB n 7: g-12 AbB 11 17: 13 f. AbB 11 35: 6 ff.

349 268

AbB 10 74 AbB 11 go: 27 ff. AbB 10101

995 325

265 251

995 281

AbB 11103: 4 ff. AbB 11 105: 11 f. AbB 11106

352

4' f. 5' ff. AbB 10 114: 12 AbB 10121

352 1012

1005 1012

AbB 10123 AbB 10124 AbB 10128

249

AbB 11135: 7-10

248

995 995 995 995 264

~

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1571

AbB 11139: 13 AbB 11175: 17 AbB 11191:8 AbB 12 39: 6 ff. AbB 12 42:14 AbB 12 55 s-8 8 AbB 12 57: 7-10 AbB 12 61:8 AbB 12 63: 22 f. AbB 12 72: 13-16 AbB 12 124: 7 f. AbB12169 20-26 22 AbB 12 178: n AbB 12 194: 8 f. AbB 13 10: 9-12 AbB 1312 7-10 11-15 AbB 1313 16 18f. AbB 13 23:4-10 AbB 13 64 s-9 24 AbB 13 no: 28 ff. AbB 13 130: 4-7 AbB 14 9: 4' ff. AbB 14 16: 7-10 AbB 14 43: 8f. AbB 14 56: 20 ff. AbB 14 6o: 13 f. AbB 14 62: 12-16 AbB 14 63: 6 ff. AbB 14 78: t6f. AbB 14 82:6 AbB 14 101: 5 ff. AbB 14 114: 22 AbB 14 n8: 5 ff. AbB 14 124: 9 ff. AbB 14 135: 4 ff. AbB 14 141: 29 AbB 14 ISO: 11 ff. AbB 14152:7 AbB 14 154: 8 f.

346ll213 266n88 273lll04 275 281 270 281 AbB 12 ss: 8 270 331lll91 282 283 249 352 236n26 236n26 327 326 242 279 327 332 241 339 356 276 272 253 346 283 333 276 356 279 275 1005ll59 272 272lll03 251 270 267 1011 280 10o6n59 258

AbB 14 165: 7 ff. AbB 14173 23f. 24 AbB 14 177: 4-7 AbB 14 209: 22 f. AbB 14 217: 11 f. ABIM 7:8 ABIM 15:9-13 ABIM 20:82 ABL 272 rev. 3 ABL 281 rev. 4 rev. 26 ABL 327:5 ABL 520 4 7 ABL521: 26 ABL 530:11 ABL 539 rev. 5 ABL 698:9 ABL 747 rev. 8 ABL 781 ( =SAA 17 136) ABL 794:6 ABL 795 rev. 14 ABL 947 rev. 4 ABL 1059:6 ABL 1095 ( =SAA 17137) ABL 1106:23 ABL 1135:8 ABL 1240: 18' ABL 1286 rev. 10 ABL 1320 rev. 4 ABL 1342:9 ABL 1380:13 ABL 1387 10 rev. 13 ABL 1395:11 ABL 1455 rev. 11 ABL 1457:9 Ad3 8 10 16 Ad 10:4-7 Ad 12 4-10

252 240,241 240 258 276 278 267 268 283 1424 1425 1406 1417 1425 1424 1415 1408 1412 1408 1408 1425 1425 72,1405 1409 1416 1425lll12 1413 1407 1417 1415 1406 1415 1419 1415 1419 1425 1408 1406 625n3o9 760 282lll21 285 289,357

-INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1572 Ad 12 (cont.) 11-12

4ogm85

405 14 Adapa and the Southwind ADART 7 218 AfO 515 AfO 8-g 194: 15 AIA8: i 1-8 AIHA8 29 AIHA 2910 AIHA4212 AI HA 44 ii 7-8 AAICAB I/1 pl. 4 iv 1 AJSL 16 75 no. 19: 16-18 AKT 6A 144: 28 AKT 8103:6 AlT 16:2-3

AlT 445 AlT 446 AlT 447 AlT 448 AlT 449 AlT 450 AlT 451 AlT 452 AlT 453 AIT 453a AlT 13062

AlT 22997 AMP 9220

An=Anum 1-7 Animals B AnNip.46:2 Antagal B go

1294 1469 115, ng 1425 288m31 588n221 586n216 s86n216 582n204 563m55 1448 1120 72 1247 1232+nl04 1232+n104 1232+nl04 1232 1232 1232+mog

ARET 115 obv. VII 17-VIII 2 obv. VIII 1 ARETII240b~II3-5

764 ARET Ill 183 obv. Ill 1'-6' 766n281 ARET 111185 Ill 8' ARET Ill 189 rev. I 3'-5' ARET Ill 735 obv. V 4 ARET Ill 799 rev. I' 5' ARET IV 6 obv. VI 12 ARET IV 24 obv. IX 1-8 ARETV1 obv. I 1 obv. 112 obv. 112-5 obv. 117 obv. 118 obv. 111 6-12 obv. IV7-9 obv. IV7 obv. IV 8

1232+mo9 1232+mog 1232 1232 11osn8

rev. I 5-11 3 rev. 16

675

454 AO 7486 (see RA 75, 18, AO 7486: 1-4) AO 10318:17 1407 AOAT 51 422 MS 6 ii' 5' 1407n46 AOAT 51588 MSZ 3 ii 1-2 (=BESt 12 ii 1-2)

903 879 694

ARET 11 32 rev. VI 2 ARET Ill 1 rev. IV 2-6 797 ARET Ill 35 obv. VII 6'-10'

1232+mog 1232+mog

54 57 552ni17

786

rev. 114 rev. 115 rev. 116 rev. 118 ARETV 2 obv. 113-7 obv. 113 obv. 11111-13 ARETV3 obv.12

1415n75 AOAT 51686 iv 5-6 (see VS 1, 36 iv 5-6)

obv. 114 obv. m 3 obv. Ill 5

Archaic Word List C ARET I 1 rev. VII 3-7 ARET I 15 obv. VI 2

1424 520n28 762n263 6gg, 729, 810,

rev. 12-3 rev. 15-7 rev. 16

ARET I 27 rev. I 1-4

827n591, 833 767n284

rev. 17 rev. 111-3 rev. 112

752n203 948 866n701 723 672 764n271 67g,689,772 71,754.878 878 83gn631 687,716 840, 876n743. 878 884 702,875 679,702,705n79r775 8 58 8oon446, 80lll456 729,743,853 8om456 705n7g, 706, 735. 790,903 721, 775· 904 878 679n40, 68g, 772 84o,88o 702,705n79·778 8om456 729, 743. 853 679n40, 697· 706, 790,903 716 787 718, 8o8, 902 8o8, 901 787 718, 8o8, 902

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1574 ARET XI 1 (cont.) obv. VIIS obv. VII 9-12 obv. VI113 obv. VII 14 obv. VII 23-2S obv. VIII 1-4 obv. VIII2 obv. VIII 4 obv. VIII5 obv. VIII 1S obv.x4-10 obv.xn-16 obv. x 12 obv. X17-20 obv.X17 obv. XI 17-1S obv. XI 17 obv. XI16-7 obv. XI17 obv. XIII 3-7 obv. XIII S-17 obv. XIII20-24 obv.xv2-9 obv. xv 12-15 obv. xv 1S-rev. I 3 rev. I 15-1S rev. I 19-20 rev. I 20

720, 727,753.

rev. V10 rev. VI 2'-7'

S44ll643

rev. VI 3-10

765 S39n631 706nS3

rev. VI 4-10 rev. VI 7

7S7 S40

rev. VII S-10 rev. VIIS

906 732,7S7 S40 917nS53 S5S s56 75Sll247 s56 S45,S56 725, Sl7, S46 725, S17, S45, 912 S3S 700, 727, S17, 914 SS2 S64 S67 S64 S64 S64 SS2 S49 699. 703, 721, 773· S1S, 902

rev. VII 23 rev. VI Il 3-5 rev. VII13 rev. VIII 4 rev. VI I I 6-9 rev. VIII 10-IX 19 rev. VII110-13 rev. VIII 11 rev. VIII12 rev. VII113 rev. VII115 rev. VIII 1S rev. IX4-7 rev. IX 5 rev. IX 7 rev. IXS-12 rev. IX 11 rev. IX 12 rev. IX 14

77S, SIS S76 So1 S66 727,775.Sl7,S30, 904 S66 701, 77S, S2S, S66, 904 716 S3S,S49 Sl7, S3S, S49 777· 912 S42 SOl S36, S41 7SO,S22,S25 700 702 715 702, 775· 903 S3S 715 702,S10,S33 S42 752 752 702,S07

rev. IX 15 rev. X2

696

rev. x3

727, 774ll311, 776, S30

69S

rev. I11-S

792

rev. x 4-S

S76

rev. II 4-S rev. II S

s5s

rev. x9-14 rev. x1S-24

S5o S66

rev. rev. rev. rev.

Il 20-I 11 9 Ill 10-19 Il I 20-IV 10 IV11

rev. IV 17-20 rev. IV 21-v 1 rev. IV22 rev. v 4-5 rev. v 4 rev. v 5 rev. v6-7 rev. v6-w rev. v6 rev. v7

715, 756, 792, So7, S26,907

rev. X 25-XI 1

S53n662

S5S S92 900 906 S53n662 S92

rev. XI 3 rev. XI 10-13 rev. XI 14-20 rev. XI 20

6S3,727 S46 S46,S66

6SS, 774· 912 S17n55S 700, 727, S17, 914

rev. XIII 9 rev. XI I I 19-22 rev. XIII 23 rev. xv 2'

699. 701, 775. 914 S41 765,796 700 702, 7SO

rev. XII 10-14 rev. XII 19

rev. xv 5-9 rev. xv9 rev. XVI 7'-w' rev. XVII 5-14

6S4 S66 S33.S36 S33.S36,903 S66 S33,S36,903 715, 773· 916 S66 713, S33 S67 S14

0

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1575 rev. XVIIU rev. XVII 12 rev. XVII14 rev. XVII115-18 rev. XVIII 17

715, 785, 8o8, 916 820 715, 8o8, 916

rev. II 1 21-IV 9 rev. II121 rev. IV n

844 822,824

89m781 906n816

rev. IV17 rev. IV 18-22

765

rev. IV19 rev. IV22

89m781

775ll326

rev. XVII 18-22

801

rev. XVII 19

727,775.817,830, 904

rev. V1-7

rev. XVII 24

rev. v 8-12

798, 8n

rev. v9

8q

rev. XVIII 17

729, 843ll639 797,866 822,824

rev. VIS

rev. XVIII 27

687,721, 722lll03,

rev. VI 2-8

775n325,8om453 876

732,787,903

rev. VI 9

719,844

715, 784, 903 682, 694+n6o, 699,

rev. VI 19

778 716

rev. XVI I I 15-27

left edge 6' ARETXI 2

705+ n8o, 716 obv. 121 obv. Il 7'-10'

792+ll411 876'

obv. 111 n

75lll204

obv. 111 21 obv. IV 16-17

778ll335 832ll616

obv. IV17

716,724

obv. IV 21-22

832ll616

obv. IV22 obv. V18-2o obv. VI 13-15 obv. VI I 2'-8'

rev. VII 5 rev. VII 9 rev. VIIIO rev. VII 17 rev. VII 18

780ll350 778ll338 884

817n556 777ll331 842ll635 78on351, 825n586

rev. VII2o

702ll74

rev. VII 25 rev. VII14 rev. VIII 8

702,775.903 80lll455 702,807

716,724

rev. VIII 13

842ll638

849

rev. VIII 25

698

8ss

rev. VIII 26

728,776,830 866

884

rev. IX 15-16

844 866

rev.X22-24

866

rev. IX 17-24

898

obv. VII115-21

875

rev. IX 22

683,727

obv. VIII 21

753ll214

rev.x3

obv. VIII 22-IX 1

764

rev. X7-9 rev. XI 6-10

735lll25 755,866 866

obv. VII 3' -4' obv. VIII 12-21

obv. IX 5' -12'

765

obv. IX 12'

787

rev. XI 10

836,903

obv. IX 17' obv. IX 18'

732,787

rev. XI 10

836 866

obv.XI 5-13 obv. XI118

840ll633 8 5 8,88s

rev. XI 20-22 rev. XI 23 rev. XII 1

836

obv. XII 23-XIII 1 obv.XIV8

856n672 856

rev. XII 8-n

713ll87 866

725, 817, 912

rev. XII n

713ll87

obv.XIV8-9

817

rev. XII 27-XIII 4

764

obv. XVIII 17-25 rev. 11-5

887 882

rev. XIII 4

753,853

rev. XIII 5-6

rev. I 3-8

892

rev. XIII 14-17

844 862n688

rev. 17 rev. I 21

773ll307

rev. XIV 4

rev. 112-6

807ll495 886

rev. XIV 5-10

rev. 11 22-111 4

896

rev. XVI 5-14

853 814

rev. 111 5-20

900

rev. XVI 8

716

rev. XIVI6

78lll358, 814ll543 846,886

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1576 ARET XI 1 (cont.) rev. XVI 12 rev. XVI 14 ARETXI 3 obv. I 4-11 obv. 14 obv. 1116 obv. IV16-V3 obv. v 8-12 obv. v8-VI 9 obv. VI 1-2 obv. VI 3-s rev. I 6-11 rev. I 6 rev. 111

716 820 694 899 698,899 716,724 878 764ll274 844,863 836 7Slll203 799ll446 7S3. 799n446, Bs3

obv. V 24-VI 1 obv. VI 11-IS obv. VI 14 obv. VII 2-VIII 4 obv. VII 6 obv. IV7-12 obv. vs-10 obv. V 11-17 obv. v 12 obv. VI 14 obv. VII 2-VIII 4 obv. VII 12-VIII 4

rev. 111 9-1s rev. 1119 rev. IV9-14 rev. IV IS-V 1 rev. IV 1s-v 6 rev. IV 1s-v 1S

899

obv. VII 13 obv. VIII 3-4 obv. VIII 4 obv. VIII S-12 obv. VIII 6

7S3.8S3 Sso 842, ss1, Bs3

obv. VIII 7 obv. VIII 8 obv. VIII 12

898 842

obv. IX2-10

rev. V1

7S3 888

obv. IXS

rev.II 4

778 778, 781ll3S8, 814llS43

rev. V7-IS rev. VI 9-12

844 rev. v9 7S3 rev. VI 13-1s 740 ARET XII 1304+ obv. VIS Sognsos ARET XIII 1 obv. 11-3 obv. 16 obv. I 10-13 obv. I 17-11 1

882n763

obv. II 2-4 obv.II 2 obv. Ill 1-3 obv. 1111 obv. 111 s obv. Ill 7-11 obv. 111 14-IV 2 obv. IV3 obv. IV8 obv. IV9-12 obv. IV 14-V 1 obv. V S-10 obv. V12

obv. IX10

88o 7S7 7IS, 733ll120, 789 798n440, 801 678n38, 719, 774, 822, 828 794 799n444, sss 816 72s, 778, go6 71S, 733ll120, 789 798ll440, 801 763,86o 6g2, 774 742 696 790, 8os, 813 722,77S.807,823 739ni41 820,836 706,817 797,847,sss,sss, 894,899 6Ss, 718, 77 6, 817, 822 ARET XIII 1 obv. IX 10

obv. IX 11-X 1 obv. IX 12

846n648 683, 684, 701, 810,

obv.X2

822,836 682

obv.x4-14 obv. x8

749,8ss

884

obv.X4-14 obv. x 11-14 obv. x 11

677ll3S·73S.776,884 769 682

obv. X 1S-XI 4 obv. x 1s-16 obv. X 1S-XI 4

749, Sss 847 699,847 791, 842, 893

74S. 774 862n688

obv. x 1S

847 706, 722, 73 2, 77 6, 799.821 721, 776, 812, 824

obv. XI 1 obv. XI 4 obv. XI 10-1s obv. XI 10

847,897 688, 774· 912

847 87s

obv. XII 1-3 obv. XII 4-6 ohv. XII 4 ohv. XII 12

847 82InS74 830 684, 774, 817

72s,78o,829 847 836

799.8ss 72S, 778, 906

699

742,7S7 791, 842, 893 682, 699· 733ni20, 789.903 688, 772, 912 688, 772, 817, 912

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1577

obv. XII 15 rev. 16-15 rev. I 15 rev. 1 16-11 4 rev. 11 s-6 rev. II 6 rev. 11 7-11 rev. 11 12-111 3 rev. II 14 rev. 11 15-17 rev. 11 18 rev. 11 18-111 3 rev. 1116-9 rev. 111 15-17 rev. IV 2-6 rev. IV3 rev. IV 5 rev. IV 13-14 rev. v 2-3 rev. v 18-VI 4 rev. VIII 1-4 rev. VIII 2-10 rev. VIII 9 rev. IXS rev. IX 7 rev. IX 9 rev. IX 12 rev. IX 12-13 rev. IX 12 rev. IX 14-x 1 rev. X2-4 rev. x 3 rev. X 5-9 rev. x 5 rev. x 10-11 rev. x u rev. XI 2 rev. XI 3 rev. XI 4-7 rev. XI 7 ARET XIII 3 obv. I 8 obv. 11 1 obv. 11 3-III 4 obv. 118 obv. IV 1-5 obv. VI 6-rev. I 1

832n616 842 832n616 847 749· 759ll254 7o6n8s, 875n74o 847 801 745 881 718, 742, 818, 902 742 848,881 743 898 683.703,720,774,821 838 8 56 847 847 838,876 839 693· 725, 776 830,82In574 682 759ll254 679, 688, 784, 785, 912 838 679,688,784,78s,912 838,879 891 684, 701, 705, 720, 755·776,820 769 682 760 685,718,772,817,822 685.718,772,817,822 714, 776, 799 891 752 738 736 771 736 88s 861+n687

ARETXIII 4 obv. 11 S-9 obv. 1x1-10 rev. IV3-7 rev. IV 3 rev. V2 ARET XIII 5 obv. IV 5-8 obv. VI 6-n obv. VII 8-12 obv. VII 13-19 obv. VIII 1 obv. VIII 14 obv.x 9-16 obv.x16 obv. x 17-19 obv.xi 1-6 obv.XI 12 obv. XII 13-18 obv. XIII 7-15 rev. 12-6 rev. 113-6 rev. I112-16 rev. 11 15-16 rev. 111 2 rev. 111 10-IV 1 rev. 111 10-IV 4 rev. m 13 rev. IV2-4 rev. IV 5-9 rev. IV 5-12 rev. IV 13-17 rev. VII 1-4 rev. VII 9-16 rev. VIII 6-8 rev. IX 7-10 rev. x 8-16 rev. x 12 rev. x 17-XI 11 rev. XI 11 rev. XII 2-17 rev. XIV 6-10 rev. XIV11 left edge 3-6 left edge g-12 left edge 11 left edge 12 lower edge I 5-9

862 864 840 727,840 759 682 862 770 897 770,865 672,738 738 790 752 897 743 677ll35,828 868 861 898 879ll757 743. no, 861, 88o 772ll305 736 8J8 772 722, 821, 829 898 868 856 898 864 897 895 895 782, 792, 861, 897 703, 722, 733, 776, 79lll409, 818 790 8o8,829 862,898 862 718, 776, 822, go6 no, 871 878 677n35,807,829 752 861

1578

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

ARET XIII 5 (cont.) lower edge 11 3-5 right edge 6-9 right edge 10-12 right edge 12 right edge 17-18 ARET XIII 6 obv. 11-114 obv. 11-7 obv.17 obv. 18-114 obv. 11 6-1111 obv. 111 2-1v 4 obv. Ill 3-6 obv. 1116 obv. IV5-V3 obv. IV6 obv. IV9 rev. V?-VI 4 rev. VI 4 rev. VI 5-7 rev. VI 7 ARETXIII 7 obv. 11-11 2 obv. 113-7 obv.II 4 obv. 118-111 8 obv. IV 4-6 obv. IV7-V2 obv. v 3-rev. I 3 rev. 114-6 rev. 117-111 2 ARETXIII 8 obv. I 1-11 5 obv. 11 6-111 1 obv. 111 8-12 obv. v1o-rev. I 3 obv. VI 4-rev. I 1 rev. 14-11 7 rev. 111 7-11 rev. IV8-v3 ARETXIII 9 obv. 1 11-11 1 obv. 11 6-12 obv. 11 15-16 obv. 1117-1115 obv. 111 8-u obv. 111 13-IV 2 obv. v 6-16

879 847,886 771 719, 807' 823 857 897 777 777 848 863 888,896 777 777 784 785 752 863, 871, 88o 777· 791, 800ll447 881 750 682 771 874 874ll736 889 870 876 867 883 885 682 767,771 843 766 881 766 863 77lll302 766,790 682 858 846 8320618 767,SsS 886 883 899

obv. VI n-15 obv. VII 5-12 obv. VII 13-VIII 1 obv. VIII 10-12 obv. VIII 10-14 obv. VIII 13 obv. 1x3-10 obv. IXS-14 obv.x2-3 obv.xS-10 obv.xS-14 obv. x9 obv.x10 obv. x 12 rev. 110 rev. 118 rev. 11 10-16 rev. 11114-17 rev. 111 23-IV 7 rev. IVn rev. IV14 rev. IV 15-22 rev. IV 18 rev. v2-6

867,886 899 896 846 881 750 896 797 768 854 888,897 753

ns, 905 780 694ll61 750 88 5 788 746,873 779· 820ll572 750 789 704 8o1

rev. v 4

702, 726, 779· 817, 829,904

rev. V7-16 rev. V 14-16 rev. v 15 rev. v 23 rev. v 24-VI 4 rev. VI 5-19 rev. VI 17 rev. VI 19 rev. VI 21 rev. VII 9-11 rev. VII 16-24 rev. VII 21 rev. VIII 18 rev. VIII 19 rev. IX 3 rev. IX 4-11 rev. IX n rev. IX 20-24 rev. IX23 rev. x 1-3 rev. X4-6 rev. x 4-9 rev. x 7-9

799ll446 737 774 83lll610 740,769 737 717 687, 717, 825, 916 773 745 873ll729 745 780 843ll641 752 782,792,858 70In73, 8oS, 826 786,899 700,726,8o9 758 755 798 755

ijii!jjjfj""'UW

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1579

rev. x 8 rev. x 12-14 rev. x 24-XI 1 rev. x 25 ARET XIII 10 obv. 18-116 obv. v111-3 obv. VII4-7 obv. VIII 4 obv. VIII 4-rev. I 2 rev. I 3-11 5 rev. I 3-9 rev. 116-9 ARET XIII 11 rev. IV 1-V 1 rev. VI 3-8 rev. VI 6 rev. VII 5-10 rev. VII 6-10 rev. VII 6 rev. VII7 rev. VIIS ARETXIII12 obv.15 obv. I 5-112 obv. 11 3-III 8 obv. 113-9 obv. Ill 4-8 obv. IV10 rev. IV 8-v 1 ARET XIII 13 obv. 12 obv. Ill 1-8 obv. Ill 9-1v 3 obv. 111 12 obv. IV7-V1 obv. V7-V1 3 obv. VI 1-8 obv. VI 1-13 obv. VI 2 obv. VI 9-13 obv. VI 13 obv. VI 14-VII 5 obv. VII 5 obv. VII 7 rev. 14-8 rev. 16 rev.II 3-5

694n61, 8oS, 821 745,883 745 749 760 877 857 748,897 897 746 855.873 754 682 899 769, 846, 894· 909n825 909 769 838 706,838 717, 748, 853 748 717, 744. 746, 843 744. 746, 843 897 877 870 776, 829, 901 885 694, 843n641 763 786 700, 729, 809 889 782 891 792 686,701 863 72o,n6,822,9o 6 787 702,809 739 789ll398 82gn6o6 869

rev.II 3 rev. II 4 rev. II 6-III 2 rev. 1111 rev. 111 3-1v 4 rev. 111 4 rev. 111 6-n rev. 111 7 rev. 11112 rev. IV7-16 rev. IV 10 rev. v 1-2 rev. v 2 ARETXIII 14 obv. 13 obv. 1113 obv. 1113-8 obv. 111 17-18 obv. IV3 obv. JV8-12 obv. v 15'-18' obv. VII 1' obv.x9 obv.XII 3'-8' rev. 11 rev. 11-2 rev. 16 rev. 1111'-4' rev. VI 14-17 rev. vun-13 rev. VII13 rev. VIII 6 rev. VIII 21 rev. VIII 22 rev. IX 4-10 rev.x3-10 ARET XII115 obv. 12 ohv. 14-16 ohv. 1112-19 ohv. 11 I 1-10 obv. 11115-IV 2 obv. IV3-9 ohv. v3-13 obv. V14-18 obv. VIS obv. V19-VI 4 obv. VI I 12-21 obv. VIII 1-4

748,869 774 793 718, 773, 818 757 689, 717, 773 858 773,906 773 766,8 53 748 854 751 682 694 784 755 756 755 767n287 751 781,816 751, 8o2n461 870 69sn63, 702, 751 751 903 867 884 913ll836 913 752 748 751 885 88o 682 694 66sn5,867 876 877 883 86o 799ll446 876 6g6,725,776,905 864,884 863,884 755

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1580 ARET XIII 15 (cont.) obv. VIII 1-17 obv. VIII 2

obv. VIII 14-17 rev. I 4-8 rev. I 8 rev. 19-12 rev. II 2-5 rev. II 12-17 rev. II 18-III 1 rev. Ill 1 rev. Ill n rev. Ill 13-17 rev. Ill 17 rev. IVI-6 rev. IV 7-12 rev. IV 8 rev. IV n-12 rev. IV 15-18 rev. IV 17 rev. IV18 rev. v 4 rev. v 5-9 rev. v6 rev. VI0-21 rev. vu rev. v 13-VI 2 rev. VIS rev. v 17-21 rev. v 22-v1 7 rev. VI 8-VI I 10 rev. VI n-19 rev. VII 3-6 rev. VII 8 rev. VII 13 rev. VII 19-VIII 6 rev. VIII 13-15 rev. VIII 14 rev. IX 8 rev. IX9-13 rev. IX 12-15 rev. IX 14-15 rev. IX 15 ARET XIII 16/17 obv. I 1-5 17 obv. 11 7-1111

891 721, 726, 776, 817, 821, 904 884 770,875 774 863 746D171, 789ll400 896 884 688, 752, 784, 785, 832ll617, 916 752, 832ll617 770 774 871,884 87s,88s 687.725,8 25,916 752,853 769 748,853 687, 825, 916 688,789,8 25,916 872 729,784 891 687.725,8 25,916 885, 89m781 725,807 872 900 891 863,899 864 721, 726, 755· 776, 817, 821,904 748 88 5 88 5 748 748 88 5 747 872 728 86o 833n616, 86o

obv. II 817-III 311 obv. II nl10 obv. Ill 8-Iv 8/7 obv. Ill 917 obv. IV 514 17 obv. IV 5-V 7 obv. IV10I9 17 obv. VI-S obv. v3 I 17 rev. I 3 16 obv. VI

obv. v 4-613-5 16 obv. v 8 rev. 1 5 I 17 rev. I 3 rev. 1 s-u 1l1 3-7 rev. I 8-II 1l1 6-7 rev. n 2l1-6ls rev. II 4

8oo 693· 696, 725, 781, 905 782 697· 733.781,9 05 687.732,7 84,787 753, 89m781 691, 726, 779, 829, 901 864 727,756 752 843 752 727,756 879 839 839 8o8n501 8o8n501

rev. II sl17 877 rev. II I 6-10 17 rev. Ill 3 755 rev. Ill nl17 rev. IV 6 8o8 rev. IV 1 I 17 rev. IV 7 725,779.8 07 ARET XIII 18 (see MEE 3 66) 669

obv. II 1-4 obv. 114 rev. 114-6 rev. 111 1-2 ARETXIII 19 obv. 1 1-11 7 obv. II 8-9 obv. Ill 2-13 obv. 111 7

obv. Ill n obv. v 4 obv. V 10-VI 6 obv. VI 5 obv. VI 7-11 rev. 113-14 rev. 113-7 rev. 11 3 rev. 11 9 rev. 11 15-III 8 rev. Ill s-8 rev. 111 5-12 rev. 111 6

857 68s, 781, 822 75~ 750 682

892 768 794· 798 729, 812, 823, 826 730, 813, 824, 826 739 741 696 86o, 86m687 869,896 8sg 748 748 775ll321 769 894 720,775· 807,823, 901

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

rev. IV 1 rev. IV 5-12 rev. IV 13-v 1 rev. v6-8 rev. V7 rev. v 9-12 rev. V12 rev. v 13-VI 2 rev. VI 3-4 rev. VI 3-9 rev. VI 7-8 rev. VI 10 rev. IX 20-24 ARETXIII 20 obv. I 13-19 obv. 11 7'-m 3 obv. 118' obv. Ill 4-10 obv. 111 u obv. IV9-V1 obv. V2-3 obv. v2-4 rev. 111' ARETXIII21 obv. 114 obv. 11 8-10 obv. Ill 3-4 obv. IV8 rev. 11 8-111 7 rev. 111 8-IV 2 ARET XV/121 rev. VIII 7 ARETXV/138 rev. 111 19-IV 4 rev. IV 4 ARET XVI 1 obv. 14' obv. I 4'-11 6 obv. 114-6 obv. 116 obv. 117-16 obv. 11 10-14 obv. 11 14 obv. 1116 obv. 1116-9 obv. 1117 obv. 111 11 obv. 111 21-IV 9 obv. IV2-4

719,772,822,893,901 89m781 893 769 807, 819, 830 786 8o8 885, 89m781 84411645,850 896 84411645, 649 827 786,899 865,873 854 751 877 739 859 758 896 76011256 682 739 867 77ln304 739 879 877 685.703 79711438 780,822,825 739.87211723 87311723 873 80211461 80711491 878 807' 821, 904 80211461 884 6771135. 776, 817 755. 80211461 859 ,888 884

1581

obv. IV21 obv. IV24-V2 obv. IV 24-V 8 obv. IV25 obv. V3-4 obv. V 5-6 obv. v5-8 obv. V19-VI 5 obv. VI 9-12 obv. VI 13-15 obv. VII 23-VIII 3 obv. VIII 8-11 obv. VIII 23 obv. IX 10-13 obv. IX 14-17 obv. IX 21-24 obv. IX 25-X 6 obv. x 7-11 obv.X12-16 rev. 11 rev. I 2-3 rev. I 4-6 rev. 14-12 rev. I 6 rev. I 13-15 rev. I 15 rev. 116-11 1 rev. 116-11 6 rev. 112-4 rev. 116 rev. 11 7-11 rev. 11 7-19 rev. 1113 rev. 11115-17 rev. v 25 rev. VI 2 rev. VI 13 rev. VII 1 rev. VIII 2-6 rev. VIII 9-10 rev. IX 1'-3' rev. IX 1-4 rev. IX 5-9 ARETXVI 2 obv. I 5-114 obv. 111 obv. 114

752 875 892 752 755 756 88o 888 870 876 88o 859 776 886 884 886 896 886 863 750, 75m2o7, 785, 82811603, 881, 896 863 755 888 672 881 750 896 785, 82811603 83211616 679,828,903 863 786 700,729,809 88o 741 751n207 823 750 885 839 884 884 886 794· 893 813, 819 718, 71911102, 773· 818, 820,901

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1582 ARET XVI 2 (cont.) obv. 11 7-1111 obv. 117-8 rev. 1 3'-11 4 rev. 1 4' rev. 114 rev. 11 S-Ill 1 rev. 1112-9 rev. Ill 3 rev. Ill s-g rev. 1116 rev. IV 1-6 rev. IV3 rev. IV6 rev. IV7-10 rev. IV7 rev. VI-S rev. V11 rev. V13 rev. VI 1 rev. VI 3-s rev. VI 3-10 rev. VI 7-9 ARETXVI 3 obv. I S-8 obv. 18 obv. 1 g-11 8 obv. 117 obv. 11 g-m 3 obv. 1110 obv. 1111 obv. 1112 obv. Ill 4-IV 2 obv. 111 8-12 obv. 11112 obv. Ill 13-1V1 obv. IV3-8 obv. 1v3-10 obv. IV7-8 obv. IV7 obv. IV8 obv. v 1-rev. I 4 rev. I s-11 6 rev. lVI-V s rev. IV3-8 rev. IV s rev. IVS

768n289 746,873 762,794 6g6,702 72 7SO 780D3SS 807 747,8S7,872 780 793 778 740 794 789, 794, 813, 820 877 739 6g8, 787, Sog 78g,827 7S8 763 843 ss1, 872 748 Ss4 748 782,79S 828 713n88, 914 72S, 776 793 s6s 68s,773,822 846 888 794 704,733•788,go3 682, 704, 733. 788, 796,903 682 738,789 772 793 762,88g 702,812,823,826 739

ARETXVI 4 obv. I S-13 obv. 11 I-S obv. 113 obv. 11 10-IS obv. 1111

764,881 764 789 748, Sos, 873 679D42, 701, 70S, 773, 82s

obv. 11 14 obv. 111 10-IS obv. 11114 obv. IV2-4 obv. IV 10-16

793, 799D444 go6 86g

obv. IV13 obv. VI-6 obv. V2

867

874D736

894 6g6

obv. v6

703,82S 6gi, 901

obv. V7 obv. V 8-VI 2

7SO Ss2,888,Sgs

obv. V14-VI 2

742, 746, ss1, 914n841 713n88, 914

obv. V17 obv. VI 2 obv. VI 11 rev. 14 ARETXVI S obv. 1110 obv. 111 1 obv. Ill 8-IV 1 obv. IV 4-11 obv. IV 12-V S obv. v 4 obv. v6 obv. v6-g obv. V7 obv. v9

6gsn63 722 739 828 748 763 748 79S 687,714, 774, 812 739 746, 761, 79Sr 8S1 682,696 682, 704, 773, 796n429,903

rev. 13 rev. I 4-8 rev. 14

789 Sgg 748

rev. 17 rev. 11 6-1113 rev. 111 1

748 Ss2

rev. rev. rev. rev.

7S3 869 8o6

1113 III 10-IV 4 111 10-1v 1 IV 1

rev. IV 4 ARETXVI6 obv. 117 rev. III' 1

748

696, 699, 819 800D4Sl 749 69sn63, 700, 746m7s

w> 849.903,967 6gg,967 731 672, 719, 730, 833> g68 708, 718, 834, g68 713, 902, 968, 969 834> 968 708, 833, 912, 968 709, 720, 968 687, 6g1, 708, 833· go5, 968 688, 713, 722, 968 687, 703, 968 g68

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1598 EV497 EvM6:10 Explicit Malku I 36 I sS I 74 I 75 I 88 I 325 11 SI-54 11112 247 111287 Ill

87g,g68 1436n33 462 462 462 452 462 462 n86n52 462 462 452

1013n77 FAOS 2 153: 14 FAOS 5/11253 AnNip. 51, 1' s8sn213 FAOS 7 Sargon C 1 (see also RIM E2.1.1.1) s6om42 FAOS 7 Sargon C 2 (see also RIM E2.1.1.11) s6om42 FAOS 8 41 5 s1

FAOS 8 269 FAOS 8 276-278 FAOS 8 281 FAOS 8 290 FAOS 8 308

sSg 626n314

FAOS 8 310 FAOS 8 315 FAOS 8 316 FAOS 8 318 FAOS 19 40 Ad 3, 8 FAOS 19 149 Pu 3, 2

559 s8omg7 s83n2o8

FAOS 19 150, 8 FAOS 19 151 Si 1 6' 8'

627

FM 110 (see A.276o) FM 2 71: 10'-15' FM 3 8If.

562

FM 3143

599 FAOS 8, 126; 26

FAOS 8173f. FAOS 8174 FAOS 8176 FAOS 8178 FAOS 8189 FAOS 8194 FAOS 81ggf. FAOS 8 210 FAOS 8 223f. FAOS 8 225f. FAOS 8 226f. FAOS 8 228

597 597 597 602

FM437 FM 7 26:49 FM 814: 7f.

FAOS 8 264f. FAOS 8 268

63In324 625n309 629

s8gn226 s62mso 628n320

FAOS 19 274f. 63In324 FAOS 19 293 Farmer's Instruction s (see CBS 1354) 1030

FAOS847f . FAOS 849-54 FAOS 8 126, 26

FAOS 8 229 FAOS 8 234 FAOS 8 235 FAOS 8 238 FAOS 8 246 FAOS 8 248 FAOS 8 255f. FAOS 8 258 FAOS 8 259 FAOS 8 26of.

593,594 s8s 594,603

FM 917: 3' FM 9 27:7

331 FM 3 81f. coma 1030 1178n6 1178n7 325 1202n130 1202nl30 1202n130

597 577,s8s

FM 9 49:5 1178n6 FM952 Frahm, Historische, no. 59-61 1149ns3 Frahm, Historische, no. 65

559 s6o

1149nS2 Frame, Musezib-Marduk, 72 Nr.1: 1 (see BM

579 578 ss3

n8g64) Frame, Musezib-Marduk, 73 1413 23

577,591

1415 24 Frame, Mu5ezib-Marduk, 73:25 (see BM

593 s69,578

577 s82,586 559 559 591 604 603,628 sSomgg S62mso 574

n8g64) Frame, Musezib-Marduk, go: 26 1415 Frame, Mu5ezib-Marduk, n6: 22 (see BM n8g84) Frame, Mu5ezib-Marduk, 120:30 (see BM n8g68) Frame, Mu5ezib-Marduk, 122 Nr. 12: 16 1407

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

Frame, Musezib-Marduk, 127 Nr. 13: 17 1406 Frame, Musezib-Marduk, 130 Nr. 14: 20 1406 Frame, Musezib-Marduk, 168:10 (see BM n8g83) Frame, Musezib-Marduk, 189 Nr. 24:21 1406 Fs. Foster 463 f. Ga 3: 22ff. Ga 7: 5-n Gi3: 7-8 Gilgames Epic

Gir 27: 1'-6' Gir 29:12 Gir 35:1-7 Gir36: 1ff. Gir37: 3-7 Hazor 1 Hazor2-3 Hazor 2 Hazor 3 Hazor 4 Hazor 5 Hazor6 Hazor7 Hazor8 Hazorg Hazor10 Hazoru Hazor 12

1599 HS 109 (see WZJ 8, 567, HS 10g) HS 110 (see WZJ 8, 567-568, HS 110) HS lli (see WZJ 8, 568-569, HS m) HS 112 (see WZJ 8, 56g- 570 , HS 112 ) HS 113 (see WZJ 8, 571, HS 113 ) HS 114 (see WZJ 8, 572, HS 114) HS 116 (see WZJ 8, 574, HS n6: 7 f.) HSM 1137 no, n1, n2, n8, ng,

540 286 408m81 407lll76 23, 24, 541198, s6, 257· 258, 436, 44311294, g65m4o2, 1024, 1223, 1228+n81, 1231, 1234· 126g, 132In26, 1421 284 760 284 284 285 995. 12221153 12221153 12221153· 1233 1233 995. 12221154 995. 1017, 12221153· 124911221 +11223, 1250 12221154. 1233 12221153 995. 1017, 12221153 12221153· 1233 12221152 12221152 995. 10021149. 12221152 12221154 12221154 12221154 12221154 12221153· 1233 12221153

Hazor 13 Hazor 14 Hazor15 Hazor 16 Hazor 17 Hazor18 Hebron 1 995 HS 108-n6 1043 HS 108 (see WZJ 8, 565-566, HS 108)

HSS1072ivg HSS 10 175 rev. iii 9 HSS 10186:6 HSS 10 201: 1-8 HSS 10 206 obv. 4', 7' HSS 10 210:7 HSS 10 222 H.T.152 IAK, 1813:6 IAS 13 IAS33 IAS 39 IAS 59 IAS 132 IAS 142 IAS 268 IAS 298 IAS 326+342 I 18 II4 II 5-7 II6 IllS Ill 13-14 IV4 IV10 IV14 IV16 IAS 487 IAS 503 rev. I 6 IAS 513 rev. 11 2' IAS 533 I 4 Iddin-Dagan B Idrimi inscription IM 52566 IM 52912 rev. 3' rev. 6'

120,121 760 406 596 288 406 63In324 553lll23 132In27 lll01130 674n28 675 675 675 676 6741128,676 6741128 676 gogn823 82811599 83gn62g 77511323 781n361 741lll46 82511589 82511587 Ss5n66g Sssn66g 6741127 674n28 675 675 48 1218, 1233lll12, 1245+mg6 1012 I06g 1069

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1600 I M 52912 (cont.) 1069 rev. 7' 1069 rev. 9' 1438 IMT34: 6 Inscription of Naram-Sin Inscription of Rim iqqur-lpus omens Iraq 114

us

544n92 544n92 1231

37 41 Iraq 117

1062 1062

4 13 21 Iraq 118 8

1066 1066 1066

25 rev. 4' rev. 26'

IRS 7 IRS 10-13 IRS 11 IRS 12 IRS14 IRS 19 IRS 20 IRS30 IRSA IIIG2a IRSA IVOla IRSA IV06a IRSA IVo6d, e, g, h IRSAIV07 IRSAIV07a

]CS 6144

13 15 ]CS 6145 11

1064 1064

1064 1064 14 1064 20 ]CS 11107-109, No. 3: 6f. 253 ]CS 19 97

1064 1061 1064 1064

Iraq 11139-141, No. 10: 23 Iraq 63158 IRS 6

Jakob, Ritualanweisungen, no. 33 1152n71 rev. iii 10' rev. iii 11'-12' 1153n72

302lll54 1030 1330, 1339lll23 1339lll23 1329n71 1329n72, 1330n81 1330n82 1330n84 1329n68 1329n69, 1330 1331ll89 1338lll22 IRSA IV01a 1329n72 1329n73 1330n79 1330n84

1359n47 IS 43-44: 72-77 IS 72:92-97 1359n47 1359n47 IS 47-48:49-54 !Star's Decent to Hades 1151 284 ITT 11256: 12' f. 284 ITT 11468:1-5 284 ITT 2 4362: 1-5 Izi 45, 47+n54, 1226n68, 1227,1229 1226n68 Izi Appendix 1231 izi = isatu

5f. 5-8 15-19 32f. ]CS 19 99: 22-26 ]CS 20126 JCS 24 65, No. 64: 4ff. JCS 24 66, No. 66: 18ff.

303 343 306

]CS 28 53 48:1

1437 553lll23 1413 1436

]CS 55 46 ]CS 62 97:17 JNES 48 284-285:9

K652 (ABL 151) K3399+3934 KaE I II 8 10 Kabnak1 4 5 10 Kabnak2: 9 Kabnak3: 7 Kabnak6 2 5 14 Kabnak8 3 8 Kabnak9 3 6

334 295 540 260 262

40 1152n67 1061 1061,1090 1061 1071,1090 1071 1071 1071 1071 1071 1071 1071 1071 1071 1071 1071 1071 1071

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1601 Kab11ak 10 5 6 Kagal KAH 2 94

1071 1071 45 11461143

KAI 233 5 21 KA] 6:23 KA] KA]

53:7 88:14

103 109 KAJ 114:17

KA]

KA]

KAJ 133 KAj157:5 KA] 163:25 kak.ti compendium KAM 10 1 (VAT 19864) KAR 128:22 KAR 220 kol. iv 9' KAV 96:12 KAV144 KAV 193 KAV194: 16 KAV 217 KAV 218 "Astrolabe B" KBo 1.1 KBo 1.3 + KUB 3.17

1407 1407 1167lll52 1167lll52 1167lll52 11571197 11561191 1167n152 11561191 1167lll52 1167lll52 1230 1105118 1163 1150 1167lll52 11501157 11501157 ll67lll52 1159lll05 11551187 1279 1280

1277 KBo 1.5 1282 KBo 1.10 + KUB 3.72 KBo 1.11 1275 KBo 10.1 1275 KBo 19.59 + KUB 3.16 ( +) KUB 3.21 ( +) KBo 1281 28.122 Keiser BIN 2, 33 (see CT 36, 6-7) Ki1 284 5ff. 286 8 284 Ki 5:1-9 1062,1088 Kirbasi: 8 ki-uluti11 45 KL69.277 1294 1294 KL 69.279 Kress 187 4 (coLI P414451) 63811343 Kress 218 2 (CDLI P453288) kt 79/k 101

63811343 m8n6o

kt 91/k 539 kt 92/k 103: 2 kt 92/k 196: 41 kt 94/k 821: 16 kt a/k 611: 8- 9 kt k/k4 KTT 27:2 KTT 29:7 KTT31 7 KTT 35:3 KTT 36:1-3 KTT 36:6 KTT 41:3 KTT53 6 KTT 379 KTU 1.2 iv 17-18 KTU1.3 i4-8 i 22-24 iii 19-20 KTU1.4 iii 12-13 V 29-31 viii5-6 viii 17-20 KTU 1.5 i 14-16 KTU 1.6 ii 9-11 KTU 1.12 i 23-25 ii 53-54 KTU 1.14 iii 24-25 KTU 1.16 ii24 iv 8-n

1199m14, 120011118 m8 lll51148 1107 1107 1108 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 120011119 387lll24 38611118 385mo7 385mo8 38611118 386m13 38611112 38611116 387lll20 387lll23 385mo6 386m14 387lll25 386m17 387lll19 387lll22 385mn

KTU 1.17 V 16-19 KTU 1.19 ii 19-21 KTU 1.24 (seeRS 5.194) KTU 1.70 (seeRS 5.156+) KTU 1.67 (see RS 5.199) KTU 1.69 (seeRS 5.213) KTU 1.73 (seeRS 5.303bis) 385mo9 KTU 1.103+: 47 387lll21 KTU 1.108: 24-25 38611n5 KTU 1.161: 9-10 386m17 KTU 2.34:10-13

1602

KTU 3.9: 12-14 KTU 5.2 (seeRS 5.216) Ku1 I 17 18 19 20

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

386n118

1078, 1090 1078, 1091 1078 1057lll08, 1078,1087, 1090 22 1078 KUB 1.16 + KUB 40.65 1275 KUB 3·7++ 1279 KUB 3.16 (+)(see KBo 19.59 +) 1281 KUB 3.17 (see KBo 1.3) 1280 KUB 3.21 (+)(see KBo 19.59 +) KUB 3 71 4 1062,1087 7 1062 8 1062 10 1057,1089 KUB 3.72 (see KBo 1.10 +) KUB 3.85++ 1276 KUB3.89 i 7' 1276 i 11' 1276 KUB 4.76 ( +?) KUB 31.82 1277 3' 1277 9' 127lll30 KUB 5.6++ KUB 31.82 1277 9' 14' 1277 16' 1277 19' 1277 22' 1277 KUB 34.1++ 1278 Kutha Legend of Naram-Sin s6 1002n47 LAPO 16 249 LAPO 16 251 1002n47 LAPO 16 252 1002n46 Laws ofEsnunna (LE) 1028 §29 283 §52 259 Lipit-Estar B:1-4 Lipit-Estar B 11. 1-4 48n6o List of Geographical Names 529, 542, 552n117

LT1 LT2 LT3 LT4 LT 5 Ludingira Ludlul Bel Nemeqi Lu1-2 LuAppendix Lu-Azlag LuE LU: sa lu

=sa

1192n82 1192n82 1192n82 1192n82 1201lll26 1228 ss. 1228 57 1226n68 45 552lll17, 553lll21+ lll23, 669 1226n68, 1231

M.2315+2777: 11 (see MAM 111 no. 6) M.2350 11 2 (see MAM 111 no. 10) 1187+n57, 1189n64, M.7930+: 4-8 1198,1201 1178mo M.10562:2' MAD 1 86: IV 10 17lll87 6z8n320 MAD 1135 rev. 4' 625n310 MAD 1169 iii 12 MAD 1178:3 MAD 1186 42 z86mz8 12 MAD 1192 3 MAD 1240:5 MAD 1 332: 9-10 MAD 3 229 MAD 410: 16-17 MAD 414 MAD415 MAD471 MAD477 MAD478 MAD480 MAD481 MAD 4150 MAD 4151 MAD4152 MAD 4153 MAD4155 MAD4158 MAD4169 MAD 4170 MAD 53 3 6ff.

42 S62lll51 z88m31 588n221 1124 582n2o4 540 540 540 540 540 540 540 540 540 540 540 540 540 540 540 s8m203 288

_-·

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1603

MAD 56:3

s8m203

MAD 5 lOO rev. 6'

231

622,625

MAD 58

MAH 15962

6-7

162nso

1104n8

407 406

MAH 16213 Mai11

ll04n8

25 35-37 37 MAD 510:6 MAD 512:17 (P215339)

I 31

1079 1079

s63mss

1117 11 21

563m55

1123

1075,1079

286m28

MAD 5 24

1079

IV22-23 286m28

1079

IV28

1079

7 MAD 530: 4'

58m203

IV32 V12

1079

MAD 535 MAD 540:2

553lll23 623n306

VI3

1079

VI 12

1079

MAD 542:7

58In203

VI 13

1079

VI 15 VI 16

1079 1079. 1088, I08g

s96

VI 18

1079

VI23

1079.1090

MAD 5 60:7

563m55 623n306

VI25

1079

MAD 5 61: 9'

623n306

MAD 565:6

58In203

4

58m2o3

MAD 5 56 (P215379) i7 i 12 ii11

563m55

MAD 5 66 ii4 ii8 MAD 5 67 ii 8

629

Malku I 12

462

148

462

I 277

462

11205

454

11212

454

623 629

MAD 5 68

1079

11 204B 454

i3

621

11228

454

is ii2

623

IV217

383

630

MAM Ill no.6

675

MAM Ill no.IO

675

MAD 5 70 7 13

623

ManiStusu Obelisk (Mo)

627

542, 544ng2, 556,

4

625

572+ m83, 587,

7 11

625

MAD 5, 71

557,562, s68,

625

6o3n262, 631

manna luspur incantation

MAD 5 72:10

71

MAD 5 75:7

622,627

Maqlu

s8,78,7g,84,86,g6

MAD 5 79:13 MAD 5 80, 6. g. 12

622,625

MAR! 180:1

1122

1230

MARV I 17: 1-6

1158

6

625

MARV 11 19: 28-29

1162m3o

9 12

625

MARVIV151

1159ll104

625

MARVV80

1148n48

MAD582: 6

622,627

Maul, Tall Bderi, 24: 8

MAD 5 go: 2

622

Maul, Tall Bderi, 26: 13

1139ll19 1139n20

MAD 5 91

42

MBLET 1

MAD 5 92:5

630

10

1062

MAD 5 99 rev. 6'

626

11

1062

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1604

MBLET 22

MBLET1(cont.) 15 20 rev. 2 rev. 5 rev. 6 rev. 8 rev.15 MBLET 2 9 12 14 19 22 rev.18 MBLET 3 6 rev. 7 rev. 11 MBLET 8 10 14-15 rev. I rev. 5 rev. 6 rev. 7 rev.12 rev. 13 MBLET 9:10 MBLET 14 rev. 5' MBLET15 6 10 rev. 4 rev. 8 MBLET 18 rev. 3 MBLET 20 rev. 2-3 rev. 2 rev. 3 rev. 4 rev. 5 rev. 6 rev. 8 rev. 9 MBLET 21 14-15 rev. 4

1058,1062 1062 1062 1062 1062 1062 1058,1062

15' 16' rev. 11 rev.18 MBLET 24 rev. 5 rev. 9' rev. 11'

1067 1066 1066

MBLET 25

1067 1066, 1067, 1091 1066 1063 1063,1077 1063 1067 1067 1067,1089 1067 1067 1067 1067 1067,1089 1067 1063 1063 1063 1063 1063 1067 1063,1075 1063,1075 1063 1063 1063 1063,1077 1063 1063,1076 1067 1067

7 rev.1 rev. 6 rev.15 rev.18 MBLET 26 6 9-10 MBLET 27

1067,1089 1067 1067 1067 1063 1063 1063 1063,1087 1063,1087 1063 1063 1063,1087 1068 1068

4 17 rev. 7 MBLET 30

1063 1063 1063,1087

9-10 rev. 6 MBLET 31 10 rev. 2

1067 1067

MBLET 33 rev. 7 MBLET34 rev. 2 rev. 7 rev. 8 MBLET35:3 MBLET 36:4 4 7-8 10 36 rev. 2 MBLET37: 7 MBLET 41 4 10 MBLET 47 rev. 3-4 MBLET 49 rev. 6 5-9 12 rev. 6

1063 1063 1063,1067 1066 1067 1067 1067, 1075 1063 1063 1063,1076 1063,1076 1063, 1076 1067 1067 1067,1076 1067 1063 1063 1063,1090

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1605 f-

MBLET 51 rev. 4

1062

MDP 2245 21

1062

1336ll113 1020

MDP 2250

1336ll113

MDP 22 51 1063,1086

1336ll113

MDP 22 53

1063,1086

1336ll113

MDP 22 63

MBLET 63 3 rev.

7'

MBLET 71:3

1063

rev.13

MBLET 72:11

1067,1077

rev.14

MBLET 73:2

1067

MDP 22 139-140

9'

1062

MDP 23170

rev. 5

1062

MDP 23 206

rev. 6

1062,1088

rev. 8

1062

MBLET 76

1018 1018 1326

MDP 23 IV-V (see RA 28)

7 26

1337ll118 1019 1020

1062

MDP 23 209

MBLET 78:7

1062,1090

MDP 24 331:9

1336ll114 1018

MBLET 79 2'

MDP 24 346:2

1018

1062, 1087

MDP 24 349:21

1018

1062

MDP 24 351:14

1916

MC 4:4-6

540

MDP 24 358:22

1018

MC 4:46

540

MDP 24383

1334ll103

MDP 28400

1334ll103 1318

rev. 9

4'

MC4:48 7 11

629 626n312

MDP 27113

1320ll20

13

623

MDP 27 291-297 MDP 28 7

1319ll18 1329

MDP 28 8

1318 1324ll46

MC 4:49:1

626ll312

MDP 2 40

MDP 271-290

144

s63

MDP 28 83

145

563

MD P 28 220-221

1320ll24

158

MD P 28 459-460

1319lll8

MDP 6 49-51

s63m57, s64 1320ll23

MDP41 IV

1333ll97

MDP 10 8s

1333n98

MDP41 V

1333ll97

MDP 14 44:3

70

MDP 53 3

1332ll94

MDP 14 46-48

1320ll23

MDP 534

1332ll94

MDP 14 49-59 MDP 181-66

1320ll22

MDP 5313

1331

1318

MDP 5316

133on8o

MDP 18 49

132lll26

MDP 55 20

1326

MDP 18 237-249

1323ll41

MDP 55 82

1318n8

MDP 18 236

1323ll41

MDP 57 I

1321

MDP 18 241

1323ll41

MDP 57 II

1322

MDP 18 249

1323ll41

MDP 57 Ill-VI

1321

MDP 18 250-253

1323ll37

MDP57VII

1321

MDP 18 255-256

1323ll37 1320ll22

MDP 57 VIII

1321

MDP 57 IX-X

1321

MDP 57 XI

1322

MDP 22 22:9

1323ll37 1018

MDP 22 36:12

1020

MDP 22 44

133611113

MDP 18 258 MDP 18 259

67llll7 MEE 3 47 671lll7 MEE 3 50 MEE 3 66 (see ARET XIII 18) 671U16 MEE 3 73

l:

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1606 MEE 4 79++ obv. iv 4-5 908 719lll01 MEE 4 96, textS MEE 4114 11 1'-2' 969 MEE 4116 691 obv. 14 900,969 3 709, 710, 909, 969 4 5 6 8 14 16 17 16 18 22 30 31 34 40 41 42 49

713, 732, 969 908,969 904,969 911,969 691, 907' 969 709,902,969 691,907, 969 699>969 708,969 708,9o8,969

MSKHnO. 9 12 14

17 MSKH no. 23 4 5 MSKH no. 24: 15 MSl I 23 I 52 11 19 1127 1141 Ill 9 Ill 29

689,970 708, 838, 913, 970

11145 Ill 58

687,970

IV17 IV38 IV40

970 690, 710, 723, 970 708, 710, 736, 849,

IV49

1066 MSKH no. 9: 14 MSKH no. 9: 17 1053> 1054, 1061 1053> 1054 1059 1078,1089 1079 1078 1078 1079 1078 1078,1087 1078 1079 1079 1079 1079> 1080 1079 1079> 1080 1078,1088,

970 904,970 688,709,736,970

IV 59 V12

849,906,907,970 696, 699> 700, 902,

Vl3 Vl4 V16

1079 1079 1078,1088

V17 VIS

1078 1078,1091

V30 V32 V 41

1079 1079 1078

V45 V47 vso

1079 1078 1078

785 6Ss,Sz8 obv. VIII 10 MEE 12 35 obv. XIV 12-17 882

vss VI 13 VI 14 Vll6

1079 1078 1079> 1080 1078

MEE 12 41 obv. I 15-19 848n653, 875 MS 1952/37 (coLI No. Poo6ozo)

VI 27 VI 28

1079 1079> 1080

527n42

VI34 VI46

1079 1078,1088

1066 1066 1066

VI47 VII 7 VII 9 VII 12

1079 1079 1078,1080

so s6 6o 62 MEE 4 *464 MEE 7 34 rev. I I 25-30 rev. VII 12 rev. XVII 7' MEE 7 47 obv. VII 2

970 71 882 700, 8oS, 911 8Isns45 779, 797n438, Soo, 819

MEE 10 4 obv. VIII 8-11

MSKH no. 8 2 5 6

1090

1078

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1607 VII17

1079

MUN 346:2

VII20

1079

MUN361

VI141-42

1079

2

1060

VI14S

1079

12

1060

MTTC So

1057

MUN 369:3

1056

7 10

177lll06

MUN373:7

1060

177lll06

MUN3S7:2

1060

12

177lll06

MUN 388:2-3

1060

MUN8 10 12

1

1

28'

MUN395:5

1057. 1078lll48

1055

MUN 398:1

1066m25, 1091

1055

MUN 411:4

1060

1055

MUN 419

MUN10

4

19-21

1059nno

21

1059.1090

9 MUN 420:1

1057.1073 1057.1073 1060

23

1059

MUN 443:2

1057

MUN 17:7

1059

1063,1087

MUN 18:13

1059,1076

MUN 4 56: 3 MUN 457:1'

MUN 20: IS'

1055

MVN 313

540

MUN 21: 17-1S

1059

MVN 322

540

MUN 29: S

1059

MVN 325

540

MUN 31:20

1056

MVN 336

540

MUN 74:7

1056

MVN 353

540

MUN 86: 22'

1056, 10Sg

MVN 3 67

540

MUN go: 19'

1056, 10S7

MVN 3 81

540

MVN 3105

540

MUN 114 2 6

1060

1060 1060

N 64 (coLI No. P275339)

MUN 120:2

1059

MUN 133: 6'

1056

MUN 134:6

1056mo6

MUN 167-169

1059

Nabnitu

54.57

MUN 171-172

1059

NABU Ig8g/n8

995

MUN 187:1

1059

NABU 1999/58

MUN 189:5

1059

MUN 216:6

1059

MUN 241:8

1058

MUN 266:7

105S

MUN 269

536n71 N 417,4 (coLI no. P275623) 561m45

996 Names and Professions List 529,540, 552llll7, 669,676 NBC 6289

273lll04

Nbn. 697: 2. 5

1436n32 1294

3

1055. 1073

Nergal and Ereskigal

9

1056, 1073

Ni.437

MUN 279:3

105S, 1062

2

1054

MUN 286:2

1060

10

1054.1087

MUN 291:3

1059

Ni.615

1042

MUN 299:3

1055

Ni. 641

1042

MUN 313:2

105S

Ni.1574: 36

1055lll01

MUN 31S: 11'

1059

Ni.1854

1054

MUN 326:24

1060

Ni. 2207

1052

1059

Ni.12350

1052

MUN 329:21

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1608 Nigga nig-ga = makkuru Nip I: 8-10 NisabaA NM2 I 12

45, 1226n68, 1227D77,

17 OIP l14 2 ll

48

34 OIP l14 5:15 OIP II4 8:n

114 1124

1078,1088 1078,1086 1078,1080

1119 Ill 12 Ill 21 Ill 29 IV35 V4 VI6 VII 5

16f.

1229 1231 284

OAIC 30: n OAIC 36 21 23 OBTIV3: 10 OBTR2: 20 OBTR 94: 6ff. OBTR 152: 6f. OBTR 197 OBTR 238: 5f. OECT9 24 OECT 9 38:19 OECT 10180: ll OECT lll37 OECT 12 A 135:12 OECT 12 AB 252

359 l4ll 1414 1414

OIP l1410: 27 ff. OIP l141l: 4-6

319 1417

1078,1089

OIP II412: 7-13

1078

OIP II414: 4 OIP II415: 12

1415 1414 1422

1078 1078 1078,1087 1078,1091 1078 1078

OIP II4I6 4ff. 5 9 10ff. ll

OAB 135 OAIC 10:10 OAIC n:10-n

1416 1406

ll07 349ll2I8 409ni84 70 286m28 286m28 240

17 OIP II417: 13ff. OIP l14I8 4 7 OIPII4I9 5 ll

324

OIP l14 20

339 250 1022

29

326 1468n4o l444ll78 1437 s6 71 1438

OECT 1315-75 OECT 13 76-142 OECT 13143-214 OIP 2 25:39-41 OIP 2 54

995 995 995 1400

so 52 OIP 97 23: 4' o 1P 97 So: 5 i 4' OIP 99 326 OIP II4I 16

l403ll29 1400 1060 550lll13 668m2 1412, 1416

23ff. 30 31ff. 01 p ll4 23: 34 OIP l14 24 ll-13 12f. OIP l14 26:23 OIP l14 28:7-9 OIP l14 29:5 OIP l14 30 9 22 OIP l14 34:5-8 OIP l14 35 8 12

317 1409 1412 31l, 350 1412 314ni72 317 1424 1412 1409 1413 3II 310 1412 337 1409 1418 319 319 1413 1413 1405 1412 314 1413 1413

OIP ll4 39 7 9-18 19

1408 1413 1405

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1609 21

1408

Old Testament

1414

Canticle 7:2

OIP 114 41 13 17f. OIP 114 46:10-12

I I Kings 18.26 312

13S8n43 377nss 1497 1030

1417

Job 30:19 OrS 23178

359 308

OSP1?iS

OIP 114 49: 15ff.

72

OSP 122 i 4

OIP 114 s6: 22

1414

s61m45

OIP 114 48: 12-16

OIP 114 57 22f.

OSP147ii3 OSP 152:1

s62ll1S1, 564 s62m53, 544n92 s6m145 s61m 45

316

OSP 184 rev. 4

23 OIP 114 59: 22

1408

OSP 195:14

1412

OSP199ii3

OIP 114 63:2

1405

s61m4s

OSP 1101 iii 6

s6mi4S

OIP 114 7I: 11

I412

OSP 1123

DIP 114 72: I6

I408, 1425

S36n71

OSP 1I36 iii' 2

s6m145

OSP 211

OIP 114 75: 29-30

14I3

OIP 114 78:6£

3I8

OIP 114 8o: 11

308

OIP 114 81 4-7 27 OIP 114 82:27-28

ii9 iii 6'

633n326 s6mi45

OSP 2 24 3I8 I422 I424

OIP 114 83

633n327 5 6

633n327 6I4

OSP 2 28

8

I4I3

32

3I2

4 OSP 2 29:2

28, 2. 4

I4I2

OSP 2 32:25

32,25

OIP 114 86

2

28, 2.4 29,2

9 27 OIP 114 89: I7

I414

OSP 2 40116

s44n92, S62ll153

I4I4

OSP24I:6

s62ms3

OIP 114 91: I8-19

1405

OIP 114 92 2of.

350

22-27

320

32

1405

36

I405

OIP 114 93: IS

I409

OSP25540:3

I71ll87

OSP 2I66: 7

S44n92; s62ll153

Oxyrhynchus Glossary I483n7 Papyri pAnastasi I I I I, 12

I306 Papyrus Amherst 63 I467n34 Papyrus TAD Cu. I467

OIP 114 97: 25-27

1417

OIP 114 98:20

314n169

PBS 1/I11

OIP 114103:26

I412

PBS I/2 IS

1030

OIP 114104: 6-7

1409

4-8

301

OIP 114106: 14

1409

8

303

OIP 114109 4f. 12

PBS 1/2 2I 343 1414

wf.

302

24ff.

304

PBS 1/2 22

OIP 114 Ill: I6 ff.

319

OIP 114 118 i 39'

14I31165

9ff.

297

OIP 114119:5

1408

4ff.

299

OIP 129 Pl. 192: I i 2

536n72

PBS 1/2 25 5

1057

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1610

1/2 25 (cont.) 13ff. PBS 1/2 27:7 PBS 1/2 zS: 4 PBS 1/2 31:9 PBS 1/2 39: 1'-6' PBS 1/2 40: S PBS 1/2 41: 12 PBS 1/2 43 14 20 PBS 1/2 47: 3-6 PBS 1/2 4S: 16-19 PBS 1/2 49: IS ff. PBS 1/2 51: 25f. PBS 1/2 53:5 PBS 1/2 54 zf. 13-16 PBS 1/2 57: 15 PBS 1/2 sS: 7f. PBS 1/2 59: 15 PBS 1/2 60: nf. PBS 1/2 63 6 14-20

PBS

15 24' f. 27' f. PBS 1/2 71 4'-s' S-26 PBS 1/2 72 12 24 37£ PBS 1/2 73: 15 PBS 1/2 79: 10 PBS 1/2 So: 11-14 PBS 1/2 Sz 5 7 PBS 1/2 Ss: 5 PBS 1/2122 PBS 1/2135 PBS 2/2 g: 5 PBS 2/217:5 PBS 2/2 20

s

35S 302 302 291 302 zgS 303 349 299 292 335 zgg 350 302

12 2/2 22:1 PBS 2/2 25:7 PBS 2/2 26 PBS 2/2 47

PBS

4

14 PBS 2/2 4S: 17' PBS 2/2 51 14 17 PBS 2/2 52:3 PBS 2/2 55: S PBS 2/2 56 3 4

2/2104 2/2123 PBS 5 34 iso viii 57 PBS 5 36 iii' 20' PBS 5 100 i 4ff. PBS S/2 15S: 9 PBS S/2 161: 4 PBS S/2162 PBS S/2 163 rev.1S' PBS S/2 252: 1 PBS 9 25 rev. 9 PBS 13 6g PBS 15 41

PBS

301 294 342n205 301 297 300 303 349 304m56 297 301 1055 306 293 342 35S 302 357 301 1056 1056,1073 296 1030 1030 1056 1056, 10Sg 1057

PBS

V4'

1057 1057· 10S7 1057 10S3 105S 105S 1059 1059 1060,1077 1059 1060,1077 1060 1060 104S 104S s63 s63 616nzg1 269 1056 1057 10Sl 1059 245 539 1045

s64 vi 7' 564 1045. 10S2 PBS 15 49 PBS 15 52 1045 1045 PBS 15 53 1045. 10S2 PBS 15 54 PBS 15 55 1045 PBS 15 57 1045 1046 PBS 15 59 PBS 15 60 1046 PBS 15 61 1045· 1046 PBS 15 64 1046 Peri ton proton archon 103 PIHANS 1171S: 32f. 354 Poem of Early Rulers 122S Postgate, Urad-Senla, no. 20: 12 113gm6

!Wt1Q1"Q

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

Postgate, Urad-Seriia, no. 27

1611

10

1025

1139ll13

11

1139ll14 15 Postgate, Urad-Seriia, no. 36: 11

17 18

1025 1026

14

1166n146

1025

21

1025

Postgate, Urad-Seriia, no. 42: 11

25

1025

1139ll15 Postgate, Urad-Seriia, no. 49: 9

30

1025

35

1025 1025,1026

1166m47 Postgate, Urad-Seriia, no. ss: 5 1139n17, 1166 Postgate, Urad-Seriia, no. 56 113gm8, 1166+m43 Postgate, Urad-Seriia, no. 62: 6 Practical Vocabulary A

PRAK2 C 1 Proto-Ea 518c PRU 3 51 18

39 41

1025

42

1025

44

1025 1025,1026

1166m47

45 52 RA28

552ll117, 553+ll123,

RA35 42 no. 3

1008,1009

554ll127, 668, 66g

RA 35 46 n0.17

1009 1008

1030 416n201

RA 35 49 no. 30 RA 6os

1008

RA 64103:7

1013 1008

RA 35 46 no. 18

1242

RA 65 so no. 31

1242

RA 69109-136 no. 8-12

PRU 3 52:19

1242

RA 70 12gff.

PRU 3 64 21

1241

RA 731-22

1241

RA 75, 18, AO 7486: 1-4

1242

RA 8513-48

19

26 PRU 3 6sb: 14

RA 72 113-138

RA 102 50-58 no.I-10

995

RA 102 51-52 no. 2:15

1243 1241 1242

355 RA 102 53-54 no. 5: 5-12 258 RIMA 0.87.1 V 44-45 RIMA 1, A.o.6o-A.0.72 RIMA 1, A.o.6o.4:8

439 1145n39 114Sn38

RIMA 1, A.o.61.1

PRU 6 79 1242

7

1145n38

1242

11

1145n38

1445n82 1493ns4

Qur'an

1499+ngo

RA 22171:36

436 1025 1026

RIMA 1, A.o.61.2 6 7 RIMA 1, A.0.75.1 17

2

995 540 268

1243

1242

RA 22 (1925) 179-177

995 1030

1243

PRU 3141:7 PRU 3 1gsb B i 12 11

1030

995,997 273ll104

PRU 3107:19

13 PTS 2348:15 Pyramid Texts

1321ll30

RA go 130-131

PRU 3 76a 9 13 PRU 3 89a: 5

1025

4

1025 1026

5

1025

73 RIMA 1, A.0.75.2:10

114Sn37 1144n36 1163 1164 1164

RIMA 1, A.0.75.8 26' 30 RIMA 1, A.0.75.27

1163 1163 1164

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1612 RIMA 1,

V2

A.o.76.1

4 18 RIMA 1, RIMA 1,

A.o.76.2:51 A.o.76.9

14 23 RIMA 1,

RIMA 1, RIMA 1,

A.o.76.15.24 A.o.77.1

1164 1163

RIMB

1419

RIME

1163 1164 1164

RIME

675 675 675 675 s6m146 s6mi46 s6mi46 s6mi46 s8sn212

1164 1164 1163 1164 1164 1164

66 68 69 126 I52 RIMA I,

A.o.78.I:9

9 iV40 RIMA I, A.o.78.5:70 RIMA I, A.o.78.9:2I' RIMA 1,

1164 1164 1163 1164

A.o.78.11

8 38 I, A.o.78.I5 2I I, A.0.78.I8:26 RIMA I, A.o.86.I

RIMA

RIMA

1164 1164 1164 1164

1164 A.o.86.4: 8 1109n29 I, 10 A.o.1004 RIMA I, 17 A.0.32.2: 35-36 I7m86 1110 RIMA I, 77-78 A.o-40

RIMA I, RIMA

RIMA

2, A.o.87.I

ii 67 ii 35 iii I8 iii34 vii9 RIMA 2, A.o.87.I5-I6 RIMA 2, A.o.89.3: 10' RIMA 2, A.o.89.7 iii 7 iii9 iVI3

B.6.35·4 1.10.12.3: 3 RIME 1.10.11.2002:6 1.10.12.3: 4 1.13.8:4' RIME 1.14.14.1 RIME 1.14.14.2 RIME I.I4.I7.I RIME 1.14.20.I

RIME

i 35 i 4I

s6mi46 s8sn212 iii 33 585n2I2 iii 36 RIME 2.1.1.1 (see also FAOS 7 Sargon C 1) s6om42 84 Akkadian 85 Akkadian 101

1163 ll64 1163 1163 1163 1138n4 1164 1163, ll64 1163 1163 1163

844n644 56 I 6oon257

RIME

2.1.1.I.I11 RIME 2.l.I.2

760

9I 108 RIME 2.1.1.3

s6I 6oon257 6I2n28o

24 1164 1164 1146n40

7 8

1164 1163 1138ns 1146n44 1424m09

1164 1164 1140n24, 1163

A.o.76.11

s' 26'

2, A.o.89.10: 6 RIMA 2, A.o.89.2002 RIMA 2, A.0.101.1 i 94 RIMB 2$.1002.2 iii 13

RIMA

578 407 2.1.1.6: 4I-47 s6o RIME 2.I.l.10 A i' 3' RIME 2.l.I.11 (see also FAOS 7 Sargon C 2) s6om42 s8on20I Akkadian 22 30

RIME

Akkadian 23 Akkadian 24-35 Sumerian 20-28 RIME 2.1.1.12: I3'-2I' RIME

s83n2o6 66sn3 66sn3 665n3

2.1.1.I5

I9

s96

30

590 760

2.1.2.3: 25 RIME 2.1.2.4

RIME

44-48

287,407

47 78-79 84

577 405 406

~· 1613

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

RIME

RIME

2.1.2.18, 17

2.1.4.2 1-8

2.1.4.6 ii 8'

2.2.1.1 ii 24-26

RIME

2, 12, E2.1.1.1: 98

RIME

RIME

2, 99, E2.1.4.3: vi 37

RIME

2, 105 E2.1.4.6: I 21"

342 284

RIME

405

RIME

162nso 2, 234. E2.3·4·1: 1 1122ll72 2, 311, E2.o.o.1003: 3'

597

RIME

4·3·7·3

s87 408m82 408m8o s87 s8sn214

RIME

i 12-19 RIME 2.1.4.3 iii 22-24

RIME

408m83 1121 2, 29 E2.1.1.11: 38-40

2.1.2.6

13 43-46 68-69 RIME 2.1.2.8: 8, coll.

162n5o 1122

1124

RIME

iii 16' iii 23'

577 612n28o'

iV39

616n291

iV35 V31'

633ll326 601

v32'-35'

4osm69

1023 3

1023

5 24

1023

25

1023 1023 1023 1023

1023

4 6

286m28

39 43 46

286m28

47

1023

7

405

49 51

1023

760 6om2 59 588n221

57 67

1023 1023

76 103-106

1023

12

598

1023

53, coll.

s87 603

105 120

RIME

2.1.4.7

RIME

2.1.4.9

11 18 20 RIME

2.1.4.10

6g RIME

RIME

14

614ll284

15

577 6om2 59

2.1.4.25: 40 RIME 2.1.4.26 1-9 i 1-ii 7

406lll70

i 32 ii2-7

574 406

ii7 ii 8-23

577 289

15f. 23-26 Royal Ritual (Ebla)

RS RS

5.136 5.156+

334 285 667,705, 706,715,

878+n747,882,900 8on21 nmo, 8on21, 82, 83ll31, 83ll32, 86,

2.1.4.28:29-31 RIME 2.1.4.30 iii' 6'

405 28611128

RIME

2.141001: 10'

613ll281

2

RIME

2.1.4.2005: 8-11

RIME

2.1.4.2007:4

665n4 630ll322

4 6

599ll251

6-7

2.1.5.2003: 6

341

735· 817ll557· 836, 849, 862, 865,

665n4

784ll375 665n4

RIME

1023

341 47 ROM 910x209.625: 23-26

iv 15-19 RIME 2.1.4.27:6-9 RIME

1023

4.6.8.1

26f.

2.1.4.23

RIME

1023

88, 91, 92, 93, 94n93, 94n96,96,98+n1o8 78ll14, 79ll16 79m6, 82n25 81,82 83ll33 79ll18

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1614 12

1070,1071

7Sms S2n26

1S 23

1070 1071

14 26

S1

27 2S

1071 1071

2S

79nl7 S9

30

1071n136

33

1070

ss ss, ss

34

1070

37 3S

1070

RS s.1s6+ (cont.) 10 11

79n17

30 36-41 40-41 RS S·194 RS S·199 7 16 RS S.211 ( = RS S·1S6+) RS S.213

92nS9 77mo, S2n29, S7, 96, 97, 9S+moS, 99 96mo3

42

1070

96

47 4S

1071

77mo, S2n29+n3o,

RSOu. 7 47

S7,96,97>9S

7 1-2

RS S·303bis

2-7 2-S 6-7 7 9-17 9-1S

5

1070

79

7

1071,1076 1070

77nlO,S7,9S,99

9 10

9SmoS 77n1o,S2n29,S6,SS,

13 22

91, 94+n96, 9S 7Snl4, S1

2S

1071

27

1070

ss

29

94 ss

32

1071 1070

33

1070

79n16

34 41

1070

94 S6

1076

1279

SAA11: 1

94n94 104Sn74

SAA 129-40

1377 136sn61

SAA 176:6

72

104Sn74

SAA 194:6 SAA 1119: S SAA 1 12S: rev. 12-13

1377 1372

SAA 1179: rev. 3-4

13SS

SAA123S: 6 SAA22

1376 1364nsS

SAA26 2S2

13S3

sS2

1372

127S 1273n40

104Sn74 104Sn74

104Sn74 RS 26.1S9 RS 34.142 (see RSOu. 7 47) RS 34.1S2 (see RSOu. 7 40) 12Ssngo RS 34.164 1044,1070 RSOu. 7 40 1-2 1071,1076 4f. 6

1071

1071 26gngs

RS 17.1S9 RS 17.227 RS 24.266: 26' -36' RS 2S·427 RS 2S-431A RS 26.1S3

1070 1070

42 RSM 21:1-6

RS 17.132

RS 2S.141

1071, 107S 1044,1070 1070, 1071, 1076 1070 1071,1076

96mo3 96mo3

RS S.214 ( = RS S·1S6+) RS S.216 6'

1070

3 4

96mo3 4

1070 1071

39 41

1070,1071 1070

SAA3 34:36 SAA S 21:10

1376

1377 13S5

-

.-...;,_

;·

:i··--.;:

lliip

;;zw--

~·

-~

'7' .,,.,...

···· · =·rmT

m·

w

· ~,~ ,

-·..,rr ,.,_- .;er ;..,r ."·-

ee~tw:·!t ..,~-

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

SAAS 32:11 sAA 5 52: rev. S-g SAA 5147: rev. 9 SAAS 210:17 SAA 5 224: 12-13 SAAS 237:7 SAAS 2S1 sAAS 33S: 5 SAA S 469: rev. 9 SAA S 4S7: rev. 6 SAA S 499: rev. 3 SAA S 517: rev. 11 SAAg Ii 6' SAA 9 2 ii 17' SAA 10 39: rev. 4-6 SAA 10 S4: 14-15 SAA10 111

13S3 1376 1376 1376 13Ss 1376 136sn61 319lll79 321 4S7: r6 359 359ll230 l37S l425nill 137S 1377

5 rev.15 rev. 20-23 rev. 25f. SAA10 112 IS-1S

1417 1424

17 rev. 32 SAA 10 uS: rev. 5 SAA10 132: S SAA 10 154: rev. 3-9 SAA10 160 rev. 3Sf. rev. 39 SAA10 179:3 SAA10 1So

337 310m6s 310 1413,1420

14 rev.12 SAA 10 1Ss: rev. 1S SAA 10 194: rev. 14 SAA 10 226: rev. 3 SAA 10 294: 16 SAA 11 201: I 9 SAA13 45 rev. 3-4 rev. 5 SAA 13 95: 14-rev. 1 SAA 13 17S: rev. 4 ff. SAA 13 1S1: rev. 4 ff. SAA 15 127: rev. 1S SAA 15 156: rev. g SAA 16 31: rev. 5

309 351 336

315 350 359 14ll 1414 359 13S4 1377 13S3 13S3 137S 1372 1372 1376 317 312, 351 13S4 1376 13S4

1615

SAA 16 34:16 SAA16 63 12-14 rev.1g SAA 171 6 7 SAA17 2 13-21 rev. 6 SAA 17 3: rev. 15ff. SAA 17 20: 7-n SAA17 21 S-12 IS SAA17 22 7-S 12 14 1Sf. rev. 2 rev. 12 rev. 17-1S rev. 23-14 SAA 17 23: 19' f. SAA17 27 4 rev.13 SAA 17 29 uf. 15 ff. SAA 17 33: rev. S SAA 17 34: ll SAA 17 43: rev.10-13 SAA17 53 12ff. 16f. rev. 22' SAA 17 63:9 SAA 17 73 7-11 SAA 17 75:13 SAA 17 S3 rev. 3 SAA 17 Sg: rev. 1-10 SAA17 go 7 SAA17 93 6 13

1377 1355ll35 13SO 1412 1412 1357ll39 1424ni07 314 310 337 1412 1416 1410 1410 316 1417 1409 1417 1424 311 315lll73 315lll73 317 317 30S 319 311 309 17 53= 16 f. SAA 17,53 rev. 22' 1409 1419 343 1412 140S 317 1409,1419 1409 1420 1419

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1616 SAA 17 93

SAA 18 64: 6-9

(cont.)

rev. 5 SAA 17 96: rev. 8-13 SAA 17 99: rev. 7'

1420 350 1420

4 rev. 10 SAA 17 105: rev. 13 f. SAA 17 115: 13 SAA 17117: 14-rev. 8

rev. 6'f.

312lll67

rev. 8' ff.

321

SAA18 70:15

SAA 17102

337

SAA18 68

1409

SAA 18 76 rev. 8

314m69

SAA18 86

337 1409

312lll67

rev.17f.

312

1409

rev. 18-19

1419

309

SAA18 88 rev. 7'

313

rev. 24

308

rev. 9' f.

rev. 25

337 313 1425lll12

rev. 11' f.

313 322

SAA17120

rev. 28f. SAA 17136 ( =ABL 781)

SAA 17137 ( =ABL 1095) 1425lll12 1425 SAA 17140: rev. s'-7' SAA 17 152: 5-11

312

rev. 16 SAA17158 6f. 8

SAA 18 7: rev. 5' f.

319

rev. 7 ff. SAA 18 149: 12- rev. 8

316

SAA 18 153: rev. 20 f.

308

1412

SAA 18 158: 18

1408

1412

SAA18160

344

13 SAA 18162:4-17

nff. 313

316 314lll71 310

SAA18170 314 321

rev. 4

1417

rev. 5

1425

SAA 18175 313

9-12

321

314 317,318

13-14

1413

SAAI8 24 rev.1

s' ff.

309

SAA18 3 4'-7' n'-rev. 2

SAA 18114 351 320

SAA181 4 10ff.

343 321

SAA 18 105: rev. 8 f.

SAA 18 123: 11 f.

SAA17156 rev.4

314lll72

SAA 18 102: rev. 4' f.

1405

SAA 17155 rev. 3 rev.10-16

SAA 18 91: 11'

1420

SAA18179: 4 SAA 18 180 rev. 13'-14'

1408 14-15

SAA 18181

1420

rev. sf.

321

SAA 18 28 rev. 6

1414

rev. 18ff.

314

SAA 18 54: rev. 16 f.

359

rev. 28f.

314m69

rev. 29

359ll230

rev. 6

SAAI8 56 11

1409

rev. 6ff.

3ll

9 SAA 18 6o rev. 15

1406

SAA 18 192: 6'

1420

SAA 18 195: rev. 5-8'

1420

SAA 18 202: 10 SAA 19 4: rev. 5-8

SAA18 61 rev. 5 rev. 9

rev. s'-6' rev.13

SAAI8 58 4

SAA 18183

317 314m69

359 1417 359 1400 351 1414

SAA 19 23: 8-16

336 1358n44

SAA 19 130: 6'

359

fitli??-1§~\"l

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

sAA 19 13S rev. 2

I408

SAA 19146: r4-8

336

SAA 19154 3-5 rev.1-3

13sSn42 I3S4

SAA 19 202: 17 sAA 20 31: rev. 4

1378

SAA 21 7: 5' ff. SAA 21S: 19'

309 312ni67

SAA 21 IS: 7 ff.

337 3I3

SAA 21 37: 17 ff. SAA 2I56: 3'-8' SAA 2I sS: rev. 6 ff. SAA21110 rev. 6' f. rev. 12'-IS'

314lll72

336 308,321

1617 ShA 153 2I 2S

10I5 10I5

ShA155 s

1016

11 19 ShA I 59:7 ShAI6o: I3

346n213 1016

ShA163 27 ss f. 6S ShA 164: I9

344 308

1016 1015,1016

ShA 169: 37' ShA170: IS Shechem I: 1

1016 324 10I5 1016 10I6 1015

SAA 21 133:S'

319lll79

SAA 21134: 6' ff. SAA 21 144: rev. 8 f.

344 31S

Silbenvokabular A

996 1017 1225n6S, 1230

SAB 53:10

1123

Sipa compendium

I230

Saggigu sag-tablet

ss I230

SMN 30S2

Sargon Legend Vocabulary

s6 I220n4o, 1226n68,

sa

1227,1230 SbB 110:16

Shechem 1:3

2-3 4 5 6

1437 SbB 119:23 (see CT 22 193)

9 10

SbB 124:32 SbB 141:12

32

1437 1438

SbB 199 (see CT 22 224) SbB 1104: 6 (see CT 22 147) SbB 112S: rev. 9' (see OECT 12 AB 252) SbB 2 S9: 16-17 (see BIN 1 92)

1069 1069 1069 1069 1069 1069 1069

SMN 3094 3 6 34-35 SMN 3101

3094= 3 3094=6 3094=34-35

SbB 2130:10 (see YOS 21177) SbB 2162: S (see YOS 21123)

7 s

3101:7 3101: s

SbB 2 202:7-9 (see CT 22 155) SCCNH 2 72f.: 7 1069

15 18

3101:15 310I: 1S

SpTU 199

1469n5o

SpTU 4IS6 (P274492)

57 1042, 1044. 10S2

SCTRAH 304: 3 ff. 2S4 Schaudig, Staatsrituale, Nr. 1 Septuagint ShA1S

1165m4o 118

STT I45 STT 155:24 STT 1 56: 24-25 STT 160:18

S9n63 94n90 S9n63

16f.

356

24

356

Su 1: 4'

760

z6f.

356

Subartu 2 42: 152 Sumer9 9:2

ShA129: 24

354 1015

s63mss 1062, 10S9

ShA 130:12

1015

ShA 11S: 22f.

Sumer915 3

1062 1062, 10SS

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1618

Sumer 9 16: 20 Sum er 9 26: 10 Sumer143: 4 Sumer 14 7: 11 Sum er 14 12-15, No. 1 22 37ff. Sumer 14 21-22, No. 5 4-S 6f.

122S 1013 552lll17 simamilka 1231 Steve, Nouveaux melanges, no 2

329 250

1330n77 Steve, Nouveaux melanges, no 11

237 275 340

15f. Sumer 14 25-26, No. 9 13ff. 332 23-26 267 Sum er 14 zS-30, No. 12: 20 ff. 263,340 Sumer 14 36-3S, No. 16: 6' 332 Sumer 14 3S-39, No. 17 22

1011

23 347 Sumer 14 40, No.1S: sff. 347 Sumer 14 40-42, No. 20 10ff. 251 1S 1011 Sumer 14 no. 23: 16-1S 1012+n74 Sumer 14 52-53, No. zS: 4-S 265 Sumer 14 53, No. 29:4-9 261 Sum er 14 55-56, No. 31: 4-7 339 Sumer 14 62-63, No. 36: S 279 Sumer 14 61-62, No. 37 14 16f. Sumer 14 no. 45

s 17 Sumer 43 190 ii 3 Sumer 43 194: 32, 3S Sumerian King List Syllabary A (S 3 )

Syllabary B (Sb) Syllable Alphabet A

Syllable Vocabulary A Syria 19 109: 21, 2S SamasMyth

1062, 10S9 1062, 10S7 1012 1011

1012 263 1011 1011 1024 1024 529, 546n9S, 547. 54S, 132lll30 so, 56, 70, 1225n6S, 1226n6S, 122S, 1230, 1232 54.56 1225n68, 1226n68

1330n77 Steve, Nouveaux melanges, no 12 1330n77 Sulgi B 11. 30S-319 SulgiC summa immeru omens 1231 summa izbu omens 1231 Surpu sS T.73 rev. I 2' T 93-97 TA 1930/31, 501 TA1930, 615 Table of Measures TCBI 1235: 11f. TCL 9 50 3 5 17 TCL 9 53

s

675 n69m61 1105nS nSm27 1226n6S, 1227n77 2S9 1065 1065 1065 1065 1065,1091

9 TCL 9 54:10 1065 TCL 9 9s: 13 70 TCL 9121:15 143S TCL 121-3 1400n15 Tell Fekheriye 113S, 1364n57, 1490 The Disputation between the Date-palm and the Tamarisk 1155, 1231 TH So.10S rev. I 4 675 TH So.m Iv' 6' 675 The fable of the fox 1155 The "Fowler" 1231 The Letter of Sin-iddinam to Utu 1231 TIM 115: 2S TIM 116:20-24 TIM 122: 41f. TIM 172

347 339 32S 1044

TIM 9 20ff. (see CT 5S 53) TIM 9 27

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1619 TIM 9 29 TLB I 264 TLB I 302

1049 1044 1044 TM.7s.G.266++ (see ARET V 7) TM.7s.G.1619 (see ARETV 8) ™· 7s.G.1 722: 1 1-111 1 668nn

TMH NF S 6s: 3 TMH NF S 66:22

lOSS lOSS

TMH NF S 67:21 TMHNFs6 9 8

ws6

11

TM.7s.G.2421 (seeARETV6) TM.7S·G.24S9 (see ARET V 19) ™·7S·G.wOI8++ (see MEE 4 96, texts) TM.76.G.86 obv. 1 s-11 1

742,871

obv. Ill 10-IV 1

749.869 738

obv. IV 4 obv. IV s

87In719

rev. 1 3'-s'

771

rev. 114

738

23 32 TMH NF S 71:8

lOSS IOS6

ws6 lOSS lOS9

TMHNFS74 9 13 14 19-20 TNE kol. iii 4 TT2

ws8, 1076 ws8, 1076 ws8, 1076 ws8, 1076 ll63

rev. 119-10

741

19-21

rev. Ill 4-9 rev. 111 10-IV 1

89s 713n88, 742

1249

36-38 TT 3:30-31

1249

rev. IV 8-10

742, 713n88

Tukulti-Ninurta Epic

ll47. ll48, ll63,

Tusban 22: obv. 4-s Tu-ta-ti

n67ms4 13s8n42 1227

TmE 91a 47:7 TmE 91a 63:27

1237 1238

TT 3:30-31

TmE 92a n: 37

1238

TMH 2/314:4 TMH NF 66:23

1406 lOSS

U781S

TMH NF67: 20

1401m9

lOSS

9S: 13 VDBD 121:7

w6s w6s

TMH NF 69 13 24 TMH NF S 8:23 TMHNFS11 2

ws6 ws6

VDBD

VDBD

131

4 6

lOS9

106s

w6s, 1087

13 1060

106s

w6o

137:1 VET 1146

1060

VET

VDBD

3 4 TMH NF S 13:17

1059

VET

TMH NF S 15: 19' TMHNFS21:6

lOS9. 1087 1060

VETS

TMH NF S 23:12

lOS9

19 VET S16: 3 VETS 281:6

TMHNFS29 8 13 TMHNFS36 TMHNFS64 2 4 11

IOS7 IOS7 1082 1059.1061 1060,1076 1059.1077

2 69

4 36:13-14 8 22

VETS

S21: 10

S37: 14 6/184

w6s 1030 S27ll42 1443ll71 2SS 283 1026 1026 1026

VETS

1026

VET

1030 1030

VET

6/I l17

VET

6/2 380

6/2 38S VET 6/2 386 VET

13 14

10S9 1060,1076

VET

32

1059

VET

6/2 399 6/3 S22

1030 1030 1030 1030 1049

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1620 UET 6/3 57g-584 UET 6/3 g16 UET 6/3 g17 UET 6/3 g18 UET 7 g2

1030 1030 1030 1030 1232

6g2, 723, g18 6g2,6g8

VESS

6g1, 6gs, 8og, go1, g18

VE 61

72g, 844, g18, g51 681, g18

VE 62

Ug528 rev. s' rev.18'

1241 1241

ugu-mu ur5-ra = hubullu

45 s6, 57r 105ll20, 668, 1047' 1048, 1155· 1220ll40, 1222ll54r 1226n68, 1227, 122g, 1230+ngo, 1231+ng6,

Ur-me

VE47 VE47, D

VE63 VE 63, C VE63, D VE64 VE 64, D VE67a VE 67a, VE68

1232, 1233· 1234 51

VE 71

454

VE 73, D

455 455

VE74 VE76 VE 76, D

VE73

Uruanna 11 22g 11253 11254 11255 Utukkii Lemniitu VAT 412

455 106n22 113,114

VE77 VE 77, D VE 81 VE82

VAT 4g20 131065 151065 181065 VAT 10102 VAT 10251 VAT1034g VAT 10722+12178 VAT 11044 VAT mg3 VAT 125g7 VAT 13836 VDI 1g55/4 no. 8:13 VE32b VE38 VE 38, D VE3g VE 3g, D

1155ll88 1156ngo 1155ll8g 1147ll45r 1164 1152ll67+n68 1155ll8g 668n11 1155ll8g,1156

VE83 VE84 VE88 VE8g VEg5 VE g5,A VE g5, C VE g5, D VEgg VE gg, D

1443ll70 844, 845, 917, 919,

VE100

g33 686,707, 835,917, g40

VE104 VE 110b,A

707 6g5, 834, go2, g17

VE 118 VE 118, D VE 11g

721, gn, g18 701 6g8 720, 835, gn, g18 703 724, 834, gn, g18 D710 731 835,g18 384, 6g3, 720, 8o6, g12, g18 6g3 685, 721, 8o6, g12, g18 6g6, 707, gig 707 6g2,71~g1g,g25,gs8

6g2, 711 845, g1g 6g1, go6, g1g, g28, g6o, g61 6g4 770, g1g 68g, 835, g1g 834, go2, g1g g1g 711 712 708 go6, g1g 6gg 684, 713, 717, 720, 832, gn, 912, 919, g2o 686,g2o 693 915, g2o 712 688, 718, g2o, g61

708 734, 832, go6, g17,

VE 120

678, 722, 832, g04,

VE40a

g34 g17 6g6, gq

VE 124a-c

VE40b VE42

920 go2 813, go2, g2o

VE44

726, g17

VE 124C

VE 124a VE 124b

813, g2o 810, g21

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1621 VE126 VE 126, C, a, b

718, 904, 921

VE 186a

708

702,914, 923,68s, 712,803, 923,925,

VE 128

682, 689, 720, 732,

VE 128, q

921 682

VE 186a, A, B, D VE 182b VE 188

VE 139 VE140b

688, 912, 921, 945 726, 921

VE 188,A, B

832, 907, 921

VE189

VE 143, D

693

VE 145 VE 145, A

734> 901, 904, 921

VE 189,A

710

VE 189, g

VE 145, D

712

702

VE 191b

VE146

848

699, 734, 832, 921 683, 804, 922, 952,

VE 195

687, 689, 710, 727, 723, 724, 725, 727, 746,756

VE 195, B

VE 138

VEI47

954 VE 147, D VEISO VE ISO, D VE156

967 712 702, 914, 923 834> 912, 924 708 732, 834, 905, 924, 933 708

703 832,906 ,922

VE 195, i

707 840

713 815,922, 952

VE 199 VE200

690, 696, 811, 924 811,924

VE 156, i

699

VE 200, C

VE 157

707,709

903,922 ,945,953

VE 202b

VE 157, D

712

VE 202b, A, C

VE 159

694 916,922 81 5 , 9 22

VE204

925,963 702 812

VE205 VE 208

686, 689, 713, 8o6,

699

VE 208, C

925 712

687,724 ,844,922 722, 845, 922

VE 208, i

711

VE 209

925

VE163b VE164 VE 164, A, B, D, i VE164,C VE 166a VEI66b

700

812

VE169

722,723, 923

VE 210b

VE 170

803,925

809,810

VE 210b, A

711

VE 173

723,916, 923 683, 844, 923, 925, 926

VE 212

VE 174

691, 692, 8so, 907, 925

VE 212, C, i VE 212, D

711

VE 179

699, 703, 718, 732, 803, 901, 923

VE 179, i VE180

703 683, 695, 699, 701, 732, 750, 910, 915,

VE 222b

VE 18o,A

923 8so

VE 225,A

VEI80,C

707

85o

709

VE 214 VE 217

VE225

VE 181

910,923

VE 225, B VE 225, C

VE181, C VE181,D

703

VE227

VE 182a

712 925 668, 697> 720, 912, 925 718, 914, 925 719, 9n, 926

710 683,684, 687,689,

699

732, 832, 835> 912,

702,914, 923,959

926,935, 957

VE 182a, D

702

VE 227,A, B

VE 182b

710

702, 914, 923

VE 227, C VE 227, D

708

VE 184

923

707

't

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1622 VE 227, i VE 228 VE229 VE234 VE 236 VE 236, D VE 237 VE 237, D VE240 VE240,A, C VE 240, D VE243 VE 243,A, B VE245 VE248

712, 85o

VE 286

906,928

724 734,735,926 683,835,926 926

VE 287a VE 287a, D VE 292 VE 292,A VE 292, C VE 292, D

901,929

699 905,926,959 707 905,926 710 707 913,927 711 684,726,832,83 4, 927 696, 803, 912, 927, 964,968

VE 295 VE 295, A, c, D VE300 VE 300, A, B, D VE303 VE 303, D VE308 VE311

699 902,929 698 700 703 723,724,929 708 683,929 700 901,929 682 834, 913, 929 691,729,832, 907, 929,953,954,9 64

VE 311, B, c

701

VE311,D VE312

700

VE249

707 696, 803, 835, 912,

VE249,A VE 249, D VE 251b

927 710 707 719, 835, 927

VE313 VE 313,A VE 313, C VE 316 VE 316, D

VE 248, A, C, D

VE 252 VE 253a VE258 VE 258,A VE26o VE 260, b VE 260, D VE 263 VE 263, D VE267 VE269 VE 269, D VE270 VE270,A, C VE 270, D VE 271 VE 271, A, C, D VE273 VE273,A, D VE 273, B, C VE280 VE 282b VE 282b, D VE 283b VE 283b, D

927 902,927 687,927 710 684, 834, 903, 927, 953,968 701 707 916,928 712 697,736,928 689, 723, 915, 928 712 681, 695, 928 711 709 903,928 707 901,928 711 712 721, 928 928 699 928 702

VE322

929 915,929 711 710 929 709 698,834,930,9 68

VE323 VE324 VE 324, A, B, D

697,909,930

VE330 VE336 VE 336a VE 336a, D

697,909,930

VE337 VE 363 VE 368a VE 368b VE374 VE 374, A, B, D VE 374, C VE375 VE 375, D VE379 VE 379,A VE389 VE 389, D

723,930 708 939 721, 726, 845, 911, 930 709 930 672 832,930 722,915 693,930 707 710 688, 700, 913, 931 686 682, 691, 713, 906, 931 708

VE393 VE395

687' 902, 931 686 683, 720, 931 678, 689, 726, 845,

VE397

931,932 942

r · t

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

VE 399 VE399, A VE400

693· 931 693 684, 726, 834. 931 909, 931 902,931

VE403 VE406

1623 VE498

VE soo,A VE SOl

VE 409a

687, 689, 701, 728,

VE502 VE507

VE 409a, D

732,916,932 701

VE 411 VE415 VE 415, B,

c, D

VE416

696,845,903,932 915,932 712

696·734.935 720, 9n, 935 720,910,935

VE499 VESOO

693 907,935 691, 905, 935 719, 810, 935

VE509

729, 906, 935, 941 712 812

VE 509, D VE 5na-b vEsnb

812

VE 512a

8ss.9o3,936,943 725, 733. 849. 901, 936, 937, 941, 962 721, 835, 936

VE 417 VE418 VE 418, D

728,729,932 688,932

VE 515

689,804,932,959 701

VE 516

VE420

717, 845, 909, 932,

VE SI6,A, B

710

VE 517

VE 421

933 909,932

VE435 VE438 VE438, A, B

709

VE439

907,933

713, 723, 834. 932 722, 730, 915, 933

VE 517,A

721, 835, 936 710

VE 517, D, q VES20

707 709, 718, 936, 962

VE 525b, D VE526

731 687.902,936

VE454

717, 909, 933

VE530

724,936

VE457

689,732,933

VE 531a

VE 459 VE459, D VE462

697.933 702

689,723,725,849, 912,936

VES34

724,725,732,734.

681, 734. 832, 933

VE464

902,933

VE 541

833.937 834.937

VE 465

717, 832, 933

VE544

VE465, D VE 467a

710 681, 916, 933

VE 467c

684, 915, 933

VE469

722,735,841,913,934

709, 901, 937· 954. 959,964 8so

VE 544, D vE 550-552 VE550

731 731, 905, 937 718, 905, 937

VE469, A, B

839

VE 551

VE 471 VE 471, D

687, 834. 913, 934

VE552

905,937

709

VE477 VE 477, A, B, C, D

913,934 710

VE 550 VE 550,A, B VE 550, A, B, D

731, 905, 937 710

VE 478 VE482

909, 934

VE 550, D VE 551 VE 551, A, B,

VE483

719, 735. 934. 947. 965 734, 832, 906, 915,

VE 487b VE488

934 735.832,934 832,912,935

VE 552, D

703,735.832,935

VE554

802,904,937 733, 8o2, 817, 804,

VE 557

937 688,725,733.849·

VE493 VE 495a VE 49 sb VE496

VE SS2,A, D VE 552, C VESS3

910, 935, 963 910,935 698, 717, 726, 935

c, D

839 707 718, 905, 937 710,839 708 707 686

937

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1624

938 708

VE 616 VE 616, D VE 618 VE 618, C

710 700,938 709, 913, 938, 970

VE 619 VE 623 VE624

686

VE 557, b VE569 VE570 VE 570, B VE 570, D

683, 684, 938

VE 571 VE 572 VE 572,A VE 572, B VE574

709 712 6g2, 810, 8n, 907,

VE 575

938 6g2, 733, 810, 8n, 907,938 685,938,954

VE576 VE 576,A, B

710 835.913,938 6gg,833·938 721, 938

VE578 VE 581 VE582 VE582,A, D

VE 589

703 938,939 681,939 710 687, 688, 724, 905,

VE590 VE 590, A, B, C VE 590, A, B, C, D

912,939 713, 721, 907, 939 710 712

VE584 VE586 VE 586, b

VE 590, f VE 591 VE 591, A, B, VE 591, C, D

c, D

VE592 VE594 VE 594, D VE595 VE 595,A VE 595, B VE 601 VE 601, A, B, C, D VE602 VE 6o2,A, B VE 602, D VE603 VE607 VE 607, D VE610 VE 612 VE 612, A VE 612, D

709 gm, 939, 944 708 85o 804 720,833.939 708 721, gn, 939 709 711 6g6,702,904,939 709 6g6, 912, 939 710 710 804 687' 914, 940 702 810,940 687,940 708 712

727, 728, 940, 941 682 940,949 700 728, 841, 941 915, 941 68g, 725, 728, 941,

VE 627 VE 628

947 725,727,728,841,941 840 840 831 6g6, 724, 902, 941,

VE 629

942,965 712, 730, go6, 941

VE 635 VE 635, B

941 6gg

VE 637

721, 728, 841, 845, 941,

VE 626a VE 626a,A VE 626a, D

VE 640a VE 640b VE641 VE 651 VE652 VE 652,A VE656

946 728, 831, 841, 845· 941 734.735.914,941 6g6,724,902,942 731, 942, 943 695,942 712 721,942

VE 657 VE 657a VE 657a, B VE 651 vE 652, C VE 6 56

931 834,845.942 710

vE 657a vE 657a, A

834,845.942 710 6g0,720,942,943

VE 659 VE 65g,A, B VE66o VE 66o,A, B VE 660, D

731, 942, 943 712 721,942

710 6go, 910, 942 703 700

VE 665 VE 665, D VE668

687' 942, g68

VE 673a VE 673a,A VE 673b VE 673b, D VE684 VE 684,A VE 684, B, D

902, 942, 943 700 681, 902, 943 700 6g0,720,943

703 gog,g42

711 710

,

,.

1

n·

e.

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1625 VE 686

7aa,g43

VE7sa,A, D

VE6ga

ga3,g43

711

VE7S9

684,94S

VE 6g1

734,836,ga6,g43

VE76a

VE 6g1, A, B, D

7a8

VE 76a, B

683,734.833.g43. g46

7a7

VE 76a, D

686

VE 761

721, 83s. g43, gsg

VE763

VE 693 VE 7a1 VE 7m, A

711

VE 7a1, B

712

VE 7a1, D

7a7

VE7a2

687, 7a2, 723, gas, g43

VE 7a2, D

686

VE7a6 VE 7a6,A, B VE 7a6, D

687,73S.g46

683, 734. 833. g46 681, 734. 73S. 914, 946

VE 766

684, 7ag, 736, gas,

VE 766, D

710

946 VE774

724,72g,g46

VE 77S

g46

6gs, 72a, gaS, g43,

VE776

g44

67g,683,723,g46

VE777

7a7 7ag

721, 724, 72g, 73a,

VE 779

721, 91S, 14S

841, g46

VE7a7

72a,834,ga8,g44

VE 781

VE 7a7, A

7a7

683,946,g47

VE 781, A

84a

VE7a8

72g,g44

VE 781, A, B

VE 711

711

683, 810, g44. g4g

VE 781, D

VE711,D

7aa

7aa

VE782

VE 712

g47

672,726,g44.g4s

VE 782, D

7a3

VE 712, A

84a

VE 783

VE 71S

683,947

726,g44

VE787

947

VE 71S, A

84a

VE788

VE 716

ga8,947

844.g44

VE 789

68g, 72S, 728, g47.

VE7ga

731

VE 717

726, g44

VE 718

gm, g44

624,79a

VE 718, D

7a8

VE 7g1

VE 72a

736,g47.gsg

6gg, gm, 9a4, 944

VE7g2

726, 834, gn, g47

7aa 7aa

VE 79sa

84s.ga3,g47

VE8aa

721, 734, 81s, 912, 947,

VE 72a,A VE 72a, B VE 72a, D

712

VE 721

94S.967

9S7 VE 8aa, A, B,

C, D

7a3

VE 722

688, 912, 94S

VE 8m

VE 723

67g,81a,8IS,g12,g47

Gss.94s

VE 8m, D

7aa

VE 72S

719, 94S

VE8a3

VE 728b

721, 72S, 948

726,9a3,94S

VE 8a6

683, gi4, 948

7a7

VE 728b, A

7a8,84a

VE 8a6, D

VE 736

672

VE 816a

VE 74a

684.948

9aS,94S

VE 81Gb

683,g48

VE 74a,A, B

7a8

VE 817

383, 684, 726, 838,

VE 741

679.833.9as.94S

VE 741,A, B VE 741, A, B, VE 749

C

883, gu, 948

7a8 7a7

VE 8za

7a7, 914, 948

833.94S

VE 8za, A, c, i

711

VE 817,

C

7a9

VE 749, A

693

VE 8za, D

VE7sa

7a7

G84,GSs,SsG,94s

VE 821a

948,gss.gsg

~

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1626

C, 0

VE 821b

728,844.948

VE 873, A, B,

VE 822

6g5, 905, 949

VE883

VE 822,0

709 gm, 949

VE884

838,951

VE8g2

723,952

949

VE 8g2,A, B

707

949 702

677, 795> 815, 952

VE 826a, D

VE896 VE 8g6, b

VE 826b, C

703

VE900

673

VE827 VE 827, C, D

683,949

VE907 VE 907, B, C

701

VE 825 VE 826a VE 826b

707 683,951

699 683, 719, 833> 952

VE828

703 687,806,812,904,g4g

VE 82g

687, 8o6, 812, go4

VE go8, B,

VE830

702, 724, g41, g4g,

VE 911

953.954

VE g12

952

VE g12,A

VE 830, V

703 6gg

707 7oo,835,go2,g52

VE 831

812

VE 837

727, 833> 912, g4g

VE938 VE g38,A, B

VE 837, b

700,711

VE g41a

70g 6g8, 718, 902, g52,

VE 837, D, b VE 83g

707 70g,g4g,950,969

VE 941b

g53 6g8,go2,g53

VE 83g, A

70g

VEg47

go3,g53

VE 83g, D

VEg47,A

711

VE 841

710 8o2,g04,g5o,g57

VE g47, B

712

VE 841,A, B

6gg

VE g53

688,723,953

VE846

gm, g5o, g54

VE g53,A

712

VE84g

683, 6g6, 733> g50 726,833,g50

VE g53, d VEg62

712

vE85o VE 851

6g5,go5,95o

VE 962,A, B

6gg

VE83o,A

c, D

688,g52

VEgo8

C

VE 928

712 6gg,833,g52

695,833,go8,952

go8,g53,g67

711

VE g65b

6go,g53

VE 852

g50

VE g70

VE 852, B

70g

VE g72b

g53 684, 718, 834> g53

VE856 VE 856, B

6g7,g50

VE g72b, B

700

VE g73

VE857

6g7,g50

VEg7g

728,g53

VE 863

68g,6g7,72g,g16,

VE g7g,A, B

g50

VE g8o

700 812

VE864

6g5,728,732,g5o

VEg82

6g7,g53

VE 864, A, B, C, D

708

VEg84

6g5, 702, 720, 953

VE 865

g51

VEg8 5

828,g53

VE 865,A, B

700

VEg87

720,833,g54

VE 865, C, D

VE g87, A, B

VE 867

700 go2, g31

VEg8g

701 812

VE 867, A, B

702

VEggo

812

VE 870a

g51

VE gg1

691, 726, gm, 954

VE 870b

go8, 981, g69

VE9g2

87g,954

VE 87ob, ak

686

VE 992,A, B

711

VE 872

6go, gn, g51

VE 9g2, B

712

VE 873

951, 96g

VE 992, e

700

vE 851, B,

707 gog,g53

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

VE 993b VE 1000 VE 1000, C VE 1005 VE 1012a-b VE 1012a-b, A, B VE 1014 VE 1014, A VE 1016 VE 1019-1020 VE 1019-1020, A, B VE 1022 VE 1022, B VE 1025 VE 1026 VE 1026, B, d VE 1027 VE 1027,A, B VE 1027, C VE 1029 VE 1041 VE 1043 VE 1044 VE 104S VE 1049 VE 1050 VE 1057 VE 1057,A VE 1061 VE 1061, A VE 1071 VE 1071, B VE 10So VE 1093 VE 1093, A2 , B VE 10SS VE 10SS, B VE 10Sg VE 10Sg, A VE 10Sg, B VE 1093 VE l101 VE 1101, A2 , B VE noS VE noS, A2 , B VE1112 VE1n2a-b VE m2a-b, A2 , B VE lll7

831,954 720,954 6gg 903,954 6SS, 72S, 915, 954 712 954 699 909,954 6S5,954 710 S34, gu, 954, 955 703 6go, 902, 916, 955 905,955 707 720,955 707 711 Sl5 6go, S33, S35, 955 955 955 S04 So4 S33, 955, 961 6S3,727,9 55r957 711 720,956 711 691, 907, 956, g6o 711 909,956 6S9,S34,9 56 6gg 6g5, 732, 8n, gn, 956 Ggg 6g5, 734, S11, 911, 956 703 6gg

1627 VE1119 VE lUg, B VE 1121 VE 1121, A2 , B VE 1125 VE 1126 VE 112S VE 1129 VE 1130 VE 1130, A2 VE 1131 VE 1131, A2 VE 1132 VE 1132, A2 , B VE 1133 VE 1133, Az, B VE 1133, f VE 1134 VE 1134, B VE 1135 VE 1135, b VE 1135, g VE 1139 VE 1144 VE 114S VE 1151 VE 1151, A2 VE 1174b VE 1174b, B VE u6o VE 1161 VE 1165 VE 1166

6S9,S34,9 56 gn, 954 712 6S7,724,7 35r956 711 672 6go,g56

VE 1174b VE 1175 VE l176 VE n76, A2 , B VE 1177 VE 11S1 VE 11S3 VE nS4 VE 1184, A2 , B vE nS5 VE nSg

712 672

VE nSg, ak

6S3,725,9 57 712 6S3, 6g7, 733, gu, 957 702 S04 S04 6g2, 727, 907, 957, g66,g67,9 70 S31, 957 734,S33r9 02,957 709 6S4, 734· So3, S33. 904,957 703 6S4, 725, 733. S03, 904, 912, 957 701 722, S10, 912, 957 700 701 6S3, 912, 957 711, S39 683, 721, 957 701 703 SI2 6S4,95S 6S1, S10, 907, 95S 913, 95S 70S 721, 73 1, 95S 700 717, S35, 958 3S3, gu, 95S g10, 95S S4g,gog,g 5S 721, 731, 95S 95S 959 711 gm, 959 728,959 959 6gS, 721, So4, 911, 959 692,701 6S1, 736, 959 S3S,go3,9 04,959, g66,g6g 709

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

1628 VE 1189, V, ak VE 1191 VE 1199 VE 1208

699 688,724,959

VE 1210 VE 1210, A 2

959 708

VE 1211 VE1211,A2 VE 1214 VE 1214, A 2 , c VE 1214, i VE 1216 VE 1216, A 2 VE 1227' VE 1227', A 2 VE 1234' VE 1241

840

VE 1327'

678,697,727,845, 901,962

848 905,959 711 6o8, 838, 849, 901,

VE 1208, A 2

VE 1323', A 2

914,959 699> 701 691, 907,960 709 707 684,735,845,960 702 721, 902, 960 702,703 810,960

VE 1331'

908,962

VE 1331', A 2

708 726, 728, 915, 962

VE 1332' VE 1332', A 2

711

VE 1339 VE 1339'

967 728,906,962

VE 1339',Az

711 826

VE1340 VE 1340' VE 1340', A 2

728, 813, 906, 962

VE 1341'

962

VE 1341', A 2

701

VE 1342 VE 1342'

905 8o5,962

VE 1342, A 2

710

VE 1342', d

707 718, 720, 834, 835>

712

VE 1241'

723 960

VE 1245

960

VE 1245'

718,845

VE 1343', A 2

VE 1245', B

700

VE 1344'

VE 1247

VE 1344', A 2

VE 1247'

960 688, 722, 968

711 678,845,963 682

VE 1359'

685,963

VE 1247', A 2

712

VE 1365

910

VE 1253' VE 1253', A2 , B

902,960 851

VE 1365' VE 1366'

963 908,963

VE 1263'

913,960

VE 1366', A 2

701

VE 1263, A 2 , B

709 909,960

VE 1370

834 724, 913, 963

VE 1267' VE 1269 VE 1269'

724 684,833,838,908,

VE 1343'

962

VE 1370' VE 1370', A 2 , B VE 1371

711 963 690,963

912,961

VE 1371'

VE 1270'

835,838,908,961

VE 1372'

VE 1270', A2 , B

711 684,961

VE 1372', A 2 VE 1375'

912, 963, 964

961

VE 1377'

VE 1289 VE 1289'

966 69o, 815, 961

VE 1379 VE 1384'

804,964,967 812

VE 1290

904 961

VE 1384', A 2

711

VE 1386' VE 1386', A 2

689,730,964

VE1403

969 690,964

VE 1279' VE 1280'

VE 1290' VE 1290', A 2 VE 1306'

702 673, 725, 816, 906, 961

VE 1315' VE 1320

833>961 689

VE 1320'

720,733·961 685, 718, 9 61

VE 1323'

VE 1403' VE 1406'b VE 1406'b, B VE 1407'b VE 1407'c

734>963 712

720,964

712

879 703,711 902,964 718, go2, g64

INDEX OF TEXTS CITED

VE 1412'a VE 1412'a-b VE 1412'b VE 1415' VE 1417 VE 1417' VE 1439' VE 1439', Az VE 1439', b VE 1443 VE 1443' VE 1448' VE 1452' VE 1452', A2 vs 136 iv 5-6 vs 289 vs 6 188, 1ff.

vs 6 289:9 vs 10179 vs 17 34 vs 17 35 vs 17 46+49 vs 2439 vs 24 41 (see UET 1146) vs 24 75

691, 833. 964, 965 687 964 965 724,902 965 728,965 702 700 726 904,965

s31, 965 728, 732, 912, 965 701 1424 1030 1423lll02 1435ll31 1030 1030 1030 1030 1030

1629 WZKM

108,75, Nr.13

3 9

1443ll71 1443ll71

7166 3 12: 16-18 YOS 313:21-22 YOS 317:36 YOS 3172:7 YOS 3183:16 YOS 8150: 21f. YOS 10 2 YBC

1401

YOS

1451 1448 1438 1436ll38 1436 280

1014:4 YOS 1017:1

1437ll43 326m86 1012

YOS

YOS

10 24:37 31

1048

YOS 10

i23 ix 22f. ix25£ 10 43:3 YOS 10 44:48 YOS 10 56 i 17 YOS 10 63 YOS 1112:8 YOS

436 1024 1024 1012 333 70

YOS

1049 436 1030 1030 1030 168n78

WMAH

YOS

WO

YOS

15 97 21122:6

325 326 1048

YOS

21123

1436 1438

YOS

21177

1437

Weidner God List

1030 56, 1226n68, 1227, 1228,1230

176v 11 639 1319:6 540 WZJ 8, 565-566, HS 108 8-14 300 38-42 294 8, 567, HS 109: 8-16 300 8, 567-568, HS 110

WZJ WZJ

6 24 WZJ 8, 568- 56 9 , HS lll 8f. 31f. WZJ

294 294 293 334

8, 569-570, HS 112

5 27 WZJ 8, 571, HS 113: 19 ff. WZJ 8, 572, HS 114: 26f. WZJ 8, 574, HS 116:7£

YOS YOS

1135 1167

1174 13 351:1 YOS 13 426: 1-13 YOS 15 24: 11ff. YOS

ZA 75 (IB

1554)a 87 23 ii 23 ZA 87 24 vii 17 viii 2 ZA

ix4

6oo 6oo 616

ZA 101 133: 11 ZA 101139

292

4

293 342 294

5 6 8

335

1030 601

ZA 104 174,

Zipa

1409 (see BM 113929) 1412 1405 1414, 1416 1402 N 969: 9-12

342

ss