History of Indian Architecture, 2e [Second Edition] 9789354661990

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Second Edition

History of

Indian Architecture Buddhist, Jain and Hindu Period

Second Edition

History of

Indian Architecture Buddhist, Jain and Hindu Period Sharmin Khan PhD Associate Professor Department of Architecture ZHCET, AMU, Aligarh [email protected]

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Disclaimer Science and technology are constantly changing fields. New research and experience broaden the scope of information and knowledge. The authors have tried their best in giving information available to them while preparing the material for this book. Although, all efforts have been made to ensure optimum accuracy of the material, yet it is quite possible some errors might have been left uncorrected. The publisher, the printer and the authors will not be held responsible for any inadvertent errors, omissions or inaccuracies. eISBN: 978-93-546-6199-0 Copyright © Authors and Publisher Second eBook Edition: 2023 All rights reserved. No part of this eBook may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system without permission, in writing, from the authors and the publisher. Published by Satish Kumar Jain and produced by Varun Jain for CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd. Corporate Office: 204 FIE, Industrial Area, Patparganj, New Delhi-110092 Ph: +91-11-49344934; Fax: +91-11-49344935; Website: www.cbspd.com; www.eduport-global.com; E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Head Office: CBS PLAZA, 4819/XI Prahlad Street, 24 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002, India. Ph: +91-11-23289259, 23266861, 23266867; Fax: 011-23243014; Website: www.cbspd.com; E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected].

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Representatives Hyderabad Pune Nagpur Manipal Vijayawada Patna

Prologue The world around us is full of wonders. Everything that we see on earth has a reason for its existence and some story behind its making. It is very important to understand these reasons, if we are interested in how and why. This book came up as an idea to make things simple. Why should history be something which is difficult to read and understand? It is always as interesting as a person’s versatile personality. This piece of work is written in a simple language to communicate better. The events are produced in a systematic manner, which may be grasped easily in less time and be more informative. A variety of information is accumulated under one roof, be it related to religion, vastu, construction material, methodology or may be the story of a ruler. A brief about the rulers of different times is presented here, to realise that the kind of society and political situation of a country is also responsible for the architecture that is produced. If the ruler accepts any religion and patronizes it, then wonders are created. The relationship of religious beliefs and practices with the style of architecture is very important. An attempt is made here to interact with the religion in brief only to understand how it affected the building types. The special activities associated with the religion brought into picture a different set of requirements, which when approached by an architect with the mindset of providing an appropriate set of solutions, resulted in the architecture that the world can see and appreciate today. Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism are all discussed in brief together with a few examples. This book attempts to portray a

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clear picture of the three styles of ancient architecture of Hindu period: Nagara style, Vesara style and Dravida style; popularly known as North Indian, Central Indian and South Indian styles. These are clearly categorised here, together with their characteristic features, periods and rulers who patronized the temple construction. An attempt has been made to minimise confusion between styles and discuss the concerned important examples related to each style. Questions from previous years GATE papers have been included to gather fair idea about the type of questions before appearing in GATE examination. Some MCQs are also added for self-analysis and preparation. The glossary of terms is accompanied by relevant sketches for better understanding of some typical terms. Also, there are some questions answered at the end of the work to refresh oneself and check the knowledge attained after exhaustive reading. In short, it is expected to be an informative package answering all the general queries of the readers in a simple way.

Sharmin Khan

Contents

Preface to the Second Edition The simple idea of publishing a book on ancient Indian architecture was appreciated by readers and the purpose was fulfilled on receiving positive responses. It briefly covers all ages ranging from Indus, Vedic to South Indian architecture. The focus of book is in the content of introductory chapters explaining why a particular type of structure must have been constructed and with what available building material. Reading and understanding history are essential to analyse the reasons and develop our capability to logically relate to things, by exploring answers to basic questions “Why”, “What” and “How”. The subjects like history are often thought to be of less importance by young undergraduate students fraternity. But they have a great potential to develop analytical reasoning power. The geology, geography, socio-economic conditions, religious beliefs and concepts prevailing or patronized during a particular period and in a particular region, are responsible for the type of architecture that evolves. The reader should make an attempt to critically examine and correlate the events. It was also realized during couple of years that readers are using this book as ready reference for refreshing the subject before appearing in GATE examination. An attempt has been made to recollect the questions from previous years papers and present them here. Additional MCQs are also added for quick revision and self-analysis.

Sharmin Khan

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Contents

Preface to the First Edition For the last couple of years I have been through the subject of ancient Indian history of architecture. I had a strong feeling that I must contribute towards this field in my own way. My purpose through this book is to make the undergraduate students understand and grasp the thorough information that lies in the laps of history, in an easy way. This book is an outcome of the notes, observations and my understanding during the course of time, through the lectures and presentations. The aim of this book is to talk about various periods like Jain, Buddhist and Hindu periods, in the framework woven of various factors like socio-cultural, political and economical. The book reads as a serial narrating the story of one period after the other, as the series of events are systematically planned. Vocabulary is something I planned to keep as simple as possible. The explanations are not lengthy and end up in small statements. Works of many authors were referred, during the process of writing of this book and I humbly suggest the students to go through their work for in-depth information and gain more and more interest in the subject. Writing of this book was a pleasure and journey through history of India, before the advent of muslim rulers, I expect that this piece of work shall be appreciated.

Sharmin Khan

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Contents

Glimpses from the Book ‘Glimpses from the book’ aims to make the readers well aware in advance of what the chapters ahead have in store for them. A briefing of all the chapters is done here to make sure what is where. Chapter 1 highlights the various ancient periods, that history of India has witnessed, starting right from the Indus Valley civilization to the Dravidian Empire. It discusses in detail the societies that had an impact on the development of architecture, during the two most important empires, i.e. Ashoka and Guptas. The different types of structures that were constructed during the ancient Indian times, like the structural and the rock-cut structures, are explained here. Another important factor that is discussed here is the types of building materials that were available in a particular region, at that point of time, which affected the type and style of architecture that we see today. Chapter 2 covers Buddhism as a religion, its concepts, beliefs and practices. The 8-fold path followed by Buddhists is also mentioned here. There is a brief about the two sects of Buddhist followers, the Hinayana and the Mahayana and the distinct styles that they developed. The practices of the religion formed a base for the different kinds of spaces that were constructed and hence the Buddhist architecture is broadly divided into monolithic pillars, Stupas, Chaityas and Viharas. The spatial elements and their evolution are discussed for each of these structures. Chapter 3 discusses the examples of Buddhist architecture, with respect to their characteristic features. The monolithic pillars, their shaft and capital designs, the Stupa at Sanchi, Chaityas at Bedsa, Bhaja and Karle and Ajanta Caves are all discussed in brief, highlighting their important architectural features. Chapter 4 concentrates on Jainism. The religion, its philosophy and a discussion of the “24 Teerthankaras”, are the features here. A note about their understanding of the Universe is also given. The five principles that the Jains have to follow, i.e. Ahimsa, Satya,

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Asteya, Brahmacharya and Aparigraha are briefed to understand that these religious factors have made way for the type of life they lead and the style of buildings they got constructed. The two sects: Digambers and Shwetambers are also discussed here. An introduction to Jain architecture is also a part of the same chapter, explaining their usage of white marble to a great extent to create elaborate and decorative patterns on ceilings, columns, struts and brackets. Chapter 5 quotes certain examples of Jain architecture like the Rani Gumpha, Bagh Gumpha, Ellora Caves, Adinath Temple, etc. These are from both the categories of structures, the structural temples and the rock-cut caves. The important architectural characteristic features are mentioned for easy understanding. Chapter 6 elaborates on the Hinduism, the religion and philosophy only to understand the impact of rituals performed on the spatial requirements generated. The evolution of temple plan and elevation together with the discussion on the benefits of employing pyramidal form for the elevations and the vastupurush ideas to the plans of the structures are the key elements of this chapter. It also emphasizes the technological aspects of making Shikharas/towers look like what they look today. Chapter 7 is about the geography of India. The political base of division is slightly different from the architectural division, on the basis of which we designate the styles as the North Indian, Central Indian and South Indian styles. Important architectural features that distinguish one style from the other are discussed in detail for ease of recognition. The design principles of Gopurams and their categories are worth mentioning here. Some of the important terms associated with the temple plan and elevation are explained here, in short for better understanding. Finally, the temples of ancient India are listed on the basis of the regions with the rulers who extended patronage and the time period associated with each example. Chapters 8–10 take one on the adventurous tour to the examples of the three different styles, i.e. North, Central and the South Indian styles, respectively. The important examples of the three periods/regions are discussed here with respect to their architectural features, together with the relevant sketches.

The new edition has additional information in the form of MCQs for GATE preparation.

Sharmin Khan

Contents

Acknowledgements I sincerely thank God Almighty for blessing me with opportunity to accomplish the task of working on second edition of the book. However, this piece of work would have been difficult without the kind support and help of many individuals and my publisher. I am highly indebted to Ar Sanjeev Maheshwari and Ar Rajeev Garg who very kindly permitted me to refer to and take help from the illustrations of their book Ancient Indian Architecture From Blossom to Bloom . I would also like to extend my gratitude to Md Iftekhar Alam Ansari, M Ismayil CP, Sufiyan Ahmad and Ar Imran Agha who helped me in the preparation of the illustrations for supporting the text in the book.* I heartily thank the CBS Publishers & Distributors for publishing this book. I thank Mr YN Arjuna (Vice President— Publishing, Editorial and Publicity), CBS Publishers & Distributors, for his valuable and timely suggestions that helped me improve my work. Finally, yet importantly, I express my heartful thanks to my family for their blessings and my students and colleagues for their best wishes.

Sharmin Khan *Sketch Credits Ar Imran Agha, Guest Faculty, University Polytechnic, AMU, Aligarh Page 15, 18, 20, 21, 22, 28, 30, 32, 33, 43, 49, 69, 85, 86, 89 (bottom), 90, 91 (top),107, 109 (top), Glossary.

Mr Md Iftekhar Alam Ansari, Student MFA (Final year), AMU, Aligarh Page 17, 60, 61, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 72, 75, 76, 78, 79, 83 (bottom), 87, 89 (top), 96, 99, 100, 101, 105.

Mr M Ismayil CP, Student, B.Arch (III year), AMU, Aligarh Page 53, 54, 98, 103, 109 (bottom)

Mr Sufiyan Ahmad, Student, B.Arch.(III year), AMU, Aligarh Page 82, 83 (top), 91 (bottom)

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Contents

Contents Prologue Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition Glimpses from the Book List of Figures and Tables

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1. The Story of India Begins

1

The Great Civilizations 1 The Northern Empires 2 Ashokan Empire 2 The Gupta Empire 3 The Central and the Southern Empires 4 The Early Structures 5 Impact of Available Building Materials 6

Part A THE STORY OF BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE 2. Buddhism and its Spaces

11

Religion and its Philosophy 11 Spatial Requirements 12 Introduction to Buddhist Architecture (300 BC–320 AD) 13 Stupa 13 Chaitya 14 Vihara 14

3. Examples of Buddhist Architecture Monolithic Pillars 16 Stupas 17 Stupa at Sanchi 17 Chaityas 19 Chaitya at Bhaja 19

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Part B THE STORY OF JAIN ARCHITECTURE 4. Jainism and its Spaces

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Religion and its Philosophy 27 The Jain Belief 27 Introduction to Jain Architecture 28

5. Examples of Jain Architecture

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Rani Gumpha 30 Bagh Gumpha/Tiger Cave 30 Ellora Caves (6th–13th Century AD) 31 Chota Kailash (Cave No. 30) 31 Indrasabha (Cave No. 32) 31 Jagannath Sabha 32 Dilwara Temples (11th–13th Century AD) 32 Adinath Temple (15th Century AD) 33

PART C THE STORY OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 6. Hinduism and its Spaces

37

Religion and its Philosophy 37 The Belief 37 Comparative Analysis of Spatial Requirements 38 Spatial Arrangements in Temple 40 Evolution of Plan and Elevation 41 Concept of Vastu-Shastra and Pyramidal Form 42 Vastu-Shastra 42 Pyramidal Form 45 Technological Aspects Involved in Temple Construction 46

7. The 3 Styles: Nagara, Vesara and Dravida Geographical Division 47 Important Characteristic Features 48 Nagara/North Indian Style 48 Dravidian/South Indian Style 50

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Contents Vesara/Deccan/Central Indian Style 52 Important Terminology 55 List of Temples 55 Nagara/North Indian Style Temples 56 Vesara/Central Indian Style Temples 57 Dravidian/South Indian Style Temples 58

8. Examples of Nagara/North Indian Style

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Temple at Bheetergaon (5th Century) 59 Temple 17 (5th Century) 59 Dashavatara Temple (6th Century) 61 Orissan Temples (7th–14th Century) 62 Parasurameswara Temple (7th Century) 64 Vaital Deul Temple (8th Century) 64 Sun Temple (13th Century) 65 Mukteswar Temple (10th Century) 68 Lingaraja Temple (10th–11th Century) 69 Jagannath Temple (12th Century) 71 Teli ka Mandir (8th Century) 71 Ambikamata Temple (10th Century) 73 Khajuraho Group of Temples (10th–11th Century) 74 Kendariya Mahadev Temple (10th Century) 76 Sas Bahu Temple (11th Century) 77 Surya Temple (11th Century) 78 Udayeshwara Temple (11th Century) 80

9. Examples of Vesara/Central Indian Style Badami Caves (6th–7th Century) 81 Elephanta Cave (6th Century) 82 Ellora Caves (6th Century) 83 Cave 19: Dasavatar 84 Cave 21: Rameshwara Cave 85 Cave 29: Dhumar Lena 86 Kailasha Temple (8th Century) 87 Durga Temple (8th Century) 88 Lad Khan Temple (7th–8th Century) 90 Papanatha Temple (8th Century) 92 Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna Temple 92 Sangameshwara Temple (7th Century) 93 Huchchimalligudi Temple (5th–8th Century) 94

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History of Indian Architecture Hoysaleshwara Temple (12th Century) 94 Channakeshava Temple (12th Century) 95

10. Examples of Dravida /South Indian Style

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Seven Rathas/Chariots (7th Century) 97 Dharamaraja Ratha 97 Bheem Ratha 98 Nakula and Sehdeva Ratha 99 Ganesha Ratha 99 Arjun and Draupadi Ratha 100 Vaikunth Perumal Temple (7th Century) 101 Shore Temple (8th Century) 102 Nageshvara Temple (9th Century) 103 Rameswaram/Ramnathswamy Temple (12th Century) 104 Tiruvarur/Sri Thyagaraja Temple (13th Century) 105 Kailashnath Temple (8th Century) 105 Airavatesvara Temple (12th Century) 106 Brihadeshvara Temple (11th Century) 107 Chidambaram Complex (12th Century) 109

Refresh through Questions

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Questions from GATE Papers (2008–2020)

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Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) Revision

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Glossary

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Bibliography

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References from Internet

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Index

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Contents

List of Figures and Tables

Fig. 1.1

Different types of structures in ancient India

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Fig. 1.2

Caves for Jain and buddhism believers

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Fig. 2.1

Structures during Buddhist period

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Fig. 2.2

The two sects of Buddhist followers

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Fig. 2.3

Rock cut Viharas of Buddhist monks

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Fig. 3.1

The capital with 4 lions and inverted lotus and animals

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Fig. 3.2

The Stupa at Sanchi with Torana

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Fig. 3.3

Interior view of Chaityagrih showing the columns, the Stupa and the ribbed ceiling

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Fig. 3.4

Section of Karle showing the barrel vault roof

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Fig. 3.5

Plan of Chaityagrih with an apsidal end

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Fig. 3.6

Plan of Ajanta Caves horse-shoe shaped

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Fig. 4.1

Struts in Jain temple

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Fig. 5.1

View of Bagh cave

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Fig. 5.2

Inverted ceiling plan of Jain temple

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Fig. 5.3

View of Adinath Temple showing various Shikharas

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Fig. 6.1

The Vastu-Purush

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Fig. 7.1

Three types of North Indian Shikhara

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Fig. 7.2

Gopuram with straight tapering/pyramidal profile

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Fig. 7.3

Gopuram with curved or concave profile

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Table 7.1 List of NI temples

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Table 7.2 List of CI temples

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Table 7.3 List of SI temples

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Fig. 8.1

Simple trabeated structure of Temple 17

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Fig. 8.2

The recessed entrance to the Dashavatara Temple

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Fig. 8.3

The 3 tiered roof of the Sun Temple

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History of Indian Architecture Fig. 8.4

The wheel at the base of the Sun Temple

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Fig. 8.5

The sculptural work at the Sun Temple

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Fig. 8.6

Richly carved Torana at the entrance of Mukteswar Temple

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Fig. 8.7

The plan showing all the 4 structures lying on the same axis

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Fig. 8.8

Shikhara of Lingaraja Temple

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Fig. 8.9

The profile of Teli Ka Mandir

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Fig. 8.10

The Shikhara profile of the Khajuraho Temples

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Fig. 8.11

The roof profile at various levels of the Kendariya Mahadev Temple

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Fig. 8.12

The Great Sas Bahu Temple with tiered roof and bold columns

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Fig. 8.13

The arched entrance gateway to Surya Temple

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Fig. 9.1

The caves carved out of living rock at Badami

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Fig. 9.2

The pillar at the Elephanta cave

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Fig. 9.3

The Trimurti of Lord Shiva at Elephanta cave

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Fig. 9.4

Plan of Rameshwara cave showing the Pradakshina Path around the Garbhagriha

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Fig. 9.5

The cruciform plan of Dhumarlena cave

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Fig. 9.6

The monolithic pillar of Kailasha Temple

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Fig. 9.7

The apsidal end of the Durga Temple with an incomplete Shikhara

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Fig. 9.8

Plan of Durga Temple showing Garbhagriha at the apsidal end

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Fig. 9.9

Square plan of Lad Khan Temple

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Fig. 9.10

Section of Lad Khan Temple showing temple profile

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Fig. 9.11

The roof profile of Lad Khan Temple

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Fig. 9.12

View of Channakeshava Temple highlighting the entrance with the small Shikharas

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Fig. 10.1

The pyramidal profile of roof with a Stupi on the top

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Fig. 10.2

Profile similar to Bheem Ratha

Fig. 10.3

Draupadi Ratha with a typical sloping roof having floral patterns at the edges

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Fig. 10.4

Lion carved on the pillars of the Vaikunth Perumal Temple complex

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Fig. 10.5

Similar profile of the two structures at the Shore Temple

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Fig. 10.6

Plan showing the complex enclosure with the temple structure at Kailashnath Temple

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Fig. 10.7

The plan of Brihadeshvara Temple complex

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Fig. 10.8

The richly carved Brihadeshvara Temple

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The Story of India Begins

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1 The Story of India Begins THE GREAT CIVILIZATIONS The history of civilizations in India is believed to have started around 4000 years back with the advent of Indus Valley civilization in north-western parts of the then Indian subcontinent. It was a rich civilization and laid the foundation for generations to come by their efficient city planning systems. The grid-iron pattern for the planning of cities is still a lesson to learn and follow. The well-planned drainage system is the best known in history. The Indus buildings were generally constructed with sun-dried and sometimes kiln burnt bricks. Indus valley civilization has many examples of civil planning including houses, markets, offices, public baths, etc. all planned in gridiron pattern. There were some statuettes also built-in steatite and limestone. Other archeological remains can be listed as square steatite seals having animal rendering, storage jars made up of ceramic, toys having wheels, figurines, weapons of bronze, and sculptures. One of the significant remains found in Mohenjo-daro has a symmetrical arrangement of rooms around a courtyard. Some fire altars can also be witnessed at Lothal site. The Indus people were followed by the “Vedic Civilization” or the “Classic Civilization” of Aryans in 1500 BC. They were excellent at military forces. The society was broadly divided into 4 groups, based on the works they performed. These categories were Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The religious activities involved yogas and mantras chanting. Perhaps this generated open spaces in their residences also. The buildings of Aryans introduced the trabeated method of construction. The Aryans also gave the 1

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concept of “Vastu-Shastra”, which is adopted as the general criteria for spatial placement of different activities in the building even today. The focus during Vedic period was on residential buildings, as is witnessed through Rigveda. The commonly adopted terms were “grama” for settled space, “pur” for a fort or high tower, and “griha” for residence. “Griha” was adopted for family or joint family, whereas “grama” is a group of grihas. Various other terms are also used for “griha”, such as, griham, sadas, harmyam, Chaya, etc. indicating that each had a different style and size as well. The residential units had an open-to-sky courtyard in the center position, that is very similar to the concept of VaastuPurush Mandala. These plans range from an ordinary house to mansions having multiple rooms. There were provisions for animals also in some of the huge houses. Another important term is “prasada”, i.e. palace having thousand doors and pillars. “Vasospati” is the god presiding over each residential unit. The period has also witnessed the 4 Vedas: Rigveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda and Samaveda, which later paved way for Hinduism. The buildings dedicated to both these civilizations were constructed with perishable materials, because of which no evidence of the structures exists today. The information collected from archeological excavations has been translated into words.

THE NORTHERN EMPIRES Ashokan Empire The 4th century BC was the advent of bureaucracy and an efficient Ashokan Empire. In 321 BC Chandragupta Maurya conquered Magadha, with Patliputra as its capital. His son Bindusara made efforts and later on, his grandson Ashoka established an all India empire. Kautilya’s Arthshastra has records stating the codes and laws regarding land revenue and taxation. Some of the important features of the empire were: • Agrarian economy. • Tax generated by land revenue. Tax was also to be paid for any job.

The Story of India Begins

• Well-paid officers (this helped in maintaining an efficient army). • Ashoka established a vast empire which means good network of roads was required to connect the capital city Patliputra to various parts. The Ashokan empire declined in 185 BC, i.e. 50 years after his death. Various reasons attributed to this decline such as weak army (because of Buddhist influence of non-violence), weak followers or successors, pressure on the agriculture for tax payment, etc. By this time the artisans and merchants were well established because of the trade routes and gradually gained so much strength that they could give threats to the officials. At the same time two religions, namely Buddhism and Jainism were also increasing their followers in numbers. The Gupta Empire Guptas were a family of wealthy landowners, established in Magadha. Fortunately Chandragupta (319 AD) married the Licchvi princess and gained importance. He was titled “Maharajadhiraj”—“Great King of Kings” and seated the throne of Magadha. He was followed by Samudragupta, Vikramaditya, Kumargupta and Skandagupta (467AD). The Guptas strengthened their empires by extending their personal relationships with other states. The art, architecture and performing arts reached its peak during their reign. There were musicians, artisans, sculptors, poets, philosophers whose work received the patronage of king. Their rule marked the beginning of a new trend, a new style and patronage and establishment of structures for the emerging religious beliefs of Hinduism. Perhaps this is why Gupta period is called “The Golden Age”. Important features of the Gupta empire that had sociological impact on the development of religion are worth mentioning. • The king was the most important but there were representatives of local people. Business with Malaysia, Southeast Asia, Cambodia and Thailand brought wealth and prosperity to the merchants. Spices, pearls, stones, perfumes, herbs, textiles, etc. were all exported. Some of

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•

•

• •

•

the wealth was also donated to the Buddhists which resulted in splendid caves at Ajanta during the reign of Guptas. Hinduism received patronage of the ruler and started growing both in number of followers as well as structures (starting from small shrines to huge massive structures). Literature was given due importance and important works like Ramayana and Mahabharata were turned into sacred works which perhaps led to more of idol worship and need of structures to house the Gods and Goddesses. Arithmetic and astronomy were emerging as skills and craftsmen displayed their work both in stone and iron. Brahmans became more important with the event of growth in Hinduism and were supposed to perform all the important rituals and functions in the temple. Shudras as they were the lower caste were underprivileged sections of the society. This discrimination in the society led to the concept of planning of cities to great extent. The best part of city was allotted for the important structures, palaces and temples. People had freedom to enjoy poetry, sculpting, music, etc.

By the end of 5th century AD, the Gupta power came to cease with the regular invasions from northwest and the empire broke up into small kingdoms, who were trying to prove their existence and resist the attacks. Finally, it all ended up, forcing the population to move towards south, in search of establishment. Small powers came up for short periods like the Palas in Bihar and Bengal, the Gurjara-Pratiharas in Malwa and Rajasthan.

THE CENTRAL AND THE SOUTHERN EMPIRES Among the important rulers in the Deccan are the Chalukyans, who came to power in the middle of 6–8th century AD. The Chalukyans were then overthrown by the Rashtrakutas, towards the end of 8th century AD. Some of the finest examples of Deccan architecture are credited to the Chalukyans. Hoysalas also came into power but for a short period in the 12th century

The Story of India Begins

AD. They added to the planning concepts of the temple planning. The star-shaped plans or the stellate plans are a gift of this period only. Elaborate ornamentation and carving was done on the temples. The Tamil regions or the Dravidadesh were first controlled by the Pallavas in 6th century AD. Some historians date back this period to 3rd century also. The Pallavas also had to face revolts from time to time and finally gave way to Cholas in around 9th century AD. The Cholas were great admirers of art and architecture and patronized it. The Cholas had a better and more stable kingdom, under the reign of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I, perhaps because of which they could devote to the magnificent and splendid temples. Cholas expanded their empire and conquered Ceylon also. But the successors weakened and the power slowly ceased. They were replaced in the 13th century, by Pandyas, having their capital at Madurai. The Pandyas ruled for a short period and were occupied by Vijayanagar dynasty during 14th century. The empire of Vijayanagar also fell in the 15th century AD, after being defeated by Sultan rulers.

THE EARLY STRUCTURES The early structures that were built during the empires were permanent in nature and long lasting. Because of this reason, the remains of the same can be witnessed today and studied to explore the architecture of ancient India. The terms structural and non-structural have been used to explain the two different types of structures. Structural buildings mean the man-made structures, which were created to house people, by putting or assembling the rocks/boulders or even bricks. Non-structural does not mean that the structures were not transferring load like those of partition walls in the present day context. Here, it simply means that they were produced from the natural living mountain cliffs, which were strong enough to house people, even if the rock beneath it is taken away. In the category of permanent structures, the earlier ones were caves. These caves come under the category of nonstructural or rock-cut structures. These were created for the people of all three religions, viz. Buddhist, Jain and Hindus

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Fig. 1.1: Different types of structures in ancient India

during different time periods. The Buddhist and Jain caves were used for all purposes like living and praying, whereas the Hindu caves appear to be employed purely for religious purpose, i.e. praying only. The creation of these rock-cut structures is possible only because the religion received the patronage of the rulers of different ages. The artisans and workers were employed from time to time to work on these mountains and create wonders.

IMPACT OF AVAILABLE BUILDING MATERIALS The availability of building material plays a vital role in creating a particular type of structure which becomes style of the region with the passage of time. In areas where stone was not available, the artisans worked in brick which was available in plenty, as in Bengal. The availability of hard natural living rocks helped them to create caves with internal spaces to live in, as they were not worried about the strength of the structure, like the Elephanta Caves, Udayagiri Caves, etc. The availability of hard granite stopped the Pallava artisans to produce fine detailing work. The soft stone available with the

The Story of India Begins

Fig. 1.2: Caves for Jain and Buddhism believers

Hoysala architects helped them to produce the intricately carved beautiful structures. Hence, the beauty that is glorified today was a natural outcome of the available building resources with the artisans and workers of a particular region, which is a result of the geological factors.

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The Stor y of Buddhist Architecture

Buddhism and its Spaces

11

2 Buddhism and its Spaces RELIGION AND ITS PHILOSOPHY Buddha (563–483 BC), the Indian philosopher and the founder of Buddhism, was born in Lumbini, Nepal. His original name was Siddhartha and he was a prince, who went in search of the ultimate truth and became “the enlightened one”. His teachings are based on 4 noble truths: There is suffering, There is a cause to suffering, There is an end to suffering, There is a path out of suffering. 1. 2. 3. 4.

The Reality of Suffering—dukkha. The Cause of Suffering—samudaya. The Cessation of Suffering—nirodha. The Path to the Cessation of Suffering — magga (8-fold path).

In brief, the eight elements of the path/8-fold path are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Correct view. Correct intention. Correct speech. Correct action. Correct livelihood. Correct effort. Correct mindfulness. Correct concentration.

Meditation is the core and heart of the Buddhist way to find truth. It helps one to realise oneself, come out of negative mental status and fill up the mind with positive and peaceful ideas. The religion initially did not involve making of figures or idols but gradually with the passage of time, the followers 11

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started making sculptural representations of Buddha. There are 2 sects of Buddhist followers: (a) Hinayana—2nd century BC–2nd century AD. (b) Mahayana—3rd century AD–7th century AD.

SPATIAL REQUIREMENTS The rules of religion paved the base for the kind of practices that generally had demand for a different and new kind of spaces or buildings. The monks left material things and lived away from the busy streets of the city, in search of oneself. The need for permanent and safe structures away from the cities carried them towards the small mountain cliffs on the outskirts of the settlements. They had to earn their living by begging, which means that they lived not too far from the cities. The rock cut units in these mountain cliffs became the residential units for these monks. The religious practices included chanting and meditation. The chanting could be in isolation or groups. The desire was for a space larger in volume to hold large number of people at a time, perhaps which gave way to the construction of large assembly halls. These halls were created by scooping out rock from naturally existing mountain cliffs, and were used for large congregations. The relics of Buddha were sacred and needed preservation. Perhaps the best method assumed for this purpose was burial. Hence, these relics were buried under the mounds (elevated from the ground). These gradually developed as the pilgrimage sites for the Buddhist followers. The believers circumambulate the sacred mounds, during the visit to such mounds. Mound was perhaps the obvious choice, being a stable form. The mass is gradually decreasing, as the height is increasing, thus making it more stable. The sloping hemispherical form makes it earthquake resistant also. Thus, it can be summarized that the Buddhist religion gave birth to an altogether new requirement and category of spaces. Buddhist architecture is a rock-cut architecture, as most of the spaces are created by scooping out material from the living rock, and creating internal spaces.

Buddhism and its Spaces 13

INTRODUCTION TO BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE (300 BC–320 AD) Buddhist architecture is a term used to define special kind of buildings/monuments/structures, those were constructed during the period when Buddhism was practiced and received patronage of many rulers, during different periods.

Fig. 2.1: Structures during Buddhist period

The two sects of Buddhist followers, gradually developed their own style, for the representation of Buddha.

Fig. 2.2: The two sects of Buddhist followers

Stupa Stupa is a term applied to the burial mounds, where the relics of Buddha are preserved. They were initially constructed as small hemispherical mounds, in brick masonry. Perhaps the early deterioration started because of the use of perishable material like unburnt bricks. These were of size 16” × 10” × 3”. The mound was finally covered with thick layer of plaster. Later renovations and modifications exchanged the wood with stone, for preservation and easy maintenance. Some common terms associated with the Stupa are: • Anda or egg—the hemispherical mound. • Parasol—umbrella on the top of the mound, as a symbol of dignity.

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• Pradakshinapath—circumambulation path for processional passage or individual movement around the stupa. • Vedica—wooden railing enclosing the monument. Chaitya Chaityas are the halls of worship for large congregations. The need for large space in these lonely areas for some religious purposes like chanting or circumambulation, etc. in groups, brought into picture the “Chaityas” or “Prayer halls” or “Assembly halls”. Various remains have proved that these chaityas were carved out spaces in various shapes like rectangular, circular and elongated with apsidal end. The roof of these halls was that of barrel vault in section. A small representational Stupa is also evident in some cases, at the end of these halls, perhaps for the purpose of circumambulation around it. The columns are also created out in these halls by carving them out from this living rock. The various components appeared to be participating in structural exercise, although that was not the case. These members were not actually transferring loads, or in other words, they were non-structural members. The artisans were used to work on wood and were familiar in detail with those techniques of construction in wooden joints. They had been constructing in trabeated style. Hence the features of trabeated style are copied on the facade of the rock by the artisans and the workmen. The fantasy and the admiration for arches cannot be ignored and denied because of the fact that they have been carved very well on the facade of these rock cut caves. Although structural application or construction of true arch is not evident, unless an attempt was made at the temple at Bheetergaon. Vihara Viharas are monasteries or dwellings of monks. These can be witnessed as rock cut caves, created for living purposes. Viharas are spread over large areas. Generally a good number of caves are grouped together. These groups have combination of Viharas and Chaityas. Viharas for living and Chaityas for

Buddhism and its Spaces 15

Fig. 2.3: Rock cut viharas of Buddhist monks

praying together by these monks, as per their decided schedule. The Viharas are simple chambers cut into the living rock, with finished smooth in surface. The chambers were generally square, arranged around a courtyard or a pillared hall. The pillars were simply carved out of stone and were not participating in actual load transfer.

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3 Examples of Buddhist Architecture MONOLITHIC PILLARS Originally there were around 30 pillars, of which only 10 exists. They are generally associated with the Buddhist sites, having edicts inscribed on them. Perhaps it was discovered as the most permanent and long-lasting method for preservation and transfer of information, to future generations. These pillars show some Greek influence also in their designs. The most remarkable feature of these pillars is their shiny smooth surface, produced by excellent workmanship. Chinese traveller Fa Hien describes this finish as “shining bright as glass”. Locations: Kolhua (Bakhra), Laurya Nandangarh, Rampurva, Sanchi, Laurya Araraj.

Important Characteristics The architectural composition of monolithic pillars is remarkable and cannot be left unnoticed. It consists of two pieces joined together, by means of a barrel-shaped copper bolt. The total height is about 50’.

The Shaft • The shaft has plain surface without any ornamentation, with finished smooth as if polished, perhaps for writing on them. • It is circular in plan and 30’–40’ high. • There is no base at the ground level (the shaft starts right from the ground), and tapers upwards (reduces in diameter) to 2’ diameter at the top. 16

Examples of Buddhist Architecture 17

The Capital and the Superstructure • These are the most ornamented parts of the column, both carved in a single piece of stone. • The capital has an abacus and a large carved Buddhist symbol attaining a total height of around 7’ (the capital and the superstructure). • The capital has a diameter of 3’ and it consists of fluted petals, in the shape of bell or inverted lotus. • The superstructure consists of figures of animals having mythological significance, carved on the base pedestal. For example: At Sarnath, the carved animals are as follows: • Elephant-Guardian of the East. • Horse-Guardian of the South. • Bull-Guardian of the West. • Lion-Guardian of the North.

Fig. 3.1: The capital with 4 lions and The capital having 4 lions seated back to back and inverted lotus and supporting a giant wheel (which no longer exists) and was animals

later constituted as the national emblem.

STUPAS Stupa at Sanchi • Location: Sanchi (Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh). • Patron: Mauryas, Shunghas and Satavahanas. The credit for the original Stupa at Sanchi and a monolithic pillar goes to Ashoka, the Mauryan ruler. During the period of Shunghas, the Stupa was enlarged in size and preserved with stone cladding. The Vedicas and the stairways were also added. Satavahana rulers later added the Toranas to the Stupa.

Important Characteristics • The original Stupa was constructed in brick having 70’ diameter and 35’ height. • The diameter of the final form of Stupa, finished in stone, is 120’ and height is 54’. • There is ambulatory passage at 2 levels: One at the ground level and second at an elevated level approached by 2 flights of steps in the southern direction, facing each other.

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• These passages are guarded by railings at both the levels. • The ambulatory path at the ground level has 4 toranas/ doorways facing 4 directions. • The Vedica/railing constitutes vertical members (Stambha) and horizontal members (Soochi). These are made in mortice and tenon joints in stone. The railing is topped by coping. There is carving at certain locations in this Vedica. The inscriptions on the stone suggest that various pieces of the Vedica and Torana have been donated and devoted by various rulers. • A Hermica (cubical casing), surrounded by Vedica is placed on the top of dome. • In the centre of the Hermica is a canopy in 3 tiers. • Toranas comprise 2 vertical posts/uprights and 3 horizontal bands on the top, at regular interval and with spiral curves carved at the free ends.

Fig. 3.2: The Stupa at Sanchi with Torana

Examples of Buddhist Architecture 19

• Each of the 4 Toranas is carved differently and on the top of each square column there are animal figures. The carving on Toranas includes the Dharmachakra, Triratna, i.e. Buddha, Dharma, Sangha, etc. The relief work on the facade of Toranas includes stories or Jatakas related to the life of Buddha, from his birth to enlightenment and many more. The various forms of life, the seated Buddha under the tree, etc. are all carved elaborately and beautifully. Besides this there are other scenes like Buddhas vacant throne, Stupas being worshipped and various couples. The cheerful couple of Yaksha and Yakshi are also evident on the Toranas as brackets.

CHAITYAS Chaitya at Bhaja Location: Bhaja, Mumbai, Maharashtra.

Important Characteristics • It is an excellent work of architecture. • The entrance to the hall is decorated with timber. • The plan is 55’ × 26’. • There is a 2’6” wide passage on both sides in plan. • Columns of the hall are 11’ high. • Height of the hall is 29’ from the floor level. • There is a small Stupa built in stone with wooden Vedicas all around, inside the hall. There is also a small Vedica at the top of Stupa. Bedsa Chaityagrih Location: Bedsa, Mumbai, Maharashtra.

Important Characteristics • • • •

It is a small Chaityagrih, made in stone. The plan is 45’ 6” × 21’. Roof is barrel vault in section. Entrance to Chaitya is carved on the facade with horizontal bands and Gavaksha windows one above the other.

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• 2 pillars one on each side are carved, having elephant and horse capital. • Horseshoe-shaped windows are also carved in the interiors. Karle Chaityagrih Location: Karle, Mumbai, Maharashtra. It is supposed to be the best and the most beautiful Chaityas in India.

Important Characteristics • The entrance facade is double storied resting on columns. • There is a projected musical hall made in timber, in the center of the hall.

Fig. 3.3: Interior view of Chaityagrih showing the columns, the Stupa and the ribbed ceiling

Examples of Buddhist Architecture 21

• The plan is 124’ × 45’ 6”, including the side galleries (separated by pillars). • The height of chaitya is 45’. The roof is barrel vault in section, with ribs carved on the ceiling as shown in Fig. 3.4. • The Chaitya has an apsidal end having 7 columns surrounding a small Stupa as shown in Fig. 3.5. Perhaps this stupa was used for circumambulation around it. It is ornamented with a Chattri on top. • There are 15 columns on both the sides and 7 in the rear, making a total of 37 columns.

Fig. 3.4: Section of Karle showing the barrel vault roof

Fig. 3.5: Plan of Chaityagrih with an apsidal end

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• The shaft of column is octagonal and resting on pedestal and a square base. • The columns with inverted pots, appear to be supporting the capitals. These have elephants with seated couples carved on them, all carved on the stone.

VIHARAS Ajanta Caves There are 29 caves in this group and they lie on a horseshoeshaped valley as shown in Fig. 3.6. There are caves dedicated to Buddhism that date back from 2nd century BC–7th century AD. The caves belong to the 2 styles; Hinayana style (2nd century BC to 2nd century AD) and Mahayana style (4th century AD to 7th century AD). The glorious work of art and architecture, the frescoes and paintings, etc. can be credited to the Golden age of Guptas, when this art was at its peak and received full patronage of the Gupta rulers. Location: Near Aurangabad, Maharashtra. Out of 29 caves: Number of Viharas–25, Number of Chaityas–04

Fig. 3.6: Horseshoe-shaped plan of Ajanta Caves

Examples of Buddhist Architecture 23

Important Caves • Cave number 07—Vihara having 17 chambers, all set around a rectangular hall. • Cave number 12—It is the oldest Vihara. The hall is a square of 38’, having columns carved on both the sides. There are 4 chambers on each of the three sides of this hall.

B The Stor y of Jain Architecture

Jainism and its Spaces 27

4 Jainism and its Spaces Jainism and its Spaces RELIGION AND ITS PHILOSOPHY Jainism is believed to be an ancient religion and Lord Mahavira (599–527 BC) is the last of 24 Tirthankaras. It is a religion based on the concept of non-violence for all. A person who has conquered the process of rebirth, becomes the “Jina”. Jains believe that individuals have to make efforts for release and no one else can do this for them. THE JAIN BELIEF The universe exists as a series of layers, both heavens and hells. It had no beginning and will have no ending. According to the belief, the universe consists of: 1. The supreme abode: This is located at the top of the universe where Siddha, the liberated souls, live. 2. The upper world: 30 heavens where celestial beings live. 3. Middle world: The earth and the rest of the universe. 4. Nether world: 7 hells with various levels of misery and punishments. 5. The Nigoda, or base: Where the lowest forms of life reside. 6. Universe space: Layers of clouds which surround the upper world. 7. Space beyond: An infinite volume without soul, matter, time, medium of motion or medium of rest. Everyone is bound within the universe by one’s Karma (the accumulated good and evil that one has done). They are expected to follow five principles of living: • Ahimsa: ’Non-violence in all parts of a person — mental, verbal and physical.’ Committing an act of violence 27

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• • • •

against human, animal, or even vegetable generates negative Karma which in turn adversely affects one’s next life. Satya: Speaking truth, avoiding falsehood. Asteya: Do not steal from others or avoidance of stealing. Brahmacharya: (Soul conduct); remaining sexually monogamous to one’s spouse only. Aparigraha: Detach from people, places and material things. Avoiding the collection of excessive material possessions, abstaining from over-indulgence, restricting one’s needs, etc.

There are two sects of Jain followers, on the basis of difference of opinion and thoughts: Shwetambers: The “White clad” saints. Digambars: The “Sky clad” saints. However, it is difficult to say that these sects affected or influenced the style of architecture.

INTRODUCTION TO JAIN ARCHITECTURE The Jain structures were slightly different from those of others as they own beautiful, extraordinary carving details, sculptural work and ornamentation. The structures, that can be framed as examples of Jain architecture, are caves having chambers and halls. Later,

Fig. 4.1: Struts in Jain Temple

Jainism and its Spaces 29

temples were also constructed, having sculptural work and ornamentation. The assembly halls have pillars on square plan and octagonal ceilings. Bracket capitals and raking struts (Fig. 4.1) are typical characteristics of these temples. The temples are generally constructed in marble. Jain temples have elaborately carved flat/corbelled domes, full of foliage patterns, made in stone. Mahavira and all other saints/Tirthankaras are worshipped in some form or the other, may be in the form of animal associated with them. The Khandagiri and Udayagiri hills in Bhubaneswar are evident of some of these caves.

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5 Examples of Jain Architecture RANI GUMPHA • Location: Udayagiri caves, Bhubaneswar, Odisha. • Patron: Shungha-Satavahanas.

Important Characteristics • It is the largest cave of its group, having 2 floors of 8’ height. • There are chambers on 3 sides of a courtyard.

BAGH GUMPHA/TIGER CAVE • Location: Udayagiri caves, Bhubaneswar, Odisha. • Patron: Shungha-Satavahanas.

Important Characteristics • Its facade represents head of a tiger with open jaws. • The entrance has doors and pilasters having stepped pedestal and capitals.

Fig. 5.1: View of Bagh cave 30

Examples of Jain Architecture 31

• The capitals are carved elaborately with elephants seated back to back on a stepped abacus. • The abacus is accompanied by a bell-shaped lotus below it.

ELLORA CAVES (6TH–13TH CENTURY AD) • Location: Near Aurangabad, Maharashtra. • Patron: Gupta and Rashtrakuta rulers. These are dedicated to all the three religious beliefs: Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism as follows: • Buddhism (Cave no. 1–12). • Brahmanical order (Cave no. 13–29). • Jainism (Cave no. 30–34)–9th century AD. Three important temples of this category are: Chota Kailash, Indrasabha and Jagannath Sabha. Chota Kailash (Cave No. 30) • It is the miniaturized version of Kailash Temple at the same site. Indrasabha (Cave No. 32) • It is a two storied structure and is said to be the masterpiece of Jain caves. • The three sides of the central quadrangle are carved over to produce two storied facade containing series of shrines of Jain saints like Mahavira, Parshwanath, Bahubali, etc. • An internal passage is provided to connect it with the other caves, i.e. cave 33 and cave 34. • The courtyard witnesses an elephant standing on a pedestal and a free standing column carved on the site. This column stands like those of Ashokan period. • The hypostyle hall on the two sides has carved columns. • The shaft stands on a square base and is decorated with flutes to certain height, at a lower level and then a cubic band richly carved with volutes and arabesques. • The cushion capital is also fluted and appears to be supporting a large rectangular abacus above it.

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Jagannath Sabha • It is a two storied structure with no ornamentation and is smaller in size.

DILWARA TEMPLES (11TH–13TH CENTURY AD) • Location: Mt Abu, Rajasthan. • Patron: Chalukyan rulers. There are total five temples in the group of Dilwara temples. These are dedicated to Jain Tirthankaras (saints). • The Vimal Vasahi Temple—Shri Adinathji. • The Luna Vasahi Temple—Shri Neminathji. • The Pittalhar Temple—Shri Rishabhdeoji. • The Khartar Vasahi Temple—Shri Parshavnathji. • The Mahaveerswami Temple—Shri Mahaveerswami.

Important Characteristics • These are built in white marble and have large portico halls. • The columns have bracket capitals and struts, the typical characteristic feature of Jain temples. • The interiors have corbelled dome carved elaborately in stone as shown in Fig. 5.2.

Fig. 5.2: Inverted ceiling plan of Jain Temple

Examples of Jain Architecture 33

ADINATH TEMPLE (15TH CENTURY AD) • Location: Ranakpur, Rajasthan. • Patron: Rana Kumbha.

Important Characteristics • The plan is Chaumukha in shape, i.e. four-faced structure having four entrances. • The plan of temple consists of five shrines in all, one main and four subsidiaries. • The temple stands on a high plinth of 200’ square. • In the interiors, no. 2 pillars are carved alike and there are around 1400 pillars. • There are 24 pillared halls in all. • There are 86 cells surrounding the structure, each having Shikhara-shaped roof.

Fig. 5.3: View of Adinath Temple showing various Shikharas

C The Stor y of Hindu Architecture

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Hinduism and its Spaces

37

6 Hinduism and its Spaces RELIGION AND ITS PHILOSOPHY Hinduism is also known by the names Sanatana-Dharma and Vaidika-Dharma. Sanatana-Dharma means eternal religion and Vaidika-Dharma means religion of Vedas. The basis of religion lies in the four Vedas; the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda and the four Upanishads, namely the Ayurveda, the Dhanurveda, the Gandharvaveda and the Arthasastra. These form auxiliaries to the four Vedas, which mean, respectively, the science of health, the science of war, the science of music and the science of polity. There are 4 major castes in the Hindu society. Shri Swami Sivananda, in his book “All about Hinduism” writes, “In Purusha-Sukta of the Rigveda, there is reference to the division of Hindu society into four classes. It is described there that the Brahmanas came out of the face of the Lord, the Creator, Kshatriyas from His arms, Vaisyas from His thighs, and the Sudras from His feet”. The Belief Some researchers define a Hindu as: “He who accepts the Vedas, the Smritis, the Puranas and the Tantras as the basis of religion and of the rule of conduct, and believes in one Supreme God (Brahman), in the Law of Karma or retributive justice, and in reincarnation (Punarjanma), is a Hindu.” The various fundamentals of religion are forgiveness, truthfulness, control of the mind, purity, practice of charity, control of the senses, non-violence, service of the Guru, visiting places of pilgrimage, compassion, simplicity, absence of greed, etc. There are 4 main paths to be followed: Karma Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Raja Yoga and Bhakti Yoga. 37

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The four major sects of this religion, each having a different set of Gods and Goddesses, are as follows: • Saivism—Lord Shiva is worshipped together with Lord Ganesha and Karttikeya. • Shaktism—Shri Devi or Shakti is worshipped as Rajarajeshwari, Parvati, Lakshmi, Kali, Saraswati, etc. • Vaishnavism—Lord Vishnu is worshipped together with his incarnations as Rama and Krishna. • Smartism—Ishvara is worshipped as Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha and Surya or any deity of devotees choice Hence it can be safely concluded that Hinduism is the oldest and the third largest religion practiced on earth. There are rulebooks like Vedas to be read and followed. Ahimsa is one of the principles, which is in common with Buddhism and Jainism. There are various Gods and it is up to an individual, to make a choice of the deity. Idol worship is practiced and is believed to increase the concentration. Yagyas, Dhyan, flower showering on the idol, Dhupa burning, Diya, sandal on forehead, bell ringing, blowing Shankha, Prasada distribution after prayer, etc. are some of the rituals associated with the religion.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SPATIAL REQUIREMENTS Man has always been afraid of supernatural powers. Since ages, these powers have been personified and worshipped to keep them happy so that they do not harm the people but on the contrary protect them and take care of the worshippers. The need and methodology of worship and offerings changed with the beliefs and psychology of the people of different ages. Brahma was the most important of all for the Aryans. The methodology adopted by them was often performed in an open to sky areas as altars, where they could perform Yagyas and other related rituals. Brahmadev being the most important occupied the central position in the Vastu-Purush Mandala, together with other Gods like Surya, Yama, Agni, Kuber in the surrounding. Idol worship was not popular, which interprets that there was hardly any need of permanent structures or shrines to house the deity. The requirements of time led to the

Hinduism and its Spaces

importance of more of open spaces and they gradually became an important component of planning. The idea of planned open spaces was fruitful in the climatic conditions of India, which enjoys all the seasons. Then came an era of Buddhism, where initially there was no idol worship or rather idols were not sculpted. However, during later years, there emerged two sects: Hinayana and Mahayana. The Hinayana phase followers did not create sculptures. After the death of Buddha, the followers decided to preserve his relics. The idea gave rise to the need of structure, permanent in nature, where the relics could be preserved safely. Burial was perhaps the most obvious choice and hence a structure “stupa” was created from the ground level. The sacred activity of pradakshina around this sacred burial mound (having a chattri on the top) started from here. The Chattri was later converted into spires pointing towards the sky, in some locations like Sri Lanka, where Buddhism spread on a large scale. The period of Jainism survived for a short period of time. Perhaps the number of followers was less because of the tough rules that were followed. However, there are some beautiful examples of temples and caves dedicated to this period that still stand today, speaking of their glory. These are full of sculptural work and heavy ornamentation. Hinduism followed Buddhism and modifications were obvious, as the needs and requirements of the religion were different. The number of Gods considerably increased and the believers were categorised too. Other than Suryadev, other deities like Shiva, Vishnu, Durga, etc. were now of great importance and all of them could not be housed under single structure. Perhaps the reason was the number of believers dedicated to each of them or may be the rituals to be performed were different for each of them, or perhaps to mark the importance of each of the deity. Hence there arose a need for different types of structures that could house the God as well as the believers. God was to rest in the structure but not all of believers could touch or perform any ritual. Priest/Brahmans held their significance in the society. Rights to perform all the rituals were with the Brahmans and following that practice,

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still the Brahman priest was the only authorised person to perform the rituals. The temples were generally performing two important functions: • “Seat of God”—Everything and anything to please the God is to be performed in the complex. • “Keep alive the ruler”—The ruler who offered patronage to a particular belief would grab an opportunity to show the wealth, grace, architectural style, his ideas, etc. through the temple complex that he would get constructed during his life time, so that he is remembered with honour forever. Spatial Arrangements in Temple The planning of the temple resulted into demarcated areas for the deity, the priest and the followers. Each one of them has separate peripheries to perform activities. Perhaps this psychology has given birth to the type of planning that emerged in temple structures. The personification was done and the deity was placed in the main chamber of the temple building. The representation was either deity or symbolic. As the number of believers increased, the space requirement increased, thus adding porches and pillared halls. With the belief that God is special and important, everything that could be done to please him was performed to get prosperity and happiness for the mankind in return. Different rituals that have been performed by people include bathing of deity (with milk at times), feeding (Bhog), pleasing with performing arts, ringing bell, etc. This further enhanced the spatial requirement and the sizes of pillared halls modified. The next big question was the form of superstructure. Buddhist Stupas and the rock-cut architecture were the only historical examples for the lessons to be taken. Superstructures similar to Stupa, but with internal spaces were perhaps not possible because the knowledge of engineering skills was limited. Stupa could stand firm as it originated from the ground and had a broad base with infill to make it stable. This was not the case with the temple structure, as it needs internal space to house the deity. Hence, there emerged two categories

Hinduism and its Spaces

of temple buildings: The first is simple structure with flat roofs initially and the other is the one which was rock-cut, because perhaps these were the only two techniques initially known to people. Gradually as the skills of creating superstructures actually participating in the load transfer developed, there emerged huge tapering towers above the temple shrines. These were important owing to three reasons: • Tapered structures/pyramidal form are more stable forms and easy to achieve. • Great heights could be attained to mark the greatness and importance of the deity. • The tower represents the position of cell/chamber housing the deity just below the tower.

EVOLUTION OF PLAN AND ELEVATION Any building has two important components to be discussed: Structural and non-structural. (These concepts are not to be confused with the categories of structural and non-structural caves, dedicated to all the 3 religions.) The structural components create volumes by generating horizontal and vertical spaces. Such spaces are obtained by structures that can be classified as load bearing and non-load bearing structures. The horizontal spaces were created according to the needs of the activities to be performed together with the basic concepts of Vastu Shastra. The shaded structures were perhaps necessary to take care of the climatic conditions of the Indian subcontinent, which emerged as porches and pillared halls for gatherings. The verticality of structures came up as a concept that God resides on heights, on mountains, at great elevations. So the high towers or roofs were erected, as the engineering skills developed. These towers were placed above the Gods house, i.e. “womb house”; firstly to force ones eye towards the sky and secondly perhaps to highlight the Garbhgriha where the idol is actually placed. The development in structures was a gradual process, which started as rock-cut caves, or monolithic structures carved from live rocks and developed into high-rise structural temples. There also developed techniques of working in dry masonry.

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The structural solutions started from trabeated style to combinations of load bearing and non-load bearing structures. The supporting structural elements like corbelled roofs and brackets developed during all the way and were employed in buildings from time to time for different reasons; structural as well as aesthetic. Non-structural components are generally related to the aesthetic values in the overall mass of the structure. Ornamentation was done on the facades, doorways, towers, etc. in the form of relief work to show the skills of the craftsmen. Multiplicity of icons is a remarkable feature on the temple facade. These carvings increased the thickness of the walls as well as would also caste shadow of themselves and hence lower down the internal temperatures. Initially the details of woodwork were copied on the stone structures as the craftsmen were used to work on woods. Beautifully carved pilasters with niches, holding the relief work and recessed doors and windows, is one such example. At later stages of development, temples were also elevated from the ground, with high plinth to increase the grandness of the structure. The stories and other deities related to the God or Goddesses in the womb house are carved on the facade of temples, which helped the devotees in recognising the God seated in the temple. For instance: River Ganges carved on the facade and Nandi can be witnessed seated in the pavilion of the complex of a temple dedicated to Lord Shiva.

CONCEPT OF VASTU-SHASTRA AND PYRAMIDAL FORM The concept of Vastu-Shastra is applied to temple planning, since ages. The original concept of Vastu-Shastra was given by Aryans. This has formed a base for designing happy spaces, i.e. spaces with lot of positive energy, peace and spirituality. Also, there is another concept of pyramidal form, generating positive energies. These are found to be successively employed in temple construction. Vastu-Shastra “Vastu-Shastra” is the science of construction based on energy. Vastu means physical environment and Shastra means

Hinduism and its Spaces

knowledge. Researchers believe that this science of construction deals with the planning and designing of buildings in harmony with the physical and metaphysical forces/ energies of the cosmos such as gravitational, electromagnetic and supernatural. The universe is made up of five elements: Earth (Bhumi), water (Jala), air (Vayu), fire (Agni), space (Akash) and so is the human body. A balance and harmony has to be maintained between the natural forces of the universe and the human body for peace, health, happiness and prosperity of the human beings. Vastu-Purush Mandala is the mathematical and diagrammatic representation employed for designing of spaces. Purush refers to energy, power, soul or cosmic man. Mandala refers to the plan/chart, representing the universe. VastuPurush is the residing man in the Mandala, with the head in the northeast and legs in the southwest direction. There are 45 Gods surrounding or capturing this man from various directions. • • • • •

Centre–Brahma–Ruled by Lord/Creator of Universe. East–Aditya–Ruled by Sun God. West–Varuna–Ruled by Lord of Water. North–Kubera–Ruled by Lord of Wealth. South–Yama–Ruled by Lord of Death.

The form is a square and is subdivided into smaller squares, ranging from 1–32 divisions.

Fig. 6.1: The Vastu-Purush

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Dr. Vaidyanathan Ganpati Sthapati is a traditional architect, builder and a sculptor of international repute who has been associated with the construction of many ancient temples of India. He has practiced Vastu-Shastra in the temple construction and believed, that, “the inner space of an individual and the outer space of the cosmos are vibrating at a particular frequency or rhythm”. He further clarified, “that buildings should be so designed that these vibrations of the occupants (determined by their birth stars), are numerically equal to the vibrations of the building”. According to him, the temples are constructed on square or rectangular plot of land, which helps to bring spiritual peace to the temple visitors. The central core Brahmasthan is left open. Virtually the God is in the middle of this space. The idol is placed a little away from the centre, in the direction, moving away from the main entrance. However, there are other researchers on Vastu-Shastra and the application of its concepts on the planning and construction of the temples can be briefed as follows: • The site should be square or rectangular. • The magnetic north–south pole of plot should lie parallel to the plot. • Vastu-pad of 64 squares should be made for planning. • Main gate should be constructed in the centre of all sides. • Garbhagriha should be half of the breadth. • All around Garbhagriha, wide passage should be provided for circumambulation, further enclosed by a wall. • Width of the door = ¼ breadth of Garbhagriha • Height of door = 2 times the width of door. • Temple/place of worship should be in northeast direction. All directions are said to be good but prayers offered in northeast direction give peace that is more spiritual. • The height of the hall should be less than that of the temple.

Hinduism and its Spaces

• Window is preferred to the East of sanctuary for sunrays to fall on the idol. It is believed that the temples strictly constructed according to the concepts of Vastu-Shastra have flourished. They impart high levels of mental and spiritual peace to the visitors. Pyramidal Form Pyramid word has come from the Greek word “Pyra”. Pyramid can be broken into “Pyra” and “mid”. Pyra means “energy”, and mid means “centre”. This means that this form has fire energy in its middle. Also, the “Ra” word in the middle of the pyramid means “Sun God”, according to Egyptians. It is believed that the four corners and the apex, i.e. the 5 points generate some energy, which concentrates at the 1/3rd height of the pyramid, at a point. This point is called the “focal point”. Pyramid is made up of 4 triangles, which represent the 4 directions. When these combine together they generate energy, which increases the energy of the Universe. The pyramid absorbs this energy inside and preserves it, which generates a special effect in the interiors. The energy in and around the pyramidal form influences the people and the objects surrounding it. One feels energized and content with spiritual powers while sitting under the pyramid. Researchers believe that, the pyramidal form generates positive energy and influences the surroundings. It also increases the concentration and spiritual power. Perhaps the Egyptians were well aware of the fact and has experienced this energy. They used to preserve the body of dead, at a certain height in the pyramidal structures. The energy level is so high that it prevents the decay of the dead body. The form of Shikhara resembles the pyramid in elevation. Even the Gopurams of South Indian temples are in the pyramidal form. Dr. Vaidyanathan Ganpati Sthapati explains that “this pyramidal form of Gopuram increases the positive and spiritual levels of the visitors coming to the temple, for peace of mind and soul”. The origin of the form of Shikharas design may be associated with the energy of pyramidal form.

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TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS INVOLVED IN TEMPLE CONSTRUCTION The craftsmen of India knew the art of building in column and beam, i.e. the trabeated style. When they started working in rocks by cutting the surfaces they tried to copy the details of the wood work into the rock surface and created details which were only imitation and were not actually participating as structural components. Together with the details of columns and beams, they carved out the details of arches on the facades too. This means that the beauty of arches was known to the artisans before the advent of Muslim invaders in India. The only problem was perhaps they did not know how to create a true arch with the help of voissers and keystones. Because of which they could not succeed in using arches further, when the architecture shifted from rock-cut to the structural buildings. Later they made an attempt to create the beautiful arches and use them in the temple structures by the method of corbelling. This can be witnessed from the unfinished arch shape as visible in the temple that stands at Bheetargaon. The craftsmen were not using the technology of wet mortar; instead what was used was dry masonry, i.e. stones placed without any binding agent, which could hold the structure. The methodology adopted was dry masonry and iron clamps which were employed to hold the stones in place. The great heights of the towers can also be related to the technology involved in an attempt to create a covered surface over the mysterious cella. Because the objective of providing roof with some elevation characters and also house the sculptural work on the surface could be achieved by raising a tower. The obvious choice was corbelling as the art of true arches and domes was not known to the craftsmen at that time. In an attempt to cover the space with a corbelled roof, the great height was the obvious result. This square-shaped cella was finally covered on the top with a topping, i.e. known to us as “amalaka”. This amalaka is defined as a ribbed disc like element. Perhaps this was placed on the top to exert pressure similar to the spires that were placed over the flying buttresses in Gothic architecture. This capping would stop the falling away of the dry masonry below it and keep it intact.

The 3 Styles: Nagara, Vesara and Dravida

The 3 Styles: Nagara, Vesara and Dravida

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GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISION The Government of India defines the country into different cultural zones, namely north, northeast, northwest, northcentral, south, southcentral, east and west. According to the boundaries of current political map of India, we define the states into three distinct states as north, central and south India. The important states of these regions are: North India: Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat. Central India: Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Maharashtra. South India: Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala. For the purpose of easy understanding and study of temple architecture, it is broadly classified into 3 different categories: North Indian, South Indian and Central Indian style. There is some overlapping of regions of Central India with south and north. The categories are devised on the basis of the influence of a particular style in a region. These regions, where the Hindu architecture flourished and is to be studied are slightly different from the political boundaries because they are on the basis of influence. Hence the temples of a region to which the northern style spread are designated as North Indian temples and so on, although politically they may have overlapped with the central regions of India. The Central Indian temples are spread over a small 47

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region because they are designated on the basis of overlapping features of North Indian and South Indian styles. These are sometimes also designated as the Deccan style because of their lying in the Deccan plateau, which politically is to the south but architecturally to the centre. Similarly, the South Indian temples are called so on the basis of a different styles. Thus the regions and their periods, architecturally, can be categorised as: North Indian style (NI style) (6th century–till date): Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh, Odisha. Central Indian style (CI style) (10th century–13th century): Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh. South Indian style (SI style) (7th century–18th century): Tamil Nadu, Kerala.

IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES The differences between the different styles of temple architecture are a resultant of various factors such as geographical, climatic, cultural, racial, historical and linguistic differences between the northern plains and the southern peninsula of India. The ancient texts on architecture classify temples into three different orders; • The Nagara or ‘Northern’ style. • The Dravidian or ‘Southern ‘ style. • The Vesara or ‘Hybrid’ or ‘Central’, style, which is seen in the Deccan between the other two styles. In the early years the most obvious and prominent difference between the two styles is in the shape of their superstructures. Broadly speaking the following features differentiate the 3 styles: Nagara/North Indian Style • The Nagara style is characterised by a Shikhara which is curvilinear or convex in shape. It appears to be made up of bands of architectural elements.

The 3 Styles: Nagara, Vesara and Dravida

Simple Shikhara

Khajuraho style Shikhara

Bhumija style Shikhara Fig. 7.1: Three types of North Indian Shikhara

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• The Shikhara is topped by a large round cushion-like element called an Amalaka. • The plan is generally square/rectangular. • Mandapa is enclosed with walls or screens. • Pilasters on the building facade, generally enclosing niches with sculptural work, related to the deity. • Plinth/platform with carving, having number of mouldings. • Tower has horizontal bands having duplicated sculptural carving. • During later developments such as in the Chandella temples, the central shaft was surrounded by many smaller reproductions of itself, creating a spectacular visual effect. • The Shikhara remains the most prominent element of the temple tower with rounded top and curvilinear outline. Dravidian/South Indian Style The Tamil country was earlier known as Dravidadesh. Hence, the style that developed in those regions is popularly known as Dravidian style of architecture. Percy Brown in his book “Indian architecture (Buddhist and Hindu)”, illustrates, that the south Indian architecture is divided on the basis of 5 kingdoms/rulers: Pallavas—600–900 AD Cholas—900–1150 AD Pandyas—1100–1350 AD Vijayanagar—1350–1565 AD Madura—from 1600 AD Pallavas created examples in both the styles, rock-cut as well as structural temples. The rock-cut structures can again be divided into two categories: • Those with pillared halls and cellas excavated from live rocks having internal spaces. These spaces are pillared halls with cellas recessed in the wall. • Those which are carved out sculpturally from the live rocks may not have internal spaces.

The 3 Styles: Nagara, Vesara and Dravida

Both the structures have structural details copied on their facade.

Important Architectural Features • The cella and the main portico is joined mainly with a wall having pilaster work. Niches thus created have relief work. • The capitals are broad having curvilinear brackets. • Lintels and eaves are part of the roof. • The tower now is pyramidal in form with mostly straight lines, over the cella. • Shikhara word is employed only for the top storey of the pyramid. • The top resembled either the dome like Stupa or Chaitya halls of the Buddhist style of architecture. • The tower has different number of storeys having pavilions on miniature scale. This adds visual thrust to the elevation.

Introduction of Gopurams The concentration of Cholas was on the main temple structure, i.e. the Vimana, whereas during the Pandyas period the emphasis slightly shifted or was shared by the enclosing complex with boundary walls. They laid special emphasis on the enclosure and entrance gateways. The composition was together planned to give a feel of grandeur by representing it as a palatial site or a citadel. These gateways gradually developed into “gopurams”, the most important architectural character in the SI style of architecture. • The temples started developing as complexes with boundary walls having elaborate gateways, i.e. the “gopurams”, with multi-columned halls, the courtyards, the tanks and the temple building, i.e. “sanctuary”. • In some important examples, Gopurams are witnessed as dominating features and thus becoming the landmarks. They became taller and taller, dwarfing the inner sanctum and its tower and dominating the whole temple site.

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• In later SI styles Gopurams became high and important. Number of halls multiplied and broke into smaller sizes instead of one large Mandapa with columns. • From the Vijayanagara period (14th–16th century) onward, these highly embellished and often brightly painted structures become extremely numerous. Based on profile, the Gopurams can be divided into two categories: • Those with straight tapering pyramidal sides/profile. • Those with sloping sides, i.e. curved or concave sides/ profile. Later period has more number of Gopurams, with rectangular base and pyramidal top. Lower storey made of Gopurams is of granite and superstructure made of brick and plaster. Perhaps the purpose was to reduce the dead weight as the height of the structure goes up, in order to make it more stable. Vesara/Deccan/Central Indian Style In the Deccan plateau (7th–8th century), Karnataka witnessed the transition age from rock-cut to the structural temples, which began to be constructed during Chalukyan period. Series of temples with or without boundaries came up. Important centres that came up are Aihole, Badami (15 miles from Aihole), Pattadakal (10 miles from Badami). Examples dedicated to both NI and SI styles can be witnessed at Aihole and Pattadakal. Temples gradually occupied shikhara as a necessary element after initiating from flat/small slope roof. They started with slight sloping roof but finally had upper storeys or Shikharas. Aihole has a group of temples (around 70). Durga temple and Lad Khan Temple are the important examples of this group. There is a small group of 10 temples at Pattadakal, on the banks of Malaprabha river in Bagalkot district. It has temples dedicated to both NI/ Nagara and SI/Dravida styles. Out of 10 temples, 9 are dedicated to Lord Shiva and 1 is a Jain temple. Major temples in this group are: Sangameshwara, Virupaksha, Mallikarjuna, Papanath, etc.

The 3 Styles: Nagara, Vesara and Dravida

Fig. 7.2: Gopuram with straight tapering/pyramidal profile

There are contrasting examples of Nagara as well as Dravidian style.

Important Architectural Features • Combo/Combination of features of NI/Nagara and SI/ Dravida style. • More ornamentation and decoration. Floral tracery carvings can be witnessed on the facade. • Tower used repeatedly was an ornamental structure. • In the border areas between the two major styles, particularly in the modern states of Karnataka and

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Fig. 7.3: Gopuram with curved or concave profile

Andhra Pradesh, there was a stylistic overlap of architectural features. • Hoysala plans are star shaped. A typical example is the Hoysala Temple with its multiple shrines and remarkable ornate carving. It is an important feature that created distinct sub-regional group.

The 3 Styles: Nagara, Vesara and Dravida

Important Terminology

Important Characteristics of the Temple Plan • Boundary wall of the complex: It was a little later development, in the South Indian style, having small cellas in the wall as enclosures and facing the main shrine in a rectangular courtyard. • Ardhamandapa: A porch leading to the main hall. • Mandapa: The main pillared central hall approached from the porch. The hall was spacious enough to hold a large gathering of the devotees. • Mahamandapa: The projections on either side of the central hall. • Vestibule: Antarala or an intermediate space connecting the cella (Garbhagriha) and the main hall (Mandapa). • Vimana: The sanctuary (the inner holy place). • Garbhagriha: “Cella” or the “wombhouse” containing the idol/deity with a doorway on the eastern side. • Pradakshinapath: Circumambulatory path around the cella for the devotees to move around the deity but at the same time maintain distance from the deity.

Important Characteristics of the Temple Elevation • Shikhara: The tower or the superstructure above the sanctuary in Nagara style. Sometimes the topmost story is also called Shikhara in Dravida style. • Gavakshas: Horseshoe shaped arches on the Shikhara, used for ornamentation. • Amalakas: The ribbed disc like element on the top of Shikhara. • Stupi: A small representation of stupa form on the top of the tower. • Shalas: Barrel vault shaped topping over the tower. • Pediment: A semicircular space created over a pair of columns, generally used for ornamentation purposes.

LIST OF TEMPLES Some examples related to each of the 3 categories are listed below, together with the period, location and the patron. Of

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these examples, a few are discussed in detail in the following chapters with respect to their architectural features. Nagara/North Indian Style Temples North India: Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha Table 7.1: List of NI temples Period

Temple

Location

Ruler/Patron

5th Century

Temple at Bhitargaon Udayagiri Caves Temple 17 Eran Tigawa Temple Gop Temple Parvati Temple Dashavatara Temple Lakshamana Temple Parashurameshwara Temple Teli Ka Mandir Vaital Deul Temple

Kanpur, UP

Guptas

5th Century 5th Century 5th Century 5th Century 6th Century 6th Century 6th Century 7th Century 7th Century 8th Century 8th Century

8th Century Harihara Temple 10th Century Ambika Mata Temple 10th Century Someshvara Temple 10th Century Ghateshvara Temple 10th Century Lakshamana Temple 10th Century Temple at Chandrehi 10th Century Mukteshvara Temple

MP Guptas Sanchi, MP Guptas MP Guptas Jabalpur, MP Guptas Gujarat Maitrakas Nachna, MP Guptas Deogarh, MP Guptas Sirpur, MP Guptas Bhubaneswar, ShailodOdisha bhavas Gwalior, MP Pratiharas Bhubaneswar, Bhaumakara Odisha Osian, Rajasthan Pratiharas Jagat, Rajasthan Pratiharas Kiradu, Pratiharas Rajasthan Badoli, Pratiharas Rajasthan MP Chandellas MP Paramaras Bhubaneswar, Ganga kings Odisha MP Chandellas

10th Century Kandariya Mahadev Temple 11th Century Vishwanath Temple MP 11th Century Udayeshvara Temple Udaipura, MP 11th Century Surya Temple Modhera, Gujarat 11th Century Rajarani Temple Bhubaneswar, Odisha

Chandellas Paramaras Solankis Ganga kings (Contd…)

The 3 Styles: Nagara, Vesara and Dravida Table 7.1: List of NI temples (Contd…) Period

Temple

Location

Ruler/Patron Ganga Kings

11th Century Sas Bahu Temple 12th Century Jagannath Temple

Bhubaneswar, Odisha Gwalior, MP Puri, Odisha

Pratiharas Ganga Kings

13th Century Surya Temple

Konark, Odisha

Ganga Kings

11th Century Lingaraja Temple

Initially the temples started as caves which gradually developed into structures. The credit for the construction of first structural temples in India goes to the Guptas. Vesara/Central Indian Style Temples Central India: Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka Table 7.2: List of CI temples Period

Temple

Location

Ruler/Patron

6th–8th Century 6th–12th Century 6th Century

Badami Caves

Karnataka

Chalukyans

Ravula Phadicave Temple Elephanta Caves

Aihole, Karnataka Maharashtra

Chalukyans

6th Century

Ellora Caves

7th Century 8th Century

Upper Shivalaya Sangameshvara Temple Virupaksha Temple

Aurangabad, Maharashtra Karnataka Pattadakal, Karnataka Pattadakal, Karnataka Pattadakal, Karnataka Pattadakal, Karnataka Aihole, Karnataka Aihole, Karnataka

8th Century 8th Century 8th Century

Mallikarjuna Temple Papanath Temple

8th Century

Durga Temple

8th Century

Lad Khan Temple

Konkan Mauryans, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas Kalachuri Chalukyans Chalukyans Chalukyans Chalukyans Chalukyans Chalukyans Chalukyans (Contd…)

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Temple

8th–9th Century 9th Century

Kailash Temple, Ellora Sri Someshwara Temple 12th Century Mahadev Temple 12th Century Channakeshava Temple 12th Century Hoysaleshvara Temple 12th Century Thousand pillar Shiva Temple 13th Century Keshava Temple 13th–14th Century

Ramappa Temple

Location

Ruler/Patron

Maharashtra

Rashtrakutas

Dambal, Karnataka Ittagi, Karnataka Bellur, Karnataka Hallebid, Karnataka Hanamkonda, AP Somnathpur, Karnataka Palampet, AP

Cholas Chalukyans Hoysalas Hoysalas Kakatiyas Hoysalas Kakatiyas

Dravidian/ South Indian Style Temples South India: Tamil Nadu, Kerala Table 7.3: List of SI temples Period

Temple

Location

Ruler/Patron

7th Century

Mandagapattu Cave Temple Seven Rathas

Near Chennai

Pallavas

7th Century 8th Century 8th Century 9th Century 10th Century 10th Century 11th Century 12th Century 12th Century

Mamallapuram, TN Shore Temple Mamallapuram, TN Kilashnath Temple Kanchipuram Nageshwara Temple Kumbakonam, TN Brahmapurishvara Pullamangai Temple TN Koranganatha Srinivasanallur, Temple TN Brihadeshwara Tanjavur, TN Temple Airavateshvara Darasuram, Temple TN Nataraja Temple Chidambaram, TN

Pallavas Pallavas Pallavas Cholas Cholas Cholas Cholas Cholas, Pandyas Cholas

Examples of Nagara/North Indian Style 59

8 Examples of Nagara/North Indian Style TEMPLE AT BHEETERGAON (5TH CENTURY) Location: Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh. Patron: Gupta rulers. It is the oldest Hindu shrine with a Shikhara.

Important Characteristics • It was constructed in brick and terracotta panels. • The temple stands on high plinth. • Entrance is from east and is approached by steps. • It is an earlier example of Mandapa. • Garbhagriha is a square of 15’ side. • The Shikhara (now vanished partially) was perhaps of the pyramidal shape. • An arch was attempted to mark the entrance, perhaps for the first time in India, which now stands in ruined state. • Remains of terracotta figures/relief work can be witnessed on walls. • No windows can be witnessed on the facade.

TEMPLE 17 (5TH CENTURY) Location: Bhopal (Sanchi), Madhya Pradesh. Patron: Gupta rulers. Perhaps it is the earliest of the temples.

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Important Characteristics • It is a simple and small temple with flat roof. • It is similar to Tigwa Temple, with difference in column design. • There are four columns in front of lion capitals supporting the roof of the temple porch. • Two columns are attached to the wall of Garbhagriha entrance as pilasters. • The base of the columns is square. • No ornamentation work can be witnessed on the facade, except the lion capitals. • Structural formation can be witnessed from the exposed trabeated elements.

Fig. 8.1: Simple trabeated structure of Temple 17

Examples of Nagara/North Indian Style 61

DASHAVATARA TEMPLE (6TH CENTURY) Location: Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh. Patron: Gupta rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Vishnu. Earlier known as “Panchayatna Temple”, but later renamed by the Archeologist, Chunningham as “Dashavatara Temple”. It depicts ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu.

Fig. 8.2: The recessed entrance to the Dashavatara Temple

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Important Characteristics • Temple stands on a high plinth approached by flight of steps from all directions. • Base is decorated with relief work in the form of stories. • Garbhagriha/cella is approximately 10 square, but the idol is not there. It is believed to have been relocated. • Cella is covered by a Shikhara/tower on the top. The estimated height of the structure is 45’. It was the first time when Shikhara was attempted but today it has disappeared partly. Sculptures include various incarnations of Lord Vishnu, such as Narsimha, various facets of Lord Vishnu’s life like Gajendra, Moksha, the Nara-Narayana, etc.

ORISSAN TEMPLES (7TH–14TH CENTURY) Location: Odisha (earlier Kalinga). Patron: Shailodbhava and Bhaumakara rulers. Deity: Religiously Odisha has Konark–Surya Kshetra, Puri–Vishnu Kshetra, Bhubaneswar–Hara Kshetra. Broadly called Nagara style, the Orissan temples are referred to as Kalingan style of temple architecture. These are of three types: Rekha Deula, Khakhara Deula and Pidha Deula. • Rekha Deula: Sanctum has a curvilinear superstructure. • Khakhara Deula: Means Pumpkin, Gaurd and is used as the crown, looks like a barrel vaulted elongated roof. • Pidha Deula: Jagamohana has this order/feature. The Pidha is related to several tiers, one above the other rising to pinnacle. There are almost 30 temples in Bhubaneswar. Typical nomenclature for temple plan is as follows.

Initially there were 2 structures • Temple structure: Sanctuary-Bada Deula. • Square hall: Mandapa-Mukhashala/hall of audiencesJagamohan.

Examples of Nagara/North Indian Style 63

Other structures, those were added axially to these two basic structures, at a later stage are: • Dancing hall/festive hall: Nat Mandir. • Hall of offerings: Bhog Mandir. Typical nomenclature used for temple elevation is as follows: Temple is imagined as a human being and various components are labelled as: • Plinth of the structure: Pitha. • A cubical portion below/curvilinear tower: Bada. • Pyramidal roof: Pida. • Neck or recess below amalaka: Beki. • Flat fluted disc: Amla. • Finial: Kalasa. There is symbolic representation of the deity by putting Trishul for Lord Shiva or Chakra for Lord Vishnu. Exteriors are carved but interiors are simple. The buildings were constructed in dry masonry. Structure was raised by corbelling of courses till it finally reached its peak. The blocks of stone were generally held together by iron clamps or larger sections.

Important Examples • Parasurameshvara Temple: Bhubaneswar. • Vaital Deul: Bhubaneswar. • Lingaraja Temple: Bhubaneswar. • Mukteshwara Temple: Bhubaneswar. • Jagannath Temple: Puri. • Rajarani Temple: Bhubaneswar. • Sun Temple: Konark.

Important Architectural Characteristics of the Temples Puri was a centre of Buddhism before Vaishnaism. Perhaps this is one of the reasons to witness toranas and arches similar to those of Buddhist sites. • Plan is generally square. • Mandapa is devoid of columns.

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• Shikhara covers the Garbhagriha with convex curved sides. • Lower stepped roof with melon shaped finial on the top. • Facade has pilasters with horizontal bands of carving. Parasurameswara Temple (7th Century) Location: Bhubaneswar, Odisha. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva.

Important Characteristics • • • •

It is perhaps the oldest building and a small structure. The structure is in dry masonry. It has Deul and Jagamohan, having a total length of 48’. Jaliwork on windows, is placed centrally on walls of Jagamohan. • Interiors are simple having 2 rows of 3 pillars each having square shaft, voluted bracket capitals. • Shikhara is 44’ high, curvilinear in shape, having amalaka on the top. • The Jagamohan has double roof with massive eaves. Vaital Deul Temple (8th Century) Location: Bhubaneswar, Odisha. Deity: Dedicated to Chamundadevi-Durga/Shakti.

Important Characteristics It is an example of Khakhara Deula order of temples. The temple is especially dedicated to tantric cults. • Roof inspired by Buddhist and southern style, i.e. of barrel vault shape. • Jagamohan plan is a rectangle of 18’ × 25’, height of structure is 35’. • Pilaster work can be witnessed on the Bada. • Sculptures include Nataraj, Harihara, Parvati, seated Buddha like figures. Chamundadevi is sculpted very well with a garland of skulls.

Examples of Nagara/North Indian Style 65

Sun Temple (13th Century) Location: Konark (also known as Konkaditya), Odisha. Deity: Dedicated to Suryadev. It is also known as Black pagoda.

Important Characteristics • The temple faces east, first rays of sun enter the sanctuary. • Impact of southern style, construction in dry masonry, can be witnessed.

Fig. 8.3: The 3 tiered roof of the Sun Temple

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Fig. 8.4: The wheel at the base of the Sun Temple

• Courtyard complex is 865’ × 540’, having 3 gateways in ruined state. • Complex has other shrines also together with the Sun Temple and some sculptural work of architectural importance. • Jagamohan is 100’ square with internal space of approximately 57’ and height 100’. • Sculptures are carved on monumental scale. • Nat Mandir is detached by 30’ and intricately carved. • Jagamohan is pyramidal in 3 tiers, and is achieved by corbelling technique. The pyramidal roof is approximately 54’ high, with an amalaka 39’ diameter and 24’ high. Iron clamps or large sections were used to hold together the stone pieces.

Examples of Nagara/North Indian Style 67

Fig. 8.5: The sculptural work at the Sun Temple

• Temple is perceived as ratha/chariot of Sun God, having 7 horses and 12 pairs of gigantic wheels-10 dia, attached to the base pedestal. Wheels give the structure appearance of a vehicle. A flight of steps lead to temple, guarded by lions.

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• Now there is no roof on Sanctuary and Nat Mandir. All the 3 structures lie on the same axis. Sculptures/ornamentation consist of foliage, geometric patterns, human figures, erotic images together with the images of deity. Mukteswar Temple (10th Century) Location: Bhubaneswar, Odisha. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva in the form of Mukteswar. It is known as “Gem of Orissan Architecture”.

Important Characteristics • It is a small-scale temple. • Low walls enclose the temple.

Fig. 8.6: Richly carved Torana at the entrance of Mukteswar Temple

Examples of Nagara/North Indian Style 69

• Arched gateway/Torana leads to the temple, which is an exceptional feature and eye catching with elaborate scrolls, female figures, peacocks and other ornamentation. • Structure is 45’ long and 25’ wide. Height of the tower is 35’ with horizontal tiers at various levels. • There is a well on the eastern side of the temple, having a belief that a dip in this holy well cures problems of infertility. Sculptural work in the interiors together with exterior ornamentation can be witnessed. These include Saraswati, Lord Ganesha, kings and queens, etc. Lingaraja Temple (10th–11th Century) Location: Bhubaneswar, Odisha. Patron: Somavashi rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu. Lingaraja denotes the “king of lingas”. The temple is constructed in red sandstone.

Important Characteristics • It is a typical example of the Orissan type of temples, having all 4 structures; Deul, Jagamohan, Nat Mandir,

Fig. 8.7: The plan showing all the 4 structures lying on the same axis

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Fig. 8.8: Shikhara of Lingaraja Temple

Bhog Mandir. All the 4 structures are on the same axis, east to west and placed on a high platform. • The temple enclosure/complex is entered through “Simha Dwara”, having lions on both the sides.

Examples of Nagara/North Indian Style 71

• Temple is in the centre of a large enclosure of 520′ × 465′, with high walls. • The enclosure has many small shrines together with the great temple in the centre. • The main entrance has a trident as well as Chakra on either side of the door. • Garbhagriha has a linga made of granite. • Height of the Shikhara is 125. Sculptures includes Lord Ganesha, Lord Kartikay and Goddess Parvati. Jagannath Temple (12th Century) Location: Puri, Odisha. Patron: Ganga rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Vishnu/Krishna as Jagannath. The main temple is surrounded by other temple shrines, big and small, created during different periods. Jagannath together with Balabhadra and Subhadra (brother and sister of Krishna), i.e. Trinity is worshipped at Jagannath Puri.

Important Characteristics • The temple complex occupies an area of over 400,000 sq. ft. • Boundary wall to the complex is 20’ high. • Deul, Jagamohan, Nat Mandir and Bhog Mandir lie on the same axis. • Total dimension of the structure is 310′ × 80′. • Height of Shikhara is 200’. • Nat Mandir is a square of side 80’. Its roof is supported on 16 pillars in a matrix. • Other shrines surrounding the temple are all enclosed in a boundary with gateways.

TELI KA MANDIR (8TH CENTURY) Location: Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh. Patron: Pratihara rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Vishnu.

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It is noticeable for its stylistic and technological advancement.

Important Characteristics • External dimensions are 66′ × 46′ and internal dimensions are 30′ × 15′ rectangle.

Fig. 8.9: The profile of Teli Ka Mandir

Examples of Nagara/North Indian Style 73

• Doorways and niches are set into the outer sandstone walls of the rectangular Garbhagriha. • These are surmounted by complicated mesh patterns created by interlocking Gavakshas. • Tower/Shikhara of height 100’ has a Garbhagriha that is approached by a small porch via flight of steps. It rises in a series of stages decorated with Gavakshas. • The Mandapa is missing in the temple, as it was not an essential part of structure at initial stages. • The topmost stage is shaped as a barrel vault similar to Chaitya halls of Buddhist style, with horizontal bands at upper stories. The Shikhara is in NI/Nagara style and ornamentation is in SI/Dravida style. • Wooden details similar to those on the facade of caves can be witnessed. Sculptural work includes couples, serpents, Gods and Goddesses, flying Garuda, etc.

AMBIKAMATA TEMPLE (10TH CENTURY) Location: Jagat, Rajasthan. Patron: Pratihara rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Goddess Durga. It is also popularly known as Khajuraho of Rajasthan.

Important Characteristics • Temple is small in size but details can be witnessed. • It has a cruciform hall, i.e. there are projections from opposite sides of the hall. • The Mandapa has noticeable window pattern in north and south directions with short columns. • Pradakshina path around the cella/Garbhagriha having Ambikamatas image. • There are different roof patterns over different structures; a small porch with eave projected roof, Mandapa with different storeys of eaves, looking like a pyramid in totality. Tower/Shikhara above the cella has small

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Shikharas placed diagonally in elevation, in a typical North Indian/Nagara style. • The carvings embrace the ceilings of porch and hall. Sculptures include dancing Ganesha, various forms of Durga and wild animals. Walls have seated musicians, couples, and holy sages.

KHAJURAHO GROUP OF TEMPLES (10TH–11TH CENTURY) Location: Jhansi, Madhya Pradesh. Patron: Chandella rulers. Deity: Majorly dedicated to Lord Vishnu, Shiva. 100 miles SE of Jhansi, spread in a region of 1 sq mile, having 30 temples out of which 12 are of most important. Temples of different beliefs dedicated to Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu and Jainism. (Similar to the caves of Ellora.) The Khajuraho temples are grouped into 3 geographical divisions: Western, Eastern and Southern. These are constructed in sandstone and in dry masonry with the help of mortice and tenon joints.

Important Temples • Kendariya Mahadev Temple. • Temple of Visvanath. • Temple of Chaturbhuj. • Devi Jagdambi Temple.

Important Common Architectural Characteristics of the Temples • They are unique in character and represent a beautiful composition. • The building components are in northern style, i.e. the Nagara style having components, namely the Garbhagriha, Mandapa, Ardh-mandapa, Antarala, and Mahamandapa, each having its separate roof tapering

Examples of Nagara/North Indian Style 75

upwards, towards the sky, pointing towards the divine power and residence of Gods. • The structures together stand on a raised platform. • The main Shikhara is the most attractive element in itself, produced by repetitive Shikharas of miniature scale protruding from all directions, surrounding the main Shikhara at different levels. This makes its Shikhara distinct in style from earlier Shikharas.

Fig. 8.10: The Shikhara profile of the Khajuraho Temples

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• The base is on a firm rigid platform, as was the practice, and having horizontal bands that run across the whole perimeter, creating amazing attractive effect. • The Shikharas are in typical northern style, with convexity in elevation. • The temple has entrance from the eastern side, as usual. But unlike the Orissan group of temples, these have richly carved interiors with geometrical patterns. • The temple elevation is also enriched with window openings to bring in light into interiors. Kendariya Mahadev Temple (10th Century) It is the largest and the most beautifully ornamented structure of the group.

Fig. 8.11: The roof profile at various levels of the Kendariya Mahadev Temple

Examples of Nagara/North Indian Style 77

• Plan is 109′ × 60′, approximately 28’ high plinth with 88’ high tower. • Series of Mandapa/halls lead to the main Garbhagriha. All lie on the EW axis. • There is a common plinth/base for all these halls. • Horizontal bands of carving can be witnessed in elevation. • The replicas of Shikhara/tower are repeatedly used on the elevation or sides of the main vertical tower. The main spire is surrounded by 84 miniature spires. • Elevation is an interesting combo of horizontal and vertical bands. • Multiple numbers of figures are carved on the facade of the temple. Sculptures include Apsaras, erotic images, guardians, animals and images from daily life.

SAS BAHU TEMPLE (11TH CENTURY) Location: Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh Patron: Pratihara rulers Deity: Dedicated to Lord Vishnu There are twin temples, adjacent to each other and named after Sahastra Bahu (another name of Lord Vishnu).

Important Characteristics of Great Sas Bahu Temple • Plan of the building is 100’ long with 63’ transept (making a cruciform). • Height of the hall was 80’ (originally). • Mandapa is a recessed type of plan. • Three numbers of storeys can be judged from the elevation. • Structure stands on a raised platform with horizontal bands. • Each storey has projected balconies having columns. • Verticality is maintained by columns both thin and massive. • Roof has ornamental tiers in various stories. • Facade has a dominant combo of vertical and horizontal lines.

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Fig. 8.12: The Great Sas Bahu Temple with tiered roof and bold columns

Important Characteristics of Small Sas Bahu Temple • This temple resembles the Great Sas Bahu Temple, having similar identity. • The structure stands on raised platform with horizontal bands broken by immediately following vertical lines above them. • Twin pillared porch marks the entrance to the temple. • The roof is pyramidal, rising in many tiers, topped by replicas of Amalaka. • Eave projection at roof level around the temple.

SURYA TEMPLE (11TH CENTURY) Location: Modhera, Gujarat. Patron: Solanki rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Suryadev.

Examples of Nagara/North Indian Style 79

The temple is broadly divided into 3 components: Suryakund, Sabhamandapa, Gudamandapa. • Suryakund: It was a tank, approximately 100 sqm for holy ablutions before entering the temple complex by the devotees. About 108 shrines are carved on the steps including the sculptures of Lord Shiva, Lord Ganesha, etc. • Sabhamandapa: It is the assembly hall for religious gatherings. There are 52 carved pillars in the open hall. Sculptures include scenes from Ramayana, Mahabharata and life of Lord Krishna. It is a hall of approximately 25’, equal in size to Gudamandapa. • Gudamandapa: Main sanctuary is supported by lotus base plinth. The walls have sculptures representing Sun God. It is a square of 11’ internal dimension. Temple now stands in a ruined state on a raised platform.

Fig. 8.13: The arched entrance gateway to Surya Temple

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Important Characteristics • An entrance gateway, an open octagonal hall, and the Garbhagriha/cella, with a Pradakshina Path, all lie on the same axis. The entrance gateway is carved as Torana. • The pavilion/open hall detached from the Garbhagriha. • Balconies/terraces seem to be projected on the sides of the Garbhagriha, resting on columns. • Pyramidal roof over the hall is in a tiered arrangement.

UDAYESHWARA TEMPLE (11TH CENTURY) Location: Udaypura (near Bhilsa), Madhya Pradesh. Patron: Paramara rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva.

Important Characteristics • It is a structural temple in stone. • Main shrine/structure stands on a platform. • Entrance hall has cruciform plan with 3 porches on 3 sides. • Garbhagriha, hall and nandi shrine all lie on the same axis. • There is a pyramidal roof above the hall and dwarf columns at the entrance having horizontal bracket capitals. • Facade of the hall has niches, created by introduction of pilasters, at upper level having jali work for intake of light and small niches having sculptural work at a lower level. • The base has horizontal bands having light sculptural work of repetitive nature. • Shikhara above the main shrine is 7-tier with repetitive miniature Shikharas in a different style, i.e. Bhumija style. • Chaitya arch windows are carved on the Shikhara facade.

Examples of Vesara/Central Indian Style 81

Examples of Vesara/Central Indian Style

9

BADAMI CAVES (6TH–7TH CENTURY) Location: Badami, Karnataka Patron: Chalukyan rulers Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu Red sandstone cliffs at Badami were worked upon to create the rock-cut caves. There are four caves and numbered from North to South. Out of these, Cave three is 70’ wide and most elaborate of all. Cave no. one is dedicated to Lord Shiva, Cave nos. two and three are dedicated to Lord Vishnu and Cave no. four is dedicated to Jain Teerthankars.

General Characteristics • Columned verandahs were arranged around a central pillared hall containing small square cell, which is cut into the rock. • Pradakshina Path is not a common feature. • Carved bands appear in the outer row of columns and sculpted figures are employed as brackets with cushion capitals. Sculptural compositions include, Lord Shiva as Nataraja with 18 arms in dancing pose, Nandi bull, and images of Lord Vishnu can be seen. Flying figures can be witnessed on the ceilings including the nagas and figures of deities like Brahma.

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Fig. 9.1: The caves carved out of living rock at Badami

ELEPHANTA CAVE (6TH CENTURY) Location: Elephanta Island, Mumbai, Maharashtra. Patron: Konkan Mauryas/Kalachuri rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva. It is located 10 km away from the Gateway of India, Mumbai. Earlier the Elephanta Island was known as Gharapuri, “City of Caves”, capital of Konkan Mauryas. These are examples of rock-cut architecture, created by excavation and removal of rocks, to create internal spaces from living rock.

General Characteristics • The temple complex is 60,000 sq ft. • A 20 columned Mandapa of 25 bays is laid out on a symmetrical plan with triple bays projecting outwards on 4 sides. • Monolithic basalt columns stand on square base having fluted compressed cushion capitals.

Examples of Vesara/Central Indian Style 83

• Cave temple measures a square of 30 side. Entrance to the cave temple is from 3 sides. • Small Shiva Linga is in the Garbhagriha/cella. • 4 doorways marking entry into the shrine/cella are guarded by Dwarpalas/guards carved on the facade. • Triple headed Shiva, created as sculpture, in the middle of the rear wall is called Trimurti of Sadashiv, which is 20’ tall. The caves represent Shiva in a variety of forms as sculptures depicting relationship of man and woman. Shiva is represented as Nataraja, as seated Lakulisha, as triple headed Sadashiva, etc. Besides this, Shiva and Parvati can also be seen together.

Fig. 9.3: The Trimurti of Lord Shiva at the Elephanta cave

ELLORA CAVES (6TH CENTURY) Location: Near Aurangabad, Maharashtra. Patron: Kalachuri rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu.

Fig. 9.2: The pillar at the Elephanta cave

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Although craftsmen by this time were more skilled and adapted to the structural work, their love and fascination for rock-cut architecture made them produce another sculptural work, i.e. the Ellora caves. Perhaps the kind of spaces created in rock-cut architecture were more admirable and encouraged them to further produce another unit of caves. Ellora caves are similar to Elephanta caves in some considerations. These are dedicated to all the three religious beliefs: Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism. Buddhism (Cave no. 1–12), Brahmanical order (Cave no. 13–29), Jainism (Cave no. 30–34). The caves of Brahmanical order are 13–29. The important ones are: • Cave 14: Ravana Ki Khai. • Cave 15: Dasavatar. • Cave 16: Kailasha. • Cave 21: Rameshwara. • Cave 29: Dhumar Lena. There are 16 shrines in all. These can be classified into 4 categories on the basis of their planning: • Front pillared portico with a Garbhagriha in the rear. Example: Dasavatar cave • Addition of a passage around the Garbhagriha. Example: Ravana Ki Khai, Rameshwara Temple • Shrine in the centre of cruciform hall has more than one entrance. Example: Dhumar Lena • Rock-cut details carved out on monolithic structure. Example: Kailasha Temple Basalt is the stone out of which the whole shrine is carved out. Cave 19: Dasavatar • Simplest of all the caves. • Entrance to the cave is created by rock cutting out of facade of rock.

Examples of Vesara/Central Indian Style 85

• Hall at the ground floor is 97′ × 50′ and is approached by a few steps. • The elevation comprises 2 storied facade, with ground floor having 14 square columns and upper floor having 44 square columns. • A staircase on the left of the hall, leads to the upper floor which is a rectangular hall of size 105′ × 95′. • Nandi shrine having a solid base and 50’ high stands in open court. • 2 free standing pillars are of 51’ high. Sculptural works include Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva carved in niches created by pilasters. Cave 21: Rameshwara Cave • Dedicated to Lord Shiva. • Plan is simple in form.

Fig. 9.4: Plan of Rameshwara cave showing the Pradakshina Path around the Garbhagriha

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• In front is a great square courtyard, whose entrance portico consists of finely carved columns rising from low walls. • Behind the portico is an oblong hall of 25′ × 69′ with left and right small shrines. • Straight ahead is a square cella, which lies within a circumambulatory corridor/Pradakshina Path, preceded by two columns, like the two small shrines. Its cella contains a Shiva Linga, carved out of rock. • Columns are fluted having cushioned capitals. Sculptures include river Goddesses, Graceful Ganga, treading underfoot the makara, a sort of monster combining elements of the crocodile, dolphin and elephant. Other deities related to Lord Vishnu and Lord Shiva are visible on the facade. Cave 29: Dhumar Lena • It is cruciform in plan. • It contains a hypostyle hall.

Fig. 9.5: The cruciform plan of Dhumar Lena cave

Examples of Vesara/Central Indian Style 87

• Hall is reached via staircases, that lead up to the entrance gallery, which has richly carved mythological scenes, having Lord Shiva in the prominent place. • The hall is 150′ × 50′, and has square base columns that are crowned by fluted cushion capitals of bulbous form. • Columns are huge 5’ at base and 15’ high. • In the centre is the quadrilateral cella with entrance from all 4 sides with 4 doors in all directions approached through few steps. • Inside is the linga, the emblem of the divinity. Sculptural work on the walls includes, high relief statues to the glory of Lord Shiva. Dwarapalas are carved on both sides of the entrance. Kailasha Temple (8th Century) • It represents typical Dravidian temple. • It is the largest monolithic temple in India, carved out of basalt stone. • It represents the sacred mountain of Lord Shiva. There are smaller shrines surrounding the main Garbhagriha.

Important Characteristics • The sides of the structure have rectangular trench of size 300′ × 175′. • Main rock cut temple is 150′ × 100′ and 96′ high, standing on a plinth of 25′. • There is a small Mandapa with 16 columns. • Sanctuary is covered with 3-tier tower, which soars upwards in imitation of the mountainous dwelling of Shiva. • Each story is decorated with miniature buildings to represent the homes of Gods and the stupi at the summit (highest point) follows the precedent set by the rathas at Fig. 9.6: The monolithic Mamallapuram. pillar of Kailasha • On either side of the main temple of the Kailasha complex Temple stands 50′ high pillars decorated with relief carvings. These monumental pillars were made by excavation and are monolithic, and are not created by construction.These pillars are adaptations of the Ashokas pillars. They also resemble the Obelisks of Egyptian civilisation.

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The architect has copied all the details of a timber made structural temple carefully on the facade of temple, at the walls having pilasters and parapets with roof top as Stupi. Sculptural works include elephants, Lakshmi, Shiva, Ravana shaking Kailash with seated Lord Shiva and Parvati, Hanuman and scenes from Ramayana and Mahabharata.

DURGA TEMPLE (8TH CENTURY) Location: Aihole, Karnataka. Patron: Chalukyan rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Vishnu. It derived its name from Durga, meaning the fort, as it was part of fortification.

Important Characteristics • Temple measures 60′ × 36′. • Portico on the east is 24′ deep and is raised on a platform, to be approached by 2 flight of steps. • The entrance doorway is set in the vestibule. • Internal space/hall is 44′ and is divided into 2 rows of 4 pillars. • Garbhagriha is in a semicircular end, thus forming the apsidal end of the temple plan with Pradakshina Path around. • Columned verandah exists around the building. • Stone grills are employed for intake of light to interiors. • Walls of the sanctuary have niches with sculptures and are richly carved. • Pediment have Gavaksha in NI style and roof is in SI style. Tower above the main shrine is incomplete but still shows that it is Shikhara having Gavaksha motifs and corner Amalakas. The shafts/pillars at the entrance are carved beautifully with supporting brackets. Sculptures include Durga, Shiva, Nandi in different postures.

Examples of Vesara/Central Indian Style 89

Fig. 9.7: The apsidal end of the Durga Temple with an incomplete Shikhara

Fig. 9.8: Plan of Durga Temple showing Garbhagriha at the apsidal end

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LAD KHAN TEMPLE (7TH–8TH CENTURY) Location: Aihole, Karnataka. Patron: Chalukyan rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva. It is located in the same complex having Durga Temple and many other shrines. Some temples in the complex have SI roof pattern.

Important Characteristics • Rectangular porch is with sloping slabs and timber details of thatch roof are copied. • Main hall is 50′ square. • Stone jali/screen is employed for admitting light. • Entrance from eastern side is through open pillared porch. • Internal space is a pillared hall having 2 aisles and a cella/ Garbhagriha.

Fig. 9.9: Square plan of Lad Khan Temple

Examples of Vesara/Central Indian Style 91

Fig. 9.10: Section of Lad Khan Temple showing temple profile

Fig. 9.11: The roof profile of Lad Khan Temple

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• The capitals and columns are interesting features. Columns taper towards top with a capital and abacus above it. These are intricately carved with details of figures. • Roof is a 2-tier arrangement with a sloping roof at a lower level and flat roof on a raised cuboid at the upper level. • The construction is in dry masonry and wooden joinery details are copied beautifully.

PAPANATHA TEMPLE (8TH CENTURY) Location: Pattadakal, Karnataka. Patron: Chalukyan rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Mukteswara. It is an example of both NI and SI style. Shikhara/tower is in NI style with Amalaka missing on the top.

Important Characteristics • The plinth has 5 horizontal layers of moulding. • The length of building plan is 90′, having Garbhagriha with Pradakshina Path, Ardha Mandapa, Sabha Mandapa and porch. • The structure has an impressive low profile elevation with combination of paired pilasters headed by pediments, thus creating niches. • Pediments have Gavaksha designs and niches have sculptures of Lord Shiva and Vaishnava deities. • Tower over the sanctuary is a Shikhara with curved sides and Gavaksha pattern. • The parapet resembles elongated Chaitya hall profile, together with Gavaksha patterns on facade. Sculptures include stories from Ramayana and about Krishna with variety of compositions on ceilings. Other sculptural work includes Kinnara couples, Dwarapalas, dancing Shiva and Parvati, musicians, flying figures, etc.

VIRUPAKSHA AND MALLIKARJUNA TEMPLE Location: Pattadakal, Karnataka Patron: Chalukyan rulers Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva

Examples of Vesara/Central Indian Style 93

The layout is similar to Sangameshwara Temple. Virupaksha Temple has entrance from north, south and east sides. Mallikarjuna Temple is a smaller version of Virupaksha Temple and built very close to it. Mallikarjuna Temple is a 4 storied structure. The structures are typically in South Indian sculptural style.

General Characteristics • Pilasters and foliage patterns can be witnessed on walls. • Towers have octagonal and hemispherical domical roofs. • Karnataka feature—vaulted projections with arched ends on walls. • Nandi is seated in the front pavilion. Sculptures include embracing couples, Vishnu, Shiva, Ravana and illustrations from Ramayana and Mahabharata.

SANGAMESHWARA TEMPLE (7TH CENTURY) Location: Pattadakal, Karnataka. Patron: Chalukyan rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva. Sangameshwara Temple is one of the oldest temples in its group of temples at Pattadakal.

Important Characteristics • There are porches on 3 sides, i.e. the pillared entrance can be approached from 3 sides, north, south and east. • Towards the east, there is a small plinth having Nandi image. • It has an open Mandapa with 16 columns. • The plan is square having Garbhagriha with a passage around. • It is a 2 storied structure with a square domical roof, typically in Dravida style. • Elevation has 3-tier arrangements: – Lower level—basement mouldings. – Middle level—pilaster projections with niches having sculptures, alternately placed with stone screens/jalis. – Top level—a parapet.

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HUCHCHIMALLIGUDI TEMPLE (5TH–8TH CENTURY) Location: Outskirts of Aihole, Karnataka. Patron: Chalukyan rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva.

Important Characteristics • Temple plinth is approached by a short flight of steps. • Rectangular hall is divided into nave and aisles by 2 rows of 3 pillars on each side. • Pradakshina Path is around the cella. • Vestibule or Antarala is present. • Simple structure with curvilinear Shikhara in NI style, bearing Amalaka on top. The roof pattern is similar to Lad Khan Temple, with horizontal lines running at various levels. • The structure is bold and rustic with less of ornamentation on the external facade. However, Gavaksha window can be witnessed on the facade of the Shikhara. Sculptural works include couples in various postures, Garuda, Brahma, Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu.

HOYSALESHWARA TEMPLE (12TH CENTURY) Location: Hallabid, Karnataka. Patron: Hoysala rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva. There are two temple shrines, standing side by side, constructed in soapstone, but unfinished. One dedicated to Hoysaleshwara and the other for Shantaleshwara (named after Shantala Devi, queen of King Vishnuvardhana). The temple was constructed in competition to Channakeshava Temple at Bellur and owes much resemblance to it.

Important Characteristics • Entrance to the temple is via a flight of steps, leading to a doorway. The steps have small shrines on both the sides.

Examples of Vesara/Central Indian Style 95

• The structure stands on a platform/base 5’ high, with horizontal bands of carving. A Nandi shrine also stands on the same platform. • The doorway is simple, having carved Dwarapalas on each side and carved lintel. • Plan is stellate and hence the elevation has angular projections. The platform is also in harmony to the temple plan, i.e. in a zig-zag fashion. • Interiors have closely spaced columns having heavy bracket capitals. • Pillared hall/Mandapa is a detached building. • Height of the structure is 25’. • Perforated jaliwork patterns can be witnessed in elevation, between the carved columns. Exteriors of the temple have been thoroughly worked upon, compared to the internal walls. Sculptures include carving of elephants, lions, horsemen, scenes from war, etc. Carving is also done on friezes, cornices, etc. The sculptures are intricately carved showing details to close perfection.

CHANNAKESHAVA TEMPLE (12TH CENTURY) Location: Bellur, Karnataka. Patron: Hoysala rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu. It is estimated that the temple initially had a tower in Bhumija style.

Important Characteristics • Structure approached by 2 flights of step with small temple like structures having Shikharas on both the sides. • Plan of Garbhagriha is star shaped/stellate. It is a 16pointed star. • There is a platform in star shape surrounding the temple structure, following the star-shaped profile of the plan. • Mandapa is a pillared hall. • Jaliwork is employed for light intake in the interiors.

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Fig. 9.12: View of Channakeshava Temple highlighting the entrance with the small Shikharas

Sculptures include those of Lord Vishnu, Shiva, Kali, Ganesh, Dwarapalas, etc. There is intricate sculptural work on the friezes. No part of the elevation is left blank.

Examples of Dravida/South Indian Style 97

Examples of Dravida/South Indian Style

10

SEVEN RATHAS/CHARIOTS (7TH CENTURY) Location: Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram), Tamil Nadu. Patron: Pallava rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva and Durga, Lord Vishnu, Lord Indra. A group of rock-cut monoliths in granite stone, named after 5 Pandava heroes of Mahabharata, aligned NS direction. These are the best rock-hewn structures. These are also called “Seven Pagodas” and “Riddles of the sand”. They are popularly called Rathas, as they resemble chariots. Although they are monolithic structures yet trabeated style is copied and can be verified from their elevation. Typical roofs in Dravidian style can be witnessed in these Rathas, such as, domed Stupa crown on the top, Chaitya type roof, pyramid roof on square plan, etc. Sculptures include male and female guardians standing at the doors. Dharamaraja Ratha • Square in plan, 36’ high, with pillared verandah. • Multistoried pyramid towers, with columns supporting roof on each storey only visually and not structurally. • Parapet on roof topped by octagonal domical roof– cupola. • Pradakshina Path at each storey. • A small flight of steps to reach the verandah.

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Fig. 10.1: The pyramidal profile of roof with a Stupi on the top

Sculptures include those of Lord Shiva, Lord Brahma and the king himself. Bheem Ratha • • • •

Single storey structure dedicated to Lord Vishnu. Rectangular/oblong in plan. Barrel vault shape roof having Chaitya arches at two ends. Oblong sides of the roof carry arch shaped, Gavaksha style windows, 5 in number. • Columns are carved in a similar fashion as those of earlier caves (4 standing independently in the centre and 2 attached to the sides). • Pillared verandah is approached by a flight of 2–3 steps.

Examples of Dravida/South Indian Style 99

Fig. 10.2: Profile similar to Bheem Ratha

Nakula and Sehdeva Ratha • • • • •

Dedicated to Lord Indra. Semicircular end in plan. It is a 2 storied structure. Vaulted roof can be witnessed. An elephant sculpture carved out of stone stands east of this structure.

Ganesha Ratha • Rectangular in plan. • Entrance from the longer side.

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• It has a small chamber and a big hall. • Appears to be a smaller version of the Bheem Ratha. Arjun and Draupadi Ratha • Dedicated to Lord Shiva and Durga. • They bear a common terrace, and are approached by 2–3 steps. • Draupadi Ratha is single storey and bears resemblance to the trabeated style. It is the simplest and detailed to some

Fig. 10.3: Draupadi Ratha with a typical sloping roof having floral patterns at the edges

Examples of Dravida/South Indian Style

extent. Roof is like that of thatch roof structure. The joints bear floral patterns. Base has carving figures of animals like lion, elephant, etc. • Arjuna Ratha is a 2 storied structure, square in plan and an upper storey has dome based on octagon/Stupi.

VAIKUNTH PERUMAL TEMPLE (7TH CENTURY) Location: Kanchipuram (Conjeevaram), Tamil Nadu. Patron: Pallava rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Vishnu.

Fig. 10.4: Lion carved on the pillars of the Vaikunth Perumal Temple complex

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Important Characteristics • It is a single architectural composition. • Square plan of complex is of side 90′. • Main building has sanctuary and the portico, 28’ on the east our side. • Cella is rectangular in shape. • Vimana is a square of side 47′ and height of tower is 60′. The arrangement for circumambulation is similar to that of Stupa at Sanchi. The tower is tiered in 4 levels, having a gallery at each level. • The temple has a 1000 pillared hall, each pillar, having a statue carved on it. • Complex/boundary wall has pillared corridor on the inner side. Lion is a repetitive figure in the complex especially the columns. Sculptural works include Lord Vishnu in various postures and scenes from the wars.

SHORE TEMPLE (8TH CENTURY) Location: Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu. Patron: Pallava rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva and Lord Vishnu. It is an example of structural temple, made up of finely cut granite.

Important Characteristics • The complex is enclosed in walls, having sculptures of bulls and lions carved together with the pilasters at regular intervals. • Carved entrance door on the west side leads to a corridor having carved arcade. • Mandapa and Garbhagriha are aligned axially. • There are 2 sanctuaries of different heights but similar in elevation pattern, i.e. pyramidal towers on each of the two sanctuaries. • Tiered arrangement on towers with parapet walls is interesting.

Examples of Dravida/South Indian Style

Fig. 10.5: Similar profile of the two structures at the Shore Temple

Sculptures include Lord Shiva and Parvati. Series of carved panels on enclosing wall in the corridor can be witnessed. No ornamentation or heavy decoration work can be witnessed. The structure stands in a ruined state. P. Brown defines about the temple, “ portions of the ground plan of the enclosure consisted of a system of shallow cisterns which could be flooded on occasion, so that it resolves itself into a type of water temple.” This proves, pallavas were good at water management.

NAGESHVARA TEMPLE (9TH CENTURY) Location: Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu. Patron: Chola rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva. Lord Shiva is worshipped as Nageshwara. Building material used is fine grained pinkish granite.

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Important Characteristics • Garbhagriha is square in plan. • Mandapa is rectangular in plan with 4 columns. • Basement/plinth with sculptural work and panels with paintings. • Pediments can be seen over wall niches. • Foliage pattern employed for decorative works. • Tower is single storey high. • Cornices are curved and parapet walls have square domed roof. Sculptures include Lord Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma.

RAMESWARAM/RAMNATHSWAMY TEMPLE (12TH CENTURY) Location: Rameswaram Island, Tamil Nadu. Patron: Ramnad dynasty (contribution by many). Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva.

Important Characteristics • The deity is worshipped in the form of Shivalinga. • The complex has 2 shrines enclosed in 3 enclosures, the outer enclosure measures 880′ × 672′. • Most attractive feature is columned corridors of 17′–20′ wide, around the main shrine. • The length of some corridors is as much as 700′ in one direction. These are supposed to be the biggest temple corridors in India. Total length of these may be approximately 4000′. Columns are approximately 12′ high and richly carved. • There are 4 numbers of Gopuram, attached to the complex enclosures. • The external wall enclosing the complex is 25′ high. Gopuram at the main entrance is 150′ high, having 11 stories. The complex has other structures together with the shrines. The temple has 22 wells and is said that each tastes different from the other.

Examples of Dravida/South Indian Style

TIRUVARUR/SRI THYAGARAJA TEMPLE (13TH CENTURY) Location: Tiruvarur, Tamil Nadu. Patron: Chola rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva.

Important Characteristics • The complex covers an area of approximately 20 acres. • There are 2 sanctuaries, next to each other in the same complex, measuring 191′ × 156′. • One Gopuram is on the east side, in the inner enclosure. • Second enclosure is a square of side 470′, having 2 Gopurams. • Third enclosure is 957′ × 726′, having 2 main Gopurams on east and west sides. • Other structures in the complex include shrines, pillared halls, etc. There is vast tank, “Kamalalayam”, approximately 25 acres, to the west of the temple complex. It is supposed to be the largest in the country. • Every year chariot festival is celebrated here.

KAILASHNATH TEMPLE (8TH CENTURY) Location: Kanchipuram, (Conjeeveram), Tamil Nadu. Patron: Pallava rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva. Temple was built by the use of granite in the foundation and coarse sandstone in superstructure.

Important Characteristics • The complex has a columned Mandapa in front. Temple shrine and Mandapa were initially separate structures but later linked. They stand together in a rectangular court. It is an example of completeness now, with Garbhagriha, Antarala and Mandapa together. • The temple has a square Garbhagriha with passageway and small projections from the three sides. • There is a 3-tier arrangement on pyramidal tower with parapets.

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• There is an elevated platform with sculptural carving, friezes, pilasters. • Parapet on boundary walls has square domical roof forms—cupola. • Lion pilasters are repeated in the complex. Lion is a popular image in the Pallava Temples. • A towered gateway or “Gopuram” can be seen at the eastern end (perhaps the introduction of gateways). • There are other small shrines in the temple dedicated to Goddess Parvati, Ganesh and Murugan. Sculptures include those of Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu and Lord Brahma.

Fig. 10.6: Plan showing the complex enclosure with the temple structure at Kailashnath Temple

AIRAVATESVARA TEMPLE (12TH CENTURY) Location: Darasuram, Tamil Nadu. Patron: Chola rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva. Earlier the temple was known as Rajaeshwara Temple. The entire temple structure is made out of hard granite stones.

Examples of Dravida/South Indian Style

Important Characteristics • It is a small temple, having a sanctuary without Pradakshina Path. • Porch has 2 Mandapas. The front Mandapa is similar in design to a chariot with wheels. • The Vimana/tower is 72’ high. • Elevation has pilasters with niches carrying the pediments above. • Different levels in building elevation bear parapets with hemispherical roof caps. • There is a tank in the temple, believed to have curative powers. • The basement is enriched with the carving patterns of wheels and horses.

BRIHADESHVARA TEMPLE (11TH CENTURY) Location: Tanjavur, Tamil Nadu. Patron: Chola rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva. Originally it was called Rajarajeshvara Temple. It is a beautiful and remarkable work of Chola period.

Important Characteristics A rectangular enclosure, 250′ × 500′, contains the temple complex. • Complex is walled with columned corridors on inner side and entered from the east direction via a pair of gateways with Shala/roofs. • Inner Gopuram is 3 storied structure, marking entry to inner complex. • The gateways are typical tiered structures and one of the finest examples of SI style but smaller in size than the main tower. • Temple is square in plan, with side measuring 180′. Garbhagriha is a square of side 45′ with a 9′ wide Pradakshina Path around the Garbhagriha. • Two-columned Mandapas stand with a porch.

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• The main tower of temple consists of three important parts—the square base is 82′ side and 50′ high, the tapering pyramid is in 13 tiers and the third part is domical top. The tower is 190′ high. • Lower two stories of the elevation are different from superstructure above, having pilasters creating niches full of sculptures with arched semicircular pediments above. • Overhangs and balconies projected, mark the horizontality which is broken away by the vertical pilasters having sculptural work. • The important structures in the complex lie on the same axis, along the main entrance, i.e. the entrance gateways, Nandi pavilion, Mahamandapa, the Ardhmandapa, and the Garbhagriha. • The Nandi pavilion is a simple elevated platform with columns supporting the flat roof Mandapa and is approached by a flight of steps. The roof has overhanging eaves. This pavilion was added in 16th century. Sculptures include Dwarapalas and Lord Shiva in various postures.

Fig. 10.7: The plan of Brihadeshvara Temple complex

Examples of Dravida/South Indian Style

Fig. 10.8: The richly carved Brihadeshvara Temple

CHIDAMBARAM COMPLEX (12TH CENTURY) Location: Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu. Patron: Pallava/Chola/Pandya rulers. Deity: Dedicated to Lord Shiva as Nataraj.

The Philosophy in Design • The nine gateways denote the nine orifices in the human body. • The sanctum represents the heart and is held by 28 pillars representing 28 set methods for worshipping Lord Shiva. • Roof is held by 64 beams, representing 64 forms of art and several cross beams, representing blood vessels.

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Important Characteristics • Total area of the complex is 1040′ × 780′. • The temple has nine gateways including the Gopuram on the east side, which has 108 postures of Indian dance, “Bharatnatyam”. Entrance is through 4 Gopurams on 4 sides of the enclosure. • Lower stories of Gopuram are rectangular in granite having passageways at the ground floor. • Main shrine is in a square enclosure measuring 325′ side. • Tower is in number of stories and pyramidal. Shala roof is on the top with decoration at ends. • Basement has double tier of mouldings and pilastered walls. • The Shiva Temple is in the form of car mounted on wheels and run by horses. • Other structures in the inner enclosure are a tank called “Shivaganga”, 275′ × 175′, and a thousand columned Mandapa, measuring 338′ × 197′ and many small water bodies. Other structures in the complex are Parvati Temple, shrines for 63 prime devotees of Lord Shiva, Lord Ganesha, etc. There are five Sabhas/halls including the main sanctum, the Natya Sabha and the hall of 1000 pillars.

Refresh through Questions

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Refresh through Questions After going through the text of this book, it is expected that the reader is now well equipped to answer the following questions, without much of difficulty. However, for the ease of reader, a brief hint about the answers is given here. The details regarding each topic can be extracted from the main body of the text. 1. Which rulers brought dynamic change in the society by extending their patronage for various religions? 2. What are the similarities and dissimilarities between the caves dedicated to the three religious beliefs? 3. What is Vastu-Shastra? 4. What are the different types of Buddhist structures? 5. What are the distinct and special characteristics of Jain Temples? 6. Why were temples constructed? 7. What are the different types of temple structures? 8. How did the temple Shikhara take its present form? 9. How to recognise or guess about the deity that is placed in the Garbhagriha by looking at the exteriors? 10. What is the basic difference between the NI and SI temples? How to differentiate between the temples of NI and SI style? 11. How is the Hoysala architecture different from the Chalukyan architecture, although both of them flourished in Central India? 12. What are Gopurams and why and where they were introduced? 111

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For the convenience of readers, the abovementioned questions are answered here, but in brief. The detailed answers shall be extracted from the text of the book. Which rulers brought dynamic change in the society, by extending their patronage for various religions? Ashoka accepted Buddhism and patronized it. He did put in all efforts to extend the religion across the Empire and abroad also. Various permanent structures like Stupas and monolithic pillars were constructed during his reign. Shunghas and Satavahanas offered services to Jainism and Buddhism. Many caves were built. Guptas Empire was the Golden age and Hinduism flourished here. Chalukyans and Hoysalas established in Central India. Pandyas, Cholas and Pallavas are a few to be named from South India. What are the similarities and dissimilarities between the caves dedicated to the three religious beliefs? The caves are all rock-cut caves with internal spaces for performing different activities associated with the religious beliefs of each one of them. The caves of Buddhist of Hinayana belief are the most simple without any ornamentation and human representations of Buddha. But those of Buddhist Mahayana, Jain and Hindu belief have sculptures carved in rock. The caves of Jain belief have heavily carved columns while others are known for painting works. What is Vastu-Shastra? Vastu-Shastra is the science of designing buildings based on the concept of cosmic man trapped by 42 Gods. The concept Vastu-Shastra was originated by the Aryans and since then has been the base for building and temple design. It works on the principle of maintaining balance and avoiding conflicts among the energy levels of human beings and the cosmos. What are the different types of Buddhist structures? The Buddhist structures can broadly be classified into three categories—the Stupa, Chaitya and the Viharas/monasteries, based on the usage of each space. Stupas are the pilgrimage

Refresh through Questions

sites, Chaityas are the prayer halls/assembly halls. Viharas are the dwelling sites of the Buddhist monks. However, there are other examples of Buddhist architecture like the monolithic pillars having Buddhist inscriptions carved on them. What are the distinct and special characteristics of Jain temples? Some of the special architectural features of Jain temples are as follows: 1. Assembly halls. 2. Octagonal ceilings supported on pillars over a square floor plan. 3. Stone carving was ornate and elaborate work displayed on walls, columns and ceilings. 4. They were generally built in white marble. 5. Domed halls having fanciful carved columns with leaping brackets and struts. Struts appear like lacework and are typical features of Jain temples. Why were temples constructed? Today Hinduism is the world’s third largest practiced religion. The increase in the number of followers of Hinduism, during the reign of Guptas, created the demand for space to accommodate people in large numbers. Some of the caves were initially dedicated for this purpose, but may not have been sufficient. Besides, the religious practices like Yogas were to be performed, which essentially need open space. Idol worship was practiced which means permanent structures with the Garbhagriha were needed. The demand for more and more space to house the deity and people under one roof, must have generated the demand for construction of permanent structures called temples. What are the different types of temple structures? There are some rock-cut caves as well as structural temples dedicated to the Hindu religion. Rock-cut caves were created by extracting material from the living rock. They did not actually transfer the load but only represented it. The examples of rockcut temples are Kailash Temple and Rameshwara Temple at

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Ellora caves, 7 Pagodas at Mamallapuram, etc. The structural temples were created by placing piles of stones or bricks and making the structure actually participate in load transfer. The structural temple construction started with the Temple 17 at Sanchi during the period of Guptas and since then there is a series of examples under this category, ranging from temple at Bheetergaon in the North, Hoysala temples in the centre to the temples with Gopuram in the South of India. How did the temple Shikhara take its present form? The temple construction initiated as trabeated style, i.e. column and beam construction. The roof initially was flat and of small span. May be in order to mark the presence of Garbhagriha at an elevated level, the idea of increasing the roof level came up. The Garbhagriha is the most important part of the temple as the deity is placed here. In an attempt to construct a roof over the square plan of the Garbhagriha of a bigger span, perhaps, corbelling was the most obvious choice for the early craftsmen, as they had always been working on simple trabeated structures. Or, may be, to mark the temple as a landmark, the Shikhara was raised. The researchers have also proved that the pyramidal form holds and spreads lot of positive energy. As this information has came all the way long from history, this may be one of the reasons to construct the Shikhara like a pyramid. How to recognise or guess about the deity that is placed in the Garbhagriha by looking at the exteriors? The temples are dedicated to one or the other deity. According to the Hindu beliefs, there are 4 major sects: Saivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smartism. There are a set of Gods and Goddesses related to various groups. The religion encourages sculpting and idol worship, hence ornamentation work helps in recognising the deity in the temple. Temples have the main deity placed in the Garbhagriha. The sculptural work on the facade of the temple is generally associated with this deity. Either the stories related to the main deity or the other Gods and Goddesses related to the main God are carved on the exterior and interior of the temples.

Refresh through Questions

What is the basic difference between the NI and SI temples? How to differentiate between the temples of NI and SI style? Besides a little difference in the terminology, the most remarkable and noticeable difference lies in the temple elevation. The Shikhara of temples for both of these regions helps in recognising the style. The Shikhara of NI style have slightly convex or curved profile, whereas the Shikhara of the SI style have straight lines in the profile. Another important difference is that the SI temples developed huge entrance gates called “Gopurams”, and the main Shikhara became smaller in height. The whole complex was enclosed with boundary walls and Gopurams. How is the Hoysala architecture different from the Chalukyan architecture, although both of them flourished in Central India? The plans of Hoysala temples developed as stellate or star shaped, whereas the plans of other temples of Central India were rectangular. The star shape plans gave a different view to the temple. What are Gopurams and why and where they were introduced? The later South Indian rulers laid special emphasis on the enclosure to the complex and entrance gateways. The composition was planned together to give a feel of grandeur by representing it as a palatial site or a citadel. These gateways gradually developed into “gopurams”. On the basis of profile the Gopurams can be divided into 2 categories: Those with straight tapering pyramidal sides/profile and those with sloping sides, i.e. curved or concave sides/profile. Pyramidal form of structures are believed to transmit positive energy. It imparts a lot of mental and spiritual peace to the visitor.

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Questions from GATE Papers (2008–2020)

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Questions from GATE Papers (2008–2020) 1. The first group of people to influence the architecture of South-east Asia and the Amaravati School of Art was: (2008) A. B. C. D.

Sakas and Palas Pallavas and Guptas Satavahanas and Pandyans Rashtrakutas and Chalukyans

2. Identify the correct hierarchy of traditional Indian settlements expressed in an ascending order: (2008) A. B. C. D.

Khanata–Khetaka–Nagara–Durga Durga–Vidambaka–Pura–Rajdhani Grama–Khetaka–Kharvata–Nagara Nigama–Agrahara–Pura–Kharvata

3. Match the elements of a Buddhist Stupa in Group I with their traditional names in Group II: (2009) Group I P. Hemispherical dome Q. Peripheral railing R. Entrance gateway S. Portion above dome

A. B. C. D.

Group ll 1. Vedika 2. Anda 3. Harmika 4. Nagara 5. Chaitya 6. Torana

P-2, Q-1, R-6, S-3 P-3, Q-1, R-5, S-2 P-2, Q-6, R-4, S-3 P-5, Q-6, R-1, S-2

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4. Match the terms in Group I with their descriptions in Group II: (2011) Group I P. Quoin Q. Stucco R. Mandala S. Cupola

A. B. C. D.

Group II 1. Geometric representation of the universe 2. Small dome 3. Triangular form above an opening 4. Cornerstone at the angle of buildings 5. Plaster

P-4, Q-3, R-2, S-1 P-3, Q-5, R-1, S-4 P-4, Q-5, R-1, S-2 P-3, Q-1, R-5, S-4

5. Match the terminologies of Group I with their corresponding meanings in Group II: (2012) Group I P. Antarala Q. Mandapa R. Gopuram S. Prasada

A. B. C. D.

Group II 1. Antechamber 2. Palace hall 3. Womb chamber 4. Gateway 5. Pillared sanctuary

P-3, Q-2, R-4, S-5 P-1, Q-5, R-4, S-2 P-5, Q-3, R-1, S-2 P-1, Q-2, R-3, S-5

6. Match the temples in Group I with their corresponding historical periods in Group II: (2013) Group I P. Vaikuntha Perumal Temple, Kancheepuram Q. Meenakshi Temple, Madurai R. Durga Temple, Aihole S. Brihadeshwara Temple, Thanjavur

A. B. C. D.

P-2, Q-3, R-5, S-1 P-5, Q-1, R-4, S-3 P-3, Q-5, R-2, S-1 P-5, Q-4, R-2, S-3

Group II 1. Vijaynagara 2. Chalukya 3. Chola 4. Pandya 5. Pallava

Questions from GATE Papers (2008–2020)

7. Match the elements in Group I with the structures in Group II: (2014) Group I P. Harmika Q. Sixteen Vidyadevis R. Lat pillar S. Urushringa

A. B. C. D.

Group II 1. Dilwara Temple, Mount Abu 2. Sun Temple, Modhera 3. Stupa of Sanchi 4. Lauriya, Nandangarh 5. Great Kailash Temple, Ellora

P-5, Q-1, R-4, S-3 P-1, Q-2, R-4, S-3 P-3, Q-5, R-4, S-2 P-3, Q-1, R-4, S-2

8. Match the monuments in Group I with their features in Group II: (2015) Group I P. Panch Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri Q. Meenakshi Temple, Madurai R. Jor Bangla Temple, Bishnupur S. Sun Temple, Konark

A. B. C. D.

Group II 1. Painted stone figures 2. Intricate red sandstone carvings 3. Granite statues 4. Khondalite stone work 5. Terracotta carvings

P-2, Q-1, R-4, S-3 P-2, Q-1, R-5, S-4 P-2, Q-4, R-1, S-3 P-1, Q-5, R-5, S-4

9. A Rock-cut style of architecture is represented by: (2018) A. B. C. D.

Shyama Rama Temple, Bishnupur Kailash Temple, Ellora Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho Sanchi Stupa, Sanchi

10. Match the temples in Group I with their dynastic period in Group II: (2018) Group I P. Brihadeshvara Temple Q. Kailasanatha Temple R. Bhitargaon Temple R. Lad Khan Temple

Group II 1. Gupta 2. Chalukya 3. Lodhi 4. Chola 5. Pallava

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A. B. C. D.

P-4, Q-5, R-1, S-2 P-5, Q-1, R-2, S-3 P-2, Q-5, R-1, S-3 P-4, Q-1, R-2, S-5

11. Typical features of Buddhist architecture are: A. B. C. D.

(2019)

Mandapa, Chattri, Amalaka, Torana Stambha, Torana, Vimana, Harmika Vedika, Chattri, Torana, Harmika Vedika , Stupa, Chaitya, Vimana

12. In the architectural style of ancient North Indian temples, the term “Adhisthana” refers to: (2020) A. B. C. D.

Pinnacle Base platform Vestibule Transept

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) Revision

121

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) Revision 1. Who among the following are associated with the “Classic civilization”? A. Aryans C. Chalukyans

B. Dravidians D. Cholas

2. Who introduced the concept of “Vaastu Shastra”? A. Dravidians C. Aryans

B. Chalukyans D. Cholas

3. Which of the following Veda is related to built up structures? A. Rig Veda C. Yajur Veda

B. Atharva Veda D. Sama Veda

4. The art and architecture of North India flourished and reached its peak during which period? A. Gupta period C. Chalukyan period

B. Maurya period D. Chola period

5. Which period is popularly known as the “Golden Age” with reference to art and architecture of North India? A. Chalukyan period C. Gupta period

B. Chola period D. Maurya period

6. Which of the following is not an example of “Rock-cut architecture”? A. Ajanta caves C. Chaitya caves

B. 7 pagodas D. Sun Temple, Konark

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7. Which of the following is associated with Jain architecture? A. Pitalkhora caves C. Bhaja caves

B. Udaigiri caves D. Kanehri caves

8. Which of the following was adopted by the Mahayana sect of Buddhist followers to represent Buddha? A. Dharmachakra C. Footprints

B. Chattri D. Sculptures

9. Which of the following are associated with Stupa? A. B. C. D.

Parasol, Anda, Pradakshina Path, Vedica Anda, Antarala, Vedica, Hermica Hermica, Vedica, Anda, Struts Parasol, Anda, Antarala, Vedica

10. Match the architectural characteristics with the style. Group I A. Struts B. Torana C. Barrel vault roof D. Monolithic pillars

A. B. C. D.

Group II 1. Buddhist architecture 2. Jain architecture

A-2, B-1, C-2, D-2, E-1 A-1, B-1, C-1, D-2, E-2 A-2, B-2, C-2, D-1, E-1 A-1, B-1, C-1, D-2, E-1

11. Which of the following temple does not belong to Dilwara group of temples? A. B. C. D.

Vimala Vasahi Temple Adinath Temple Pittalhar Temple Luna Vasahi Temple

12. Match the following structures with architectural styles. Group I A. Gopuram B. Shikhara C. Torana D. Star-shaped plan

A. A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1 C. A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3

Group II 1. Nagara style 2. Buddhist style 3. Dravidian style 4. Vesara style

B. A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4 D. A-4, B-1, C-4, D-3

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs) Revision

13. Which of the following are characteristics of Nagara style? A. B. C. D.

Mandapa, Shikhara, Vestibule, Ardhamandapa Shikhara, Vestibule, Gopuram, Pradakshina Path Mandapa, Star-shaped plan, Amalaka, Ardhmandapa Shikhara, Amalaka, Gopuram, Star-shaped plan

14. The tower of which architectural style has different number of storeys, having pavilions of miniature scale? A. B. C. D.

Nagara/North Indian style Vesara/Central Indian style Dravida/South Indian style Buddhist style

15. Which of the following are characteristics of Dravidian/ SI style? A. B. C. D.

Gopuram, courtyard, tanks, sanctuary Gopuram, star shape plan, tanks, sanctuary Gopuram, Shala, Stupi, star shape plan Courtyard, Stupi, Shikhara, sanctuary

16. Match the following period/architectural style with the structures: Group I A. Central Indian architecture B. North Indian architecture C. South Indian architecture

A. B. C. D.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Group II Mukteshwara Temple Durga Temple Shore Temple Brihadeshwara Temple Kailash Temple Kandariya Mahadev Temple

A-2,5; B-1,6; C-3,4 A-2,4; B-1,5; C-3,6 A-1,4; B-2,6; C-5,3 A-1,6; B-2,4; C-3,5

17. Match the following architectural elements with the structure: Group I A. Trabeated style B. Jagamohan C. Arched gateway/Torana D. Repetitive Shikharas of miniature scale

Group II 1. Temple 17, Bhopal 2. Mukteshwara Temple, Odisha 3. Khajuraho Temple, MP 4. Vaital Deul Temple, Odisha

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A. B. C. D.

A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3 A-1, B-4, C-3, D-1 A-1, B-4, C-2, D-3 A-2, B-3, C-4, D-1

18. Which of the following does not belong to Khajuraho group of temples? A. B. C. D.

Devi Jagdamba Temple Temple of Visvanath Kendariya Mahadev Temple Lingaraja Temple

19. Match the terminologies in Group I with description in Group II: Group I A. Mandapa B. Ardhamandapa C. Vimana D. Vestibule

A. B. C. D.

Group II 1. Intermediate space connecting the cella and main hall 2. Main hall 3. The sanctuary 4. Porch leading to main hall

A-2, B-4, C-3, D-1 A-2, B-3, C-4, D-1 A-4, B-2 C-3, D-1 A-4, B-3, C-2, D-1

20. Match the terminologies in Group I with description in Group II: Group I A. Abacus B. Cupola C. Flutes D. Bhumija

Group II 1. Vertical channels on the shaft 2. Spherical roof 3. Ornamentation on Shikhara 4. Square member above capital

A. A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4 C. A-4, B-2, C-3, D-1

B. A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3 D. A-3, B-4, C-2, D-3

Answers 1. A 7. B 13. A 19. A

2. C 8. D 14. C 20. B

3. B 9. A 15. A

4. A 10. A 16. A

5. C 11. B 17. C

6. D 12. B 18. D

Glossary

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Glossary Abacus—generally a square member above the capital, appears to be supporting beam or providing a broad base to the column top to support visually. Ablution—washing oneself for ritual of purification, generally before entering a sacred place of worship. Apsidal—a circular end on the shorter side of a rectangular plan. Altar—a platform or place for performing religious rites or sacrifices or offerings.

Axis—an imaginary straight line from the centre. Bands—refers to horizontal bands of carving, employed on the plinth base for binding or for the purposes of giving a feeling of unity, oneness to the structure. Barrel vault—a cylindrical roof over a rectangular plan. Also called tunnel vault or wagon vault. Bada—the cubical portion of a tower in elevation, till the roof level. Bhumija—a particular treatment or ornamentation employed on the Shikhara in Nagara style. It is recognised by repetitive use of miniature Shikharas in a particular fashion.

Bracket—a support projecting from a wall till the roof. It may be a support or only for ornamentation purposes. Buddhism—a religion originated by Buddha and based on the concept of enlightenment and Moksha.

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History of Indian Architecture Buttress—a wall, perpendicular to the lateral surface, to support it against lateral pressure, or to stop the wall from falling off. Cella—Garbhagriha or the wombhouse, where the deity to be worshipped is placed in a temple building. Chaitya—halls for worship in groups, constructed during the Buddhist period. Circumambulation—moving around the deity in the Garbhagriha. Combo—combination. Corbelling—blocks projecting from a wall. Each layer is projected further from the previous layer.

Cornice—a crowning member or a small projection may be over a railing.

Corridor—a passage in a building.

Cruciform—a cross in plan.

Cupola—a spherical roof.

Deula—the cella and tower over it, a term generally used in orissan architecture. Deity—the God to be worshipped in the temple is placed as an image in the cella. Dwarf—short height.

Glossary Eave—generally sloping part of roof, projecting outwards, at a lower level. Enclosure—boundary defined area. Facade—face of the wall.

Finial—topmost finishing part in a tower.

Flutes—vertical channels on the shaft of a column.

Foliage—flower patterns. Frieze—upper border. Gavaksha—small ornamental niche, generally of arch shape, on the Shikharas of temples. Hinduism—Sanatan Dharm. Hypostyle—a multi-pillared hall. Icon—image or statue of the deity. Incarnation—a deity or spirit embodied as human form or Avatar. Intricate—elaborate or complex or detailed. Keystone—a stone in the shape of wedge, placed at the apex, supposed to be the last stone that holds together the other pieces in an arch. Lintel—a horizontal beam, placed over an opening to support the structure above it. Miniature scale—a copy of the original large size thing, made to a very small scale, so that it can be carried or handled easily. Monumental scale—massive or grand in size, as compared to human scale. Monolithic—a single piece that is carved into a structure, like a stone piece carved into a pillar or statue or small temple. Mortice and tenon joints—mortice is a hole to receive its counterpart projection that is called tenon. Moulding—the contoured, convex profile to a horizontal projecting band.

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History of Indian Architecture Niche—a recess in a wall created to house the statue or for ornamentation purposes. Oblong—rectangular in plan. Pavillion—open raised platform or Chabutra. Personification—representation of a power or nature as a human body or person. Pilaster—pillar projecting from a wall face, may or may not be participating in load transfer.

Platform—also called plinth or raised platform. Portico—space having roof supported by columns. Porch—roof covered and sides open kind of structure in front of entrance. Protrude—coming forward. Pedestal—supporting structure at the base. Pediment—triangular or circular shape given to roof facade. Relief work—sculptural work or carving on the facade. Recess—a kind of niche or space created by pushing inwards a part of facade.

Ribbed—projecting bands either on roof or vault. Rock-cut architecture—the architecture/spaces created by cutting living rocks, either with or without internal spaces. Rock-hewn—cut forcefully from rock. Replica—repetitive. Rustic—simple, rude, unsophisticated. Spire—tower above Garbhagriha.

Glossary Stupa—mound in Anda or egg shape created by Buddhist believers, putting relics of Buddha inside them. These are also the religious pilgrimage sites for them. Scroll—ornamentation like an unrolled sheet of paper or spiral. Shrine—religious structure. Stellate—star-shaped plan. Struts—kind of brackets, that bear load or pressure. Superstructure—the structure above the ground level. Shaft—the vertical central portion of the column. Sanctum/Sanctuary—holy area of the temple shrine, where everyone cannot enter. Symmetry—same on both sides of a central axis. This may be achieved in plan or elevation. Tracery—ornamentation. Trabeated—structural system of column and beam. Torana—gateway, term generally used for the design pattern employed in the four gateways, the Stupa at Sanchi. Tiers—levels. Trident—tree pronge weapon or instrument. Transept—cross plan created by projection on either side of a rectangular space. Vastu-Shastra—certain set of rules of designing spaces. Vault—arch shape roof over any space. Vimana—towered sanctuary, including the cella and tower or Shikhara. Vestibule—a passage or hall between the outdoor and indoor areas.

Voissers—wedge-shaped block of an arch. Volute—scroll or spiral shape carving.

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Bibliography

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Bibliography Basham AL, A Cultural History of India, Oxford University Press, 1975. Brown P. Indian Architecture (Buddhists and Hindu Period), PB Taraporevala Sons and Co. Private Ltd. Bombay, 1995. Chaudhary BR, Pyramid Yantra, Acupressure Health Care Systems, India, 2003. Fletcher SB, A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method, The Athlone Press, University of London, 1961. Grower S. Masterpieces of Traditional Indian Architecture, Roli and Janssen B.V. 2004, 2006. Maheshwari S, Garg R. Ancient Indian Architecture (From Blossom to Bloom), CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, 2001. Michell G, Hindu Art and Architecture, Thames and Hudson, Singapore, 2000. Rawlinson HG, India, A Short Cultural History, The Cresset Press, London, 1937. Verma SK, Indians architecture through Ages, Mangalam Publishers & Distributors, India, 2012.

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References from Internet www.dharma.ncf.ca/introduction/4-Noble-Truths.html visited on 12–04–12 www.britanica.com/EBchecked/topic181242/eightfold-path visited on 12–04–12 www.jainuniversity.org/jainist-beleifs-and-practices.aspx visited on 14–04–12 www.rajasthan-tourguide.com/rajasthan-pilgrimage/jaintemples .html visited on 14–04–12 www.jainuniversity.org/astrology-vastushastra.aspx visited on 20– 04–12 www.vastu-design.com/g-interview.php visited on 20–04–12 www.vaastuinternational.com/vaastutemples.html visited on 20–04–12 www.dictionaryreference.com References for Nagara style www.wikipedia.org visited on 18–11–11 www.orissa.gov.in/e_magzine/orissaview/jul/2005 visited on 18–11–11 www.relegiousportal.com visited on 19–11–11 www.templenet.com/orissa/konark visited on 19–11–11 www.unesco.org visited on 19–11–11 www.asi.nic.in/asi_monu_who_konark.asp visited on 19–11–11 www.bharatonline.com visited on 20–11–11 www.culturalindia.net visited on 20–11–11 www.templenet.com visited on 18-11-11, 21–11–11 www.jagannath.nic.in visited on 21–11–11 www.culturalindia.net visited on 21–11–11 133

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Index

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Index Adinath Temple 33

Airavatesvara Temple 106 Ajanta caves 22 Ambikamata Temple 73 Arjun and Draupadi Ratha 100 Ashokan empire 2 Available building materials 6

Badami caves 81 Bagh Gumpha 30 Bheem Ratha 98 Brihadeshvara Temple 107 Buddhism and its spaces 11 Buddhist architecture 13 monolithic pillars 14 spatial requirements 12 Cave 19: Dasavatar 84

Cave 21: Rameshwara cave 85 Cave 29: Dhumar Lena 86 Central and the Southern empires 4 Central Indian style examples 81 Chaitya 14, 19 Chaitya at Bhaja 19 Chaitya, Bedsa Chaityagrih 19 Chaitya, Karle Chaityagrih 20 Channakeshava Temple 95 Chidambaram complex 109 Chota Kailash (Cave no. 30) 31

Dashavatara Temple 61

Dharamaraja Ratha 97 Dilwara Temples 32 Dravida/South Indian style, examples of 97 Dravidian/South Indian style temples 56

Dravidian/South Indian style 50 Durga Temple 88

Early structures 5 Elephanta cave 82 Ellora caves 31, 83 Examples of Dravida/South Indian style 97 Nagara/North Indian style 59 Vesara/Central Indian style 81 Ganesha Ratha 99

Great civilizations 1 Gupta empire 3

Hinduism

and its spaces 37 belief 37 comparative analysis of spatial requirements 38 evolution of plan and elevation 41 religion and its philosophy 37 spatial arrangements in temple 40 Hoysaleshwara Temple 94 Huchchimalligudi Temple 94

Important terminology 55

Indrasabha (Cave no. 32) 31

Jagannath Sabha 32

Jagannath Temple 71 Jain architecture 30 examples of 28 Jain belief 27 Jainism and its spaces 27 religion and its philosophy 27

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Kailasha Temple 87

Kailashnath Temple 105 Kendariya Mahadev Temple 76 Khajuraho group of temples 74

Lad Khan Temple 90 Lingaraja Temple 69 List of temples 55 Mukteswar Temple 68 Nagara, Vesara and Dravida

geographical division 47 important characteristic features 48 Nagara/North Indian style 48 Nageshvara Temple 103 Nakula and Sehdeva Ratha 99 Northern empires 2

Orissan temples 62 Papanatha Temple 92

Parasurameswara Temple 64 Pyramidal form 42, 45

Rameswaram/Ramnathswamy Temple 104 Rani Gumpha 30

Sangameshwara Temple 93 Sas Bahu Temple 77 Seven Rathas/chariots 97 Shore Temple 102 South Indian style 50 Stupa at Sanchi 17 Stupas 13, 17 Sun Temple 65 Surya Temple 78 Technological aspects involved in temple

construction 46 Teli Ka Mandir 71 Temple at Bheetergaon 59 Three styles: Nagara, Vesara and Dravida 47 Tiger cave 30 Tiruvarur/Sri Thyagaraja Temple 105

Udayeshwara Temple 80 Vaikunth Perumal Temple 101

Vaital Deul Temple 64 Vastu-Shastra 42 Vesara style, examples of 81 Vesara/Central Indian style temples 57 Vesara/Deccan/Central Indian style 52 Vihara 14, 22 Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna Temple 92